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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Commercial Geography, by Jacques W. Redway
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Commercial Geography
+       A Book for High Schools, Commercial Courses, and Business Colleges
+
+
+Author: Jacques W. Redway
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 20, 2008  [eBook #24884]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson, Greg Bergquist, and the
+Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      or
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+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs was in bold face in the
+      original (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
+
+A Book for High Schools
+Commercial Courses, and
+Business Colleges
+
+by
+
+JACQUES W. REDWAY, F.R.G.S.
+
+Author of "A Series of Geographies," "An Elementary
+Physical Geography," "The New Basis of Geography"
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+New York ... 1907
+
+Copyright, 1903, by
+Jacques W. Redway
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The quiet industrial struggle through which the United States passed
+during the last decade of the nineteenth century cannot fail to impress
+the student of political economy with the fact that commercial
+revolution is a normal result of industrial evolution. Within a period
+of twenty-five years the transportation of commodities has grown to be
+not only a science, but a power in the betterment of civil and political
+life as well; and the world, which in the time of M. Jules Verne was
+eighty days wide, is now scarcely forty.
+
+The invention of the Bessemer process for making steel was intended
+primarily to give the railway-operator a track that should be free from
+the defects of the soft, wrought-iron rail; in fact, however, it created
+new industrial centres all over the world and brought Asia and Africa
+under commercial conquest. The possibilities of increased trade between
+the Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific Coast States led to the building
+of the Northern Pacific and Great Northern Railways. But when these were
+thoroughly organized, there unexpectedly resulted a new trade-route that
+already is drawing traffic away from the Suez Canal and landing it at
+Asian shores by way of the ports of Puget Sound. It is a repetition of
+the adjustment that occurred when the opening of the Cape route to India
+transferred the trade that had gathered about Venice and Genoa to the
+shores of the North and Baltic Seas.
+
+In other words, a new order of things has come about, and the world and
+the people therein are readjusting themselves to the requirements made
+upon them by commerce. And so at the beginning of a new century,
+civilized man is drawing upon all the rest of the world to satisfy his
+wants, and giving to all the world in return; he is civilized because of
+this interchange and not in spite of it.
+
+The necessity for instruction in a subject that pertains so closely to
+the welfare of a people is apparent, and an apology for presenting this
+manual is needless. Moreover, it should not interfere in any way with
+the regular course in geography; indeed, more comprehensive work in the
+latter is becoming imperative, and it should be enriched rather than
+curtailed.
+
+In the preparation of the work, I wish to express my appreciation of the
+great assistance of Principal Myron T. Pritchard, Edward Everett School,
+Boston, Mass. I am also much indebted to the map-engraving department of
+Messrs. The Matthews-Northrup Company, Buffalo, N.Y.
+
+                                                                   J.W.R.
+
+
+ CONTENTS
+
+  CHAPTER                                                      PAGE
+
+
+       I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES                                      1
+
+      II. HOW COMMERCE CIVILIZED MANKIND                          7
+
+     III. TOPOGRAPHIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE                        17
+
+      IV. CLIMATIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE                           29
+
+       V. TRANSPORTATION--OCEAN AND INLAND NAVIGATION            39
+
+      VI. TRANSPORTATION--RAILWAYS AND RAILWAY ORGANIZATION;
+            PUBLIC HIGHWAYS                                      62
+
+     VII. FACTORS IN THE LOCATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS            81
+
+    VIII. THE CEREALS AND GRASSES                                88
+
+      IX. TEXTILE FIBRES                                        105
+
+       X. PLANT PRODUCTS OF ECONOMIC USE--BEVERAGES AND
+            MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES                                127
+
+      XI. GUMS AND RESINS USED IN THE ARTS                      141
+
+     XII. COAL AND PETROLEUM                                    147
+
+    XIII. METALS OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES                       159
+
+     XIV. SUGAR AND ITS COMMERCE                                185
+
+      XV. FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS                           193
+
+     XVI. SEA PRODUCTS AND FURS                                 203
+
+    XVII. THE UNITED STATES--THE SEAPORTS AND THE ATLANTIC
+             COAST-PLAIN                                        211
+
+   XVIII. THE UNITED STATES--THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU
+            AND THE APPALACHIAN REGION                          219
+
+     XIX. THE UNITED STATES--THE BASIN OF THE GREAT LAKES
+              AND THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY                        227
+
+      XX. THE UNITED STATES--THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS AND
+            TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS                             247
+
+     XXI. CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND                               261
+
+    XXII. MEXICO--CENTRAL AMERICA--WEST INDIES                  267
+
+   XXIII. SOUTH AMERICA--THE ANDEAN STATES                      275
+
+    XXIV. SOUTH AMERICA--THE LOWLAND STATES                     285
+
+     XXV. EUROPE--GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY                     295
+
+    XXVI. EUROPE--THE BALTIC AND NORTH SEA STATES               310
+
+   XXVII. EUROPE--THE MEDITERRANEAN STATES AND SWITZERLAND      320
+
+  XXVIII. EUROPE--THE DANUBE AND BALKAN STATES                  335
+
+    XXIX. EUROPE-ASIA--THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE                       343
+
+     XXX. THE IRAN PLATEAU AND ARABIA                           349
+
+    XXXI. BRITISH INDIA AND THE EAST INDIES                     358
+
+   XXXII. CHINA AND JAPAN                                       367
+
+  XXXIII. AFRICA                                                381
+
+   XXXIV. OCEANIA                                               391
+
+  APPENDIX                                                      398
+
+  INDEX                                                         399
+
+
+
+
+  COLORED MAPS
+
+                                                             PAGE
+
+
+  PRINCIPAL TRANSPORTATION LINES AND REGIONS OF LARGEST
+   COMMERCE                                                 x, xi
+
+  MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL                                         28
+
+  CITY OF NEW YORK AND VICINITY, WITH HARBOR APPROACHES        49
+
+  DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION                                   80
+
+  NORTH AMERICA                                               210
+
+  PUGET SOUND                                                 253
+
+  MEXICO                                                      268
+
+  SOUTH AMERICA                                               274
+
+  BRITISH ISLES                                               299
+
+  GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES                          304
+
+  HOLLAND AND BELGIUM                                         314
+
+  FRANCE                                                      321
+
+  ITALY                                                       326
+
+  SPAIN AND PORTUGAL                                          329
+
+  TURKEY AND GREECE                                           338
+
+  RUSSIAN EMPIRE                                              342
+
+  THE IRAN PLATEAU AND ARABIA                                 349
+
+  EASTERN CHINA                                               369
+
+  JAPAN AND KOREA                                             375
+
+  AFRICA                                                      382
+
+  THE COMMERCE OF THE PACIFIC                                 393
+
+[Illustration: PRINCIPAL TRANSPORTATION LINES AND REGIONS OF LARGEST
+COMMERCE]
+
+TO THE TEACHER:--The contents of this book are so topicalized and
+arranged that, if the time for the study is limited, a short course may
+be selected. Under no circumstances, however, should Chapters V, VI,
+VIII, IX, XII, and XIII be omitted. A casual inspection of the questions
+at the end of each chapter will serve to show that they cannot be
+answered from the pages of the book, and they have been selected with
+this idea in view. They are intended first of all to stimulate
+individual thought, and secondly to encourage the pupil to investigate
+the topics by consulting original sources. The practice of corresponding
+with pupils in other parts of the world cannot be too highly commended.
+
+The following list represents a minimum rather than a maximum reference
+library. It may be enlarged at the judgment of the teacher. A good atlas
+and a cyclopædia are also necessary.
+
+     Industrial Evolution of the United States. WRIGHT. Charles
+     Scribner's Sons.
+
+     History of Commerce in Europe. GIBBINS. The Macmillan Company.
+
+     Discovery of America. FISKE. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
+
+     The New Empire. ADAMS. The Macmillan Company.
+
+     Statesman's Year-Book. KELTIE. The Macmillan Company.
+
+     Outlines of Political Science. GUNTON AND ROBBINS. D. Appleton &
+     Co.
+
+     The Wheat Problem. CROOKES. G.P. Putnam's Sons.
+
+     South America. CARPENTER. American Book Company.
+
+     From the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce, Washington,
+     D.C., the following monographs may be procured:[1]
+
+     Commercial China. American Commerce. Commercial Australia.
+     Commercial Japan. Commercial Africa. Commercial India. Statistical
+     Abstract. Great Canals of the World. World's Sugar Production and
+     Consumption.
+
+     The following from the Department of Agriculture is necessary:
+
+     Check List of Forest Trees of the United States.
+
+Lantern slides illustrating the subjects treated in this book may be
+procured from T.H. McAllister, 49 Nassau Street, New York. Stereoscopic
+views may be obtained from Underwood & Underwood, Fifth Avenue and
+Nineteenth Street, New York.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GENERAL PRINCIPLES
+
+
+Commerce and modern civilization go hand in hand, and the history of the
+one is the history of the other; and whatever may be the basis of
+civilization, commerce has been the chief agent by which it has been
+spread throughout the world. Peoples who receive nothing from their
+fellow-men, and who give nothing in return, are usually but little above
+a savage state. Civilized man draws upon all the rest of the world for
+what he requires, and gives to the rest of the world in return. He is
+civilized because of this fact and not in spite of it.
+
+There is scarcely a country in the world that does not yield something
+or other to civilized peoples. There is scarcely a household whose
+furnishings and contents do not represent an aggregate journey of
+several times around the earth. A family in New York at breakfast occupy
+chairs from Grand Rapids, Mich.; they partake of bread made of wheat
+from Minnesota, and meat from Texas prepared in a range made in St.
+Louis; coffee grown in Sumatra or Java, or tea from China is served in
+cups made in Japan, sweetened with sugar from Cuba, stirred with spoons
+of silver from Nevada. Spices from Africa, South America, and Asia
+season the food, which is served on a table of New Hampshire oak,
+covered with a linen spread made from flax grown in Ireland or in
+Russia. Rugs from Bokhara, or from Baluchistan, cover the floors;
+portières made in Constantinople hang at the doors; and the room is
+heated with coal from Pennsylvania that burns in a furnace made in Rhode
+Island.
+
+Now all these things may be, and usually are, found in the great
+majority of families in the United States or Europe, and most of them
+will be found in nearly all households. Certain it is that peoples do
+exist who, from the immediate vicinity in which they live, procure all
+the things they use or consume. In the main, however, such peoples are
+savages.
+
+A moment's thought will make it clear that before an ordinary meal can
+be served there must be railways, steamships, great manufacturing
+establishments, iron quarries, and coal mines, aggregating many thousand
+millions of dollars, and employing many million people. A casual
+inspection, too, reveals the fact that all of the substances and things
+required by mankind come from the earth, and, a very few excepted, every
+one requires a certain amount of manufacture or preliminary treatment
+before it is usable. The grains and nearly all the other food-stuffs
+require various processes of preparation before they are ready for
+consumption by civilized peoples. Iron and the various other ores used
+in the arts must undergo elaborate processes of manufacture; coal must
+be mined, broken, cleaned, and transported; the soil in which
+food-stuffs are grown must be fertilized and mechanically prepared; and
+even the water required for domestic purposes in many instances must be
+transported long distances.
+
+[Illustration: AGRICULTURE AND MANUFACTURE SUPPLEMENT EACH OTHER]
+
+A little thought will suffice to show that not only are all food-stuffs
+derived from the earth, but that also every usable resource which
+constitutes wealth is also drawn from the same source. The same is also
+pretty nearly true of the various forms of energy, for although the sun
+is the real source of light and heat, and probably of electricity, these
+agents are usable only when they have been transformed into earth
+energies. Thus, the physical energy generated by falling water is merely
+a transformed portion of solar heat; so also the coal-beds contain both
+the chemical and physical energy of solar heat and light converted into
+potential energy--that is, into force that can be used at the will of
+intelligence. Indeed, the physical being of mankind is an organism born
+of the earth, and adapted to the earth; and when that physical form
+dies, it merely is transformed again to ordinary earth substances.
+
+The chief activities of living beings are those relating to the
+maintenance of life. In other words, animals must feed, and they must
+also protect themselves against extermination. In the case of all other
+animals this is a very simple matter, they simply live in immediate
+contact with their food, migrating or perishing if the supply gives out.
+In the case of mankind the conditions are different and vastly more
+elaborate. Savage peoples excepted, man does not live within close touch
+of the things he requires; indeed, he cannot, for he depends upon all
+the world for what he uses. In a less enlightened state many of these
+commodities were luxuries; in a civilized state they have become
+necessities. Moreover, nearly everything civilized man employs has been
+prepared by processes in which heat is employed.
+
+Therefore one may specify several classes of human activities and
+employments:
+
+     (_a_) The production of food-stuffs and other commodities by the
+     cultivation of the soil--_Agriculture_.
+
+     (_b_) The preparation of food-stuffs and things used for shelter,
+     protection, or ornament--_Manufacture_.
+
+     (_c_) The production of minerals for the generation of power, such
+     as coal, or those such as iron, copper, stone, etc., required in
+     the arts and sciences--_Mining_.
+
+     (_d_) The exchange of food stuffs and commodities--_Commerce_.
+
+     (_e_) The transfer of commodities--_Transportation_.
+
+It is evident that the prosperity and happiness of a people depend very
+largely on the condition of their surroundings--that is, their
+environment. If a country or an inhabited area produces all the
+food-stuffs and commodities required by its people, the conditions are
+very fortunate. A very few nations, notably China and the United States,
+have such diverse conditions of climate, topography, and mineral
+resources, that they can, if necessary, produce within their national
+borders everything needed by their peoples.
+
+The prosecution of such a policy, however, is rarely economical; in the
+history of the past it has always resulted in weakness and
+disintegration. China is to-day helpless because of a policy of
+self-seclusion; and the marvellous growth of Japan began when her trade
+was thrown open to the world.
+
+For the greater part the environment of a people is deficient--that is,
+the locality of a people does not yield all that is required for the
+necessities of life. For instance, the New England plateau requires an
+enormous amount of fuel for its manufacturing enterprises; but
+practically no coal is found within its borders; hence the manufacturers
+must either command the coal to be shipped from other regions or give up
+their employment. The people of Canada require a certain amount of
+cotton cloth; but the cotton plant will not grow in a cold climate, so
+they must either exchange some of their own commodities for cotton, or
+else go without it. The inhabitants of Great Britain produce only a
+small part of the food-stuffs they consume; therefore they are
+constantly exchanging their manufactured products for the food-stuffs
+that of necessity must be produced in other parts of the world.
+
+The dwellers of the New England plateau might grow the bread-stuffs they
+require, and in times past they did so. At that time, however, a barrel
+of flour was worth twelve dollars. But the wheat of the prairie regions
+can be grown, manufactured into flour, transported a thousand miles, and
+sold at a profit for less than five dollars a barrel. Therefore it is
+evidently more economical to buy flour in Minnesota than to grow the
+wheat and make it into flour in Massachusetts.
+
+All these problems, and they exist without number, show that man may
+overcome most of the obstacles that surround him. So we find civilized
+man living in almost every part of the world. Tropical regions are not
+too scorching, nor are arctic fastnesses too cold for him. In other
+words, because of commerce and transportation, he can and usually does
+master the conditions of his environment; his intelligence enables him
+to do so, and his ability to do so is the result of the intelligent use
+of experience and education.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW COMMERCE CIVILIZED MANKIND
+
+
+The history of western civilization is so closely connected with the
+development of the great routes of travel and the growth of commerce
+that one cannot possibly separate them. Commerce cannot exist without
+the intercourse of peoples, and peoples cannot be in mutual
+communication unless each learns from the other.
+
+=Feudalism.=--When the Roman Empire fell civilization in western Europe
+was not on a high plane; indeed, the feudalism that followed was not
+much above barbarism. The people were living in a manner that was not
+very much unlike the communal system under which the serfs of Russia
+lived only a few years ago. Each centre of population was a sort of
+military camp governed by a feudal lord. The followers and retainers
+were scarcely better off than slaves; indeed, many of them were slaves.
+There was no ownership of the land except by the feudal lords, and the
+latter were responsible for their acts to the king only.
+
+But very few people cared to be absolutely free, because they had but
+little chance to protect themselves; so it was the common custom to
+attach one's self to a feudal lord in order to have his protection; even
+a sort of peonage or slavery under him was better than no protection at
+all. A few of the people were engaged in trade and manufacture of some
+kind or other, and they were the only ones through whom the feudal lord
+could supply himself with the commodities needed for his retainers and
+the luxuries necessary to himself.
+
+Each feudal estate, therefore, became a sort of industrial centre by
+itself, producing its own food-stuffs and much of the coarser
+manufactures. It was not a very high condition of enlightenment, but it
+was much better than the one which preceded it, for at least it offered
+protection. It encouraged a certain amount of trade and commerce,
+because the feudal lord had many wants, and he was usually willing to
+protect the merchant who supplied them.
+
+=The Crusades and Commerce.=--The Crusades, or wars by which the
+Christians sought to recover the Holy Land from the Turk, resulted in a
+trade between Europe and India that grew to wonderful proportions. Silk
+fabrics, cotton cloth, precious stones, ostrich plumes, ivory, spices,
+and drugs--all of which were practically unknown in Europe--were eagerly
+sought by the nobility and their dependencies. In return, linen and
+woollen fabrics, leather goods, glassware, blacklead, and steel
+implements were carried to the far East.
+
+Milan, Florence, Venice and Genoa, Constantinople and a number of less
+important towns along the Mediterranean basin became important trade
+centres, but Venice and Genoa grew to be world powers in commerce. Not
+only were they great receiving and distributing depots of trade, but
+they were great manufacturing centres as well.
+
+The routes over which this enormous commerce was carried were few in
+number. For the greater part, the Venetian trade went to Alexandria, and
+thence by the Red Sea to India. Genoese merchants sent their goods to
+Constantinople and Trebizond, thence down the Tigris River to the
+Persian Gulf and to India. There was also another route that had been
+used by the Phoenicians. It extended from Tyre through Damascus and
+Palmyra[2] to the head of the Persian Gulf; this gradually fell into
+disuse after the founding of Alexandria.
+
+The general effects of this trade were very far-reaching. To the greater
+number of the people of Europe, the countries of India, China, and Japan
+were mythical. According to tradition they were infested with dragons
+and gryphons, and peopled by dog-headed folk or by one-eyed Arimaspians.
+About the first real information of them to be spread over Europe was
+brought by Marco Polo, whose father and uncle had travelled all through
+these countries during the latter part of the thirteenth century.[3]
+Marco Polo's writings were very widely read, and influenced a great many
+people who could not be reached through the ordinary channels of
+commerce. So between the wars of the Crusades on the one hand, and the
+growth of commerce on the other, a new and a better civilization began
+to spread over Europe.
+
+=The Turkish Invasions.=--But the magnificent trade that had thus grown up
+was checked for a time by an unforeseen factor. The half-savage
+Turkomans living southeast of Russia had become converted to the
+religion of Islam, and in their zeal for the new belief, determined to
+destroy the commerce which seemed to be connected with Christianity. So
+they moved in upon the borderland between Europe and Asia, and one after
+another the trade routes were tightly closed. Then they captured
+Constantinople, and the routes between Genoa and the Orient were
+hermetically sealed. Moslem power also spread over Syria and Egypt, and
+so, little by little, the trade of Venice was throttled.
+
+[Illustration: ROUTES TO INDIA--THE TURK CHANGES THE COMMERCE OF THE
+WORLD]
+
+Now a commerce that involved not only many millions of dollars, but the
+employment of thousands of people as well, is not likely to be given up
+without a struggle. So the energy that had been devoted to this great
+trade was turned in a new direction, and there began a search for a new
+route to India--one that the Turks could not blockade.
+
+=The Search for an All-Water Route to India.=--Overland routes were out of
+the question; there were none that could be made available, and so the
+search was made for a sea-route. Rather singularly the Venetians and
+Genoese, who had hitherto controlled this trade, took no part in the
+search; it was conducted by the Spanish and the Portuguese.
+
+The Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, fitted out an
+expedition under Christopher Columbus, a master-mariner and
+cartographer, the funds being provided by Isabella, who pledged her
+private property as security for the cost of the expedition. This
+expedition resulted in the discovery, October 10-21, 1492, of the West
+India Islands. In a subsequent voyage, Columbus discovered the mainland
+of South America.
+
+Even before the voyage of Columbus, the Portuguese had been trying to
+find a way around Africa to India, and Pope Eugenius IV. had conferred
+on Portugal "all heathen lands from Cape Bojador eastward even to the
+Indies." Little by little, therefore, Portuguese navigators were pushing
+southward until, in 1487, Bartholomew Dias sighted the Cape of Good
+Hope, and got about as far as Algoa Bay. Then he unwillingly turned back
+because of the threats of his crew. It was a most remarkable voyage, and
+one of the shipmates of Dias was Bartholomew Columbus, a brother of the
+discoverer of the New World.
+
+Ten years later, or five years after the voyage of Columbus, Vasco da
+Gama sailed from Lisbon for the Cape of Good Hope. As he passed the Cape
+he was terribly storm-tossed, but the storms carried him in a fortunate
+direction. And when at last he got his reckonings, he was off the coast
+of India; he therefore kept along the coast until in sight of a port.
+The port was the well-known city of Calicut. Two years later he returned
+to Europe by the same route, his ships laden with spices, precious
+stones, beautiful tapestries and brocades, ivory and bronzes. The
+long-sought sea-route to India had been discovered.
+
+[Illustration: A HANSE CITY--HAMBURG, ALONG THE WATER-FRONT]
+
+=Commerce in Western Europe.=--After the discovery of the new route,
+Venice and Genoa were scarcely heard of in relation to commerce; they
+lost everything and gained nothing. The great commerce with the Orient
+was to have a new western terminus, and the latter was to be on the
+shores of the North and Baltic Seas.
+
+The commerce between Europe and India stimulated trade in western Europe
+as well. As early as the twelfth century the manufacture of linen and
+woollen cloth had grown to be a very important industry that had
+resulted in the rapid growth of population. The older cities grew
+rapidly, and new ones sprang up wherever the commodities of trade were
+gathered, manufactured, or distributed.
+
+These centres of trade had two hostile elements against them. The feudal
+lords used to pillage them legally by extorting heavy taxes and forced
+loans whenever their treasuries were empty. The portionless brothers and
+relatives of the feudal lords, to whom no employments save war,
+adventure, and piracy were open, pillaged them illegally. Along the
+coasts especially, piracy was considered not only a legitimate, but a
+genteel, profession. So in order to protect themselves, the cities began
+to join themselves into leagues.
+
+=The Hanse League.=--About the beginning of the thirteenth century[4]
+Hamburg and Lübeck formed an alliance afterward called a _hansa_; at the
+beginning of the fourteenth century it embraced seventy cities, having
+the capital at Lübeck. At the time of its greatest power the League
+embraced all the principal cities of western Europe nearly as far south
+as the Danube. Large agencies, called "factories," were established in
+London, Bruges, Novgorod, Bergen, and Wisby. The influence of the League
+practically controlled western Europe.
+
+The Hanse League performed a wonderful work. It stopped piracy on the
+seas and robbery on the land. Industrially, it encouraged
+self-government and obedience to constitutional authority. Shipbuilding
+and navigation so greatly improved that the ocean traffic resulting from
+the discovery of the cape route to India quickly fell into the hands of
+Hanse sailors and master-mariners. The League not only encouraged and
+protected all sorts of manufactures, but its schools trained thousands
+of operatives. The mines were worked and the idle land cultivated. It
+was the greatest industrial movement that ever occurred.
+
+[Illustration: HANSE ROUTES--THE HANSE LEAGUE REORGANIZES THE TRADE OF
+THE WORLD]
+
+Socially, the Hanse League brought the wealth that gave those comforts
+and conveniences before unknown. The standards of social life,
+education, art, and science were raised from a condition scarcely
+better than barbarism to a high plane of civilization. Indeed, the
+civilization of western Europe was the most important result of it.
+
+It forced the rights of individual freedom, as well as municipal
+independence, from more than one monarch, and punished severely the
+kings who sought to betray it. It crushed the power of those who opposed
+it,[5] and rewarded those who were faithful to it. Its most important
+mission, however, was the overthrow of feudalism and the gradual
+substitution of popular government in its place.
+
+Having accomplished the regeneration of Europe, the Hanse League died
+partly by its own hand, because of its arrogance, but mainly from the
+fact that, having educated western Europe to self-government and
+commercial independence, there was no longer need for its existence.
+Independent cities grew rapidly into importance, and these got along
+very well without the protection of the League. The great industrial
+progress was at times temporarily checked by wars, but it never took a
+backward step. Indeed the progress of commerce has always been a contest
+between brains and brute force, and in such a struggle there is never
+any doubt about the final outcome.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What were some of the effects of Cæsar's invasion of Germanic Europe so
+far as commerce is concerned?
+
+What were some of the effects on commerce of the breaking up of the
+Roman Empire?
+
+How did the invasion of England by William of Normandy affect the
+commerce of the English people?
+
+Who was Henry the Navigator, and what did he accomplish?
+
+How did the blockade of the routes between Europe and India bring about
+the discovery of America?
+
+What was the result of the great voyage of the Cabots?
+
+Was the overthrow of feudalism in Europe a gain or a loss to commerce?
+
+Why are not commercial leagues, such as the Hanse, necessary at the
+present time?
+
+Why did Spain's commerce decline as Portugal's thrived?
+
+
+COLLATERAL READING[6]
+
+Gibbins's History of Commerce--Chapters IV-V.
+
+Fiske's Discovery of America, Vol. 1--Chapters IV-V.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+TOPOGRAPHIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE
+
+
+The great industry of commerce, which includes both the trade in the
+commodities of life and the transportation of them, is governed very
+largely by the character of the earth's surface. But very few
+food-stuffs can be grown economically in mountain-regions. Steep
+mountain-slopes are apt to be destitute of soil; moreover, even the
+mountain-valleys are apt to be difficult of access, and in such cases
+the cost of moving the crops may be greater than the market value of the
+products. Mountainous countries, therefore, are apt to be sparsely
+peopled regions.
+
+But although the great mountain-systems are unhabitable, or at least
+sparsely peopled, they have a very definite place in the economics of
+life. Thus, the great western highland of the United States diverts the
+flow of moisture from the Gulf of Mexico northward into the central
+plain, and gives to the region most of its food-growing power. In a
+similar manner, moisture intercepted by the Alps and the Himalayas has
+not only created the plains of the Po and the Ganges from the rock-waste
+carried from the slopes, but has also made them exceedingly fertile.
+
+Mountain-ranges are also valuable for their contents. The broken
+condition of the rock-folds and the rapid weathering to which they are
+subjected have exposed the minerals and metals so useful in the arts of
+commerce and civilization. Thus, the weathering of the Appalachian folds
+has made accessible about the only available anthracite coal measures
+yet worked; and the worn folds about Lake Superior have yielded the
+ores that have made the United States the foremost copper and steel
+manufacturing country of the world. Gold, silver, tin, lead, zinc,
+platinum, granite, slate, and marble occur mainly in mountain-folds.
+
+=Mountains and Valleys.=--Mountain-ranges are great obstacles to commerce
+and intercommunication. The Greek peoples found it much easier to
+scatter along the Mediterranean coast than to cross the Balkan
+Mountains. For twenty years after the settlement of California, it was
+easier and less expensive to send traffic by way of Cape Horn than to
+carry it across the Rocky Mountains.
+
+The deep cañons of mountainous regions are quite as difficult to
+overcome as the high ranges. In modern methods of transportation a range
+that cannot be surmounted may be tunnelled, and a tunnel five or six
+miles in length is no uncommon feat of engineering. A cañon, however,
+cannot be tunnelled, and if too wide for cantilever or suspension
+bridges, a detour of many miles is necessary. In crossing a deep chasm
+the route of transportation may aggregate ten or fifteen times the
+distance spanned by a straight line.
+
+Excepting the mining regions, the population of mountainous countries is
+apt to be found mainly in the intermontane valleys. A reason for this is
+not hard to find; the valleys are usually filled with rich soil brought
+from the higher slopes and levelled by the water. The population,
+therefore, is concentrated in the valley because of the food-producing
+power of the land. For this reason the Sound, Willamette, and San
+Joaquin-Sacramento Valleys contain the chief part of the Pacific coast
+population. The Shenandoah and the Great Valley of Virginia are similar
+instances.
+
+What is true of the larger intermontane valleys is true also of the
+narrow stream valleys of mountain and plateau regions. Thus, in the New
+England plateau the chief growth during the past forty years has been in
+the valley lands. In that time if the uplands have not suffered actual
+loss, they certainly have made no material gains. Upland farming has not
+proved a remunerative venture, and many of the farms have either been
+abandoned or converted to other uses.
+
+=Passes.=--Transverse valleys form very important topographic features of
+mountain-regions. Inasmuch as the ranges themselves are obstacles to
+communication, it follows that the latter must be concentrated at such
+cross valleys or gaps as may be traversed. Khaibar Pass, a narrow defile
+in the Hindu Kush Mountains, between Peshawur and Jelalabad, for many
+years was the chief gateway between Europe and India. Even now the cost
+of holding it is an enormous tax upon England.
+
+Brenner, St. Gotthard, and the Mont Cenis Passes are about the only land
+channels of commerce between Italy and transalpine Europe, and most of
+the communication between northern Italy and the rest of Europe is
+carried on by means of these passes. Every transcontinental railway of
+the American continent crosses the various highlands by means of gaps
+and passes, and some of them would never have been built were it not for
+the existence of the passes. Fremont, South, and Marshall Passes have
+been of historic importance for half a century.
+
+The Hudson and Champlain Valley played an important part in the history
+of the colonies a century before the existence of the United States, and
+its importance as a gateway to eastern Canada is not likely to be
+lessened. The Mohawk gap was the first practical route to be maintained
+between the Atlantic seaboard and the food-producing region of the Great
+Central Plain. It is to-day the most important one. It is so nearly
+level that the total lift of freight going from Buffalo to tide-water is
+less than five hundred feet.
+
+[Illustration: A PASS--THE ROUTE OF A RAILWAY]
+
+=Rivers.=--River-valleys are closely connected with the economic
+development of a country. Navigable rivers are free and open highways of
+communication. In newly settled countries the river is always the least
+expensive means of carriage, and often it is the only one available for
+the transportation of heavy goods.
+
+In late years, since the railway has become the chief means for the
+transportation of commodities, river transportation has greatly
+declined. The river-valley, however, has lost none of its importance; in
+most instances it is a naturally levelled and graded route, highly
+suitable for the tracks of the railway. As a result, outside of the
+level lands of the Great Central Plain, not far from eighty per cent. of
+the railway mileage of the United States is constructed along
+river-valleys.
+
+=Plateaus.=--Plateaus are usually characterized by broken and more or less
+rugged surface features. As a rule they are deficient in the amount of
+rainfall necessary to produce an abundance of the grains and similar
+food-stuffs, although this is by no means the case with all.
+
+Most plateaus produce an abundance of grass, and cattle-growing is
+therefore an important industry in such regions. Thus, the plateaus of
+the Rocky Mountains are famous for cattle, and the same is true of the
+Mexican and the South American plateaus. The Iberian plateau, including
+Spain and Portugal, is noted for the merino sheep, which furnish the
+finest wool known. The plateau of Iran is also noted for its wool, and
+the rugs from this region cannot be imitated elsewhere in the world.
+
+=Plains.=--Plains are of the highest importance to life and its
+activities. Not only do they present fewer obstacles to
+intercommunication than any other topographic features, but almost
+always they are deeply covered with the fine rock-waste that forms the
+chief components of soil. Plains, therefore, contain the elements of
+nutrition, and are capable of supporting life to a greater extent than
+either mountains or plateaus. About ninety per cent. of the world's
+population dwell in the lowland plains.
+
+The Great Central Plain of North America produces more than one-quarter
+of the world's wheat, and about four-fifths of the corn. The southern
+part of the great Arctic plain, and its extension, the plains of the
+Baltic also yield immense quantities of grain and cattle products. The
+coast-plains of the Atlantic Ocean, on both the American and the
+European side, are highly productive.
+
+River flood-plains are almost always densely peopled because of their
+productivity. The bottom-lands of the Mississippi and the Yangtze Rivers
+are among the chief food-producing regions of the world. Lacustrine
+plains, the beds of former lakes, are also highly productive regions.
+The valley of the Red River of the North is an example, and its wheat is
+of a very high quality.
+
+Fertile coast-plains and lowlands that are adjacent to good harbors, as
+a rule are the most thickly peopled regions of the world. In many such
+regions the density of population exceeds two hundred or more per square
+mile. The reason is obvious. Life seeks that environment which yields
+the greatest amount of nutrition with the least expenditure of energy.
+
+The study of a good relief map shows that, as a rule, the Pacific Ocean
+is bordered by a rugged highland, which has a more or less abrupt slope,
+and a narrow coast-plain. Indeed, the latter is absent for the greater
+part. The slopes of the Atlantic, on the other hand, are long and
+gentle--being a thousand miles or more in width throughout the greater
+part of their extent. The area of productive land is correspondingly
+great, and the character of the surface features is such that
+intercommunication is easy.
+
+[Illustration: A RIVER FLOOD-PLAIN--A REGION ADAPTED TO CULTIVATION]
+
+The result of these conditions is evident. The Atlantic slopes, though
+not everywhere the most densely peopled areas, contain the great centres
+of the world's activities and economies. In the past 400 years they have
+not only overtaken the Pacific coast races, but have far surpassed them.
+They are now entering upon a commercial invasion of the Pacific nations
+that is resulting in a reorganization of the entire industrial world.
+
+=Topography and Trade Routes.=--As the settlement and commerce of a
+country grow, roads succeed trails, and trails are apt to follow the
+paths of migrating animals. Until the time of the Civil War in the
+United States, most of the great highways of the country were the direct
+descendants of "buffalo roads," as they were formerly called.
+
+In the crossing of divides from one river-valley to another, the
+mountain-sections of the railways for the greater part follow the trails
+of the bison. This is especially marked in the Pennsylvania, the
+Baltimore and Ohio, and the Chesapeake and Ohio railways; in some
+instances the tunnels through ranges have been constructed directly
+under the trails. The reason is obvious; the instinct of the bison led
+him along routes having the minimum of grade.
+
+Throughout the Mississippi Valley and the great plains the Indian trails
+usually avoided the bottom-lands of the river-valleys, following the
+divides and portages instead. This selection of routes was probably due
+to the fact that the lowlands were swampy and subject to overflow; the
+portages and divides offered no steep grades, and were therefore more
+easily traversed.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE COMMODITIES ARE EXCHANGED--NEW YORK CITY
+WATER-FRONT]
+
+=Harbors.=--Coast outlines have much to do with the commercial
+possibilities of a region. The "drowned valleys" and similar inlets
+along the North Atlantic coast, both of Europe and America, form harbors
+in which vessels ride at anchor in safety, no matter what the existing
+conditions outside may be. As a result, the two greatest centres of
+commerce in the world are found at these harbors--one on the American,
+the other on the European coast.
+
+From New York Bay southward along the Atlantic seaboard there are but
+few harbors, and this accounts for the enormous development of commerce
+in the stretch of coast between Portland and Baltimore. San Francisco
+Bay and the harbors of Puget Sound monopolize most of the commerce of
+the Pacific coast of the United States. South America has several good
+harbors on the Atlantic seaboard, and in consequence a large city has
+grown at the site of each. On the Pacific coast the good harbors are
+very few in number, and they are not situated near productive regions.
+
+Asiatic peoples, as a rule, are not promoters of foreign commerce, and,
+those of Japan excepted, the only good harbors are those that have been
+improved by European governments. These are confined mainly to India and
+China. The many possible harbors make certain a tremendous commerce in
+the future. Africa has but very few good harbors. There are excellent
+harbors in the islands of the Pacific, and many of them are of great
+strategic value as coaling stations and bases of supply to the various
+maritime powers.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+The Pennsylvania Railroad has found it more economical to tunnel the
+mountain-range under Horseshoe Curve, near Altoona, than to haul the
+trains over the mountains; discuss the details in which there will be a
+saving.
+
+Why are rugged and mountainous regions apt to be sparsely peopled?
+
+The first valuable discovery in the Rocky Mountains was gold; what were
+the chief effects that resulted?
+
+Would the industries of the Pacific coast of the United States be
+benefited or impaired by the existence of a coast-plain?
+
+Which are more conducive to commerce--the large mediterraneans, such as
+the Gulf of Mexico, or the small estuaries, such as New York Bay?
+Discuss the merits or demerits of each.
+
+What are the chief products of mountains, of plateaus, of lowland
+plains?
+
+
+COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Adams's New Empire--Chapter I.
+
+Redway's Physical Geography--Chapter IV.
+
+A topographic map of the United States.
+
+[Illustration: MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CLIMATIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE
+
+
+In its effect upon life and the various industries of peoples, climate
+is a factor even more important than topography. Of the 53,000,000
+square miles of the land surface of the earth, scarcely more than
+one-half is capable of producing any great amount of food-stuffs, and
+only a very small area can support a population of more than one hundred
+people to each square mile.
+
+=Climate and Habitability.=--In the main, regions that are inhabited by
+human beings produce either food-stuffs or something of value that may
+be exchanged for food-stuffs; and inasmuch as food and shelter are the
+chief objects of human activity, regions that will not furnish them are
+not habitable.
+
+The growth and production of food-stuffs is governed even more by
+conditions of climate than by those of topography. Thus the great
+Russian plain is too cold to produce any great amount of food-stuffs,
+and it is, therefore, sparsely peopled. The northern part of Africa and
+the closed basins of North America and Asia lack the rainfall necessary
+to insure productivity, and these regions are also unhabitable. The
+basin of the Amazon has a rainfall too great for cereals and grasses,
+and the larger part of it is unfit for habitation.
+
+All the food-stuffs are exceedingly sensitive to climate. Rice will not
+grow where swampy conditions do not prevail at least during part of the
+year. Turf-grass will not live where there are repeated droughts of more
+than three months' duration, and corn will not ripen in regions having
+cool nights. Wheat does not produce a kernel fit for flour anywhere
+except in the temperate zone; and the banana will not grow outside the
+torrid zone.
+
+The two chief factors of climate are temperature and moisture. No forms
+of life can withstand a temperature constantly below the freezing-point
+of water, and but few, if any, can endure a constant heat of one hundred
+and twenty-five degrees, although most species can exist at temperatures
+beyond these limits for a short time.
+
+=Zones of Climate.=--The belt of earth upon which the sun's rays are
+nearly or quite vertical is comparatively narrow. But the inclination of
+the earth's axis and the fact that it is parallel to itself at all times
+of the year create zones of climate. These differ materially in the
+character of the life, forms, and the activities of the people who dwell
+in them.
+
+In the torrid zone the temperature varies but little. During the season
+of rains it rarely falls to 70° F., and in the dry season it is seldom
+higher than 95° F. As a result, all sorts of plants that are sensitive
+to low temperatures thrive in the torrid zone. It is not a climate
+suitable for heat-producing food-plants, and they are not required.
+
+The constant heat and excessive moisture of the atmosphere in the torrid
+zone is apt to produce a feeling of lassitude among the dwellers in such
+regions, moreover, and great bodily activity is out of question. These
+conditions seriously affect the lives of the people, and, with few
+exceptions, tropical peoples are rarely noted for energy or enterprise.
+Great commercial enterprises are the exception rather than the rule, and
+they are usually carried on by foreigners who must live a part of the
+time in cooler localities.
+
+[Illustration: THE EFFECTS OF HIGH LATITUDE--TOO COLD TO PRODUCE
+BREAD-STUFFS]
+
+Polar regions are deficient both in the heat and light necessary for
+food-stuffs. Neither the grasses nor the grains fructify. As a result,
+but few herbivora can live there, and these are practically restricted
+to the musk-ox and the reindeer, which subsist on mosses and lichens.
+The native people are stunted in growth; their food consists mainly of
+raw blubber, and they are scarcely above savagery.
+
+The temperate zones are the regions of the great industries and
+activities of human life. The larger part of the land surface of the
+earth is situated in these zones; moreover, the people who dominate the
+world also live in them, and their supremacy is due largely to
+conditions of climate. The alternation of summer and winter causes a
+struggle for existence that develops the intellectual faculties and
+results in industrial supremacy.
+
+=Effects of Altitude.=--There is a decrease of temperature of 1° F. for
+about every three hundred feet of ascent. But few people live at an
+altitude of more than six thousand feet above sea-level, and in many
+cases they depend on other localities for the greater part of their
+food-stuffs, because very few of such regions produce food-stuffs
+abundantly.
+
+The chief exceptions to this rule are found in tropical regions. The
+highlands of Mexico, the plateau-regions of Bolivia and Ecuador, and the
+highlands of southern Asia are habitable, but they are not densely
+peopled. Because of their altitude they are relieved of the enervating
+effects of tropical climate at the sea-level.
+
+Altitude likewise affects the amount of rainfall. Most plateaus are
+arid. As a rule, they are arid because of their altitude; and because of
+their aridity they are deficient in their power to produce food-stuffs.
+They are therefore sparsely peopled.
+
+=Effects of Rainfall.=--Regions having considerably more than one hundred
+inches of rain annually are very apt to be forest-covered, and
+therefore to be deficient in food-producing plants. Such localities have
+usually a sparse population, in spite of the profusion of vegetation. In
+some parts of India, lands that have been left idle for a few seasons
+produce such a dense jungle of wild vegetation that to reclaim them for
+cultivation is wellnigh impossible.
+
+A deficiency of rainfall is even a greater factor in restricting the
+density of population than too much rain. With less than fifteen or
+twenty inches a year few regions produce good crops of grains and
+grasses, and as a result they are sparsely peopled. Some of the
+exceptions, however, are important. If the rainfall is not quite enough
+to produce a normal overflow to the sea, the soil may be very rich,
+because the nutrition is not leached out and carried away.
+
+Many small areas of this character produce enormous crops when
+artificially watered, and many of them, such as Persia, parts of Asia
+Minor, northern Utah, and large areas of Australia and Chile have become
+regions of considerable commercial importance. The products of such
+regions are apt to be unique in character and of unusual value. Thus,
+the wool of Persia and Australia and the fruit of the Iberian peninsula
+are important articles of commerce.
+
+In Egypt one may see the results of irrigated lands. The area of
+geographical Egypt is somewhat less than half a million square miles;
+the habitable part of the country is confined to a narrow strip, which,
+one or two places excepted, varies from three to six miles in width. In
+other words, almost the whole population of the country is massed in the
+flood-plain and delta of the Nile; the remaining part is a desert
+producing practically nothing.
+
+The water that makes these lands productive falls, not in Egypt, but in
+the highlands of Abyssinia, 2,000 miles away. The September overflow of
+the flood-plain is the chief factor in the irrigation of these lands,
+but the area has been greatly increased by the construction of barrages
+and dams at Assiut and Assuan.
+
+In the western highland region of the United States considerable areas
+already have been made productive by irrigation, and it is estimated
+that about two million acres of barren land can be reclaimed by
+impounding the waters of the various streams now running to waste.
+
+The distribution of rain with respect to the season in which it falls is
+quite as important as its distribution with respect to quantity. In
+tropical regions the ocean winds, and therefore the rainfall, come from
+the east. The eastern slopes of such regions, therefore, have a season
+in which rains may be expected daily, and another in which no rain falls
+for several months. In the temperate zones seasonal rains for a similar
+reason are on the western coasts.
+
+Thus on the Pacific coast of the United States the rainfall varies from
+about one hundred inches in southern Alaska to about twelve in San
+Diego, Cal. Practically all the rain falls between October and the
+following May; very little or none falls in the interval between May and
+October. As a result, ordinary turf-grass, which will not withstand long
+droughts, grows in only a few localities of the Pacific slope. It is
+replaced by hardier grasses whose roots, instead of forming turf, grow
+very deep in the soil.
+
+Common clover will not grow in this region unless irrigated; it is
+replaced by burr-clover, a variety of the plant that will not thrive in
+moist regions. Now the quality of the merino wool clip of California
+depends in no slight degree upon the burr-clover and other food-products
+that thrive in regions of seasonal rains; that is, a great commercial
+industry exists because of this feature of rainfall, and it could not
+long survive in spite of it.
+
+[Illustration: CLIMATICALLY ADAPTED TO CULTIVATION--THE LOWLANDS
+PRODUCE BREAD-STUFFS AND FRUIT; THE MOUNTAIN-SLOPES ARE GRAZING REGIONS]
+
+The seasonal rainfall also affects other agricultural industries. The
+sacked wheat-crop may be left in the field without cover or protection
+until the time is convenient for shipping it. The absence of summer
+rains makes possible in California what would be out of question in the
+Mississippi Valley, where a rainstorm may be expected every few days.
+
+The quality of certain fruits depends largely on the season during which
+the rainfall occurs. Apples, pears, and grapes grown in regions having
+dry summers have usually a very superior flavor. The raisin-making
+industry of California also depends on the same condition, because, in
+order to insure a good quality of the product, the bunches of grapes,
+after picking, must be dried on the ground. To a certain extent this is
+also true of other fruits, such as dates, figs, and prunes, which
+frequently are sun-dried.
+
+The presence of large bodies of water, which both absorb and give out
+their heat very slowly, tempers the climate of the nearby land and to
+that extent modifies the commerce of such districts. The grape-growing
+industry of central New York is a great one and its product is famous.
+Its existence depends almost wholly upon the lake-tempered climate.
+Elsewhere in the State the industry is on a precarious basis, and the
+product is inferior.
+
+=Effects of Inclination of the Earth's Axis.=--The inclination and
+self-parallelism of the earth's axis is undoubtedly a very important
+factor in climate. Practically it more than doubles the width of the
+belts of ordinary food-stuffs by lengthening the summer day in the
+temperate zone. Beyond the tropics the obliquity of the sun's rays are
+more than balanced by the increased length of time in which they fall.
+
+Thus, in the latitude of St. Paul, the longest day is about fifteen and
+one-half hours long; at Liverpool it is nearly seventeen hours long; a
+greater number of heat units therefore are received in these latitudes
+during summer than are received in equatorial regions during the
+twelve-hour day. Moreover, the summer temperature is higher in these
+latitudes than in the torrid zone, because the sun is shining upon them
+for a greater length of time.
+
+The result of these various influences is far-reaching. Because of the
+long summer days and short nights, wheat can be cultivated to the
+sixtieth parallel. Corn, which gets scarcely enough warmth and light in
+the torrid zone to become a prolific crop, attains its greatest yield in
+the latitude of fourteen-hour days.
+
+These factors, it is evident, carry the grain and meat industries into
+regions that otherwise would not be habitable. Because the long summer
+days produce these great food-crops, commerce and its allied industries
+have reached their maximum development in these regions. Human
+activities are greatest in the zones bounded by the thirty-fifth and
+fifty-fifth parallels, the zone that includes the greater parts of the
+United States, Europe, China, Japan. They are greatest, moreover,
+because of their geographical position.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What would be the probable effect on the food-crops of the United States
+were the main body of the country moved twenty degrees north in
+latitude? Which would then be the wheat-growing States, the
+cotton-producing States?
+
+Illustrate the connection between occupation and altitude above
+sea-level.
+
+What difference would it make to the corn-crop were the days and nights
+always twelve hours long?
+
+What would be requisite to make Canada a centre of silk production?
+
+Why is not cod-fishing an industry off the east coast of Florida?
+
+Why is the greater part of the Russian Empire destined to be sparsely
+peopled?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+A rain chart of the world.
+
+A chart of isothermal lines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TRANSPORTATION--OCEAN AND INLAND NAVIGATION
+
+
+Of all the adjustments which come into the lives of a people none has
+been so far-reaching as the gradual localization of industries each in
+the region best adapted to it. For instance, manufacturing industries
+require power, but not fertile soil; therefore the manufacturing
+industries seek nearness to fuel or to water-power, and a position
+available for quick transportation.
+
+Farming does not require any great amount of natural power; on the
+contrary, level land having a great depth of fertile soil is the
+essential feature. The farmer must therefore look first of all to
+conditions of topography and climate, and secondly to the means of
+transporting his crop.
+
+Mining cannot be an industry in regions destitute of minerals; the miner
+must therefore go where the mineral wealth is found, without regard to
+climate, soil, centres of population, or topography. But two things are
+required--the mineral products and the means of getting them to the
+people--that is, ready means of transportation.
+
+A century or more ago, each centre of population in the United States
+was practically self-sustaining. Each grew its own food-stuffs, and
+manufactured the articles used in the household. But very little was
+required in the way of transportation. The means of carriage were mainly
+ox-carts, pack-horses, and rafts. There was a mutual independence among
+the various centres, it is true, but the independence was at the expense
+of civilization and the comforts of life.
+
+[Illustration: OCEAN TRANSPORTATION--ROYAL MAIL STEAMSHIP OCEANIC,
+WHITE STAR LINE]
+
+Beyond an independence that is more apparent than real, such a plan of
+social and industrial organization has but little in it to commend.
+Intercommunication increases knowledge, and under the conditions that
+formerly prevailed, there was a lack of the breadth of knowledge that
+comes with the mutual contact of peoples.
+
+The utilization of national resources, such as the productiveness of the
+land, the existence of iron ore, coal, copper, and other economic
+minerals, finally brought about the policy of a territorial division of
+industries. This, in turn, made the prompt transportation and exchange
+of commodities essential; indeed, without such a plan, industrial
+centres could not long exist.
+
+The man whose sole business is manufacture must look to others for his
+supply of food-stuffs and raw materials, and these are produced more
+economically at a distance from the centre of manufacture. Thus England
+must look to the United States for wheat and cotton, to the Australian
+Commonwealth for wool, and to New Zealand and the United States for
+meat. Her chief wealth is in her coal and iron, and these make the
+nation a great manufacturing centre. So, also, the manufacturer of New
+York must go to Pittsburg for steel, to Minneapolis for flour, and to
+Chicago for beef.
+
+The application of this principle is very broad; it is the foundation of
+all commerce, and it underlies modern civilization. For this reason the
+question of transportation is just as important to a community as the
+industries of agriculture, mining, and manufacture. Food-stuffs are of
+no use unless they can be transported to the people who want them; nor
+can peoples remain in unproductive regions unless the food-stuffs are
+brought to them.
+
+The gross tonnage of goods is transported mainly in one or another or
+all of three ways--namely, by animal power, by railway, or by water.
+Thus, the cotton-crop of the United States is usually transported by
+wagon from the plantation to the nearest station or boat-landing; by
+rail or by barge to the nearest seaport; and by ocean steamship to the
+foreign seaport.
+
+Water transportation is more economical than land carriage, for the
+reason that less power is required to move a given tonnage through the
+water than on the most perfectly graded railway. Steamship freights, as
+a rule, are lower than those of sailing-vessels, because a steamship has
+more than twice the speed, and, being larger, can carry a greater
+tonnage. Freight rates on the Great Lakes are higher per ton-mile than
+on the ocean, because the vessels are necessarily smaller than those
+built for ocean traffic. For a similar reason, river and canal freights
+are higher than lake freights. Railway transportation is economical,
+partly because a single locomotive will draw an enormous weight of
+goods, and partly because of the high speed at which the goods move from
+point to point. Animal transportation is more expensive than any other
+means ordinarily employed.
+
+=Ocean Transportation.=--In many respects, water-routes form the most
+available and economical methods of transportation. Intercontinental
+commerce must be carried on by means of deep-water vessels. Therefore an
+extraordinary development of ocean carriers has taken place in the past
+century.
+
+One important period of development began with the rise of American
+commerce. Just after the close of the War for Independence, it was found
+that deep-water ships could be built of New England timber for
+thirty-five dollars per ton, rated tonnage, while a vessel of the same
+burden built in Europe cost about forty-five dollars per unit of
+tonnage. Two types of vessels came into use--one, the clipper ship with
+square sails, was used for long ocean voyages; the other, the schooner,
+with fore-and-aft rigging, was employed mainly in the coast-trade.
+
+[Illustration: A SQUARE-RIGGED SHIP--A TYPE NOW BEING REPLACED BY
+FORE-AND-AFT RIGGED SCHOONERS]
+
+In speed and ease of management these vessels surpassed anything that
+had ever sailed. In time they became the standards for the
+sailing-vessels of all the great commercial nations. The types of the
+vessels are still standards.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN STEAMSHIP]
+
+=The Development of the Steamship.=--Another important era in ocean
+commerce began when steam was used as a motive power for vessels. The
+first deep-water vessel thus to be propelled was the Savannah. Her
+steam-power was merely incidental, however, and her paddle-wheels were
+unshipped and taken aboard when there was enough wind for sailing. Up
+to 1860 almost all the ocean steamships were side-wheelers, propelled by
+low-pressure beam-engines.
+
+The next most important improvement was the screw-blade propeller,
+placed astern. This means of propulsion called for higher speed of the
+engines, and in a very short time compactly built high-pressure engines
+took the place of the low-pressure engine with its heavy walking-beam.
+The latter carried steam at a pressure varying from twenty to thirty-two
+pounds; the modern boiler has steam at 260 pounds per square inch.
+
+Ocean steamships have gradually evolved into two types. The freighter,
+broad in beam and capacious, is built to carry an enormous amount of
+freight at a moderate speed. The White Star liner Celtic is a vessel of
+this class; her schedule time between New York and Liverpool is about
+nine days. The Philadelphia of the American line, though not the fastest
+steamship, makes the same trip in an average time of five and one-half
+days.[7]
+
+Twin-screws, instead of a single propeller, are employed on nearly all
+the large liners. The gain in speed is not greatly increased, but the
+vessel is far more manageable with two screws than with one; moreover,
+if one engine breaks down, the vessel can make excellent time with the
+other.
+
+Triple-expansion engines are almost universally used on modern
+steamships, and a pound of coal now makes about three times as much
+steam available as in the engines formerly used. As a result a bushel of
+wheat is now carried from Fargo, N. Dak., to Liverpool for about
+twenty-one cents--less than one-half the freight tariff of 1876.
+
+[Illustration: THE SCHOONER THOMAS A. LAWSON. THE FIRST SEVEN-MASTED
+SAILING-VESSEL]
+
+The fastest liners consume from three hundred and fifty to more than
+four hundred tons of coal a day, and for each additional knot of speed
+the amount of coal burned must be greatly increased. Freighters like the
+Celtic consume scarcely more than half as much as those of the Kaiser
+Wilhelm II. type.
+
+=Sailing-Craft.=--In spite of the growth and development of
+steam-navigation, a large amount of freight is still carried by
+sailing-craft; moreover, it is not unlikely that the relative proportion
+of ocean freight carried by sailing-vessels will increase rather than
+decrease, especially in the case of imperishable freight.
+
+The square-rigged ship, or bark, has been very largely replaced by the
+fore-and-aft, or schooner-rigged vessel. A large full-rigged ship
+requires a crew of thirty to thirty-six men; a schooner-rigged vessel
+needs from sixteen to twenty. These vessels are commonly built with
+three and four masts; some of the largest have six or seven. They carry
+as many as five thousand tons of freight at a speed of about ten
+knots--only a trifle less than that of an ordinary tramp freighter. Some
+of the larger vessels are provided with auxiliary engines and propelling
+apparatus, which enables them to enter or to leave port without the
+assistance of a tug. Donkey-engines hoist and lower the sails, and
+perform the work of loading and unloading. They are admirable colliers
+and grain-carriers.
+
+At the beginning of the twentieth century, about ninety thousand
+sailing-craft and thirty-five thousand steam-vessels were required to
+carry the world's commerce. Of this number, Great Britain and her
+colonies register nearly thirty-five thousand, and the United States
+over twenty thousand.
+
+     HARBOR SAFEGUARDS.--Excepting the open anchorages formed by angles
+     in coast-lines, the greater number of harbors consist of small
+     coves and river-mouths. In these, although there may be a
+     considerable area of water, there is not apt to be much sailing
+     room; it is therefore necessary to mark off the navigable channels.
+     For this purpose buoys of different shapes and colors are used by
+     day; by night fixed and flashing lights are employed.
+
+     The buoys of permanent channels are usually hollow metal cylinders
+     or cones about two feet in diameter, anchored so that the end of
+     the cylinder projects about three feet above the water. On entering
+     a channel from the seaward, red buoys are on the starboard, or
+     right hand; white buoys are kept on the port, or left side. Buoys
+     at the end of a channel are usually surmounted each by some device
+     or other fastened at the upper end of a perch. Thus, at the outer
+     entrance of Gedney Channel in New York Harbor, a ball surmounts the
+     perch; at the inner entrance the buoy carries a double square.
+     Sharp angles in a channel are similarly marked. In many instances
+     the buoy carries, as a warning signal, a bell that rings as the
+     buoy is rocked by the waves; in others, a whistle that sounds by
+     the air which the rocking motion compresses within the cylinder;
+     still others carry electric or gas lights.
+
+     The color of a buoy is an index of its character. Thus, one with
+     black and red stripes indicates danger; one with black and white
+     vertical stripes is a channel-marker. Temporary channels are
+     frequently marked by pieces of spar floating upright. In some cases
+     it is customary to set untrimmed tree-tops on the port, and trimmed
+     sticks on the starboard.
+
+     Light-houses are built at all exposed points of navigated
+     coast-waters, and beacons are set at all necessary points within a
+     harbor for use at night. All lights are kept burning from sunset
+     until sunrise. The color, the duration, and the intervals of
+     flashing indicate the position of the beacon. In revolving lights
+     the beams, concentrated by powerful lenses, sweep the horizon as
+     the lantern about the light revolves. Flashing lights are produced
+     when the light is obscured at given intervals. Fixed lights burn
+     with a steady flame. In some instances a sector of colored glass is
+     set so as to cover a given part of a channel. Range lights, set so
+     that one shows directly above the other, are used as
+     channel-markers.
+
+     [Illustration: CITY OF NEW YORK AND VICINITY, WITH HARBOR
+     APPROACHES.]
+
+     The use of lights may be seen as a vessel enters New York Lower
+     Bay. A steamship drawing not more than eighteen feet of water may
+     enter through Swash Channel (_follow the course on the chart_). In
+     this case the pilot makes for Scotland lightship, and merely keeps
+     New Dorp and Elmtree beacons in range, giving Dry Romer a wide
+     berth to starboard, until Chapel Hill and Conover beacons come into
+     range on his port side. The vessel is then held on a course between
+     Coney Island and Fort Tompkins lights until Robbins Reef light
+     shows ahead.
+
+     For the liners that draw more than eighteen feet the task is more
+     difficult, inasmuch as the channel is tortuous. At Sandy Hook
+     lightship a course lying nearly west takes the vessel to the outer
+     entrance of Gedney Channel, marked by two buoy-lights. In passing
+     between the lights the vessel enters the channel, which is also
+     covered by the red sector of Hook beacon. The pilot continues
+     between the buoy-lights until Waacaack and Point Comfort beacons
+     are in range, and steers to this range until South Beacon and Sandy
+     Hook light are in range astern. The helm is then turned, keeping
+     these lights in range astern until Chapel Hill and Conover beacons
+     are in range on the port bow. Turning northward nearly eight
+     points, the pilot holds the bow of the vessel between Fort Tompkins
+     and Coney Island lights, keeping sharply to his range astern, until
+     Robbins Reef light comes into view through the narrows. From this
+     point on, the shore lights are the pilot's chief guide.
+
+     So difficult are harbor entrances, that in most cases the
+     underwriters will not insure a vessel unless the latter is taken
+     from the outer harbor to the dock by a licensed pilot, and the
+     latter must spend nearly half a lifetime as an apprentice before he
+     receives a license. The charges for pilotage are usually regulated
+     by the number of feet the vessel draws. The charges differ in
+     various ports, but the devices for marking and lighting the
+     channels are much the same in every part of the world. In the
+     United States all navigable channels are under the control of the
+     general Government.
+
+=Inland Waters.=--Lakes, rivers, and canals furnish a very important means
+of transportation. In Europe and Canada an enormous amount of slow
+freight is transported by their use; in China they are the most
+important means of internal traffic.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMERCE OF THE OHIO--TOWING COAL TO THE STEEL
+MILLS, PITTSBURG]
+
+In the United States the Great Lakes with the Erie Canal and Hudson
+River form the most important internal water-way, and by them the
+continent is penetrated as far west as Duluth, a distance of more than
+one thousand three hundred miles. The traffic passing out of Lake
+Superior alone is about one-third greater than that passing out of the
+Mediterranean Sea at the Suez Canal. Much of this traffic goes across
+the continent, and the route in question is one of the great commercial
+highways of the world.
+
+The Mississippi River and its branches afford not far from ten thousand
+miles of navigable waters. Canals connect tributaries of this river with
+the Great Lakes at Chicago and at several points in Ohio. The
+development of the navigation of this great water-way was checked by the
+Civil War, and after the close of the war the great advance in railway
+building kept its improvement in the background. The general government,
+nevertheless, has done much to encourage the use of the Mississippi as a
+commercial highway, and many millions of dollars have been spent in
+widening and deepening its channel.[8] On the upper river grain and
+lumber form the chief traffic; on the lower part a large part of the
+world's cotton-crop starts on its journey to the various markets.
+
+On account of the soft-coal fields and the steel manufacture in western
+Pennsylvania, the commerce of the Ohio River is very heavy, aggregating
+not far from fifteen million tons yearly. Much of this traffic extends
+to ports on the Mississippi.
+
+The navigable parts of the Hudson and Delaware Rivers are estuaries of
+the sea or "drowned valleys." In each case navigation extends about to
+the limits of high tide. Both rivers carry a heavy freight commerce; the
+Hudson has a passenger traffic of several million fares each year.
+Nearly every river of the Atlantic coast is navigable to the limit of
+high tide or a little beyond. Navigation extends to the point where the
+coast-plain joins the foot-hills. Above this limit, called the "Fall
+Line," the streams are swift and shallow; below it they are deep and
+sluggish. As a result, a chain of important river ports extends along
+the Fall Line from Maine to Florida.
+
+River-navigation in Europe in the main is inseparably connected with the
+great canal systems. As a rule, the lower parts of the rivers are
+navigable for steamboats of light draught. Some of the smaller streams
+are made navigable by means of a long steel chain, which is laid along
+the bed of the stream; the boat engages the chain by means of heavy
+sprocket wheels driven by steam, and thus wind the boat up and down the
+river.
+
+Ocean steamers penetrate the Amazon Valley to a distance of one thousand
+miles from its mouth; boats of light draught ascend the main stream and
+some of its tributaries a thousand miles farther. The Orinoco is
+navigable within one hundred miles of Bogota. Light-draught boats ascend
+the tributaries of La Plata River a distance of fifteen hundred miles.
+
+The Asian rivers that are important highways of commerce are few in
+number. The Amur, Yangtze, Indus, and Cambodia have each considerable
+local commerce. The Hugli, a channel in the delta of the Ganges, has a
+channel deep enough for ocean steamships. The tributaries of the Lena,
+Yenisei, and Ob have been of the greatest service in the commercial
+development of northern Asia from the fact that their valleys are both
+level and fertile.
+
+Because of a high interior and abrupt slopes, the rivers of Africa are
+not suitable for navigation to any considerable extent; the channels are
+uncertain and the rivers are interrupted by rapids. The Nile has an
+occasional steamboat service as far as the "First Cataract," but in high
+water the service is sometimes extended farther. The Kongo has a long
+stretch of navigable water, but is interrupted by rapids below Stanley
+Pool. Similar conditions obtain in the Zambezi. The lower part of the
+Senegal affords good navigation. The Niger has in many respects greater
+commercial possibilities than other rivers of Africa. It is navigable to
+a distance of three hundred miles.
+
+=Canals.=--Canals easily rank among the most important means of traffic,
+as a rule, supplementing other navigable waters. Thus, by means of an
+elaborate system of canals, goods are transferred by water, from one
+river-basin to another, so that practically all the navigable streams of
+western Europe are connected. Canals are extensively used to avoid the
+falls or rapids that separate the various reaches of rivers. The water
+itself by means of locks lifts the boat to a higher level or transfers
+it to a lower reach, thus saving the expense of unloading, transferring,
+and reloading a cargo.
+
+The manner in which canals supplement the obstructed navigation of a
+river is seen in the case of the St. Lawrence. This river is obstructed
+in several places by rapids, but by means of canals steamship service
+connects the Great Lakes, not only with Quebec, but with ports of the
+Mediterranean Sea as well; indeed, it is possible to send a cargo from
+Duluth, at the head of Lake Superior, to Odessa or Batum, on the shores
+of the Black Sea.
+
+The internal water-ways of Canada have been splendidly developed. The
+Canadian St. Marys Canal furnishes an outlet to Lake Superior for
+vessels drawing twenty-one feet. The Welland Canal connects Lakes Erie
+and Ontario. The Rideau Canal and River connect Kingston and Lake
+Ontario with the Ottawa, and the latter with its canals is navigable to
+the St. Lawrence. With a population of less than six millions the
+Dominion Government has spent nearly one hundred million dollars in the
+improvement of internal water-ways.
+
+[Illustration: PROFILE OF ERIE CANAL
+
+HORIZONTAL SCALE 100 MILES TO THE INCH, VERTICAL SCALE 1,000 FEET TO THE
+INCH]
+
+In the United States the possible development of canals has been
+neglected and, to a certain extent, stifled by railway building. The
+Erie Canal, built before the advent of the railway, connects Lake Erie
+with tide-water at Albany, a distance of 387 miles. For many years it
+was the chief means of traffic between the Mississippi Valley and the
+Atlantic seaboard, and although paralleled by the six tracks of a great
+railway system, it is still an important factor in the carriage of grain
+and certain classes of slow freight.[9] The level way that made the
+canal possible is largely responsible for the decline of its importance,
+for the absence of steep grades enables a powerful locomotive to haul
+so many cars that the quick transit more than overbalances a very low
+ton rate by the canal.
+
+The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, designed to connect the Mississippi
+Valley with the Atlantic seaboard, fared much worse than the Erie Canal.
+Less than two hundred miles have been completed, and practically no work
+except that of repair has been done since 1850; the heavy grades between
+Cumberland and Pittsburg render its completion improbable.
+
+An excellent system of canals, the Ohio and Erie and the Miami and Erie,
+connect the Ohio River with Lake Erie. These canals are in the State of
+Ohio and aggregate about six hundred miles in length. They are important
+as coal and ore carriers. Several hundred miles of canals were built
+along the river-valleys of eastern Pennsylvania before 1840 for carrying
+coal to tide-water. Most of them have been abandoned; one, the Delaware
+& Hudson Canal Co., survives as a railway. Inasmuch as the coal went on
+a down grade from the mines to the markets, it could be carried more
+economically by railway than by canal.
+
+Of far greater importance are the St. Marys Canal on the Canadian side,
+and the St. Marys Falls Canal on the American side, of St. Marys River.
+These canals obviate the falls in St. Marys River and form the
+commercial outlet of Lake Superior. The tonnage of goods, mainly iron
+ore and coal, is about one-half greater than that of the Suez Canal.
+About twenty-five thousand vessels pass through these canals yearly.
+
+The Chicago Ship and Sanitary Canal,[10] from Lake Michigan to Lockport,
+on the Illinois River, was designed mainly to carry the sewage of
+Chicago which, prior to the construction of the canal, was poured into
+the lake through the Chicago River. The completion of the canal turned
+the course of the river and caused the water to flow out of the lake,
+carrying the city's sewage. It is intended to complete a navigable
+water-way from Chicago to St. Louis deep enough for vessels drawing
+fourteen feet. Its value is therefore strategic as well as industrial,
+for by means of it gun-boats may readily pass from the Gulf of Mexico to
+the Great Lakes.
+
+Oceanic canals are designed both for naval strategic purposes and for
+industrial uses. Thus, the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, from the mouth of the
+Elbe to Kiel Bay, across the base of Jutland, saves two days between
+Hamburg and the Baltic ports. It also enables German war-vessels to
+concentrate quickly in either the North or the Baltic Sea. The
+Manchester Ship Canal makes Manchester a seaport and saves the cost of
+trans-shipping freights by rail from Liverpool. The Corinth Canal across
+the isthmus that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece
+affords a much shorter route between Italian ports and Odessa. The North
+Holland Ship Canal makes Amsterdam practically a seaport.
+
+Probably no other highway of commerce since the discovery of the Cape
+route around Africa has caused such a great change and readjustment of
+trade between Europe and Asia as the Suez Canal. Sailing-vessels still
+take the Cape route, because the heavy towage tolls through the canal
+more than offset the gain in time. Steamships have their own power and
+generally take the canal route, thereby saving about ten days in time
+and fuel, and about four thousand eight hundred miles in distance. In
+spite of the heavy tolls the saving is considerable. About three
+thousand five hundred vessels pass through the canal yearly.
+
+The Suez Canal, constructed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, for some time was
+under the control of French capitalists. Subsequently, by the purchase
+of stock partly in open market and partly from the Khedive of Egypt, the
+control of the canal passed into the hands of the English. The
+restrictions placed upon the passage of war-ships is such that the canal
+would be of little use to nations at war.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROUTE OF THE PANAMA CANAL]
+
+The necessity of an interoceanic canal across the American continent has
+become more imperative year by year for fifty years. The discovery of
+gold in California caused an emigration from the Atlantic to the Pacific
+coast which resulted in a permanent settlement of the latter region. A
+railway across the Isthmus of Panama and another across the Isthmus of
+Tehuantepec have afforded very poor means of communication between
+oceans.
+
+In 1881 work on a tide-level canal across the Isthmus of Panama was
+begun, but the plan was afterward changed to a high-level canal. The
+change was thought necessary partly on account of the great cost of the
+former, and partly because of the difficulties of constructing so deep a
+cut--about three hundred and forty feet--at the summit of the Culebra
+ridge. The construction company, after spending the entire
+capital--about one hundred and twenty million dollars--in accomplishing
+one-tenth of the work, became bankrupt. The United States subsequently
+purchased the franchise.
+
+A canal by way of Lake Nicaragua has also been projected, and two
+treaties with Great Britain, whereby the United States agreed to build
+no fortifications to guard it, have been made. No work beyond the
+surveys has yet been undertaken, however. The cost of each canal is
+estimated between one hundred and fifty million and two hundred million
+dollars. The Panama route will require about twelve hours for the
+passage of a vessel; the Nicaragua route about sixty hours.[11] (_See
+map, p. 270._)
+
+The completion of a canal by either route will cause a readjustment of
+the world's commerce far greater than that which followed the
+construction of the Suez Canal. By such a route San Francisco is brought
+nearer to London than Calcutta now is, and the all-water route between
+the Atlantic ports of the United States and those of China and Japan
+will be shortened by upward of eight thousand miles. The importance of
+the Hawaiian Islands, already a great ocean depot, will be greatly
+increased, and the latter is becoming one of the great commercial
+stations of the world.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What were some of the effects which resulted from the various embargo
+and non-intercourse acts that preceded the war of 1812?
+
+What is the effect upon an industry when all means of getting the
+products to market are cut off?
+
+In the early history of the country rivers were the most important
+highways of commerce; obtain an account of some instance of this in
+detail.
+
+Certain commodities have been carried about four-fifths of the distance
+between Moscow and Vladivostok by water, across Siberia. Illustrate
+this, using the map of the Russian Empire, plate, p. 342.
+
+What has been the effect of cheap steel on ocean navigation?
+
+Discuss the difference between a screw-steamship and a side-wheeler; a
+ship and a schooner. How are vessels steered?
+
+How does a triple-expansion engine differ from an ordinary steam-engine?
+
+Cargoes are carried by water across Europe from Havre to Marseilles, and
+from The Hague to the mouth of the Danube; illustrate the route on a map
+of Europe.
+
+The following instruction occasionally is found in the pilothouse of a
+vessel--what is its meaning?
+
+    "Green to green and red to red--
+    Perfect safety; go ahead."
+
+From the chart on p. 49 show how a pilot uses the range lights in
+entering New York Harbor.
+
+The new freighter Minnesota is designed to carry a load of 30,000 tons;
+how many trains of fifty cars, each car holding 30,000 pounds, are
+required to furnish her cargo?
+
+From the map on pp. x-xi describe the new ocean routes that will be
+created by an interoceanic canal across the American continent.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Photographs or illustrations of various steam and sailing craft.
+
+An Atlantic Coast Pilot Chart--any month.
+
+A map showing the canals of the United States.
+
+A map showing the canals of Europe.
+
+[Illustration: A MODERN LOCOMOTIVE--THE TWENTIETH CENTURY LIMITED AT A
+SPEED EXCEEDING NINETY MILES AN HOUR]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TRANSPORTATION--RAILWAYS AND RAILWAY ORGANIZATION; PUBLIC HIGHWAYS
+
+
+In the United States and western Europe, in spite of the low cost of
+water transportation, the railways have almost wholly monopolized the
+transportation of commodities. This is due in part to the saving of time
+in transit--for under the demands of modern business, the only economy
+is economy of time--and in part to prompt delivery at the specified
+time.
+
+Into a large centre of population like New York, London, or Berlin, many
+millions of pounds of perishable food-stuffs must be brought daily for
+consumption. Now these food-stuffs must be delivered with promptness,
+and no delay can be tolerated. A shipper having half a million pounds of
+meat or a hundred thousand pounds of flour or a car-load of fruit to
+deliver can take no risks; he sends it by rail, not only because it is
+the quickest way, but because experience has shown it to be the most
+prompt way; as a rule, it is delivered on the exact minute of schedule
+time.
+
+Cargoes of silks and teas from China and Japan might be sent all the way
+to London by water, but experience has shown a more profitable way. The
+consignments are sent by swift steamships to Seattle; thence by fast
+express trains to New York; there they are transferred to swift liners
+that take them across the Atlantic to European ports. And although this
+method of shipment is enormously expensive as compared with the
+all-water route, the saving of time and certainty of prompt delivery
+more than offset the extra cost of delivery.
+
+In the last half of the nineteenth century the cost of haulage in the
+United States by rail decreased so materially that in a few instances
+only--notably the Great Lakes and the Hudson River--do inland waters
+compete with the railways.[12] This is due in part to better
+organization of the railways, but mainly to the substitution of Bessemer
+steel for iron rails and the great improvements in locomotives and
+rolling stock.
+
+The use of a steam-driven locomotive became possible for the first time
+when Stephenson used the tubular boiler and the forced draught,[13]
+thereby making steam rapidly enough for a short, quick stroke. In 1865 a
+good freight locomotive weighing thirty tons could haul about forty
+box-cars, each loaded with ten tons. This was the maximum load for a
+level track; the average load for a single locomotive was about
+twenty-five or thirty cars. Heavier locomotives could not well be used
+because the iron rails went to pieces under them.
+
+The invention of Bessemer steel produced a rail that was safe under the
+pounding of a locomotive three or four times as heavy as those formerly
+employed; it produced boilers that would carry steam at 250 instead of
+60 pounds pressure per square inch. As a result, with only a moderate
+increase in the fuel burned, a single locomotive on a level track will
+haul eighty or ninety box-cars, each carrying nearly seventy thousand
+pounds.[14]
+
+The application of the double and the triple expansion principle has
+been quite as successful with locomotive as with marine engines in
+saving fuel and gaining power--that is, it has decreased the cost per
+ton-mile of hauling freight and likewise the cost of transporting
+passengers. Enlarged "fire-boxes," or furnaces,[15] enable steam to be
+made more rapidly and to give higher speed.[16] Only a few years ago
+forty-eight hours was the scheduled time between New York and Chicago;
+now there are about forty trains a day between these two cities, several
+of which make the trip in twenty-four hours or less.
+
+=Railway Development.=--The railway as a common carrier, having its right
+by virtue of a government charter, dates from 1801, when a tramway was
+built between Croydon and Wandsworth, two suburbs of London. The rails
+were iron straps, nailed to wooden stringers. The charter was carefully
+drawn in order to prevent the road from competing with omnibus lines and
+public cabs.
+
+When the steam locomotive succeeded horse-power, however, there
+followed an era of railway development that in a few years
+revolutionized the carrying trade in the thickly settled parts of the
+United States and Europe. Short, independent lines were constructed
+without any reference whatever to the natural movement of traffic. There
+seemed but one idea, namely, to connect two cities or towns. Indeed, the
+absence of a definite plan was much similar to that of the interurban
+electric roads a century later; local traffic was the only
+consideration.
+
+At first an opinion prevailed that the road-bed of the railway ought to
+be a public highway upon which any individual or company might run its
+own conveyances, on the payment of a fixed toll; indeed, in both Europe
+and the United States, public opinion could see no difference between
+the railway and the canal. The employment of a steam-driven locomotive
+engine, however, made such a plan impossible, and demonstrated that the
+roads must be thoroughly organized.
+
+At the close of 1850 there were nearly four hundred different railway
+companies in England; in the United States about a dozen companies were
+required to make the connection of New York City and Buffalo. A few of
+these paid dividends; a large majority barely met their operating
+expenses, defaulting the interest on their bonds; a great many were
+hopelessly bankrupt.
+
+=Consolidation of Connecting Lines.=--Between 1850 and 1865 a new feature
+entered into railway management, namely, the union of connecting lines.
+This was a positive advantage, for the operating expenses of the sixteen
+lines, now a part of the New York Central, between New York and Buffalo
+were scarcely greater than the expenses of one-third that number. The
+service was much quicker, better, and cheaper. In England the several
+hundred companies were reduced to twelve; in France the thirty-five or
+more companies were reduced to six in number.
+
+The consolidation of connecting lines brought about another desirable
+feature--the extension of the existing lines.[17] The lines of
+continental Europe were extended eastward to the Russian frontier, and
+to Constantinople; then the Alps were surmounted. In the United States
+railway extension was equally great. The Union and Central Pacific
+railways were opened in 1869, giving the first all-rail route to the
+Pacific coast. Other routes to the Pacific followed within a few years,
+one of which, the Canadian Pacific, was built from Quebec to Vancouver.
+
+[Illustration: A TRUNK SYSTEM--THE VARIOUS BRANCHES EXTEND INTO COAL,
+GRAIN, IRON, CATTLE, TIMBER, AND TOBACCO REGIONS]
+
+The period from 1864 was one of extensive railway building both in the
+United States and Europe. Some of the roads, such as the transalpine
+railways of Europe and the Pacific roads of the United States, were
+greatly needed. Others that created new fields of industry by opening to
+communication productive lands were also wise and necessary; the lands
+would have been valueless without them. Not a few lines that were to be
+needed in time were built so far ahead of time that they did not even
+pay their operating expenses for many years.
+
+Another class of roads was intended for speculative purposes. Thus,
+there were instances in which a line occupying a given territory had
+antagonized its patrons by poor service, and extortionate charges.
+Thereupon another company would obtain a charter--which was then easily
+done--and build a competing line in the same territory, the former most
+likely having scarcely enough business for one road.[18] The results
+were almost always the same; a war of rate-cutting followed; the
+stockholders of both roads lost heavily; and one or both went into the
+hands of receivers.
+
+=Competition and Pools.=--In many instances the consolidation of roads,
+while cutting off disastrous competition in the territory jointly
+occupied by the two roads, brought the consolidated road into fierce
+competition with another adjacent system. If the roads had practically
+the same territory but different terminals the competition was confined
+mainly to local traffic. On the other hand, they might have the same
+terminals but cover different local territories; in this case the roads
+must compete for through traffic. Thus the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy
+is brought into competition with the Union Pacific in Nebraska, but
+inasmuch as the roads have different and widely distant terminals, their
+local traffic is easily adjusted. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and
+the Northwestern have common terminals at Chicago, St. Paul, Denver,
+Omaha, and Kansas City. They must therefore compete with each other, and
+with half-a-dozen other roads for their through traffic.
+
+Competition between railways differs greatly from that between two
+firms. If one of two firms cannot afford to compete, the manager may
+discharge his help, and close doors; he then does not suffer actual
+loss. But a railway, being a common carrier, cannot do this; the road
+must keep its trains moving or lose its charter. If it cannot carry
+goods at a profit it must carry them at cost or at a loss. Even the
+latter is better than not carrying them at all, for the operating
+expenses of the road must go on.
+
+So between 1870 and 1880 most of the railway managements were busy
+devising ways to stop a rate-cutting and competition that was ruinous.
+In many instances great trunk lines would have consolidated had not
+State laws prevented. They could not maintain rates because one or
+another of the weaker roads would be compelled to lower their rates in
+order to meet their operating expenses. Therefore they were compelled to
+do one of three things, namely, to divide the territory, to divide
+traffic, or to divide earnings. Either of the two latter plans is called
+a _pool_.
+
+Of these two forms of pooling the division of the traffic is the easier,
+but it is often unsatisfactory to the patrons of the road. The second
+plan, the division of the earnings, is a more difficult matter to adjust
+because each road is usually dissatisfied with its proportion. As a
+matter of fact, however, the first plan of pooling is very apt to grow
+into the second.
+
+In several instances pools have been declared illegal by the courts,
+but, in general, railway service has been more satisfactory under the
+pool system than under any other. They have always aroused popular
+suspicion, however, from the fact that they increase power of the
+railway itself. In various instances important trunk lines have formed a
+general company, each having its separate organization, because they
+could accomplish under a combined organization what they could not as
+independent companies. The restrictions against pooling have therefore
+encouraged combination of competing lines.
+
+Because the railway is an absolute necessity, and because it has power
+given neither to individuals nor to other corporations, it is a settled
+policy that both the State and general Government should have the power
+to regulate its rates, and should in every way prevent unjust
+discrimination. Both problems are very difficult, however, and the
+unintelligent adjustment of rates has frequently resulted in injustice
+both to the roads and their patrons.
+
+A rate per ton-mile for each class of freight is out of question,
+because a large part of the cost to the company consists in loading,
+handling, and storing the goods. Once aboard the car, it costs but
+little more to carry a ton of freight one hundred miles than to move it
+one mile. The rates per mile, therefore, are necessarily greater for
+short distances than for long runs. A mile-rate based on a ten-mile haul
+would be prohibitive to the shipper if applied to a run between Chicago
+and New York. On the other hand, were the charges based on the long run,
+the local rates would be far less than the cost of the service.[19]
+
+As a result freight rates are based very largely on the cost of the
+service, and this is particularly true of local freights. This practice
+is also modified by charging _what the traffic will bear_, and, on the
+whole, a combination of the two ideas gives the most reasonable and the
+fairest method of basing charges. Thus, a car filled with fine, crated
+furniture, which is light and bulky, can afford a higher rate than one
+filled with scrap-iron. Cars filled with grain, lumber, coal, or ore are
+made up in train-loads, and form a part of the daily haul; they can
+afford to be taken at a lower rate than the stuffs of which only an
+occasional car-load is hauled. In order to adjust this problem it is
+customary to divide freights into six general classes.
+
+[Illustration: THE PROBLEM OF FREIGHT RATES]
+
+In handling through freights the problems are many, and, if two or more
+roads have the same terminal points, a great deal of friction of
+necessity results. The longest roads must either make their through
+rates lower than local rates between distant points, or lose much of
+their through business. They cannot afford to do the latter and the
+statutory laws may forbid the former. As a result the laws most likely
+are evaded, or else openly disobeyed.[20]
+
+The difficulties in adjusting the matter of the long and the short
+haul, as has been shown, have caused the formation of pools and various
+other traffic associations, the object of which has been to prevent
+rate-wars. To this extent they resulted in positive good, for a
+rate-war in the end is apt to be as hurtful to the community as to the
+railway company. The attempt to settle such questions has also resulted
+in a great deal of legislation. Some of this has been wise and good; but
+not a little has been hurtful both to the railroads and to the
+community. The general result is seen in the great combination of
+competing lines and, more recently, of competing systems.
+
+=Passenger Service.=--Passenger traffic is more easily managed than the
+movement of freight. For the greater part the rates are fixed by law. On
+a few eastern roads local rates are two cents per mile; in the main,
+however, a three-cent rate prevails, except that in sparsely peopled
+regions the rates are four and five cents per mile. On many roads
+1,000-mile books are sold at the rate of twenty dollars; on some the
+rate is twenty-five dollars per book.
+
+Long-distance rates involving passage over several roads are somewhat
+less than the local rates. These rates are determined by joint
+passenger-tariff associations. Each individual road fixes its own
+excursion and commutation rates; one or another of the joint passenger
+associations determines the rates where several roads divide the
+traffic. The latter are usually one, or one and one-third fares for the
+round trip.
+
+Except on a few local roads in densely peopled regions the passenger
+service is much less remunerative than freight business, and not a few
+railways would abolish passenger trains altogether were they permitted
+to do so. Rate-cutting between competing roads has not been common since
+the existence of joint passenger associations. It is sometimes done
+secretly, however, through the use of ticket-brokers, or "scalpers," who
+are employed to sell tickets at less than the usual rate; it is also
+done by the illicit use of tickets authorized for given purposes, such
+as "editors'," "clergymen's," and "advertising" transportation.
+
+In many instances, where several roads have the same terminal points, it
+is customary for the road or roads having the quickest service to allow
+a lower rate to the others. Thus, of the seven or eight roads between
+New York and Chicago, the two best equipped roads charge a fare of
+twenty dollars on their ordinary, and a higher rate on their limited,
+trains. Because of slower time the other roads charge a sum less by two
+or three dollars for the same service. This cut in the rate is called a
+"differential."
+
+=Railway Mileage.=--The railways of the world in 1900 had an aggregate of
+nearly four hundred and eighty thousand miles distributed as follows:
+
+  North America                   216,000
+  Europe                          173,000
+  Asia                             36,000
+  South America and West Indies    28,000
+  Australasia                      15,000
+  Africa                           12,000
+
+In western Europe and the eastern United States there is an average of
+one mile of railway to each six or eight square miles of area. In these
+countries railway construction has reached probably its highest
+development, and the proportion seems to represent the mileage necessary
+for the commercial interests of the people.
+
+The railways of the United States aggregate 193,000 miles--nearly
+one-half the total mileage of the world. Over this enormous trackage
+38,000 locomotives and 1,400,000 coaches and cars carry yearly
+600,000,000 passengers and 1,000,000,000 tons of freight. They represent
+an outlay of about $5,000,000,000. Owing to the absence of the
+international problems that have greatly interfered with the
+organization of European railways, the roads of the United States have
+developed "trunk-system" features to a higher degree than is found
+elsewhere.
+
+In the United States and Canada the farms of the great central plain,
+together with the coal-mines, are the great centres of production, while
+the seaports of the two coasts form great centres of distribution. Most
+of the trunk lines, therefore, extend east and west; of the north and
+south lines only two are important. The reason for the east-west
+direction of the great trunk lines is obvious; the great markets of
+North America, Europe, and Asia lie respectively to the east and the
+west.
+
+[Illustration: THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED STATES
+THEIR POSITION DEPENDS ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE LAND]
+
+=Railway Ownership.=--The ownership of railways is vested either in
+national governments or else in corporate companies; in only a few
+instances are roads held individually by private owners, and these are
+mainly lumber or plantation roads. Thus, the railways of Prussia are
+owned by the state; most of those of the smaller German states are owned
+either by the state or by the empire; still others are owned by
+corporate companies and managed by the imperial government. In their
+management military use is considered as first in importance.
+
+In France governmental ownership and management have been less
+successful. Plans for an elaborate system of state railways failed, and
+the state now owns and operates only 1,700 miles, mainly, in the
+southwest. Belgium controls and operates all her lines, but as the
+latter are short and the area of the state small, there are no
+difficulties in the way of excellent management. In Great Britain all
+the railways are owned and controlled by corporate companies. The great
+transcontinental line of the Russian Empire was built by the government,
+but the latter does not own it.
+
+In the United States the railways are now owned by corporate companies.
+Some of the western roads were built by Government subsidies;[21] other
+roads were built by the aid of States, counties, or cities, which
+afterward sold them to corporate companies. The first transcontinental
+railways required Government assistance, and could not have been built
+without it; nowadays, however, corporate companies find no difficulty in
+providing the capital for any railway that is needed.
+
+Inasmuch as the railway is a positive necessity, upon whose existence
+depends the transportation of the food daily required in the great
+centres of population, the charter of the railway gives the company
+extraordinary powers. Most steam railway companies are permitted by the
+State to exercise the power of _eminent domain_--that is, they may seize
+and hold the land on which to locate their tracks and buildings, if it
+cannot be acquired by the consent of the owners; they may also seize
+coal and other materials consigned to them for shipment if such
+materials are necessary to operate their lines.
+
+Therefore, in consideration of the unusual powers possessed by the
+companies, the various States reserve the right to regulate the freight
+and passenger tariffs. They may also compel the companies to afford
+equal facilities to all patrons, and take the measures necessary to
+prevent discrimination.
+
+The control of the railways by the government may be absolute, as in the
+German state of Prussia; or it may consist of a general supervision, as
+in the case of the Canadian railways. In almost every European state
+there is a director or else a commission to act as a representative
+between the railways and the people. In the United States the various
+States have each a railway commission, while the general Government is
+represented by the Interstate Commerce Commission.
+
+=Electric Railways.=--The use of electricity as a motive power has not
+only revolutionized suburban traffic but it has become a great factor in
+rural transportation as well. The speed of the horse-car rarely exceeded
+five or six miles per hour, while that of the electric car is about ten
+miles per hour in city streets and about twice as great over rural
+roads. As a result, the suburban limits of the large centres of
+population have greatly extended, and the population of the outlying
+districts has been increased from four to ten fold.
+
+[Illustration: ELECTRIC RAILWAY--ROCKY MOUNTAINS]
+
+[Illustration: ELECTRIC FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--ERIE RAILROAD]
+
+From some of the larger cities the electric roads reach out to
+distances of one hundred miles or more and have become the carriers of
+perishable freight, such as fruit and dairy products. These are not only
+delivered just as promptly as though they were sent over the steam
+roads, but the delivery is more frequent. Indeed, the marvellous success
+of the electric interurban railway is due mainly to the frequency of its
+service.
+
+=Public Roads and Highways.=--Carriages propelled by steam, electric, and
+gasoline motors have become an important factor in the delivery of goods
+in nearly every city of Europe and America. They are not only speedier
+than the horse and wagon, but their keeping costs less. They are
+economical only on good roads. The bicycle, no longer a plaything,
+exerted a very decided effect on transportation when the "pneumatic" or
+inflated rubber tire came into use. Through the bicycle came the demand
+for good roads; and several thousand miles of the best surfaced roads
+are built in the United States each year.
+
+The ordinary highways or roads, the paved streets of the large cities
+excepted, are popularly known either as "dirt" roads or "macadamized"
+roads, the latter name being applied to about every sort of graded
+highway that has been surfaced with broken rock. Most of the roads of
+western Europe are of this character. They are laid out with easy
+grades, and a thick foundation of heavy stone is covered with smaller
+pieces of broken rock, the whole being finished off with a top-dressing
+of fine material. Once built, the expense of keeping them in good order
+is less than that of keeping a dirt road in bad order.
+
+Most of the country highways of the United States are dirt roads that
+are deep with dust in dry weather and almost impassable at the breaking
+of winter. Roads of this character are such a detriment that grain
+farming will not pay when the farm is distant twenty miles or more from
+the nearest railway. Many a farmer pays more to haul his grain to the
+nearest railway station than from the railway station to London.
+
+Since it has become apparent that the commercial development of many
+agricultural regions depends quite as much on good wagon roads as upon
+railways and expensive farming machinery, there has been a disposition
+to grade and rock-surface all roads that are important highways.
+Intercommunication becomes vastly easier; the cost of transportation is
+lessened by more than one-half; and the wear and destruction of vehicles
+is reduced to a minimum. In every case the improvement of the road is
+designed to increase traffic by making a given power do more work in
+less time.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What have been the effects of Bessemer steel on the carrying power of
+railways?--on cheapening freight rates?
+
+What would be some of the effects first apparent were a large city like
+London or New York suddenly cut off from railway communication?
+
+What is meant by a tubular boiler?--by a forced draught?--by a
+switch?--by an automatic coupler?
+
+Ascertain from a railway official the various danger-signals as
+indicated by lights, flags, and whistle-blasts.
+
+Why should not crated furniture and coal have the same freight rate?
+
+What is meant by a pool?--by long haul and short haul?--by rebate?
+
+If the rate on a given weight of merchandise is one dollar and fifty
+cents for five miles, should it be three hundred dollars for one
+thousand miles?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Hartley's Railroad Transportation.
+
+American Railways.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FACTORS IN THE LOCATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS
+
+
+The population of the world is very unevenly distributed. Not far from
+nine-tenths live in lowland plains, below an altitude of 1,200 feet, in
+regions where food-stuffs grow. The remainder live mainly in the
+grass-producing regions of the great plateaus, the mining regions or the
+flood-plains and grassy slopes of the higher montane regions.
+
+=Communal Life.=--In each of these regions, also, there is a very unequal
+massing of population. In part, the various families live isolated from
+one another; in part, they gather into cities and villages. In other
+words the population of a habitable region may be classed as _rural_ and
+_urban_. In the United States and western Europe, agricultural pursuits
+encourage rural life, each family living on its own estate. In Russia,
+the agricultural population usually cluster in villages.
+
+The farmer or freeholder who owns or controls his estate, exemplifies
+the most advanced condition of personal and political liberty. Only a
+few centuries have elapsed since not only the land but also the life of
+a subject was the property of the king or the feudal lord, and in those
+days about the only people living in isolation were outlaws. In most
+cases the communal system, best exemplified in Russia, marks an
+intermediate stage between a low and a high state of civilization; in
+other instances it is necessary in order to insure safety. German
+farmers in Siberia usually adopt the village plan for this reason.
+
+For the greater part, the non-agricultural population of the civilized
+world is massed in villages and cities for reasons that have nothing to
+do with either civilization or self-defence. The causes that bring about
+the massing of urban population are many and their operation is complex.
+In general, however, it is to facilitate one or more of several things,
+namely--the receiving, distribution, and transportation of commodities,
+the manufacture of products, the existence of good harbors, and the
+existence of minerals and metals necessary in the various industries.
+
+=The Beginnings of Towns and Cities.=--The "country town" of agricultural
+regions in many ways is the best type of the centre of population
+engaged in receiving and disbursing commodities. The farmers living in
+their vicinity send their crops to it for transportation or final
+disposition. The country store is a sort of clearing-house, exchanging
+household and other commodities, such as sugar, tea, coffee, spices,
+drugs, silks, woollens, cotton goods, farming machinery, and furniture
+for farm products. A railway station, grain elevator, and one or more
+banks form the rest of its business equipment.
+
+Usually the town has resulted from a position of easy access. It may be
+the crossing of two highways, a good landing-place on a river, the
+existence of a fording-place, a bridge, a ferry, a toll gate, or a point
+that formed a convenient resting-place for a day's journey. The towns
+and villages along the "buffalo" roads are examples almost without
+number.
+
+The "siding" or track where freight cars may be held for unloading, has
+formed the beginning of many a town. The siding was located at the
+convenience of the railway company; the village resulting could have
+grown equally well almost anywhere else along the line.
+
+[Illustration: THE EFFECT OF POSITION--BUFFALO IS AT THE FOOT OF LAKE
+ERIE AND THE HEAD OF ERIE CANAL; AN EXCELLENT HARBOR FACILITATES ITS
+COMMERCE]
+
+In the early history of nearly every country, military posts formed the
+beginnings of many centres that have grown to be large cities. Thus,
+Rome, Paris, London, the various "chesters"[22] of England, Milan,
+Turin, Paris, Chicago, Pittsburg, and Albany were established first as
+military outposts. The trading post was most conveniently established
+under the protection of the military camp, and the subsequent growth
+depended partly on an accessible position, and partly on the
+intelligence of the men who controlled the trade of the surrounding
+regions.
+
+=Harbors as Factors in the Growth of Cities.=--A good harbor draws trade
+from a great distance. Thus, with a rate of 14-1/2 cents on a bushel of
+wheat from Chicago, New York City draws a trade from a region having a
+radius of more than one thousand miles. In its trade with Chinese ports,
+Seattle, the chief port of Puget Sound, reaches as far eastward as
+London and Hamburg.
+
+=Water-Power as a Factor.=--The presence of water-power has brought about
+the establishment of many centres that have grown into populous cities.
+The water-power of the New England plateau had much to do with the rapid
+growth of the New England States. At the time of the various embargo and
+non-intercourse acts preceding the war of 1812, a great amount of
+capital was thrown into idleness. The water-power was made available
+because, during this time, the people were compelled to manufacture for
+themselves the commodities that before had been imported.
+
+The manufacturing industry at first was prosecuted in the southern
+Appalachians as well as in the New England plateau. It survived in the
+latter, partly because of the capital available, and partly owing to the
+business experience of the people. In the meantime villages sprang up in
+pretty nearly every locality in which there was available water-power.
+
+Since the use of coal and the advent of cheap railway transportation,
+steam has largely supplanted water-power, unless the latter is unlimited
+in supply. As a result, there is a marked growth of the smaller centres
+of population along the various water-fronts. In such cases the
+advantages of a water-front offset the loss of water-power.
+
+=The Effects of Metals on the Growth of Cities.=--The character of the
+industry of a region has much to do with the character of its
+manufactures. Thus, coal is absolutely essential to the manufacture of
+iron and steel; and, inasmuch as from two to eight tons of the former
+are necessary to manufacture a ton of steel, it is cheaper to ship the
+ore to a place to which coal can be cheaply brought.
+
+The coal-fields are responsible for the greater part of Pittsburg's
+population, and almost wholly for that of Scranton, Wilkesbarre, and
+many other Pennsylvania towns. Iron and coal are responsible, also, for
+many cities and towns in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. Birmingham,
+Salford, and Cardiff in Great Britain, Dortmund and Essen in Germany,
+and St. Étienne in France have resulted from the presence of coal and
+iron.
+
+In many instances man is a great factor in the establishment of a centre
+of population. Chicago would have been quite as well off in two or three
+other locations; its present location is the result of man's energy and
+is not likely to be changed. St. Louis might have been built at a dozen
+different places and would have fared just as well; the same is true of
+St. Paul, or of Indianapolis.
+
+Leavenworth at one time was a more promising city than Kansas City, but
+the building of an iron bridge over the Missouri River at the latter
+place gave it a start, and wide-awake men kept it in the lead. It has
+grown at the expense of Leavenworth and St. Joseph, neither one of which
+has become a commercial centre. Cairo, at the junction of the
+Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, has the geographical position for a great
+city; it waits for the man who can concentrate the commerce there.
+
+=Adjustment to Environment.=--San Francisco was wisely located at first,
+but its grain trade was more economically carried on at Karquinez
+Strait, while its oriental trade is gradually concentrating at Seattle.
+Philadelphia lost its commercial supremacy when the completion of the
+Erie Canal gave return cargoes to foreign vessels discharging at New
+York City. Oswego, N.Y., had the advantage of both harbor facilities and
+water-power, but Syracuse, with practically no advantages except those
+of leadership, has far outstripped it.
+
+Such instances of the readjustment of centres of population have been
+common in the past; they will also occur in the future. In nearly every
+case the readjustment results from economic causes, the opening of new
+lines of transportation, the lowering of the cost of the production of a
+commodity, the discovery of new economic processes--all these cause a
+disturbance of population, and the latter must readjust itself to new
+and changed conditions.
+
+Not all peoples have the necessary intelligence and training at first to
+adapt themselves to their environment. For the greater part, the
+American Indians were unable to take advantage of the wonderful
+resources of the continent in which they lived. The Boers occupied about
+the richest part of Africa, but made no use of the natural wealth of the
+country beyond the grazing industry; in fact, their nomadic life reduced
+them to a plane of civilization materially lower than that of their
+ancestors.
+
+People of the highest state of civilization do not always adjust
+themselves to their environment readily. The people of the New England
+plateau were nearly a century in learning that they possessed nearly all
+the best harbors of the Atlantic coast of North America. When, however,
+the great commerce of the country had been wiped out of existence, it
+did not take them long to readjust themselves to the industry of
+manufacture, the water-power being the natural resource that made the
+industry profitable.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Were the middle Atlantic coast of the United States to undergo an
+elevation of 100 feet, what would be the effect on New York City?
+
+Find the factors that led to the settlement of the city or town in which
+or near which you live. What caused the settlement of the three or four
+largest towns in the same county?--of the following places: Minneapolis,
+Fall River, New Haven, New Bedford, Cairo (Ill.), Cairo (Egypt),
+Marseille, Aix-la-Chapelle, Alexandria (Egypt), Washington (D.C.),
+Columbus (O.), Johannesburg (Africa), Kimberley (Africa), Albany (N.Y.),
+Punta Arenas (S.A.), Scranton (Pa.), Vancouver (B.C.), San Francisco,
+Cape Nome?
+
+What circumstances connected with commerce led to the passing of the
+following-named places: Palmyra, Carthage, Babylon, Genoa, Venice,
+Ancient Rome, Jerusalem?
+
+
+COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Any good cyclopædia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE CEREALS AND GRASSES
+
+
+Of all the plants connected with the economies of mankind the grasses
+hold easily the first place. Not only are the seeds of certain species
+the chief food of nearly all peoples, but the plants themselves are the
+food of most animals whose flesh is used as meat. Wheat, maize, and rice
+are used by all except a very few peoples; and about all the animals
+used for food, fish and mollusks excepted, are grain eaters, or grass
+eaters, or both.
+
+The grasses of the Plains in Texas, the Veldt in South Africa, and the
+hills of New Zealand by nature's processes are converted into meat that
+feeds the great cities of western Europe and the eastern United States.
+The corn of the Mississippi valley becomes the pork which, yielded from
+the carcasses of more than forty million swine, is exported to half the
+countries of the world. Even the two and one-half billion pounds of wool
+consumed yearly is converted grass.
+
+=Wheat.=--The wheat of commerce is the seed of several species of cereal
+grass, one of which, _Triticum sativum_, is the ordinary cultivated
+plant. Wild species are found in the highlands of Kurdistan, in Greece,
+and in Mesopotamia, that are identical with species cultivated to-day.
+It is thought that the cultivation of the grain began in Mesopotamia,
+but it is also certain that it was grown by the Swiss lake-dwellers far
+back in prehistoric times. It is the "corn" Joseph's brothers sought to
+buy when they went to Egypt, and the records of its harvesting are
+scattered all over the pages of written history.
+
+[Illustration: THE GRAIN CROP--MODERN METHODS OF CULTIVATION AND
+HARVESTING]
+
+Of the one and one-half billion people that constitute the world's
+population, more than one-third, or about eight times the population of
+the United States, are consumers of wheat-bread; and this number is
+yearly increasing by twelve million. Moreover, each individual of this
+aggregate consumes yearly very nearly one barrel of flour, or about four
+and one-half bushels of wheat. In other words, it requires somewhat more
+than two billion three hundred million bushels of wheat each year to
+supply the world's demand.[23] As a matter of fact the world's crop is
+yearly consumed so nearly to the danger-line that very often the
+"visible supply," or the amount known to be in the market, is reduced to
+a few million bushels.
+
+Wheat will grow under very wide ranges of climate, but it thrives best
+between the parallels of 25° and 55°. In a soil very rich in vegetable
+mould it is apt to "run to stalk." A rather poor clay-loam produces the
+best seed,[24] and a hard seed, rather than a heavy stalk, is required.
+
+In the latitude of Kansas the seeds planted in the fall will retain
+their vitality through the winter; in the latitude of Dakota they are
+"winter-killed," as a rule. Because of this feature two broad classes or
+divisions of the crop are recognized in commerce--the winter and the
+spring varieties. In general, the spring wheats are regarded as the
+better, and this is nearly always the case in localities too cold for
+winter wheat. There are exceptions to this rule, however. In the main,
+winter wheat ripens first, and is therefore first in the market.[25]
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT]
+
+In Europe the plain that faces the North and Baltic Seas, and that part
+which extends through southern Russia, yield the chief part of the
+crop, although the plains of the Po, the Danube, and Bohemia furnish
+heavy crops. Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy are all
+wheat states.
+
+In a normal year all Europe produces a little more than one-half
+(fifty-five per cent.) of the world's crop. Russia and France excepted,
+scarcely another state produces as much as is consumed. Great Britain
+consumes her entire crop in three months; Germany in about six months.
+France sends a part of her crop to Great Britain and buys of Russia to
+fill the deficiency. Russia consumes but very little of her wheat-crop;
+it is nearly all sold to the states of western Europe. All Europe
+consumes about one billion seven hundred and ten million bushels, but
+produces about one billion two hundred and fifty million; the remainder
+is supplied by the United States, India, Argentina, Africa, and
+Australia.
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT IN UNITED STATES]
+
+In the United States the great bulk of the crop comes from the upper
+Mississippi valley and Pacific coast States. About one-third is
+consumed where it is grown; more than one-third is required for the
+populous centres of the east; a little less than one-third is exported,
+of which about ninety per cent. goes to Europe.
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT PRODUCTION]
+
+Much of this, especially the Pacific coast product, is sold unground,
+but each year an increasing amount is made into flour. The flour
+manufacture of the United States aggregates somewhat more than
+160,000,000 barrels yearly--the output of 16,000 flour-mills; the
+Pillsbury mills of Minneapolis alone have a capacity of 60,000 barrels a
+week. In Europe the Hungarian mills and their output of Bohemian flour
+are the chief competitors of the United States.
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT]
+
+The wheat-crop of the Pacific coast has usually been a factor by itself.
+On account of the absence of summer rains, the kernel is both plump and
+hard. After the threshing process it is sacked and stored in the fields
+in which it has grown.[26] Heretofore much of the sacked wheat has been
+shipped to European markets by the Cape Horn route, but in late years a
+yearly increasing amount is made into flour and sold in China, Japan,
+and Siberia. In 1900 nearly two million barrels were thus sent.
+
+East of the Rocky Mountains, after the grain is harvested much of it is
+sold to dealers whose storage elevators[27] are scattered all over the
+wheat-growing region, and at all great points of shipment, such as
+Duluth, Minneapolis, Buffalo, and the eastern seaports. Before the grain
+is transferred to the elevators it is inspected and graded, and the cars
+which contain it are sealed. This wheat constitutes the "visible
+supply." All the business concerning it is transacted by means of
+"warehouse receipts," that have almost the currency of ready money.
+Banks loan money on them almost to their market value.
+
+Under normal conditions, the cost of growing and harvesting a bushel of
+wheat--including interest on the land and deterioration of the
+machinery, etc.--is between fifty and fifty-five cents. The market
+price, when not affected by "corners" and other gambling transactions,
+usually varies between sixty-two and eighty-five cents. The difference
+between these figures is divided between the farmer and the "middlemen,"
+the share of the latter being in the form of commissions and elevator
+charges.
+
+[Illustration: STORING PACIFIC COAST WHEAT]
+
+In addition to bread-making wheat, certain varieties of grain known as
+macaroni wheat have a certain importance in the market. Several
+varieties are so hardy that they easily resist extremely cold winters;
+they will also grow in regions too dry for ordinary varieties. In this
+respect they are well adapted to the plains at the eastern base of the
+Rocky Mountains. The only detriment is the lack of a steady market.
+Macaroni wheat has a very hard kernel and is rich in gluten. It is used
+mainly in the manufacture of macaroni paste, but in Europe, when mixed
+with three times its weight of ordinary soft wheat, it is much used in
+making flour. The small amount now grown in the United States is shipped
+mainly to France.
+
+The yield of wheat varies partly with the rainfall, but the difference
+is due mainly to skill in cultivation. In western Europe it is from two
+to three times as great as in the United States; in Russia and India it
+is much less.[28]
+
+The yearly consumption of wheat is increasing very rapidly both in the
+United States and in Europe; moreover, China is becoming a
+wheat-consuming country. In the United States the consumption is
+increasing so rapidly that unless either the acreage of the crop, or
+else the yield per acre, is materially increased, there will be no
+surplus for export after the year 1931.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHEAT INDUSTRY--GRAIN ELEVATORS AT BUFFALO, NEW
+YORK]
+
+In the United States the acreage may be somewhat increased by the
+irrigation of arid lands now uncultivated, and by the reclamation of
+overflowed and swamp lands. There are far greater possibilities,
+however, in the employment of methods of cultivation which will double
+the rate of present yield. It is doubtful if there can be much increase
+of acreage in the States of the Mississippi Valley, where the acreage
+will of necessity be lessened rather than increased.
+
+In western Europe there can be no material increase of the acreage or
+the rate of yield; in Russia both are possible. The plains of Argentina
+now yield a notable quantity--about one hundred million bushels--and the
+amount may be increased. Moreover, a large product may be obtained from
+both Uruguay and Paraguay, and southern Brazil, neither one of which
+produces a considerable quantity. At the present rate of the increase in
+consumption, all of the available land, yielding its maximum, will not
+produce a sufficient crop at the end of the twentieth century.
+
+=Corn.=--Maize or Indian corn is the seed of a plant, _Zea mays_, a member
+of the grass family. It is not known to exist in a wild state. The
+species now cultivated are undoubtedly derived from the American
+continent, but evidence is not wanting to show that it was known in
+China and the islands of Asia before the discovery of America.[29] The
+commercial history of corn begins with the discovery of America. Next to
+meat it was the chief food of the native American; next to wheat it is
+the chief food-stuff in the American continent to-day.
+
+Corn requires a rich soil and is not so hardy as wheat. It thrives best
+in regions having long summers and warm nights. The growing crop is
+easily injured by too much rain. It is an abundant crop in the central
+Mississippi Valley, but not near the coast; it is very prolific in
+Nebraska, but not in Dakota; it thrives in Italy, Austria, and the
+Balkan Peninsula, but not in the British Isles and Germany. It is a very
+important crop in Australia, and is the staple grain of Mexico. It is
+the crop of fourteen-hour days and warm nights.
+
+[Illustration: CORN]
+
+The United States is the chief producer of corn, and from an area of
+80,000,000 acres--about that of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois
+combined--more than two billion bushels, or four-fifths of the world's
+crop, are produced. In the past few years the area planted with corn has
+not materially increased, and it is likely to be lessened rather than
+increased in the future. From the same acreage, however, the annual
+yield, now about twenty-five or thirty bushels per acre, can be more
+than doubled by the use of more skilful methods of cultivation.
+
+Corn contains more fatty substance, or natural oil, than wheat, and
+therefore has a greater heating power. For this reason it is better than
+wheat for out-of-door workers, and it is almost the only cereal
+food-stuff consumed in Spanish America. It is also a staple food-stuff
+in Egypt. Corn has been used as a bread-stuff in the United States,
+Italy, and Rumania[30] for a long time. In recent years, however, its
+use has become very popular in Europe.
+
+[Illustration: CORN PRODUCTION]
+
+In the United States by far the greater part of the crop is consumed
+where it is grown, being used to fatten swine and cattle. The market
+value of a pound of corn is about one-third of a cent; converted into
+pork or beef, however, it is worth five or six times as much. By feeding
+the corn to stock, therefore, a farmer may turn an unmarketable product
+into one for which there is a steady demand.
+
+[Illustration: CORN]
+
+Although corn is not so essential a staple as wheat, it has a much wider
+range of usefulness. The starch made from it is considered a delicacy
+and is used very largely in America and Europe as an article of food.
+Glucose, a cheap but wholesome substitute for sugar, is made from it;
+from the oil a substitute for rubber is prepared; smokeless powder and
+other explosives are made from the pith of the stalk; while a very
+large part of the product is used in the manufacture of liquor.
+
+=Rye.=--Rye is the seed of a cereal grass, _Secale cereale_, a plant
+closely resembling wheat in external appearance. Rye will grow in soils
+that are too poor for wheat; its northern limit is in latitudes somewhat
+greater than that of wheat, also. It is an ideal crop for the sandy
+plain stretching from the Netherlands into central Russia, and this
+locality produces almost the whole yield. The world's crop is about one
+and a half billion bushels, of which Russia produces nearly two-thirds.
+Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Japan grow nearly all the rest. It is
+consumed where it is grown. In the United States the yearly product is
+about twenty-five million bushels, about one-tenth of which is exported
+to Europe. Rye-bread is almost always sour, and this fact is its chief
+disadvantage.
+
+=Barley.=--Barley is the seed of several species of cereal grass, mainly
+_Hordeum distichum_ and _Hordeum vulgare_. It is one of the oldest-used
+of bread-stuffs. It can be cultivated farther north than wheat, and
+about as far within the tropics as corn; it has, therefore, very wide
+limits. Formerly it was much used in northwestern Europe as a
+bread-stuff, but in recent years it has been in part supplanted by wheat
+and corn. Barley is a most excellent food for horses, and in California
+is grown mainly for this purpose. Its chief use is for the manufacture
+of the malt used in brewing.
+
+The world's crop of barley is not far from one billion bushels, of which
+the United States produces about sixty million bushels. Most of the crop
+is grown in the Germanic states of Europe, and in Russia.
+
+=Oats.=--The oat is the seed of a cereal grass, _Avena sativa_ being the
+species almost always cultivated. It is not known where the cultivated
+species originated, but the earliest known locality is central Europe,
+where it was certainly a domestic plant during the Bronze Age. It seems
+probable that the species now cultivated in Scotland at one time grew
+wild in western Europe; certain it is that wild species are found in
+North America.
+
+[Illustration: OATS PRODUCTION]
+
+The oat grows within rather wider limits of latitude, and thrives in a
+greater variety of soils than does wheat. Grown in a moist climate,
+however, the grain is at its best. The oat-crop of the world aggregates
+more than three billion bushels, surpassing that of wheat or corn in
+measurement, but not in weight. A small portion of this is used as a
+bread-stuff, but the greater part is used as horse-food, for which it is
+remarkably adapted.
+
+[Illustration: OATS]
+
+In Europe, Russia is the greatest producer, and its yearly oat harvest
+is about one-quarter of the world's crop. The states of northwestern
+Europe yield about half the entire crop; the wheat-growing area of the
+United States produces the remaining one-fourth. Russia and the United
+States are both exporters, the grain going to western Europe. By far the
+greater part of the grain is consumed where it is grown.
+
+=Rice.=--Rice is the seed of a cereal grass, _Oryza sativa_. It is claimed
+to be native to India, but it is known to have been cultivated in China
+for more than five thousand years. It grows wild in Australia and
+Malaysia.
+
+Rice requires plenty of warmth and moisture. It is cultivated in the
+warmer parts of the temperate zone, but it thrives best in the tropical
+regions. In China a considerable upland rice is grown, but for the
+greater part it is grown in level lowlands that may be flooded with
+water. The preparation of the fields is a matter of great expense, for
+they may require flooding and draining at a moment's notice. The crop
+matures in from three to six months. After threshing, the seed is still
+covered with a husk, and in this form it is known as "paddy."
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Why is not wheat-growing a profitable industry in the New England
+States?--in the plains at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains?--in
+the southern part of the United States?
+
+What are meant by the following terms: No. 1 spring, a corner, a disk
+harrow, a cradle, a flail, a separator, futures, warehouse certificates?
+
+In 1855 the price of a barrel of flour in New York or Boston was about
+twelve dollars; at the close of the century it was less than five.
+Explain how the lessened price came about.
+
+From a census or other report make a list of the ten leading
+wheat-producing States; the ten that produce the most corn.
+
+Why are the foreign shipments of oats less than those of wheat?
+
+What are the prices current of wheat, corn, oats, and barley to-day?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain samples of the different kinds of wheat, oats, barley, corn,
+millet, and rice. Put the grain in small, closely stoppered vials;
+attach the heads of the small grains to sheets of cardboard of the
+proper size.
+
+Read "The Wheat Problem"--Chapter I.
+
+[Illustration: PICKING COTTON, ALABAMA]
+
+[Illustration: TRANSPORTING COTTON FROM WHARF, CHARLESTON, S.C.]
+
+[Illustration: COTTON PRESS YARD, NEW ORLEANS, LA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+TEXTILE FIBRES
+
+
+Under the term "textile" are included the fibrous substances that can be
+spun into threads, and woven or felted into cloth. Some of these, like
+the covering of the sheep, goat, and llama, or the cocoon of the
+silk-worm, are of animal origin; others, like cotton furze, the husk of
+the cocoanut, and the bast of the flax-plant are vegetable products.
+Their use in the manufacture of cloth antedates the period at which
+written history begins; it probably begins with the time when primitive
+man gradually ceased to have the hairy covering necessary to protect him
+from the conditions of climate and weather.
+
+As body coverings all these substances are dependent on a single
+principle, namely--they are poor conductors of heat; that is, they do
+not permit the natural heat of the body to pass away quickly, nor do
+they allow sudden changes of the temperature to reach the body quickly.
+In other words, because of the artificial covering which mankind alone
+requires, bodily heat is not dissipated more rapidly than it is created;
+if it were, the covering would be worthless. A suit of clothes made of
+steel wire, for instance, because it conducts heat so rapidly, might
+chill, or perhaps heat the body more quickly than the open air.
+
+With respect to warming qualities wool surpasses all other textiles. It
+is employed for clothing in every part of the world and by nearly all
+peoples. Cotton is used mainly also for body coverings, but it is
+inferior to wool for protection against cold. It is used by practically
+all peoples, savage and civilized, outside of the frigid zones. Linen
+is inferior both to cotton and wool for clothing; its use is also
+restricted by its great cost. Silk is used mainly for ornamental cloths.
+Hemp is used mainly for cordage, and the use of ramie, jute, and sisal
+hemp is confined mainly to the manufacture of very coarse cloths and
+rugs.
+
+=Cotton.=--The cotton fibre of commerce is the lint surrounding the seeds
+of several species of _Gossypium_, plants belonging to the same natural
+order as the marshmallow and the hollyhock. The cultivated species have
+been carried from India to different parts of the world, but
+cotton-bearing plants are also native to the American. A native
+tree-cotton, known as Barbados cotton, occurs in the West Indies; a
+herbaceous cotton-plant is known to have been cultivated in Peru long
+before the discovery of Columbus.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON-PRODUCING REGIONS]
+
+More than four hundred years before the Christian era Herodotus
+describes it and mentions a gin for separating the lint from the seed.
+Nearchus, an admiral serving under Alexander the Great, brought to
+Europe specimens of cotton cloth, and in the course of time it became an
+article of commerce among Greek and Roman merchants.
+
+The cotton-plant requires warmth, moisture, and a long season. It also
+thrives best near the sea. It grows better, on the whole, in subtropical
+rather than in tropical regions, and the difference is due probably to
+the longer days and higher temperature of the subtropical latitudes. In
+the United States the northern limit is approximately the thirty-eighth
+parallel. The seeds are planted, as a rule, during the first three weeks
+of April and the first two of May. The plants bloom about the middle of
+June; the boll or pod matures during July, and bursts about the first of
+August. The picking begins in August.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES]
+
+The yield and the quality of the textile depend not only on conditions
+of the soil, but on locality. In the river flood-plains of the southern
+United States the yield is about two bales per acre; on the bluff lands
+it is but little more than one, unless unusual care is taken in the
+preparation of the land. The islands off the Carolina coast produce a
+very fine long-staple variety, commercially known as _sea island
+cotton_. A district in China produces a good fibre of brownish color
+known as _nankeen_, named for the city of Nanking, whence formerly it
+was exported. The valley of Piura River, Peru, produces varieties of
+long-staple cotton that in quality closely resemble silk.
+
+The fibre of ordinary American cotton is about seven-eighths of an inch
+long; it is made into the fabrics commercially known as "domestics" and
+"prints," or calico. If the fibre averages a little longer than the
+common grades it is reserved for canvas. Ordinary Peruvian cotton has a
+fibre nearly two inches long; it is used in the manufacture of hosiery
+and balbriggan underwear, and also to adulterate wool. The long-staple
+cotton of the Piura Valley is bought by British manufacturers at a high
+price, and used in the webbing of rubber tires and hose. Egyptian cotton
+is very fine and is used mainly in the manufacture of thread and the
+finer grades of balbriggan underwear. Sea island fibre is nearly two
+inches long and is used almost wholly in the making of thread and lace.
+
+The introduction of cotton cultivation resulted in very far-reaching
+consequences both from a political as well as an economic stand-point.
+The invention of the steam-engine by Watt gave England an enormous
+mechanical power. To utilize this the cotton industry was wrested from
+Hindustan; the mills were concentrated in Manchester and Lancashire; the
+cotton-fields were transferred to the United States.
+
+As a result, the plains of Hindustan were strewn with the bodies of
+starved weavers and spinners, but a great industry grew into existence
+in England. The invention of spinning machinery by Arkwright, Crompton,
+and Hargreaves, and the gradual improvement of the power-loom, greatly
+reduced the cost of making the cloth and, at the same time, enormously
+increased the demand for it.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON PRODUCTION]
+
+In the United States the consequences were far more serious. The
+invention of the engine or "gin" for separating the lint from the seed
+made cotton cultivation highly profitable.[31] The negro slaves, who had
+been scattered throughout the colonies and the States that succeeded
+them, were soon drawn to the cotton-growing States to supply the needed
+field-labor; and, indeed, white workmen could not stand the hot, moist
+climate of the cotton-fields.
+
+The cotton-mills grew up in the Northern manufacturing States. The
+Northern manufacturer needed a tariff on imported goods to protect him
+from European competition; the Southern cotton-planter who purchased
+much of his supplies abroad was hurt by the tariff. After about sixty
+years of strained relations between the two sections there occurred the
+Civil War which wiped out nearly one million lives, and rolled up a
+debt, direct and indirect, of nearly six billions of dollars.
+
+The world's cotton-crop aggregates from twelve million to fifteen
+million bales yearly, of which the United States produces, as a rule, a
+little more than three-fourths. Egypt is rapidly taking an important
+place among cotton-producing countries, and, with the completion of the
+various irrigating canals, will very soon rank next to the United
+States. India ranks about third; China and Korea produce about the same
+quantity. There are a few cotton-cloth mills in these states, but in
+Japan the manufacture is increasing, the mills being equipped with the
+best of modern machinery. Brazil has a small product, and Russia in Asia
+needs transportation facilities only to increase largely its growing
+output.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON]
+
+The cotton-crop of the United States is quite evenly distributed;
+one-third is manufactured at home; one-third is purchased by Great
+Britain; and the remaining third goes mainly to western Europe. In the
+past few years China has become a constantly increasing purchaser of
+American cotton. New Orleans, Galveston, Savannah, and New York are the
+chief ports of shipment. The imported Egyptian and Peruvian cotton is
+landed mainly at New York. Most of the cotton manufacture is carried on
+in the New England States, but there is a very rapid extension of cotton
+manufacture in the South.
+
+=Wool.=--The wool of commerce is a term applied to the fleece of the
+common sheep, to that of certain species of goat, and to that of the
+camel and its kind. There is no hard-and-fast distinction between hair
+and wool,[32] but, in general, wool fibres have rough edges, much
+resembling overlapping scales which interlock with one another; hair, as
+a rule, has a hard, smooth surface. If a mass of loose wool be spread
+out and beaten, or if it be pressed between rollers, the fibres
+interlock so closely that there results a thick, strong cloth which has
+been made without either spinning or weaving.
+
+This property, known as "felting," gives to wool a great part of its
+value, and is its chief distinction from hair. Some kinds of hair,
+however, have a slight felting property, and if sufficiently fine may be
+spun and woven. The hair of the common goat is worthless for this
+purpose, but that of the Cashmere and Angora species have the properties
+of wool. The hair of the Bactrian camel, and also that of the llama,
+alpaca, and vicuña is soft and fine, possessing felting qualities that
+make it very superior as a textile.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL PRODUCING REGIONS]
+
+The quality of wool varies greatly according to the conditions of soil,
+climate, and the character of the food of the animal. In commerce,
+however, the fleeces are commonly graded as "long-staple,"
+"short-staple," "merino," and "coarse."
+
+In long-staple wools the fibres are from four to eight inches long;
+they are more easily separated by a process much like combing, and are
+therefore called "combing" wools. The cotswold, cheviot, and most of the
+wools of the British Isles are of this kind; indeed, in fairly moist
+lowland regions such as Canada and the United States, there is a
+tendency toward the development of a long-staple product. The English
+long-staple wools are largely made into worsted cloth, the Scotch
+cheviot into tweeds, and the French into the best dress cloth.
+
+If the fibres are materially less than four inches in length, the
+product is classed as a short-staple or "carding" wool. By far the
+greater part of the wool of the United States, Canada, and Europe is of
+this class. It is disposed of according to its fineness or fitness for
+special purposes, the greater part being made into cloths for the medium
+grades of men's clothing.
+
+The finest and softest wool as a rule is grown in arid, plateau regions,
+and of this kind of staple the merino is an example. The fibres are fine
+as silk, and the goods made from them are softer. The Mission wool of
+California is the product of merino sheep, and, indeed, the conditions
+of climate in southern California and Australia are such as to produce
+the best merino wool. The famous Electoral wool of Saxony is a merino,
+the sheep having been introduced into that country from Spain about
+three hundred years ago. The merino wools, as a rule, are used in the
+most highly finished dress and fancy goods.
+
+The coarse-staple wools are very largely used for American carpets,
+coarse blankets, and certain kinds of heavy outer clothing. The Russian
+Donskoi wool, some of the Argentine fleeces, such as the Cordoban, and
+many of those grown in wet lowlands are very coarse and harsh. The
+quality is due more to climatic conditions and food than to the species
+of sheep; indeed, sheep that in other regions produce a fine wool, when
+introduced to this locality, after a few generations produce coarse
+wool.
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP FEEDING ON ALFALFA]
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP RANGE, UTAH]
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP IN FEEDING YARD
+
+THE WOOL-GROWING INDUSTRY]
+
+The rug wools grown in Persia, Turkestan, Turkey in Asia, and the
+Caucasus Mountains are also characteristic. They vary in fineness, and
+because they do not readily felt they are the best in the world for rug
+stock. The "pile" or surface of the rug remains elastic and stands
+upright even after a hundred years of wear. This quality is due mainly
+to conditions of climate and soil.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL PRODUCTION]
+
+In some instances the wool is obtained by a daily combing of the
+half-grown lambs. This process, however, is employed in the rug-making
+districts only; in general, the fleeces are clipped either with shears
+or machine clippers. In the United States the latter are generally
+employed, and but little attempt is made either to sort the fleeces or
+to separate the various qualities of wool in the same fleece.
+
+The raw wool always contains foreign matter such as burs and dirt; it is
+also saturated with a natural oil which prevents felting. The oil,
+commonly called "grease," or "yolk," is an important article of
+commerce; under the name of "lanolin" (_adeps lanæ_) it is used in
+medicine and pharmacy as a basis for ointments.
+
+The world's yearly clip is a little more than two and one-half billion
+pounds, of which the United States produces about one-eighth. In Europe
+and the United States, owing to the increasing value of the land, the
+area of production is decreasing; in Australia, South Africa, and
+Argentina, where land is cheap, it is increasing. From these three
+regions wool is exported; most European countries and the United States
+buy it. In the latter country the consumption is about six pounds for
+each person.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL]
+
+The wools of the Mediterranean countries--France, Spain, Italy, Algiers,
+Egypt, etc.--are the best for fine cloths; those of central Asia for
+rugs and shawls; the others are used mainly in medium and low grade
+textiles.
+
+=Other Wools.=--The Angora goat, originally grown in Anatolia (Asia
+Minor), and the Iran States (Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan),
+furnishes a beautiful white wool, commercially known as "mohair." Smyrna
+is an important market for it, and England is the chief buyer. The
+Angora goat has been introduced into South Africa and California, where
+it is successfully grown. From the former country there is a large
+export of mohair.
+
+Cashmere wool is a fine, downy undercovering, obtained by combing the
+fleece of a goat native to the Kashmir Valley in India. A single animal
+yields scarcely more than an ounce or two, and the best product is worth
+about its weight in gold. It is used in the manufacture of the famous
+Cashmere shawls, which are sold at prices varying from five hundred to
+five thousand dollars. They are made in Persia and India.
+
+Llama and alpaca wool are fine textile obtained from animals of the
+camel kind native to South America. The wool is either black or brown in
+color. A considerable part is used for native-made articles, such as
+saddle-blankets, etc., but much of it is exported to England.
+
+Most of the "camel's hair" of commerce was originally worn by goats,
+being called by its commercial name because of a similarity in texture
+to that of the camel's hair. The camel of Turkestan, however, furnishes
+a silky textile that is much used. The brown wool often found in Hamadan
+rugs is natural camel's hair, and a considerable amount mixed with
+sheep's wool is used in certain textiles. The camel's hair of China is
+made into artists' brushes.
+
+=Silk.=--The silk of commerce is the fibre spun by the larvæ or
+caterpillars of a moth, _Bombyx mori_, as they enter the chrysalis stage
+of existence. The silk-growing industry includes the care and feeding of
+the insect in all its stages. The leaves of the white mulberry-tree
+(_morus alba_) are the natural food of the insect, and silk-growing
+cannot be carried on in regions where this tree does not thrive. Not all
+areas that produce the mulberry-tree, however, will also grow the
+silk-worm; the latter cannot exist in regions having very cold winters,
+and therefore the industry is restricted by climate.
+
+The moth, shortly after emerging from the chrysalis stage, lays from two
+or three hundred to seven hundred eggs. These are "hardy"--that is, they
+will remain fertile for a long time if kept in a cool, dry place;
+moisture will cause them to putrify, and heat to germinate. If well
+protected, they may be transported for distances.
+
+In rearing the silk-worm, as soon as the latter is hatched, it is placed
+on mulberry-leaves, and for five weeks it does nothing but eat, in that
+time consuming many times its weight of food.[33] Then it begins to spin
+the material that forms its chrysalis case or cocoon. The outer part of
+the case consists of a tough envelope not unlike coarse tissue-paper;
+the inner part is a fine thread about one thousand feet long that has
+been wound around the body of the worm. This thread or filament is the
+basis of the silk textile industry.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright, 1898, by Nature Study Pub. Co._
+
+SILK INDUSTRY
+
+  1. Silkworm Eggs
+  2. Fourth-stage Worm
+  3. Pupa in Cocoon
+  4. Cocoon
+  5. Male Moth
+  6. Female Moth
+  7. Unspun Silk
+  8. Raw Manufactured Silk
+  9. Manufactured Silk]
+
+[Illustration: SILK PRODUCING REGIONS]
+
+At the proper time the cocoons are gathered and, if immediately to be
+used, are plunged into hot water. This not only kills the chrysalids but
+softens the cocoons as well, so that the outer cases may be removed. The
+cases removed, the rest of the cocoon is soaked in warm water until the
+gummy matter is softened and the fibres are free enough to be reeled. In
+the latter process the ends of a number of cocoons, varying from five to
+twenty, are caught and loosely twisted into a single strand. The silk
+thus prepared forms the "raw silk" of commerce. Sometimes a number of
+strands of raw silk are twisted into a coarse thread, thereby forming
+"thrown silk." For convenience in handling, both raw and thrown silk
+are made into large skeins called hanks, and most of the silk product is
+exported in this form.
+
+A given quantity of cocoons yields scarcely more than one-tenth its
+weight in good raw silk. The remaining part, consisting of broken fibres
+and cases, is shredded and spun into silk thread of inferior quality.
+This material, commonly called "husks" or "knubs," forms an important
+item in silk manufacture, and much of it is exported to Europe and
+America.
+
+[Illustration: SILK PRODUCTION]
+
+According to traditions, not wholly trustworthy, eggs of the silk-worm
+were smuggled to India in the head-dress of a Chinese princess. Thence
+sericulture slowly made its way westward to Persia, Asia Minor, and the
+Mediterranean countries. Wild silk, a coarse but strong product, is
+grown in many of these countries, but mainly in China, where it forms an
+important export. The Chinese product is commercially known as "tussar"
+silk. Of the product of raw silk, about thirty-five million pounds,
+China yields about two-fifths, Japan and Italy each one-fifth. The
+remainder is grown in the Levant, Spain, and France.
+
+Most of the raw silk of China is exported from Shanghai and Canton; that
+of Japan is shipped mainly from Yokohama. Among European countries Italy
+is the first producer of raw silk, and France the chief manufacturer.
+By the operation of a heavy tariff a considerable manufacture of silk
+textiles has grown up in the United States. New York City and Paterson,
+N.J., are the chief centres of the industry.
+
+The southern part of the United States offers an ideal locality for
+sericulture. Various attempts at silk-worm breeding have failed from
+lack of training, but not on account of geographic conditions.
+
+=Flax.=--The flax of commerce, the basis of linen cloth, is the bast or
+inner bark-fibre of an annual plant (_Linum usitalissimum_, _i.e._, most
+useful fibre), native probably to the Mediterranean basin. It ranks
+among the oldest known textiles. Bundles of unwrought fibre have been
+found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland, and linen cloth constituted
+a part of the sepulture wrappings of the ancient Egyptian dead.
+
+Flax has a very wide range, thriving in the colder parts of Europe as
+well as in tropical Asia; it does equally well in the dry summers of
+California or the moist regions of the Mississippi Valley. The chief
+requisite is a firm soil that contains plenty of nutrition.
+
+After the stalks have passed maturity they are pulled up by hand;
+"rippled," or deprived of their seeds and leaves; "retted," or moistened
+in soft water until the bast separates; "broken" and "scutched" by a
+machine which gets rid of the woody fibres; and finally the loosened
+bast fibre is "hetcheled" or combed in order to separate the long, or
+"line," threads from the "tow" or refuse.
+
+Russia produces more than one-half the world's crop, but the finest and
+choicest is that known as Courtrai fibre, which is grown in Belgium.
+This is thought to be due to the quality of the water in the Lys River.
+A considerable amount of flax grown elsewhere in Europe is sent to this
+part of Belgium to be retted. Ireland and Germany produce considerable
+amounts, and a small quantity is grown in the United States.
+
+The prepared flax is used in the manufacture of linen cloth, and the
+latter is almost exclusively used for table-cloths, napkins,
+shirt-bosoms, collars, cuffs, and handkerchiefs. France is noted for the
+manufacture of linen lawns and cambrics, and Belfast, Ireland, for
+table-cloths and napkins. Nearly the whole linen product is consumed in
+the United States, Canada, and western Europe; indeed, linen is a mark
+of western civilization. Great Britain handles the greater part of the
+linen textiles.
+
+=Hemp.=--The true hemp of commerce is the bast or inner bark of a plant,
+_Cannabis sativa_, belonging to the nettle order. It is an annual plant
+having a very wide range; it occurs in pretty nearly every country of
+North America, Europe, and Asia. In Europe the chief countries producing
+it for commercial uses are Russia, France, Italy, and Hungary; in the
+United States it is grown in California and the central Mississippi
+Valley. Russia produces the largest crop; Italy the finest quality of
+fibre, the best coming from the vicinity of Bologna.
+
+The stalks grow three feet or more in height. When cultivated for the
+fibre they are pulled from the ground, stripped of their leaves and
+soaked until the fibre is free. They are then "retted," or beaten, and
+the fibre is removed. After preparation the fibre is used mainly for the
+manufacture of wrapping-twine, cordage, and a coarse canvas. Great
+Britain is the chief purchaser and manufacturer.
+
+=Manila Hemp.=--Manila hemp is the name given to a fibre obtained from the
+leaves of a plant, _Musa textilis_, belonging to the banana family. The
+best fibres are from six to nine feet in length, of light amber color,
+and very strong. The leaves, torn into narrow strips by hand, are
+afterward scraped by hand until the fibre is free of pulp. The long and
+coarser fibres are made into rope; the shorter fibres are beaten and
+hetcheled in the same manner as flax, until fine enough to weave into
+mats, carpets, and fine cloth. The fibres that have served their
+usefulness as rope are pulped and manufactured into manila paper.
+
+Practically all the manila fibre of commerce--which is not hemp at
+all--is grown in the Philippine Islands, and since peace has prevailed,
+the growth and production is increasing. The crude fibre is prepared by
+hand, by Filipino or by Chinese labor. The manufacture of cordage and
+paper is done mainly in the United States and Great Britain. Fine
+hand-made textiles are made by a few Filipino natives, but most of the
+goods of this character are manufactured in France. Very fine fibre is
+sometimes used as an adulterant of silk. Great Britain and the United
+States are the chief purchasers.
+
+=Sisal Hemp.=--Sisal hemp, or henequen, is a stout, stringy fibre obtained
+from the thick leaves of several species of agave, to which the maguey
+and century-plant belong. The cultivated species, from which most of the
+commercial product is obtained, is the _Agave sisalina_, which much
+resembles the ordinary century-plant.
+
+The essential feature in the economic production of sisal hemp is
+machinery for separating the fibre from the pulp of the leaf. The fibre
+is whiter, cleaner, and lighter than jute; moreover, in strength it
+ranks next to the best quality of manila hemp. It is used mainly in the
+manufacture of grain-sacks, and the twine used on self-binding
+harvesters. Nearly all the fibre of commerce is grown in the Mexican
+state of Yucatan and consumed in the United States. The cultivation of
+this material has made Yucatan one of the most prosperous states of
+Mexico.
+
+=Jute.=--Jute is a fibre obtained from the inner bark of a tropical plant,
+_Corchorus olitorius_, belonging to the same order as the linden-tree.
+The plant is an annual, growing in various moist, tropical countries,
+but is extensively cultivated in India and parts of China for commercial
+purposes. The fibre is prepared for manufacture in much the same manner
+as hemp and flax. In India it is used mainly for the manufacture of a
+coarse textile known as gunny cloth, used as bale-wrappers, and sacks
+for coffee and rice. On the Pacific coast states it is used for
+wheat-sacks. Calcutta is the chief centre of manufacture, but jute-sacks
+are extensively manufactured by the Chinese in California and China.
+
+=Ramie.=--This fibre, also known as China grass, is the best of two or
+more species of nettles, prepared in the same manner as hemp fibre. It
+is finer and stronger than jute, and will take dye-stuffs in a superior
+manner. With the introduction of machinery for separating and handling
+the fibre, the cultivation of the ramie-plant has spread from China to
+India, Japan, and the United States. Fine textiles are now manufactured
+from it, the most important being carpets, mattings, and American
+"Smyrna" rugs. The last are generally sold as jute-rugs, and they are
+nearly as durable as woollen floor-covers.
+
+=Other Economic Fibres.=--The fibre of _cocoanut husk_ is largely employed
+in the manufacture of coarse matting. A part of this is obtained from
+tropical America, but it is a regular export of British India, where it
+is known as _coir_.
+
+The mid-rib of the _screw pine_ growing in the forests of tropical
+America furnishes the material of which "Panama" hats are made. The hats
+are made in various parts of Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia, and were
+formerly marketed in Panama. Hats made of a score of grasses and fibres
+are also sold as Panamas.
+
+A plant (_Phormium tenax_) having leaves somewhat like those of the iris
+or common flag furnishes the material of which New Zealand flax is
+prepared. It is used mainly in the manufacture of cordage.
+
+_Plaiting straw_, used in the manufacture of hats and bonnets, is grown
+extensively in northern Italy and in Belgium. For this product spring
+wheat is very thickly sown in a soil rich in lime. The thick sowing
+produces a long, slender stalk; the lime gives it whiteness and
+strength. Plaiting straw is also exported from China and Japan. British
+merchants handle most of the product.
+
+_Cuba bast_, a fibre readily bleached to whiteness, is exported to the
+various establishments in which women's hats are made.
+
+_Esparto grass_, also called _alfa_, grows in Spain and the northern
+part of Africa. It was formerly much used in the manufacture of the
+cheaper grades of paper, but it has been largely supplanted by wood-pulp
+for this purpose. The decline of the esparto grass industry led to no
+little unrest among some of the native tribes of northern Africa.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What fibres were used in cloth-making in Europe before cotton was
+employed?
+
+What textiles are of necessity made of cotton?
+
+What is a spinning jenny?--a Jacquard loom?
+
+What are the specific differences between cotswold and merino wool?
+
+Why were most of the cloth-making mills of the United States built at
+first in the New England States?
+
+How is the silk-making industry encouraged in the United States?
+
+What are the chief linen manufacturing countries?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain specimens of the cotton seed, boll, raw cotton (sea island,
+Peruvian, and ordinary), cotton thread, calico, gingham, domestic,
+canvas, and some of the fancy textiles such as organdie, lawn, etc.
+
+Obtain specimens of the cocoons of the silk-worm, raw silk gros-grain
+cloth, pongee, and tussar silk cloth.
+
+Obtain also specimens of merino cloth, cashmere, cheviot, and other
+similar goods; compare them and note the difference.
+
+Examine the fibres of cotton, silk, and wool under a microscope and note
+the difference.
+
+[Illustration: BRANCH OF COFFEE TREE, WEST BRAZIL]
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR JOLO, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS]
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE DRYING FIELD, BRAZIL]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+PLANT PRODUCTS OF ECONOMIC USE--BEVERAGES AND MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES
+
+
+It may be assumed that practically all beverages derived from plants owe
+their popularity to the stimulant effects they produce. In coffee, tea,
+cocoa, and maté, the stimulant principle is identical with _cafein_, the
+active principle of coffee; in liquors it is a powerful narcotic
+_alcohol_; non-potable substances, tobacco, opium, etc., owe their
+popularity also to narcotic poisons.
+
+=Coffee.=--The coffee "beans" of commerce are the seeds of a tree (_Coffea
+arabica_) probably native to Abyssinia, but now cultivated in various
+parts of the world. It was introduced into Aden from Africa late in the
+fifteenth century, and from there its use spread to other cities. Rather
+singularly its popularity resulted from the strong efforts made to
+forbid its use.
+
+It was regarded as a stimulant and therefore it was forbidden to
+followers of Islam.[34] But its power to prevent drowsiness and sleep
+during the intolerably long religious exercises was a winning feature,
+and so its use became general in spite of the fulminations against it.
+
+Coffee culture was confined to Arabia until the close of the seventeenth
+century; it was then introduced into the Dutch East Indies, and for many
+years the island of Java became the main supply of the world. At the
+present time, Java is second only to Brazil in coffee production. In the
+Old World it is now also cultivated along the Guinea coast of Africa, in
+Madagascar, India, and Ceylon. In the New World the chief areas are
+Brazil, Venezuela, the Central American States, and the West Indies.
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE PRODUCING REGIONS]
+
+The coffee-tree may be cultivated in almost any soil that is fertile; it
+thrives best, however, in red soil. Old, decomposed red lavas produce
+the choicest beans. Coffee grows in any moist climate in which the
+temperature does not range higher than 80° F. nor lower than 55° F. An
+occasional frost injures but does not necessarily kill the trees, which
+grow better in the shade than in the sunlight. For convenience in
+gathering the crop, the trees are pruned until they are not higher than
+bushes.
+
+The fruit of the coffee-tree is a deep-red berry not quite so large as a
+cherry. A juicy pulp encloses a double membrane, or endocarp, and within
+the latter are the seeds which constitute the coffee of commerce.
+Normally there are two seeds, but in some varieties there is a tendency
+for one seed to mature, leaving the other undeveloped; this is the
+"peaberry" coffee of commerce. The so-called Mocha coffee is a peaberry.
+
+In their preparation the berries are picked when ripe and deprived of
+their pulp. After pulping they are cured in the sun for about a week and
+then hulled, or divested of the endocarp, a process requiring expensive
+machinery. The coffee is then cleaned, and sacked.
+
+The value of the product depends on two factors, age and the care with
+which it is sorted. Formerly, in the Dutch East Indies, coffee-growing,
+for the greater part, was a government privilege, and the crop was kept
+for several years in storage before it was permitted to be
+sold--therefore the term "Old Government" Java. Other coffee was
+designated as "Private Plantations." The quality of coffee is greatly
+improved with age. Brazilian and other American coffee-beans are rarely
+seasoned by storage.
+
+American coffees are almost wholly sorted by machinery. This process,
+however, merely collects beans of the same size; it still leaves the
+good and the bad beans together, though it is to be said that among the
+largest beans there are fewer poor ones. In the coffees handled by the
+Arab dealers all the sorting is done by hand, the very choice grade
+selling in the large cities of Europe for the equivalent of nearly three
+dollars per pound. All machine-sorted coffee is greatly improved by a
+subsequent hand-sorting to remove the imperfect beans.
+
+The naming of the different kinds of coffee is somewhat arbitrary. Thus,
+Brazilian coffees are commercially known as _Rio_ because they are
+shipped from the port of Rio de Janeiro; the same name is applied to the
+product shipped from Santos. Nearly all Venezuela coffees are called
+_Maracaibo_ although they differ much in kind and quality; most Central
+American coffee is sold as _Costa Rica_; most peaberry varieties are
+known as _Mocha_; and most of the East India product is popularly called
+_Java_, no matter whence it comes.
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE PRODUCTION]
+
+Of the American coffees Rio constitutes about half the world's product.
+After sorting, the larger beans are often marketed as Java coffee, and
+when the beans have been roasted it is exceedingly difficult to tell the
+difference. The best Maracaibo is regarded as choice coffee, but its
+flavor is not liked by all coffee-drinkers. The best Honduras and Puerto
+Rico coffees take a high rank and command very high prices, retailing in
+some instances at sixty cents per pound. A very choice peaberry is grown
+in the volcanic soils of Mexico to which the name of _Oaxaca_ is given;
+most of it is sold in the United States as a choice Mocha.
+
+Mocha is the commercial name of a coffee at one time marketed in the
+Arabian city of that name. Since the completion of the Suez Canal,
+Hodeida has been the chief centre of the Arabian coffee-trade. Formerly
+most of this coffee was grown in the Province of Yemen, but now it is
+brought to Hodeida, from Egypt, Ceylon, and India.
+
+About all the product is hand-sorted. The choicest is sold in
+Constantinople, Cairo, and other cities near by, in some instances
+bringing five dollars per pound. Very little, and only that of the most
+inferior quality, ever finds its way into western Europe or the United
+States. Even the best Mocha is not superior to fine Oaxaca coffee.
+
+Java coffee is renowned the world over for its fine flavor. The best
+quality was formerly that which had been held in storage to season for a
+few years. The government coffee was generally the better, but some of
+the private plantations crop is now equally good. Some of the Sumatra
+coffees are equal to the best Java beans.
+
+The Liberia coffees have never been favorites in the United States on
+account of their flavor. In Europe they are used for blending with other
+varieties.
+
+Of the entire coffee-crop of the world, the United States consumes more
+than three-quarters of a billion pounds--a yearly average of very nearly
+eleven pounds for each inhabitant. This is nearly three times as much
+per inhabitant as is consumed in Germany, and almost fifteen times the
+average used in Great Britain. Nearly all the world's crop is consumed
+in the United States and western Europe.
+
+Chicory, parched grain, pease, and burnt parsnip are sometimes added as
+adulterants to ground coffee. Of those, chicory most nearly resembles
+coffee in flavor and taste. It is harmless and usually improves the
+flavor of inferior coffee. A tariff recently placed upon chicory has
+somewhat lessened the use of it.
+
+=Tea.=--The tea of commerce consists of the dried and prepared leaves of
+an evergreen shrub (_Thea chinensis_) belonging most probably to the
+_camellia_ family. Tea has been a commercial product of China for more
+than fourteen hundred years, but seems to have been carried thither from
+India about five hundred years before the Christian era; for its virtues
+were praised by (the probably mythical) Chinung, an emperor of that
+period.
+
+The cultivated plants are scarcely higher than bushes, but the wild
+plant found in India is a tree fifteen or twenty feet in height. The
+cultivated plant is quite hardy; severe winters kill it but ordinary
+freezing weather merely retards its growth. It thrives best in red,
+mouldy soils; the choicest varieties are grown in new soils. The leaves
+are not picked until the plants are three or four years old.
+
+Two general classes of tea are known in commerce--the green and the
+black. Formerly these were grown on different varieties of the plant,
+but in the newer plantations no distinction is made in the matter of
+variety; the color is due wholly to the manner of preparation.
+
+The plants are watched carefully during the seasons of picking, of which
+there are three or four each year. The April picking yields the choicest
+crop of leaves, and only the youngest leaves and buds are taken.[35] A
+single plant rarely yields more than four or five ounces of tea yearly.
+Each acre of a tea-garden yields about three hundred and fifty pounds.
+
+After picking, the leaves are partly crushed and allowed to wilt until
+they begin to turn brown in color. They are then rolled between the
+hands and either dried very slowly in the sun, or else rapidly in pans
+over a charcoal fire--a process known as "firing." The former method
+produces _black_, the latter _green_, tea. The color of the latter is
+sometimes heightened by the use of a mixture of powdered gypsum and
+Prussian blue. In the black teas the green coloring matter of the leaf
+is destroyed by fermentation; in the green teas it remains unchanged.
+
+The greater part of the Chinese tea designed for export is packed rather
+loosely in wooden chests lined with sheet-lead, the folds and joints of
+which are soldered in order to make the cover both air-tight and
+moisture-tight. A full chest contains seventy-five pounds of tea. The
+Japan product is also packed in moisture-tight wrappers, the original
+parcels being usually ten-pound, five-pound, and pound packages. Similar
+devices are used in preparing the India and Formosa teas for ocean
+shipment.
+
+The chief tea-producing countries are India (including Ceylon) China,
+Japan (including Formosa), and Java. A successful tea-garden is in
+operation near Charleston, S.C. A small amount is grown in the Fiji and
+Samoan Islands. The Ceylon and Formosa teas take a very high rank.
+
+[Illustration: AREA OF TEA PRODUCTION]
+
+Great Britain and her colonies consume the bulk of the tea-crop. The
+average yearly consumption per person is eight pounds in Australia, six
+in Great Britain and Cape of Good Hope, and more than four in Canada. In
+the United States and Russia it is less than one pound per person.
+
+Before the opening of the Suez Canal, in 1869, most of the crop for the
+English market was despatched by way of Cape of Good Hope. So important
+was it to get the consignments to London without loss of time, that fast
+clipper ships were built especially for carrying tea. Since the opening
+of the canal the crop has been shipped mainly by the Suez route.
+
+A part of the tea required for the United States reaches New York by way
+of the Suez Canal, but the movement is gradually changing since the
+building of the fast liners that now ply between Asian and American
+ports. These steamships carry it to Seattle, or to Vancouver, whence it
+is distributed by rail. The increased cost of shipment by this route is
+more than offset by a gain of from five to seven days in time.
+
+In some respects the Russian "caravan route" is the most important
+channel of the tea-trade. The tea is collected mainly at Tientsin, and
+sent by camel caravans through Manchuria to the most convenient point on
+the Siberian railway. Not only the shipments of brick tea[36] for the
+Russian market, but the choicest products for western Europe also are
+sent by this route. It is probably an economical way of shipping the
+brick tea, but a more expensive method of shipment for the latter could
+not be found easily; it is preferred from the fact that, no matter how
+carefully sealed, the flavor of tea is materially injured by an ocean
+voyage.
+
+It is evident, therefore, that for the tea product alone the Siberian
+railway will soon become an important factor in the commerce of Europe.
+Shipments of tea are also sent from Canton to Odessa, Russia, but this
+route is not less expensive in the long run than the Cape route, and the
+tea suffers as much deterioration from the shorter as from the longer
+voyage.
+
+=Cacao.=--Cacao, the "cocoa" of commerce, consists of the prepared seeds
+of several species of _Theobroma_, the greater part being obtained from
+the _Theobroma cacao_. The name is unfortunately confused with that of
+the cocoa-palm, but there is no relation whatever between the two.
+
+The seeds of the cacao were used in ancient America long before its
+discovery by Columbus, and the latter carried the first knowledge of it
+to Europe. By the middle of the seventeenth century it was much used in
+Spain, and less than a hundred years later it had become the fashionable
+drink of western Europe.
+
+The cacao-tree, originally native to Mexico, is now cultivated
+throughout tropical America and the West Indies. It is not cultivated to
+any extent in the Eastern continent. The fruit consists of large, fleshy
+pods, which are cut from the trees usually in June and December. The
+seeds are then piled in heaps, or else packed in pits, and allowed to
+undergo a rapid fermentation for a period of several days, to which
+process their flavor is mainly due. The roasted and broken seeds are the
+cocoa-nibs of commerce. The husks are known as cocoa-shells.
+
+A very large part of the cacao product comes from Ecuador, Guayaquil
+being perhaps the chief market of the world. The Venezuelan and
+Brazilian products, however, are the choicest; these are known in
+commerce respectively as Caracas and Trinidad cacao. Spain, Portugal,
+and France are the chief purchasers, and in the first-named country the
+consumption per person is five or six times as great as in other
+countries.
+
+Cacao is not only a stimulant beverage, but a food as well; about
+one-half its weight is fat, and about one-third consists of starch and
+flesh-making substances. The stimulant principle is the same as that
+occurring in tea and coffee, but the proportion is considerably less. In
+preparing the cocoa for the market, much of the fat is intentionally
+withdrawn. The fat, commercially known as "cocoa-butter," and "oil of
+theobroma," does not turn rancid.
+
+Chocolate consists of cocoa ground to a paste with sugar and flavoring
+matter, and then cast in moulds to harden. It is used mainly in the
+manufacture of confectionery. Most of the chocolate is made in France,
+Spain, and the United States. More than forty million pounds of cocoa
+are yearly consumed in the United States.
+
+=Maté.=--Maté, yerba maté, or Paraguay tea, is the leaf of a shrub, a
+species of holly, growing profusely in the forests of Brazil, Paraguay,
+Argentina, and Uruguay. In many instances, the shrub is cultivated. The
+leaves are prepared in much the same manner as tea-leaves are, but
+instead of being rolled, they are broken by beating.
+
+The maté of commerce has a stimulant principle identical with that of
+tea and coffee, which is the only reason for its use. The consumption,
+about fifteen thousand tons a year, is confined almost wholly to the
+countries named.
+
+=Tobacco.=--The tobacco of commerce is the prepared and manufactured leaf
+of several species of plant, belonging to the nightshade family. Most of
+the product is derived from the species known as Virginia tobacco
+(_Nicotiana tabacum_) and the Brazilian species (_Nicotiana rustica_).
+The former is cultivated in the United States, West Indies, the
+Philippine Islands, and Turkey; the latter has been transplanted to
+central Europe and the East Indies.
+
+The use of tobacco was prevalent in the New World at the time of
+Columbus's first voyage, and was quickly introduced into Europe. The
+prepared leaf contains a substance, nicotine, which is one of the most
+deadly of poisons when swallowed, and an intense narcotic stimulant when
+inhaled. On account of the evil effects arising from its introduction,
+its use was forbidden by the Church and also by sovereigns of several
+European states. The latter, however, finding that its use was becoming
+general, made it a Crown monopoly. In Great Britain its cultivation was
+forbidden in order to encourage its cultivation in Virginia.
+
+Tobacco does not thrive best in a poor soil, but the latter produces a
+thin, half-developed leaf, which in other plants would be called
+"sickly." It grows in almost any kind of soil, but requires warm summer
+nights. In many instances the tobacco of temperate latitudes yields a
+more salable leaf when grown under cover. The flavor is due partly to
+soil and climate, and partly to skill in curing. The choicest product is
+obtained in only a few localities of limited area. It sometimes happens
+that the products of two plantations almost side by side, and similarly
+situated, are very unlike in character and quality.
+
+[Illustration: TOBACCO]
+
+The choicest cigar-tobacco is grown on the Vuelta Abajo district in the
+province of Pinar del Rio, Cuba; another very choice Cuban leaf is known
+as Partidos. Cuban-made cigars of fine quality are commercially "Havana"
+cigars, although tobacco from Manila and Porto Rico is apt to be largely
+used in their manufacture. In order to avoid the very heavy duty on
+cigars, which is not far from six dollars per pound, a great deal of the
+Havana tobacco is exported to points along the Florida coast, mainly Key
+West and Tampa. The unmanufactured tobacco pays a comparatively small
+duty, and the cigars made from it are commercially known as "Key West."
+
+In some parts of Mexico a fine-flavored tobacco is grown, but as the
+cigars are not uniform in quality they are not popular. Some of the
+Brazilian tobacco is a high-class product, but not much is exported.
+Porto Rican leaf has a fine flavor, but is not popular because of its
+dark color. The demand for it in the United States is growing, however.
+Of the leaf grown in the East, that from Sumatra and the Philippine
+Islands is by far the best, and the exports are heavy. Cuban
+manufacturers purchase the Manila leaf; the Sumatra wrappers are
+purchased in the United States.
+
+The choicest cigarette-tobacco is grown in Asiatic Turkey,
+Transcaucasia, and Egypt. It is selected with great care, and is
+"long-cut." The common grades are made of chopped Virginia tobacco, or
+of chopped cigar-trimmings. The cheapest grades consist of refuse leaf
+mixed with half-smoked cigar-stumps. The United States leads in the
+manufacture of cigarettes, and a large part of the product is sold in
+China, India, and Japan. Most of the world's product of snuff is made in
+the United States, and nearly all of it is sold abroad.
+
+The United States produces yearly about seven hundred million pounds. A
+large part of this is sold to European countries. Great Britain
+purchases about four-fifths of the tobacco there consumed from the
+United States. The latter country purchases from Europe (mainly the
+Netherlands) about half as much as it sells to Europe. Louisville, Ky.,
+is probably the largest tobacco-market in the world. New York,
+Baltimore, Richmond, Manila, and Havana are the chief shipping-ports.
+
+In almost every civilized country tobacco is heavily taxed. In the
+United States there is not only a heavy import duty, but an internal
+revenue in addition. In Austria, France, Italy, Japan, and Spain the
+manufacture and sale is in the hands of the government. The consumption
+of tobacco varies greatly. In the Netherlands it averages about seven
+pounds a year to each individual; in the United States it is more than
+four pounds; in central Europe, three pounds; in Spain, Sweden, Great
+Britain, and Italy, it is less than two pounds.
+
+=Opium.=--The opium of commerce is the hardened juice obtained from the
+seed capsules of several species of the poppy-plant. A variety having a
+large capsule (_Papaver somniferum_) is most commonly cultivated for the
+commercial production of the substance. Half-a-dozen times during the
+season the capsules are scratched or cut; the juice exuding when hard is
+picked or scraped off and pressed into cakes.
+
+Opium is not only a narcotic poison, but it has the property of
+lessening the pain of disease, and this is its chief use in medicine. In
+Mohammedan countries where the use of alcoholic liquors is forbidden as
+a religious custom, opium is used as a substitute. In Turkey, Persia,
+Arabia, and Egypt the production of opium is an important industry
+connected with social and religious life. In British India it is a
+political factor, being extensively cultivated as a government monopoly
+to be sold to the Chinese, who are probably the chief consumers of it.
+The Indian Government derives a revenue sometimes reaching twenty
+million dollars from this source.
+
+The best quality of opium is marketed at Smyrna, and most of this is
+purchased by the United States. A considerable amount of Chinese opium
+is imported for the use of the Chinese, and a larger amount is probably
+smuggled over the Canadian and Mexican borders. Laudanum is an alcoholic
+tincture, and morphine an extractive of opium; both are used as
+medicine.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Consult a good physiology and learn the effects of coffee, tea, tobacco,
+and opium.
+
+Where and what are the following: Mocha, Java, Maracaibo, Yokohama,
+Amoy, Canton, Oaxaca, Hodeida, Rio Janeiro, Santos, Havana; how is each
+connected commercially with this chapter?
+
+From the map, Fig. 1, trace the route of a cargo of tea overland from
+China to Great Britain.
+
+Consult an English history or a cyclopædia and learn about the opium
+war.
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain samples of the following, preserving them for study and
+inspection in closely stoppered vials: Mocha, Java, Rio, and Sumatra
+coffees; green, black, and gunpowder tea. Soak a tea-leaf a few minutes
+in warm water; unroll the leaf and attach it to a white card, for study.
+
+Obtain samples of gum opium, laudanum, and morphine; note the odor of
+the first two and the taste of the last. Remember that they are
+poisonous.
+
+Unroll a cheap cigarette and note the character of the tobacco in it,
+using a magnifying glass.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GUMS AND RESINS USED IN THE ARTS
+
+
+Most vegetable juices exposed to the air harden into firm substances,
+commonly called _gum_. Some of these dissolve, or at least soften, in
+water; these technically are known as "gums," and usually are so
+designated in commerce. Others are insoluble in water, but dissolve
+readily in alcohol, in naphtha, in turpentine, or in other essential
+oils; these are designated as "gum-resins." Still others yield oils or
+pitchy substances on distillation; these are known as "oleo-resins."
+There are many other dried vegetable juices, however, that in commerce
+are not classified among the gums and resins, and of these the most
+important is the substance commonly known as india-rubber.
+
+=Rubber and Rubber Products.=--"Caoutchouc" is approximately the name
+given by Indians of the Amazon forests to a substance that had also been
+found in India. Some of it was brought to Europe from the Amazon region
+as early as 1736, and for nearly one hundred years no general purpose
+was discovered for which it could be used, except to erase lead-pencil
+marks--hence the name india-rubber, which has held ever since.
+
+Common rubber is the prepared juice of a dozen or more shrubs and trees,
+all of which grow in tropical regions.[37] The belt of rubber-producing
+plants extends around the world and includes such well-known species as
+the fig, the manihot (or manioc), and the oleander; indeed, it is a
+condition of sap rather than a definite species of plant that produces
+rubber, and the latter is a manufactured rather than a natural product.
+The process of preparing the juice is practically the same in every part
+of the world.
+
+The rubber-gatherer of the Amazon, who is practically a slave, wades
+into the swamp, makes several incisions in the bark of the tree,
+fashions a rough trough of clay under it, and waits till the sap fills
+the clay vessel. When the sap has been gathered he makes a fire of the
+nuts of the urucuri palm and places an inverted funnel over it to
+concentrate the smoke. He first dips the end of a wooden spindle into
+the juice and then holds it in the smoke until the juice coagulates;
+this process is repeated until there has formed a ball of rubber
+weighing from five to ten pounds. The smoke of the palm-nuts is a
+chemical agent that converts the juice into the crude rubber of
+commerce.
+
+Crude gum, however, is lacking both in strength and elasticity. The
+process that makes it a finished product is known as _vulcanization_.
+The crude rubber, having been exported to the manufacturer in the United
+States or Europe, is shredded, washed, and cleansed, and partly fused
+with varying proportions of sulphur. For a very soft product, such as
+the inner surface of tires, only a small proportion is used; where the
+wear is considerable, a larger proportion is employed.[38] White clay is
+sometimes added to give body to the product; coloring matter is also
+sometimes added.
+
+By far the greater part of the crude rubber comes from the Amazon
+forests. Brazil produces about one-half, but a considerable quantity is
+obtained in Acré, the territory formed where the borders of Brazil,
+Bolivia, and Peru meet, and now ceded to Brazil. Nearly all this
+product, that of the Ceará region excepted, is marketed at Pará and is
+known as Pará rubber. It is the best produced. The African product,
+mainly from the forests of the Kongo, and Madagascar, and nearly all the
+East Indian product is sent to Europe.
+
+[Illustration: REGIONS YIELDING RUBBER]
+
+The world's product is about one hundred and thirty-three million pounds
+of crude rubber. Of this product the United States takes nearly
+one-half. The greater part is used in the manufacture of pneumatic
+tires, hose, and overshoes. A large part is used for making water-proof
+cloth,[39] and considerable is made into the small elastic bands for
+which there is a growing use.
+
+=Gutta-Percha.=--Gutta-percha is obtained from the juices of several
+plants (chiefly _Dichopsis gutta_ and _Supota mülleri_) both of which
+abound in the Malay peninsula and the East Indies. It is prepared in a
+manner somewhat similar to that employed in making crude rubber; it is
+also easily vulcanized by heating with sulphur. It is used to a limited
+extent in the manufacture of golf-balls, but mainly as the insulating
+cover of copper wires used in ocean telegraph cables. For this purpose
+it has no known substitute, and its essential merit is the fact that it
+is not altered by salt water. Nearly all the product is shipped from
+Singapore to England.
+
+=Pine-Tree Products.=--The various members of the pine and cone-bearing
+trees yield valuable essential oils and oleo-resins that are very
+important in the arts and sciences. These, in nearly every instance, are
+prepared from the sap of the tree.
+
+_Oil of turpentine_ is known as an "essential oil," and in chemical
+structure and properties it does not differ from the various essential
+oils, such as lemon, orange, peppermint, etc. Commercial turpentine is
+generally made from the sap of the long-leafed pine of the Atlantic
+coast-plain.
+
+The bark of the tree is cut near the foot, and the sap that oozes from
+the scar quickly hardens into a gum. The gum, generally known as "crude
+turpentine," is distilled and yields about one-fourth its weight of oil
+or "spirit" of turpentine. It is a staple article of manufacture in
+Europe, India, and the United States, and is used chiefly to dilute the
+oil paints and varnishes used in indoor work. The United States supplies
+about two-thirds of the world's product, a large part of which is
+shipped from Savannah and Brunswick, Ga., to Great Britain.[40]
+
+_Resin_ is the substance remaining after the crude turpentine has been
+distilled. It is used in the manufacture of varnish, sealing-wax, and
+soap. Finely powdered resin is also mixed with wood-pulp in the
+manufacture of wrapping-paper. It gives the latter a glazed surface and
+renders it almost water-proof. Most of the world's product of resin
+comes from the turpentine district of the United States, and about
+four-fifths of it is exported to Europe.
+
+When resin is subjected to distillation at a still higher temperature,
+_resin oil_, a very heavy turpentine, is given off, and a viscous
+substance known as _pitch_ remains. A considerable amount of this is
+still made in the United States, but the greater part comes from the
+pine-forests of Russia and Scandinavia. When pine-wood is distilled,
+_tar_ is the chief product. In Russia tar is generally made by burning
+green logs covered with turf, over a pit. _Creosote_, or wood
+preservative, is made from tar. The various pine-tree products, creosote
+excepted, are commonly known as "naval stores," the tar being used in
+water-proofing the rigging of vessels, the pitch in calking the seams in
+between planks, in the decks and hulls.
+
+=Other Resins and Gums Used in the Arts.=--Most of the gums and resins
+used in the arts and sciences are the hardened sap of plants--in some
+cases exuding by natural means from the bark, in others resulting from
+the puncture of the bark.
+
+The _lac_ of commerce is due to the puncture of the young branches of a
+tree, frequently a fig (_Ficus religiosa_) growing in the tropical
+forests of India. The hardened sap incrusts twigs forming _stick-lac_;
+when crushed, washed, and freed from the woody matter it is _seed-lac_;
+when melted and cooled in flakes it is _shell-lac_, the form best known
+in commerce. It is the chief ingredient in sealing-wax, and is
+extensively used as a varnish. It is also used in fireworks on account
+of its inflammability.
+
+_Dammar_ is the product of a tree growing in the East Indies; it is the
+basis of a very fine white varnish. _Copal_ is a term applied to
+oleo-resins soluble in turpentine, and used almost universally as
+varnishes. They come from the tropical regions of South America, Africa,
+and from the East Indies. _Kauri_ is the fossil gum of a cone-bearing
+tree dug from the ground in northern New Zealand. _Amber_ is the fossil
+gum of extinct cone-bearing trees found mainly along the Baltic coast of
+Prussia. It is used chiefly for the mouth-pieces of tobacco-pipes and
+cigar-holders; the inferior product is made into varnish. It is sold
+wherever tobacco is used. _Sandarach_, found on the north African coast,
+is used principally in Europe, being employed as a varnish. The United
+States and Great Britain consume most of the foregoing products.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Name any elastic substance you know about that is in every way a
+substitute for rubber.
+
+What has been the relation between rubber and good roads?
+
+Describe the structure of a bicycle tire.
+
+Why are tar, pitch, and turpentine called naval stores?--and what
+determines the locality in which they are made?
+
+What is varnish, and for what purposes is it used?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain specimens of crude rubber, vulcanized rubber, and hard rubber;
+note carefully the characteristics of each.
+
+Burn a very small piece of cheap white rubber-tubing in an iron spoon or
+a fire-shovel; note the character of the residue.
+
+Obtain specimens of gutta-percha, resin, pitch, turpentine, shellac,
+copal, dammar, and creosote for study and inspection.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+COAL AND PETROLEUM
+
+
+The economic history of nearly every country that has achieved eminence
+in modern times dates from its use of coal and iron; and indeed the
+presence of these substances in workable deposits means almost unlimited
+power. The present era is sometimes called the Age of Steel, but the
+possibilities of producing steel in enormous quantities, at less than
+one-fifth its price at the beginning of the nineteenth century, depended
+mainly upon the use of mineral coal instead of charcoal in its
+manufacture.
+
+Coal consists of accumulations of vegetable matter that were formed in
+prior geological ages. Under the action of heat and moisture, and also
+the tremendous pressure of the rock layers that afterward covered them,
+the vegetable matter was converted to mineral coal.
+
+The aggregate coal-fields of the United States are not far from two
+hundred thousand square miles in extent, but of this area not much more
+than one-half is workable. In Europe there are estimated to be about one
+hundred thousand square miles of coal-lands, of which about half are
+productive at the present time. Of this Great Britain has 12,000 square
+miles, Spain 4,000, France 2,000, Germany 1,800, and Belgium 500. In
+Canada there are about 20,000 square miles of coal-land; a part of this
+is included in the Nanaimo field on the Pacific coast, but the most
+important are the Nova Scotia beds, which form about the only supply for
+the British naval stations of America. China has extensive coal-fields.
+
+In character coal is broadly divided into two classes--anthracite or
+hard, and bituminous or soft, coal. Anthracite coal occurs in folded and
+metamorphic rocks. It is hard and glassy, and does not split into thin
+layers or leaves. The beds have been subjected to intense heat and
+pressure, and the coal has but a very small amount--rarely more than
+five per cent.--of volatile matter; it burns, therefore, with little or
+no smoke and soot, and on this account is very desirable as a fuel in
+cities. Two areas in Colorado and New Mexico produce small quantities of
+pure anthracite; practically all the commercial anthracite comes from
+three small basins in Pennsylvania. In quality it is known as "red ash"
+and "white ash," the former being the superior.
+
+The yearly output of the anthracite mines is upward of fifty-five
+million long tons a year, or somewhat less than five million tons per
+month. In winter the rate of consumption is somewhat greater than that
+of production. A shortage in the summer production is therefore apt to
+be keenly felt in the winter. Before shipment to the market the coal is
+crushed at the breakers, sorted in different sizes, and washed.
+
+Most of the anthracite coal-mines are owned by the railway companies
+centring at New York and Philadelphia, or else are operated by companies
+controlled by the railways. About one-fourth of the output is produced
+by independent operators who, as a rule, sell their coal to the railway
+companies. The Reading, Pennsylvania, Central of New Jersey, Lackawanna,
+Lehigh Valley, Ontario & Western, Erie, and Delaware & Hudson are
+popularly known as "coalers" because the larger part of their eastern
+business consists in carrying anthracite coal.
+
+[Illustration: A VIEW OF THREE COLLIERIES IN THE ANTHRACITE COAL BASIN
+NEAR MAHANOY CITY, PA.]
+
+Formerly much of the coal was shipped by canals, but the latter were
+not able to compete with the railways, and most of the coal-canals have
+been abandoned. The price of anthracite at tide-water (New York) varies
+from $3.20 to $4.50 per long ton. At Philadelphia the price is about
+one-fourth less. Buffalo is the chief lake-port for anthracite. Steam
+sizes are about two-thirds the price of house fuel.
+
+[Illustration: COAL FIELDS IN UNITED STATES]
+
+Bituminous, or soft coal furnishes the larger part of the house fuel in
+the United States, and nearly all the house coal used in other parts of
+the world. It contains from fifteen to more than forty per cent. of
+volatile matter, burning with a long and smoky flame. The coal which
+contains twenty per cent. or less of volatile matter is a free-burning
+coal that may develop heat enough to partly fuse the ash, forming
+"clinkers"; it is therefore called "caking" coal, and is not only well
+adapted for use as fuel and steam-making, but it is also a good smelting
+coal.
+
+Coal which contains more than thirty per cent. of volatile matter is
+known as "fat" coal and is generally used in the manufacture of coke and
+illuminating gas. Western Pennsylvania produces the largest amount of
+fat coal, but it is found here and there in nearly all soft-coal
+regions. A so-called smokeless bituminous coal occurs in various
+localities; its low percentage of volatile matter makes it an excellent
+house fuel.
+
+Bituminous coal is mined in twenty-five States of the Union,
+Pennsylvania, Illinois, West Virginia, and Ohio heading the list. In
+about half the mines the coal is cut from the seam by means of machinery
+and is known as machine-mined coal. A very large part of the product is
+consumed within a short distance of the mines, and this is especially
+true of the region about the upper Ohio River.
+
+[Illustration: COAL PRODUCTION]
+
+Most of the product is shipped to the large manufacturing cities of the
+middle west, where it is used for steam as well as fuel; a very large
+amount also is sent down the Ohio in barges to the lower Mississippi
+River. The spot value of bituminous coal varies from $0.80 to $1.60 per
+ton; the product of the Pacific coast mines, however, is from $3 to $5.
+
+The output of the mines of the United States aggregates about two
+hundred and forty million long tons yearly, and this is about one-third
+of the world's product. For many years there has been an export trade to
+Canada, the West Indies, Central and South America, amounting in 1900 to
+8,000,000 tons. Within a few years, however, the decreased cost of
+mining due to machinery, and the low rates of transportation to the
+seaboard has developed an export trade to Russia, Germany, and France.
+
+[Illustration: COAL]
+
+A small amount of coal is imported into the United States. A superior
+quality of Australian coal finds a ready market in Pacific coast points
+as far north as San Francisco, and large quantities of Nanaimo, B.C.,
+coal are sold in Oregon, Washington, and California. A small quantity of
+the "slack" or waste of the Nova Scotia mines is imported to Boston to
+be made into coke. The Canadian fields supply a considerable part of the
+coal used in Montana.
+
+=Coke and Coal-Tar Products.=--In the manufacture of iron and steel a fuel
+having a high percentage of carbon free from volatile matter is
+essential. The great cost of wood charcoal forbids its use, and so a
+charcoal made from soft coal is used. Fat coal is heated in closed
+chambers until the volatile matter is driven off. The product is "coke";
+the closed chamber is an "oven." The ovens are built of stone or
+fire-brick, in a long row. They are usually on an abrupt slope, so that
+the coal can be dumped into the top, while the coke can be withdrawn
+from the bottom, to be loaded into cars.
+
+About three thousand one hundred and forty pounds of coal are required
+to make a short ton of coke; from three thousand to five thousand cubic
+feet of illuminating gas, together with varying amounts of coal-tar and
+ammonia, are driven off and generally wasted. In a few instances
+"scientific" ovens are in use for the purpose of saving these products;
+but in the coal-mining regions such devices are the exception and not
+the rule. The great waste of energy-products in the manufacture of coke
+is partly offset by the employment of refuse and slack, which could not
+be otherwise used.
+
+There are more than five hundred and eighteen thousand coke-ovens in
+the United States, of which eighty per cent. are in use. Most of them
+are in the region about the upper Ohio River, and nearly half the total
+number is in the vicinity of Connellsville. The region around
+Birmingham, Ala., ranks next in number. The coke product of the United
+States is more than twenty million short tons a year. This is
+considerably less than the product of Great Britain, which is upward of
+twenty-five million tons.
+
+Most of the "scientific" ovens are near or in large cities where the
+gas, after purification, is used for illuminating purposes. In some
+instances the coke, and not the gas, is a by-product. The coal-tar is
+used in part for fuel, but a portion of it goes to the chemical
+laboratory, where it is made to yield ammonia, benzine, carbolic acid,
+and aniline dyes to the value of nearly seven million dollars.
+
+=Graphite.=--Graphite, plumbago, or "black lead," as it is popularly
+named, is found in many parts of the United States, but only a few
+localities produce a good commercial article; these are Ticonderoga, N.Y.,
+which yields from six hundred to two thousand tons a year, and
+Chester County, Pa., which yields a small but increasing amount; a good
+quality is mined near Ottawa, Canada. It is extensively mined in Ceylon,
+and this island produces the chief bulk of the world's ordinary product.
+The finest grade comes from the Alibert mine in Siberia. A good article
+is manufactured artificially at Niagara Falls.
+
+Graphite is used as a stove polish and for crucibles; in the main,
+however, it is employed in the manufacture of lead[41] pencils; for this
+purpose only a very soft mineral, absolutely free from grit, is
+employed, and the Siberian output is used almost wholly. One German firm
+and two American firms supply most of the pencils used.
+
+=Petroleum.=--Petroleum is the name given to a natural liquid mineral from
+which the well-known illuminating oil "kerosene" is derived, and to
+obtain which it is mined. Petroleum is a mixture of various compounds
+known as hydrocarbons. Some of these compounds are gaseous, some are
+liquid, and some are solid; all of them are articles of commercial
+value. The petroleum from different localities differs greatly in
+appearance and composition.
+
+The pitch that coated Noah's ark, the slime of the builders of the Tower
+of Babel, and the slime-pits of the Vale of Siddim all refer to mineral
+products associated with petroleum. Under the name of "naphtha" it has
+been known in Persia for thirty centuries, and for more than half as
+long a flowing oil spring has existed in the Ionian Islands. The Seneca
+Indians knew of a petroleum spring near the village of Cuba, N.Y., and
+used it as a medicine long before the advent of the white man.
+
+As early as 1850 illuminating oil, known as "coal" oil, was made in the
+United States by distilling cannel coal, but this product was supplanted
+within a few years by the natural petroleum discovered in Pennsylvania.
+In 1859 Colonel Drake completed a well bored in solid rock near
+Titusville, Pa. The venture proved successful, and in a few years
+petroleum mining became one of the great industries of the United
+States.
+
+Petroleum is known to exist in a great many parts of the world; the
+United States and Russia, however, produce practically all the
+commercial product; a very small amount is obtained from a horizon on
+the south slope of the Carpathian Mountains, situated in Rumania and
+Galicia, Austria-Hungary. There are also a few producing wells in Peru,
+Germany, Italy, Burma, Argentina, and Sumatra.
+
+[Illustration: PETROLEUM FIELDS IN THE UNITED STATES]
+
+In the United States the largest horizon is that of the Appalachian
+region. Since 1859 it has produced more than forty million gallons of
+crude oil. The Lima, Ind., horizon produces about twenty million
+barrels. The California and Texas horizons have become very important
+factors. The crude petroleum is transported partly in tank cars, but
+mainly by means of long lines of pipe, flowing from one pumping station
+to another by gravity. There are pipe-line terminals on the Great Lakes
+and at Pittsburg, but the principal are at the refining and exporting
+stations in New York, Philadelphia, and on the Delaware River.
+
+A considerable amount is exported to European countries to be there
+refined, but in the main the crude oil is refined before exporting it.
+Some of the refined oil is exported in barrels, and some in tin cases;
+the greater part, however, goes in tank steamers, and from these it is
+pumped into tank cars to be distributed. Most of the product is
+controlled by the Standard Oil Company, and it reaches nearly every
+country in the world. It is carried into Arctic regions on sledges, and
+over the African deserts by caravans. Great Britain, Germany, and the
+Netherlands are the chief purchasers and distributors. The value of the
+entire product is about one hundred and eighty-five million dollars.
+
+The Russian oil-producing region is on and near the Apsheron peninsula,
+a small area of Trans-Caucasia, that extends into the Caspian Sea; the
+region is commonly known as the Baku field, and in 1900 the production
+of crude oil surpassed that of the United States. The petroleum is
+conveyed by pipe lines to the refineries at Baku. From this port it is
+shipped in tank cars by rail to Batum, whence it is conveyed to the
+various European markets. A considerable part of the product is sent by
+tank steamers to Astrakhan, and thence up the Volga to Russian markets.
+Great Britain takes about one-third; about the same amount is shipped to
+Port Saïd for China, India, and other Asian markets; the rest is
+consumed in central Europe.
+
+=Petroleum Products.=--The various constituents of crude petroleum differ
+greatly in character, some being much more volatile than others. They
+are separated by distillation at different temperatures. By this process
+naphtha, rhigoline, gasoline, benzine, and other highly inflammable
+products are obtained in separate receivers. By a similar process the
+illuminating or refined oil and the lubricating oils are also separated.
+The residuum consists of a gummy mass from which paraffine and petroleum
+jelly are extracted.
+
+_Naphtha_ usually contains several volatile compounds, including
+_benzine_ and _gasoline_. It is used as a solvent of grease and also of
+crude india-rubber, but chiefly the manufacture of illuminating gas.
+
+_Kerosene_ is the name commonly given to the refined oil. A good
+quality should have a fire test of not less than one hundred and fifty
+degrees; that is, when heated to that temperature, it should not give
+off any inflammable gas. This test is now mandatory in most States.
+
+_Lubricating oil_ is used almost wholly for the lubrication of heavy
+machinery. It varies greatly in composition and quality.
+
+_Paraffine_ or petroleum wax has largely superseded beeswax; it is used
+mainly in the manufacture of candles and as an insulator for electric
+wires. A native mineral paraffine, known as ozocerite, is mined in Utah
+and Galicia; it is used as an insulating material.
+
+"_Vaseline_," "_cosmoline_," or _petroleum "jelly"_ is very largely used
+in pharmacy as the basis of ointments and also as a lubricant for heavy
+machinery.
+
+_Asphalt_ is produced by the distillation of petroleum, but the greater
+part of the world's product comes from two "pitch lakes"--one in
+Bermudez, Venezuela, the other in the island of Trinidad, off the
+Venezuelan coast. The former is the larger and produces a superior
+quality. Small deposits occur near Los Angeles, Cal., and in Utah. The
+output of the Venezuelan asphalt is used almost wholly for street
+pavement.
+
+Probably no other mineral has had a wider influence on both social and
+economic life, and the industrial arts, than petroleum and its
+compounds. The kerosene lamp, the aniline dye, the insulation of
+electric wires, the lubrication of machinery, the cosmetic, the
+india-rubber solution, and the physician's sedative dose represent only
+a few of the devices that are derived from petroleum.
+
+=Natural Gas.=--A natural inflammable gas occurs in or near several of the
+petroleum horizons. One important belt extends through western
+Pennsylvania and New York, and another through northwestern Ohio and
+northeastern Indiana. It is conveyed through pipe-lines and used both as
+fuel and for lighting. Natural gas occurs in a great many localities,
+but is used commercially only in the regions noted. It is better adapted
+for making glass than any other fuel, and on this account extensive
+glass-making establishments have concentrated in the natural-gas belt of
+western Pennsylvania.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+The statement is sometimes made to the effect that coal is "condensed
+sunlight"; is it true, or untrue; and why?
+
+Why are the coal areas of Europe and America also areas of various
+manufactures?
+
+A recent cartoon had for its title--"John Bull and his coal piles
+(_i.e._, coaling stations) rule the world"; show why this statement
+contains a great deal of truth.
+
+What are some of the advantages of steam-vessels over sailing-vessels?
+
+Whale oil, crude turpentine, kerosene, and gas have been used each in
+turn for illuminants; what is the advantage of each over the preceding?
+
+Describe the structure of an ordinary kerosene lamp-burner, an argand
+burner, a Welsbach burner.
+
+For what are aniline, paraffine, naphtha, and carbolic acid used?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain specimens of anthracite, bituminous, and cannel coal, and coke
+for comparison and study.
+
+Obtain specimens of crude petroleum, naphtha, refined oil, aniline dye,
+paraffine, and carbolic acid; note the properties of each. Throw away
+the naphtha after using.
+
+Read Mineral Resources of the United States on the foregoing subjects.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+METALS OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES
+
+
+The development of modern civilization is directly connected with the
+mining and manufacture of the useful metals. Their effect on the affairs
+of mankind can be rightly understood only when they are studied in their
+relations to one another, as well as to the people who used them. Next
+to the discovery of the use of fire, an appreciation of the use of
+metals has been the chief thing to develop the intellect of mankind.
+When human beings discarded natural caves for artificially constructed
+dwellings--when they began to cook their food and clothe their bodies,
+they required tools. These, in the main, consisted of the spears and
+arrow-heads used as weapons of the chase, and the axes and knives used
+as constructive tools.
+
+Rough stone gave place to flint because the latter would take a better
+edge. For the same reason the people of central Europe sent to the
+deserts of central Asia for jade wherewith to make axes and knives.
+Again, for the same reason, jade was discarded, because an alloy of
+copper and tin produced a bronze that would not only take a sharper edge
+than stone, but it was hard enough to cut and dress the latter. Egypt
+rose to a commanding position because of her control of the copper mines
+in the Sinaitic peninsula, and subsequently of the gold products coming
+from the upper Nile.
+
+A meridian drawn through Cairo, Egypt, practically divides the world
+into two kinds of civilization. East of this meridian the population is
+almost wholly agricultural and, excepting Japan and India, the
+character of the civilization has changed but little in the past 2,000
+years. West of the line the population is essentially characterized as
+metal-workers. It controls the world--not especially by virtue of a high
+degree of intellectual development, but because it has availed itself of
+the properties and characteristics of metals and their applications to
+commerce.
+
+The four metals that have had the greatest influence on western
+civilization are gold, silver, iron, and copper. The discovery of gold
+and silver has always resulted in a rapid settlement of the regions in
+which the discoveries were made, and usually in the building of great
+industrial centres. Thus, the discovery of gold in California was the
+first step in making the United States a world power. The acquisition of
+so large an amount of gold caused an industrial expansion that hurried
+the Civil War, and led to the manufacture of iron and steel both for
+agricultural machinery and railroad transportation. This, in turn,
+brought the country so closely in touch with the affairs of China and
+Japan, that European and American diplomacy in eastern Asia are a common
+concern. The commercial position of Great Britain is very largely due to
+her iron mines.
+
+The production of Bessemer steel at a price far less than that of iron
+at the beginning of the nineteenth century lowered the cost of
+transporting commodities to the extent that large areas, once of
+necessity very moderately productive of food-stuffs, are now densely
+peopled because food-stuffs can be transported to these regions more
+economically than they can be grown there. Thus, owing to the
+improvements in iron and steel manufacture, the farmer of Minnesota, the
+planter of Louisiana, the miner of Colorado, and the factory operative
+of Massachusetts have each the same comforts of living that are enjoyed
+by all the others, and have them at scarcely more than half the cost of
+fifty years ago.
+
+[Illustration: STEEL MANUFACTURE--THE NATIONAL STEEL COMPANY'S SMELTERY
+AND ROLLING-MILLS, MINGO JUNCTION, OHIO]
+
+The gradual decrease in the production of the silver mines near the
+present site of Ergasteria proved a beginning of the fall of Athens; and
+when gold was discovered in the Perim Mountains of Macedonia, the seat
+of Greek power moved thither. Philip of Macedon hoarded the treasure
+from the mines of Pangæus, and with the capital thus acquired his son,
+Alexander the Great, conquered the East, implanted Hellenic business
+methods there, and drew the various trade routes between Europe and Asia
+under one control.
+
+In the fifteenth century copper from the mines near Budapest and silver
+from the Schwarz Mountains of Germany were the resources that made
+Germanic Europe pre-eminent. The wresting of the trade in these two
+metals from Venice caused the rise of Antwerp and brought immense gains
+to Lübeck, London, Brussels, Augsburg, and Nuremberg. In the latter part
+of the nineteenth century copper again reached a high position of
+importance from the fact that upon it largely depends electric motive
+power and transportation.
+
+=Iron.=--Iron is one of the most widely diffused of metals. It is abundant
+in the sun; meteorites contain from more than ten to eighty or ninety
+per cent. of it; all earths and rocks contain at least traces of it; and
+in various places the deposits of ore in nearly pure form aggregate
+cubic miles in extent.
+
+In only a few localities is iron ore found in a metallic or "native"
+form. Many meteorites consist of metallic iron mixed with nickel and
+manganese, and in Greenland a volcanic dyke or ledge of metallic iron is
+known to exist. The iron of commerce is derived from "ores," or chemical
+compounds of iron and oxygen, or iron and carbon. The cheapness of the
+product depends upon the ease with which the ore may be quarried,
+transported to coal, and smelted. The following are the ores commonly
+employed in the production of iron:
+
+_Red hematite_ has a reddish metallic lustre and when pure contains
+seventy per cent. of iron.[42] It is the most abundant of the workable
+ores, and certainly the best for the manufacture of Bessemer steel. The
+ores of the Lake Superior region are mainly red hematite, and the latter
+constitutes more than four-fifths of the output of the United States.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMPARATIVE PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL]
+
+_Brown hematite_, or limonite, has a chestnut brown color and contains
+very nearly sixty per cent. of iron[43]; it includes the "bog" ores, and
+is very abundant. Not far from one-quarter of the Appalachian ores are
+brown hematite; it constitutes about one-eighth of the output of the
+United States.
+
+_Magnetic_ iron ore, or magnetite, of which loadstone, a natural magnet,
+is an example, has a metallic, steel lustre and contains 72.4 per cent.
+of iron.[44] Most of the ores obtained in Pennsylvania and New York are
+magnetite. The magnetites furnish about one-sixteenth of the output of
+the United States.
+
+_Carbonate of Iron_, or siderite, occurs in a few localities, the ore
+produced in Ohio being almost wholly of this kind. It contains when
+pure about forty-eight per cent. of iron.[45] It constitutes less than
+one per cent. of the output of the United States.
+
+_Iron pyrites_, or sulphide of iron, sometimes called "fools' gold," is
+a very common mineral. It is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid,
+but is worthless for the production of iron; indeed, the presence of a
+very small percentage of sulphur in iron renders the latter worthless
+for many purposes.
+
+Extensive deposits of iron are known to exist in very nearly every
+country in the world, but those which can be advantageously worked are
+few in number. In order to be available, the deposits must be within
+easy transporting distance of the people who use it, and likewise within
+a short distance of the coal used to manufacture it.
+
+For these reasons most of the workable deposits of ore are in or near
+the great centres of population in western Europe and the eastern part
+of the United States; as a matter of fact, practically all the iron and
+steel of the latter country is produced in the populous centres of the
+Atlantic slopes. In most great steel-making districts it is essential to
+mix the native ores with special ores brought from a distance, the
+latter being used to give strength and hardness to the resulting metal.
+Ores from Sweden, and from Juragua, Cuba, are employed for this purpose
+in the steel-making establishments of the United States.
+
+In the past few years the United States has jumped from an insignificant
+position in the production of iron and steel to the first rank among the
+iron-producing countries. This great advance is due to the fortunate
+geographic position of the iron ore and the coal, and also to the
+discovery of the Bessemer process of making steel.
+
+In general it is more economical to ship the ore to the coal than _vice
+versa_. The position of the steel-making plant is largely determined by
+the cost of moving the coke and ore, together with that of getting the
+steel to the place of use. Formerly, iron manufacture in the United
+States was not profitable unless the coal, ore, and limestone[46] were
+very near to one another.
+
+These conditions still obtain in the southern Appalachian mineral
+fields; the ore and the coal are at no great distance apart, and a great
+iron-making industry, in which Birmingham and Bessemer form the
+principal centre, has grown into existence. For the greater part the
+coal is coked; and in this form less than a ton[47] is sufficient to
+make a ton of pig-iron. The smelteries and rolling-mills are built at
+places where the materials are most conveniently hauled.
+
+In the past few years the iron and steel industry which formerly centred
+about the navigable waters at the head of the Ohio River, has undergone
+a readjustment. Rolling-mills and smelteries exist at Pittsburg and
+vicinity, and at Youngstown, New Castle, and other nearby localities,
+but greater steel-making plants have been built along the south shores
+of Lakes Michigan and Erie, all of which have come about because of
+reasons that are purely geographic.
+
+Immense deposits of excellent hematite ore in the old mountain-ranges
+near Lake Superior have recently become available. For the greater part
+the ore is very easily quarried. In many instances it is taken out of
+the quarry or pit by steam-shovels which dump it into self-discharging
+hopper-cars. Thence the ore is carried on a down grade to the nearest
+shipping-port on the lake. There it is dumped into huge bunkers built at
+the docks, and from these it slides down chutes into the holds of the
+steam-barges. A 6,000-ton barge is loaded in less than two hours; a car
+is unloaded in a few seconds.
+
+[Illustration: MOVEMENT OF IRON ORE]
+
+Water transportation is very cheap compared with railway transportation,
+even when the road is built and equipped as an ore-hauling road. The ore
+is therefore carried a distance varying from one thousand to one
+thousand five hundred miles for less than it could be loaded, on cars
+hauled one-tenth that distance by rail, and unloaded.
+
+[Illustration: STEEL MANUFACTURE--ORE DOCKS]
+
+At the south shore of Lake Erie, the ore meets the coke from western
+Pennsylvania and coal from the Ohio coal-fields, and as a result new
+centres of iron and steel manufacture have grown up along this line of
+"least resistance." The ore is unloaded at the docks by means of
+mechanical scoops and shovels. So cheaply and quickly is it mined and
+transported that it is delivered to the smelteries at a cost varying
+from $1.75 to $3.25 per ton.
+
+[Illustration: LAKE SUPERIOR IRON ORE FIELDS]
+
+There are three forms in which iron is used--cast iron, wrought iron,
+and steel. Cast iron is crystalline and brittle. The product as it comes
+from the blast furnace is called pig-iron. In making such commodities as
+stoves, and articles that do not require great strength, the pig-iron is
+again melted and cast into moulds which give them the required shape.
+Cast iron contains from one to five per cent. of carbon.
+
+Wrought iron is malleable, ductile, and very flexible; when pure it is
+also very soft. It is prepared by melting pig-iron in furnaces having
+such a shape that the molten metal can be stirred or "puddled" in
+contact with the air. By this means the carbon is burnt out, and while
+still at a white heat the pasty iron is kneaded or "wrought," in order
+to expel other impurities.
+
+Steel is a form of iron which is thought to contain a chemical compound
+of iron with carbon. It is stronger than iron and finer in grain.
+Formerly, steel was made by packing bars of pure iron in charcoal
+powder, the whole being enclosed in clay retorts that were heated to
+whiteness for about three days. The product obtained by this method is
+known as cementation steel. It is still used in the manufacture of
+cutlery, tools, and fine machinery; it is likewise very expensive. In
+smelting certain ores it is easy to burn out the carbon in open
+furnaces, and "open-hearth" steel is an important factor.
+
+Just about the beginning of the Civil War, when the railways of the
+United States were taxed beyond their capacity to carry the produce of
+the country, it became apparent that something more durable than iron
+must be used for rails. The locomotives, then weighing from twenty-five
+to thirty-five tons each, were too light to haul the freight offered the
+roads; they were also too heavy for the rails, which split at the ends
+and frayed at the edges.
+
+[Illustration: IRON AND STEEL]
+
+The Bessemer process of making steel was the result of the demand for a
+better and a cheaper method. By this process, the iron is put into a
+"converter" along with certain Swedish or Cuban ores to give the product
+hardness. A hot blast is then forced into the converter which not only
+melts the mass but burns out the excess of carbon as well. The color of
+the flame indicates the moment when the conversion to steel is
+accomplished.
+
+In 1860, before the establishment of the Bessemer process, steel
+commanded a price of about one hundred and twenty-five dollars per ton;
+at the beginning of the twentieth century steel billets were about
+eighteen dollars per ton. In western Europe and the United States there
+are used about three hundred pounds of iron and steel per capita; in
+South America the rate of consumption is about fifteen pounds; in Asia
+(Japan excepted) it is probably less than three pounds.
+
+The economic results of low-priced steel are very far-reaching. Steam
+boilers of steel carry a pressure of more than two hundred and fifty
+pounds to each square inch of surface--about four times as great as in
+the iron boilers formerly used. Locomotives of eighty tons draw the fast
+passenger trains at a speed of sixty miles an hour. Ponderous
+compounding engines weighing one hundred and twenty tons haul ninety or
+more steel freight cars that carry each a load of 100,000 pounds. The
+iron rails formerly in use weighed about forty pounds per yard; now
+steel rails of one hundred pounds per yard are employed on most trunk
+lines.
+
+In the large commercial buildings steel girders have entirely supplanted
+timber, while in nearly all modern buildings of more than six stories in
+height, the frame is constructed of Bessemer steel. Indeed, a
+steel-framed building of twenty-five stories has greater stability than
+a brick or stone building of six. Such a structure as the "Flatiron
+Building" in New York or the Masonic Temple in Chicago would have been
+impossible without Bessemer steel.
+
+In ocean commerce cheap steel has worked even a greater revolution. In
+1860, a vessel of 4,000 tons displacement was thought to be almost up to
+the limit. The Oceanic of the White Star Line has a displacement of
+about twenty-eight thousand five hundred tons. This is nearly equalled
+by the measurement of half a dozen other liners, and is exceeded by the
+freighters built by Mr. J.J. Hill for the China trade.
+
+[Illustration: _From a copyrighted photograph by C.L. Ritzmann, N.Y._
+
+STEEL MANUFACTURE
+
+THE FULLER (FLATIRON) BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY]
+
+HISTORICAL
+
+     1619.--Iron works established on Falling Creek, Va.
+
+     1643.--First foundry in Massachusetts, at Lynn.
+
+     1658.--Blast furnace and forge at New Haven, Conn.
+
+     1679.--Father Hennepin discovers coal in Illinois.
+
+     1703.--Mordecai Lincoln, ancestor of Abraham Lincoln, establishes
+     iron works at Scituate, Mass.
+
+     1717.--First bar iron exported from American Colonies to West
+     Indies.
+
+     1728.--Steel made, Hebron, Ct.
+
+     1732.--Father of George Washington establishes furnace in Virginia.
+
+     1740.--First iron works in New York, near Hudson.
+
+     1750.--Bituminous coal mined in Virginia.
+
+     1766.--Anthracite coal discovered in Pennsylvania.
+
+     1770.--First rolling-mill in Colonies, Boonton, N.J.
+
+     1801-1803.--Lake Champlain iron district, New York, developed.
+
+     1812.--First rolling-mill at Pittsburg.
+
+     1828.--Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, first steam railway in the United
+     States, begun.
+
+     1829.--"Stourbridge Lion," first locomotive in America, used in
+     Delaware & Hudson Railway.
+
+     1830.--The T rail invented by Robert L. Stevens.
+
+     1830.--First American locomotive, "Tom Thumb," built by Peter
+     Cooper at Baltimore.
+
+     1830.--Twenty-three miles of railway in the United States.
+
+     1844.--Lake Superior iron ores discovered by William Burt.
+
+     1850.--First shipment of Lake Superior ore, ten tons.
+
+     1857.--Iron industry founded in Chicago.
+
+     1862.--Phoenix wrought iron column, or girder, first made.
+
+     1864.--Bessemer steel first made in the United States.
+
+     1865.--First Bessemer steel rails in the United States rolled at
+     Chicago.
+
+     1890.--First armor-plate made in the United States rolled at
+     Bethlehem, Pa.
+
+     1890.--The United States surpasses Great Britain in production of
+     pig-iron.
+
+     1900.--The United States leads in the production of open-hearth
+     steel.
+
+=Gold.=--Gold is one of the metals earliest to be mined. It is mentioned
+by the ancient profane as well as by sacred writers. Pictorial
+representations of fusing and working the metal are sculptured on early
+Egyptian tombs, and beautiful gold ornaments have been found that were
+made by the prehistoric peoples who once occupied ancient Etruria, in
+Italy. Columbus found gold ornaments in the possession of the aboriginal
+Americans. The Incas of Peru and the Aztecs of Mexico possessed large
+quantities of gold.
+
+[Illustration: LEACHING (CYANIDE) TANKS DISSOLVING THE GOLD FROM THE
+ROASTED ORE]
+
+[Illustration: STOPING OUT A TUNNEL]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF MILL]
+
+[Illustration: GOLD MINING]
+
+Gold is one of the most widely diffused of metals. Traces of it are
+found in practically all igneous and most sedimentary rocks. It occurs
+in sea-water, and quite frequently in beach-sands. Traces of it are also
+usually to be found in alluvial deposits and in the soils of most
+mountain-folds. In spite of its wide diffusion, however, all the gold
+that has been mined could be stored readily in the vaults of any large
+New York bank.
+
+In all probability most of the gold now in use has been deposited by
+solution in quartz veins, the latter usually filling seams and crevices
+in granitic or volcanic rocks. Quartz veins seldom yield very great
+returns, but they furnish a steady supply of the metal. The rock must be
+mined, hoisted to the surface, and crushed. The gold is then dissolved
+by quicksilver (forming an amalgam from which the quicksilver is removed
+by heat), by potassium cyanide solution, or by chlorine solution.
+
+In many instances the quartz veins have been broken and weathered by
+natural forces. In such cases the gold is usually carried off by swiftly
+running water and deposited in the channel lower down. In this way
+"placer" deposits of gold occur. Placer deposits are sometimes very
+rich, but they are quickly exhausted. The first gold discovered in
+California was placer gold.
+
+Nearly all the gold mined in the United States has come from the western
+highlands. In 1900, Colorado, California, South Dakota (Black Hills),
+Montana, and Alaska yielded about seven-eighths of the entire product.
+The placer mines of Alaska are confined mainly to the beach-sands and
+the tributaries of Yukon River. Since 1849 the average annual yield of
+gold in the United States is about forty-three million dollars.
+
+The Guinea coast of Africa, Australia, California, the Transvaal of
+South Africa, and Venezuela have each stood at the front in the
+production of gold. The aggregate annual production of the world has
+increased from one hundred and sixty million dollars in 1853 to more
+than three hundred million dollars in 1900.
+
+A considerable part of the gold product is used in gilding
+picture-frames, book-titles, sign-letters, porcelain, and ornamental
+brass work. Practically, all of this is lost, and in the United States
+alone the loss aggregates about fifteen million dollars yearly. The
+abrasion and unavoidable wear of gold coin is another great source of
+loss.
+
+An enormous amount is used in the manufacture of jewelry, most of which
+is used over and over again. By far the greater part, however, is used
+as a commercial medium of exchange--that is, as coin. For this purpose
+its employment is wellnigh universal; and indeed this has been its chief
+use since the beginning of written history. Gold coin of the United
+States is 900 fine, that is, 900 parts of every thousand is pure gold;
+gold coin of Great Britain is 916-2/3 fine. In each case a small amount
+of silver, or silver and copper, is added to give the coin the requisite
+hardness. The coining of gold, and also other metals, is a government
+monopoly in every civilized country.
+
+The fiat value of gold throughout the commercial world is the equivalent
+of $20.6718 per troy ounce of fine metal; an eagle weighs, therefore,
+2580 grains. The real value, however, is reckoned by a different and a
+more accurate standard, namely, the labor of man, and this, the
+sporadic finds of placer gold excepted, has not changed much in two
+thousand years or more. The increased production has scarcely equalled
+the demand for the metal; moreover, the longer a mine is worked the
+greater becomes the expense of its operation. Improved processes for the
+extraction of gold have not created any surplus of gold; indeed, the
+supply is not equal to the demand; and this fact keeps the metal
+practically at a fixed value.
+
+=Silver.=--Silver is about as widely diffused as is gold, but it is more
+plentiful. It is found sparingly in most of the older rocks and also in
+sea-water. It was used by the Greeks for coinage more than eight hundred
+years before the Christian era, and was known to the Jewish people in
+very early times. According to the writer of the Book of Kings (1 Kings
+x. 21), "It was nothing accounted of in the days of Solomon," but
+Tacitus declares that in ancient Germany silver was even more valuable
+than gold. The mines of Laureion (Laurium) gave the Greek state of
+Attica its chief power, and the failure of the mines marked the
+beginning of Athenian decline.
+
+Silver is rarely found in a metallic state. For the greater part it
+occurs combined with chlorine ("horn silver"), or with sulphur ("silver
+glance"), or in combination with antimony and sulphur ("ruby ore"). The
+ranges of the western highland region of the American continent yield
+most of the present supply. The mines of Colorado, Montana, Utah, and
+Idaho produce about six-sevenths of the yield in the United States,
+which in 1900 was 74,500,000 ounces. In Europe the Hartz Mountains have
+been famous for silver for several centuries.
+
+About four-fifths of the silver bullion is used in the arts, most of it
+being manufactured into ornaments or into table-service called "plate."
+A considerable amount is used in photography, certain silver salts,
+especially the chloride and the bromide, changing color by exposure to
+the light. The remaining part of the silver output is made into coin.
+
+The ratio of silver and gold has fluctuated much in the history of
+civilization. In the United States the value of an ounce of fine silver
+is fixed at $1.2929, thereby making the ratio 16 to 1. The silver
+dollars, 900 fine, were coined on this basis, weighing 412.5 grains.
+With the tremendous output of the silver mines between 1870 and 1880 the
+price of silver fell to such an extent that, in time, most countries
+limited the amount of coinage or demonetized it altogether. In the
+United States the purchase of silver bullion for coinage has been
+practically suspended, and the silver purchased is bought at the bullion
+value--about fifty cents per troy ounce in 1900. In Japan the ratio has
+been officially fixed at 32 to 1.
+
+=Copper.=--Copper is probably the oldest metal known that has been used in
+making tools. An alloy of copper and tin, hard enough to cut and dress
+stone, succeeded the use of flint and jade, and its employment became so
+general as to give the name "bronze" to the age following that
+characterized by the use of stone implements.
+
+Copper is very widely distributed. It occurs in quantities that pay for
+mining in pretty nearly every country in the world. The rise of Egypt as
+a commercial power was due to the fact that the Egyptians controlled the
+world's trade in that metal, and it is highly probable that the
+conquests of Cyprus at various times were chiefly for the possession of
+the copper mines of Mount Olympus.
+
+At the present time there are several great centres of production which
+yield most of the metal used. These are the Rocky Mountain region,
+including Mexico; the Lake Superior region of the United States; the
+Andean region, including Chile, Peru, Argentina, and Bolivia; the
+Iberian region, consisting of Spain and Portugal; and the Hartz
+Mountain region of Germany. In 1900 they produced about four hundred and
+fifty thousand tons, of which two hundred and eighty thousand were mined
+in the United States.
+
+Montana, the Lake Superior mines, and Arizona are the most productive
+regions of the United States, and the mines of these three localities
+yield more than half the world's product. Of these mines the Calumet and
+Hecla of the Lake Superior region is the most famous. It was discovered
+by Jesuit explorers about 1660, but was not worked until 1845. It is one
+of the most productive mines in the world, its yearly output averaging
+fifty million tons.
+
+The export trade in copper is very important, amounting at the close of
+the past century to about one hundred and seventy thousand short tons.
+Of this amount, half goes to Germany (most of it through ports of the
+Netherlands), and one-fifth each to France and Great Britain. The market
+price to the consumer during the ten years closing the century averaged
+about sixteen cents per pound. Most of the product is exported from New
+York and Baltimore. The head-quarters of the great copper-mining
+companies of America are at Boston. The imports of raw ores and partly
+reduced ores called "regulus," come mainly from Mexico to New York and
+Baltimore, and from Mexico and Japan to Puget Sound ports. The most
+important American refineries are at New York and Baltimore.
+
+A part of the copper is mixed with zinc to form brass, an alloy much
+used in light machinery. A considerable quantity is rolled into sheets
+to sheath building fronts and the iron hulls of vessels. By far the
+greater part, however, is drawn into wire for carrying electricity, and
+for this purpose it is surpassed by silver alone. The decrease in the
+price of copper in the past few years is due, not to a falling off in
+the demand, but to methods of reducing the ores and transporting the
+product more economically.
+
+=Aluminium.=--Aluminium is the base of clay, this mineral being its oxide.
+It occurs in the various feldspars and feldspathic rocks, and in mica.
+The expense of extracting the metal from these minerals has been so
+great as to prohibit its commercial use. In 1870 there were probably
+less than twenty pounds of the metal in existence, and it was to be
+found only as a curiosity in the chemical laboratories. The discovery
+that the metal could be extracted cheaply from cryolite, a mineral with
+an aluminium base, obtained from Ivigtut, Greenland, led to a sparing
+use of the metal in the economic arts.
+
+The chief step in the production of the metal dates from the time that
+the mineral _bauxite_, a hydroxide of aluminium and iron, was decomposed
+in the electric furnace. The process has been repeatedly improved, and
+under the patents covered by the Hall process the crude metal is now
+produced at a market price of about eighteen cents per pound. The entire
+production of the United States is controlled by the Pittsburg Reduction
+Company, which also manufactures much of the commercial product of
+England. The competitor of the Pittsburg Reduction Company is an
+establishment in Germany, near Bremen.
+
+Aluminium does not corrode; it is easily rolled, drawn, or cast; and,
+bulk for bulk, it is less than one-third as heavy as copper. Because of
+these properties it has a great and constantly growing economic value.
+Because of its greater size, a pound of aluminium wire will carry a
+greater electric current than a pound of copper wire of the same length.
+It therefore has an increasing use as a conductor of electricity.
+
+Bauxite, the mineral from which the metal is now chiefly extracted, is
+obtained in two localities. One extends through Georgia and Alabama;
+the other is in Arkansas.
+
+=Lead.=--Lead is neither so abundant nor so widely diffused as iron,
+copper, and the precious metals, but the supply is fully equal to the
+demand. Lead ores, mainly galena or lead sulphide, occur abundantly in
+the Rocky Mountains, Colorado, Idaho, and Utah, producing more than half
+the total output of the United States. In these localities, in Mexico,
+and in the Andean states of South America it is used mainly in the
+smelting of silver ores.
+
+Metallic lead is used largely in the manufacture of water-pipes, and for
+this purpose it must be very nearly pure. It is also rolled into sheets
+to be used as lining for water-tanks. The fact that the edges of
+sheet-lead and the ends of pipes may be readily joined with solder gives
+to lead a great part of its economic value. Alloyed with arsenic it is
+used in making shot; alloyed with antimony it forms type metal; alloyed
+with tin it forms pewter and solder.
+
+The greater part, however, is manufactured into the carbonate or "white"
+lead that is used as a pigment, or paint. Red lead, an oxide, is a
+pigment; litharge, also an oxide, is used for glazing the cheaper kinds
+of pottery. About two hundred and thirty thousand tons of lead are
+produced in the United States and one-half as much is imported--mainly
+from Mexico and Canada. The linotype machines, now used in all large
+printing establishments, have increased the demand for lead.
+
+=Other Metals.=--Most of the remaining economic metals occur in small
+quantities as compared with iron, copper, gold, and silver. Some of
+them, however, are highly important from the fact that in various
+industrial processes no substitutes for them are known.
+
+_Quicksilver_, or _mercury_, is the only industrial metal that at
+ordinary temperatures is a liquid. It is the base of the substance
+calomel, a chloride, and corrosive sublimate, a dichloride, both of
+which are employed as medicines. It is essential in the manufacture of
+thermometers and barometers, but is used chiefly, however, as a solvent
+of gold, which it separates from the finely powdered ore by solution or
+amalgamation. Quicksilver occurs in the mineral cinnabar, a sulphide.
+
+Nearly one-half the world's product comes from California. The New
+Almaden mines of Santa Clara County produce over five thousand flasks
+(each seventy-six and one-half pounds net); those of Napa County nearly
+nine thousand flasks; the mines of the whole State yield about
+twenty-six thousand flasks, valued at $1,200,000. Almaden, Spain, and
+Idria, Austria, produce nearly all the rest of the output. An average of
+about fifteen thousand flasks are exported from San Francisco, mainly to
+the mines of Mexico, and Central and South America.
+
+_Tin_ is about the only metal of industrial value whose ores are not
+found in paying quantities in the United States. Small quantities occur
+in San Bernardino County, Cal., and in the vicinity of Bering Strait,
+Alaska, but it is doubtful if either will ever pay for development.
+About three-fifths of the world's product comes from the Straits
+Settlements on the Malay Peninsula; the nearby islands of Banca and
+Billiton also yield a considerable quantity.
+
+The mines of Cornwall, England, have been worked for two thousand years
+and were probably the source of the tin that made the "bronze age." The
+United States imports yearly about twenty million dollars worth of tin,
+about half of which comes from the Straits Settlements. This is used
+almost wholly for the manufacture of tin plate[48]--that is, sheet-iron
+coated with tin. Much of the block tin imported from Great Britain is
+returned there in the form of tin plate, being manufactured in the
+United States much more economically than in Europe.
+
+_Nickel_ occurs in New Caledonia, in Canada, and in the State of
+Missouri. It is used in the manufacture of small coins and for plating
+iron and steel. It is an essential in the metal known as "nickel steel"
+which is now generally used in armor-plate and propeller-shafts, about
+four per cent. of nickel being added to the steel. Most of the product
+used in the United States is imported from Canada.
+
+_Manganese_, a metal resembling iron, occurs in Russia, Brazil, and
+Cuba, Russia producing about half the total output. It is used mainly to
+give hardness to steel. The propeller-blades of large steamships are
+usually made of manganese bronze. The building of war-ships in the
+United States during the past few years has led to the extensive use of
+manganese for armor-plate, and manganese ores to the amount of more than
+two hundred and fifty thousand tons were imported in 1900. More than
+one-half of this came from Russia; most of the remaining half from
+Brazil.
+
+_Zinc_ is abundant in nearly every part of the world. In the United
+States the best known mines are in the Galena-Joplin District, in
+Missouri and Kansas, which produce about two-thirds of the home
+product--mainly from the ore _blende_, a sulphide. There are also
+extensive zinc-mining operations in Illinois, New Jersey, and
+Pennsylvania. The lower Rhine District, Great Britain, and Silesia are
+the chief European sources. Sheet-zinc is found in nearly every dwelling
+in the United States, and zinc-coated or "galvanized" iron has become a
+domestic necessity. Zinc-white is extensively used as a pigment. About
+two hundred and fifty million pounds of crude zinc, or "spelter," are
+produced in the United States; forty-five million pounds were exported
+in 1900, mainly to Great Britain.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What are the qualities that make iron the most valuable of metals?
+
+In what ways does commerce depend on iron and steel?
+
+What substances are used for food, clothing, or domestic purposes that
+are not manufactured by the aid of iron?
+
+Ingot or billet steel is rated at about one cent per pound; the
+hair-springs of watches are worth several thousand dollars per pound;
+what makes the difference in their value?
+
+What are the qualities that give to gold its value?
+
+Would all the gold mined in the United States pay the national debt at
+the end of the Civil War?
+
+What causes have led to the increasing price of copper during the past
+few years?
+
+What is the market price each of copper, silver, steel rails, and
+aluminium to-day?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain specimens of the following iron ores: Hematite, brown hematite,
+magnetite, carbonate, and pyrites. Note the color and physical
+appearance of each; scratch the first four with a very hard steel point
+and note the color of the streak.
+
+Obtain specimens of pig-iron, cast iron, wrought iron, and cast steel;
+note carefully the fracture or "break" of each; how does cast iron
+differ from wrought iron?
+
+Obtain specimens of the following copper ores: Malachite, azurite,
+chalcopyrite, and red oxide; wet a very small fragment with an acid and
+note the color when it is held in the flame of an alcohol lamp or a
+Bunsen burner; dissolve a crystal of blue vitriol (copper sulphate) in
+water and note what occurs if the end of a bright iron wire be dipped in
+the solution.
+
+Name the various uses to which nickel, tin, lead, and aluminium are put.
+
+Consult the chapters on these subjects in any cyclopædia.
+
+[Illustration: TRANSPORTING SUGAR-CANE, CUBA]
+
+[Illustration: SUGAR-CANE GROWING IN CUBA]
+
+[Illustration: HAVEMEYER SUGAR-REFINERY, BROOKLYN, N.Y.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+SUGAR AND ITS COMMERCE
+
+
+The term sugar is applied rather loosely to a large number of substances
+characterized by the quality of sweetness. In a few instances the name
+is given to certain mineral salts, such as sugar of lead, but in the
+main the sugars are plant products very similar in chemical structure to
+the starches. They are very closely connected with plant growth, and
+even in animal life, starchy substances are changed to sugar in the
+process of digestion. Although sugar does not sustain life, it is
+necessary as an adjunct to other food-stuffs, and it is probably
+consumed by a greater number of people than any other food-stuffs except
+starch and water.
+
+Three kinds of sugar are found in commerce, namely--_cane_-sugar,
+_grape_-sugar, and _milk_-sugar. Cane-sugar occurs in the sap of the
+sugar-cane, sorghum-cane, certain of the palms, and the juice of the
+beet. Grape-sugar is the sweet principle of most fruits and of honey.
+Sugar of milk occurs in milk, and in several kinds of nuts.
+
+=Sugar-Cane Sugar.=--Cane-sugar is so called because until recently it was
+derived almost wholly from the sap of the sugar-cane (_Saccharum
+officinarum_). The plant belongs to the grass family and much resembles
+maize before the latter has matured. It is thought to be native to Asia,
+but it is now cultivated in nearly all tropical countries in the world.
+
+Practically every moist tropical region in the world, the basins of the
+Kongo and Amazon Rivers excepted, is a cane-sugar-producing region. As
+a rule it is grown in the states under native rule for home consumption,
+and in European colonial possessions for commercial purposes. India and
+China are probably the foremost in the production of sugar-cane sugar,
+but the product is not exported. Cuba, Java, the Gulf coast of the
+United States, Mauritius, the Philippine and the Hawaiian Islands
+produce the most of the supply that enters into commerce.
+
+=Beet-Sugar.=--During the last quarter of the nineteenth century the
+demands for sugar increased so greatly that it became necessary either
+to raise the price of the commodity, or else to utilize some plant other
+than the sugar-cane as a source. After a few years of experimental work
+it was found that sugar could be readily extracted from the juice of the
+common beet (_Beta vulgaris_). Several varieties of this plant have been
+improved and are now very largely cultivated for the purpose. Beet-sugar
+and cane-sugar are identical.
+
+Almost all the beet-sugar of commerce comes from northwestern Europe;
+Germany leads with nearly one-third the world's product; France,
+Austria, and Russia follow, each producing about one-sixth. A small
+amount is produced in the United States--mainly in California and
+Michigan. The area of production, however, is increasing.
+
+=Other Cane-Sugars.=--Maple-sugar is derived from the sap of several
+species of maple-trees occurring mainly in the northeastern United
+States and in Canada. The sap is obtained by tapping the trees in early
+spring, a single tree often yielding several gallons. The value of
+maple-sugar lies mainly in its pleasant flavor. It is used partly as a
+confection, but in the main as a sirup. A very large part of the
+maple-sirup and not a little of the sugar is artificial, consisting of
+ordinary sugar colored with caramel and flavored with an extract
+prepared from the maple-tree.
+
+Sorghum-sugar is obtained from a cane known as Chinese grass, or Chinese
+millet. It has been introduced into the United States from southeastern
+Asia and Japan. The sorghum-cane grows well in the temperate zone, and
+its cultivation in the Mississippi Valley States has been successful.
+The sugar is not easily crystallizable, however, and it is usually made
+into table-sirup.
+
+Maguey-sugar is derived from the sap of the maguey-plant (_Agave
+Americana_). It is much used in Mexico and the Central American states.
+The method of manufacture is very crude and the product is not exported.
+Palm-sugar is obtained from the sap of several species of palm growing
+in India and Africa.
+
+=Sugar Manufacture.=--Sugar manufacture includes three
+processes--expressing the sap, evaporating, and refining. The first two
+are carried on at or near the plantations; the last is an affair
+requiring an immense capital and a most elaborately organized plant. The
+refining is done mainly in the great centres of population at places
+most convenient for transportation. The raw sugar may travel five or ten
+thousand miles to reach the refinery; the refined product rarely travels
+more than a thousand miles.
+
+After it has been cut and stripped of its leaves the sugar-cane is
+crushed between powerful rollers in order to express the juice. The
+sugar-beet is rasped or ground to a pulp and then subjected to great
+pressure. The expressed juice contains about ten or twelve per cent. of
+sugar. In some factories the beet, or the cane, is cut into thin slices
+and thrown into water, the juice being extracted by the solvent
+properties of the latter. This is known as the "diffusion" process.
+
+The juice is first strained or filtered under pressure in order to
+remove all foreign matter and similar impurities. It is then clarified
+by adding slacked lime, at the same time heating the liquid nearly to
+the boiling point and skimming off the impurities that rise to the
+surface. The purified juice is then boiled rapidly in vacuum pans until
+it is greatly concentrated.
+
+When the proper degree of concentration is reached, the liquid is
+quickly run off into shallow pans, in which most of it immediately
+crystallizes. The crystalline portion forms the _raw sugar_ of commerce;
+the remaining part is molasses. The whole mass is then shovelled into a
+centrifugal machine which in a few minutes separates the two products.
+
+In purchasing raw sugar, the refiner was formerly at a loss to know just
+how much pure sugar could be made from a given weight of the raw sugar.
+In order to aid in making a correct determination, the Dutch government
+formerly prepared sixteen samples put up in glass flasks and sealed.
+These samples varied in color according to the amount of pure sugar
+contained. The pure solution was known in commerce as No. 16 Dutch
+standard, and this was generally taken all over the world as the
+standard of pure sugar. Within recent years the polariscope, an optical
+instrument that determines the percentage of sugar by means of polarized
+light, has largely replaced the Dutch standard.
+
+The refineries, as a rule, are built with reference to a minimum
+handling and transportation of the raw product. The cane-sugar
+refineries are mainly at the great seaports, where the raw sugar does
+not pay railway transportation. The beet-sugar refineries are in the
+midst of the beet-growing districts. So nearly perfect and economically
+managed are these processes, that raw sugar imported from Europe or
+from the West Indies, at a cost of from two and a quarter to two and a
+half cents per pound, is refined and sold at retail at about five cents.
+
+The margin of profit is so very close, however, that in the United
+States, as well as most European states, the sugar industry is protected
+by government enactments. In the United States imported raw sugar pays a
+tariff in order to protect the cane-sugar industry of the Gulf coast and
+the beet-sugar grower of the Western States. The duty at the close of
+the nineteenth century was about 1.66 cents per pound; or, if the sugar
+came from a foreign country paying a bounty on sugar exported, an
+additional countervailing duty equal to the bounty was also charged.
+
+In the various states of western Europe the beet-sugar industry is
+governed by a cartel or agreement among the states, which makes the
+whole business a gigantic combination arrayed against the tropical sugar
+interests. In general, the government of each state pays a bounty on
+every pound of beet-sugar exported. The real effect of the export bounty
+is about the same as the imposition of a tax on the sugar purchased for
+consumption at home.
+
+Two-thirds of the entire sugar product are made from the beet, at an
+average cost of about 2.5 cents a pound. In the tropical islands the
+yield of cane-sugar per acre is about double that of beet-sugar and it
+is produced for about five dollars less per ton. This difference is in
+part offset by the fact that the raw cane-sugar must pay transportation
+for a long distance to the place of consumption, and in part by the
+government bounties paid on the beet product.
+
+Both the political and the economic effects of beet sugar-making have
+been far-reaching. In Germany the agricultural interests of the country
+have been completely reorganized. The uncertain profits of cereal
+food-stuffs have given place to the sure profits of beet-sugar
+cultivation, with the result that the income of the Germans has been
+enormously increased. In the other lowland countries of western Europe
+the venture has been equally successful. Even the Netherlands has
+profited by it.
+
+In the case of Spain, the result of beet-sugar cultivation was
+disastrous. The price of cane-sugar in Cuba and the Philippine Islands
+fell to such a low point that the islands could not pay the taxes
+imposed by the mother country. Instead of lowering the taxes and
+adjusting affairs to the changed conditions, the Spaniards drove the
+islands into rebellion, and the latter finally resulted in war with the
+United States, and the loss of the colonies. Great Britain wisely
+adjusted her colonial affairs to the changed conditions, but the British
+colonies suffered greatly from beet-sugar competition.
+
+=Production and Consumption.=--The production and consumption of sugar
+increased about sevenfold during the latter half of the nineteenth
+century, the increase being due very largely to the decreased price.
+Thus, in 1850, white (loaf) sugar was a luxury, retailing at about
+twenty cents per pound; in 1870 the wholesale price of pure granulated
+sugar was fourteen cents; in 1902 it was not quite five cents.
+
+Although the tropical countries are greatly handicapped by the political
+legislation of the European states, they cannot supply the amount of
+sugar required, unless the area of production be greatly extended. It is
+also certain that without governmental protection, sugar growing in the
+temperate zone cannot compete with that of the tropical countries.
+
+Of the eight million tons of sugar yearly consumed, two-thirds are
+beet-sugar. The annual consumption per capita is about ninety pounds in
+Great Britain, seventy pounds in the United States, and not far from
+thirty-five pounds in Germany and France. In Russia and the eastern
+European countries it is less than fifteen pounds.
+
+=Molasses.=--The molasses of commerce is the uncrystallizable sugar that
+is left in the vacuum pans at the close of the process of evaporation.
+The molasses formerly known as "sugar house" is a filthy product that
+nowadays is scarcely used, except in the manufacture of rum. The color
+of molasses is due mainly to the presence of "caramel" or half-charred
+sugar; it cannot be wholly removed by any ordinary clarifying process.
+
+Purified molasses is usually known as "sirup," and much of it is made by
+boiling a solution of raw sugar to the proper degree of concentration. A
+considerable part is made from the sap of the sorghum-cane, and probably
+a larger quantity consists of glucose solution colored with caramel.
+Maple-sirup, formerly a solution of maple-sugar, is now very largely
+made from raw cane-sugar clarified and artificially flavored.
+
+=Glucose.=--Glucose, or grape-sugar, is the natural sugar of the grape and
+most small fruits. Honey is a nearly pure, concentrated solution of
+glucose. Grape-sugar has, roughly, about three-fifths the sweetening
+power of cane-sugar. Natural grape-sugar is too expensive for ordinary
+commercial use; the commercial product, on the other hand, is
+artificial, and is made mainly from cornstarch.
+
+Glucose is employed in the cheaper kinds of confectionery in the United
+States; most of it, however, is exported to Great Britain, the annual
+product being worth about four million dollars. From the fact that it
+can be made more economically from corn than from any other grain,
+practically all the glucose is made in the United States.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+It frequently happens that the prices of sugar and tin-plate rise and
+fall together; show how the fruit-crop may cause this fluctuation.
+
+Which of the possessions of the United States are adaptable for
+cane-sugar?--for beet-sugar?
+
+In what ways has the manufacture of sugar brought about international
+complications?
+
+What is meant by "Dutch Standard" tests?--by polariscope tests?
+
+
+FOR REFERENCE AND STUDY
+
+Obtain specimens of rock candy, granulated sugar, raw sugar, and
+caramel; observe each carefully with a magnifying glass and note the
+difference.
+
+World's Sugar Production.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS
+
+
+Outside the food-stuffs, probably no other material is more generally
+used by human beings than the products of the forests. More people are
+sheltered by wooden dwellings than by those of brick or stone, and more
+people are warmed by wood fires than by coal. Even in steam-making a
+considerable power is still produced by the use of wood for fuel.
+
+Neither stone nor metal can wholly take the place of wood as a building
+material; indeed, for interior fittings, finishings, and furniture, no
+artificial substitute has yet been found that is acceptable. For such
+purposes it is carried to the interior of continents and transported
+across the oceans; and although the cost has enormously increased, the
+demand has scarcely fallen off.
+
+=Forest Areas.=--The great belts of forests girdle the land surface of the
+earth. A zone of tropical forest forms a broad belt on each side of the
+equator, but mainly north of it. This forest includes most of the
+ornamental woods, such as mahogany, ebony, rosewood, sandal-wood, etc.
+It also includes the most useful teak as well as the rubber-tree and the
+cinchona. Another forest belt in the north temperate zone is situated
+mainly between the thirty-fifth and fiftieth parallels. It traverses
+middle and northern Europe and the northern United States.
+
+This forest contains the various species of pine, cedar, and other
+conifers, the oaks, maples, elms, birches, etc. Most of the forests of
+western Europe have been greatly depleted, though those of Norway and
+Sweden are still productive. The forests of the United States, extending
+from Maine to Dakota, have been so wellnigh exhausted that by 1950 only
+a very little good lumber-making timber will be left.
+
+The destruction of forests has been most wasteful. When a forest-covered
+region is settled, a large area is burnt off in order to clear the land
+for cultivation. In many instances the fires are never fully
+extinguished until the forest disappears. The timber of the United
+States has been depleted not only by frequent fires but in various other
+ways. The lumbermen take the best trees and these are cut into
+building-lumber. The railways follow the lumbermen, cutting out
+everything suitable for ties. The paper-makers vie with the tie-cutters,
+and what is left is the plunder of the charcoal-burner.
+
+=Forestry.=--In most of Europe the care of the remaining forests is
+usually a government charge. Only a certain number of mature trees may
+be removed each year, and many are planted for each one removed--in the
+aggregate, several million each year. In the United States, where the
+value of the growing timber destroyed by fire each year nearly equals
+the national debt, not very much has been done to either check the
+ravage or to reforest the denuded areas. Many of the States, however,
+encourage tree-planting. In several, Arbor Day is a holiday provided by
+law.
+
+The general Government has established timber preserves in several
+localities in the West. The State of New York has converted the whole
+Adirondack region into a great preserve. Forest wardens and guards are
+employed both to keep fires in check and to prevent the ravages of
+timber thieves; excepting the State preserves however, the means of
+prevention are inadequate for either purpose.
+
+[Illustration: THE LUMBER INDUSTRY--A LOG JAM]
+
+To be valuable for lumber of the best quality, a forest tree must be
+"clear"; that is, it must be free from knots at least fifteen feet from
+the ground. In the case of pines and cedars, the clear part of the trunk
+must have a greater length. To produce such conditions, the trees must
+grow thickly together, in order that the lower branches may not mature.
+
+The growth of trees thus set is very slow. Isolated pine-trees will
+reach the size large enough for cutting in about fifty years, but the
+lumber will be practically worthless because of the knots. On the other
+hand, pine forests with the trees so thickly set as to make a clear,
+merchantable lumber require at least a century for maturity.[49] Oak
+forests require a much greater period.
+
+As a rule, the forest growths of the United States are found in the
+areas characterized by sandy and gravelly soils. Thus, the glaciated
+region of the United States and Canada for the greater part is
+forest-covered. The sand barrens along the Atlantic coast usually are
+forest areas. The older bottom-lands of most rivers are often
+forest-covered, especially when their soil is coarse and sandy.
+
+There are large areas, however, in both the United States and Europe,
+that are treeless. In some instances this condition, without doubt,
+resulted from the fires that annually burnt the grass. With the
+cessation of the prairie fires, forest growths have steadily increased.
+
+In other instances these areas are treeless because the seeds of trees
+have never been planted there. The high plains at the eastern base of
+the Rocky Mountains are an example. This region is deficient in the
+moisture required to give young trees the vigorous start that will
+carry them to maturity. Moreover, the westerly winds and the streams of
+this region come from localities also deficient in forestry, and there
+are therefore no seeds to be carried.
+
+As a rule, the distribution of forests is effected by the winds and by
+moving water. The prevailing westerly winds of the temperate zones have
+carried many species eastward and have extended the forest areas in that
+direction. Freshets, floods, and overflows have been even more active in
+carrying seeds, sprouts, and even trees into new territories. Waves and
+currents have likewise played a similar part. Wherever the soil of the
+region into which the species have been carried is moist and nutritious,
+the forest growth has usually extended.
+
+=The Pine Family.=--The pine family includes the various species of pine,
+tamarack, spruce, hemlock, fir, juniper, larch, cypress, and cedar. A
+few members of the family thrive in the warmer parts of the temperate
+zone, but for the greater part they flourish between the fortieth and
+sixtieth parallels. Most of the species found in low latitudes are
+mountain-trees. They constitute the greater part of the American and
+Russian forests. The American pine forest is thought to be the largest
+in the world.
+
+The _white pine_ (_Pinus strobus_) is the most valuable member of the
+family. Its value is due in part to the fact that the wood is soft,
+clear, and easily worked, and in part to the accessibility of the
+forests. Not much inroad has yet been made upon the great Russian
+forest, owing to the fact that the timber is too far away from seaports
+and water transportation. Rough lumber becomes too expensive for use
+when transported by land, but it will stand the expense of shipment by
+water many miles.
+
+The _Georgia_ or _long-leafed pine_ (_Pinus palustris_) is also
+commonly called _pitch pine_, _turpentine pine_, and _southern pine_; it
+grows chiefly along the south Atlantic coast and in the northern
+counties of Georgia. It is harder than white pine and makes excellent
+flooring.
+
+The _sugar pine_ (_Pinus lambertiana_) occurs mainly in Oregon and
+California. The grain is fine and soft and the trees reach a large
+girth.
+
+The _loblolly pine_ (_Pinus tæda_) has a considerably larger area than
+the Georgia pine, extending into Indian Territory. The _short-leaf pine_
+(_Pinus echinata_) occurs in small areas from New York to the Gulf of
+Mexico, and across to Missouri; it is the Chattahoochee pine of Florida.
+The _pitch pine_ (_Pinus rigida_) occurs in various areas mainly north
+of the Ohio River and west of the prairies. The lumber cut annually from
+these pines aggregates about thirty billion feet.
+
+The common _white cedar_ (_Chamæcyparis thyoides_) occurs along the
+Atlantic and Gulf coasts nearly to the Mississippi. On account of its
+fine grain it is much used in cabinet work and as a finishing wood. _Red
+cedar_, probably a different species, occurs along the Atlantic coast.
+It is largely used in the manufacture of lead-pencils, and the forests
+are wellnigh exhausted.
+
+The _redwoods_ are confined to the California coast, mainly in the coast
+ranges, near the ocean. Ordinary redwood (_Sequoia sempervirens_)
+resembles red cedar, is soft, and very fine in grain, and shrinks but
+little in seasoning. It is a most valuable timber both for common and
+for ornamental use. It very frequently attains a diameter of five or six
+feet; the big tree sometimes exceeds sixteen feet in diameter and
+reaches a height of nearly four hundred feet.
+
+=Other Industrial Woods.=--The oaks, like the pines, form a nearly
+continuous belt across the northern continents, lying mainly south of
+the pines; they do not extend much south of the thirtieth parallel. The
+white oak of the New England plateau and Canada commands a high price on
+account of its strength; a considerable quantity is exported.
+
+The "quartering" of the lumber used in ornamental work is produced by
+sawing the logs, which have been split in quarters, so that the
+silver-grain shows on the faces of the boards. The bark of the oak is
+rich in tannic acid and it is much used in tanning leather. _Cork oak_
+(_Quercus suber_) grows mainly in Spain and Algeria.
+
+_Black walnut_ (_Juglans nigra_) grows in the river-bottoms of the
+Mississippi Valley and in Texas. The merchantable supply is not great,
+and the wood is therefore growing more valuable each year. _Hickory_ is
+used where great strength is required, and also for various
+tool-handles. _Maple_ is largely employed in making furniture. _Ash_ is
+a very common wood for tool-handles.
+
+=Shade-Trees and Ornamental Woods.=--A large number of trees are yearly
+transplanted, or else grown from seed, to be used as ornamental
+shade-trees. For this purpose the elm, maple, acacia ("locust"), linden
+("lime"), catalpa, ash, horse-chestnut ("buckeye"), poplar, and willow
+are most common in ordinary temperate latitudes, both in Europe and
+America. In warmer latitudes the Australian eucalyptus ("red gum" and
+"blue gum"), magnolia, palmetto, laurel, arbutus, and tulip are common.
+The local trade in ornamental trees is very heavy; the trade is local
+for the reason that the transportation of them is very expensive.
+
+=Tropical Woods and Tree Products.=--Many of the tropical woods are in
+demand on account of their beautiful appearance, and in many species
+this quality is combined with strength and hardness. _Mahogany_ is
+obtained from Mexico and the Central American states, and also from the
+West Indies. The former is classed as "Honduras"; the latter is
+generally known as San Domingo mahogany and commands the highest price.
+_Rosewood_ is obtained from Brazil, and is used almost exclusively in
+piano-cases. Both are cut into thin veneers, to be glued to a less
+expensive body.
+
+_Ebony_ is the heart of a species of persimmon obtained mainly in Ceylon
+and the East Indies. Very little of the so-called ebony is genuine, most
+of the ebony of commerce consisting of fine-grained hardwood, stained
+black. _Jarrah_, an Australian wood, is now very generally used for
+street-paving, and for this purpose it has no superior. _Teak_ probably
+has no equal for strength and durability. It is not touched by the
+teredo and other marine worms.
+
+_Boxwood_ (_Buxus balearica_) is a high-growing tree, native to India,
+but growing best in the islands of the Mediterranean. The wood is very
+hard, of yellowish-brown color, and so fine in grain that it finds a
+ready market in nearly every part of the world. Probably the larger part
+is used by engravers. A large amount of the wood is also used in the
+manufacture of folding-rules, and in inlaying. Constantinople is the
+principal market, and nearly ten thousand tons of the selected wood are
+sold yearly.
+
+_Lignum vitæ_, or _guaiac wood_ (_Guaiacum officinale_), grows profusely
+in the West Indies and along the Spanish Main. It is used both in
+medicine and in the arts. Shavings of the wood steeped in water were
+once considered a cure-all, hence the name. The wood is very hard,
+heavy, and is split with the greatest difficulty. It is therefore much
+employed in making mallet-heads, tool-handles, nine-pin balls, and
+pulley-blocks. In tropical countries it is employed for railway ties.
+West India ports are the chief markets, and the United States is the
+chief consumer.
+
+[Illustration: A LOG RAFT, WINONA, WIS.]
+
+[Illustration: HAULING LOGS TO THE RIVER]
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright, 1898, Detroit Photographic Co._
+
+THE LUMBER INDUSTRY--A LOGGING STREAM, MENOMINEE, WIS.]
+
+_Logwood_ is the wood of a tree (_Hæmatoxylon campechianum_) growing in
+Central America and the West Indies. The best quality comes from
+Campeche, and it is marketed mainly from Central American ports. It is
+almost universally used for dyeing the black of woollen and cotton
+textiles, and logwood blacks are the standard of color-prints.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+In what structures has timber been supplanted by iron and steel?
+
+In what manufactured article has timber supplanted the use of rags?
+
+When a pine forest is cut away, what kinds of timber are apt to come up
+in place of the pines?
+
+In what manner does the railway draw upon the forests?--the
+paper-maker?--the farmer?--the tanner?--the beaver?--the teredo, or
+ship-worm?
+
+From what country or countries do the following come: boxwood, rosewood,
+sandal-wood, cinchona, bog oak, jarrah?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Make a list of the forestry growing in the State in which you live; so
+far as possible, obtain a specimen of each wood, prepared so as to show
+square, oblique, split, and polished sections; for what purpose, if any,
+is each used?
+
+Consult "Check-list of Forestry of the United States" (U.S. Department
+of Agriculture).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+SEA PRODUCTS AND FURS
+
+
+The world's fish-catch amounts probably to more than one-quarter of a
+billion dollars in value and employs upward of a million people; in the
+United States 200,000 are employed. In some localities, such as the
+oceanic islands, far distant from the grazing lands of the continents,
+the flesh of fish is about the only fresh meat obtainable. Even on the
+continents fish is more available and cheaper than beef. The
+fish-producing areas pay no taxes; they require no cultivation;
+moreover, they do not require to be purchased. In general, fish
+supplements beef as an article of food; it is not a substitute for the
+latter.
+
+The whale-catch excepted, fish are generally caught in the shallow
+waters of the continental coasts. The fish, in great schools, resort to
+such localities at certain seasons, and the seasons in which they school
+is the fisherman's opportunity. For the greater part, such shallows and
+banks are spawning-places. Most of the fish, however, are caught off the
+Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America, these localities being
+nearest to the great centres of population.
+
+=Whales.=--The whale is sought mainly in cold waters, and at the present
+time the chief whaling-grounds are in the vicinity of Point Barrow. In
+the first half of the nineteenth century whale-fishing was an industry
+involving hundreds of vessels and a large aggregate capital. The
+industry centred about New England seaports.
+
+The train-oil obtained from the blubber of the animal was used partly
+as a lubricant, but mainly for illuminating purposes. For this purpose,
+however, it has been superseded by coal-oil, gas, and electricity. It is
+still in demand as a lubricant, but the whale-oil of commerce is quite
+as apt to come from the blubber of the porpoise or the sea-cow as from
+the right whale. Whalebone is a horny substance taken from the animal's
+jaw, and is worth from three dollars to eight dollars per pound. It is
+used chiefly in the manufacture of whips. For other purposes, steel,
+hard rubber, and celluloid have taken its place.
+
+The substance called _spermaceti_ is derived from the sperm-whale, an
+inhabitant of warm ocean-waters. Spermaceti is identical in its physical
+properties with paraffine, and the latter is now almost universally its
+substitute.
+
+_Ambergris_, thought to be a morbid secretion or disease of the
+sperm-whale, is found in the body cavity of the animal and also in
+masses floating in the sea. It is used chiefly to give intensity to the
+odor of perfumes, and the best quality brings as much as five dollars
+per ounce. Most of the ambergris of commerce is obtained from the
+neighborhood of the Bahama Islands.
+
+=Cod.=--In the amount of the product the cod-fisheries are the most
+important. The meat of the fish is not strong in flavor, and it is cured
+with little expense. So valuable is the annual catch that the banks and
+shallows which the schools frequent are governed by international
+treaties.
+
+The cod is a cold-water fish, and the fishing-grounds are confined to
+rather high latitudes. The coast-waters of the Scandinavian peninsula
+and the shores of the Canadian coast, especially the Banks of
+Newfoundland, are the chief areas. The fishing-grounds of the Canadian
+coast are closed to foreign vessels inside a three-mile limit; beyond
+the limit they are occupied mainly by Canadian, French, and American
+fishermen. By the terms of treaties foreign vessels may enter the
+three-mile limit under restriction to purchase bait and food-supplies,
+and to cure their fish.
+
+A large part of the cod-catch is exported. Tropical countries buy much
+of the product. In such countries it is more wholesome than meat; it is
+cheaper; moreover, the salted cod will keep for an indefinite length of
+time. A large part of the catch is sold to the Catholic states of Europe
+and America, where during certain times the eating of the flesh of
+animals is forbidden. Gloucester, Mass., London, England, and Trondhjem,
+Norway, are great markets for salted fish. The oil from the liver of the
+cod is much used in medicine.
+
+=Herring, Alewives, and Sardine.=--The herring is a much smaller fish than
+the cod, and, commercially, is much less important. They school in about
+the same waters as the cod, but are caught at a different season,
+gill-nets being usually employed. Practically no distinction is made
+between full-grown herring and alewives of the same size. The fish are
+usually cured by smoking, pickling, or salting, and in this form are
+either exported or sold in interior markets.
+
+The true sardine is found in latitudes a little farther south than the
+schooling-grounds of the cod. The most important fisheries are along the
+coasts of the Latin states of Europe. Sardine fishing is a great
+industry all along the New England coast of the United States, but the
+"sardines" marketed from this region are young herring. Indeed, nearly
+all sorts of small fry are sold in boxes bearing spurious French labels.
+
+=Salmon.=--Most of the salmon are caught in the rivers flowing into the
+North Pacific Ocean. The fish are caught in traps and weirs at the time
+of the spring run, when they ascend the river to spawn. The rivers are
+frequently so congested with the salmon that thousands of tons are
+caught in a single stream during the run.
+
+The salmon canneries of the Columbia River are very extensive
+establishments, but in the past few years they have been surpassed by
+the Alaskan fisheries, which produce not far from fifty million pounds
+each year. The dressed fish is cooked by steam, canned, and exported to
+all parts of the world. The growth and development of the industry has
+also made an enormous demand on the tin mines of the world. Canned
+salmon is the largest fish export of the United States. There are
+extensive salmon-fisheries in Norway, Japan, and Russia.
+
+=Other Fish.=--_Mackerel_ and _haddock_ are caught near the shores of the
+North Atlantic. Most of the mackerel-catch is pickled in brine and sold
+in small kegs known as "kits." The _menhaden_-catch of the North
+Atlantic is converted into fertilizer. The _halibut_ is a large fish
+that is rarely preserved. The area in which it is caught is about the
+same as that of the cod. _Shad_ are usually caught when ascending the
+rivers of the middle Atlantic coast. In the United States, Chesapeake,
+Delaware, and New York Bays yield the chief supply. The _bluefish_ and
+_barracuda_ are warm-water fish. The market for fresh fish has been
+greatly enlarged by the use of refrigerator-cars.
+
+The _sturgeon_ is captured mainly in the rivers and lakes of the
+temperate zone. Those of the Black Sea sometimes attain a weight of
+2,000 pounds. The flesh is of less importance than the eggs, of which
+caviare is made. Russian caviare is sold all over Europe and America,
+and not a small part of the product is made in Maine. The caviare made
+from the roe of the Delaware River sturgeon is exported to Germany. The
+_tunny_ is confined to Mediterranean waters.
+
+The _anchovy_ is caught on the coast of Europe; most of the product is
+preserved, or made into the well-known "anchovy sauce." The
+_beche-de-mere_, or "sea cucumber," is a product of Australasian and
+Malaysian waters. Almost the whole catch is purchased by the Chinese,
+and it is exported to all countries having a Chinese population.
+
+=Oysters and Lobsters.=--The oyster is among the foremost sea products of
+the United States in value. The oyster thrives best in moderately warm
+and sheltered waters. The coves and estuaries along the middle Atlantic
+coast produce the best in the world. Chesapeake Bay and Long Island
+Sound yield the greater part of the output. In the latter waters
+elaborate methods of propagation are carried out, and the yearly crop is
+increasing both in quality and quantity. The output of the Chesapeake
+beds has decreased materially; that of the Long Island Sound beds has
+increased.
+
+Oysters are plentiful along the Pacific coast of the United States and
+also in European coast-waters, but they are inferior in size and
+quality. The use of refrigerator-cars and vessels has extended the trade
+to the extent that fresh oysters are shipped to points 2,000 miles
+inland; they are also exported to Europe. Baltimore is the chief
+oyster-market.
+
+The consumption of the lobster has been so great that the catch of the
+New England coast has decreased about one-half in the past fifty years,
+and the United States is now an importer. Most of the import, amounting
+to about one million dollars yearly, comes from Canada. The so-called
+lobsters of the Pacific coast of the United States are not lobsters, but
+crayfish.
+
+=Fish Hatcheries.=--The demand for fish has grown so great in past years
+that in many countries the waters, especially the lakes and rivers, are
+restocked. The eggs are hatched and the young fry are fed until they
+are large enough to take care of themselves. The chief hatchery and
+laboratory of the United States Fish Commission is at Woods Holl, Mass.
+As many as 860,000,000 eggs, small fry, and adult fish have been
+distributed in a single year. The State of New York has also a similar
+department for restocking its waters.
+
+=Sponge.=--This substance is practically the skeleton of a low order of
+animal, growing at the bottom of the sea. The sponge is cut from the
+place of attachment, and the gelatinous matter is washed away after
+putrefaction. The chief sponge-fisheries are in the neighborhood of
+Florida and the Bahama Islands.
+
+=Seal.=--The fur-seal is an amphibian, found only in cold waters. A few
+pelts are obtained along the Greenland coast, but the chief
+sealing-grounds of the world have been at the Pribilof Islands, in
+Bering Sea. The pelts of the young males only are taken. The rookeries
+of the Pribilof Islands have been so nearly exhausted, that the killing
+season has been suspended for a term of years. Much illicit
+seal-catching is still going on, however.
+
+The skins are taken to London, via San Francisco, where the fur is dyed
+a rich brown color; London is the chief market for dyed pelts; San
+Francisco for raw pelts; and New York, Paris, and St. Petersburg for
+garments. The pelts of the sea-otter are obtained mainly in the North
+Pacific Ocean.
+
+=Other Furs.=--The furs employed in the finest garments are in part the
+pelts of land animals living in polar regions. The sable, stone-marten,
+otter, beaver, and red fox are the most valuable. The Persian lamb,
+however, is not a polar animal. The Russian Empire and Canada are the
+chief sources of supply. The Hudson Bay Company, with head-quarters at
+Fort Garry, near Winnipeg, controls most of the fur-trade of North
+America; the Russian furs are marketed mainly at Lower Novgorod.
+Leipzig, Germany, is also an important fur-market.
+
+Enormous quantities of rabbit-skins from Australia and nutria from
+Argentina are imported into the United States and Europe for the
+manufacture of the felt of which hats are made. The amount of this
+substance may be realized when one considers that not far from two
+hundred million people in the two countries wear felt hats.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Note an instance in which the search for deep-sea fishing-grounds has
+resulted in the discovery of unknown lands.
+
+Why are not whale products as essential now as a century ago?
+
+What international complications have arisen between the United States
+and Great Britain concerning the cod-fisheries?--the seal-catch?
+
+[Illustration: NORTH AMERICA]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE UNITED STATES--THE SEAPORTS AND THE ATLANTIC COAST-PLAIN
+
+
+The United States of America together with the possessions included
+within the domain of the Republic comprise an area somewhat greater than
+that of Europe.
+
+With respect to latitude, the position of the main body of the United
+States is extremely fortunate. Practically all its area is situated in
+the warmer half of the temperate zone. Only a small part lies beyond the
+northern limit of the corn belt; wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated
+successfully throughout four-fifths of its extent in latitude; grass,
+and therefore cattle and sheep are grown in nearly every part. Coal,
+iron, copper, gold, and silver, the minerals and metals which give to a
+nation its greatest material power, exist in abundance, and the
+successful working of these deposits have placed the country upon a very
+high commercial plane.
+
+Topographically the United States may be divided into the following
+regions:
+
+     The Atlantic Coast-Plain,
+     The Appalachian Ranges and the New England Plateau,
+     The Basin of the Great Lakes,
+     The Northern Mississippi Valley Region,
+     The Southern Mississippi Valley and Gulf Coast,
+     The Arid Plains,
+     The Plateau Region,
+     The Pacific Coast Lowlands.
+
+[Illustration: A HARBOR--NEW YORK BAY, AT THE BATTERY]
+
+The topographic and climatic features of these various regions have had
+a great influence not only on the political history of the country, but
+their effect has been even greater in determining its industrial
+development. They have resulted in the establishment of the various
+industries, each in the locality best adapted to it, instead of their
+diffusion without respect to the necessary conditions of environment.
+
+The foregoing regions are also approximately areas of fundamental
+industries. Thus, the New England plateau supplies the rest of the
+United States with light manufactures, such as cotton textiles, woollen
+clothing, hats, shoes, cutlery, books, writing-paper, household metal
+wares, etc., but sells the excess abroad. The middle and southern
+Appalachians, with the coal which forms their chief resource, supply the
+rest of the country with structural steel, from ores obtained in the
+lake regions, and sell the excess to foreign countries.
+
+The northern Mississippi Valley grows nearly one-fourth of the world's
+wheat-crop. The wheat of this region and the Pacific coast lowlands
+supplies the country with bread-stuffs, and exports the excess to
+western Europe. The Gulf states, which produce three-fourths of the
+world's cotton-crop, supply the whole country and about one-half the
+rest of the world besides with cotton textiles. The grazing regions
+produce an excess of meat for export; the western highlands furnish the
+gold and silver necessary to carry on the enormous commerce.
+
+In the last twenty years the imports of merchandise per capita varied
+but little from $11.50; the exports per capita varied from about $12 to
+more than $18.
+
+=The Atlantic Coast-Plain and the Seaports.=--Throughout most of its
+extent the Atlantic seaboard of the United States is bordered by a low
+coast-plain. Along the northeastern coast of the United States the
+coast-plain is very narrow; south of New York Bay it has a width in
+some places of more than two hundred miles.
+
+The existence of this plain has had a marked effect on the commercial
+development of the country. The sinking or "drowning" of the northern
+part of it has made an exceedingly indented coast. The drowned valleys,
+enclosed by ridges and headlands, form the best of harbors, and nearly
+all of them are northeast of New York Bay. South of New York Bay good
+harbors are comparatively few. For the greater part they occur only when
+old, buried river-channels permit approach to the shore.
+
+The most important port of entry in these harbors is _New York_, and it
+derives its importance from two factors. It has a very capacious harbor,
+into which vessels drawing as much as thirty-five feet may enter; its
+situation at the lower end of a series of valleys and passes makes it
+almost a dead level route from the Mississippi to the Atlantic seaboard.
+The importance of New York as the commercial gateway between European
+ports and the food-producing region of the American continent began when
+the Erie Canal was opened between the Great Lakes and tide-water. The
+completion of the canal for the first time opened the rich farming lands
+of the interior to European markets. Probably a greater tonnage of
+freight is carried yearly over this route than over any other channel of
+trade in the world.
+
+Not far from two-thirds of the foreign commerce of the country passes
+through the port of New York. The water-front of the city has an
+aggregate length of about three hundred miles, of which one-third is
+available for anchorage. The docks and piers, including those of Jersey
+City and Hoboken, aggregate about ninety miles in frontage.
+
+About sixteen thousand sea-going craft enter and clear yearly, and an
+average of nearly twenty large passenger and freight steamships arrive
+and clear daily, about one-half of them being foreign. The latter
+receive their cargoes from about three thousand freight-cars that are
+daily switched into the various freight-yards, a large part of which is
+through freight from the west.
+
+The port of entry of _New York_ is a centre of population of about four
+million, and although there are the industries usually found in great
+communities, the greater business enterprises practically reduce
+themselves to export, import, and exchange. For this reason New York
+City is the financial, as well as the commercial centre of the
+continent. Most of the great industrial corporations of the country have
+their head offices in the city. These are financed by more than one
+hundred banks, together with a clearing-house whose yearly business
+amounted in 1902 to considerably more than seventy billions of
+dollars.[50]
+
+[Illustration: BOSTON HARBOR]
+
+_Boston_ has been one of the leading ports of the United States for
+considerably more than a century. It ranks second among the ports of the
+United States. Regular lines of transit connect it with the principal
+ports of Great Britain and Canada. The coast trade is also very heavy.
+Boston is the financial and commercial centre of New England; the
+cotton, woollen, and leather goods passing through the port find their
+way to nearly every inhabited part of the world. The city controls a
+considerable export trade of food-stuffs from the upper Mississippi
+Valley. The vessels entering and clearing at Boston indicate a movement
+of about four million five hundred thousand tons, about one-fourth that
+of New York. The clearing-house exchanges average about six billion
+dollars yearly.
+
+_Philadelphia_, on account of its distance inland, is not fortunately
+situated for ocean commerce. Steamships of deep draught reach their
+docks at the lower end of the city under their own steam, but
+sailing-craft pay heavy towage fees. There are regular lines to
+Liverpool, Antwerp, West Indian ports, Baltimore, and Boston.
+Philadelphia is the centre of the anthracite coal trade, and this is the
+chief factor of its domestic trade. The imports of fruit from the West
+Indies, carpet-wool from Europe, and raw sugar from the West Indies,
+form the greater part of its foreign business. The manufactures are
+mainly carpets and rugs, locomotives and iron steamships, and refined
+sugar. The carpet-weaving and the ship-building plants are among the
+largest in the world. The ocean movement of freight is more than three
+million five hundred thousand tons yearly. The business of the
+clearing-house in 1902 aggregated nearly six billion dollars.
+
+_Baltimore_ is likewise handicapped by its distance inland.
+Sailing-vessels, however, require only a short towage, the docks being
+scarcely a dozen miles from Chesapeake Bay. The harbor is deep and
+capacious. The Pennsylvania and Baltimore & Ohio railway systems have
+made Baltimore an important railway centre. The completion of the Gould
+railway system to the Atlantic seaboard has made the city second to New
+York only in the export of corn, wheat, flour, and tobacco. The most
+noteworthy local industry is the oyster product, which is the greatest
+in the world. Nearly ten thousand people are employed, and during the
+busy season--from September to the end of April--about thirty carloads
+of oysters a day are shipped.
+
+[Illustration: CHARLESTON HARBOR]
+
+The yearly movement of marine freight, entering and clearing, aggregates
+about three million tons. In 1902 the clearing-house exchanges
+aggregated about two and one-quarter billion dollars.
+
+_Portland_, Me., has good harbor facilities, but is distant from the
+great lines of traffic. Steamship lines, which in summer make Montreal a
+terminal point, occasionally make Portland their winter harbor. _Newport
+News_, _Savannah_, _Charleston_, and _Brunswick_ are growing in
+importance as clearing ports for the cotton and produce from the region
+west of them. _Norfolk_ obtains importance on account of the United
+States Navy-Yard; it is also the great peanut-market of the world.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What are the requisites of a good seaport?
+
+What is meant by the draught of a vessel?
+
+For what purposes are pilots?
+
+How are navigable channels marked and designated?
+
+From the Statistical Abstract find six or more of the leading exports
+from each of the following ports: New York, Boston, Baltimore,
+Philadelphia, and the port nearest which you live.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Statistical Abstract of the United States.
+
+Statesman's Year-Book.
+
+Industrial Evolution of the United States--Chapter II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE UNITED STATES--THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU AND THE APPALACHIAN REGION
+
+
+The manufacturing regions of the United States, which connect the
+country with the rest of the world, include mainly the New England
+plateau and the Appalachian ranges.
+
+=The New England Plateau.=--This region embraces the New England States
+and practically includes all the eastern part of New York and northern
+New Jersey. The abruptly sloping surface affords a great wealth of
+water-power, and the region is one of the most important centres of
+light manufacture in the world. This industry resulted very largely from
+the conditions imposed by the War of 1812 and its consequent
+non-intercourse acts.
+
+The interruption of foreign commerce not only cut off the importation of
+manufactured commodities, but also made idle the capital employed.
+Manufacturing enterprises started in various parts of the United States,
+but they prospered in this region for three reasons--an abundance of
+power, plenty of capital, and business experience. Steam-power is
+largely supplanting water-power in the manufacturing enterprises, and in
+many instances the establishments have been moved to tide-water in order
+to get their coal at the lowest rates of transportation.
+
+Chief among the manufactures are cotton textiles, the yearly output of
+which is about three hundred million dollars. About nine-tenths of the
+cotton goods made are consumed at home. Of the remainder, China
+purchases one-half. Great Britain and Canada take one-fourth, the South
+American and Central American states purchase most of the remaining
+output. The great improvement of spinning and weaving machinery has
+enabled the cotton manufacturer to export his wares to about every
+country in the world.
+
+Boots, shoes, and other leather goods are also important manufactures.
+The invention of improved machinery for making shoes has revolutionized
+the industry to the extent that a pair of stylish shoes may be purchased
+anywhere in the United States for about half the price charged in 1880.
+Another result is the enormous importation of hides from South American
+countries and Mexico.
+
+The New England plateau is also the centre of a large number of
+manufactures that require a high degree of mechanical skill and
+intellectual training, such as small fire-arms, machinery, watches and
+clocks, jewelry, machine-tools, etc. The location of such industries
+depends but little upon climate, topography, or the cost of
+transportation; it is wholly a question of an educated and trained
+people. This region is likely to lose a considerable part of its
+manufactures of cotton textiles, inasmuch as the industry is gradually
+moving to the cotton-growing region. The manufactures requiring training
+and skill, however, are likely to remain in the region where they have
+grown up.
+
+_Lawrence_, _Lowell_, _Manchester_, and _Nashua_--all on the Merrimac
+River; _Lewiston_, _Waterville_, _Augusta_, _Woonsocket_, and
+_Adams_--each situated at falls or rapids--are great centres of cotton
+manufacture. Fall River has an abundance of water-power, and at the same
+time is situated on tide-water. Having the advantage of good power and
+cheap transportation, it has probably the greatest output of cotton
+textiles of any city in the world. Textile establishments have also
+grown up in the cities and towns of the Mohawk Valley, being attracted
+by the excellent facilities for transportation and also by the available
+water-power. _Lynn_, _Brockton_, _Haverhill_, _Marlboro_, and
+_Worcester_ are centres of boot and shoe manufacture; they turn out
+about two-thirds of the product of the United States.
+
+_Bridgeport_ and _New Haven_ have very large plants for the manufacture
+of fire-arms and fixed ammunition; _Waterbury_ and _Ansonia_ for
+watches, clocks, and brass goods; _Meriden_ for silverware, and
+_Waltham_ for watches. _Worcester_, _Hartford_, _North Adams_,
+_Fitchburg_, and _Providence_ have each a great variety of manufactures.
+The foreign commerce of these manufacturing centres is carried on mainly
+through _Boston_. _New Haven_, _New Bedford_, _Providence_, _Salem_,
+_Gloucester_, and _New London_ control each a very large local commerce.
+
+South of New York Bay the Atlantic coast-plain attains an average width
+of nearly two hundred miles. The pine forests of this plain yield
+lumber, tar, pitch, and turpentine. The productive lands are valuable
+chiefly for their output of dairy stuffs, fruit, and "garden truck,"
+which find a ready market in the larger cities. In order to encourage
+this industry, the railways make special rates for dairy products,
+fruit, and vegetables, and afford quick transit for such freight.
+
+Manufacturing industries are rapidly taking shape in this part of the
+United States. Along the line where the coast-plain proper joins the
+foot-hills of the Appalachian ranges, the rivers reach the lower levels
+by rapids or falls. The estuaries into which they flow are usually
+navigable for river-craft. The manufacturer thus has the double
+advantage of water-power and low transportation. The opening of the
+southern Appalachian coal-mines has also greatly encouraged manufacture
+in this region. _Richmond_, _Columbia_, _Milledgeville_, _Augusta_, and
+_Columbus_ are thus situated. Their manufactures are very largely
+connected with the cotton-crop.
+
+The domestic commerce of the Atlantic seaboard of the United States is
+probably larger than that of any other similar region in the world. It
+is considerably larger than the "round-the-island" trade of Great
+Britain. Much of this trade is carried by steam-vessels, but the
+three-masted schooner is everywhere in evidence, and these craft carry a
+very large part of the coal that is moved by water. This trade is
+restricted to vessels flying the American flag.
+
+=The Appalachian Region.=--The middle and southern Appalachian region has
+become the most important centre of iron and steel manufacture in the
+world. This great development has resulted from several causes, the
+chief being the existence of coal and unlimited quantities of iron ore
+on the one hand, and unusual facilities for cheap transportation on the
+other. There are practically three areas of steel manufacture--one along
+the Ohio River and its tributaries in western Pennsylvania; another is
+situated along the south shores of Lake Erie and Lake Michigan; the
+third includes the Birmingham district in the southern Appalachians.
+
+The steel-making plants of the Ohio River are located with reference to
+the transportation of their products, and therefore are built usually
+alongside the river. The coal or coke is commonly shipped in barges of
+light draught; the manufactured products are carried by rail. The
+greater part of the ore is brought from the Lake Superior region. It is
+shipped at a very small cost from the ore quarries to the lake-shore,
+and by rail from the lake-shore to the manufacturing plant. In order to
+avoid heavy grades the ore railways are also built along the
+river-valleys.
+
+[Illustration: STEEL MANUFACTURE--ERECTING SHOP OF THE BALDWIN
+LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, PHILADELPHIA]
+
+Some of the various steel-making plants are equipped for the
+manufacture of building or "structural" steel, others for rails and
+railway equipments, still others for tin-plate, or for wire, or for tool
+steel. In a few mills armor-plate and ordinary plate for steel vessels
+form the exclusive product. The diversity of the product has led to the
+organization of great corporations, each of which controls half-a-dozen
+or more plants, the transportation lines necessary to carry the product,
+the ore quarries, and the fuel-mines.
+
+The wonderful development of the steel industry in the United States is
+due to the use of labor-saving machinery, and to the superb
+organization. The wages paid for labor are higher than those paid in
+European steel-making centres; the cost of living is not materially
+greater. The price of steel rails, which in 1880 was forty-eight dollars
+per ton, in 1900 was about twenty dollars per ton.
+
+_Pittsburg_, together with _Homestead_, _Carnegie_, _McKeesport_,
+_Duquesne_, and _Braddock_, is the chief steel-making centre of the Ohio
+River Valley. There are also large plants at _New Castle_, _Sharon_,
+_Scranton_, _Johnstown_, _Bellaire_, _Youngstown_, _Mingo Junction_, and
+_Wheeling_. The steel-plant and rolling-mills at _South Bethlehem_ are
+designed especially for the manufacture of the heavy ordnance used in
+the army and navy. Nearly all the cities and towns of Pennsylvania, West
+Virginia, and eastern Ohio carry on manufacturing enterprises that
+depend on coal mining and steel manufacture. The great and diversified
+manufactures of Philadelphia are due to its fortunate situation at
+tide-water, near the coal-mines. Cheap fuel and water transportation
+have made it one of the great industrial centres of the world.
+
+The anthracite coal of this region is used wholly for fuel and
+steam-making; it is shipped partly by water from Philadelphia, but
+mainly in specially constructed cars to the various points of
+consumption. The soft coal is used also for fuel and steam-making, but a
+large part of the product is converted into coke and used in the
+steel-plants.
+
+The petroleum of this region is a leading export of the country, the
+states of western Europe being the chief purchasers. Of agricultural
+products, hay, dairy products, and tobacco are the only ones of
+importance. Natural gas is used both as a fuel and in manufactures.
+
+The lake-shore centre of steel manufacture depends largely on the low
+cost of transporting the iron ore, which in part is offset by the
+increased cost of coal. The low cost of shipping the manufactured
+product over nearly level trunk lines is a very substantial gain. _South
+Chicago_, _Toledo_, _Sandusky_, _Lorain_, _Cleveland_, _Ashtabula_,
+_Conneaut_, _Erie_, and _Buffalo_ are centres of steel manufacture or
+ore shipment, because they are situated on this great trade-route or
+line of least resistance.
+
+The coal-mines and iron-making plants of the southern Appalachians have
+a considerable area. The chief manufacturing centres are _Birmingham_,
+_Richmond_, _Roanoke_, and _Chattanooga_. A considerable part of the
+Virginia ores find their way to the Ohio River steel-mills. Open-hearth
+steel is an important manufacture in Birmingham. A large part of the
+ores smelted in the southern Appalachian region are made into foundry
+iron.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What are the advantages and the disadvantages of manufacturing cotton
+textiles in the New England States?
+
+Why have the mining of ore and the manufacture of steel become generally
+unprofitable in the New England States?
+
+What causes have brought about the lowering of the prices of cotton
+textiles during the past fifty years?--of shoes?
+
+What makes the manufacture of artificial ice a precarious business north
+of the latitude of Philadelphia?
+
+What are the advantages and the disadvantages arising from the location
+of a manufacturing industry at a seaport?
+
+What is the design of a protective tariff? What are its advantages and
+disadvantages?
+
+Why are most of the great steel-making plants so remote from the mines
+of iron ore used in making steel?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING
+
+Industrial Evolution of the United States--Chapters III-V.
+
+Mineral Resources of the United States.
+
+Outlines of Political Science--Chapters VIII-X.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE UNITED STATES--THE BASIN OF THE GREAT LAKES AND THE MISSISSIPPI
+VALLEY
+
+
+The principal agricultural region of the United States extends from the
+Appalachian ranges to the Rocky Mountains. A certain amount of
+bread-stuffs, meat, and dairy products are grown in nearly every part of
+the country for local use, but the grain, meat, and cotton of this
+region are designed for export, and are therefore factors in the world's
+commerce. The basin of the Great Lakes connects the Mississippi Valley
+with the Atlantic seaboard.
+
+=The Basin of the Great Lakes.=--This region includes not only the Great
+Lakes and the area drained by the streams flowing into them, but also a
+considerable region surrounding that commercially is tributary to the
+traffic passing over the lakes. This basin itself is a part of a
+trade-route destined very shortly to become one of the greatest highways
+of traffic in the world.
+
+The lakes afford a navigable water-way which, measured due east and
+west, aggregates nearly six hundred miles. This route is interrupted at
+Niagara Falls and at St. Mary's Falls, between Lake Superior and Lake
+Huron. On the Canadian side, Welland Canal, Lake Ontario, and the St.
+Lawrence connect Lake Erie with tide-water. In the United States the
+Erie Canal connects the lake with the Hudson River and New York Bay.
+
+From the head of Lake Superior railway routes of minimum grades--the
+Great Northern and the Northern Pacific[51]--cross the continent to
+Puget Sound, the best harbor approach to the Pacific coast of the
+American continent. The harbors of Puget Sound, moreover, are materially
+nearer the great Asian ports than any other port of the United States.
+The level margins of these lakes are roadbeds for many miles of railway
+track; in many instances the railways are built on the tops of terraces
+that once were shores of the lakes.
+
+[Illustration: DULUTH]
+
+_Duluth_, at the head of Lake Superior, became commercially important
+when the St. Mary's Falls Canal was completed. Much of the tremendous
+tonnage of freight passing through the canal is assembled at this place.
+The freight shipped consists mainly of farm products collected from an
+area reaching as far west as the Rocky Mountains. There is also a
+considerable shipment of iron ores obtained near by. _Buffalo_, at the
+lower end of Lake Erie, owes its activity to the trade in lumber, grain,
+and other farm products that come from Western lake-ports. It is the
+eastern terminus of the lake-commerce and the western terminus of the
+Erie Canal.
+
+_Chicago_, at the head of Lake Michigan, has a very heavy lake-trade.
+The mouth of Chicago River, the natural harbor of the city, has been
+improved by a system of basins and breakwaters. The river itself has
+been converted into a ship and drainage canal that is connected with the
+Illinois and Mississippi Rivers. It is now an outlet instead of a feeder
+to the lake, and the city built about old Fort Dearborn has become the
+greatest railway centre in the world.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF LOCKS AND CANAL, SAULT STE. MARIE]
+
+_Milwaukee_ has a situation in many ways resembling that of Chicago,
+its harbor being the mouth of Milwaukee River. Like Chicago, it owes its
+importance to its lake-trade. _Detroit_ (with _Windsor_, Ont.) owes its
+growth partly to its strategic position on the strait connecting Lake
+Huron and Lake Erie, and partly for its position between the lakes. It
+is an important collecting and distributing point for lake-freights, and
+the chief centre of commerce with Canada. Several east-and-west trunk
+lines and local lines of railway have freight terminals in the city; it
+is also the centre of the most complete system of interurban electric
+railways in the world. _Port Huron_ (with _Sarnia_, Ont.) has a
+geographic position similar to that of Detroit, and is also an important
+lake-port. The St. Clair River is tunnelled at this point. _Cleveland_,
+_Toledo_, _Sandusky_, and _Erie_ contribute very largely to the
+lake-trade. _Grand Rapids_ is the business centre of furniture
+manufacture of the United States.
+
+The great iron-ore ranges about Lake Superior have had much to do with
+the growth of the local lake-trade. This has resulted in the
+establishment of a large number of shipping-ports near the head of the
+lakes, and also a number of receiving ports on the south shores of Lake
+Erie and Lake Michigan. Some of the latter have become also great
+manufacturing centres of structural iron and steel.
+
+Various centres of industry at a considerable distance from the Great
+Lakes are contributors to their trade. Thus, on account of the low rate
+for grain between _Chicago_ and _New York City_--about 5-1/4 cents per
+bushel--there are yearly very heavy shipments of the grain designed for
+Liverpool. _St. Paul_ and _Minneapolis_ are also collecting and
+distributing centres of lake-freights. A considerable part of the
+business of the lake-region is carried on by the Canadians, who have
+improved their resources for production and transportation to the
+utmost.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright, Detroit Photographic Co._
+
+AURORA IRON MINES, IRONWOOD, MICHIGAN]
+
+=The Northern Mississippi Valley Region.=--This region extends from the
+Appalachian ranges to the western limit of wheat and cotton growing. On
+the south it is limited by the cotton-growing region. Its boundaries are
+therefore climatic and commercial.
+
+The surface is level; there is a rich, deep soil and an abundant
+rainfall. It has therefore become one of the foremost regions of the
+world in the production of corn, wheat, pork, dairy-stuffs, and general
+farm produce. The evolution of farming machinery is the direct result of
+topographic conditions. A level, fertile region naturally invites
+grain-farming on a large scale. This, in turn, must depend very largely
+on the ability of the farmer to plant and harvest his crops with the
+minimum of expense and time.
+
+Hand-work in harvesting and planting has almost wholly given way to
+machine-work. Farming carried on under such conditions requires not only
+a considerable capital, but close business management as well. Some of
+the results have been very far-reaching. The machinery and other
+equipments require capital, and this in late years has been borrowed
+from Eastern capitalists. The prompt business methods of the
+money-lender brought about no little friction, and it is only within
+recent years that each adjusted himself to the requirements of the
+other.
+
+The system of machine-farming to a great extent has prevented the
+subdivision of farms. As a rule, quarter and half sections represent the
+size of most of the farms, but tracts varying from five thousand to ten
+thousand acres are by no means uncommon. The chief drawback to this
+method in the case of wheat-farming, however, is the low yield per acre.
+The average yield per acre for the United States, a little more than
+twelve bushels, is scarcely half the average yield in Europe. Although
+the farmer has done much to reorganize his business methods, he has done
+but little to maintain the productivity of his land.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHEAT INDUSTRY--HARVESTING WITH McCORMICK
+SELF-BINDING REAPERS]
+
+The cities and towns of this region are mainly receiving and collecting
+points for farm produce. Nearly every village is equipped with elevators
+and grain-handling machinery; the larger towns, as a rule, have
+stock-yards and the necessary facilities for cattle shipment; the large
+cities are usually centres of meat-packing. Most of the meat-packing is
+a necessity; for although cattle may be shipped alive and beef may be
+transported in refrigerator ships and cars, pork is not marketable
+unless pickled, salted, or smoked. The pork thus exported, aggregating
+about six hundred million pounds yearly, must be prepared, therefore,
+somewhere near the cornfields. Manufacturing enterprises are operated on
+a very large scale, but in the main their products are farm-machinery
+and the commodities required by a farming population.
+
+Education in agriculture is provided for in nearly every State in the
+Union. The agricultural colleges in the States composing this group rank
+among the best in the world. In addition to the ordinary courses in such
+institutions, there are also many experiment stations for the study of
+economic plants, cattle diseases, and insect pests.
+
+_Chicago_ is the largest food-market in the world. The industries of the
+city are almost wholly connected with the commerce of grain, pork, meat,
+and other food-stuffs. For the transportation of these commodities about
+thirty great trunk lines enter the city and about twelve hundred
+passenger trains daily arrive and depart from its stations.
+
+The freight terminals are connected by transfer and belt lines, which
+receive and distribute the cars passing between the eastern and the
+western roads. More than five hundred freight trains, aggregating about
+twenty thousand cars, arrive and depart daily.
+
+_St. Louis_ originally derived its importance as a river-port of the
+Mississippi, having been the connecting commercial link between the
+upper and the lower river. In recent years it has become the metropolis
+of the southern part of the food-producing region. In addition to the
+river-trade, still largely controlled at this point, it is the focus of
+more than twenty trunk lines of railway. Some of these, like the trunk
+lines of Chicago, handle freight exchanged between the East and West;
+but a large proportion are receiving and distributing roads for Southern
+freight.
+
+[Illustration: AUTOMOTIVE POWER IN THE INDUSTRIES OF THE MISSISSIPPI
+VALLEY]
+
+_St. Paul_ and _Minneapolis_ are the metropolis of the upper
+Mississippi. The former grew from a trading-post at the head of
+navigation; the latter gained its commercial prominence from the
+water-power at the falls of St. Anthony. The former has become the chief
+railway and distributing centre of the northern Mississippi Valley; the
+latter has the greatest flour-mills in the world, and an extensive
+lumber-trade. Both are situated on the trade-route between the United
+States and Asian ports, and distribute a part of the trade that comes
+from them.
+
+The two _Kansas Cities_,[52] _Omaha_, _South Omaha_, and _Sioux City_
+are stock-markets and meat-packing centres. The first two named are
+collecting and distributing points not only for the Mississippi Valley,
+but also for a considerable share of the Pacific Coast trade. Kansas
+City is also a transfer station for the cotton destined for China. From
+this place it is sent by way of Billings to Seattle, and thence shipped
+to China.
+
+_Cincinnati_ is the metropolis of the Ohio Valley. Its situation on a
+bend of the river gives most excellent landing facilities; the easy
+grade from the bluff to the bottom-lands along the flood-plain of Mill
+Creek makes it accessible to the railways that enter the city. On
+account of low rates of transportation by river-barges, about three
+million tons of coal and one million tons of pig-iron and steel billets
+are floated to the city to be manufactured into other steel products.
+_Indianapolis_ is a great railway centre, where much of the freight
+passing between Chicago, Louisville, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg is
+exchanged. _Columbus_ (O.) is similarly situated as a railway and
+farming centre.
+
+[Illustration: CATTLE AND DAIRY PRODUCTS]
+
+_Louisville_ is a market of the tobacco region, and has probably a
+larger business in this industry than any other city in the world.
+_Davenport_, _Rock Island_, and _Moline_ form a single commercial
+centre, the last-named having the largest establishment for the
+manufacture of ploughs in the world. _Dubuque_, _Burlington_, _Quincy_,
+and _Muscatine_ are river-ports, all having a considerable trade in the
+lumber that is carried down the river.
+
+=The Southern Mississippi Valley and Gulf Coast.=--This region receives a
+generous warmth and rainfall. Cotton is its staple product, and nearly
+all the industries are connected with the growth, shipment, and
+manufacture of the crop and its side products. The cotton, raw or
+manufactured, is sold in about every country in the world.
+
+The commercial part of handling the cotton-crop begins within a very
+few weeks from the time of the first picking. The baled cotton is hauled
+by team from the plantation to the nearest market-town, an item
+sometimes greater than the entire freightage from the nearest seaport to
+Liverpool.
+
+The season for export lasts from September until the middle of January,
+during which time brokers are visiting the smaller markets in order to
+buy it on commission. It is then shipped by rail or by river to the
+nearest general market, where it is sold to the foreign buyers and
+domestic manufacturers.
+
+_New Orleans_, the metropolis of the South, has usually the heaviest
+export of cotton, amounting to about one billion pounds each year. Much
+of this is received by water from the various river-ports. The city is
+not only a river-port, but an important seaport as well, controlling a
+large part of the foreign commerce of the Gulf. Several trunk lines of
+railway enter the city, which is a receiving and distributing depot for
+both Atlantic and Pacific freights. A considerable part of the former
+are sent by ocean steamships from New York. An elaborate system of
+sewerage, well-paved streets, and a good water-supply--all recently put
+into operation--have made the city one of the most attractive in the
+United States.
+
+_Galveston_ is destined to become a leading port for cotton export. It
+has the advantage of a fine harbor on the seaboard, and the disadvantage
+of a location so low that very heavy south winds flood the streets with
+water from the Gulf. The growth of the export trade is due chiefly to
+the increasing crop of Texas. Shipments from Galveston begin in
+September, the Texas crop being the first to mature. _Savannah_ and _New
+York_ rank next in their exports. _Pensacola_ and _Brunswick_ are also
+important points of export. _Memphis_, _Vicksburg_, _Shreveport_,
+_Houston_, and _Montgomery_ are important collecting stations for the
+cotton.
+
+About one-third of the crop is retained for manufacture in the United
+States; one-third is purchased by Great Britain, one-sixth by Germany,
+and most of the remainder by France, Italy, Spain, and Japan. Of the
+manufactured cotton goods, the Chinese are the heaviest buyers, taking
+about half the entire export. Most of the Chinese purchase is landed at
+Shanghai.
+
+In the main, the manufactures of this region closely concern the cotton
+industry. The increase in the manufacture of textile goods has been very
+great, and a large part of the cotton now manufactured in the New
+England States and abroad, in time will be made in the cities and towns
+of this section. In addition to the textile goods, cottonseed-oil is an
+important product. A part of this is used in the mechanical arts, but
+the refined oil is used mainly for domestic purposes. A considerable
+part of the latter is used to adulterate olive-oil, and in some
+instances is substituted for it. The refuse of the seed is made into
+fertilizer.
+
+_Atlanta_ is one of the foremost cities in the South in the manufacture
+of cotton textiles and products. Commercially its situation resembles
+that of Indianapolis; it is a focal point of the chief trunk lines of
+railway in the South, and has the principal railway clearing-house. Like
+New Orleans, it is an educational centre and one of the foremost in the
+South. _Macon_, _Dallas_, _Fort Worth_, and _San Antonio_ are growing
+commercial centres.
+
+The manufacture of cane-sugar has been an industry of Louisiana for more
+than a century. Since the advent of beet-sugar, however, it has been a
+somewhat precarious venture, and has depended for existence very largely
+upon tariff protection and bounties paid to the American sugar-makers.
+Tobacco manufacture centres at Tampa and Key West. Cuban leaf is there
+converted into cigars.
+
+Fruit culture is a great industry. Millions of melons and great
+quantities of pineapples, oranges, and small fruit form the early crop
+that is shipped North. The orange groves are mainly in Florida. The crop
+is exhausted about the time that California oranges are shipped East. A
+great deal of tropical fruit is brought from Mexican, Central American,
+and South American ports. This trade is controlled mainly at _Mobile_,
+which is also a lumber-market.
+
+=The Arid Plains and the Grazing Region.=--This region includes the high
+plains approximately west of the 2,000-foot contour of level, together
+with a part of the plateaus of the western highland region. It is
+essentially one of grazing. Formerly there was an attempt to make
+wheat-growing the chief industry, but on account of the limited rainfall
+not more than three crops out of five reached maturity.
+
+The earlier cattle-growing was carried on in a somewhat primitive
+manner; the cattle herded on open lands, wandering from one range to
+another, wherever the grazing might be good. The ownership of the cattle
+was determined by the brand the animal bore,[53] and the herds were
+"rounded up" twice a year to be sorted; at the round-up the "mavericks,"
+or unmarked calves and yearlings, were branded. In time the ranges
+became greatly overstocked; the winter losses by starvation were so
+heavy that a better system became imperative. "Rustling," or
+cattle-stealing, also became a factor in improving the methods of
+cattle-ranching. The cautious rustler would purchase a few head of
+cattle and add to the number by capturing stray mavericks.
+
+[Illustration: A DESERT REGION--TOO DRY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF
+FOOD-STUFFS]
+
+[Illustration: OPEN GRAZING RANGES, IN WESTERN HIGHLANDS]
+
+Both the legitimate graziers and the rustlers at first were bitterly
+opposed to fencing the land. In time, however, the grazier was compelled
+to do this, and also to grow alfalfa for winter foddering. The great
+open ranges have therefore been broken up and fenced wholly or in part.
+The fencing, moreover, has kept a dozen or more of the largest
+wire-mills in the world turning out a product that is at once shipped
+West. As a rule, the top wire is set on insulators and used for
+telephone connection.[54] This method of cattle-growing has improved the
+business in every way. The cattle are better kept; the loss by winter
+killing is very small; the "long-horn" cattle have given place to the
+best breeds of "meaters," which are heavier, and mature more quickly.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co._
+
+ON A TEXAS CATTLE RANCH]
+
+The success of stock-growing in this region is largely a question of
+climate. The sparse rainfall permits the growth of several species of
+grass that retain nutrition and vitality after turning brown under the
+fierce summer heat. Ordinary turf-grass will not live in this region,
+nor will it retain its nutrition after turning brown if rain falls upon
+it. The native grass is not materially affected by a shower or two; it
+is fairly good fodder even when buried under the winter's snow. The
+existence of this industry, therefore, turns on a very delicate climatic
+balance.
+
+Of the beef grown in the United States the export product is derived
+mainly from this region. Nearly four hundred thousand animals are
+shipped alive; about three hundred million pounds of fresh beef are
+shipped to the Atlantic seaboard in refrigerator-cars and then
+transferred to refrigerator-steamships. Two-thirds of the cattle and
+fresh beef exported are shipped from New York and Boston.
+
+Upward of one hundred and fifty million pounds of canned and pickled
+beef are also exported. All but a very small part of this product is
+consumed in Great Britain, France, and Germany. The cattle are collected
+for transportation at various stations and sidings along the railways
+that traverse this region. _Cheyenne_ is one of the largest
+cattle-markets in the world.
+
+Wool has become a very valuable product, and the sheep grown in this
+region number about one-half the total in the United States. The growing
+of macaroni-wheat is extending to lands that fail to produce crops of
+ordinary wheat.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+In what ways does the basin of the Great Lakes facilitate the commerce
+of the United States?
+
+How has the topography of the Mississippi Valley affected the evolution
+of farming-machinery?
+
+Why are shippers willing in many cases to pay an all-rail rate on wheat
+sent to the Atlantic seaboard, nearly three times as great as the lake
+and canal rates?
+
+The acre-product of wheat in the United States is about twelve bushels;
+in western Europe it varies from twenty-five to more than forty bushels;
+to what is the difference due?
+
+What is meant by sea-island cotton?--for what reasons is cotton imported
+from Egypt and Peru into the United States?
+
+In what manner is cotton used in the manufacture of pneumatic tires, and
+why is it thus used?
+
+What are refrigerator-cars?--refrigerator-steamships? Name some of the
+regulations required in shipping cattle.
+
+Why have American meats been debarred at times from European markets?
+
+Find the value of cotton and meat exported to the following-named
+countries: Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, China.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+The Wheat Problem--pp. 191 _et seq._
+
+Statistical Abstract.
+
+[Illustration: DIFFICULT RAILROADING--LAS ANIMAS CAÑON]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+THE UNITED STATES--THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS AND TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS
+
+
+The western part of the United States consists of a succession of high
+mountain-ranges extending nearly north and south. The two highest
+ranges, each about two miles high, enclose a basin-shaped plateau about
+one mile high. This basin is commonly called the "plateau region." The
+rim ranges are broken in a few places by passes that the
+transcontinental railways thread. West of the Sierra Nevada ranges are
+the fertile Pacific coast lowlands.
+
+=The Plateau Region.=--This region is generally arid, but on the higher
+plateaus there is sufficient rainfall to produce a considerable forestry
+and grazing. The general conditions of rainfall and topography forbid
+any great development of agriculture. Farming is confined to the
+river-flood-plains, the parks, and the old lake beds and margins.
+
+A considerable area, estimated at more than two million acres, may be
+made productive by irrigation, and the United States Government is
+undertaking the construction of an elaborate and extensive system of
+reservoirs for the impounding of stream and storm waters now running to
+waste. The irrigated lands of this region, when their products are
+accessible to markets, are very valuable. The river-bottom lands of New
+Mexico, and the old margins of Great Salt Lake in Utah are examples.
+They produce abundantly, and a single acre often yields as much as four
+or five acres in regions of plentiful rainfall.
+
+Not much of the crop of this region, the fruit and wool excepted,
+leaves the vicinity in which it is grown, on account of the expense of
+transportation. In the matter of the transportation of their
+commodities, the dwellers of the western highland are doubly
+handicapped. The building of railways is enormously expensive, and in a
+region of sparse population there is comparatively little local freight
+to be hauled. The difficulties of developing such a region from a
+commercial stand-point, therefore, are very great.
+
+Mining is the chief industry of this section, and silver, gold, and
+copper are its most important products. Since the discovery of precious
+metals in the United States, this region has produced gold and silver
+bullion to the value of about four billion dollars. This sum is about
+one-half the value of the railways of the country,[55] and from 1865 to
+1880 a large part of the capital invested in railway building represents
+the gold and silver of these mines. In the last twenty years of the past
+century they produced an average of about one hundred and twenty-five
+million dollars per year, and this average is constantly increasing.
+
+Coal-measures extend along the eastern escarpment of the Rocky
+Mountains, and these are destined at no remote day to create a centre of
+steel and other manufactures. Several of the railways operate coal-mines
+in Colorado and Wyoming for the fuel required. A limited supply of steel
+is also made, the industry being protected by the great distance from
+the Eastern smelteries.
+
+[Illustration: GOLD MINING--CRIPPLE CREEK, COLORADO]
+
+_Denver_ is the chief active centre of finance of the mining industry
+in the western highlands, although many of the great enterprises derive
+the capital necessary to develop them from _New York_ and _San
+Francisco_. _Leadville_, _Cripple Creek_, _Butte_, _Helena_, and
+_Deadwood_ are regions of gold and silver production. _Virginia City_ is
+the operating centre of the famous Comstock mines. At _Anaconda_ is the
+chief copper-mine of this region. _Salt Lake City_ and _Ogden_ are the
+centre of the Mormon agricultural enterprises. _Santa Fé_, _Las Vegas_,
+and _Albuquerque_ are centres of agricultural interests and
+stock-growing.
+
+_Spokane_ and _Walla Walla_ are commercial centres of the plains of the
+Columbia River. The former is the focal point of a network of local
+roads that collect the wheat and other farm products of this region; the
+latter is the collecting point for much of the freight sent by
+steamboats down the Columbia River from _Wallula_. Railway
+transportation has largely superseded river-navigation for all except
+local freights, however. _Boise City_ is the financial centre of
+considerable mining interests.
+
+=The Pacific Coast Lowlands.=--Climatically this region differs from the
+rest of the United States in having a rainy and a dry season--that is,
+the rainfall is wholly seasonal. In the northern part the rainfall is
+sixty inches or more, and rain may be expected daily from the middle of
+October to May. In central California the precipitation is about half as
+much, the rainy season beginning later and ending earlier. In southern
+California there are occasional showers during the winter months,
+aggregating ten or twenty inches.
+
+The level valley-lands have no superior for wheat-farming, and in but
+one or two places is the rainfall insufficient to insure a good crop. In
+the San Joaquin and southern valleys of California the harvest begins in
+May, in the Sacramento Valley in June, and in the Willamette and Sound
+Valleys of Oregon and Washington in July. The wheat goes mainly to Great
+Britain by way of Cape Horn. It cannot be safely shipped in bulk, and
+the manufacture of jute grain-sacks has become an important industry in
+consequence. The yearly wheat product of this region is not far from
+eighty million bushels.
+
+Fruit is a valuable product of the foot-hills of the Sierras, and in
+southern California oranges, lemons, and grapes are now the staple crop.
+In some cases the average yield per acre has reached a value of five
+hundred dollars. Some of the largest vineyards in the world are in this
+region. The Zinfandel claret wine and the raisins find a market as far
+east as London, and considerable quantities are sold in China and Japan.
+The navel orange, although not native to California, reaches its finest
+development in that State. A large part of the fruit-crop of California
+is handled at Minneapolis, Chicago, St. Louis, and New York. It is
+transported in special cars attached to fast trains.
+
+Wool is an important crop. In the northern part the sheep thrive best in
+the foot-hills. The valley of Umpqua River, Ore., produces nearly
+seventeen million pounds of wool yearly, the staple being an ordinary
+variety. California produces nearly as much of the finest merino staple.
+A considerable part is manufactured in the mills of the Pacific coast.
+The Mission Mills blankets made in San Francisco are without an equal
+elsewhere.
+
+The discovery of gold by John Marshall in 1848 resulted in a tremendous
+inflow of people to the gold-fields of California. It also was a factor
+in the acquisition of the territory composing the Pacific coast States.
+The first mining consisted merely in separating the metal deposited in
+the bed-rock of streams by washing away the lighter material. In time
+the quartz ledges which had produced the placer gold became the chief
+factor in gold mining. California is still one of the leading States in
+the production of gold. Quicksilver mining is an important feature of
+the mining interests of the Pacific coast, and the mines of the coast
+ranges produce about half the world's output.
+
+Lumber manufacture is an important industry. Douglas spruce, commonly
+known as "Oregon pine," grows profusely on the western slopes of the
+high ranges, the belt extending nearly to the Mexican border. It makes a
+most excellent building-lumber, especially for bridge-timber and
+framework. Masts and spars of this material are used in almost every
+maritime country. Sugar-pine is less common, but is abundant. It is
+largely used for interior work. Several species of redwood occur in
+central California, confined to a limited area. The wood is fine-grained
+and makes a most beautiful interior finish.
+
+_San Francisco_ is the metropolis of the Pacific coast of the United
+States. It is the terminus of the Santa Fé and Union Pacific railways,
+and the centre of a network of local roads. Steamship lines connect the
+city with Panama, the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, and Australian ports;
+coast steamships reach to the various ports of Alaska, Oregon, and
+California. It is also the financial as well as the commercial centre of
+the Pacific coast. _Los Angeles_ is the centre of the fruit-growing
+region; its port is _San Pedro_. _Stockton_, _Port Costa_, and
+_Sacramento_, all on navigable waters, are wheat-markets. _Portland_
+(Ore.) is the metropolis of the basin of the Columbia and Willamette
+Rivers. Navigation of the former is interrupted by falls or rapids at
+_Dalles_ and _Cascades_, but boats ascend as far as _Wallula_. The lower
+Willamette is also made navigable by means of a canal and locks at
+Oregon Falls.
+
+Puget Sound is a "drowned valley," with an abundance of deep water. The
+score or more of harbors are among the best in the world. _Seattle_ and
+_Tacoma_, the leading ports, are terminals of great transcontinental
+railways, and also of the most important trade-route across the
+continent. Lines of steamships connect Seattle with Japan and China, and
+the commerce passing through this gateway is drawn from a territory
+that extends more than half-way around the world. These ports are
+destined to become the chief American ports in the Asian trade.
+
+=Alaska.=--The most productive industry of the insular part of the
+territory is the fisheries. For many years the Pribilof Islands produced
+practically all the seal-pelts used in the manufacture of seal-fur
+garments. So many seals were killed, however, that the species seemed
+likely to become extinct, and seal-catching has been forbidden for a
+term of years.
+
+[Illustration: PUGET SOUND]
+
+The discovery of gold along the Klondike River and in the beach-sands of
+Cape Nome was followed by the development of surface mines that produced
+a large amount of gold. For the better transportation of products, a
+railway has been completed from _Skagway_ across White Pass to _White
+Horse_, the head of navigation of the Yukon. About twenty steamboats are
+engaged in the commerce of the river. _Skagway_ and _Dyea_ are
+collecting points for the commerce of the Klondike mines. _Juneau_ has
+probably the largest quartz-mill in the world.
+
+=Porto Rico.=--Porto Rico, formerly a Spanish colony, is now a possession
+of the United States. The island is about the size of Connecticut and
+has a population somewhat greater. The industries are almost wholly
+agricultural, and nearly the whole surface is under cultivation. Sugar,
+coffee, and tobacco are grown for export, and these constitute the chief
+source of income. The coffee-crop, about sixty million pounds yearly, is
+the most valuable product and commands a high price on account of its
+superior quality. It is sold very largely to European coffee-merchants,
+and is marketed as a "Mocha." Exports of fruit to the United States are
+increasing. In 1900 the exports to United States markets, mainly sugar
+and cattle products, were about six million dollars. The imports from
+the United States were chiefly of cotton-prints and rice, to the amount
+of nearly nine million dollars. The total export and import trade that
+year was about twenty million dollars.
+
+The facilities for the transportation of products are not good. The
+railway lines have a total mileage of about one hundred and fifty miles.
+An excellent wagon-road, built by the Spanish Government from San Juan
+to Ponce, has been supplemented by several hundred miles of roads built
+under the direction of the military authorities. _San Juan_ and _Ponce_
+are the leading seaports and centres of trade.
+
+=Hawaiian Islands.=--These islands were discovered by a Spanish sailor,
+Gaetano, in 1549, and again visited by Captain Cook in 1778. Up to 1893
+they formed a native kingdom. In 1893 foreign influence was sufficient
+to overthrow the native government, and in 1898 they were formally
+annexed to the United States and about the same time organized as a
+territory. From an early date the geographic position of the islands has
+made them a convenient mid-ocean post-station, and they have therefore
+become a most important commercial centre.
+
+[Illustration: HYDRAULIC GOLD MINING--CALIFORNIA]
+
+Of the various islands composing the group, Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kaui,
+Molokai, Lanai, and Niihau are inhabited. About one-fifth of the
+population consists of native Hawaiians; a little more than one-fifth is
+white; the remainder is composed of Japanese, Chinese, and Porto Ricans.
+The native population is decreasing. About ninety-five per cent. of the
+property is owned by the white people--Americans, English, and Germans.
+
+The volcanic soils are the very best sugar-lands, and a large amount of
+capital is invested in this industry. The sugar-plantations employ more
+than forty thousand laborers, all Japanese, Chinese, and Porto Ricans.
+The value of the sugar export is nearly twenty-five million dollars
+yearly; that of fruit, rice, and hides is about two hundred and fifty
+thousand dollars. Coffee is rapidly becoming a leading product. The bulk
+of the imports comes from the United States, and consists of clothing,
+cotton textiles, lumber, and machinery.
+
+_Honolulu_, on the island of Oahu, is the capital and commercial centre,
+and foreign steamships and sailing-craft are scarcely ever absent from
+its harbor. Regular steamship service connects this port with San
+Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, B.C., and the principal ports of China
+and Japan. It is connected with the other islands by a system of
+wireless telegraphy. The city has the best of schools, business
+organizations, hotels, and streets.
+
+_Pearl Harbor_ contains a large area of water, most of which is deep
+enough for the largest vessels afloat. It is intended to deepen the
+entrance and establish a United States naval station at this place. The
+village of _Hilo_ is the chief port of the island of Hawaii.
+
+=The Philippine Islands= are an archipelago of about two thousand islands,
+the two largest of which, Luzon and Mindanao, are each nearly the size
+of New York State. Luzon is by far the most important.
+
+After their cession to the United States (December 10, 1898), they were
+held under military control, but this has given place to local
+self-government as rapidly as the circumstances permitted. A general
+school system has been established and is extended wherever practicable.
+In a considerable number of the islands civil organization is still
+impossible.
+
+The following are the principal islands and their mineral resources:
+
+  ----------------+----------------------+---------------------
+        NAME      |CHIEF CITIES AND PORTS|MINERAL RESOURCES
+  ----------------+----------------------+---------------------
+  Luzon           |Manila, Lipa, Batangas|Coal, gold, copper
+  Mindanao        |Zamboanga             |Coal, gold, copper
+  Samar           |Catbalogan            |Coal, gold
+  Negros          |Bacolor               |Coal
+  Panay           |Iloilo                |Coal, gold, petroleum
+  Leyte           |Tacloban              |Coal, petroleum
+  Mindoro         |Calapan               |Coal, gold
+  Cebu            |Cebu                  |Coal, petroleum, gold
+  ----------------+----------------------+----------------------
+
+The native population is mainly of the Malay race, but there are also
+many Negritos. Of the native element the Tagals are the most advanced,
+and are the dominant people. The foreign population includes nearly one
+hundred thousand Chinese, who are the chief commercial factors of the
+islands, and the leading industries are controlled by them. There is a
+considerable population of Chinese and Tagal mixed blood, commonly known
+as "Chinese mestizos"; they inherit, in the main, the Chinese
+characteristics. The European and American population consists mainly of
+officials, troops, and merchant-agents for Philippine products.
+
+The principal products for export are "Manila" hemp, sugar, and tobacco.
+The hemp is used in the manufacture of cordage and paper. On account of
+the great strength of the fibre it has no equal among cordage fibres.
+The imports from the United States consist mainly of machinery and
+cotton textiles. The total trade of the islands amounted in 1901 to
+about fifty million dollars, most of which was shared by Great Britain
+and the United States.
+
+Coal is mined in the island of Cebu and is abundant in most of the
+islands. Iron ore, copper, and sulphur occur, but they have not been
+made commercially available to any extent. Gold is mined in the island
+of Luzon. A stable government only is needed to make these great
+resources productive. An abundance of timber is found in most of the
+islands. Cedar, ebony, and sapan-wood are available for ornamental
+purposes; there is also a great variety of economic woods.
+
+_Manila_ is the commercial centre. Manila Bay is one of the finest
+harbors in the Pacific Ocean, but much work is necessary to give the
+water-front a navigable depth for large steamships. With an improved
+harbor the city is bound to be a great emporium of Oriental trade.
+Steamship lines connect the city with Hongkong, Australia, Japan,
+Singapore, and Liverpool. There is also a military transport service to
+Seattle. A railway to Dagupan extends through the most important
+agricultural region. The wagon-roads throughout the island are very
+poor.
+
+_Lipa_, _Batanzas_, _Bauan_, and _Cavité_ are cities of about forty
+thousand population, all more or less connected with the industries of
+Manila. _Iloilo_ is the second port of importance of the islands, and is
+the centre of a considerable export trade in tobacco, hemp, sugar, and
+sapan-wood. _Cebu_ is also a port having a considerable trade.
+
+=Tutuila=, one of the Samoan Islands, was acquired by treaty for use as a
+coal-depot and naval station. _Pago Pago_ is a port of call for
+steamships between San Francisco and Australia. =Guam=, one of the Ladrone
+Islands, is a naval station. These possessions are strategic and are
+designed to secure the interests of the United States in the Pacific. An
+ocean telegraphic cable connects the Pacific Ocean possessions with the
+United States and Asia.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Why are mountain-regions apt to be sparsely peopled?
+
+Why are arid regions sparsely peopled, as a rule?
+
+Why are not gold-mining settlements so apt to be permanent as
+agricultural settlements?
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the production of gold and silver
+of this region for each ten years ending the last half of the century.
+
+What causes the difference between the wool clip of southern California
+and that of the Eastern States?
+
+Follow the route of a grain-carrying ship from San Francisco to
+Liverpool.
+
+What are the advantages to the United States of the accession of the
+Hawaiian Islands?--of the Philippine Islands?--of Alaska? What are the
+disadvantages?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Mineral Resources of the United States.
+
+Abstract of Statistics.
+
+U.S. Coast Survey Chart of Alaska.
+
+Map of Hawaiian Islands.
+
+Map of Philippine Islands.
+
+[Illustration: NIAGARA POWER-HOUSE (EXTERIOR)]
+
+[Illustration: NIAGARA POWER-HOUSE (INTERIOR)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND
+
+
+A very large part of Canada is so far north that the ordinary
+food-stuffs cannot be grown there; the river-valleys of British Columbia
+and the basin of the Saskatchewan excepted, there are but few marks of
+human industry beyond the fiftieth parallel. The general conditions of
+topography resemble those of the United States--a central plain between
+the high Rocky Mountain ranges in the west and the lower Laurentian
+ranges in the east.
+
+Canada is an agricultural country, and because of the great skill with
+which its resources have been made commercially available, it is the
+most important colony of Great Britain. The basin of the Great Lakes and
+the St. Lawrence River is the most populous part of the country. This
+region is highly cultivated and produces dairy products, beef, and the
+ordinary farm-crops.
+
+From Lake Winnipeg westward, nearly to the Rocky Mountains, the land is
+a succession of prairies admirably suited to wheat-growing.[56] The
+wheat is a hard, spring variety, and the average yield per acre is about
+one-fourth greater than the average yield in the United States.
+
+The area of forestry includes the larger remaining part of the great
+pine belt, together with a very heavy reserve of merchantable
+oak-timber. The part of the forest area in Canada aggregates one and
+one-quarter million square miles, and yields an annual product of about
+eighty million dollars; about one-third of the lumber is exported.
+
+The northerly region of Canada produces furs and pelts. As long ago as
+1670, Charles II. granted to Prince Rupert and a stock company the lands
+comprising a very large part of Canada around Hudson Bay, and secured to
+them the sole right to trap the fur-bearing animals of the region. In
+time the company, known as the Hudson Bay Company, transferred all its
+lands to Canada, and out of the domain thus annexed various provinces
+and unorganized districts have been created.
+
+The company now exists as a corporation for the merchandise of furs. For
+the greater part, Indians are employed as hunters and trappers, and the
+pelts are collected at the various trading-posts, known as "houses" and
+"factories," to be sent to the head-quarters of the company near
+Winnipeg. Nearly every Arctic animal furnishes a merchantable pelt. The
+cheaper skins are made into garments in Canada and the United States;
+those commonly classed as furs are sold in London. Several other fur
+companies are also operating in Canada.
+
+The fisheries of the coast-waters and the Great Lakes are among the most
+productive in the world. Everything within the three-mile limit of the
+shore is reserved for Canadian fishermen. The smaller bays and coves are
+reserved also within the three-mile limit. Beyond this limit the waters
+are open to all, and a fleet of swift gun-boats is necessary to prevent
+illicit fishing. Salmon, cod, lobsters, and herring form most of the
+catch, amounting in value to upward of twenty million dollars yearly.
+
+The output of minerals varies from year to year; since 1900 it has
+averaged about sixty million dollars a year. The gold product
+constitutes nearly one-half and the coal about one-sixth of the total
+amount. Nickel, petroleum, silver, and lead form the rest of the output.
+Iron ore is abundant, but it is not at present available for production
+on account of the distance from transportation.
+
+Commerce is facilitated by about eighteen thousand miles of railway and
+nearly three thousand miles of canal and improved river-navigation. One
+ocean-to-ocean railway, the Canadian Pacific, is in operation; another,
+an extension of the Grand Trunk, is under way. The rapids and shoals of
+the St. Lawrence and Richelieu Rivers are surmounted by canals and
+locks. Welland Canal connects Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and the
+Canadian lock at St. Mary's Falls joins Lake Superior to Lake Huron. By
+means of the lakes and canals vessels drawing fourteen feet may load at
+Canadian ports and discharge at Liverpool.
+
+The harbors of the Atlantic coast have two great drawbacks--ice and high
+tides. Some of the steamship lines make Portland, Me., their winter
+terminus. The Pacific coast harbors are not obstructed by ice. An
+attempt has been made in the direction of using Hudson Bay and Strait as
+a grain-route, but the difficulties of navigation are very great and the
+route is open only two months of the year.
+
+Practically all the foreign trade is carried on with Great Britain and
+the United States. The trade with each aggregates about one hundred and
+fifty million dollars yearly. The exports are lumber and wood-pulp,
+cheese and dairy products, wheat and flour, beef-cattle, hog products,
+fish, and gold-quartz. The chief imports are steel, wool, sugar, and
+cotton manufactures.
+
+Politically, Canada consists of a number of provinces, each with the
+usual corps of elective officers. A governor-general appointed by the
+Crown of Great Britain is the chief executive officer.
+
+=Nova Scotia.=--This province is prominent on account of its coal and
+iron, and also because of its geographic position. The iron and coal are
+utilized in steel smelteries and rolling-mills, glass-factories,
+sugar-refineries, and textile-mills. It is one of the few localities in
+the eastern part of the continent yielding gold. _Halifax_, the capital,
+has one of the best harbors of the Atlantic coast of North America; it
+is not often obstructed by ice, and is the chief winter port. Halifax is
+the principal British naval station of North America, and this fact adds
+much to its commercial activity.
+
+=Prince Edward Island.=--The industries of this province are mainly
+connected with the coast-fisheries. During the summer the island is
+visited by thousands of fishing-vessels for the purpose of preparing the
+catch for market. Fertilizer manufactured from the refuse is an
+incidental product. _Charlottetown_ is the capital.
+
+=New Brunswick.=--Fisheries and forest products are both resources of this
+province. Coal is mined at _Grand Lake_, and an excellent lime for
+export to the United States is made at _St. John_. Lumber, wood-pulp,
+wooden sailing-vessels, cotton textiles, and structural steel for
+ship-building are manufactured. A ship railway, seventeen miles long,
+across the isthmus that connects this province to Nova Scotia, is under
+construction. _St. John_, the capital, is the chief seat of trade.
+
+=Quebec.=--This province was once a possession of France, and in the
+greater part of it French customs are yet about as prevalent as they
+were a century ago; moreover, the French population is increasing
+rapidly. The English-speaking population lives mainly along the Vermont
+border. As a rule the English are the manufacturers and traders; the
+French people are the farmers.
+
+_Montreal_ is the head of navigation of the St. Lawrence for ocean
+steamships. It is also the chief centre of manufactures. These are
+mainly sugar, rubber goods, textiles, light steel wares, and leather.
+The last-named goes almost wholly to Great Britain; the rest are
+consumed in Canada and the border American States. _Quebec_ is the most
+strongly fortified city of the Dominion.
+
+=Ontario.=--This province is a peninsula bordered by Lakes Huron, Erie,
+and Ontario. Farming is the chief employment, and barley is an important
+product. Most of it is used in the manufacture of malt, and "Canada
+malt" is regarded as the best. Several of the trunk railways whose
+terminals are in the United States traverse this peninsula. _Toronto_,
+the capital and commercial centre, is one of the most rapidly growing
+cities of North America. _Hamilton_ owes its existence to its harbor and
+position at the head of Lake Ontario. _Ottawa_ is the capital of the
+Dominion. At _Sudbury_ are the nickel-mines that are among the most
+productive in the world.
+
+=Manitoba=, =Saskatchewan=, and =Alberta=.--These provinces include the
+level prairie lands of the Saskatchewan and the Red River of the North.
+They comprise the great grain-field of Canada. A considerable part of
+the wheat-growing lands are yet unproductive owing to the lack of
+railways. Much of the product is carried to market by the Canadian
+Pacific and its feeders, but a considerable part finds its way to the
+Northern Pacific and Great Northern roads. The coal of Manitoba and
+Alberta is an important fuel supply not only to the provinces and states
+surrounding, but to the railways above named. A good quality of
+anthracite coal is also mined in Alberta. _Winnipeg_, the metropolis of
+the region, is one of the great railway centres of Canada.
+
+=British Columbia.=--British Columbia, the Pacific coast province, has
+several resources of great value. The gold mines led to its settlement
+and commercial opening. The salmon-fisheries are surpassed by those of
+the United States only. The beds of lignite coal have produced a very
+large part of the coal used in the Pacific coast States. The forests
+produce lumber for shipment both to the Atlantic coast of America and
+the Pacific coast of Asia.
+
+_Vancouver_, the terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway, is connected
+with various Asian ports by fast steamships. _Nanaimo_, _Wellington_,
+and _Commox_ are the centres of the coal-mining industry. The
+copper-mines at _Rossland_ produce most of the copper mined in Canada.
+
+=Newfoundland.=--Although a Crown possession, Newfoundland is not a member
+of the Dominion of Canada. The extensive fisheries are its chief
+resource. The Labrador coast, which is used as a resort for curing and
+preserving the catch, is attached to Newfoundland for the purpose of
+government. _St. Johns_ is the capital.
+
+The islands of Miquelon and St. Pierre, south of Newfoundland, are a
+French possession. Fishing is the ostensible industry, but a great deal
+of smuggling is carried on.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What, if any, climatic or topographic boundaries separate Canada and the
+United States?
+
+Which of the two countries is the more fortunately situated for the
+production of food-stuffs?
+
+Which will support the larger population?--why?
+
+The harbors of the Labrador coast and of Cape Breton Island are superior
+to those of the British Islands, situated in about the same latitude;
+why do the latter have a commerce far greater than that of the former?
+
+Compare the industries of the eastern, middle, and western regions of
+Canada with the corresponding regions of the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Statesman's Year-Book.
+
+Statistical Year-Book of Canada (official government publication,
+Ottawa).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+MEXICO--CENTRAL AMERICA--WEST INDIES
+
+
+Mexico and the Central American states occupy the narrow, southerly part
+of North America. Structurally they consist of a plateau about a mile
+high, bordered on each side by a low coast-plain. The table-land, or
+_tierra templada_, has about the same climate as southern California;
+the low coast-plains, or _tierra caliente_, are tropical.
+
+=Mexico.=--The United States of Mexico is the most important part of this
+group. The people are of mixed Spanish and Indian blood, but there are
+many families of pure Castilian descent. The latter, in general, are the
+landed proprietors; the former constitute the tradesmen, herders, and
+peons. There is also a large unproductive class, mainly of Indians, who
+are living in a savage state. In general the manners and customs are
+those of Spain.
+
+The agricultural pursuits are in a backward condition, partly for the
+want of good system and an educated people, but mainly for lack of the
+capital and engineering skill to construct the irrigating canals that
+are needed to make the land productive. Maize, rice, sugar (cane and
+panocha), and wheat are grown for home consumption.
+
+The agricultural products which connect Mexico with the rest of the
+world are sisal-hemp (henequin), coffee, logwood, and fruit. Sisal-hemp
+is grown in the state of Yucatan, and has become one of its chief
+financial resources. Oaxaca coffee is usually sold as a "Mocha" berry.
+The logwood goes mainly to British textile makers; and the fruit,
+chiefly oranges and bananas, finds a market in the large cities of the
+United States, to which large consignments of vanilla and tropical woods
+are also sent. Cattle are grown on more than twenty thousand ranches,
+and the greater part are sent alive to the markets of the United States.
+The native long-horn stock is giving place to improved breeds.
+
+[Illustration: MEXICO]
+
+Gold and silver are the products that have made Mexico famous, and the
+mines have produced a total of more than three billion dollars' worth of
+precious metal. The native methods of mining have always been primitive,
+and low-grade ores have been neglected. In recent years American and
+European capital has been invested in low-grade mines, and the bullion
+production has been about doubled in value; it is now about one hundred
+million dollars yearly. Iron ore is abundant, and good coal exists.
+
+The manufactures, at present of little importance, are growing rapidly.
+The cotton-mills consume the home product and fill their deficiency from
+the Texas crop. All the finer textiles, however, are imported. Most of
+the commodities are supplied by the United States, Great Britain, and
+Germany, the first-named having about half the trade. Most of the
+hardware and machinery is purchased in the United States.
+
+Railway systems, with American terminal points at El Paso, San Antonio,
+and New Orleans, extend from the most productive parts of the country.
+One of the most important railways crosses the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,
+and, in order to encourage commerce, the harbors at Coatzacoalcos and
+Salina Cruz have been deepened and improved. This interoceanic route is
+destined to become a very important factor in commerce. It shortens the
+route between European ports and San Francisco by six thousand miles,
+and between New York and San Francisco by twelve hundred miles.[57]
+
+_Mexico_, the capital, is the financial and commercial centre. _Vera
+Cruz_ and _Tampico_ are connected with the capital by railway, but both
+have very poor port facilities. Steamship lines connect the former with
+New York, New Orleans, Havana, and French ports. It is the chief port of
+the country. _Matamoros_ on the American frontier has a considerable
+cattle-trade. The crop of sisal-hemp is shipped mainly from _Progresso_
+and _Merida_. _Acapulco_, _Manzanillo_, and _Mazatlan_ for want of
+railway connections have but little trade. The first-named is one of the
+best harbors in the world. _Guadalajara_ has important textile and
+pottery manufactures.
+
+=The Central American States.=--The physical features and climate of
+these states resemble those of Mexico. The Spanish-speaking people live
+in the table-lands, where the climate is healthful. The coast-plain of
+the Atlantic is forest-covered and practically uninhabited save by
+Indians. Guatemala is the most important state. A railway from _Puerto
+Barrios_, its Atlantic port, through its capital, _Guatemala_, to its
+Pacific port, _San José_, is nearly completed. British Honduras is a
+British territory acquired mainly for the mahogany product, which is
+shipped from _Belize_. Honduras has great resources in mines, cultivable
+lands, and forests, but these are undeveloped. Salvador is the smallest
+but most progressive state.
+
+[Illustration: ROUTE OF PROPOSED NICARAGUA CANAL.]
+
+Nicaragua is politically of importance on account of the possibilities
+of an interoceanic canal. A treaty for this canal, involving both
+Nicaragua and Great Britain, has already been signed by the powers
+interested. Many engineers regard the Nicaragua as preferable to that of
+the Panama canal. The shorter distance between New York and the Pacific
+ports of the United States, a saving of about four hundred miles, is in
+its favor. The longer distance of transit and the dangers of navigating
+Lake Nicaragua are against it. Costa Rica is favorably situated for
+commerce, but its resources are not developed. A railway from _Puerto
+Limon_ is nearly completed to _Puenta Arenas_, an excellent harbor on
+the Pacific side.
+
+Coffee, hides, mahogany, and fruit are the only products of importance
+that connect these states with the rest of the world. About half the
+trade goes to the United States. The Germans and English supply a
+considerable part of the textiles and manufactured articles. The coffee
+of Costa Rica is a very superior product. Much of the mahogany and
+forest products goes to Great Britain. Fruit-steamers call at the
+Atlantic ports for bananas, which are sold in New Orleans and the
+Atlantic cities.
+
+=The West Indies.=--The climate and productions of these islands are
+tropical in character. Sugar, fruit, coffee, tobacco, and cacao are the
+leading products. From the stand-point of the planter, the sugar
+industry has been a history of misfortunes. The abolition of slavery
+ruined the industry in many of the islands belonging to Great Britain.
+The competition of the beet-sugar made in Europe drove the Cubans into
+insurrection on account of the excessive taxes levied by the Spaniards,
+and ended in the Spanish-American War.
+
+The fruit-crop--mainly pineapples, oranges, and grapefruit--is shipped
+to the United States. New York, Philadelphia, and the Gulf ports are the
+destination of the greater part of it.
+
+Cuba, the largest island, is one of the most productive regions of the
+world. The famous "Havana" tobacco grows mainly in the western part,
+although practically all Cuban tobacco is classed under this name.
+According to popular opinion it is pre-eminently the best in flavor,
+and the price is not affected by that of other tobaccos.[58] About
+two-thirds of the raw leaf and cigars are purchased by the tobacco
+manufacturers of the United States. _Havana_, _Santiago_, and
+_Cienfuegos_ are the shipping-ports; most of the export is landed at New
+York, Key West, and Tampa.
+
+From 1900 to 1903 the small fraction of the sugar industry that survived
+the war and the insurrection was crippled by the high tariff on sugar
+imported into the United States. The latter, which was designed to
+protect the home sugar industry, was so high that the Cubans could not
+afford to make sugar at the ruling prices in New York. Hides, honey, and
+Spanish cedar for cigar-boxes are also important exports.
+
+The United States is the chief customer of Cuba, and in turn supplies
+the Cubans with flour, textile goods, hardware, and coal-oil. Smoked
+meat from Latin America and preserved fish from Canada and Newfoundland
+are the remaining imports. There are no manufactures of importance. The
+railways are mainly for the purpose of handling the sugar-crop.
+
+_Havana_, the capital and financial centre, is connected with New York,
+New Orleans, and Key West by steamship lines. _Santiago_, _Matanzas_,
+and _Cienfuegos_ are ports having a considerable trade.
+
+The British possessions in the West Indies are commercially the most
+important of the European possessions. The Bahamas are low-lying coral
+islands, producing but little except sponges, fruit, and sisal-hemp.
+_Nassau_, the only town of importance, is a winter resort. Fruit, sugar,
+rum, coffee, and ginger are exported from _Kingston_, the port of
+Jamaica. _St. Lucia_ has probably the strongest fortress in the
+Caribbean Sea.
+
+Barbados produces more sugar than any other British possession in the
+West Indies. The raw sugar, muscovado, is shipped to the United States.
+Bermuda, an outlying island, furnishes the Atlantic states with onions,
+Easter lilies, and early potatoes. From Trinidad is obtained the
+asphaltum, or natural tar, that is used for street paving. Brea Lake,
+the source of the mineral, is leased to a New York company. Sugar and
+cacao are also exported from Port of Spain. The products of St. Vincent
+and Dominica are similar to those of the other islands.
+
+The French own Martinique (_Fort de France_) and Guadeloupe (_Basse
+Terre_). St. Thomas (_Charlotte Amalie_), St. Croix, and St. John are
+Danish possessions. Various attempts to transfer the Danish islands to
+the United States have failed. They are admirably adapted for naval
+stations. The island of Haiti consists of two negro republics, Haiti and
+San Domingo. The only important product is coffee. Most of the product
+is shipped to the United States, which supplies coal oil and textiles in
+return.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What part of the United States was formerly a possession of Mexico, and
+how did it become a possession of the United States?
+
+From a cyclopedia learn the character of the political organization of
+Mexico and the Central American states.
+
+From the report listed below find what commercial routes gain, and what
+ones lose in distance by the Nicaragua, as compared with the Panama
+canal.
+
+From a good atlas make a list of the islands of the West Indies; name
+the country to which each belongs, and its exports to the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+The Statesman's Year-Book.
+
+Great Canals of the World--pp. 4058-4059.
+
+[Illustration: SOUTH AMERICA]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+SOUTH AMERICA--THE ANDEAN STATES
+
+
+In its general surface features South America resembles North
+America--that is, a central plain is bordered by low ranges on the east
+and by a high mountain system on the west. In the southern part,
+midsummer is in January and midwinter in July. The mineral-producing
+states are traversed by the ranges of the Andes and all of them except
+Chile are situated on both slopes of the mountains.
+
+=Colombia.=--This republic borders both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific
+Ocean. One port excepted, however, most of its commerce is confined to
+the shores of the Caribbean Sea. The lowlands east of the Andes are
+admirably adapted for grazing, and such cattle products as hides, horns,
+and tallow are articles of export. This region, however, even with the
+present facilities for transportation, produces only a small fraction of
+the products possible.
+
+The intermontane valleys between the Andean ranges have the climate of
+the temperate zone; wheat and sheep are produced. The chief industrial
+development, however, is confined to the lands near the Caribbean coast.
+Coffee, cacao, and tobacco are grown for export, the business of
+cultivation being largely controlled by Americans and Europeans. Rubber,
+copaiba, tolu, and vegetable ivory[59] are gathered by Indians from the
+forests.
+
+[Illustration: A PASS IN THE ANDES]
+
+The montane region has long been famous for its mines of gold and
+silver. The salt mines near Bogota are a government monopoly and yield a
+considerable revenue. Near the same city are the famous Muzo emerald
+mines.
+
+The rivers are the chief channels of internal trade. During the rainy
+season steamboats ascend the Orinoco to Cabugaro, about two hundred
+miles from Bogota. About fifty steamboats are in commission on the
+Magdalena and its tributary, the Cauca. Mule trains traversing wretched
+trails require from one to two weeks to transport the goods from the
+river landings to the chief centres of population. Improvements now
+under way in clearing and canalizing these rivers will add about five
+hundred miles of additional water-way. The railways consist of short
+lines mainly used as portages around obstructions of the rivers.
+
+An unstable government and an onerous system of export taxes hamper
+trade. Coffee, a leading product, goes mainly to Europe. Cattle
+products, and balsam of tolu are purchased mainly in the United States.
+Great Britain purchases the gold and silver ores. The chief
+imports--textiles, flour, and petroleum--are purchased in the United
+States. _Bogota_ and _Medellin_ are the largest cities. The isolation of
+the region in which they are situated shapes the indifferent foreign
+policy of the government. _Barranquilla_, _Sabanilla_, and _Cartagena_
+are the chief ports.
+
+=Panama.=--This state, formerly a part of Colombia, includes the isthmus
+of Panama. Geographically it belongs to North America, and practically
+it can be approached from Colombia by water only. The secession of
+Panama was brought about by the complications of the isthmian canal. A
+treaty with the United States gives the latter sovereign control over
+the canal and the strip of land ten miles wide bordering it. _Panama_
+and _Colon_ are the two ports of the canal. The United States exercises
+police and sanitary regulations in these cities, but it has no
+sovereignty over them.
+
+=Peru.=--Peru has great resources, both agricultural and mineral. Cotton
+is one of the chief products. The ordinary fibre is excelled only by the
+sea-island cotton of the United States; the long-staple fibre of the
+Piura is the best grown. The former is generally employed for mixing
+with wool in the manufacture of underwear, and is sold in the United
+States and Europe; the latter, used in the manufacture of thread and the
+web of pneumatic tires, goes mainly to Great Britain.
+
+Cane-sugar is a very large export crop, Great Britain, the United
+States, and Chile being the principal customers. The area of coffee
+production is growing rapidly. Coca-growing has become an important
+industry, and the plantations aggregate about three million trees;[60] a
+large part of the product is sent to the chemical laboratories of the
+United States. A small crop of rice for export is grown on the coast.
+
+The Amazon forest products yield a considerable revenue. Rubber and
+vegetable ivory are the most valuable. Cinchona, or Peruvian bark,
+however, is the one for which the state is best known; and there is
+probably not a drug-shop in the civilized world that does not carry it
+in stock.[61]
+
+Cattle are grown for their hides, and of these the United States is the
+chief purchaser. The wool of the llama, alpaca, and vicuña is used in
+manufacture of the cloth known as alpaca, and the value of the shipments
+to Great Britain usually exceeds one million dollars a year. In the
+mining regions the llama is used as a pack-animal, and a large part of
+the mine products reach the markets by this means of transportation. The
+mines yield silver and copper; in the main the ores are exported to
+Great Britain to be smelted.
+
+The products already named are the chief exports; the imports are cotton
+textiles, machinery, steel wares, and coal-oil. Great Britain has about
+one-half the foreign trade; the United States controls about one-fourth.
+_Callao_, the port of _Lima_, is the market through which most of the
+foreign trade is carried on. Steamship lines connect it with San
+Francisco and with British ports. _Mollendo_ is the outlet of Bolivian
+trade. The railways are short lines extending from the coast.
+
+=Ecuador.=--This state has but little commercial importance. The only
+cultivated products for export are cacao, coffee, and sugar. The
+first-named constitutes three-fourths of the exports, and most of it
+goes to France. The land is held in large estates, and most of the
+laboring people are in a condition of practical slavery. The
+bread-stuffs consumed by the foreign population and the land proprietors
+are imported. Animals are grown for their hides and these are sold to
+the United States.
+
+Another manufacture that connects Ecuador with the rest of the world is
+the so-called "Panama" hat. The material used is toquilla straw, the
+mid-rib of the screw-pine (_Carlodovica palmata_). The prepared straw
+can be plaited only when the atmosphere is very moist, and much of the
+work is done at night. The hats are made by Indians, who are governed
+by their own ideas regarding style and shape. They bring from
+twenty-five to fifty dollars apiece in the American markets, where
+nearly all the product is sold.[62]
+
+Mule-paths are the only means of inland communication. There is a
+considerable local traffic on the estuaries of the rivers, but this is
+confined to the rainy seasons. A railway built by an American company is
+in operation from _Guayaquil_, a short distance inland. This city is the
+chief market for foreign goods, and it is the only foreign port of the
+Pacific coast of South America in which the volume of trade of the
+United States approximates that of Germany and Great Britain.
+
+=Bolivia.=--Bolivia lost much of its possible commercial possible future
+when, after a disastrous war, its Pacific coast frontage became a
+possession of Chile. The agricultural lands are unfortunately situated
+with reference to the mining population; as a result, a considerable
+amount of food-stuffs must be imported from Argentina. Coffee, cacao,
+and coca are the principal cultivated products. Rubber from the Amazon
+forest is the most valuable vegetable product, but a considerable amount
+of cinchona bark and ivory nuts are also exported.
+
+The mines, however, are the chief wealth of the state and give it the
+only excuse for its political existence. They produce silver, tin,
+copper, gold, and borate of lime. Inasmuch as a large part of the ore
+and ore products must be transported by llamas and mules, only the
+richest mines can be profitably worked. With adequate means of
+transportation, the mines should make Bolivia one of the most powerful
+South American states.
+
+Railways already connect _Oruro_ with the sea-coast. A railway now
+under construction will connect _La Paz_ (the pass) with the Pacific
+coast, and also Buenos Aires. Excellent roads to take the place of the
+pack-trains are under construction.
+
+Practically all the imports, consisting of cotton and woollen textiles,
+machinery, and steel wares, are purchased in Great Britain. The exports
+are more than double the imports. Most of the goods pass through the
+Chilean port Antofagasto, or Mollendo, Peru. _La Paz_, _Oruro_, and
+_Sucre_ are the chief cities.
+
+The hypothetical state of Acré is situated in the angle where Bolivia,
+Peru, and Brazil join. The rubber forests, together with the absence of
+legal government, led to its existence. The government is wholly
+insurrectionary, but it at least uses its powers to encourage the rubber
+trade.
+
+=Chile.=--This state comprises the narrow western slope of the Andes,
+extending from the tropic of Capricorn to Cape Horn, a distance of about
+three thousand miles. The resources of the state have been so skilfully
+handled, that with the drawback of a very small proportion of cultivable
+land, Chile is the foremost Andean state.
+
+The cultivation of the ordinary crops is confined to the flood-plains of
+the short rivers. These, as a rule, are from twenty to fifty miles long
+and a mile or two in width. They are densely peopled and cultivated to
+the limit. Between the river-valleys are long stretches of unproductive
+land.
+
+Within the valleys wheat, barley, fruit, and various food-stuffs are
+grown. Of these there are not only enough for home consumption, but
+considerable quantities are exported to Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Much
+of the cultivable land requires to be watered, and the system of
+irrigation has been developed with extraordinary skill. The grazing
+lands are extensive. In the northern part an excellent quality of merino
+wool is produced; the greater part of the clip, however, is an ordinary
+fibre. The cattle furnish a considerable amount of leather for export.
+
+The conditions which have made the northern part a desert have also
+given to the state its greatest resource--nitre.[63] The nitrate occurs
+in the northern desert region. The crude salt is crushed and partly
+refined at the mines, and carried by rail to the nearest port. The
+working of the nitrate beds is largely carried on by foreign companies.
+Nearly all the product is used as a fertilizer in Germany, France, and
+Great Britain. Nitrate constitutes about two-thirds of the exports.
+Iodine and bromine are also obtained from the nitrates, and the Chilean
+product yields nearly all the world's supply.
+
+Copper is extensively mined and, next to the nitrates, is the most
+valuable product. Great Britain is the customer for the greater part.
+Coal occurs in the southern part of the state, and is mined for export
+to the various states of the Pacific coast. It is not a good coal for
+iron smelting, however, and about three times as much is imported as is
+exported. A considerable part of the imported coal comes from Australia,
+and with it structural steel is made from pig-iron that is also
+imported.
+
+Chile is well equipped with railways, a part of which has been built and
+are operated by the state. The most important line traverses the valley
+between the Andes and the coast ranges, from Concepcion to Valparaiso.
+In this region are most of the manufacturing enterprises.
+
+The imports are chiefly coal, machinery, textile goods, and sugar. The
+British control about two-thirds of the foreign trade; the Germans and
+the French have most of the remainder. The United States supplies the
+Chileans with a part of the textiles, a considerable quantity of Oregon
+pine, and practically all the coal-oil used.
+
+[Illustration: VALPARASIO]
+
+_Valparaiso_ is the chief business centre of the Pacific coast of South
+America. Most of the forwarding business is carried on by British and
+German merchants. The transandine railway, now about completed, will
+make it one of the most important ports of the world. _Santiago_ is the
+capital. _Concepcion_ and _Talca_ are important centres of trade.
+_Chillan_ is the principal cattle-market of the Pacific coast of South
+America. _Copiapo_ is the focal point of the mining interests. _Iquique_
+is the port from which about all the nitrates are shipped. _Punta
+Arenas_, one of the "end towns" of the world, is an ocean post-office
+for vessels passing through the Straits of Magellan. It is about as far
+south as Calgary, B.C., is north.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What will be the probable effect of an interoceanic canal on the
+commerce of these states?
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics make a list of the exports from the
+United States to these countries.
+
+From the statistics of trade in the Statesman's Year-Book compare the
+trade of the United States with that of other countries in these states.
+
+How have race characteristics affected the commerce and development of
+these states?
+
+What is meant by peonage?
+
+What cities of the tropical part of these states are in the climate of
+the temperate zone?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Carpenter's South America.
+
+Vincent's Around and About South America.
+
+Fiske's Discovery of America--Chapters IX-X.
+
+Procure, if possible, specimens of the following: Cacao and its
+products, ivory nuts, cinchona bark, crude nitrate, Panama straw, iodine
+(in a sealed vial), llama wool, alpaca cloth, Peruvian cotton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+SOUTH AMERICA--THE LOWLAND STATES
+
+
+The eastern countries of South America are mainly lowland plains. The
+llanos of the Orinoco and the pampas of Plate (La Plata) River are
+grazing lands. The silvas of the Amazon are forest-covered. In tropical
+regions the coast-plain is usually very unhealthful; the seaports
+excepted, most of the cities and towns are therefore built on higher
+land beyond the coast-plain.
+
+=Venezuela.=--The greater part of Venezuela is a region of llanos, or
+grassy plains, shut off from the harbors of the Caribbean Sea, by
+mountain-ranges. On account of their pleasant climate the
+mountain-valleys constitute the chief region of habitation. The plains
+are flooded in the rainy season and sun-scorched during the period of
+drought; they are therefore unfit for human habitation.
+
+Coffee is cultivated in the montane region; and cacao in the lower coast
+lands. Almost every part of the coast lowlands is fit for sugar
+cultivation, and in order to encourage this industry, the importation of
+sugar is forbidden. As is usual in similar cases, the domestic sugar is
+poor in quality and high in price. Among the forest products rubber,
+fustic, divi-divi,[64] and tonka beans, the last used as a perfume, are
+the only ones of value. The cattle of the llanos, the native long-horns,
+furnish a poor quality of hide, and poorer beef. A few thousand head are
+shipped yearly down the Orinoco to be sent to Cuba and Porto Rico.
+
+The placer gold-mines of the Yuruari country, a region also claimed by
+Great Britain, have been very productive. Coal, iron ore, and asphaltum
+are abundant. Concessions for mining the two last-named have been
+granted to American companies. The pearl-fisheries around Margarita
+Island, also leased to a foreign company, have become productive under
+the new management.
+
+The means of intercommunication are as primitive as those of Colombia.
+Short railways extend from several seaports to the regions of
+production, and from these coffee and cacao are the only exports of
+importance. The Orinoco River is the natural outlet for the
+cattle-region, but the commerce of this region is small. The lagoon of
+Maracaibo is becoming the centre of a rapidly growing commercial region.
+
+_Caracas_, the capital and largest city, receives the imports of
+textiles, domestic wares, flour, and petroleum from the United States
+and Great Britain. The railway to its port, _La Guaira_, is a remarkable
+work of engineering. _Puerto Cabello_, the most important port, receives
+the trade of _Valencia_. From _Maracaibo_, the port on the lagoon of the
+same name, is shipped the Venezuelan coffee. _Ciudad Bolivar_ is the
+river-port of the Orinoco and an important rubber-market.
+
+=The Guianas.=--The surface conditions and climate of the Guianas resemble
+those of Venezuela. The native products are also much the same, but good
+business organization has made the countries bearing the general name
+highly productive. For the greater part, the coast-plain is the region
+of cultivation. Sugar is still the most important crop; but on account
+of the fierce competition of beet-sugar, on many of the plantations
+cane-sugar cultivation is unprofitable and has been abandoned for that
+of rice, cacao, and tobacco. Great Britain, Holland, and France possess
+the country. The divisions are known respectively as British Guiana,
+Surinam, and Cayenne, and the trade of each accrues to the
+mother-country. British Guiana is noted quite as much for its
+gold-fields on the Venezuelan border (Cuyuni River) as for its vegetable
+products. _Georgetown_, better known by the name of the surrounding
+district, _Demerara_, is the focal point of business. _New Amsterdam_ is
+also a port of considerable trade. The gold-mining interests centre at
+_Bartica_.
+
+[Illustration: A CACAO PLANTATION]
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING THE BEANS FOR SHIPMENT]
+
+[Illustration: CACAO-TREE]
+
+[Illustration: MAKING CHOCOLATE]
+
+Surinam, in addition to its export of vegetable products, contains rich
+gold-mines, and these contribute a considerable revenue. _Paramaribo_ is
+the port and centre of trade. Phosphates and gold are among the
+important exports of Cayenne, whose port bears the same name.
+
+=Brazil.=--This state, nearly the size of the United States, comprises
+about half the area of South America. Much of it, including the greater
+part of the Amazon River basin, is unfit for the growth of food-stuffs.
+
+There are three regions of production. The Amazon forests yield the
+greater part of the world's rubber supply. The middle coast region has
+various agricultural products, of which cotton and cane-sugar are the
+most important. From the southern region comes two-thirds of the world's
+coffee-crop. There are productive gold-mines in the state of Minas
+Geraes, but this region is best known for the "old mine" diamonds, the
+finest produced.
+
+The Amazon rubber-crop includes not only the crude gum obtained in
+Brazil, but a considerable part, if not the most, of the crop from the
+surrounding states. The bifurcating Cassiquiare, which flows both into
+Amazonian and Orinocan waters, drains a very large area of forest which
+yields the best rubber known. The yield of 1901 aggregated about one
+hundred and thirty million pounds, of which about one-half was sold in
+the United States, one-third in Liverpool, and the rest mainly in
+Antwerp and Le Havre. The price of rubber is fixed in New York and
+London.
+
+The cotton and cane-sugar are grown in the middle coast region. The
+cotton industry bids fair to add materially to the prosperity of the
+state. A considerable part of the raw cotton is exported, but the
+reserve is sufficient to keep ten thousand looms busy. About three
+hundred and fifty million pounds of the raw sugar is purchased by the
+refineries of the United States, and much of the remainder by British
+dealers.
+
+The seeds of a species of myrtle (_Bertholletia excelsa_) furnish the
+Brazil nuts of commerce, large quantities of which are shipped to Europe
+and the United States.[65] Manganese ore is also an important export,
+and Great Britain purchases nearly all of it.
+
+The coffee-crop of the southern states is the largest in the world; and
+about eight hundred million pounds are landed yearly at the ports of the
+United States. The coffee-crop, more than any other factor, has made the
+great prosperity of the state; for while the rubber yield employs
+comparatively few men and yields but little public revenue, the
+coffee-crop has brought into Brazil an average of about fifty million
+dollars a year for three-quarters of a century.
+
+Cattle products also afford a considerable profit in the vicinity of the
+coffee-region. The hides and tallow are shipped to the United States.
+For want of refrigerating facilities, most of the beef is "jerked" (or
+sun-dried), and shipped in this form to Cuba.
+
+The facilities for transportation, the rivers excepted, are poor. The
+Amazon is navigable for ocean steamships nearly to the junction of the
+Ucayale. The Paraguay affords a navigable water-way to the mouth of
+Plate River. Rapids and falls obstruct most of the rivers at the
+junction of the Brazilian plateau and the low plains, but these streams
+afford several thousand miles of navigable waters both above and below
+the falls.
+
+Nearly all the railways are plantation roads, extending from the various
+ports to regions of production a few miles inland. The most important
+railway development is that in the vicinity of Rio, where short local
+roads to the suburban settlements and the coffee-plantations converge at
+the harbor. About fourteen thousand miles of railway are completed and
+under actual construction. A considerable part of the mileage is owned
+and operated by the state, and it has become the policy of the latter to
+control its roads and to encourage immigration. One result of this
+policy is the increasing number of German and Italian colonies, that
+establish settlements in every district penetrated by a new road.
+
+In 1900 the total foreign trade aggregated upward of two hundred and
+seventy-five million dollars. The imports consist of cotton and woollen
+manufactures, structural steel and machinery, preserved fish and meats,
+and coal-oil. Great Britain, Germany, the United States, and France have
+nearly all the trade. The United States sells to Brazil textiles and
+coal-oil to the amount of over eleven million dollars yearly, and buys
+of the country coffee and rubber to the amount of six times as much.
+
+_Rio de Janeiro_, commonly called "Rio," is the capital and commercial
+centre. Its harbor is one of the best in South America. Formerly all the
+coffee was shipped from this port, but the greater part now goes from
+_Santos_. _Porto Alegre_, the port of the German colonies, has also a
+growing export trade.
+
+_Bahia_, _Pernambuco_ (or _Recife_), _Maceio_, _Ceará_ are the markets
+for cotton, sugar, and tobacco, much of which is shipped to other
+Brazilian ports for home consumption. _Pará_ and _Ceará_ monopolize
+nearly all the rubber trade. The position of _Manaos_, at the confluence
+of several rivers, makes it one of the most important markets of the
+Amazon basin, and most of the crude rubber is first collected there for
+shipment. _Cuyaba_ is the commercial centre of the mining region; its
+outlet is the Paraguay River, and Buenos Aires profits by its trade.
+
+=Argentina and the Plate River Countries.=--These states are situated in a
+latitude corresponding to that of the United States. The entire area
+from the coast to the slopes of the Andes is a vast prairie-region. As a
+result of position, climate, and surface the agricultural industries are
+the same as in the United States--grazing and wheat-growing.
+
+Cattle-growing is the chief employment, and the cost per head of rearing
+stock is practically nothing. For want of better means of transportation
+the shipments of live beef are not very heavy; the quality of the beef
+is poor, and until recently there have been no adequate facilities for
+getting it to market.[66] A small amount of refrigerator beef and a
+large amount of jerked beef are exported, however. Near the markets,
+there are large plants in which the hides, horns, tallow, and meat are
+utilized--the last being converted to the famous "beef extract," which
+finds a market all over the world.
+
+The sheep industry is on a much better business basis. Both the wool and
+the mutton have been improved by cross-breeding with good stock. As a
+result the trade in mutton and wool has increased by leaps and bounds;
+and nearly three million sheep carcasses are landed at the other ports
+of Brazil, at Cuba, and at various European states. The wool is bought
+mainly by Germany and France, but the United States is a heavy
+purchaser. The quality of the fibre, formerly very poor, year by year is
+improving.
+
+Wheat, the staple product, is grown mainly within a radius of four
+hundred miles around the mouth of Plate River. The area of cultivation
+is increasing as the facilities for transportation are extended and,
+little by little, is encroaching on the grazing lands. The wheat
+industry is carried on very largely by German and Italian colonists.
+Flax, grown for the seed, is a very large export crop. Maize, partly for
+export and partly for home consumption, is also grown.
+
+The timber resources, chiefly in Paraguay and the Gran Chaco, are very
+great, but for want of means of transportation the timber-trade cannot
+successfully compete with that of Central America and Mexico. Workable
+gold and silver ores are abundant along the Andean cordillera; gold,
+silver, and copper are exported to Europe. A poor quality of lignite
+occurs in several provinces, but there are no available mines yielding
+coal suitable for making steam. There are petroleum wells near Mendoza.
+
+Most of the manufactures pertain to the preparation of cattle products,
+although a considerable amount of coarse textiles are made in the larger
+cities from the native cotton and wool. Hats, paper (made from grass),
+and leather goods are also made. In general, all manufactures are
+hampered by the difficulties of getting good fuel at a low price.
+
+Transportation is carried on along Plate River and the lower parts of
+its tributaries. The railway has become the chief factor in the carriage
+of commodities, however, and the railways of Argentina have been
+developed on the plans of North American roads. About twelve thousand
+miles are in actual operation, one of which is a transcontinental line,
+about completed between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso. Electric railways
+have become very popular, and the mileage is rapidly increasing.
+
+The import trade, consisting of textile goods, machinery, steel, and
+petroleum, is carried on with Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium
+(mainly transit trade), the United States, and Italy. The competition
+between the European states for this trade is very strong, and not a
+little has been acquired at the expense of the United States, whose
+trade has not materially increased.
+
+[Illustration: AREA OF THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MATÉ]
+
+_Buenos Aires_ is the financial centre of this part of South America.
+Among its industries is the largest meat-refrigerating plant in the
+world. The harbor at _La Plata_ is excellent and has drawn a
+considerable part of the foreign trade from Buenos Aires. _Rosario_,
+_Cordoba_, _Santa Fé_, and _Parana_ are the markets of extensive farming
+regions. _Mendoza_ is the focal point of the mining interests.
+
+=Paraguay= has a large forest area, but for want of means of
+transportation it is without value. Even the railway companies find it
+cheaper to buy their ties in the United States and Australia, rather
+than to procure them in Paraguay. In spite of the extent of good land,
+the wheat and much of the bread-stuffs are purchased from Argentina.
+Tobacco and maté are the only export crops, and they have but little
+value. The Parana and Paraguay Rivers are the only commercial outlet of
+the state.
+
+=Uruguay.=--Owing to its foreign population Uruguay is becoming a rich
+country. The native cattle have been improved by cross-breeding with
+European stock, and the state has become one of the foremost cattle and
+sheep ranges of the world. The value of animal products is not far from
+forty million dollars yearly. These go mainly to Europe, and so also
+does the wheat-crop.
+
+France and Argentina purchase most of the exports and Great Britain
+supplies most of the textiles and machinery imported. The trade of the
+United States is about one-fourth that of Great Britain. _Montevideo_ is
+the chief market and port. At _Fray Bentos_ is one of the largest plants
+in the world for the manufacture of cattle products.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What kind of commerce has led to the establishment of the various ports
+along the Spanish Main?
+
+What advantages has the American fruit-shipper, trading at South
+American ports, over his European competitor?
+
+What is meant by "horse latitudes," and what was the origin of the name?
+
+In what way may the opening of an interoceanic canal affect the
+coffee-trade of Brazil?--the nitrate trade of Chile?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the exports of the United States to
+each of these countries.
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book compare the trade of the United States in
+each of these countries with that of Great Britain, France, Germany, and
+Italy.
+
+If possible, obtain specimens of the following: Crude rubber, pampas
+grass, Brazil nuts (in pod), and raw coffee of several grades for
+comparison with Java and Mocha coffees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+EUROPE--GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY
+
+
+Almost all the commercial activity of Europe is south of the parallel
+and west of the meridian of St. Petersburg. Most of the great industries
+are controlled by Germanic and Latin peoples, and among these Great
+Britain and Germany stand first.
+
+=Great Britain and Ireland.=--The United Kingdom, or Great Britain and
+Ireland, are commonly known as the British Isles. The British Empire
+consists of the United Kingdom and its colonial possessions; it includes
+also a large number of islands occupied as coaling stations and for
+strategic purposes. All told, the empire embraces about one-seventh of
+the land area of the world and about one-fourth its population.
+
+The wonderful power and great commercial development is due not only to
+conditions of geographic environment but also to the intelligence of a
+people who have adjusted themselves to those conditions. The insular
+position of the United Kingdom has given it natural protection, and for
+more than eight hundred years there has been no successful invasion by a
+foreign power. Its commercial position is both natural and artificial.
+It has utilized the markets to the east and south, and has founded great
+countries which it supplies with manufactured products.
+
+[Illustration: THE BRITISH EMPIRE]
+
+The position of the kingdom with respect to climate is fortunate. The
+movement of the Gulf Stream on the American coast carries a large volume
+of water into the latitude of the prevailing westerly winds, and these
+in turn carry warm water to every part of the coast of the islands. As a
+result, the harbors of the latter are never obstructed by ice; those of
+the Labrador coast, situated in the same latitude, are blocked nearly
+half the year.
+
+The high latitude of the islands is an advantage so far as the
+production of food-stuffs is concerned. The summer days in the latitude
+of Liverpool are very nearly eighteen hours in length, and this fact
+together with the mild winters, adds very largely to the food-producing
+power of the islands.
+
+The highlands afford considerable grazing. Great care is taken in
+improving the stock, both of cattle and sheep. In the north the cattle
+are bred mainly as meat producers; in the south for dairy products.
+Durham, Alderney, and Jersey stock are exported to both Americas for
+breeding purposes. The sheep of the highlands produce the heavy, coarse
+wool of which the well known "cheviot" and "frieze" textiles are made.
+Elsewhere they are bred for mutton, of which the "South Down" variety is
+an example.
+
+The lowland regions yield grain abundantly where cultivated. The average
+yield per acre is about double that of the United States, and is
+surpassed by that of Denmark only. Both Ireland and England are famous
+for fine dairy products. These are becoming the chief resource of the
+former country, which is practically without the coal necessary for
+extensive manufacture. The fishing-grounds form an important food
+resource.
+
+The cultivated lands do not supply the food needed for consumption. The
+grain-crop lasts scarcely three months; the meat-crop but little longer.
+Bread-stuffs from the United States and India, and meats from the United
+States, Australia, and New Zealand make up the shortage. The annual
+import of food-stuffs amounts to more than fifty dollars per capita.
+
+The growing of wool and flax for cloth-making became an industry of
+great importance just after the accession of Henry VII. With the advent
+of peace, it became possible to manufacture into cloth the fibres that
+before had been sent for that purpose to Flanders. The utilization of
+the coal and the iron ore years afterward brought about an economic
+revolution that was intensified by the invention of the steam-engine and
+the power-loom.
+
+These quickly brought the country into the foremost rank as a
+manufacturing centre. Moreover, they also demanded the foreign markets
+that have made the country a maritime power as well--for an insular
+country must also have the ships with which to carry its merchandise to
+its markets.
+
+The development of the manufactures, therefore, is inseparably connected
+with that of the mineral and metal industries. From very early times the
+metal deposits of the country have been a source of power. Copper and
+tin were used by the aboriginal Britons long before Cæsar's
+reconnaissance of the islands, and it is not unlikely that the Bronze
+Period was the natural development that resulted from the discovery of
+these metals.
+
+Coal occurs in various fields that extend from the River Clyde to the
+River Severn. The annual output of these mines at the close of the
+century was about two hundred and twenty-five million tons. In the past
+century the inroads upon the visible supply were so great that the
+output in the near future will be considerably lessened. Not far from
+one-sixth of the output is sold to consumers in Russia and the
+Mediterranean countries, but a growing sentiment to forbid any sale of
+coal to foreign buyers is taking shape.
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH ISLES]
+
+Iron ores are fairly abundant, but the hematite required for the best
+Bessemer steel is limited to the region about Manchester and Birmingham.
+The shortage of this ore has become so apparent within recent years that
+Great Britain has become a heavy purchaser of ores in foreign markets.
+The coal in the Clyde basin is employed mainly in the manufacture of
+railway iron, steamship material, and rolling stock. The manufacture of
+Bessemer steel is gradually moving to the vicinity of South Wales, at
+the ports of which foreign pig-iron can be most cheaply landed. In
+west-central England the several coal-fields form a single centre of
+manufacture, where are located some of the largest woollen and cotton
+mills in Europe. It also includes the plants for the manufacture of
+machinery, cutlery, and pottery.
+
+The import trade of Great Britain consists mainly of food-stuffs and raw
+materials.[67] Of the latter, cotton is by far the most important. Most
+of it comes from the United States, but the Nile delta, Brazil, the
+Dekkan of India, the Iran plateau, and the Piura Valley of Peru send
+portions, each region having fibre of specific qualities designed for
+specific uses. The native wool clip forms only a small part of the
+amount used in manufacture. The remainder, more than three million
+pounds, comes from Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
+
+The supply of flax is small, and 100,000 tons are imported to meet the
+wants of the mills. The greater part is purchased in Russia, but the
+finer quality is imported from Belgium. Jute is purchased from India and
+manufactured into burlap and rugs.
+
+But little available standing timber remains, and lumber must,
+therefore, be imported. The pine is purchased mainly in Sweden, Norway,
+Canada, and the United States. A considerable amount of wood-pulp is
+imported from Canada for paper-making. Mahogany for ornamental
+manufactures is obtained from Africa and British Honduras. Oak, and the
+woods for interior finish, are purchased largely from Canada and the
+United States.
+
+The export trade of Great Britain consists almost wholly of the articles
+manufactured with British coal as the power. These are made from the raw
+materials purchased abroad, and the stamp of the British craftsman is a
+guarantee of excellence and honesty. Of the total export trade,
+amounting yearly to about one billion, two hundred million dollars,
+nearly one-third consists of cotton, woollen, linen, and jute textiles;
+one-fifth consists of iron and steel manufactured stuffs made from
+British ores. About one-third goes to the colonies of the
+mother-country, with whom she keeps in close touch; Germany, the United
+States, and the South American states are the chief foreign buyers.
+
+For the handling and carriage of these goods there is an admirable
+system of railways reaching from every part of the interior to the
+numerous ports. The rolling stock and the locomotives are not nearly so
+heavy as those used in the United States; the railway beds and track
+equipment, on the whole, are probably the best in the world. Freight
+rates are considerably higher than on the corresponding classes of
+merchandise in the United States. The public highways are most
+excellent, but the means of street traffic in the cities are very poor.
+
+The harbor facilities at the various ports are of the best. The docks
+and basins are usually arranged so that while the import goods are being
+landed the export stuffs are made ready to be loaded. The facilities for
+the rapid transfer of freights have been improved by the reconstruction
+of the various river estuaries so as to make them ship-channels. The
+estuaries of the Clyde, Tyne, and Mersey have been thus improved, while
+Manchester has been made a seaport by an artificial canal. The British
+merchant marine is the largest in the world, and about ninety per cent.
+of the vessels are steamships.
+
+_London_ is the capital; it is also one of the first commercial and
+financial centres of the world. The Thames has not a sufficient depth of
+water for the largest liners, and these dock usually about twenty miles
+below the city. The colonial commerce at London is very heavy,
+especially the India traffic, and it is mainly for this trade that the
+British acquired the control of the Suez Canal.
+
+_Liverpool_ is one of the most important ports of Europe, and receives
+most of the American traffic. The White Star and Cunard Lines have their
+terminals at this port.
+
+_Southampton_ is also a port which receives a large share of American
+traffic. The American and several foreign steamship lines discharge at
+that place. _Hull_ and _Shields_ have a considerable part of the
+European traffic. _Glasgow_ is one of the foremost centres of steel
+ship-building. _Cardiff_ and _Swansea_ are ports connected with the coal
+and iron trade. _Queenstown_ is a calling point for transatlantic
+liners.
+
+_Manchester_ is both a cotton port and a great market for the cotton
+textiles made in the nearby towns of the Lancashire coal-field. _Leeds_
+and _Bradford_ and the towns about them are the chief centres of woollen
+manufacture. _Wilton_ and _Kidderminster_ are famous for carpets.
+_Birmingham_ is the centre of the steel manufactures. _Sheffield_ has a
+world-wide reputation for cutlery. In and near the Staffordshire
+district are the potteries that have made the names of _Worcester_,
+_Coalport_, _Doulton_, _Copeland_, and _Jackfield_ famous. _Belfast_ is
+noted for its linen textiles, and also for some of the largest
+steamships afloat that have been built in its yards. _Dundee_ is the
+chief centre of jute manufacture.
+
+=The German Empire.=--The German Empire consists of the kingdoms of
+Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Würtemburg, together with a number of
+small states. The "free" cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck, whose
+independence was purchased in feudal times, are also incorporated within
+the empire. The present empire was formed in 1871, at the close of the
+war between Germany and France. The merging of the states into the
+empire was designed as a political step, but it proved a great
+industrial revolution as well.
+
+The plain of Europe which slopes to the north and the Baltic Sea, the
+flood-plains of the rivers excepted, is feebly productive of grain. It
+is a fine grazing region, however, and the dairy products are of the
+best quality. Among European states Russia alone surpasses Germany in
+the number of cattle grown. The province of Schleswig-Holstein is famous
+the world over for its fine cattle. Cavalry horses are a special feature
+of the lowland plain, and the government is the chief buyer. The wool
+product has hitherto been important, but the sheep ranges are being
+turned into crop lands, on account of the increase of population in the
+industrial regions.
+
+The midland belt, however, between the coast-plain and the mountains, is
+the chief food-producing part of Germany. Rye and wheat are grown
+wherever possible, but the entire grain-crop is consumed in about eight
+months. The United States, Argentina, and Russia supply the wheat and
+flour; Russia supplies the rye.
+
+[Illustration: GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES]
+
+The sugar-beet is by far the most important export crop, and Germany
+produces yearly about one million, eight hundred thousand tons, or
+nearly as much as Austria-Hungary and France combined. This industry is
+encouraged by a bounty paid on all sugar exported.[68] A considerable
+amount of raw beet-sugar is sold to the refineries of the United States;
+Great Britain also is a heavy buyer. The home consumption is relatively
+small, being about one-third per capita that of the United States.
+Silesia, the Rhine Valley, and the lowlands of the Hartz Mountains are
+the most important centres of the sugar industry.
+
+Germany is rich in minerals.[69] Zinc occurs in abundance, and the mines
+of Silesia furnish the world's chief supply. Most of the lithographic
+stone in use is obtained in Bavaria. Copper and silver are mined in the
+Erz and Hartz Mountains. During the sixteenth century the mines of the
+latter region brought the states then forming Germany into commercial
+prominence and thereby diverted the trade between the North and
+Mediterranean Seas to the valleys of the Rhine and Elbe Rivers.
+
+These two metal products made Germany a great financial power. The
+Franco-Prussian War added to Germany the food-producing lands of the
+Rhine and Moselle, and the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. At the same
+time it gave the Germans organization by welding the various German
+states into an empire. As a result there has been an industrial
+development that has placed Germany in the class with the United States
+and Great Britain.
+
+By unifying the various interstate systems of commerce and
+transportation, the iron and steel industry has greatly expanded. The
+chief centre of this industry is the valley of the Ruhr River.
+Coal-measures underlie an area somewhat larger than the basin of the
+river. To the industrial centres of this valley iron ore is brought by
+the Rhine and Moselle barges from Alsace-Lorraine and Luxemburg, and
+also from the Hartz Mountains.
+
+In the importance and extent of manufactures, Germany ranks next to
+Great Britain among European states, and because of the extent of their
+coal-fields the Germans seem destined in time to surpass their rivals.
+The manufacture of textiles is one of the leading industries, and, next
+to Great Britain, Germany is the heaviest purchaser of raw cotton from
+the United States. The Rhine district is the chief centre of cotton
+textile manufacture. Raw cotton is delivered to the mills by the Rhine
+boats, and these carry the manufactured product to the seaboard. Central
+and South America are the chief purchasers.
+
+Woollen goods are also extensively manufactured, the industry being in
+the region that produces Saxony wool. In Silesia and the lower Rhine
+provinces there are also extensive woollen textile manufactures, but the
+goods are made mainly from imported wool. Argentina and the other Plate
+River countries are the chief buyers of these goods. There is a
+considerable linen manufacture from German-grown flax, and silk-making,
+mainly from raw silk imported from Italy.
+
+The great expansion and financial success of the manufacturing
+enterprises is due very largely to the admirable organization of the
+lines of transportation. The rivers, with their connecting canals,
+supplement the railways instead of competing with them. They are
+utilized mainly for slow freights, while the railways carry the traffic
+that demands speed. The possibilities of both inland water-ways and
+railway transportation have been utilized by the Germans to the utmost,
+with the result of a very low rate both for coal and ore, and for
+structural iron and steel. The latter is carried from the various
+steel-making plants in the Ruhr Valley to the seaboard at a rate of
+eighty to ninety cents per ton.[70]
+
+[Illustration: LÜBECK]
+
+[Illustration: BREMEN]
+
+All this has resulted in a wonderful commercial expansion of the
+empire. In 1875 Germany was neither a maritime nor a naval power. At the
+close of the century it ranked about with the United States as a naval
+power, and far surpassed that country in the tonnage of merchant marine.
+The German steamship fleet includes the largest and fastest vessels
+afloat.
+
+German trade may be summed up as an export of manufactured goods and an
+import of food-stuffs and raw materials. At the close of the century the
+annual movement of industrial products amounted to nearly two and
+one-half billion dollars. About one-half the trade of the empire is
+carried on with Great Britain, the United States, Austria-Hungary, and
+Russia. A large part of the foreign trade is carried on through the
+ports of Belgium and Holland.
+
+_Berlin_, the capital, is one of the few cities having a population of
+more than one million. It is not only a great centre of trade, but it is
+one of the leading money-markets of Europe; it is also the chief railway
+centre. _Hamburg_ and _Bremen_ are important ports of German-American
+trade, the former being the largest seaport of continental Europe.
+_Breslau_ is an important market, into which the raw materials of
+eastern Europe are received, and from which they are sent to the
+manufacturing districts. The art galleries of _Dresden_ have had the
+effect of making that city a centre of art manufactures which are famous
+the world over. _Lübeck_ is one of the free cities that was formerly in
+the Hanse League.
+
+The twin cities, _Barmen-Eberfeld_, in the Ruhr coal-field, form one of
+the principal centres of cotton manufacture in the world. _Dortmund_ is
+a coal-market. At _Essen_ are the steel-works founded by Herr Krupp.
+They are the largest and one of the most complete plants in the world.
+The output includes arms, heavy and light ordnance, and about every kind
+of structural iron and steel used. About forty thousand men are
+employed. _Chemnitz_ is an important point, not only of cotton
+manufacture, but also of Saxony wools, underwear and shawls being its
+most noteworthy products. At _Stettin_, _Danzig_, and _Kiel_ are built
+the steamships that have given to Germany its great commercial power.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+In what ways are Great Britain and Germany commercial rivals?
+
+What are the advantages of each with respect to position?--with respect
+to natural resources?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book make a list of the leading exports of
+each;--the leading imports of each. What exports have they in common?
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find what commodities the United States
+sells to each.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Adams's New Empire--Chapter III.
+
+Gibbins's History of Commerce--Book III, Chapters III-V.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+EUROPE--THE BALTIC AND NORTH SEA STATES
+
+
+These states, like Great Britain and Germany, belong to Germanic Europe,
+and their situation around the North and Baltic Seas makes their
+commercial interests much the same. From the stand-point of commerce
+Holland might be regarded as an integral part of Germany, inasmuch as a
+large part of the foreign commerce of Germany must reach the sea by
+crossing that state.
+
+=Sweden and Norway.=--Sweden and Norway occupy the region best known as
+the Scandinavian peninsula. The western side faces the warm, moist winds
+of the Atlantic, but the surface is too rugged to be productive. The
+lands suitable for farming, on the other hand, are on the east side,
+where, owing to the high latitude, the winters are extremely cold.
+
+The plateau lands are in the latitude of the great pine-forest belt that
+extends across the two continents. The forests of the Scandinavian
+peninsula are near the most densely peopled part of Europe, and they are
+also readily accessible. Moreover, the rugged surface offers unlimited
+water-power. As a result Norway and Sweden practically control the
+lumber-market of Europe, and their lumber products form one of the most
+important exports of the kingdom. Norway pine competes with California
+redwood in Australia. The "naval stores," tar and pitch, compete with
+those of Georgia and the Carolinas. The wood-pulp from this region is
+the chief supply of the paper-makers of Europe. Next to Russia, Sweden
+has the largest lumber-trade in Europe. The Mediterranean states are the
+chief buyers.
+
+The mineral products are a considerable source of income. Building stone
+is shipped to the nearby lowland countries. The famous Swedish
+manganese-iron ores, essential in steel manufacture, are shipped to the
+United States and Europe. For this purpose they compete with the ores of
+Spain and Cuba. The mines of the Gellivare iron district are probably
+the only iron-mines of consequence within the frigid zone. The ore is
+sent to German and British smelteries.
+
+The fisheries are the most important of Europe, and this fact has had a
+great influence on the history of the people. Centuries ago the people
+living about the _vigs_ or fjords of the west coast were compelled to
+depend almost wholly on the fisheries for their food-supplies. As a
+result they became the most famous sailors of the world. They
+established settlements in Iceland and Greenland; they also planted a
+colony in North America 500 years before the voyage of Columbus.
+Herring, salmon, and cod are the principal catch of the fisheries, and
+about four-fifths of the product is cured and exported to the Catholic
+European states and to South America.
+
+South of Kristiania farming is the principal industry. Much of the land
+is suitable for wheat-growing, but the productive area is so small that
+a considerable amount of bread-stuffs must be imported from the United
+States. On account of the high latitude the winters are too long and
+severe for any but the hardiest grains. Dairy products are commercially
+the most important output of the farms, and they find a ready market in
+the popular centres of Europe--London, Hamburg, Paris, and Berlin.
+
+The lumber, furniture, matches, fish, ores, and dairy products sold
+abroad do not pay for the bread-stuffs, coal, petroleum, clothing, and
+machinery. In part, this is made up by the carrying trade of Norwegian
+vessels; the rest of the deficit is more than met by the money which the
+throngs of tourists spend during the summer months.
+
+The United States buys from these countries fish and ores to the amount
+of about three million dollars a year; it sells them cotton, petroleum,
+bread-stuffs, and machinery to the amount of about twelve million
+dollars.
+
+_Stockholm_, the capital of Sweden, is the chief financial and
+distributing centre of the Scandinavian trade. Its railway system
+reaches about every area of production. Although having a good harbor of
+its own, it must depend on _Trondhjem_ (Drontheim) for winter traffic,
+because the Baltic ports are closed by ice three or four months of the
+year. _Kristiania_, the capital of Norway, is the export market of the
+fish and lumber products.
+
+_Göteborg_, owing to recently completed railway and canal connections,
+is becoming an important port of trade. It is convenient to other
+European ports, and it is rarely closed by ice. _Bergen_, _Trondhjem_,
+and _Hammerfest_ derive a heavy income from their fisheries and likewise
+from the tourists who visit the coast during midsummer. The last-named
+port, although farther north than any town in the world, has an open
+harbor during the winter.
+
+=Denmark.=--Denmark is essentially an agricultural state, and almost every
+square mile of available land is under cultivation. Even the sand-dunes
+have been reclaimed and converted into pasturage. The yield of wheat is
+greater per acre than in any other country, but as only a small area is
+sown, wheat and flour are imported.
+
+About half the area of the state is used in growing fodder for horses
+and cattle. The dairy products, especially butter, are unrivalled
+elsewhere in Europe. The dairy business is largely controlled by a
+cooperative association of dairymen and farmers. Pastures, fodder,
+cattle, sheds, creameries, and all the processes involved are subject to
+a most rigid sanitary inspection.
+
+_Copenhagen_, the capital, is the financial centre of the kingdom.
+Commercially it is one of the most important ports of Europe. Various
+shipments consigned to Baltic ports are landed at this city; here the
+cargoes break bulk and are again trans-shipped to their destination. In
+order to facilitate this forwarding business, the Crown has made
+Copenhagen a free port. Steamship lines connect it with New York,
+British ports, and the East Indies.
+
+A great deal of farming and dairy machinery is manufactured; coal,
+cotton goods, and structural machinery are imported from the United
+States. Little, however, is exported to that country, almost all the
+dairy products being sold to Great Britain and other populous centres of
+western Europe. _Aalborg_ and _Aarhuus_ are dairy-markets.
+
+Greenland and Iceland are colonies of Denmark, and the fishing industry
+of the kingdom is carried on mainly along the shores of these islands.
+The furs, seal-skins, seal-oil, and eider-down of Greenland are a
+government monopoly. The mineral cryolite occurs at Ivigtut and is mined
+by soda-making establishments in the United States. Iceland produces
+sheep, cattle, and fish; these are shipped from _Reikiavik_. The Faroe
+Islands produce but little save wool, feathers, and birds' eggs.
+
+=Belgium.=--Probably in no other country of Europe has nature done so
+little and man so much to make a great state as in Belgium. The lowland
+region has been made so fertile by artificial means that it yields more
+wheat per acre than any other country except Denmark. The Ardennes
+highland in the southeast is naturally unproductive, but it has become
+one of the great manufacturing centres of Europe. Less than one-twelfth
+of the area of the state is unproductive.
+
+The coast, more than twoscore miles in extent, has not a single harbor
+for large vessels, and the two navigable rivers, the Scheldt and Meuse,
+flow into another state before reaching the sea.
+
+[Illustration: HOLLAND AND BELGIUM]
+
+The low sand-barrens next the coast have been reclaimed by means of a
+grass that holds in place the sand that formerly shifted with each
+movement of the wind. This region is now cultivated pasture-land that
+produces the finest of horses, cattle, and dairy products. The dairy
+products go mainly to London. The Flemish horses, like those of the
+sand-barrens of Germany and France, are purchased in the large cities,
+where heavy draught-horses are required. Many of them are sold to the
+express companies of the United States.
+
+Bordering the sand-barrens is a belt of land that produces grain and the
+sugar-beet. Flax is an important product, and its cultivation has had
+much to do with both the history and the political organization of the
+state. Before the advent of the cotton industry, woollen and linen were
+practically the only fibres used in cloth-making. Belgium was then the
+chief flax-growing and cloth-making country, and all western Europe
+depended upon the Flemish looms for cloth. This industry, therefore,
+gave the country not only commercial prominence, but was largely
+responsible for its political independence as well. Flax is still an
+important product, and the linen textiles made in the state are without
+a superior. Much of the flax is grown in the valley of the River Lys.
+
+One of the most productive coal-fields of Europe stretches across
+Belgium, and a few miles south of it are the iron-ore deposits that
+extend also into Luxemburg and Germany. In addition to these, the
+zinc-mines about Moresnet are among the richest in the world. Belgium
+is, therefore, one of the great metal-working centres of Europe. A small
+portion of the coal is exported to France, but most of it is required in
+the manufactures.
+
+_Liège_, _Seraing_, and _Verviers_ are the great centres of the metal
+industry. They were built at the eastern extremity of the coal-field,
+within easy reach of the iron ores. Firearms, railroad steel, and
+tool-making machinery are the chief products of the region, and because
+of the favorable situation, these products easily compete with the
+manufactures of Germany and France.
+
+_Ghent_ is the chief focal point for the flax product, which is
+converted into the finest of linen cloth and art fabrics. Much of the
+weaving and spinning machinery employed in Europe is made in this city.
+_Mechlin_ and the villages near by are famous the world over for
+hand-worked laces.
+
+Expensive porcelains, art tiles, glassware, and cheap crockery are made
+in the line of kilns that reaches almost from one end of the coal-field
+to the other; these products, moreover, are extensively exported.
+
+The railways are owned and operated by the state. They are managed so
+judiciously, moreover, that the rates of carriage are lower than in most
+European states. The Scheldt is navigable for large ocean steamers to
+_Antwerp_, and this city is the great Belgian port for ocean traffic.
+The city owes its importance to its position. One branch of the Scheldt
+leads toward the Rhine; the other is connected by a canal with the
+rivers of France; the main stem of the river points toward London. It is
+therefore the meeting of three ways. It is the terminal of the
+steamships of American, and of various other lines. It is also the depot
+of the Kongo trade. Ship-canals deep enough for coasters and freighters
+connect _Ghent_, _Bruges_, and _Brussels_ with tide-water. These are
+about to be converted to deep-water ship-canals.
+
+The foreign commerce of Belgium is much like that of other European
+states. Wheat, meat, maize, cotton, and petroleum are imported mainly
+from the United States; iron ore is purchased from Luxemburg and
+Germany, and various raw materials are brought from France. In exchange
+there are exported fine machinery, linen fabrics, porcelains, fire-arms,
+glassware, and beet-sugar. From the Kongo state, at the head of which is
+the King of the Belgians, are obtained rubber and ivory. The rubber is
+sold mainly to the United States.
+
+_Brussels_ is the capital and financial centre. On account of the state
+control of the railways, it is also the directive centre of all the
+industries pertaining to commerce and transportation.
+
+=Holland.=--The names Holland and Netherlands mean "lowland," and the
+state itself has a lower surface than any other country of Europe.
+Nearly half the area is at high-tide level or else below it. A large
+part, mainly the region about the Zuider[71] Sea, has been reclaimed
+from the sea.
+
+In the reclamation of these lands stone dikes are built to enclose a
+given area, and from the basin thus constructed the water is pumped. The
+reclaimed lands, or "polders," include not only the sea-bottom, but the
+coast marshes as well; even the rivers are bordered with levees in order
+to prevent overflows. Windmills are the machinery by which the water is
+pumped from the polders into the sea. In no other part of the world is
+wind-power so extensively used. Almost every acre of the polders is
+under cultivation, and these lands grow a very large part of the
+vegetables and flowers consumed in the great cities of England, France,
+and Belgium.
+
+The coast sand-barrens have been converted into pasture-lands that
+produce draught-horses, beef cattle, and dairy cattle. The horses find a
+ready market in the United States and the large European cities; the
+dairy cattle not needed at home are exported, the United States being a
+heavy purchaser. The beef cattle are grown mainly for the markets of
+London. Dutch butter is used far beyond the boundaries of the state, and
+Edam cheese reaches nearly every large city of Europe and America.
+
+The sugar-beet is extensively cultivated, in spite of the great trade
+resulting from the cane-sugar industry of the East Indies. It is more
+profitable to import wheat from the United States and rye from Russia in
+order to use the land for the sugar-beet.
+
+Practically no timber suitable for lumber manufacture exists, and
+building material therefore must be imported. Pine is purchased from
+Russia, Scandinavia, and the United States. Stone is purchased wherever
+it may be obtained as return freight, or as ballast. The coast fisheries
+yield oysters, herrings, and "anchovies," which are not anchovies, but
+sprats.
+
+For want of coal and iron there are few manufactures, and the garden and
+dairy products are about the only export articles. There is an
+abundance of clay, and of this brick for road-making, tiles for building
+purposes, and porcelains are made. But little of the raw sugar is
+refined; most of it is sold to foreign refiners, and the United States
+is one of the chief customers.
+
+Holland is a great commercial country, and for more than five hundred
+years the Dutch flag has been found in almost every large port of the
+world. Much of the commerce is derived from the tobacco, sugar, and
+coffee plantations of the Dutch East Indies.
+
+A very large part of the commerce, however, is neither import or export
+trade, but a "transit" commerce. Thus, American coal-oil is transferred
+from the great ocean tank-steamers to smaller tank-boats, and is then
+carried across the state into Germany, France, and Belgium, through the
+numerous canals.
+
+This trade applies also to many of the products of the German industries
+which will not bear a heavy freight tariff, such as coal, ores, etc. It
+reaches the Rhine and Rhone river-basins and extends even to the Danube.
+Both Switzerland and Austria-Hungary send much of their exports through
+Holland. All trade at the various ports and through the canals is free,
+it being the policy to encourage and not to obstruct commerce.
+
+_Amsterdam_, the constitutional capital, is one of the great financial
+and banking centres of Europe. The completion of the Nord Holland canal
+makes the docks and basins accessible to the largest steamships.
+Diamond-cutting is one of the unique industries of the city. Since the
+discovery of the African mines its former trade in diamonds has been
+largely absorbed by London.
+
+More than half the carrying trade of the state centres at _Rotterdam_.
+By the improvement of the river estuaries and canals this city has
+become one of the best ports of Europe, and the tonnage of goods
+handled at the docks is enormously increasing. _Vlissingen_ (Flushing)
+and the _Hook_ are railway terminals that handle much of the local
+freights consigned to London. _Delft_ is famous the world over for the
+beautiful porcelain made at its potteries.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+How has the topography of each of these states affected its commerce?
+
+How is their commerce affected by latitude and climate?
+
+How has the cultivation of the sugar-beet affected the cane-sugar
+industry in the British West Indies?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book make a list of the leading exports and
+imports of each country.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the trade of the United States with
+each of these countries.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Adams's New Empire--pp. 153-159.
+
+Gibbins's History of Commerce--Book III, Chapters I and VIII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+EUROPE--THE MEDITERRANEAN STATES AND SWITZERLAND
+
+
+The Mediterranean states are peopled mainly by races whose social and
+economic development was moulded largely by the Roman occupation of the
+Mediterranean basin for a period of more than one thousand years. The
+occupations of the people have been shaped to a great extent by the
+slope of the land and by the mountain-ranges that long isolated them
+from the Germanic peoples north of the Alps.
+
+=France.=--The position of France with respect to industrial development
+is fortunate. The North Sea coast faces the ports of Great Britain; the
+Atlantic ports are easily accessible to American centres of commerce;
+the Mediterranean ports command a very large part of the trade of that
+sea.
+
+The easily travelled overland routes between the Mediterranean and North
+Seas in very early times gave the country a commercial prominence that
+ever since has been retained. Even before the time of Cæsar it was a
+famous trading-ground for Mediterranean merchants, and the conquest of
+the country was not so much for the spoils of war as for the extension
+of Roman commercial influence.
+
+The greater part of France is an agricultural region, and nowhere is the
+soil cultivated with greater skill. Although the state is not quite as
+large as Texas, there are more farms than in all the United States,
+their small size making thorough cultivation a necessity. Much of the
+land is too valuable for wheat-farming, and so the eastern
+manufacturing districts depend upon the Russian wheat-farms for their
+supply. Northwestern France, however, has a surplus of wheat, and this
+is sold to Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FRANCE]
+
+The sugar-beet is the most profitable crop, and its cultivation is aided
+indirectly by the government, which gives a bounty on all exported
+sugar. The area of sugar-beet cultivation will probably increase to its
+limit for this reason.
+
+The French farmer is an artist in the cultivation of small fruits, and
+the latter form an important source of revenue. Of the fruit-crop, the
+grape is by far the most important commercially. French wines,
+especially the champagnes, are exported to a greater extent than the
+wines of any other country.[72] Most of the wine is sold in Great
+Britain and the countries north of the grape belt; a considerable part
+is sold in the United States and the eastern countries. Champagne,
+Bordeaux, the Loire, and the Rhone Valleys are famous wine districts.
+Wine is also imported, to be refined or to be made into brandy.
+
+Cattle-breeding, both for meat and for dairy purposes, is extensively
+carried on. The meat is consumed at home. Butter is an important export,
+especially in the northwest, where a large amount is made for London
+consumers. This region produces Camembert and Neufchatel cheese, both of
+which are largely exported; Brie cheese is made chiefly along the German
+border. The Roquefort product, made of ewe's milk, is fermented in
+limestone caves and cellars. All these varieties have a large sale, the
+United States and Great Britain being heavy purchasers.
+
+The Percheron draught-horse is raised for export as well as for home
+use; mules are extensively raised for the army wagon-trains of Great
+Britain and Germany. Sheep are grown for the finer grades of wool, but
+so much of the sheep pasture has been given to the cultivation of the
+sugar-beet, that a considerable part of the woollen textiles are now
+made of wool imported from Argentina. A large part of the eggs and table
+poultry consumed in London are products of northwestern France.
+
+The coal-fields of the north produce nearly two-thirds of the total
+amount consumed. Iron ores are found near the German border; they are
+sent to coal-fields in the neighborhood of St. Étienne and Le Creuzôt to
+be manufactured into steel. Both coal and iron ore are deficient. To
+meet the requirements of consumption, the former is imported from Great
+Britain, Germany, and Belgium; the latter, mainly from Germany and
+Spain.
+
+The manufactures of France have a wide influence. From the coal and iron
+are derived the intricate machinery that has made the country famous,
+the railways, the powerful navy, and the merchant marine that has made
+the country a great commercial nation. Because of the great creative
+skill and taste of the people, French textiles are standards of good
+taste, and they find a ready market in all parts of the world. In
+textile manufactures more than one million people and upward of one
+hundred thousand looms are employed.
+
+The United States is a heavy buyer of the woollen cloths and the finer
+qualities of dress goods. Inasmuch as these goods have not been
+successfully imitated elsewhere, the French trade does not suffer from
+competition. The best goods are made from the fleeces of French merino
+sheep, and are manufactured mainly in the northern towns. The Gobelin
+tapestries of Paris are famous the world over.
+
+The cotton manufactures depend mainly on American cotton. About
+two-thirds of the cotton is purchased in the United States, a part of
+which returns in the form of fine goods that may be classed as muslins,
+tulles, and art textiles. The market for such goods is also general. In
+the manufacture of fine laces, such as the Point d'Alençon fabrics, the
+French have few equals and no superiors. The flax is imported mainly
+from Belgium.
+
+Silk culture is aided by the government, and is carried on mainly in
+the south. The amount grown, however, is insufficient to keep the
+factories busy, and more than four-fifths of the raw silk and cocoons
+are imported from Italy and other southern countries.
+
+The chief imports to France are coal, raw textile fibres, wine, wheat,
+and lumber. The last two products excepted, they are again exported in
+the form of manufactured products. The great bulk of the imports comes
+from Great Britain, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Russia, and
+Argentina. In 1900 the import trade from these countries aggregated
+about five hundred million dollars. The total export trade during the
+same year was about eight hundred million dollars; it consisted mainly
+of high-priced articles of luxury.
+
+The foreign trade is supported by a navy, which ranks second among the
+world's navies, and a merchant marine of more than fifteen thousand
+vessels. Aside from the subsidies given to mail steamships, government
+encouragement is given for the construction and equipment of home-built
+vessels. It is a settled policy that French vessels shall carry French
+traffic.
+
+Of the 24,000 miles of railway, about 2,000 miles are owned by the
+state. The rivers are connected by canals, and these furnish about 7,000
+miles of navigable waters. As in Germany, the water-routes supplement
+the railway lines. Practically all lines of transportation converge at
+Paris.
+
+_Paris_, the capital, is a great centre of finance, art, science, and
+literature, whose influence in these features has been felt all over the
+world. The character of fine textiles, and also the fashions in the
+United States and Europe, are regulated largely in this city.
+_Marseille_ is the chief seaport, and practically all the trade between
+France and the Mediterranean countries is landed at this port; it is
+also the focal point of the trade between France and her African
+colonies, and a landing-place for the cotton brought from Egypt and
+Brazil.
+
+_Havre_, the port receiving most of the trade from the United States, is
+the port of Paris. _Rouen_ is the chief seat of cotton manufacture.
+_Paris_ and _Rheims_ are noted for shawls. _Lille_ and _Roubaix_ are
+centres of woollen manufacture. _Lyons_ is the great seat of silk
+manufacture.
+
+=Italy.=--Italy is a spur of the Alps extending into the Mediterranean
+Sea. From its earliest history it has been an agricultural state, and,
+excepting the periods when it has been rent by wars, it has been one of
+the most productive countries in the world.
+
+Wheat is extensively grown, but the crop is insufficient for home
+consumption, and the deficit is imported from Russia and Hungary. A
+large part of the wheat-crop is grown in the valley of the Po River.
+Flax and hemp are grown for export in this region; and corn for home
+consumption is a general product. Cotton is a good crop in Sicily and
+the south, but the amount is insufficient for use and must be made up by
+imports from the United States and Egypt.
+
+Silk, fruit, and vegetables are the staple products that connect Italy
+commercially with the rest of the world. About a million people are
+concerned in the silk industry, and Italy is one of the foremost
+countries in the world in the production of raw silk. Most of the crop
+is produced in northern Italy; western Europe and the United States are
+the chief buyers. The silk of the Piedmont region is the best in
+quality.
+
+Fruit is the crop next in value to raw silk. Sicilian oranges and
+lemons, from about twenty millions of trees, find a ready market in
+Europe; the oranges come into competition with the California and
+Florida oranges of the United States, in spite of the tariff imposed
+against them by the latter country. Olives are probably the most
+important fruit-crop. Both the preserved fruit and the oil are exported
+to nearly every civilized people. Much of the oil is consumed at home,
+very largely taking the place of meat and butter. Lucca-oil is regarded
+as the best.
+
+[Illustration: ITALY]
+
+The grape-crop is enormous, and the fruit itself is exported. Some of
+the fruit sold as "Malaga" grapes throughout the United States during
+winter months comes from Italy. Chianti wine, from the vineyards around
+Florence, has hitherto been regarded as an inferior product, but the
+foreign demand for it is steadily increasing. The Marsala wines of
+Sicily are largely exported.
+
+Among mineral products the iron deposits in the island of Elba are
+undoubtedly the most valuable, but they are yet undeveloped to any great
+extent. The quarries at Carrara produce a fine marble that has made
+Italy famous in sculpture and architecture. Much of the boracic acid
+used in the arts comes from Tuscany, and the world's chief supply of
+sulphur comes from the neighborhood of Mount Etna in Sicily. Of this
+Americans buy about one-third.
+
+On account of the lack of coal, the manufactures are restricted mainly
+to art wares, such as jewelry, silk textiles, and fine glassware. The
+Venetian glassware, the Florentine and mosaic jewelry, and the pink
+coral ornaments are famous the world over. Within recent years, however,
+imported coal, together with native lignite, have given steel
+manufacture an impetus. Steel ships and rails made at home are meeting
+the demands of commerce. Goods of American cotton are made for export to
+Turkey and South American countries.
+
+Raw silk, wine, olive-oil, straw goods, sulphur, and art goods are
+exported. Cotton, wheat, tobacco, and farm machinery from the United
+States, and coal, woollen textiles, and steel goods from Great Britain
+are the chief imports. Most of the foreign trade is with the nearby
+states. The raw silk goes to France.
+
+Since the unification of Italy the railways have been readjusted to the
+needs of commerce. Before that time the lines were wholly local in
+character; with the readjustment they were organized into trunk lines.
+They enter France through the Mont Cenis tunnel; they reach Switzerland
+and Germany by way of St. Gotthard Pass; they cross the Austrian border
+through Brenner Pass.
+
+_Rome_, the capital, is a political rather than an industrial centre.
+_Milan_, the Chicago of the kingdom, is the chief market for the crops
+of northern Italy and a great railway centre. It is also the market for
+raw silk. _Genoa_, the principal port, is the one at which most of the
+trade of the United States is landed. _Naples_ monopolizes most of the
+marine traffic between Italy and Great Britain. _Leghorn_ is famous for
+its manufacture and trade in straw goods. A considerable part of the
+grain harvested in the Po Valley is stored for shipment at _Venice_--not
+in elevators, but in pits. _Palermo_ is the trading centre of Sicily.
+Most of the sulphur is shipped from _Catania_. _Brindisi_ and _Ancona_
+are shipping-points for the Suez Canal route.
+
+=Spain and Portugal.=--The surface of these states is too rugged and the
+climate too arid for any great agricultural development. Less than half
+the area is under cultivation; nevertheless, they are famous for several
+agricultural products--merino wool, wine, and fruit. The merino wool of
+the Iberian peninsula has no equal for fine dress goods; it is imported
+into almost every other country having woollen manufactures. A
+considerable amount of ordinary wool is grown, but not enough for home
+needs.
+
+The fruit industry is an important source of income. Oranges, limes, and
+lemons are extensively grown for exports; among these products is the
+bitter orange, from which the famous liqueur curaçao, a Dutch
+manufacture, is made. The heavy, sweet port wine, now famous the world
+over, was first made prominent in the vineyards of Spain and Portugal.
+Malaga raisins are sold in nearly every part of England and America. The
+olive is more extensively cultivated than in any other state, but both
+the fruit and the oil are mainly consumed at home--the latter taking the
+place of butter. Raw silk is grown for export to France.
+
+Although a larger part of the peninsula must depend on the American and
+Scandinavian forests for lumber, there is one tree product that is in
+demand wherever bottles are used--namely, cork. The cork is prepared
+from the bark of a tree (_Quercus suber_) commonly known as the cork
+oak,[73] which grows freely in the Iberian peninsula and northern
+Africa.
+
+[Illustration: SPAIN AND PORTUGAL]
+
+Metals and minerals of economic use are abundant. Iron ore is sold to
+Great Britain, France, and Germany. Since the Spanish-American War,
+however, there have been extensive developments in utilizing the coal
+and the ore which before that time had been sold to other countries.
+
+The undeveloped coal and iron resources are very great, and must figure
+in the payment of a national debt that is near the limit of bankruptcy.
+The state, however, is entering a period of industrial prosperity.
+
+The most available metal resource is quicksilver. Of this metal the
+mines in Almaden produce about one-half the world's supply. The working
+of these mines is practically a government monopoly, and the income was
+mortgaged for many years ahead when Spain was at war with her rebellious
+colonies.
+
+Both Spain and Portugal are poorly equipped with means for
+transportation. The railways lack organization, and freight rates are
+excessive. Not a little of the transportation still depends on the
+ox-cart and the pack-train. The merchant marine has scarcely more than a
+name; the foreign commerce is carried almost wholly in British or French
+bottoms. The imports are mainly cotton, coal, lumber, and
+food-stuffs--these in spite of the fact that every one save lumber might
+be produced at home.
+
+Wine and fruit products, iron ore, and quicksilver are leading exports.
+Of these the United States purchases wine and raisins for home
+consumption and lace and filigree work for the trade with Mexico. Spain
+has a considerable trade in cotton goods with her colonies, the Canary
+Islands, and the African provinces of Rio de Oro and Adrar.
+
+Portugal likewise supplies her foreign possessions--Goa (India), Macao
+(China), and the Cape Verde and Azores Islands--with home products. The
+chief Portuguese trade, however, is with Great Britain and Brazil.
+
+_Madrid_ is the capital of Spain. _Barcelona_ is the chief commercial
+centre. _Valencia_, _Alicante_, _Cartagena_, and _Malaga_, are all ports
+of fruit and wine trade. _Oporto_ has been made famous for the port wine
+that bears its name. Probably not one per cent. of the port now used,
+however, comes from Oporto, and not many Malaga raisins come from
+Malaga.
+
+=Switzerland.=--This state is situated in the heart of the highest Alps.
+The southeastern half is above the altitude in which food-stuffs can be
+produced, and probably no other inhabited country has a greater
+proportion of its area above the limits of perpetual snow. A
+considerable area of the mountain-slopes affords grazing. The
+valley-lands of the lake-region produce a limited amount of food-stuffs,
+but not enough for the sparse population.
+
+Politically, Switzerland is a republic, having the position of a
+"buffer" state between Germany, Italy, France, and Austria-Hungary.
+Racially, the state is divided among Italians, French, and Germans; as a
+matter of fact, however, the old Helvetian spirit, which not even Cæsar
+could destroy, is still a great factor in dominating the people; this,
+with their montane environment, gives the Swiss a very positive
+nationality.
+
+The agricultural interests of the state are developed to their utmost;
+two-thirds of the bread-stuffs, however, are purchased from the United
+States, the plains of Bohemia, and Russia. Cherries, apples, grapes, and
+other fruit are cultivated in every possible place, and as these can be
+delivered to any part of western and central Europe within a day, the
+fruit industry is a profitable one.
+
+Cattle are bred for dairy purposes, but those for beef must be very
+largely imported, Austria-Hungary and Italy selling the needed supply.
+Goats are raised for their hides, and the latter are converted into
+Morocco leather. Of the dairy products, cheese is in many respects the
+most important; Gruyère cheese is exported to nearly every country. On
+account of the long distance from populous centres milk cannot be
+transported; much of it is, therefore, condensed, and in that form
+exported.
+
+A peculiar feature of the dairy industry is the fact that it is
+constantly moving. The dairy herds begin to pasture in the lowlands as
+soon as the snow melts, and as fast as the snow line recedes up the
+mountains the cattle follow. The milk is converted into butter and
+cheese wherever the herds may be, and the second crop of grass below
+them is cut and cured for winter forage.
+
+In spite of the fact that Switzerland has no available coal,[74]
+manufacture is pre-eminently the industry of the state. During the long
+winters the Alpine herdsman and his family whittle out wooden toys from
+the stock of rough lumber laid by for the purpose. Farther down in the
+valley-lands the exquisite brocades and muslins are made on hand-looms,
+or by the aid of the abundant water-power. Each industrial district has
+its special line of manufacture, so that there is scarcely an idle day
+in the year.
+
+In the cities and towns of the lowland district, watches, clocks,
+music-boxes, and fine machinery are manufactured. For many years Swiss
+watches were about the only ones used in the United States, but on
+account of the competition of American watches this trade has fallen
+off. The mechanical music-player, operated by perforated paper, has also
+interfered with the trade in music-boxes.
+
+Switzerland is provided with excellent facilities for transportation,
+and this has done about as much for the commercial welfare of the state
+as all other industrial enterprises. In proportion to its area, the
+railway mileage is greater than that of the surrounding states. The
+roads are well built and the rates of transportation are low.
+
+In addition to the ordinary trip-tickets, monthly time-tickets are
+issued to travellers, allowing the holders to travel when and where they
+please within the limits of the state on all roads and lake-steamers.
+These are sold to the traveller for about two-thirds the price of the
+1,000-mile book of the American railway. The carriage roads have no
+superiors, and they penetrate about every part of the state below the
+snow line; they also cross the main passes of the Alps.
+
+Through one or another of these passes most of the foreign traffic of
+the state must be carried. To Genoa and Milan it crosses the Alps via
+the St. Gotthard tunnel, or the Simplon Pass;[75] to Paris it goes by
+the Rhone Valley; between Vienna and Switzerland, by the Arlberg tunnel;
+and to Germany or to Amsterdam through the valley of the Main.
+
+As a result of this most excellent system of transportation, Switzerland
+is thronged with visiting tourists at all times of the year; moreover,
+it has always been the policy of the Swiss Government not only to
+provide for them, but also to make the country attractive to them. The
+result has shown the wisdom of the policy. Indeed, the foreign tourist
+has become one of the chief sources of income of the Swiss people, and
+the latter profit by the transaction to the amount of about forty
+million dollars a year.
+
+About all the raw material used in manufacture must be imported. The
+cotton is purchased mainly from the United States, and enters by way of
+Marseille. The raw silk is purchased from Italy, China, and Japan. Coal,
+sugar, food-stuffs, and steel are purchased from Germany, and this state
+supplies about half the imports. From the United States are purchased
+wheat, cotton, and coal-oil.
+
+The manufactures are intended for export. The fine cotton textiles sold
+to the United States are worth far more than the raw cotton purchased
+therefrom. Silk textiles, straw wares, toys, watches, jewelry, and dairy
+products are leading exports. The surrounding states are the chief
+buyers, and none of them competes with Switzerland to any extent in the
+character of the exports.
+
+_Geneva_, situated at the head of the Rhone Valley, is the chief trade
+depot; it is noted especially for the manufacture of watches, of which
+many hundred thousand are made yearly. _Zurich_ is the centre of
+manufactures of textiles and fine machinery. The silk-brocade industry
+is centred chiefly in this city and _Basel_.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Why did not France prosper commercially prior to the time of the
+revolution of 1793?
+
+What are the chief natural advantages of the state in favor of
+commercial development?
+
+In what ways have the natural disadvantages of Switzerland been
+overcome?
+
+How has the loss of her colonies affected the industrial development of
+Spain?
+
+Comparing Spain and Italy, which has the better situation with reference
+to the Suez Canal traffic?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book find the amount of foreign trade of each
+state.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the trade of each one with the
+United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Adams's New Empire, pp. 160-168.
+
+Fiske's Discovery of America, Vol. II, Chapter XI.
+
+Procure for inspection specimens of raw silk and also of the choice
+textile goods made in these states.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+EUROPE--THE DANUBE AND BALKAN STATES
+
+
+The Danube and Balkan states derive their commercial importance partly
+from the large area in which bread-stuffs may be produced, and also
+because the valley of the Danube has become an overland trade-route of
+growing importance between the Suez Canal and the North Sea.
+
+=Austria-Hungary.=--This empire is composed of the two monarchies, Austria
+and Hungary, each practically self-governed, but united under a single
+general government. The greater part of the country is walled in by the
+ranges of the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains.
+
+The region known as the Tyrol is topographically continuous with
+Switzerland, and the people have Swiss characteristics. Galicia,
+northeast of the Carpathian Mountains, the fragment of Poland that fell
+to Austria at the time of partition, is a part of the great Russian
+plain. Bohemia, which derives its name from the Keltic peoples, whom
+Cæsar called the Boii, comprises the upper part of the Elbe river-basin.
+Its natural commercial outlet is Germany, but the race-hatred which the
+Czechs have for the Germans, retards commercial progress. Hungary is a
+country of plains occupying the lower basin of the Danube. The Huns are
+of Asian origin. Austria proper occupies the upper valley of the Danube,
+adjoining Germany; the country and the people are Germanic.
+
+To the student of history it is a surprise that a country of such
+diverse peoples, having but little in common save mutual race-hatred,
+should hold together under the same general government. The explanation,
+however, is found in the topography of the region. The basin of the
+Danube is a great food-producing region, and the upper valley of the
+Elbe River forms the easiest passage from the Black to the Baltic Sea.
+The topography therefore gives the greater part of the country
+commercial unity.
+
+The climate and surface of the low plains of Hungary are much the same
+as those of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Grain-growing and stock-raising are
+the chief employments. High freight rates, a long haul, and the
+competition of Russia and Roumania have retarded the development of
+these industries, however. Bohemia is likewise a grain-growing country,
+and the easy route into Germany through the Elbe Valley makes the
+industry a profitable one. Bohemia is also in the sugar-beet area.
+
+There is an abundance of coal in Austria, but most of it is unfit for
+the manufacture of iron and steel. Steel manufacture, however, is
+carried on, the industry being protected by the distance from the German
+steel-making centres. The lead-mines about Bleiberg (or "Leadville") are
+very productive; at Idria are the only quicksilver-mines in Europe that
+compete with those of Almaden, Spain. The salt-mines near Krakow are in
+a mass of rock-salt twelve hundred feet thick.
+
+Most of the manufactured products are for home consumption. American
+cotton and home-grown wool supply the greater part of the textiles. The
+flour-mills are equipped with the very best of machinery, and much of
+the product is for export to Germany and the countries to the south. The
+manufactures that have made the state famous, however, are gloves and
+glassware, both of which are widely exported. The sand, fluxes, and
+coloring minerals of Bohemian glassware are all peculiar to the region,
+and the wares, therefore, cannot be imitated elsewhere. The gloves are
+made from the skins of Hungarian sheep and goats.
+
+The railways are not well organized, and the mileage is insufficient for
+the needs of the country. Ludwig Canal (in Germany) connects the Danube
+with the Main, a navigable tributary of the Rhine; the Elbe is navigable
+from a point above Prague to the Baltic; the Moravian Gate opens a
+passage from Vienna northward; the Iron Gate, through which the Danube
+flows, is the route to the Black Sea; Semmering Pass and its tunnel is
+the gateway to the ports of the Adriatic. These great routes practically
+converge at Vienna, which also is the great railway centre of the
+empire.
+
+The foreign trade consists mainly of the export of food-stuffs (of which
+sugar and eggs are heavy items), fine cabinet ware, woollen textiles
+(made from imported wool), barley and malt, and fine glassware. Much of
+the German and Italian wine is sent to market in casks made of Austrian
+stock; the coal goes mainly to Italy. The imports are raw cotton from
+the United States and Egypt, wool, silk, and tobacco. Coal is both
+exported and imported. The United States sells to Austria-Hungary
+cotton, pork, and corn--buying porcelain ware, glassware, and gloves,
+amounting to about one-fifth the value of the exports.
+
+_Vienna_, the capital, is the financial centre and commercial
+clearing-house of central Europe; it has also extensive manufactures.
+_Budapest_ is the great focal point of Hungarian railways and commerce.
+_Prague_ controls the coal, textile, and glass trade of Bohemia.
+_Lemberg_ is the metropolis of Galicia. The states of Liechtenstein,
+Bosnia, and Herzegovina are commercially under the control of Austria.
+
+=The Lower Danube States.=--Roumania and Bulgaria, the plain of the lower
+Danube, are enclosed by the Carpathian and Balkan ranges. They
+constitute a great wheat-field whose chief commercial outlets are the
+Iron Gate into Germanic Europe, and the Sulina mouth of the Danube into
+the Black Sea. The growing of maize for home consumption and wheat for
+export form the only noteworthy industries. Most of the grain is shipped
+up the Danube and sold in Great Britain and Germany.
+
+From the Iron Gate to the Black Sea the Danube is held as an
+international highway, and the control of its navigation is directed by
+a commission of the various European powers, having its head-quarters at
+Galatz, Roumania.
+
+[Illustration: TURKEY AND GREECE]
+
+In the Balkan Mountains is the famous Vale of Roses which furnishes
+about half the world's supply of attar-of-roses. The petals of the
+damask rose are pressed between layers of cloth saturated with lard. The
+latter absorbs the essential oil, from which it is easily removed. About
+half a ton of roses are required to make a pound of the attar. Kazanlik,
+noted also for rugs, is the great market for attar. _Galatz_ and
+_Rustchuk_ are grain-markets and river-ports; from the latter a railway
+extends to _Varna_, the chief port of the Black Sea. From _Sofia_, near
+the Bulgarian frontier, a trunk line of railway extends through
+Budapest to western Europe.
+
+=Turkey-in-Europe.=--The European part of the Ottoman Empire has long been
+politically known as the "Sick Man" of Europe, and so far as the
+industries and commerce of the state are concerned, there is no excuse
+for its separate existence as a state. Its political existence, however,
+is regarded as a necessity, in order to prevent the Russians from
+obtaining military and naval control of the Mediterranean and Black
+Seas, and thereby becoming a menace to all western Europe. Less than
+one-half the people are Turks; the greater part of the population
+consists of Armenians, Jews, Magyars, and Latins.
+
+Most of the country is rugged and unfit for grain-growing. The internal
+government is bad, the taxes are so ruinous that the agricultural
+resources are undeveloped, and every sort of farming is primitive. In
+many instances the taxes levied on the growing crops become practical
+confiscation when they are collected. Much of the cultivable land is
+idle because there are no means of getting the crops to market.
+
+Grapes and wine, silk, opium, mohair and wool, valonia (acorn cups used
+in tanning leather), figs, hides, cigarettes, and carpets are the
+leading exports, and these about half pay for the American cotton
+textiles, woollen goods, coal-oil, sugar, and other food-stuffs
+imported. Choice Mocha coffee is imported for home use, and poorer
+grades are exported. Most of the foreign commerce is in the hands of
+English and French merchants. Armenians, Jews, and Greeks are the native
+middlemen and traders.
+
+The native population is subject to the Sultan, whose rule is absolute;
+most foreign merchants and residents are permitted by treaties to remain
+subject to the regulations of the consuls.
+
+_Constantinople_ is the capital. Its situation on the Bosphorus is such
+that under any other European government it would command a tremendous
+foreign commerce. It is naturally the focal point of the trade between
+Europe and Asia. A trunk line of railway connects the city with Paris.
+_Salonica_ is the port of western Turkey, and is likewise connected by
+rail with western Europe. A great deal of the foreign commerce of the
+state is now landed at this port.
+
+[Illustration: HARBOR OF CONSTANTINOPLE]
+
+The chief possessions of the Ottoman Empire are Asia Minor, Armenia,
+Mesopotamia, Syria, and Arabia.
+
+=Greece.=--Greece is a rugged peninsula, no part of which is more than
+forty miles from the sea. The country is without resources in the way of
+coal, timber, or available capital. Its former commercial position, in
+ancient times, was due largely to the silver-mines near Ergasteria, and
+subsequently to the gold-mines of eastern Macedonia; these, however, are
+no longer productive.
+
+There is but little land suitable for farming, and not far from one-half
+the bread-stuffs must be imported. Much of the timber has been
+destroyed, and this has resulted in a deterioration not only of the
+water-power, but of the cultivable lands as well. The railway lines are
+short and their business is local; there are practically no trunk line
+connections with the great centres of commerce.
+
+The harbors and the natural position of the country are its best
+remaining resources. The Greeks are born sailors, and the country is in
+the pathway of European and Asian commerce. Most of the grain-trade
+between the Black and Mediterranean Seas is controlled by Greek
+merchants, and the Greeks are everywhere in evidence in the carrying
+trade of the Mediterranean. The construction of the Corinthian canal has
+also given Greek commerce a material impetus.
+
+The chief exports are Corinthian grapes--commonly known as
+"currants"--fruit, and iron ore from Ergasteria. Great Britain, France,
+and Belgium are the chief buyers of the fruit-crop. The exports scarcely
+pay for the American cotton, Russian wheat, and the timber products that
+are purchased abroad. There has been a material growth in the
+manufacture of cotton, woollens, and silk in the past few years, much of
+the work being done in households. _Athens_ is the capital and largest
+city. _The Piræus_ and _Patras_ are the chief ports.
+
+=Servia= and =Montenegro= are stock-growing countries. The former has
+suffered greatly from misgovernment and the waste of its resources.
+Wine-cask stock and cattle are sold to Austria, which has five-sixths of
+its trade. _Belgrade_ is its metropolis. Tobacco and live-stock are
+exported from Montenegro to Austria.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+On a good map of central Europe trace an all-water route from the mouth
+of the Danube to the ports of the lower Rhine and the North Sea; what
+connection have the cities of Ratisbon and Lemberg with this route?
+
+How do the forests of these states affect the wine industry of Germany?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book find the amount and movement of the
+exports and imports of these countries.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the volume of trade of these
+countries with the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Great Canals of the World--p. 4089.
+
+A good map of central Europe.
+
+[Illustration: RUSSIAN EMPIRE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+EUROPE-ASIA--THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
+
+
+The great plain of Eurasia, which borders about half the circuit of the
+Arctic Ocean, is undivided by topographic barriers or boundaries. It is
+physically a unit.
+
+=Russia.=--Russia comprises more than one-half the area of Europe; the
+Russian Empire embraces about one-half of Europe and Asia combined, and
+constitutes more than one-seventh of the land surface of the earth. East
+and west, from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok, the distance is about six
+thousand miles. It has a similar position with respect to southern
+Europe and China as has Canada to the United States.
+
+In latitude the country is unfortunately situated. North of the latitude
+of St. Petersburg the climate is too cold to grow bread-stuffs; a large
+part of the country is, therefore, unproductive. The central belt is
+forest-covered; the southern part, or "black earth" belt, comprises the
+greater part of the productive lands, and this region is the chief
+granary of Europe.
+
+Russia is an agricultural country. Maize and rye grown for home
+consumption, and wheat for export, are the chief products. Flax is a
+leading export product, and the Russian crop constitutes about
+four-fifths of the world's supply. Lands too remote from markets for
+grain-growing produce cattle and sheep, which are grown mainly for their
+hides and tallow. The wool of the Don is a very coarse textile that is
+much used in the manufacture of American carpets; that of the arid
+plateaus of the southern country is a fine rug wool.
+
+Agriculture in Russia is on a much lower plane than in western Europe.
+Most of the land is owned in large estates. Individual farming is rare,
+land tillage being usually a community affair. A village community rents
+or purchases a tract of land, and the latter is allotted to the families
+composing it, a part of the land being reserved for pasturage. The
+business is transacted by "elders," or trustees, who exercise a general
+management and supervision over the "mir," or community.
+
+The methods of farming are not the best, and an acre of land produces
+scarcely one-third as much as the same area is made to yield in other
+states. The farming class, or peasantry, was in a condition of serfdom
+until within a few years. Poverty unfits them to compete with farmers of
+western Europe; moreover, the laws of land ownership and tenure also
+serve to discourage farming.
+
+The metal and mineral resources are very great. Iron ore is abundant,
+and the yearly output of both is greatly increasing. There are extensive
+deposits in southern Russia, in the Ural Mountains, and in Poland. Coal
+of good quality is plentiful, and coal mining is encouraged by a heavy
+tariff on the foreign coal that enters regions where the home product is
+available. The most productive coal-fields are those of the lower Don
+River and of Poland.
+
+Gold is obtained in various parts of Siberia and in the Ural Mountains,
+but scarcely enough is mined for the requirements of coinage. Copper is
+also mined in the Ural and Caucasus Mountains. More than nine-tenths of
+the world's supply of platinum is also obtained in the Ural Mountains.
+The petroleum fields of Transcaucasia have a yearly output a little
+greater than those of the United States.
+
+The forest area is surpassed only by the timber belt of North America,
+both of which are in about the same latitudes. This area, within a very
+few years, is destined to be the chief lumber supply of all Europe.
+Moreover, the forests, the grain-growing lands, and the iron and coal
+constitute national resources which are surpassed in no other countries
+save the United States and China.
+
+The Russian Government has done much to encourage manufactures.
+Steel-making in the Ural district, in Poland, and in the iron regions of
+the Don has progressed to the extent that home-made railway material and
+rolling stock are now generally used. Farming machinery is made in the
+cities of the grain-growing region. The manufacture of cotton, woollen,
+and linen fabrics has developed to the extent that the state is becoming
+an exporter rather than an importer of such goods.
+
+Railway building has progressed under government aid, and about
+two-thirds of the 37,000 miles of track are owned by the state. The
+Transsiberian Railway connecting Vladivostok with the trunk lines of
+Europe was built by the state both for strategic and economic purposes.
+Large bodies of emigrants are carried into Siberia at nominal rates and
+are settled on lands that are practically free. The return cargoes
+consist of Chinese products--mainly silk textiles and tea--destined for
+western Europe.
+
+A network of railways covers the grain-growing districts; trunk lines,
+mainly for strategic purposes, extend through Russian Turkestan to the
+Chinese border. For many years Russia has endeavored to acquire the
+territory that would afford commercial outlets to the Indian Ocean and
+into China. In this the state has been thwarted by two great
+powers--Great Britain and Japan. The construction of canals and the
+improvements of river-navigation are under government management, and
+the internal water-ways aggregate about fifty thousand miles of
+navigation.
+
+The foreign commerce is changing in character as manufactures develop.
+Wheat, flour, timber products, flax, and petroleum are the chief
+exports. Cotton, tea, wool, and coal are the leading imports, the
+first-named coming mainly from the United States. Germany, Great
+Britain, France, Holland, and the United States are the chief European
+countries utilizing Russian trade. The commerce between Russia and China
+is growing rapidly. The Transsiberian railway is its chief northern
+outlet, and a branch of this road, now under construction, extends
+through to the leading commercial centres of Manchuria, to Port Arthur.
+A considerable amount of manufactured goods is sent to Asia Minor and
+the Iran countries.
+
+The most available ports opening into the Atlantic are on the Baltic
+Sea, but these are blocked by ice in winter; the best ports are on the
+Black Sea, but the Russians do not control the navigable waters that
+connect them with the Atlantic.
+
+Much of the internal trade is carried on by means of annual fairs. The
+most important of these are held at _Nijni_, (lower) _Novgorod_,
+_Kharkof_, _Kief_, and other points. At the first-named fair goods to
+the amount of $80,000,000 have changed hands during a single season, and
+the annual fair is the recognized common ground on which the oriental
+traders meet the buyers of European and American firms.
+
+Unlike the schemes of colonization of other European states, the various
+possessions of the Czar are practically in a single area, the
+dependencies being contiguous. The lines between them, with few
+exceptions, are political rather than natural boundaries.
+
+_St. Petersburg_, the capital, is the centre of finance and trade.
+_Riga_ is the port from which most of the lumber is exported; it
+receives the coal purchased from Great Britain for the factories of the
+Baltic coast. The harbor of Riga is not greatly obstructed by ice.
+_Archangel_ has an export trade of lumber and flax during the few months
+when the White Sea is free from ice. _Odessa_ and _Rostof_ are the
+grain-markets of the empire. _Astrakhan_ is the centre of trade for the
+Iran countries, and _Baku_ is the petroleum-market. _Moscow_ is the
+chief focal point of the railways; and in consequence has become a great
+centre of manufacture and trade. _Warsaw_, next to Moscow, is the most
+important city.
+
+=Siberia.=--This great territory resembles Russia in surface and climatic
+features. Like the former "west" of the United States, Siberia is the
+open "east" into which much of the surplus population of Russia,
+Germany, and the Scandinavian countries is moving, attracted by fine
+farming lands. The European emigrant becomes a producer when settled in
+Siberia, and, at the same time, a consumer of Russian manufactures. In
+five years more than one million people thus became occupants of the new
+country in Siberia. Russian trade is encouraged by a heavy tariff on
+foreign goods brought into Siberia.
+
+_Tobolsk_, _Tomsk_, and _Semipalatinsk_ are collecting stations for
+Siberian products, and each is built on navigable waters. _Irkutsk_
+receives the caravan trade that goes from Peking through _Urga_ and
+_Kiakhta_, the frontier post of Chinese trade. _Vladivostok_ is the
+great Pacific outlet and the terminus of the Transsiberian Railway. It
+is ice-bound in winter. _Harbin_, in Manchuria, China, is a Russian
+trading post of great commercial importance.
+
+=Bokhara= and =Khiva= are Russian vassal states. The former was acquired
+chiefly as a trade-route. A railway from _Krasnovodsk_ on the Caspian
+Sea extends through _Merv_, _Bokhara_, and _Samarkand_ to _Kashgar_,
+where it meets the caravan trade from central China. The building of
+this railway has caused a great development of cotton-growing in these
+countries, which furnish Europe and America with the choice Afghan,
+Khiva, and Bokhara rugs.
+
+=Transcaucasia=, now joined to Russia, is a part of the plateau of Iran. A
+railway extends across the country from _Batum_ to _Baku_, connecting
+the Black and Caspian Seas. Transcaucasia is the petroleum region of the
+East. It is also noted for the Shirvan, Kabistan, Daghestan, and Kazak
+rugs which are sold all over Europe and America. The so-called
+"Cashmere" rugs are not a product of Kashmir, but are made in the town
+of _Shemaka_. Kabistan rugs are made in _Kuba_. Kazak fabrics are
+usually the sleeping-blankets of the Kazak (Cossack) rough-riders.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+How will the development of the coal, iron, and lumber resources most
+likely affect the industrial future of Russia?
+
+Discuss the policy of Siberian immigration;--what are its advantages to
+German colonists?
+
+From the map accompanying this chapter show how the tributary streams of
+the great rivers have served to extend Russian commerce through Siberia.
+
+Note the situation of the cities and towns of Siberia with reference to
+the rivers.
+
+What effect has the high latitude of Russia on its agricultural
+industries?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book make a list of the leading exports and
+imports of Russia by articles, and also the volume of trade with other
+countries.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the statistics of trade between
+Russia and the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Commercial life in Russia--preferably from the article, "Russia," in the
+Encyclopædia Britannica.
+
+For a rug of the Caucasus type, see illustration, p. 351; compare the
+Kabistan with the Persian piece--which has the floral and which the
+geometric figures?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE IRAN PLATEAU AND ARABIA
+
+
+The countries of the Iran plateau extend from the Mediterranean Sea to
+the valley of the Indus River. The Arabian Peninsula is not a part of
+it, but its climate and general character are similar. The Iran
+countries are exceedingly rugged, and a great part of their surface is
+more than a mile above sea-level. The climate is one of great extremes;
+the summer hot-waves and the winter hurricanes are probably unknown
+elsewhere in severity. The greater part of Arabia is an unhabitable
+desert.
+
+[Illustration: THE RUG-MAKING COUNTRIES]
+
+The rigorous conditions of surface and climate have placed their stamp
+upon the population of the region. They are full of the intelligent
+cunning and ferocity that mark people living under such conditions of
+environment. In many parts the sterile soil and arid climate force the
+sparse population into nomadic habits of life and predatory pursuits.
+For the greater part, the land hardly yields enough food-stuffs for the
+population, and any great development of agriculture is out of the
+question. The flood-plain of the Tigris and Euphrates, and a few of the
+river-valleys are highly productive.
+
+[Illustration: AN ANTIQUE TREE-OF-LIFE, KERMANSHAH (PERSIAN) RUG]
+
+Before the Christian era several trade-routes between Europe and the
+Orient lay across this region, and along the caravan routes there were
+the usual industries pertaining to commercial peoples. The cities of
+Sinope, Trebizond, Astrabad, Phasis, Mashad, and Bactra (now Balkh) grew
+into existence along one of the northern routes. Tyre, Nineveh, Tarsus,
+Palmyra, Babylon, and Persepolis were founded along one or another of
+the southern routes. Of these, Trebizond only retains its importance,
+being a seaport with a considerable trade. The commerce that once passed
+over this route was crushed out of existence during the invasions by
+Jenghis Khan.
+
+[Illustration: A KABISTAN RUG--CAUCASUS DISTRICT]
+
+Of the various industries of the Iran plateau, practically but one
+extends beyond its borders, namely, the manufacture of the textile
+fabrics known as Oriental rugs. These are unique; they are made of
+materials, colored with dyes, and are ornamented with designs that
+cannot be successfully imitated anywhere else in the world. The filling
+of the rugs consists of fine wool, selected not only from particular
+localities, but also from certain parts of the fleece. The dye-stuffs
+are common to other parts of the world, and their names--indigo,
+saffron, coccus, madder, and orchil--are familiar. But both the wool and
+the dye-stuffs possess qualities imparted to them by soil and climate
+that are not found elsewhere.
+
+The absence of floors, and of the furniture found in European dwellings,
+make the rugs essential household articles rather than luxuries. The
+hearth-rug, the bath-mat, the divan-cover, the sleeping-blanket, and the
+saddle-mat must be regarded as necessities. Religion also has its
+requirements, and the prayer rug, sometimes ornamented with the hands of
+the Prophet, is a part of every household equipment, whether of the
+nomadic Arab or the wealthy merchant. Each district and people have
+their own designs and methods of workmanship, and the rugs of each are
+easily distinguished.[76]
+
+For the greater part these are gathered by caravans and conveyed to
+convenient shipping-points. Nearly all the cottage-made product is
+obtained in this manner. As a rule the rugs are named from the town or
+district in which they are made. Smyrna and Constantinople are the chief
+ports of shipment. Many of them find their way to European dealers, but
+New York is probably the largest rug-market in the world. The great
+majority are retailed at from ten to fifty dollars each; choice
+fabrics, however, bring from three hundred to ten thousand dollars.
+Oriental rugs are hand-woven, and a weaver frequently spends several
+years on a single piece, earning perhaps less than ten cents a day. The
+factory-made rugs are inferior to the cottage-manufactured product.
+
+=Turkish Possessions.=--Anatolia is the common name of the Turkish
+possession formerly known as Asia Minor. The name properly belongs,
+however, to only a small part of the region. The Asiatic possessions of
+the Ottoman Empire comprise Asia Minor, Armenia, Kurdistan, Syria,
+Mesopotamia, and Arabia. The Armenians are the commercial people of the
+greater part of this region, and although thousands have been massacred
+because of Turkish hatred of them, they practically wield the chief
+power because of their business enterprise.
+
+During the Roman occupation many miles of roads were built from
+Constantinople and other coast-points to the interior. One of these
+extended to Mesopotamia, and became a much-travelled route of the trade
+which centred at Constantinople. Within recent years German capitalists
+have built railways along these roads, thereby creating a considerable
+export trade in fruit, rugs, and mohair cloth.
+
+_Angora_ and _Konieh_ (_Iconium_) are important marts. _Trebizond_ is
+the chief port of the Black Sea, but it lacks railway connections with
+the interior. _Smyrna_ is the chief port of the Mediterranean, and from
+it are shipped to European and American markets the fruit and textile
+fabrics that have made its importance. In Syria, _Damascus_, one of the
+oldest cities in the world, is the centre of a considerable trade in
+textile manufactures. Rugs, dates, figs, and damask fabrics are exported
+to Europe through _Beirut_, its seaport, with which it is connected by
+rail. Much of the stuffs exported is gathered from Persia. _Yafa_ is
+the port of Jerusalem. _Bagdad_ is the chief trade-centre of
+Mesopotamia.
+
+=Arabia.=--Arabia is nominally a Turkish possession, but the coast-regions
+only are under the control of the Sultan. The interior is peopled by
+nomadic tribes, who do not acknowledge the sovereignty of Turkey. The
+province of Yemen, on the Red Sea, is about the only noteworthy part of
+the peninsula. Hides and Mocha coffee, gathered by Arab traders, are
+shipped from the port of _Hodeida_. _Mecca_ is the yearly meeting-place
+of thousands of Mohammedan pilgrims, who go thither as a religious duty;
+it is also the centre from which Asiatic cholera radiates. _Aden_, the
+chief coaling-station of the British Empire in the Indian Ocean, is also
+a free port, having a considerable trade in American cotton and
+coal-oil.
+
+Although Arabia itself is practically of no commercial importance, the
+same cannot be said of the Arabic people. They are keen, thrifty
+traders, and as brutal in their instincts as they are keen. The commerce
+which connects the western part of Asia with Europe is largely of their
+making. They collect and transport the goods from the interior,
+delivering them to Jewish and Armenian middlemen, who turn them over to
+European and American merchants. Arab traders also control the greater
+part of the commerce of northern Africa. The slave-trade, which is
+wholly in their hands, is very largely the key to the situation. A party
+of slave-dealers makes an attack upon a village and, after massacring
+all who are not able-bodied, load the rest with the goods to be
+transported to the coast.
+
+=Persia.=--Persia is the modernized name of the province now called Fars,
+or Farsistan. Within its borders, however, the name Persia is almost
+unknown; the native people call the country Iran. In the times of
+Cyrus, Xerxes, and Darius, Persia was one of the great powers of the
+world. The cultivable lands produced an abundance of food-stuffs. The
+mines of copper, lead, silver, and iron were worked to their utmost
+extent, and the chief trade-routes between Europe and the Orient crossed
+the country to the Indus River.
+
+The conquest by Alexander the Great changed the course of trade and
+diverted it to other routes, thus depriving the country of much of its
+revenue; the invasions of the Arabs left the empire a hopeless wreck.
+Iran blood dominates the country at the present time, it is true, but
+the religion of Islam does not encourage any material development, and
+the industries are now purely local. There is no organization of trade,
+nor any system of transportation except by means of wretched wagon-roads
+with innumerable toll-gates. "Turkish" tobacco, opium, and small fruits
+are grown for export; silk and wool, however, are the most important
+crops. The former is manufactured into brocaded textiles; the latter
+into rugs and carpets. There are famous pearl-fisheries in the Persian
+Gulf.
+
+_Tabriz_, situated in the midst of an agricultural region, has important
+manufactures of shawls and silk fabrics of world renown. The Tabriz rugs
+are regarded as among the finest of the rug-maker's art. _Shiraz_, the
+former capital, _Kermanshah_,[77] and _Hamadan_ are noted for rug and
+carpet manufactures. _Mashad_ is the centre of the trade with Russia.
+_Bushire_ and _Bender-Abbas_ are seaports, but have no great importance.
+Most of the trade with Russia passes through the port of Trebizond.
+
+=Afghanistan.=--The nomadic tribes that inhabit Afghanistan have but
+little in common with the British civilization that is slowly but surely
+closing in upon them, and driving them from routes of commerce. A
+considerable local traffic is carried on between Bokhara and Herat, and
+between Bokhara and Kabul through Balkh, all being fairly prosperous
+centres of population in regions made productive by irrigation.
+
+By far the most important route lies between Kabul and Peshawur, at the
+head of the Indus River. A railway, the Sind-Pishin, extends along the
+valley of this river from Karachi, a port of British India, to Peshawur,
+also in British India near the Afghan border, and the route lies thence
+through Khaibar Pass to Jelalabad and Kabul. A branch of this road is
+completed through Bolan Pass nearly to Kandahar.
+
+_Kabul_, the capital, is a military stronghold rather than a business
+centre, although it is a collection depot for the Khiva-Bokhara rugs and
+carpets that are marketed at Peshawur. _Kandahar_ has a growing trade
+resulting from the railway of the Indus Valley. _Herat_ is the market of
+the famous Herati rugs. There is no organized commercial system; a small
+amount of British manufactures--mainly stuffs for domestic use--are
+imported; rugs and dried fruit are the only exports to Europe and
+America. The imports enter mainly by way of Karachi, India; the exports
+are carried to Europe, for the greater part, by the Russian railway.
+
+The importance of Afghanistan is due to its position as a buffer state
+between Russia and British India. The various strategic points for
+years, therefore, have been military strongholds. There is an old
+saying: "Whoso would be master of India must first make himself lord of
+Kabul." The meaning of this is seen in the history of Khaibar Pass,
+which for many years has been a scene of slaughter; indeed, it has been
+the chief gateway between occidental and oriental civilizations for
+more than twenty centuries. Since the acquisition of India by Great
+Britain Afghanistan has been under British protectoracy.
+
+=Baluchistan.=--The general features of Baluchistan resemble those of the
+other parts of the Iran plateau. The coast has no harbors in the proper
+sense, but the anchorage off _Gwador_ has fair protection from storms
+and heavy winds. The few valleys produce enough food-stuffs for the
+half-savage population. There is but little organization to the
+government save that which is military in character. The state is a
+protectorate of Great Britain.
+
+Rug-making is the only industry that connects Baluchistan with the rest
+of the world. _Quetta_, the largest town, is a military station
+controlling Bolan Pass. Its outlet is the Kandahar branch of the
+Sind-Pishin Railway.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What climatic factors prevent these countries from being regions of
+great production?
+
+How do climate and soil affect the character of the wool clip?
+
+How do Arabian horses compare with American thorough-bred stock with
+respect to usefulness?--how do they compare with the mustang stock?
+
+Why is Khaibar Pass regarded as the key to India?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From a cyclopædia (or from McCarthy's History of Our Own Times) read an
+account of the British disaster at Kabul.
+
+Study, if possible, one or more rugs of the following kinds, noting the
+colors, designs, and warp of each: Bokhara (antique and modern),
+Anatolian, Kermanshah, and Baluchistan.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+BRITISH INDIA AND THE EAST INDIES
+
+
+These countries are in tropical latitudes and in the main are regions of
+great productivity. A few native states that have resisted annexation
+and conquest excepted, almost the entire area is divided among Great
+Britain, Holland, and France.
+
+[Illustration: INDIA]
+
+=British India.=--The Empire of India comprises an area half as large as
+the United States, situated on the southern slope of Asia. It covers the
+same latitude as the span between the Venezuelan coast and the Ohio
+River; from the Indus to the Siam frontier the distance is about two
+thousand miles. It includes also settlements in the Malay peninsula.
+
+Excepting the plateau of the Dekkan, and the slopes of the Himalayan
+ranges, most of the surface consists of plains and low, rolling land
+covered with a great depth of soil. Through these rich lands flow four
+large rivers--the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Irawadi, which afford
+a great deal of internal communication. The Himalaya Mountains on the
+north and the Hindu Kush on the northwest practically shut off
+communication from the northward, so that all communication in this
+direction is concentrated at Khaibar and Bolan Passes, the most
+important gateways by land approach.
+
+British India is one of the most populous regions of the world; the
+average population per square mile is about one hundred and eighty, a
+density considerably greater than that of New York State. The entire
+population is about three times that of the United States. Nearly all
+the food-stuffs grown are required for home consumption; indeed, dry
+years are apt to be followed by a shortage of food-stuffs. Years ago
+famines followed any considerable deficiency of crops, but since the
+completion of the admirable railway systems the necessary food-stuffs
+are quickly shipped to the district where the shortage occurs.
+
+The Hindus constitute about three-fourths of the population. Along the
+northern border there are many peoples of Afghan and Turkic descent; in
+Burma there is a considerable admixture of Mongol blood. An elaborate
+system of social castes imposed by the teachings of Brahmanism has made
+the introduction of western methods of education and civilization
+somewhat difficult to carry out. The educational system of the
+dominating Brahmanic caste, although of a very high order, does not fit
+the people to cope with the commercialism of western civilization.
+
+Five-sevenths of the population are engaged in agricultural labor. Rice,
+wheat, millet, meat, and sugar are the chief food-crops. Of these, rice
+and wheat[78] only are exported; the others are required for home
+consumption.
+
+The articles grown for export are jute, cotton, opium, oil-yielding
+seeds, tea, and opium. No meat is exported, but hides form a large item
+of foreign trade.
+
+The jute is used in the manufacture of rugs and grain-sacks. It is
+cultivated mainly in the delta-lands of the Ganges-Brahmaputra. A
+considerable part of the product is now manufactured in India and in
+China; some is also shipped to California, to be made into wheat-sacks;
+perhaps the larger part is sent to Dundee, Scotland, where it is woven
+into textile fabrics. The choicest product is used to mix with silk
+fibre, or is employed in the manufacture of rugs and coverings.
+
+Cotton cultivation is rapidly taking first rank among the industries of
+India, for which the conditions of soil, climate, and market are
+admirably adapted. India stands second in cotton-growing, and the area
+of production is gradually increasing. Most of the crop is exported to
+Europe for manufacture, although there is an increasing amount sold to
+Japan. Great Britain is the largest purchaser, and the cotton goods
+manufactured at Manchester are reshipped in large quantities to India.
+
+Owing to the low wages paid for labor both in the fields and the mills,
+cotton manufacture is a rapidly growing industry in India. In many cases
+the yarn is manufactured in India and then sent to China to be made into
+coarse cloth. Some of the mills are equipped with machinery made in the
+United States.
+
+Tea has become one of the most important crops of India. It is grown
+mainly in Ceylon and Assam, and is said to have grown wild in the latter
+state. The quality of Indian tea is regarded as superior to the Chinese
+product, and Indian teas have therefore very largely supplanted those of
+China, in British consumption.
+
+Silk cultivation and manufacture have been growing rapidly in the past
+few years; a considerable part of the product is "tussar," or wild silk.
+The silk rugs of India are not equalled anywhere else in the world. Wool
+is a product of the mountain-regions, but is almost wholly used in the
+manufacture of rugs and coverings.
+
+The British occupation of India is commercial rather than political.
+India furnishes a most valuable market for British manufactures; it
+supplies the British people with a large amount of raw material for
+manufacture. The general government is administrative only so far as the
+construction of railways, irrigating canals, and harbors, and the
+organization of financial affairs are concerned.
+
+There are about two hundred and fifty native states included within the
+territory of British India. In addition to the native ruler, a British
+governor or magistrate carries out the administrative features of the
+British Government. For administrative purposes most of the native
+states are grouped into eight provinces, or "presidencies."
+
+=Bengal.=--The states of Bengal, mainly in the valley of the Ganges River,
+produce most of the rice and wheat. _Calcutta_, the capital of the
+empire, is a comparatively young city. The Hugli at this point is
+navigable both for ocean and river craft. The situation of the city is
+much like that of New York, and it is therefore finely adapted for
+commerce. Railways extending from the various food-producing districts
+and from other centres of commerce converge at Calcutta. The city is not
+only the centre of administration, but the chief focus of commerce and
+finance as well.
+
+=Bombay.=--Bombay includes a number of states bordering on the Arabian
+Sea. The city of _Bombay_ is built on an island of the same name. Its
+situation on the west coast makes it the most convenient port for the
+European trade that passes through the Suez Canal. The opening of the
+route gave Bombay a tremendous growth, and it is destined to become a
+great commercial factor in Indian Ocean trade. It is also a great
+manufacturing centre for cotton textiles. _Ahmedabad_, an important
+military station, is also an important centre of cotton manufacture and
+wheat-trade.
+
+=Sind.=--The native state Sind includes the greater part of the basin of
+the Indus. Its importance is military and strategic rather than
+commercial. The ability of Great Britain to hold India depends very
+largely on British control of the Indus Valley and the passes leading
+from it. The Sind-Pishin Railway traverses the Indus Valley from Karachi
+to Peshawur. _Haidarabad_, one of the largest cities of India, is the
+centre of an agricultural district. _Karachi_, the port near the mouth
+of the Indus, next to Khaibar Pass, is the most important strategic
+point of India, and one that the Russians for more than a century have
+been trying to possess.
+
+=Punjab.=--The states of the Punjab are mainly at the upper part of the
+Indus. _Amritsar_ is an important centre for the manufacture of silk
+rugs and carpets. A large number of these are sold in the United States
+at prices varying from two hundred to six thousand dollars. The designs
+for these textiles are often made in New York. _Peshawur_ is important
+chiefly as a military station.
+
+=Burma.=--British Burma includes the basin of the Irawadi River. The
+uplands are wheat-fields; the lowlands produce rice. _Mandalay_ is a
+river-port and commercial centre. _Rangoon_ is the seaport, with a
+considerable ship-building industry that results from the teak forests.
+Although the Irawadi is navigable for light craft, railways along the
+valley have become a necessity; these centre at Rangoon.
+
+The province of Madras is one of the most densely peopled parts of
+India. The chief commercial products are cotton and teak-wood. _Madras_,
+its commercial centre, has a very heavy foreign trade in hides, spices,
+and cotton. The cotton manufactures are extensive. A yarn-dyed cotton
+cloth, now imitated both in Europe and the United States, has made the
+name famous.
+
+=Kashmir.=--The native state Kashmir, situated high on the slopes of the
+Karakorum Mountains, is known chiefly for the "Cashmere" shawls made
+there. The shawls are hand-woven and represent the highest style of the
+weaver's art. The best require many years each in the making; they
+command prices varying from five hundred to five thousand dollars. This
+industry centres at _Srinagar_.
+
+=Other British States.=--The Straits Settlements are so called because
+they face the Straits of Malacca. They include several colonies, chief
+of which are Singapore, Penang, and Malacca. The Straits ports are free
+from export and import duties, a regulation designed to encourage the
+concentration of Malaysian products there--in other words, to encourage
+a transit trade.
+
+The policy has proved a wise one, and the trade at the three
+ports--_Singapore_, _Penang_, and _Malacca_--aggregates about six
+hundred million dollars yearly. About two-thirds of this sum represents
+the business of Singapore. Tin constitutes about half the exports, a
+large share going to the United States. Spices, rubber, gutta-percha,
+tapioca, and rattan constitute the remaining trade. Rice, cotton cloth,
+and opium are the imports.
+
+The Federated Malay States, situated in the Malay peninsula, and the
+northern part of Borneo are also British possessions. Their trade and
+products are similar to the rest of the Malaysian possessions.
+
+=Dutch East India.=--The Dutch possessions include nearly all the islands
+of the Malay Archipelago and the western part of New Guinea. Of these,
+Java and Sumatra are the most important. They are divided into
+"residencies," and the administering officers exercise control over the
+various plantations. In addition, there are numerous private
+plantations. The colonial administration is admirable.
+
+Cane-sugar, coffee, rice, indigo, pepper, tobacco, and tea are the chief
+products. The sugar industry has been somewhat crippled by the
+beet-sugar product of Europe. Java and Sumatra coffees are in demand all
+over Europe and the United States. Sumatra wrappers for cigars find also
+a ready market wherever cigars are manufactured. The cultivation of
+cinchona, or Peruvian bark, has proved successful, and this substance is
+becoming an important export. The islands of Banka and Billiton (with
+Riouw) yield a very large part of the world's supply of tin, much of
+which goes finally to the United States. The mother-country profits by
+the trade of these islands in two ways: the Dutch merchants are
+practically middlemen who create and manage the commerce; the Dutch
+Government receives an import tax of six per cent., and a small export
+tax on nearly all articles except sugar. _Batavia_ is the focal point of
+the commerce.
+
+=Siam.=--This kingdom is chiefly important as a buffer state between
+French and British India, and little by little has been pared by these
+nations until practically nothing but the basin of the Menam River
+remains. The administration of the state is progressive, and much of the
+resources have been developed in the last few years.
+
+Rice and teak are the leading products. The rice is cultivated by
+native laborers--much of it by enforced labor--and is sold to Hongkong,
+British India, and the more northerly states. It is collected by Chinese
+middlemen, and by them sold to British and German exporters. The
+teak-wood business is managed by British firms. The logs are cut by
+natives, hauled to the Menam River, and floated to Bangkok; there they
+are squared and sent to European markets. Pepper and preserved fish are
+also exported. The Menam River is the chief trade-route, and _Bangkok_,
+at its mouth, is the focal point of trade.
+
+=French India.=--The French control the region south of China, called
+French Indo-China, together with various areas in the peninsula of
+Hindustan; of these Pondicheri and Karical are the most important.
+Indo-China includes the basin of Mekong River, and rice is the staple
+product. The most productive rice-fields are the delta-lands of the
+Mekong, formerly known as Cochin-China.
+
+From these lands more than half a million tons of rice are exported, the
+product being sold mainly at Hongkong and Singapore. Pepper is also an
+export of considerable value. France, China, and the Philippine Islands
+are the final destination of the rice export. The imports are mainly
+textiles, machinery, and coal-oil from the United States. The machinery
+pertains chiefly to the manufactures of cotton and silk textiles. On
+account of cheaply mined coal, there is a considerable growth of this
+industry. _Saigon_ is the business centre and port at which the Chinese
+middlemen meet the European merchants and forwarders.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What have been the chief effects of the British occupation of these
+countries, so far as the natives are concerned?
+
+What is the position of Khaibar Pass with respect to the commerce of
+India?
+
+How has the building of the Sind-Pishin Railway strengthened British
+occupation of India?
+
+Singapore and Batavia are the two great focal points of trade in the
+East India Islands. At the former all trade is absolutely free; at the
+latter there is both an import and an export tax. What are the
+advantages of each policy?
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the trade of the United States with
+these countries.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From a cyclopædia, preferably the Encyclopædia Britannica, read the
+following topics:
+
+  Caste
+  Lord Clive
+  Rattan
+  Pepper
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+CHINA AND JAPAN
+
+
+The relative position of China, Russia, and Japan is not unlike that of
+continental Europe and Great Britain, and the struggle for supremacy in
+the Japan and Yellow Seas is about the same as that which in times past
+took place in the North Sea. In the latter case France and Holland were
+the disturbing powers; in the former, it is Russia.
+
+=The Chinese Empire.=--A comparison of the Chinese Empire with the United
+States shows that the two countries have about the same position and
+extent of latitude. There is also about the same proportion of
+highlands, arid lands, and fertile lowlands. The similarity of the two
+countries in geographic conditions is very marked.
+
+The fertile lowland in the east and southeast is one of the most
+productive regions in the world, and forms the chief resource of the
+country; on account of its productivity it is densely peopled. The arid
+and mountain lands are peopled mainly by cattle-herders and nomadic
+tribes.
+
+China is essentially an agricultural country, and the farms are held in
+much the same way as in the United States, but the holdings are so small
+that agricultural machinery is not required for their cultivation.
+
+Wheat, millet, and pease are grown throughout the lowlands wherever they
+can be cultivated. The cultivation of rice is confined mainly to the
+coast lowlands. The amount of food-stuffs produced, however, is scarcely
+sufficient for home consumption; indeed, a considerable amount is
+imported, and the imports year by year are increasing. This is due not
+so much to the density of population as to want of means of
+transportation of the soil products from inland regions. It is often
+much cheaper to import food-stuffs from abroad than to transport them,
+even from an adjoining province.
+
+Tea is extensively cultivated, and China exports nearly one-half of the
+world's product; the total amount produced is considerably more than
+half. Most of this goes to Great Britain and Canada. Raw silk is an
+important product, and the mulberry-tree is extensively grown. Cotton is
+one of the most general crops in the southern part of the empire,
+especially along the lower Yangtze. It is a garden-crop, however, and
+nearly all of it is consumed.
+
+The mineral wealth is very great, and with proper management will make
+China one of the most productive and powerful countries in the world.
+Coal is found in every one of the provinces, and the city of Peking is
+supplied with an excellent quality of anthracite from the Fang-shan
+mines, only a few miles distant. It is thought that the coal-fields are
+the most extensive in the world. Iron ore of excellent quality is
+abundant, and in several localities, notably in the province of Shansi,
+the two are near each other.
+
+Foreign capitalists are seeking to develop these resources in several
+localities. The Germans have obtained mining concessions in Shantung
+peninsula, and these involve the iron ore and coal occurring there. The
+Peking syndicate, a London company, has also obtained a coal-mining
+concession in Shansi.
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN CHINA]
+
+For the greater part the manufactures are home industries.[79] Until
+recently most of the cotton cloth was made by means of cottage looms,
+and the beautiful silk brocades which are not surpassed anywhere else in
+the world are still made in this manner. Porcelain-making is one of the
+oldest industries, and to this day the wares sold in Europe and America
+are known as "china." Straw carpet, or matting, and fans for export are
+also important exports.
+
+The mill system of manufacture is rapidly gaining ground, however, and
+foreign companies find it economical to carry the yarn made in India
+from American cotton into China to be made into cloth. In the vicinity
+of Shanghai alone there are nearly three hundred thousand spindles. This
+phase of the industry is due largely to the factor of cheap labor; the
+Chinese skilled laborer is intelligent; he does not object to a
+sixteen-hour working-day at wages varying from five to twenty cents.
+
+There is no great localization of industrial centres, as in the United
+States and Europe. Each centre of population is practically
+self-supporting and independent from an economic stand-point. The
+introduction of western methods, however, is gradually changing this
+feature.
+
+All industries of a general character are hampered for want of good
+means of transportation. The empire is traversed by a network of unpaved
+roads; but although these are always in a wretched condition, an
+enormous traffic is carried over them by means of wheel-barrows,
+pack-animals, and by equally primitive methods.
+
+The numerous rivers form an important means of communication. The
+Yangtze is now available to commerce a distance of 2,000 miles, and the
+opening of the Si Kiang (West River) adds a large area that is
+commercially tributary to Canton and Hongkong. The most important
+water-way is the Grand Canal, extending from Hang Chow to Tientsin. This
+canal is by no means a good one as compared with American and European
+standards. It was built not so much for the necessities of traffic, as
+to avoid the numerous pirate vessels that infest the coasts. Junks,
+row-boats, house-boats, and foreign steam craft are all employed for
+traffic. The internal water-ways aggregate about fifteen thousand miles
+in length.
+
+[Illustration: A TEA-PLANTATION--PICKING THE LEAVES]
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING THE LEAVES FOR ROASTING]
+
+[Illustration: TEA-BALES FOR EXPORT THROUGH RUSSIA]
+
+Of railways there were less than three hundred and fifty miles at the
+close of the century, the most important being the line from Tientsin to
+Peking. About five thousand miles are projected and under construction
+by American and European companies. A branch of the Transsiberian
+railway is under construction to Port Arthur. Telegraph and telephone
+lines have become popular and have been extended to the interior a
+considerable distance. There are upward of twenty thousand miles of wire
+communication, the most important, in many respects, being a direct
+overland line between Peking and European cities. Inasmuch as there are
+no letters in the Chinese language, the difficulties in using the Morse
+code of telegraphy are very great. In some cases the messages are
+translated into a foreign language before they are transmitted; in
+others, a thousand or more words in colloquial and commercial use are
+numbered, and the number is telegraphed instead of the word.
+
+Most of the business between the natives and foreigners is carried on by
+means of middlemen, or "compradors," and these include both the
+commission merchants and the native bankers. They are intelligent,
+thrifty, and trustworthy. They are the most capable merchants in Asia,
+and have few if any superiors among the merchants of western nations. A
+very large part of the retail trade of the Philippine Islands is carried
+on by Chinese merchants.
+
+The Chinese Empire consists of China and the five dependencies, as shown
+in the following table:
+
+  ---------------------+-------------+-------------
+                       |             | CAPITAL OR
+          STATE        | POPULATION  | CHIEF TOWN
+  ---------------------+-------------+-------------
+  China proper         | 380,000,000 | Peking
+  Manchuria            |   7,500,000 | Kirin
+  Tibet                |   6,000,000 | Lassa
+  Mongolia             |   2,000,000 | Urga
+  Jungaria             |     600,000 | Kur-kara-usu
+  Eastern Turkestan    |     600,000 | Yarkand
+  ---------------------+-------------+--------------
+
+The five dependencies are mainly arid, unproductive, and sparsely
+peopled. Their chief importance consists in the fact that they are
+"buffer states" between China proper and European states. They produce
+little except meat, wool, and live-stock.
+
+China proper is divided into provinces, each governed by a viceroy
+appointed by the throne. All business with foreign powers is transacted
+through a Foreign Office, the Wai-wu-pu (formerly the Tsung-li-Yamen).
+The government business is managed by a Grand Council whose members are
+advisers to the throne. The government is controlled mainly by Manchu
+officials.
+
+[Illustration: HONGKONG]
+
+Until within a few years China nominally allowed no foreign traders
+within her borders; recently, however, about forty cities, commonly
+known as "treaty ports," have been opened to the trade of foreign
+countries. Goods going inland any distance are required to pay a "liken"
+or internal tariff at the border of each province.
+
+Several concessions of territory within recent years have been forced
+from China by foreign powers: thus, Great Britain has Hongkong Island
+(with the peninsula of Kaulung) and Weihaiwei; Germany has Kiaochou on
+the bay of the same name; France has Kwang chau wan harbor. These
+concessions carry with them the control of the port and surrounding
+territory. The German concession includes the right to mine coal and
+iron, and to build railways within a territory of much larger extent. At
+the close of the war between Russia and Japan, the latter acquired Port
+Arthur, the gateway to Manchuria.
+
+Whatever may be the political significance of the opening of the treaty
+ports and the granting of the various concessions, the effect has been
+to increase the trade of the United States with China about twenty-fold.
+The imports from the United States consist mainly of cotton and cotton
+cloth, coal-oil, and flour. The chief exports to all countries are tea,
+silk goods, and porcelain ware. Most of those sent to the United States
+are landed at Seattle or San Francisco. Great Britain, through the port
+of Hongkong, has a larger trade than any other nation. Japan and the
+United States have most of the remaining trade.
+
+_Peking_, the capital, is politically, but not commercially, important.
+The part occupied by the foreign legations is modern and well kept.
+_Tientsin_, the port of Peking, is a larger city, with much more
+business. _Canton_, the largest city of the empire, and _Hongkong_, are
+the commercial centres of nearly all the British trade. Most of the
+American and Japanese trade centres at _Shanghai_. _Niuchwang_, on the
+Manchurian frontier, is important mainly as a strategic point. _Macao_,
+a Portuguese possession, is the open door of Portugal into China.
+
+The inland divisions of the Chinese Empire have but little commercial
+importance. Musk, wool, and skins are obtained from Tibet, into whose
+capital, _Lassa_, scarcely half-a-dozen Europeans have penetrated. The
+closed condition is due to the opposition of the Lamas, an order of
+Buddhist priests. Mongolia is a grazing region that supplies the Chinese
+border country with goats, sheep, and horses. It also supplies the
+camels required for the caravan tea-trade to the Russian frontiers.
+Eastern Turkestan is mainly a desert. _Kashgar_, the metropolis of the
+fertile portion, is the exchange market for Chinese and Russian
+products. Most of the mineral known as jade is obtained there. Manchuria
+is a grazing and wheat-growing country, exporting food stuffs and
+ginseng into China. _Harbin_, a Russian trading post, is connected with
+Peking and with European cities by railway.
+
+[Illustration: JAPAN AND KOREA]
+
+=Korea=, formerly a vassal of China, became an independent state after the
+war between China and Japan, this step being forced by Russia. The
+country is a natural market for Japanese manufactures, and in turn
+supplies Japan with a considerable amount of food-stuffs. _Chemulpo_ is
+the chief centre of its commerce.
+
+=Japan.=--Japan is an insular empire, the commercial part of which has
+about the same latitude as the Atlantic coast of the United States; the
+empire extends from Formosa to Kamchatka. It is sometimes called the
+"Great Britain of the East," and the people are also called the "Yankees
+of the East." Structurally, the chain of islands consists of ranges of
+volcanic mountains. The abundant rains, however, have made many fertile
+river-valleys, and have fringed most of the islands with coast-plains.
+
+Since the opening of Japan to foreigners the Japanese have so thoroughly
+adapted themselves to western commercial methods that they have become
+the dominating power in eastern Asia. Their influence has been greatly
+strengthened by a treaty for defensive purposes with Great Britain. A
+most excellent army and a modern navy make the alliance a strong one.
+The Japanese are better adapted to mould the commercial policy of China
+than any other people.
+
+With a population of more than half that of the United States, occupying
+an area not larger than the State of California, every square foot of
+available land must be cultivated. Yet the Japanese not only grow most
+of the food-stuffs they consume, but are able to export rice. There is
+scant facility for growing beef cattle, but fish very largely takes the
+place of beef. The cattle grown are used as draught-animals in farm
+labor. Ordinary dairy products are but little used.
+
+Rice, tea, and silk are the staple crops. Rice is grown on the coast
+lowlands, the west or rainy side[80] producing the larger crop. The
+Japanese crop is so superior that the larger part is exported, while an
+inferior Chinese grain is imported for home consumption. The quality of
+the Japanese rice is due to skilful cultivation.
+
+[Illustration: NATIVE PLOUGHING RICE-FIELDS]
+
+[Illustration: IRRIGATING A RICE-FIELD]
+
+[Illustration: RICE-FIELDS]
+
+Tea has become the staple crop, and is cultivated from Formosa to the
+forty-fifth parallel. Tea-farms occupy nearly every acre of the
+cultivable hill-side areas in some of the islands, and the soil is
+enriched with a fertilizer made from fish and fish refuse, dried and
+broken. Most of the tea product is made into green tea, and on account
+of its quality it commands a high price. Formosa tea is considered the
+best in the market.
+
+Silk culture is confined almost wholly to the island of Hondo. The raw
+silk is of superior quality, and the exported material is used mainly in
+the manufacture of ribbons and brocades. A limited amount of cotton is
+grown, but the staple is short, and its cultivation is not profitable
+except in a few localities.
+
+Among the forestry there is comparatively little timber suitable for
+building purposes, and a considerable amount of timber is purchased from
+the mills of Puget Sound. Bamboo is largely employed for buildings.
+Camphor is the product of a tree (_Camphora officinarum_) allied to the
+cinnamon and the sassafras. It is cultivated in the island of Kiushiu.
+The best gum, however, is now obtained from Formosa, and this island now
+controls the world's supply. The camphor product is a government
+monopoly leased to a British company.
+
+The lacquer-tree (_Rhus vernicifera_) grows mainly in the island of
+Hondo. The sap, after preparation, forms the most durable varnish known.
+Black lacquer is obtained by treating the sap with nutgalls. Lacquered
+wooden-ware is sold all over Europe and the United States. The lacquered
+surface is exceedingly hard and water-proof; it is not affected by
+climate.
+
+Gold, porcelain clay, silver, copper, and petroleum are mined. The gold
+and silver are used both for coinage and in the arts; the clay has made
+Japanese porcelains famous. The copper comes from the most productive
+mines of Asia; a considerable amount is exported, but much is used in
+the manufacture of Japanese bronze goods. Coal is mined, and this has
+given a great impetus to manufacture; iron ore is deficient, and steel
+must be imported. The quantity of petroleum is increasing yearly, and is
+becoming an important factor in the world's product.
+
+Manufacturing industries are giving shape to the industrial future of
+the country. The cotton-mills alone employ seventy thousand people and
+keep more than one million spindles busy. More than one million
+operatives are engaged in textile manufactures. Much of the cloth, both
+cotton and silk, is still woven on cottage looms. The cotton cloth is
+sold mainly in China and Korea; the surplus silk textiles find a ready
+market in the United States. The best straw matting used as a
+floor-covering is now made in Japan and constitutes a very important
+export.
+
+Three thousand miles of railway aid the internal industries of the
+country; several steamship lines to Hongkong and Shanghai, and one or
+more each to Vladivostok, Bombay, San Francisco, Seattle, Honolulu,
+Australia, and Vancouver (B.C.) carry the tea, raw silk, and
+manufactured products to Europe and America. Much, if not most, of the
+steamship interests are owned by the Japanese, and the lines are
+encouraged by government subsidies. France and the United States buy
+most of the raw silk. The latter country purchases most of the tea,
+sending coal-oil, cotton, leather, and lumber in return. Great Britain
+and Germany sell to the Japanese a large part of the textiles and the
+machinery they use. The exports to the United States are consigned
+mainly to San Francisco, New York and Seattle.
+
+_Tokio_ is the capital; _Yokohama_ is the chief port for American
+traffic, and the market for most of the foreign trade. Most of the trade
+between China and Japan centres at _Nagasaki_, which is the Japanese
+naval station. _Osaka_ and _Kioto_ are the chief centres of cotton and
+textile manufactures.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+How has the policy of seclusion affected the commercial development of
+China?
+
+What has been its effect on the social life of the people?
+
+How did the cultivation of opium in India become a factor in the opening
+of China to foreign trade?
+
+What is meant by "treaty ports"? Make a list of those shown on the map
+of eastern China.
+
+Name two Chinese statesmen who have been factors in the relations
+between China and the United States.
+
+Compare the position of Japan with that of the British Isles with
+reference to commerce.
+
+What advantages has Japan with reference to latitude?--what
+disadvantages with reference to cultivable lands?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book find the leading exports and imports and
+the volume of trade of these states.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the leading articles of trade
+between these states and the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From a cyclopædia read the following topics: The opium war, Commodore
+Perry's expedition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+AFRICA
+
+
+Africa is in a state of commercial transition. During the last quarter
+of the nineteenth century the partition of its area among European
+nations left but few of the names that formerly were familiar. At the
+beginning of the twentieth century the British, French, and Germans
+controlled the greater part of the continent, although the Portuguese,
+Belgians, Italians, and Spanish have various possessions.
+
+The partition of Africa was designed for the expansion of European
+markets. The population of Africa is about one hundred and seventy
+million, and the continent is practically without manufacturing
+enterprises. The people, therefore, must be supplied with clothing and
+other commodities. In 1900 the total trade of Africa with the rest of
+the world was about one and one-third billion dollars, of which the
+United States had a little more than two per cent., mainly cotton cloth
+and coal-oil.
+
+=Egypt.=--The Egypt of the maps is a region of indefinite extent so far as
+its western and southern boundaries are concerned; the Egypt of history
+is the flood plain of the Nile. From the Mediterranean Sea to Cairo the
+cultivable area is not far from one hundred miles in width; from Cairo
+to Khartum it varies from three to seven or eight miles wide.
+
+[Illustration: AFRICA]
+
+The food-producing power of Egypt depends on the Nile. In lower Egypt a
+considerable area is made productive at the ordinary stage of water by
+means of irrigating canals, but in upper Egypt the crops must depend
+upon the annual flood of the river, which occurs from June until
+September. During this period the river varies from twenty-five to forty
+feet above the low-water mark. In the irrigated regions three crops a
+year may be produced; in the flooded lands only one is grown.
+
+In order to add to the cultivable area two great engineering works have
+been constructed. A barrage and lock control the flow of water at
+Assiut; a huge dam at Assuan impounds the surplus of the flood season.
+These structures, it is thought, will increase the productive power of
+the country about one-fourth. Rice, maize (an Egyptian variety), sugar,
+wheat, and beans are the staple crops.
+
+Rice is the food of the native people, but the crop is insufficient, and
+the deficit must be imported. The wheat, maize, and beans are grown for
+export to Europe, the last named being extensively used for
+horse-fodder. The sugar-growing industry is protected by the heavy yield
+and the cheap fellahin labor. The raw sugar is sent to the refineries
+along the Mediterranean. Onions are exported to the United States.
+
+The cotton-crop is an important factor, and in spite of its own crop the
+United States is a heavy purchaser of the long-staple Egyptian cotton,
+which is used in the manufacture of thread and hosiery. The cultivation
+of tobacco is forbidden by law, but Egyptian cigarettes are an item of
+considerable importance. They are made of imported Turkish tobacco by
+foreign workmen. There is a heavy export duty on native tobacco
+exported, and the ban on the inferior native-grown article is intended
+to prevent its admixture with the high-grade product from Turkey, and
+thereby to keep up the standard of the cigarettes.
+
+Egypt is nominally a vassal of Turkey, paying to the Sultan a yearly
+tribute of $3,600,000. Great Britain's is the real controlling hand,
+because the Suez Canal is Great Britain's gateway to India. By a
+purchase of the stock held by a former Khedive, Great Britain secured
+financial control of the canal, a necessary step from the fact that more
+than half the trade carried through the canal is British commerce.
+
+The country is deficient in the resources that make most nations
+powerful. There is neither coal, iron, nor timber available, and these
+must be imported. Great Britain supplies the first, and Norway the last.
+Some traffic is carried on the Nile, but railways have been built
+through the crop-lands. One of these threads the Nile Valley and will
+become a part of the "Cape to Cairo" route.
+
+_Alexandria_ is the port at which most of the Egyptian commerce lands.
+_Cairo_, the largest city of Africa, derives its importance from its
+position at the head of the Nile delta. It is a favorite winter-resort.
+_Port Saïd_ and _Suez_ are the terminal ports of the Suez Canal; their
+commerce is mainly the transit trade of the canal.
+
+=Other Independent States.=--Most of the independent states of Africa are
+in a condition of barbarism and have but little importance to the rest
+of the world. Abyssinia has the natural advantages of gold, iron,
+pasture-lands, and forestry, and the possibilities of cotton
+cultivation. Valuable mining concessions have been granted to foreign
+companies. Ivory, coffee, and gold are shipped to India in exchange for
+textiles. A railway from the coast is under construction, but all the
+traffic is carried by mule-trains, mainly to _Harrar_.
+
+Morocco has an admirable strategic position at the entrance of the
+Strait of Gibraltar, and is most likely, in time, to become a possession
+of Spain. There are exported, mainly to Great Britain, beans, almonds,
+goat-skins, and wool. The goat-skins are sumac-tanned and are still
+used in making the best book-binding leather. Only a small part of the
+so-called Morocco leather of commerce is genuine. There are no railways;
+caravan routes from the Sahara cross the country. _Tangier_ and one or
+two other ports are open to foreign trade. Coal-oil is the only import
+from the United States.
+
+The state of Liberia was established for the benefit of freed slaves
+from the United States. The products are those of tropical Africa,
+including caoutchouc. Coffee cultivation is extensively carried on, and
+coffee is the leading export. _Monrovia_ is the chief centre of trade.
+
+=North African Possessions.=--French influence is paramount in northern
+Africa. Algeria and Tunis are both French colonies, and the caravan
+trade of the Sahara is generally tributary to French trade. The region
+known as the Tell, a strip between the coast and the Atlas Mountains, is
+the chief agricultural region, and the products are similar to those on
+the other side of the Mediterranean Sea. The ordinary grains are grown
+for home consumption, but the macaroni wheat crop is manufactured into
+macaroni paste for export. The fruit-crop, especially the olive, date,
+and grape, and their products, is exported.
+
+Esparto grass, for making paper, was formerly an important export, but
+the increasing use of wood-pulp for this purpose has had the effect of
+increasing the grazing area, and therefore the wool-crop. Date-palms
+grow in great profusion, and the excess forms an important export, going
+to nearly every part of Europe and the United States. A large part of
+the crop, however, is consumed by the Arabs. Sumac-tanned goat-skins,
+for book-binding leather, are also exported.
+
+The colonies must import coal. Manufactures are therefore restricted to
+the preparation of the fruit and food products. Sponges are an
+important product. Railways provide the necessary transportation for the
+crops. _Algiers_, the metropolis, is a finely built city and a favorite
+winter-resort. _Oran_ is the shipping-port for grain and esparto grass.
+_Biskra_ is the market for dates.
+
+The caravan trade of northern Africa is considerable, and the greater
+part converges at _Tripoli_, to which not far from ten thousand
+camel-loads of merchandise are brought annually. This trade is carried
+on mainly by the Arabs, who cover the region from _Timbuctu_ to Lake
+Chad. They bring ivory, ostrich feathers, gold, goat-skins, and slaves.
+In return they carry cloth, fire-arms, ammunition, and various
+commodities to the negro villages of the Sudan. The district is a
+possession of Turkey. Its chief exports are esparto grass, sponges, and
+dye-stuffs.
+
+=Central Africa.=--Central Africa is divided among the chief European
+powers. Great Britain and Germany divide the lake-region and the
+Zanzibar coast. On the Guinea coast the French are an additional factor.
+The trade of these regions consists of an exchange of tropical
+products--palm-oil, rubber, ebony, camwood, ivory, and hides--for cloth,
+tobacco, fire-arms, beads and trinkets, and preserved foods. Most of
+this trade is carried on by companies holding royal charters.
+
+The Kongo State is a semi-official corporation of this character, the
+King of the Belgians being its chief executive officer. The active
+administration is carried on by agents of the company. The chief of each
+tribe or village is required, under penalty, to furnish a certain quota
+of crude rubber and other products; and between the agent and the Arab
+slave-driver the natives have little to choose.
+
+The Kongo River is the outlet of the state, and to facilitate the
+transportation of the products, railways have been built, or are under
+construction, around the rapids. This region is about the only
+remaining source of elephant ivory, but most of the supply consists of
+the tusks of animals long since dead. A fleet of steamboats carries the
+commercial products to the coast. _Stanley Pool_, at the head of the
+rapids, is the chief depot for collection. Ocean steamships ascend the
+river to a point above _Boma_, the place of administration.
+
+Nigeria and Ashanti are British possessions on the Guinea coast,[81]
+having a trading company organization. Sierra Leone is an organized
+colony, a product of which is the kola-nut. British East Africa is
+important for strategic purposes, inasmuch as it includes the upper Nile
+basin, a territory sometimes known as the Egyptian Sudan. _Akra_ is the
+trading port of Nigeria, and _Khartum_ of the upper Nile Valley.
+_Zanzibar_ is the metropolis of the east coast.
+
+The French possessions include a large territory at the mouth of the
+Kongo, the western part of the Sahara, and the islands of Madagascar and
+Reunion. In German East Africa the commercial development has been
+substantial, and large plantations for the cultivation of tropical
+products are in operation. A railway from the coast to the lake-district
+is under construction. _Mombasa_ is its commercial outlet.
+
+The Italians have nominal possession of a territory facing the Strait of
+Bab-el-Mandeb, and also of the peninsula of Guardafui. Their actual
+possession, however, is restricted to the island and trading-post of
+_Massawa_. Their attempts to conquer Abyssinia have been unsuccessful.
+
+=Cape of Good Hope and the South African Colonies.=--Up to the time of the
+Suez Canal, Cape of Good Hope was a sort of half-way house between
+British ports and India, and this position made it commercially
+important. Even at the present time more than fifteen hundred vessels,
+many of them in the Indian Ocean trade, call at the chief port of the
+colony every year.
+
+Agriculture is the chief industry of these colonies, though not the one
+yielding the greatest returns. Enough wheat, maize (or "mealies"), and
+fruit are grown for home consumption, but the climate is too arid for
+any excess of bread-stuffs. The aridity is a resource, however, in the
+matter of wool, the superior quality of which is due largely to the
+deficient rainfall. As a matter of fact the whole country is a great
+grazing veldt; wool, a very fine quality of Angora mohair, hides, and
+cattle products are exports.
+
+From December to March the fruits ripen, and these, especially the
+grapes, are carried in cold-storage vessels to British and other
+European ports. The wine is likewise of excellent quality and is
+becoming an export of great value. Both the fruit and the wine are
+similar to those of Australia and California.
+
+The business of ostrich farming is in the hands of several large
+companies, and, next to the wool-crop, ostrich plumes are the leading
+product. There are about a quarter of a million birds, and each produces
+about one pound of feathers. The ordinary quality of plumes varies from
+five to ten dollars a pound; very choice plumes command as much as two
+hundred dollars a pound. London is the chief market for them, but most
+of them sooner or later find their way to the milliners of the great
+cities.
+
+The diamond-mines of Griqualand West furnish practically the whole of
+the world's supply. The mines are operated on a most thorough business
+system, and the output of rough stones is carefully regulated to meet
+the demand. All wholesale dealers know the output from year to year, and
+no more stones are put upon the market than the number required to meet
+the demand. All the Kimberley mines are now consolidated under one
+company. The yearly output does not vary much from twenty million
+dollars' worth of stones. The stones are marketed from Kimberley, but
+London dealers buy most of them.
+
+The mines that for several years produced more gold than any others in
+existence are in the Transvaal.[82] Other undeveloped mines in the
+territory of Rhodesia are known to be extremely rich in precious metals;
+indeed, there is much evidence that the famous mines of Ophir were in
+this region. Copper ore is an important export.
+
+The industries of Natal colony do not differ materially from those of
+Cape of Good Hope. The rainfall is sufficient for the growing of
+sugar-cane, and sugar is an important export to the mother-country. The
+colony has productive coal-mines, and these are destined to become an
+important resource.
+
+The home government has encouraged railway building, and a trunk line
+through Rhodesia affords an outlet to the ports of the south coast. It
+is the policy of the mother-country to extend this road along the
+lake-region and the Nile Valley (known as the "Great Rift") to the
+Mediterranean Sea. This plan when carried out will give Great Britain a
+practical control of the trade of eastern Africa. The imports are mainly
+textiles, machinery, and steel wares.
+
+_Cape Town_ is the most important centre of trade in South Africa. A
+considerable trade, however, is carried on at _Port Elizabeth_ and at
+_Durban_, the port of Natal. _Kimberley_ is the seat of the
+diamond-mining interests, and _Johannesberg_ of the gold-mines.
+
+Germany and Portugal divide the southwest coast. _Walfisch Bay_ is the
+outlet of the former. Portuguese East Africa is an outlet for the trade
+of the Transvaal region, with which it is connected by rail. The port
+_Lourenço Marquez_ has a fine harbor.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Has the partition of Africa been an advantage or a disadvantage to the
+native races of the continent?
+
+What advantages will accrue to Great Britain from the Cape to Cairo
+railway?
+
+Compare the basin of the Kongo with that of the Amazon with respect to
+climate, products, and civilization.
+
+From Commercial Africa prepare a list of the exports and imports between
+the United States and the various African countries.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Statesman's Year-Book.
+
+Commercial Africa--pp. 3679 and following.
+
+From a cyclopædia read the following topics: Ivory, Suez Canal,
+Gibraltar, Livingstone, Diamonds, Canary Islands.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+OCEANIA
+
+
+Oceania, the island division of the world, includes Australasia and the
+great groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. Some of the larger islands
+are regions of great productivity; others are important as
+coaling-stations; still others have positions of great strategic value.
+
+When it is considered that more than half the people in the world live
+on the slopes of the Pacific Ocean, and that they depend on the
+metal-working and manufacturing people of the Atlantic slopes for
+clothing and commodities, it is apparent that the commerce of the
+Pacific Ocean must reach enormous proportions.
+
+For this reason the various island groups of Oceania have been acquired
+by Europeans, and from the moment of their occupation their commercial
+development began. The great majority of these groups are within the
+limits of the sago-palm, bread-fruit, cocoanut, and banana, and these
+yield not only the food-stuffs of the native people, but the export
+products as well. Copra, or dried cocoanut meat, is the general export.
+It is marketed in Marseille, London, and San Francisco. Sago is prepared
+from the pith of a species of palm. Considerable quantities are also
+exported, and it is used as a table delicacy. The banana is the
+food-stuff upon which many millions of people must depend. In spite of
+their small aggregate area, the food-producing power of these islands is
+very great.[83]
+
+On account of its central position, Honolulu, the capital and chief
+port of Hawaii, is the most important mid-ocean station of the Pacific.
+It is almost in the direct line of traffic between the Pacific ports of
+the United States and Canada on the one hand, and those of Australia,
+Japan and China on the other. It is also in the route of vessels that
+may hereafter use the American isthmian canal in going between European
+and Asian ports.
+
+In the cultivation of export products native Malay labor is almost
+always employed, inasmuch as Europeans cannot bear out-of-door labor in
+the tropics. The natives are generally known as "Kanakas," and there is
+not a little illicit traffic in their labor. Chinese and Japanese
+coolies are also employed as laborers.
+
+=The Commonwealth of Australia.=--The commonwealth of Australia consists
+of the various states of Australia together with Tasmania. Their
+position corresponds very closely to that of Mexico and Central America,
+and the climate and products are not unlike. A considerable part of
+Australia is a desert, and a large area is too arid for the production
+of bread-stuffs; the eastern coast, however, receives abundant rains.
+
+Australia produces nearly one-third of the wool-clip of the world. On
+account of the climate, the quality of the wool, much of it merino, is
+excellent. More than half the clip comes from New South Wales.
+Two-thirds of the wool goes to Great Britain to be manufactured; nearly
+all the rest is purchased by France, Germany, and Belgium. Less than two
+per cent. is sold to the United States.
+
+Since the introduction of cold-storage plants in steamships, Australia
+has become a heavy exporter of meat. Areas long unproductive are now
+cattle-ranges; mutton constitutes the heaviest shipment. Inasmuch as the
+transportation is almost wholly by water, the cost is very light, and
+the mutton can be sold to London dealers at less than four cents per
+pound.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMERCE OF THE PACIFIC]
+
+[Illustration: AUSTRALIA]
+
+Wheat is grown mainly for home consumption. Grapes for wine and for
+raisins are good-paying crops in Victoria and New South Wales. Both
+products find a ready market in Great Britain. Australian claret is a
+strong competitor of California claret for public favor, and the two are
+similar in character. Cane-sugar is grown in the moist regions of
+Queensland; it is the chief supply of the commonwealth and the
+neighboring islands. The forests produce an abundance of hard woods, but
+practically no building-timber. Jarrah wood paving-blocks are an
+important export. British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon supply much
+of the building-timber.
+
+Gold has been the chief mineral product since the settlement of the
+country. The mints convert the metal into coin. As a rule the value of
+the exports exceeds that of the imports, and the excess swells the
+amount of metal exported. The most productive mines are in the district
+of Ballarat. Coal is abundant on the east coast, and a considerable part
+is sold to California, and more to Asian ports. Tin is extensively mined
+in Tasmania.
+
+More than fifteen thousand miles of railway have been built to carry the
+traffic of the country. Most of them were built by private corporations,
+but on account of financial difficulties and poor service they were
+acquired by the government. The policy proved a wise one.
+
+Great Britain encourages the trade of her colonies, and gets about
+three-fourths of the traffic of the commonwealth, the imports being
+manufactured goods. Of the foreign trade the United States has about
+half, nearly all of which is landed at San Francisco and Puget
+Sound. Wool, cattle products, and coal are exported to the United
+States, and the latter sends to Australia structural steel--mainly
+rails--printing-paper, and coal-oil.
+
+_Melbourne_ is the largest city. _Sydney_ is the port at which most of
+the ocean trade is landed. _Brisbane_, mainly a coal and a wool market,
+is connected with British Columbia by an ocean cable. Steamships by way
+of the Suez Canal generally call at _Perth_ and _Adelaide_. _Hobart_ and
+_Launcestown_ are the markets of Tasmania.
+
+=New Zealand.=--This colony is one of the most prosperous and best
+administered states in existence. The cultivable lands produce enough
+wheat for home use, and an excess for export. Cattle and sheep are the
+chief resource, however, and pretty nearly everything--meat, hides,
+wool, horn, and bones--is exported. Dairy products are not forgotten,
+and under the management of an association, these are of the best
+quality.
+
+New Zealand flax (_Phormium tenax_), a kind of marsh hemp, yields a
+fibre used in making cordage. The kauri pine furnishes the chief supply
+of lumber. A fossil kauri gum is collected for export; it makes a
+varnish almost equal to Japanese lacquer. Gold is mined, and there being
+no mint, all the bullion is exported. The only manufactures are those
+which are connected with the meat export and the dairy industry. The
+exports noted more than pay for the manufactured goods. Most of the
+trade is carried on with Great Britain. _Wellington_, the capital, and
+_Auckland_ are the centres of trade.
+
+=New Guinea.=--This island, one of the largest in the world, is somewhat
+larger than the State of Texas, or about one-third larger than Germany
+or France. The gold-mines first led to the exploration and settlement of
+the island, but it was soon apparent that the agricultural resources
+were even more valuable, and it was divided among the British, Germans,
+and Dutch.
+
+The western part of the island is distinctly Asian in character; the
+eastern and southern parts resemble Australia. Coffee, rice, and tobacco
+plantations have been established in the former; grazing is the chief
+industry in the latter. Ebony and bamboo are among the forest products.
+
+=British Possessions.=--The Fiji Islands are among the most important
+British possessions. They number about eighty habitable and twice as
+many small islands. Sugar is the chief export product, and it goes
+mainly to Australia and New Zealand. Cocoanuts are also a large item of
+export trade. _Suva_ is the chief trading-port.
+
+The Tonga Islands are nominally independent, but are practically a
+British protectorate. Among other British possessions are Cook, Gilbert,
+and Ellice archipelagoes, and Pitcairn Island.
+
+=German Possessions.=--The Samoa Islands are perhaps the most important
+German possession, and German planters have made them highly productive.
+They were formerly held under a community-of-interest plan by Great
+Britain, Germany, and the United States. A joint commission awarded the
+greater part of the territory to Germany. In addition to the ordinary
+products, pineapples and limes are exported. Most of the trade is
+carried on by way of Australia. _Apia_ is the trading-port.
+
+Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon, Marshall, and Caroline groups
+have also been acquired by Germany. The last named was purchased from
+Spain at the close of the Spanish-American War.
+
+=French Possessions.=--New Caledonia, together with Loyalty Islands,
+Fortuna, and the New Hebrides group, have great wealth in the matter of
+resources. New Caledonia, a penal colony, has productive mines of chrome
+iron ore and copper. It is the source of a considerable supply of nickel
+and cobalt. A railway to the coast has been built for the carriage of
+these products.
+
+Tahiti is the principal island of the Society group, and under the
+missions long established there, the natives have become civilized. In
+addition to the usual trade, sugar and mother-of-pearl are important
+exports.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+How will the commerce of the Pacific be changed by the construction of
+an isthmian canal?
+
+What has been the effect of the Australian wool-clip on the cloth-making
+industry of England and Germany?
+
+How will the acquisition of Hawaii and the Philippine Islands affect the
+commerce of the United States?
+
+From Commercial Australia find the trade of the United States with the
+Commonwealth.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From a cyclopædia read the history of Australia as a convict colony.
+
+Commercial Australia.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+TRADE OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD AT THE BEGINNING OF THE
+TWENTIETH CENTURY
+
+
+                                            Sells        Buys
+  Country      Imports       Exports       to U.S.     from U.S.
+  Argentina  $110,000,000  $161,850,000  $10,000,000  $11,000,000
+  Australia   201,000,000   224,000,000    5,263,000   28,164,000
+  Austria-
+    Hungary   335,486,000   383,748,000   10,000,000    6,844,000
+  Belgium     428,651,000   352,850,000   14,920,000   51,444,000
+  Bolivia       5,845,000    15,618,000           22      120,000
+  Brazil       97,330,000   165,461,000   64,914,000   11,517,000
+  Canada      181,238,000   177,443,000   42,482,000  105,790,000
+  Chile        46,916,000    61,201,000    7,474,000    4,507,000
+  China       203,421,000   124,528,000   18,126,000   18,176,000
+  Colombia     10,695,000    18,487,000    4,811,000    2,924,000
+  Cuba         66,584,000    63,278,000   46,664,000   27,007,000
+  Denmark     111,542,000    75,549,000      797,000   15,500,000
+  Ecuador       6,541,000     7,509,000    1,578,000    1,590,000
+  Egypt        75,366,000    77,754,000    8,867,000    1,321,000
+  France      843,255,000   774,497,000   81,315,000   78,406,000
+  Germany   1,290,254,000 1,054,685,000   99,970,000  184,679,000
+  Greece       26,782,000    18,100,000    1,447,000      286,000
+  India,
+    British   264,318,000   392,025,000   47,172,000    5,647,000
+  India,
+    Dutch      67,755,000   100,632,000   32,309,000    1,653,000
+  India,
+    French     36,576,000    30,513,000      ...          118,000
+  Italy       331,668,000   265,270,000   27,631,000   34,046,000
+  Japan       127,397,000   124,209,000   36,855,000   21,163,000
+  Mexico       64,036,000    77,583,000   17,273,000   83,722,000
+  Netherlands 815,442,000   695,763,000   17,273,000   83,722,000
+  Norway       83,255,000    43,616,000      ...          ...
+  Peru         11,276,000    21,890,000    2,911,000    2,312,000
+  Philippine
+    Islands    30,279,000    23,215,000    4,421,000    4,027,000
+  Portugal     62,497,000    30,546,000    3,642,000    4,454,000
+  Roumania     41,878,000    54,041,000      101,000       31,000
+  Russia      269,493,000   375,276,000    7,236,000    6,506,000
+  Spain       161,867,000   129,399,000    7,041,000   16,786,000
+  Sweden      143,363,000   104,878,000    4,370,000   11,521,000
+  Switzerland 202,651,000   161,458,000   16,035,000      233,000
+  Turkey      103,110,000    64,876,000    2,437,000      184,000
+  United
+    Kingdom 2,540,265,000  1,362,729,000 155,292,000  598,767,000
+  United
+    States    903,321,000  1,355,482,000     ...          ...
+  Uruguay      24,497,000     28,674,000   1,975,000    1,481,000
+  Venezuela     8,457,000     17,962,000   6,610,000    2,737,000
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acapulco, 269
+
+Acré, 281
+
+Activities classified, 4
+
+Adams, 220
+
+Aden, 354
+
+Adjustment to environment, 86
+
+Afghanistan, 355
+
+Alaska, 254
+
+Alberta, 265
+
+Alexandria, 384
+
+Alfa, 124
+
+Algeria, 385
+
+Alpaca, 111, 115
+
+Altitude, effects of, 32
+
+Aluminium, 179
+
+Amazon River, 53
+
+Amber, 146
+
+Ambergris, 204
+
+American Indians, 86
+
+Amritsar, 362
+
+Amsterdam, 318
+
+Anaconda, 250
+
+Anchovy, 207
+
+Angora wool, 115
+
+Anthracite coal, 224
+
+Appalachian region, 222
+
+Arabia, 354
+
+Argentina, 291
+
+Arid region of U.S., 240
+
+Arkwright, 108
+
+Asian Rivers, navigation of, 53
+
+Asphalt, 157
+
+Assiniboia, 265
+
+Astrakhan, 347
+
+Athens, 341
+
+Atlanta, 239
+
+Atlantic coast-plain, 213, 221
+
+Attar-of-roses, 338
+
+Australia, 392
+
+Austria-Hungary, 335
+
+Bagdad, 354
+
+Baku, 347, 348
+
+Baltimore, 217
+
+Baluchistan, 357
+
+Banca, 181, 364
+
+Barbados, 273
+
+Barley, 101
+
+Barmen-Elberfeld, 308
+
+Batavia, 364
+
+Bauxite, 179
+
+Beef, exports of U.S., 244
+
+Beet sugar, 186, 303, 321
+
+Beginnings of cities, 82
+
+Belgium, 313
+
+Belgrade, 341
+
+Bengal, 361
+
+Benzine, 156
+
+Bergen, 312
+
+Berlin, 308
+
+Bermuda, 273
+
+Bessemer-steel boilers, 63
+
+Big tree, 198
+
+Billiton, 364
+
+Birmingham, Ala., 165, 225
+
+Birmingham, Eng., 302
+
+Bismarck Archipelago, 397
+
+Black walnut, 199
+
+Blende, 182
+
+Bluefish, 206
+
+Boers, 86
+
+Bogota, 277
+
+Bohemian glass, 336
+
+Boise City, 250
+
+Bokhara, 347
+
+Bolivia, 280
+
+Bombay, 362
+
+Bosnia, 337
+
+Boston, 215
+
+Boxwood, 200
+
+Brass, 178
+
+Brazil, 288
+  nuts, 289
+
+Breakfast, travels of a, 1
+
+Bremen, 308
+
+Brenner Pass, 66
+
+Brick tea, 134
+
+Bridgeport, 221
+
+British Columbia, 265
+  India, 358
+
+Bronze Age, 181
+
+Brussels, 316
+
+Budapest, 337
+
+Buenos Aires, 293
+
+Buffalo, 225
+
+Bulgaria, 338
+
+Burlington, 237
+
+Burma, British, 362
+
+Burr clover, 34
+
+Butte, 250
+
+
+Cacao, 134
+
+Cairo, 384
+
+Calcutta, 123
+
+California fruits, 251
+
+Callao, 279
+
+Camel's hair, 116
+
+Camphor, 378
+
+Canada, 261
+
+Canadian Pacific Railway, 263
+
+Canal, Chesapeake & Ohio, 56
+  Chicago ship, 56
+  Erie, 55
+  Grand, 370
+  Kaiser Wilhelm, 57
+  Ludwig, 337
+  Manchester, 57
+  Nicaragua, 59, 270
+  Nord Holland, 57, 318
+  Panama, 58
+  Rideau, 54
+  St. Mary's Falls, 228, 263
+  Suez, 57
+  Welland, 54, 263
+
+Cañons, effects of, 18
+
+Canton, 374
+
+Caoutchouc, 141
+
+Capacity of locomotives, 63, 64
+
+Cape Nome, 254
+
+Cape of Good Hope, 387
+
+Cape Town, 389
+
+Caravan tea, 134
+
+Carpet wools, 112
+
+Cashmere shawls, 363
+
+Cattle-growing, 240
+
+Cavité, 258
+
+Cereals, 88
+
+Charleston, 218
+
+Cheviot, 112
+
+Cheyenne, 244
+
+Chicago, 84, 228, 230, 234
+
+Chicago River, 228
+
+Chicory, 131
+
+Chile, 281
+
+Chinook winds, 261
+
+Chocolate, 136
+
+Cigars, manufacture of, 137
+
+Cincinnati, 236
+
+Cities, growth of, 83
+
+Clearing-houses, 215
+
+Cleveland, 225, 230
+
+Climate, 29
+
+Clipper ship, 44
+
+Cloth, antiquity of, 105
+
+Coal, 148, 257, 258, 264, 265, 268, 298, 323, 333, 344, 365, 368, 379
+  areas of the world, 147
+  prices of, in U.S., 149
+  tar products, 153
+
+Coast commerce of U.S., 222
+
+Coastplains, 22
+
+Coca, 278
+
+Cocoa, 134
+
+Cocoon silk, 119
+
+Cod fisheries, 204
+
+Coffee, 127, 271, 277, 290
+
+Coke, 151
+
+Colombia, 275
+
+Columbus, voyages of, 11
+
+Commerce in Western Europe, 13
+
+Communal life, 81, 344
+
+Competition and pools, 67
+
+Constantinople, 340
+
+Copal, 146
+
+Copenhagen, 313
+
+Copper, 159, 162, 177, 248, 266, 279, 344, 379
+
+Cordage, 122
+
+Corn, 98, 232
+
+Corn, oil of, 100
+
+Cotton, 106, 238, 269, 289, 302, 306, 326
+
+Cotton, Egyptian, 109, 383
+  gin, 109
+  Indian, 360
+  Peruvian, 108, 278
+  sea island, 108
+
+Cotton crop, distribution of, 239
+
+Creosote, 145
+
+Cripple Creek, 248
+
+Crompton, 108
+
+Crusades, wars of, 8
+
+Cuba, 271
+  bast, 124
+
+Currant grapes, 341
+
+
+Da Gama, voyage of, 11
+
+Dammar, 146
+
+Davenport, 237
+
+Deadwood, 250
+
+Demerara, 286
+
+Denmark, 312
+
+Denver, 250
+
+Detroit, 230
+
+Diamonds, 388
+
+Dias, voyage of, 11
+
+Differentials, 71, 73
+
+Divi-divi, 285
+
+Division of industries, 41
+
+Dubuque, 237
+
+Dutch East Indies, 364
+  standards, 188
+
+
+Eastern Turkestan, 376
+
+Ebony, 200
+
+Economic regions of U.S., 213
+
+Ecuador, 279
+
+Egypt, 381
+
+Electric railways, 76
+
+Eminent domain, 76
+
+Esparto grass, 124, 385
+
+Exchange of products, 5
+
+
+Fairs, 346
+
+Fall line, 53, 221
+
+Fall River, 220
+
+Felt hats, 209
+
+Fertility of irrigated regions, 33
+
+Feudalism, 7
+
+Fiji Islands, 396
+
+Fisheries, 266
+
+Fish hatcheries, 207
+
+Flax, 120, 300, 314, 343
+  New Zealand, 124
+
+Forced draught, 63
+
+Forest areas, 193, 261, 288, 299, 310
+
+Fort Dearborn, 228
+
+France, 320
+
+Freight rates, 63, 69
+
+French India, 365
+
+
+Galveston, 238
+
+Gasoline, 156
+
+Geneva, 334
+
+German Empire, 303
+
+Ghent, 314, 316
+
+Glucose, 100, 191
+
+Gold, 166, 172, 248, 264, 268, 286, 344, 379, 395
+
+Grain elevators, 94
+
+Grape industry in New York, 36
+
+Graphite, 153
+
+Grasses, 88
+
+Great Britain, 295
+
+Great Central Plain, 22
+
+Great Lakes, 227
+
+Great Salt Lake, 247
+
+Greece, 340
+
+Griqualand West, 388
+
+Guam, 258
+
+Guatemala, 270
+
+Guayaquil, 280
+
+Guiana, 286
+
+Gulf coast, 237
+
+Gums, 141
+
+Gutta-percha, 144
+
+
+Halibut, 256
+
+Halifax, 264
+
+Hamburg, 308
+
+Hamilton, 265
+
+Hanse League, 13
+
+Harbors, 26, 47, 84
+
+Hargreaves, 109
+
+Hartford, 221
+
+Havana, 272
+  cigars, 137
+
+Hawaiian Islands, 255
+
+Helena, 250
+
+Hematite, 163
+
+Hemp, 121, 257
+
+Henequen, 122
+
+Herodotus quoted, 106
+
+Herring fisheries, 205
+
+Herzegovina, 337
+
+Hickory, 199
+
+Hilo, 256
+
+Hodeida, 130
+
+Holland, 316
+
+Hongkong, 365, 374
+
+Honolulu, 256, 392
+
+Houston, 238
+
+Hudson's Bay Company, 208, 262
+
+
+Iloilo, 258
+
+Inclination of axis, 36
+
+Indianapolis, 237
+
+Inland waters, 50
+
+Intermontane valleys, 18
+
+Interstate Commerce Commission, 76
+
+Iodine, 282
+
+Iquique, 283
+
+Iran plateau, 349
+
+Ireland, 265
+
+Irkutsk, 347
+
+Iron, 162, 236, 300, 323
+  galvanized, 182
+  ore, 163, 166, 300, 306, 311, 315, 323
+
+Iron Gate, 338
+
+Italy, 325
+
+
+Jade, 159
+
+Japan, 375
+
+Jarrah, 200, 394
+
+Java, 364
+
+Joint tariff associations, 72
+
+Jute, 122, 360
+
+
+Kabue, 356
+
+Kansas City, 236
+
+Kashmir, 363
+
+Kauri, 146, 396
+
+Kerosene, 154, 157
+
+Key West cigars, 137
+
+Khaibar Pass, 356
+
+Khiva, 347
+
+Kiakhta, 347
+
+Kiel, 309
+
+Kimberley, 389, 390
+
+Klondike mines, 254
+
+Kongo River, navigation of, 54
+
+Kongo State, 386
+
+Korea, 376
+
+Kristiania, 311, 312
+
+
+Lac, 145
+
+Lacquer, 378
+
+La Guaira, 286
+
+Lanolin, 114
+
+Lassa, 374
+
+Las Vegas, 250
+
+Laudanum, 139
+
+Lawrence, 220
+
+Lead, 180
+
+Lead pencils, 153
+
+Leadville, 250
+
+Leather goods, 221
+
+Liechtenstein, 337
+
+Lignum vitæ, 200
+
+Lithographic stone, 305
+
+Liverpool, 302
+
+Llama, 115
+
+Lobster fisheries, 207
+
+Locomotive, Central-Atlantic type, 64
+
+Logwood, 201
+
+London, 302
+
+Los Angeles, 157, 252
+
+Louisville, 237
+
+Lourenço Marquez, 390
+
+Lowell, 220
+
+Lynn, 221
+
+
+Macao, 374
+
+Mackerel, 206
+
+Mackintosh, 143
+
+Madagascar, 387
+
+Madras, 363
+
+Magnetite, 163
+
+Maguey sugar, 187
+
+Mahogany, 199
+
+Malay States, Federated, 363
+
+Manchester, Eng., 382
+
+Manchester, N.H., 220
+
+Manchuria, 376
+
+Mandalay, 362
+
+Manganese, 182
+
+Manila, 258
+  hemp, 121
+
+Manitoba, 265
+
+Maple, 199
+  sugar, 186
+
+Marco Polo, 9
+
+Martinique, 273
+
+Maté, 136
+
+Maverick, 240
+
+Melbourne, 395
+
+Memphis, 238
+
+Merino wool, 111, 112
+
+Metals, influence of, in cities, 85
+
+Mexico, 267
+  city of, 269
+
+Milan, 328
+
+Mileage books, 72
+
+Millet, 359
+
+Milwaukee, 230
+
+Mingo Junction, 224
+
+Mining, 248
+
+Minneapolis, 230, 236
+
+Miquelon, 266
+
+Mississippi River, 52
+  valley, 232
+
+Mobile, 240
+
+Mocha coffee, 130
+
+Mohair, 115
+
+Mohawk valley, 220
+
+Molasses, 191
+
+Moline, 237
+
+Mongolia, 376
+
+Mont Cenis tunnel, 66
+
+Montenegro, 341
+
+Montreal, 264
+
+Morocco, 384
+
+Mountains, contents of, 17
+
+Moscow, 347
+
+Mulberry, 116
+
+
+Nagasaki, 380
+
+Nankeen cotton, 108
+
+Naphtha, 154, 156
+
+Nashua, 220
+
+Natural gas, 157
+
+Naval stores, 145
+
+Nearchus, 107
+
+New Brunswick, 264
+
+New Caledonia, 397
+
+New England Plateau, 219
+
+New Guinea, 396
+
+New Haven, 221
+
+New Orleans, 238
+
+New York City, 84, 214, 215, 230, 238, 250
+
+New Zealand, 395
+
+New Zealand flax, 123, 396
+
+Newfoundland, 266
+
+Nicaragua, 270
+
+Nickel, 182
+
+Nieuwchwang, 374
+
+Nigeria, 387
+
+Nile River, barrage of, 383
+  floods of, 33
+  navigation of, 54
+
+Nitrate, 282
+
+Norfolk, 218
+
+Northern Securities Company, 227
+
+Norway, 310
+
+Nova Scotia, 264
+
+Novgorod, 209
+
+
+Oak, 198
+
+Oats, 101
+
+Ocean steamships, 45
+
+Odessa, 134, 347
+
+Ogden, 250
+
+Ohio River, 52
+
+Oil of theobroma, 135
+
+Old Government Java, 129
+
+Oleo-resins, 141
+
+Omaha, 236
+
+Ontario, 265
+
+Opium, 139, 360
+
+Oregon pine, 252
+
+Ottawa, 265
+
+Oyster fisheries, 207
+
+
+Pacific Coast lowlands, 250
+
+Paddy, 103
+
+Pago Pago Harbor, 258
+
+Panama, 277
+  hats, 133, 279
+
+Pará, 291
+
+Paraffine, 157
+
+Paraguay, 293
+  tea, 136
+
+Paris, 324
+
+Passes, 19
+
+Pearl Harbor, 256
+
+Peking, 374
+
+Penang, 363
+
+Pepper, 365
+
+Persia, 354
+
+Persian lamb, 208
+
+Peru, 278
+
+Peshawur, 356, 362
+
+Petroleum, 154, 225, 344, 379
+  jelly, 157
+
+Philadelphia, 216
+
+Philippine Islands, 256
+
+Pine, 197
+
+Piræus, The, 341
+
+Pitch, 145
+
+Pittsburg, 106, 224
+
+Plains, 21
+
+Plaiting straw, 124
+
+Plateaus, 21, 247
+
+Ponce, 255
+
+Pools, 68
+
+Population, distribution of, 81
+
+Pork, 234
+
+Port Arthur, 347
+
+Port Huron, 230
+
+Port Saïd, 384
+
+Port wine, 330
+
+Portland, Me., 217
+
+Portland, Ore., 252
+
+Porto Rico, 254
+
+Portugal, 328
+
+Pribilof Islands, 208, 254
+
+Prince Edward Island, 264
+
+Providence, 221
+
+Puget Sound, 228, 252
+
+Punjab, 362
+
+Pyrites, 164
+
+
+Quebec, 264
+  city of, 265
+
+Quicksilver, 180
+
+
+Rabbit skins, 209
+
+Railway, Canadian Pacific, 263
+  Chesapeake & Ohio, 71
+  Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, 68
+  New York Central, 65, 67
+  Northern Pacific, 227
+  Sind-Pishin, 356
+  Southern, 71
+  Tehuantepec, 269
+  Transportation, 62
+  Transsiberian, 345, 372
+  Union Pacific, 66
+
+Rainfall, effects of, 33
+  deficiency of, 33
+
+Ramie, 123
+
+Rangoon, 362
+
+Raw silk, 118
+
+Rebates, 71
+
+Redwood, 198, 252
+
+Resins, 141
+
+Rhodesia, 389
+
+Rice, 102, 359
+
+Richmond, 221
+
+Riga, 347
+
+Rio Janeiro, 290
+
+River navigation in Europe, 53
+  valleys, 21
+
+Roads, macadamized, 78
+
+Rock Island, 237
+
+Rome, 327
+
+Rotterdam, 318
+
+Roumania, 338
+
+Rubber, 141, 275, 278, 281, 288
+
+Rug wools, 114
+
+Rugs, oriental, 351, 355
+
+Ruhr iron fields, 306
+
+Russia, 343
+
+Rye, 101, 344
+
+
+Sacramento, 252
+
+Sahara, 385
+
+Saigon, 365
+
+Sailing vessels, 47
+
+St. Gotthard tunnel, 66
+
+St. Louis, 234
+
+St. Paul, 230, 236
+
+St. Petersburg, 346
+
+St. Pierre, 266
+
+St. Thomas, 273
+
+Salmon, 205
+
+Salonica, 340
+
+Samoa Islands, 396
+
+San Antonio, 239
+
+San Francisco, 252
+
+San Joaquin valley, 250
+
+San Juan, P.R., 255
+
+San Pedro, 252
+
+Sandarach, 146
+
+Santa Fé, 250
+
+Santiago, 283
+
+Santos, 290
+
+Saskatchewan, 265
+
+Savannah, 238
+
+Schooners, 44, 47
+
+Scranton, 224
+
+Seal fisheries, 208
+
+Seasonal rains, 34
+
+Seattle, 84, 252
+
+Servia, 341
+
+Shad, 256
+
+Shanghai, 374
+
+Sheep-growing, 242
+
+Shell-lac, 145
+
+Shoe manufacture, 221
+
+Siam, 364
+
+Siberia, 347
+
+Silk, 116, 323, 326, 368, 378
+
+Silver, 162, 176, 248, 268, 278, 304, 340
+
+Sind, 362
+
+Singapore, 363, 365
+
+Sioux City, 236
+
+Sisal hemp, 122, 267
+
+Skagway, 254
+
+Smyrna, 139, 353
+
+Sorghum, 187
+
+Sound Valley, 250
+
+South Bethlehem, 224
+
+South Chicago, 225
+
+Southampton, 302
+
+Spain, 328
+
+Spermaceti, 204
+
+Spokane, 250
+
+Sponge, 208
+
+Steel, Bessemer, 160, 169, 170, 222, 300, 304, 345
+
+Stephenson, 63
+
+Stockholm, 312
+
+Stockton, 252
+
+Sugar, 185, 289, 303, 314, 318, 364
+
+Swash channel, 50
+
+Sweden, 310
+
+Switzerland, 331
+
+Sydney, 395
+
+
+Tacoma, 252
+
+Tar, 145
+
+Tea, 131, 360, 368, 378
+
+Teak, 200, 365
+
+Temperate zone, activities of, 32
+
+Textiles, 105
+
+Three-mile fishing limit, 262
+
+Thrown silk, 118
+
+Tientsin, 134, 374
+
+Tin, 181, 364
+
+Tobacco, 136, 237, 240, 364, 383
+
+Tokio, 380
+
+Toledo, 225
+
+Topography and trade routes, 24
+
+Toronto, 265
+
+Torrid zone, temperature of, 30
+
+Tortilla, Mexican, 100
+
+Trade routes, ancient, 8
+
+Transcaucasia, 348
+
+Transvaal, 389
+
+Treaty ports, 373
+
+Trebizond, 351
+
+Triple-expansion principle, 45
+
+Tripoli, 386
+
+Tunis, 385
+
+Turf grass, 34
+
+Turkey-in-Europe, 339
+
+Turks invade Europe, 9
+
+Turpentine, 144
+
+Tussar silk, 119
+
+Tutuila, 258
+
+Tweed, 112
+
+
+Uruguay, 294
+
+
+Valparaiso, 283
+
+Vancouver, 266
+
+Vanderbilt locomotive fire-box, 64
+
+Vanilla, 268
+
+Vaseline, 157
+
+Venezuela, 285
+
+Vicksburg, 238
+
+Vienna, 337
+
+Virginia City, 250
+
+Vladivostok, 347
+
+Vuelta Abajo, 137
+
+Vulcanized rubber, 142
+
+
+Wai-wu-pu, 373
+
+Walla Walla, 250
+
+Warsaw, 347
+
+Water-power, 84
+
+Waterproof cloth, 143
+
+Welland Canal, 263
+
+Wellington, 396
+
+Whale fisheries, 203
+
+Wheat, 88, 96, 244, 344, 359, 367
+
+White Pass, 254
+
+Willamette Valley, 250
+
+Winnipeg, 265
+
+Wood-pulp, 124
+
+Wool, 110,115, 117, 244, 251, 292, 297, 323
+
+
+Yafa, 354
+
+Yokohama, 380
+
+Youngstown, 166
+
+Yucatan, 267
+
+
+Zinc, 182
+
+Zinfandel, 251
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] If the edition for free distribution is exhausted, these may be
+purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Public Printer,
+Washington, D.C.
+
+[2] The greatness of Palmyra was due to the trade along this route, and
+its decay began when the route was abandoned. The present town of Tadmor
+is near the ruins of the former city.
+
+[3] Cosmas Indicopleustes--in early life a merchant, in later years a
+monk--visited India and Ceylon during the first part of the sixth
+century. His writings contain much valuable knowledge, but in the main
+they are theological arguments intended to disprove the Geography
+written by Ptolemy.
+
+[4] The date is variously given as 1169, 1200, and 1241.
+
+[5] To Waldemar III. of Denmark it dictated terms that made its power in
+Scandinavia supreme.
+
+[6] For a complete list of books for reference, see p. xii.
+
+[7] The record time on this route was made by the Lucania in five days,
+seven hours, and twenty-three minutes, from Daunts Rock, Queenstown, to
+Sandy Hook light. The fastest day's run yet recorded was made by the
+Deutschland--601 nautical miles, a speed of 24.19 knots.
+
+[8] In Congress the River and Harbor Bill always receives a generous
+appropriation.
+
+[9] In many instances goods designed for the spring trade in the Western
+States are started via the canal in October, reaching their destination
+at Chicago some time in April, the cargo having been frozen up in one or
+another of the canal basins during the winter. The rate paid for this
+slow transit is considerably less than the amount which otherwise would
+have been paid for storage; moreover, it is nearly all clear profit to
+the canal boatmen.
+
+[10] The minimum depth of the canal is 22 feet; its width at the bottom
+is 160 feet. It was begun September, 1892, and completed January 2,
+1902, at a cost of thirty-four million dollars. More than forty million
+cubic yards of earth and rock were excavated. All the bridges crossing
+it are movable.
+
+[11] This is on the supposition that night travel will be too dangerous
+a risk. With a continuous travel the time would be about thirty-three
+hours.
+
+[12] On one great trunk system the average ton-mile rate in 1870 was one
+and one-seventh cents; in 1900 it was just one-half that sum.
+
+[13] The modern steam-making boiler has from thirty to one hundred or
+more tubes passing through it from end to end. The heat from the
+fire-box as a rule passes under the boiler and through the tubular
+flues; it thus increases the heating surface very greatly. The forced
+draught is made by allowing the exhaust steam to escape into the
+smokestack, thereby increasing the draught through the fire-box.
+
+[14] A single locomotive of the New York Central has hauled 4,000 tons
+of freight at a speed of twenty-five miles an hour. A "camel-back" of
+the Philadelphia & Reading hauled 4,800 tons of coal from the mines to
+tide-water without a helper.
+
+[15] The Vanderbilt boiler with cylindrical corrugated fire-box invented
+by Cornelius Vanderbilt, great-grandson of the founder of the New York
+Central, marks an important step in locomotive building. The cylindrical
+form largely obviates the necessity of an array of stay-bolts to prevent
+warping; the corrugated surface gives greater heating power.
+
+[16] The Central-Atlantic type of locomotive illustrates a modern
+improvement. The driving-wheels are placed a little forward of their
+usual position, while the fire-box, formerly set between the wheels, now
+overhangs each side of a pair of low trailing-wheels. By this means the
+heating surface of the fire-box is increased nearly one-half. A lever
+controlled by the engineer enables the latter to transfer 5,000 pounds
+weight from the trucks to the driving-wheels when a grade is to be
+surmounted. The daily run of such a locomotive is greatly increased.
+(_See cut, p. 61._)
+
+[17] A line from Vienna to Triest was opened about 1854; Germany was
+joined to Italy across Brenner Pass in 1868; France was connected with
+Italy through a tunnel near Mont Cenis in 1871; in 1882 the traffic of
+Germany was opened to Mediterranean ports by a tunnel under St.
+Gotthard. In this manner trunk systems have gradually developed.
+
+[18] The building of the West Shore Railroad is an illustration. After
+both roads had suffered tremendous losses the New York Central settled
+the matter by purchasing the West Shore. This was one of a great number
+of similar cases both in the United States and Europe.
+
+[19] In Great Britain the ton-rate is about $2.30 per hundred miles; in
+Germany, $1.75; in Russia, $1.30; in the United States, $0.70. The
+difference is due as much to the length of distance hauled as to
+economical management.
+
+[20] Thus, A, B, and C are roads whose chief terminal points are Chicago
+and New York City. The road C is the shortest of the three lines, but
+its grades are very heavy. B is, say, one hundred miles longer, but has
+no heavy grades. A is a very indirect route, and its New York traffic
+must be trans-shipped at Boston, or perhaps at New London, and sent a
+part of the way by water. If now an absolute ton-mile rate is fixed for
+either road, it is evident that neither of the others can carry through
+freight without altering rates. If C fixes a rate, then A and B must
+either charge higher rates between Chicago and Montreal, or Chicago and
+Albany, than between their terminals. And although this is illegal in
+most States, the laws are evaded by "rebate," or repayment of a certain
+sum to the shipper. Of the three roads B, on account of easy grades, is
+in the best position to fix rates. It therefore makes, not the lowest
+rate, but the one that will yield the best returns. C conforms to this,
+and A takes what it can get, hauling at a very small profit. But if A
+happens to be outside of the limits of the United States, it may openly
+cut rates, because pretty nearly all the through freight it gets is
+clear profit, and inasmuch as none of the laws of a State apply to the
+Canadian portion of the road, it may do what the others cannot. And
+while B is struggling with A, the three roads X, Y, and Z are perhaps
+endeavoring to have some of the freight sent from Buffalo eastward over
+their own lines. In instances similar to the foregoing it is customary
+for B and C to divide the through business and to allow a "differential"
+to A--that is, on account of its slower delivery of through freight, to
+carry it at a slightly lower rate. B then adjusts its traffic with X, Y,
+and Z in a similar manner; and on the whole this is the fairest way to
+all concerned.
+
+The following, one of many instances, shows the difficulties in fixing
+rates that will not be unjust to either party: Danville and Lynchburg
+compete for a certain trade. The Southern Railway passes through both
+cities, but the Chesapeake & Ohio makes Lynchburg by another route;
+Danville, therefore, is not a competing point, while Lynchburg is. As a
+result, the Southern Railway charged $1.08 for a certain traffic from
+Chicago to Danville and only 72 cents to Lynchburg, some distance
+beyond, this being the rate over the other road. The matter finally
+reached the Court of Appeals, and the latter sustained the Southern
+Railway. The rate to Danville was shown to be not excessive, but if the
+railway were required to maintain a rate to Lynchburg higher than 72
+cents, it would lose all its traffic to that point, amounting to
+$433,000 yearly. In a case of this kind there can be no help except by a
+consolidation of the two roads; by virtue of the consolidation all the
+Lynchburg freight will then go over the line having the easiest haul.
+
+[21] That is, the Government pledged its credit for the money borrowed,
+and in addition gave the companies alternate sections of public land on
+both sides of the proposed line, the land-grants being designed partly
+to encourage immigration and partly to increase the building funds of
+the various companies. In several instances both the land-grants and the
+money subsidies were scandalously used. At least one road used its
+earnings to build a competing line and, after disposing of the
+land-grant and pocketing the proceeds, allowed the Government to
+foreclose the mortgage and sell the original road.
+
+[22] From the Latin "castra," a camp.
+
+[23] In 1897 the world's crop was 2,226,750,000 bushels, and as a
+result, the countries in which the crop was short suffered from high
+prices. Had it not been for the prompt carrying service of railways and
+steamships famine would have resulted.
+
+[24] In order to yield a crop of twenty-five bushels per acre the soil
+must supply 110 lbs. of nitrogen, 45 lbs. of phosphoric acid, 30.5 lbs.
+of lime, 14.5 lbs. of magnesia, and 142 lbs. of potash; these are
+approximately the mineral elements taken out of the soil with each crop,
+and it is needless to say that they must be replaced or the grain will
+starve for want of nutrient substances.
+
+[25] In the United States there are about seven wheat-districts, each
+characterized by particular varieties that grow best in the given
+locality. In the New England and most of the middle Atlantic division
+Early Genesee Giant, Jones Winter Fife, and Fultz are chiefly grown. In
+the Southern States Fultz, Fulcaster, Purple Straw, and May are
+foremost. In the north central group of States Early Red Clawson, Poole,
+Dawson's Golden Chaff, Buda Pest, and Fultz are common. In the Dakotas
+and Minnesota Scotch Fife and Velvet Blue Stem (both spring wheats) are
+generally planted. In Kansas and Texas and the adjacent locality the
+principal varieties are Turkey, Fulcaster, and Mediterranean (all winter
+wheats). In California and the southern plateau region Sonora,
+California Club, and Defiance are the principal kinds (all winter
+wheats). In Washington and Oregon Little Club, Red Chaff, and Blue Stem
+(which are either winter or spring) are the main varieties.
+
+[26] Sometimes the owner sends it to the nearest elevator at tide-water
+where the grain is stored, not in bulk, but in the original packages,
+subject to his demand. In the course of a month or six weeks it absorbs
+so much moisture that the gain in weight more than pays the storage
+charges.
+
+[27] The elevators are equipped with "legs" or long spouts, within which
+belts with metal scoops transfer the grain from car to vessel or _vice
+versa_. The elevators at Buffalo will fill a canal-boat in an hour's
+time, or load six grain-cars in five minutes. A large whaleback
+steamship may be relieved of its 200,000 bushels in about three hours.
+Most of the east-bound wheat of the Middle West is transferred to the
+seaboard by rail, but that of the northwest, which forms the chief part
+of the crop, is shipped from Duluth through the St. Marys Falls Canal to
+Buffalo, where it is transferred to cars or to canal-boats. New York is
+the leading export market, but Boston, New Orleans, Galveston,
+Baltimore, and Philadelphia are also important shipping ports.
+
+[28] The following is approximately the yield of the chief wheat-growing
+countries in bushels per acre:
+
+  Denmark                42
+  England                29
+  New Zealand            26
+  Germany                23.2
+  Holland & Belgium      21.5
+  Hungary                18.5
+  France                 19.5
+  Austria                16.3
+  Canada                 15.5
+  United States          12.3
+  Argentina              12.2
+  Italy                  12.1
+  Australia              10
+  India                   9.2
+  Russia                  8.6
+  Algeria                 7.5
+
+The low average in Australia, India, and Algeria is due mainly to lack
+of rainfall; in the United States and Russia, mainly to unskilful
+cultivation.
+
+[29] It seems to have been introduced into Turkey from India about the
+latter part of the fifteenth century, after which it was occasionally
+heard of in Europe as "Turkey corn."
+
+[30] The "tortilla," the national bread of the Mexican, consists of a
+thick corn-meal paste pressed into thin wafers between the hands, and
+baked on hot slabs of stone. The corn-meal "mush" of the American, the
+"polenta" of the Italian, and the "mamaliga" of the Rumanian are all
+practically corn-meal boiled to a thick paste in water.
+
+[31] The gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, enabled one man to do by
+machinery about the same amount of work as previously had required one
+hundred laborers. For want of the laws necessary to protect his
+invention, Whitney was defrauded of the profits arising from it. Neither
+Congress nor the courts gave him any relief from the numerous
+infringements, and he died a poor man.
+
+[32] The commercial distinction is a sensible one: hair is hard, crisp,
+straight, and does not felt; wool is soft, curly, and felts readily.
+
+[33] An ounce of eggs produces about forty thousand worms, and these,
+during the grub stage, require about fifteen hundred pounds of leaves,
+about one-half of which is actually consumed.
+
+[34] Charles II. of England also forbade its use (1675) and attempted to
+close the coffee-houses that had sprung up in London, but in spite of
+the ban and the prohibitive tax laid upon it, the use of coffee became
+general. Similar efforts to close the coffee-houses in Constantinople
+failed.
+
+[35] The full-grown leaf attains a length of from four to nine inches;
+those picked rarely exceed one-and-a-half inches in length.
+
+[36] Brick tea consists of leaves moulded into bricks under heavy
+pressure. Refuse and stems are also thus prepared for the cheaper
+grades.
+
+[37] The following are the chief rubber-producing trees: _Siphonia
+elastica_, or _Hevea brasiliensis_, Amazon forests, yields Pará rubber;
+_Manihot Glaziovii_, also a tapioca-producing shrub, Ceará province,
+Brazil, furnishes Ceará rubber; _Castilloa elastica_, Central American
+States, Nicaragua rubber; _Ficus elastica_, British India, and _Urceola
+elastica_, Borneo, Indian rubber. There are rubber-producing trees in
+Florida, but they have little commercial value at the present time.
+African rubber is taken from a variety of plants.
+
+[38] The process of vulcanizing was made practicable during the ten
+years ending in 1850. It was invented and perfected by Goodyear in the
+United States and by Hancock in England; for ordinary purposes, where
+both strength and elasticity are required, about five per cent. of
+sulphur is added. The addition of about fifty per cent. changes the
+rubber to a hard black substance known as "ebonite," or "hard rubber."
+
+[39] In 1823 a Scotchman, Mackintosh, applied the discovery, that rubber
+gum was soluble in benzine, to the water-proofing of the cloth that
+bears his name. This invention was about the first extensive commercial
+use to which rubber had been put.
+
+[40] From the fact that most of the dwellings in the United States are
+built of wood, the United States is a very heavy consumer of turpentine.
+
+[41] A slender strip of metallic lead was used instead of graphite in
+the first pencils made. The use of graphite did not become general until
+about 1850. The hardness of a pencil is regulated by mixing clay with
+the powdered graphite.
+
+[42] These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.
+
+[43] These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.
+
+[44] These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.
+
+[45] These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.
+
+[46] The limestone has no essential part in the smelting of the ore
+except to produce an easily-flowing, liquid slag; hence it is called a
+_flux_. Some ores smelt and flow so easily that a flux is not required.
+
+[47] Under ordinary circumstances about two tons of coal, or
+three-quarters of a ton of coke, are required to produce a ton of
+pig-iron.
+
+[48] Terne plate is sheet-iron coated with an alloy of lead and tin.
+
+[49] Heredity is likewise a factor. The seeds of knotty, scraggly trees
+are very apt to produce trees of their own kind and _vice versa_.
+
+[50] This sum represents more than ten times the amount of gold coin now
+in existence. Less than five per cent. of the business of the great
+industrial centres is a cash business. Even if the money existed, the
+transfer of such immense sums would greatly retard commerce. In order to
+effect a speedy settlement of payments, clearing-houses are established.
+At the clearing-house the representatives of the various banks meet
+daily and liquidate the checks drawn against one another; and although
+the total yearly volume of payment aggregates the sum mentioned above,
+the _balances_ for a year are but little more than two billion dollars.
+Even this does not always represent cash payment, for a bank that is a
+debtor to another at the close of one day may be a creditor for an equal
+sum on the next.
+
+[51] These roads are financed by the Northern Securities Company and
+form a link in the Hill-Morgan lines. Their intercontinental traffic is
+large.
+
+[52] Their dividing line is the centre of a street.
+
+[53] The brand consisted of any specific device, such as an initial, a
+monogram, or a conventional form that might be easily recognized. The
+device was registered and imprinted with a red-hot iron on the flank of
+the animal. Ear-marks, such as notches or similar devices, also
+indicated ownership.
+
+[54] In many cases Government land, not owned by the rancher, has been
+fenced in. No objection was made, however, until the sheep-grazier came.
+He demanded the removal of the fences, claiming that he had an equal
+right to graze his herds on public lands. But inasmuch as a range once
+grazed by sheep is ruined for cattle-growing, the quarrel between the
+grazier and the rustler has become one in which both the grazier and the
+rustler turned upon the sheep-owner.
+
+[55] It is one-third of their capital stock plus the bonded
+indebtedness.
+
+[56] The high latitude of the wheat-region, which in most cases is too
+cold for the growing of food-stuffs, in this region is tempered by
+occasional warm winds known as "Chinook winds." These winds are the
+saving feature of wheat-growing. They prevail also in British Columbia,
+Washington, and Oregon.
+
+[57] Freight rates from Coatzacoalcos to San Francisco are already fixed
+at $6.50 per ton; by the transcontinental railways they vary from $12 to
+$15 per ton.
+
+[58] The entire Cuban crop is comparatively small, being but little more
+than one-eighth that of the United States.
+
+[59] Vegetable ivory is the seed or nut of a species of palm
+(_Phytelephas macrocarpa_). The kernel of the nut gradually acquires the
+hardness and appearance of the best ivory, for which it is employed as a
+substitute.
+
+[60] The leaves of this shrub (_Erythroxylon coca_) contain a stimulant
+substance that in its effects is much like the active principle of
+coffee. They are much used by the native laborers to ward off the
+feeling of lassitude that comes with severe labor in a tropical climate.
+A native porter will carry a load of one hundred pounds a distance of
+sixty miles with no food or rest, but merely chewing a few coca-leaves.
+The plant yields the substance _cocaine_, now in demand all over the
+world as an anæsthetic in eye and throat surgery.
+
+[61] More than a score of species of the tree from which this bark is
+obtained grow in the higher eastern slopes of the Andes, but a very
+large part is obtained from the tree, _Cinchona calisaya_. The medicinal
+substance, quinine, is extracted from the bark, and in the past
+half-century it has become the specific for malarial fevers. So great is
+the demand for it, that the cinchona-tree is now cultivated in India,
+Java, and Mexico.
+
+[62] Only a very small proportion of the Panama hats in the market are
+genuine. Many of the imitations, selling at retail for ten dollars or
+more, are serviceable hats; most of them, however, have but little
+worth.
+
+[63] Nitre, or "nitrate," is a native nitrate of potash, or nitrate of
+soda. The latter, commonly called cubic nitre or Chile saltpetre, is the
+kind occurring in Chile. Inasmuch as it is very soluble, a plentiful
+rainfall would soon leach it from the ground and carry it to the sea.
+The nitrate is thought to be of vegetable origin.
+
+[64] The pod of a shrub (_Cæsalpina coriaria_); it contains a
+considerable proportion of tannin and is used for tanning leather.
+
+[65] The pericarp or pod contains about twenty-four prismatic-shaped
+nuts.
+
+[66] The cattle for Cuba and Brazil must be shipped in open pens in
+crossing the tropics. With the exports for Europe the case is different.
+If it is summer at the one port it is winter at the other, but it is
+always summer in the tropics, and cattle-ships fit for one zone are not
+fit for the other--hence the great difficulties in shipment of live
+animals to Europe.
+
+[67] For this reason Great Britain is practically a free-trade country.
+A protective tariff on imported food-stuffs and materials to be
+manufactured would hurt rather than protect British industries.
+
+[68] This is equivalent to the imposition of a tax on all the sugar
+consumed at home.
+
+[69] Most of the lithographic stone is obtained at Solnhofen.
+
+[70] This is a little greater than the average ton-mile rate on the New
+York Central Railroad between New York and Chicago.
+
+[71] The name Zuider, or Zuyder, means "south"; it was so named to
+distinguish it from the North Sea.
+
+[72] Some years ago many of the most valuable vineyards were destroyed
+by an insect pest known as the _phylloxera_, introduced from California.
+The trouble was overcome by replanting with American vines, the roots of
+which were immune to the pest. On these roots were grafted the choice
+French vines, the leaves and twigs of which were immune. In this manner
+the vineyards were restored with vines that are proof against attack,
+and the wine output has reached its normal amount.
+
+[73] It is cultivated as an ornamental tree in the Southern States and
+in California.
+
+[74] A small vein of coal occurs near Freiburg.
+
+[75] The St. Gotthard tunnel is almost nine and one-half miles long; the
+Arlberg tunnel is six and one-half miles in length. The tunnel now
+nearing completion under the Simplon Pass is more than twelve miles
+long. Five railways cross the northern frontier into Germany, and German
+commerce profits most by them.
+
+[76] Persian rugs are the finest. As a rule the designs are floral and
+many of them contain legendary history worked in fantastic but beautiful
+patterns. Among those of especial merit are the Kermanshah tree-of-life
+fabrics, now somewhat rare. The rugs of Tabriz and Shiraz are also of
+high value. In general, Persian fabrics are characterized by very fine
+weaving, a short pile, and elaborate designs. Turkoman rugs are usually
+a rich brown or maroon in color, and are apt to contain slightly
+elongated octagonal figures. The Bokhara and Khiva-Bokhara, or Afghan
+rugs, are the best examples. The Baluchistan rugs are usually very dark
+in color, with bright red designs and striped ends of cotton warp.
+Turkish rugs are made almost wholly in Asia Minor or Anatolia. Large
+carpets of American and European designs are made at Ushak and Smyrna.
+"Smyrna" rugs are made in Philadelphia.
+
+[77] The most valuable Kermanshah rug, now no longer made there, is the
+tree-of-life prayer-rug, an illustration of which is shown on p. 350.
+The design is emblematic of the story of the Garden of Eden.
+
+[78] In 1900 the aggregate value of the wheat exported to Great Britain
+was only £2,200.
+
+[79] Since the treaty of 1901, which forbids the importation of
+fire-arms, a number of large plants for the manufacture of fire-arms,
+smokeless powder, and fixed ammunition have been established on the
+lower Yangtze.
+
+[80] The islands are mainly in the belt of prevailing westerly winds.
+More rain, therefore, falls on the west than on the east coasts.
+
+[81] This region is also known us the Gold Coast. Formerly it furnished
+the chief British supply of gold, and the gold coin known as the
+"guinea" received its name from this circumstance.
+
+[82] This region was formerly comprised in the Boer republics, Orange
+Free State and South African Republic. In 1899 they declared war against
+Great Britain, with the result that they were defeated and annexed to
+that country--the former as Orange Colony, the latter as Transvaal
+Colony.
+
+[83] It is estimated that twenty-two acres of land are necessary to
+sustain one adult on fresh meat. The same area of wheat would feed
+forty-two people; of oats about eighty-five people; of maize, potatoes,
+and rice, one hundred and seventy people. But twenty-two acres planted
+with bread-fruit or bananas will support about six thousand.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 24884-8.txt or 24884-8.zip *******
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Commercial Geography, by Jacques W. Redway</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Commercial Geography</p>
+<p>       A Book for High Schools, Commercial Courses, and Business Colleges</p>
+<p>Author: Jacques W. Redway</p>
+<p>Release Date: March 20, 2008  [eBook #24884]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson, Greg Bergquist,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2>COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY</h2>
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<h1 class="t1">COMMERCIAL<br />
+GEOGRAPHY</h1>
+
+
+<p class="subtitle">A Book for High Schools<br />
+Commercial Courses, and<br />
+Business Colleges</p>
+
+
+<p class="a1">BY</p>
+<p class="author">JACQUES W. REDWAY, F.R.G.S.</p>
+
+<p class="a2">Author of "A Series of Geographies," "An Elementary<br />
+Physical Geography," "The New Basis of Geography"</p>
+
+
+<p class="publish">CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS<br />
+NEW YORK :::::::::::::::::: 1907</p></div>
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+
+
+<p class="copy">Copyright, 1903, by</p>
+<p class="center">JACQUES W. REDWAY</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+<h2 class="chapterhead">PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> quiet industrial struggle through which the United States passed
+during the last decade of the nineteenth century cannot fail to impress
+the student of political economy with the fact that commercial
+revolution is a normal result of industrial evolution. Within a period
+of twenty-five years the transportation of commodities has grown to be
+not only a science, but a power in the betterment of civil and political
+life as well; and the world, which in the time of M. Jules Verne was
+eighty days wide, is now scarcely forty.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of the Bessemer process for making steel was intended
+primarily to give the railway-operator a track that should be free from
+the defects of the soft, wrought-iron rail; in fact, however, it created
+new industrial centres all over the world and brought Asia and Africa
+under commercial conquest. The possibilities of increased trade between
+the Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific Coast States led to the building
+of the Northern Pacific and Great Northern Railways. But when these were
+thoroughly organized, there unexpectedly resulted a new trade-route that
+already is drawing traffic away from the Suez Canal and landing it at
+Asian shores by way of the ports of Puget Sound. It is a repetition of
+the adjustment that occurred when the opening of the Cape route to India
+transferred the trade that had gathered about Venice and Genoa to the
+shores of the North and Baltic Seas.</p>
+
+<p>In other words, a new order of things has come about, and the world and
+the people therein are readjusting themselves to the requirements made
+upon them by commerce. And so at the beginning of a new century,
+civilized man is drawing upon all the rest of the world to satisfy his
+wants, and giving to all the world in return; he is civilized because of
+this interchange and not in spite of it.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity for instruction in a subject that pertains so closely to
+the welfare of a people is apparent, and an apology for presenting this
+manual is needless. Moreover, it should not interfere in any way with
+the regular course in geography; indeed, more comprehensive work in the
+latter is becoming imperative, and it should be enriched rather than
+curtailed.</p>
+
+<p>In the preparation of the work, I wish to express my appreciation of the
+great assistance of Principal Myron T. Pritchard, Edward Everett School,
+Boston, Mass. I am also much indebted to the map-engraving department of
+Messrs. The Matthews-Northrup Company, Buffalo, N.Y.</p>
+
+<p class="right">J.W.R.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 70%;" />
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CONTENTS</h2>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS">
+
+<tr><td align='center'>CHAPTER</td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">General Principles</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How Commerce Civilized Mankind</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Topographic Control of Commerce </span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Climatic Control of Commerce</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Transportation&mdash;Ocean and Inland Navigation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Transportation&mdash;Railways and Railway Organization; Public Highways</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Factors in the Location of Cities and Towns</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Cereals and Grasses</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Textile Fibres</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>X.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Plant Products of Economic Use&mdash;Beverages and Medicinal Substances</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Gums and Resins Used in the Arts</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Coal and Petroleum</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Metals of the Arts and Sciences</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XIV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Sugar and its Commerce</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Forests and Forest Products</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XVI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Sea Products and Furs</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XVII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The United States&mdash;The Seaports and the Atlantic Coast-Plain</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XVIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The United States&mdash;The New England Plateau and the Appalachian Region</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XIX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The United States&mdash;The Basin of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The United States&mdash;The Western Highlands and Territorial Possessions</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Canada and Newfoundland</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Mexico&mdash;Central America&mdash;West Indies</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">South America&mdash;The Andean States</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">South America&mdash;The Lowland States</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Europe&mdash;Great Britain and Germany</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXVI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Europe&mdash;The Baltic and North Sea States</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXVII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Europe&mdash;The Mediterranean States and Switzerland</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXVIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Europe&mdash;The Danube and Balkan States</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Europe-Asia&mdash;The Russian Empire</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Iran Plateau and Arabia</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXXI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">British India and the East Indies</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXXII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">China and Japan</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXXIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Africa</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_381">381</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>XXXIV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Oceania</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_391">391</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'>APPENDIX</td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_398">398</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'>INDEX</td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_399">399</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<hr style="width: 70%;" />
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead">COLORED MAPS</h2>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="COLORED MAPS">
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Principal Transportation Lines and Regions of Largest Commerce</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_x">x, xi</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Mean Annual Rainfall</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">City of New York and Vicinity, with Harbor Approaches</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Distribution of Vegetation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">North America</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Puget Sound</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Mexico</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">South America</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">British Isles</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Germany and Scandinavian Countries</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Holland and Belgium</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">France</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Italy</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Spain and Portugal</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Turkey and Greece</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Russian Empire</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Iran Plateau and Arabia</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Eastern China</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Japan and Korea</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_375">375</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Africa</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_382">382</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Commerce of the Pacific</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x, xi]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/image5.jpg">
+<img src="images/image5_th.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="PRINCIPAL TRANSPORTATION LINES AND REGIONS OF LARGEST COMMERCE" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">PRINCIPAL TRANSPORTATION LINES AND REGIONS OF LARGEST COMMERCE</span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">To the Teacher:</span>&mdash;The contents of this book are so topicalized and
+arranged that, if the time for the study is limited, a short course may
+be selected. Under no circumstances, however, should Chapters <a href="#Page_39">V</a>, <a href="#Page_62">VI</a>,
+<a href="#Page_88">VIII</a>, <a href="#Page_105">IX</a>, <a href="#Page_147">XII</a>, and <a href="#Page_159">XIII</a> be omitted. A casual inspection of the questions
+at the end of each chapter will serve to show that they cannot be
+answered from the pages of the book, and they have been selected with
+this idea in view. They are intended first of all to stimulate
+individual thought, and secondly to encourage the pupil to investigate
+the topics by consulting original sources. The practice of corresponding
+with pupils in other parts of the world cannot be too highly commended.</p>
+
+<p>The following list represents a minimum rather than a maximum reference
+library. It may be enlarged at the judgment of the teacher. A good atlas
+and a cyclop&aelig;dia are also necessary.</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<p>Industrial Evolution of the United States. Wright. Charles Scribner's
+Sons.</p>
+
+<p>History of Commerce in Europe. <span class="smcap">Gibbins.</span> The Macmillan Company.</p>
+
+<p>Discovery of America. <span class="smcap">Fiske.</span> Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>The New Empire. <span class="smcap">Adams.</span> The Macmillan Company.</p>
+
+<p>Statesman's Year-Book. <span class="smcap">Keltie.</span> The Macmillan Company.</p>
+
+<p>Outlines of Political Science. <span class="smcap">Gunton and Robbins.</span> D. Appleton &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>The Wheat Problem. <span class="smcap">Crookes.</span> G.P. Putnam's Sons.</p>
+
+<p>South America. <span class="smcap">Carpenter.</span> American Book Company.</p>
+
+<p>From the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce, Washington,
+D.C., the following monographs may be procured:<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Commercial China. American Commerce. Commercial Australia.
+Commercial Japan. Commercial Africa. Commercial India.
+Statistical Abstract. Great Canals of the World. World's Sugar
+Production and Consumption.</p>
+
+<p>The following from the Department of Agriculture is necessary:</p>
+
+<p>Check List of Forest Trees of the United States.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lantern slides illustrating the subjects treated in this book may be
+procured from T.H. McAllister, 49 Nassau Street, New York. Stereoscopic
+views may be obtained from Underwood &amp; Underwood, Fifth Avenue and
+Nineteenth Street, New York.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h1>COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY</h1>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>GENERAL PRINCIPLES</h3>
+
+
+<p class="opening"><span class="smcap">Commerce</span> and modern civilization go hand in hand, and the history of the
+one is the history of the other; and whatever may be the basis of
+civilization, commerce has been the chief agent by which it has been
+spread throughout the world. Peoples who receive nothing from their
+fellow-men, and who give nothing in return, are usually but little above
+a savage state. Civilized man draws upon all the rest of the world for
+what he requires, and gives to the rest of the world in return. He is
+civilized because of this fact and not in spite of it.</p>
+
+<p>There is scarcely a country in the world that does not yield something
+or other to civilized peoples. There is scarcely a household whose
+furnishings and contents do not represent an aggregate journey of
+several times around the earth. A family in New York at breakfast occupy
+chairs from Grand Rapids, Mich.; they partake of bread made of wheat
+from Minnesota, and meat from Texas prepared in a range made in St.
+Louis; coffee grown in Sumatra or Java, or tea from China is served in
+cups made in Japan, sweetened with sugar from Cuba, stirred with spoons
+of silver from Nevada. Spices from Africa, South America, and Asia
+season the food, which is served on a table of New Hampshire oak,
+covered with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> a linen spread made from flax grown in Ireland or in
+Russia. Rugs from Bokhara, or from Baluchistan, cover the floors;
+porti&egrave;res made in Constantinople hang at the doors; and the room is
+heated with coal from Pennsylvania that burns in a furnace made in Rhode
+Island.</p>
+
+<p>Now all these things may be, and usually are, found in the great
+majority of families in the United States or Europe, and most of them
+will be found in nearly all households. Certain it is that peoples do
+exist who, from the immediate vicinity in which they live, procure all
+the things they use or consume. In the main, however, such peoples are
+savages.</p>
+
+<p>A moment's thought will make it clear that before an ordinary meal can
+be served there must be railways, steamships, great manufacturing
+establishments, iron quarries, and coal mines, aggregating many thousand
+millions of dollars, and employing many million people. A casual
+inspection, too, reveals the fact that all of the substances and things
+required by mankind come from the earth, and, a very few excepted, every
+one requires a certain amount of manufacture or preliminary treatment
+before it is usable. The grains and nearly all the other food-stuffs
+require various processes of preparation before they are ready for
+consumption by civilized peoples. Iron and the various other ores used
+in the arts must undergo elaborate processes of manufacture; coal must
+be mined, broken, cleaned, and transported; the soil in which
+food-stuffs are grown must be fertilized and mechanically prepared; and
+even the water required for domestic purposes in many instances must be
+transported long distances.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image10.jpg" width="600" height="365" alt="AGRICULTURE AND MANUFACTURE SUPPLEMENT EACH OTHER" title="" />
+<span class="caption">AGRICULTURE AND MANUFACTURE SUPPLEMENT EACH OTHER</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p><p>A little thought will suffice to show that not only are all food-stuffs
+derived from the earth, but that also every usable resource which
+constitutes wealth is also drawn from the same source. The same is also
+pretty nearly true of the various forms of energy, for although the sun
+is the real source of light and heat, and probably of electricity, these
+agents are usable only when they have been transformed into earth
+energies. Thus, the physical energy generated by falling water is merely
+a transformed portion of solar heat; so also the coal-beds contain both
+the chemical and physical energy of solar heat and light converted into
+potential energy&mdash;that is, into force that can be used at the will of
+intelligence. Indeed, the physical being of mankind is an organism born
+of the earth, and adapted to the earth; and when that physical form
+dies, it merely is transformed again to ordinary earth substances.</p>
+
+<p>The chief activities of living beings are those relating to the
+maintenance of life. In other words, animals must feed, and they must
+also protect themselves against extermination. In the case of all other
+animals this is a very simple matter, they simply live in immediate
+contact with their food, migrating or perishing if the supply gives out.
+In the case of mankind the conditions are different and vastly more
+elaborate. Savage peoples excepted, man does not live within close touch
+of the things he requires; indeed, he cannot, for he depends upon all
+the world for what he uses. In a less enlightened state many of these
+commodities were luxuries; in a civilized state they have become
+necessities. Moreover, nearly everything civilized man employs has been
+prepared by processes in which heat is employed.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore one may specify several classes of human activities and
+employments:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) The production of food-stuffs and other commodities by the
+cultivation of the soil&mdash;<i>Agriculture</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The preparation of food-stuffs and things used for shelter,
+protection, or ornament&mdash;<i>Manufacture</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>(<i>c</i>) The production of minerals for the generation of power, such
+as coal, or those such as iron, copper, stone, etc., required in
+the arts and sciences&mdash;<i>Mining</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) The exchange of food stuffs and commodities&mdash;<i>Commerce</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) The transfer of commodities&mdash;<i>Transportation</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is evident that the prosperity and happiness of a people depend very
+largely on the condition of their surroundings&mdash;that is, their
+environment. If a country or an inhabited area produces all the
+food-stuffs and commodities required by its people, the conditions are
+very fortunate. A very few nations, notably China and the United States,
+have such diverse conditions of climate, topography, and mineral
+resources, that they can, if necessary, produce within their national
+borders everything needed by their peoples.</p>
+
+<p>The prosecution of such a policy, however, is rarely economical; in the
+history of the past it has always resulted in weakness and
+disintegration. China is to-day helpless because of a policy of
+self-seclusion; and the marvellous growth of Japan began when her trade
+was thrown open to the world.</p>
+
+<p>For the greater part the environment of a people is deficient&mdash;that is,
+the locality of a people does not yield all that is required for the
+necessities of life. For instance, the New England plateau requires an
+enormous amount of fuel for its manufacturing enterprises; but
+practically no coal is found within its borders; hence the manufacturers
+must either command the coal to be shipped from other regions or give up
+their employment. The people of Canada require a certain amount of
+cotton cloth; but the cotton plant will not grow in a cold climate, so
+they must either exchange some of their own commodities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> for cotton, or
+else go without it. The inhabitants of Great Britain produce only a
+small part of the food-stuffs they consume; therefore they are
+constantly exchanging their manufactured products for the food-stuffs
+that of necessity must be produced in other parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The dwellers of the New England plateau might grow the bread-stuffs they
+require, and in times past they did so. At that time, however, a barrel
+of flour was worth twelve dollars. But the wheat of the prairie regions
+can be grown, manufactured into flour, transported a thousand miles, and
+sold at a profit for less than five dollars a barrel. Therefore it is
+evidently more economical to buy flour in Minnesota than to grow the
+wheat and make it into flour in Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<p>All these problems, and they exist without number, show that man may
+overcome most of the obstacles that surround him. So we find civilized
+man living in almost every part of the world. Tropical regions are not
+too scorching, nor are arctic fastnesses too cold for him. In other
+words, because of commerce and transportation, he can and usually does
+master the conditions of his environment; his intelligence enables him
+to do so, and his ability to do so is the result of the intelligent use
+of experience and education.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>HOW COMMERCE CIVILIZED MANKIND</h3>
+
+
+<p class="opening"><span class="smcap">The</span> history of western civilization is so closely connected with the
+development of the great routes of travel and the growth of commerce
+that one cannot possibly separate them. Commerce cannot exist without
+the intercourse of peoples, and peoples cannot be in mutual
+communication unless each learns from the other.</p>
+
+<p><b>Feudalism.</b>&mdash;When the Roman Empire fell civilization in western Europe
+was not on a high plane; indeed, the feudalism that followed was not
+much above barbarism. The people were living in a manner that was not
+very much unlike the communal system under which the serfs of Russia
+lived only a few years ago. Each centre of population was a sort of
+military camp governed by a feudal lord. The followers and retainers
+were scarcely better off than slaves; indeed, many of them were slaves.
+There was no ownership of the land except by the feudal lords, and the
+latter were responsible for their acts to the king only.</p>
+
+<p>But very few people cared to be absolutely free, because they had but
+little chance to protect themselves; so it was the common custom to
+attach one's self to a feudal lord in order to have his protection; even
+a sort of peonage or slavery under him was better than no protection at
+all. A few of the people were engaged in trade and manufacture of some
+kind or other, and they were the only ones through whom the feudal lord
+could supply himself with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> the commodities needed for his retainers and
+the luxuries necessary to himself.</p>
+
+<p>Each feudal estate, therefore, became a sort of industrial centre by
+itself, producing its own food-stuffs and much of the coarser
+manufactures. It was not a very high condition of enlightenment, but it
+was much better than the one which preceded it, for at least it offered
+protection. It encouraged a certain amount of trade and commerce,
+because the feudal lord had many wants, and he was usually willing to
+protect the merchant who supplied them.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Crusades and Commerce.</b>&mdash;The Crusades, or wars by which the
+Christians sought to recover the Holy Land from the Turk, resulted in a
+trade between Europe and India that grew to wonderful proportions. Silk
+fabrics, cotton cloth, precious stones, ostrich plumes, ivory, spices,
+and drugs&mdash;all of which were practically unknown in Europe&mdash;were eagerly
+sought by the nobility and their dependencies. In return, linen and
+woollen fabrics, leather goods, glassware, blacklead, and steel
+implements were carried to the far East.</p>
+
+<p>Milan, Florence, Venice and Genoa, Constantinople and a number of less
+important towns along the Mediterranean basin became important trade
+centres, but Venice and Genoa grew to be world powers in commerce. Not
+only were they great receiving and distributing depots of trade, but
+they were great manufacturing centres as well.</p>
+
+<p>The routes over which this enormous commerce was carried were few in
+number. For the greater part, the Venetian trade went to Alexandria, and
+thence by the Red Sea to India. Genoese merchants sent their goods to
+Constantinople and Trebizond, thence down the Tigris River to the
+Persian Gulf and to India. There was also another route that had been
+used by the Ph&#339;nicians. It extended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> from Tyre through Damascus and
+Palmyra<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> to the head of the Persian Gulf; this gradually fell into
+disuse after the founding of Alexandria.</p>
+
+<p>The general effects of this trade were very far-reaching. To the greater
+number of the people of Europe, the countries of India, China, and Japan
+were mythical. According to tradition they were infested with dragons
+and gryphons, and peopled by dog-headed folk or by one-eyed Arimaspians.
+About the first real information of them to be spread over Europe was
+brought by Marco Polo, whose father and uncle had travelled all through
+these countries during the latter part of the thirteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+Marco Polo's writings were very widely read, and influenced a great many
+people who could not be reached through the ordinary channels of
+commerce. So between the wars of the Crusades on the one hand, and the
+growth of commerce on the other, a new and a better civilization began
+to spread over Europe.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Turkish Invasions.</b>&mdash;But the magnificent trade that had thus grown up
+was checked for a time by an unforeseen factor. The half-savage
+Turkomans living southeast of Russia had become converted to the
+religion of Islam, and in their zeal for the new belief, determined to
+destroy the commerce which seemed to be connected with Christianity. So
+they moved in upon the borderland between Europe and Asia, and one after
+another the trade routes were tightly closed. Then they captured
+Constantinople, and the routes between Genoa and the Orient were
+hermetically sealed. Moslem power also spread over Syria and Egypt, and
+so, little by little, the trade of Venice was throttled.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p><div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image14.jpg" width="400" height="340" alt="ROUTES TO INDIA&mdash;THE TURK CHANGES THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ROUTES TO INDIA&mdash;THE TURK CHANGES THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now a commerce that involved not only many millions of dollars, but the
+employment of thousands of people as well, is not likely to be given up
+without a struggle. So the energy that had been devoted to this great
+trade was turned in a new direction, and there began a search for a new
+route to India&mdash;one that the Turks could not blockade.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Search for an All-Water Route to India.</b>&mdash;Overland routes were out of
+the question; there were none that could be made available, and so the
+search was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> made for a sea-route. Rather singularly the Venetians and
+Genoese, who had hitherto controlled this trade, took no part in the
+search; it was conducted by the Spanish and the Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, fitted out an
+expedition under Christopher Columbus, a master-mariner and
+cartographer, the funds being provided by Isabella, who pledged her
+private property as security for the cost of the expedition. This
+expedition resulted in the discovery, October 10&ndash;21, 1492, of the West
+India Islands. In a subsequent voyage, Columbus discovered the mainland
+of South America.</p>
+
+<p>Even before the voyage of Columbus, the Portuguese had been trying to
+find a way around Africa to India, and Pope Eugenius IV. had conferred
+on Portugal "all heathen lands from Cape Bojador eastward even to the
+Indies." Little by little, therefore, Portuguese navigators were pushing
+southward until, in 1487, Bartholomew Dias sighted the Cape of Good
+Hope, and got about as far as Algoa Bay. Then he unwillingly turned back
+because of the threats of his crew. It was a most remarkable voyage, and
+one of the shipmates of Dias was Bartholomew Columbus, a brother of the
+discoverer of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>Ten years later, or five years after the voyage of Columbus, Vasco da
+Gama sailed from Lisbon for the Cape of Good Hope. As he passed the Cape
+he was terribly storm-tossed, but the storms carried him in a fortunate
+direction. And when at last he got his reckonings, he was off the coast
+of India; he therefore kept along the coast until in sight of a port.
+The port was the well-known city of Calicut. Two years later he returned
+to Europe by the same route, his ships laden with spices, precious
+stones, beautiful tapestries and brocades, ivory and bronzes. The
+long-sought sea-route to India had been discovered.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image15.jpg" width="600" height="362" alt="A HANSE CITY&mdash;HAMBURG, ALONG THE WATER-FRONT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A HANSE CITY&mdash;HAMBURG, ALONG THE WATER-FRONT</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p><p><b>Commerce in Western Europe.</b>&mdash;After the discovery of the new route,
+Venice and Genoa were scarcely heard of in relation to commerce; they
+lost everything and gained nothing. The great commerce with the Orient
+was to have a new western terminus, and the latter was to be on the
+shores of the North and Baltic Seas.</p>
+
+<p>The commerce between Europe and India stimulated trade in western Europe
+as well. As early as the twelfth century the manufacture of linen and
+woollen cloth had grown to be a very important industry that had
+resulted in the rapid growth of population. The older cities grew
+rapidly, and new ones sprang up wherever the commodities of trade were
+gathered, manufactured, or distributed.</p>
+
+<p>These centres of trade had two hostile elements against them. The feudal
+lords used to pillage them legally by extorting heavy taxes and forced
+loans whenever their treasuries were empty. The portionless brothers and
+relatives of the feudal lords, to whom no employments save war,
+adventure, and piracy were open, pillaged them illegally. Along the
+coasts especially, piracy was considered not only a legitimate, but a
+genteel, profession. So in order to protect themselves, the cities began
+to join themselves into leagues.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Hanse League.</b>&mdash;About the beginning of the thirteenth century<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+Hamburg and L&uuml;beck formed an alliance afterward called a <i>hansa</i>; at the
+beginning of the fourteenth century it embraced seventy cities, having
+the capital at L&uuml;beck. At the time of its greatest power the League
+embraced all the principal cities of western Europe nearly as far south
+as the Danube. Large agencies, called "factories," were established in
+London, Bruges, Novgorod, Bergen, and Wisby. The influence of the League
+practically controlled western Europe.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p><p>The Hanse League performed a wonderful work. It stopped piracy on the
+seas and robbery on the land. Industrially, it encouraged
+self-government and obedience to constitutional authority. Shipbuilding
+and navigation so greatly improved that the ocean traffic resulting from
+the discovery of the cape route to India quickly fell into the hands of
+Hanse sailors and master-mariners. The League not only encouraged and
+protected all sorts of manufactures, but its schools trained thousands
+of operatives. The mines were worked and the idle land cultivated. It
+was the greatest industrial movement that ever occurred.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image16.jpg" width="600" height="451" alt="HANSE ROUTES&mdash;THE HANSE LEAGUE REORGANIZES THE TRADE OF
+THE WORLD" title="" /><span class="caption">HANSE ROUTES&mdash;THE HANSE LEAGUE REORGANIZES THE TRADE OF
+THE WORLD</span></div>
+
+<p>Socially, the Hanse League brought the wealth that gave those comforts
+and conveniences before unknown. The standards of social life,
+education, art, and science were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> raised from a condition scarcely
+better than barbarism to a high plane of civilization. Indeed, the
+civilization of western Europe was the most important result of it.</p>
+
+<p>It forced the rights of individual freedom, as well as municipal
+independence, from more than one monarch, and punished severely the
+kings who sought to betray it. It crushed the power of those who opposed
+it,<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and rewarded those who were faithful to it. Its most important
+mission, however, was the overthrow of feudalism and the gradual
+substitution of popular government in its place.</p>
+
+<p>Having accomplished the regeneration of Europe, the Hanse League died
+partly by its own hand, because of its arrogance, but mainly from the
+fact that, having educated western Europe to self-government and
+commercial independence, there was no longer need for its existence.
+Independent cities grew rapidly into importance, and these got along
+very well without the protection of the League. The great industrial
+progress was at times temporarily checked by wars, but it never took a
+backward step. Indeed the progress of commerce has always been a contest
+between brains and brute force, and in such a struggle there is never
+any doubt about the final outcome.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What were some of the effects of C&aelig;sar's invasion of Germanic Europe so
+far as commerce is concerned?</p>
+
+<p>What were some of the effects on commerce of the breaking up of the
+Roman Empire?</p>
+
+<p>How did the invasion of England by William of Normandy affect the
+commerce of the English people?</p>
+
+<p>Who was Henry the Navigator, and what did he accomplish?</p>
+
+<p>How did the blockade of the routes between Europe and India bring about
+the discovery of America?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p><p>What was the result of the great voyage of the Cabots?</p>
+
+<p>Was the overthrow of feudalism in Europe a gain or a loss to commerce?</p>
+
+<p>Why are not commercial leagues, such as the Hanse, necessary at the
+present time?</p>
+
+<p>Why did Spain's commerce decline as Portugal's thrived?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">COLLATERAL READING<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Gibbins's History of Commerce&mdash;Chapters IV-V.</p>
+
+<p>Fiske's Discovery of America, Vol. 1&mdash;Chapters IV-V.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>TOPOGRAPHIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE</h3>
+
+
+<p class="opening"><span class="smcap">The</span> great industry of commerce, which includes both the trade in the
+commodities of life and the transportation of them, is governed very
+largely by the character of the earth's surface. But very few
+food-stuffs can be grown economically in mountain-regions. Steep
+mountain-slopes are apt to be destitute of soil; moreover, even the
+mountain-valleys are apt to be difficult of access, and in such cases
+the cost of moving the crops may be greater than the market value of the
+products. Mountainous countries, therefore, are apt to be sparsely
+peopled regions.</p>
+
+<p>But although the great mountain-systems are unhabitable, or at least
+sparsely peopled, they have a very definite place in the economics of
+life. Thus, the great western highland of the United States diverts the
+flow of moisture from the Gulf of Mexico northward into the central
+plain, and gives to the region most of its food-growing power. In a
+similar manner, moisture intercepted by the Alps and the Himalayas has
+not only created the plains of the Po and the Ganges from the rock-waste
+carried from the slopes, but has also made them exceedingly fertile.</p>
+
+<p>Mountain-ranges are also valuable for their contents. The broken
+condition of the rock-folds and the rapid weathering to which they are
+subjected have exposed the minerals and metals so useful in the arts of
+commerce and civilization. Thus, the weathering of the Appalachian folds
+has made accessible about the only available anthracite coal measures
+yet worked; and the worn folds about Lake<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> Superior have yielded the
+ores that have made the United States the foremost copper and steel
+manufacturing country of the world. Gold, silver, tin, lead, zinc,
+platinum, granite, slate, and marble occur mainly in mountain-folds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mountains and Valleys.</b>&mdash;Mountain-ranges are great obstacles to commerce
+and intercommunication. The Greek peoples found it much easier to
+scatter along the Mediterranean coast than to cross the Balkan
+Mountains. For twenty years after the settlement of California, it was
+easier and less expensive to send traffic by way of Cape Horn than to
+carry it across the Rocky Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The deep ca&ntilde;ons of mountainous regions are quite as difficult to
+overcome as the high ranges. In modern methods of transportation a range
+that cannot be surmounted may be tunnelled, and a tunnel five or six
+miles in length is no uncommon feat of engineering. A ca&ntilde;on, however,
+cannot be tunnelled, and if too wide for cantilever or suspension
+bridges, a detour of many miles is necessary. In crossing a deep chasm
+the route of transportation may aggregate ten or fifteen times the
+distance spanned by a straight line.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting the mining regions, the population of mountainous countries is
+apt to be found mainly in the intermontane valleys. A reason for this is
+not hard to find; the valleys are usually filled with rich soil brought
+from the higher slopes and levelled by the water. The population,
+therefore, is concentrated in the valley because of the food-producing
+power of the land. For this reason the Sound, Willamette, and San
+Joaquin-Sacramento Valleys contain the chief part of the Pacific coast
+population. The Shenandoah and the Great Valley of Virginia are similar
+instances.</p>
+
+<p>What is true of the larger intermontane valleys is true also of the
+narrow stream valleys of mountain and plateau<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> regions. Thus, in the New
+England plateau the chief growth during the past forty years has been in
+the valley lands. In that time if the uplands have not suffered actual
+loss, they certainly have made no material gains. Upland farming has not
+proved a remunerative venture, and many of the farms have either been
+abandoned or converted to other uses.</p>
+
+<p><b>Passes.</b>&mdash;Transverse valleys form very important topographic features of
+mountain-regions. Inasmuch as the ranges themselves are obstacles to
+communication, it follows that the latter must be concentrated at such
+cross valleys or gaps as may be traversed. Khaibar Pass, a narrow defile
+in the Hindu Kush Mountains, between Peshawur and Jelalabad, for many
+years was the chief gateway between Europe and India. Even now the cost
+of holding it is an enormous tax upon England.</p>
+
+<p>Brenner, St. Gotthard, and the Mont Cenis Passes are about the only land
+channels of commerce between Italy and transalpine Europe, and most of
+the communication between northern Italy and the rest of Europe is
+carried on by means of these passes. Every transcontinental railway of
+the American continent crosses the various highlands by means of gaps
+and passes, and some of them would never have been built were it not for
+the existence of the passes. Fremont, South, and Marshall Passes have
+been of historic importance for half a century.</p>
+
+<p>The Hudson and Champlain Valley played an important part in the history
+of the colonies a century before the existence of the United States, and
+its importance as a gateway to eastern Canada is not likely to be
+lessened. The Mohawk gap was the first practical route to be maintained
+between the Atlantic seaboard and the food-producing region of the Great
+Central Plain. It is to-day the most important one. It is so nearly
+level that the total lift of freight going from Buffalo to tide-water is
+less than five hundred feet.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image19.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt="A PASS&mdash;THE ROUTE OF A RAILWAY" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A PASS&mdash;THE ROUTE OF A RAILWAY</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p><p><b>Rivers.</b>&mdash;River-valleys are closely connected with the economic
+development of a country. Navigable rivers are free and open highways of
+communication. In newly settled countries the river is always the least
+expensive means of carriage, and often it is the only one available for
+the transportation of heavy goods.</p>
+
+<p>In late years, since the railway has become the chief means for the
+transportation of commodities, river transportation has greatly
+declined. The river-valley, however, has lost none of its importance; in
+most instances it is a naturally levelled and graded route, highly
+suitable for the tracks of the railway. As a result, outside of the
+level lands of the Great Central Plain, not far from eighty per cent. of
+the railway mileage of the United States is constructed along
+river-valleys.</p>
+
+<p><b>Plateaus.</b>&mdash;Plateaus are usually characterized by broken and more or less
+rugged surface features. As a rule they are deficient in the amount of
+rainfall necessary to produce an abundance of the grains and similar
+food-stuffs, although this is by no means the case with all.</p>
+
+<p>Most plateaus produce an abundance of grass, and cattle-growing is
+therefore an important industry in such regions. Thus, the plateaus of
+the Rocky Mountains are famous for cattle, and the same is true of the
+Mexican and the South American plateaus. The Iberian plateau, including
+Spain and Portugal, is noted for the merino sheep, which furnish the
+finest wool known. The plateau of Iran is also noted for its wool, and
+the rugs from this region cannot be imitated elsewhere in the world.</p>
+
+<p><b>Plains.</b>&mdash;Plains are of the highest importance to life and its
+activities. Not only do they present fewer obstacles to
+intercommunication than any other topographic features,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> but almost
+always they are deeply covered with the fine rock-waste that forms the
+chief components of soil. Plains, therefore, contain the elements of
+nutrition, and are capable of supporting life to a greater extent than
+either mountains or plateaus. About ninety per cent. of the world's
+population dwell in the lowland plains.</p>
+
+<p>The Great Central Plain of North America produces more than one-quarter
+of the world's wheat, and about four-fifths of the corn. The southern
+part of the great Arctic plain, and its extension, the plains of the
+Baltic also yield immense quantities of grain and cattle products. The
+coast-plains of the Atlantic Ocean, on both the American and the
+European side, are highly productive.</p>
+
+<p>River flood-plains are almost always densely peopled because of their
+productivity. The bottom-lands of the Mississippi and the Yangtze Rivers
+are among the chief food-producing regions of the world. Lacustrine
+plains, the beds of former lakes, are also highly productive regions.
+The valley of the Red River of the North is an example, and its wheat is
+of a very high quality.</p>
+
+<p>Fertile coast-plains and lowlands that are adjacent to good harbors, as
+a rule are the most thickly peopled regions of the world. In many such
+regions the density of population exceeds two hundred or more per square
+mile. The reason is obvious. Life seeks that environment which yields
+the greatest amount of nutrition with the least expenditure of energy.</p>
+
+<p>The study of a good relief map shows that, as a rule, the Pacific Ocean
+is bordered by a rugged highland, which has a more or less abrupt slope,
+and a narrow coast-plain. Indeed, the latter is absent for the greater
+part. The slopes of the Atlantic, on the other hand, are long and
+gentle&mdash;being a thousand miles or more in width throughout the greater
+part of their extent. The area of productive land is correspondingly
+great, and the character of the surface features is such that
+intercommunication is easy.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image20.jpg" width="600" height="362" alt="A RIVER FLOOD-PLAIN&mdash;A REGION ADAPTED TO CULTIVATION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A RIVER FLOOD-PLAIN&mdash;A REGION ADAPTED TO CULTIVATION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p><p>The result of these conditions is evident. The Atlantic slopes, though
+not everywhere the most densely peopled areas, contain the great centres
+of the world's activities and economies. In the past 400 years they have
+not only overtaken the Pacific coast races, but have far surpassed them.
+They are now entering upon a commercial invasion of the Pacific nations
+that is resulting in a reorganization of the entire industrial world.</p>
+
+<p><b>Topography and Trade Routes.</b>&mdash;As the settlement and commerce of a
+country grow, roads succeed trails, and trails are apt to follow the
+paths of migrating animals. Until the time of the Civil War in the
+United States, most of the great highways of the country were the direct
+descendants of "buffalo roads," as they were formerly called.</p>
+
+<p>In the crossing of divides from one river-valley to another, the
+mountain-sections of the railways for the greater part follow the trails
+of the bison. This is especially marked in the Pennsylvania, the
+Baltimore and Ohio, and the Chesapeake and Ohio railways; in some
+instances the tunnels through ranges have been constructed directly
+under the trails. The reason is obvious; the instinct of the bison led
+him along routes having the minimum of grade.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the Mississippi Valley and the great plains the Indian trails
+usually avoided the bottom-lands of the river-valleys, following the
+divides and portages instead. This selection of routes was probably due
+to the fact that the lowlands were swampy and subject to overflow; the
+portages and divides offered no steep grades, and were therefore more
+easily traversed.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image21.jpg" width="600" height="346" alt="WHERE COMMODITIES ARE EXCHANGED&mdash;NEW YORK CITY
+WATER-FRONT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WHERE COMMODITIES ARE EXCHANGED&mdash;NEW YORK CITY
+WATER-FRONT</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p><p><b>Harbors.</b>&mdash;Coast outlines have much to do with the commercial
+possibilities of a region. The "drowned valleys" and similar inlets
+along the North Atlantic coast, both of Europe and America, form harbors
+in which vessels ride at anchor in safety, no matter what the existing
+conditions outside may be. As a result, the two greatest centres of
+commerce in the world are found at these harbors&mdash;one on the American,
+the other on the European coast.</p>
+
+<p>From New York Bay southward along the Atlantic seaboard there are but
+few harbors, and this accounts for the enormous development of commerce
+in the stretch of coast between Portland and Baltimore. San Francisco
+Bay and the harbors of Puget Sound monopolize most of the commerce of
+the Pacific coast of the United States. South America has several good
+harbors on the Atlantic seaboard, and in consequence a large city has
+grown at the site of each. On the Pacific coast the good harbors are
+very few in number, and they are not situated near productive regions.</p>
+
+<p>Asiatic peoples, as a rule, are not promoters of foreign commerce, and,
+those of Japan excepted, the only good harbors are those that have been
+improved by European governments. These are confined mainly to India and
+China. The many possible harbors make certain a tremendous commerce in
+the future. Africa has but very few good harbors. There are excellent
+harbors in the islands of the Pacific, and many of them are of great
+strategic value as coaling stations and bases of supply to the various
+maritime powers.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>The Pennsylvania Railroad has found it more economical to tunnel the
+mountain-range under Horseshoe Curve, near Altoona, than to haul the
+trains over the mountains; discuss the details in which there will be a
+saving.</p>
+
+<p>Why are rugged and mountainous regions apt to be sparsely peopled?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p><p>The first valuable discovery in the Rocky Mountains was gold; what were
+the chief effects that resulted?</p>
+
+<p>Would the industries of the Pacific coast of the United States be
+benefited or impaired by the existence of a coast-plain?</p>
+
+<p>Which are more conducive to commerce&mdash;the large mediterraneans, such as
+the Gulf of Mexico, or the small estuaries, such as New York Bay?
+Discuss the merits or demerits of each.</p>
+
+<p>What are the chief products of mountains, of plateaus, of lowland
+plains?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Adams's New Empire&mdash;Chapter I.</p>
+
+<p>Redway's Physical Geography&mdash;Chapter IV.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-bottom: 2em;">A topographic map of the United States.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image23.jpg"><img src="images/image23_th.jpg" width="600" height="375" alt="MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL</span></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>CLIMATIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE</h3>
+
+
+<p class="opening"><span class="smcap">In</span> its effect upon life and the various industries of peoples, climate
+is a factor even more important than topography. Of the 53,000,000
+square miles of the land surface of the earth, scarcely more than
+one-half is capable of producing any great amount of food-stuffs, and
+only a very small area can support a population of more than one hundred
+people to each square mile.</p>
+
+<p><b>Climate and Habitability.</b>&mdash;In the main, regions that are inhabited by
+human beings produce either food-stuffs or something of value that may
+be exchanged for food-stuffs; and inasmuch as food and shelter are the
+chief objects of human activity, regions that will not furnish them are
+not habitable.</p>
+
+<p>The growth and production of food-stuffs is governed even more by
+conditions of climate than by those of topography. Thus the great
+Russian plain is too cold to produce any great amount of food-stuffs,
+and it is, therefore, sparsely peopled. The northern part of Africa and
+the closed basins of North America and Asia lack the rainfall necessary
+to insure productivity, and these regions are also unhabitable. The
+basin of the Amazon has a rainfall too great for cereals and grasses,
+and the larger part of it is unfit for habitation.</p>
+
+<p>All the food-stuffs are exceedingly sensitive to climate. Rice will not
+grow where swampy conditions do not prevail at least during part of the
+year. Turf-grass will not live where there are repeated droughts of more
+than three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> months' duration, and corn will not ripen in regions having
+cool nights. Wheat does not produce a kernel fit for flour anywhere
+except in the temperate zone; and the banana will not grow outside the
+torrid zone.</p>
+
+<p>The two chief factors of climate are temperature and moisture. No forms
+of life can withstand a temperature constantly below the freezing-point
+of water, and but few, if any, can endure a constant heat of one hundred
+and twenty-five degrees, although most species can exist at temperatures
+beyond these limits for a short time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Zones of Climate.</b>&mdash;The belt of earth upon which the sun's rays are
+nearly or quite vertical is comparatively narrow. But the inclination of
+the earth's axis and the fact that it is parallel to itself at all times
+of the year create zones of climate. These differ materially in the
+character of the life, forms, and the activities of the people who dwell
+in them.</p>
+
+<p>In the torrid zone the temperature varies but little. During the season
+of rains it rarely falls to 70&deg; F., and in the dry season it is seldom
+higher than 95&deg; F. As a result, all sorts of plants that are sensitive
+to low temperatures thrive in the torrid zone. It is not a climate
+suitable for heat-producing food-plants, and they are not required.</p>
+
+<p>The constant heat and excessive moisture of the atmosphere in the torrid
+zone is apt to produce a feeling of lassitude among the dwellers in such
+regions, moreover, and great bodily activity is out of question. These
+conditions seriously affect the lives of the people, and, with few
+exceptions, tropical peoples are rarely noted for energy or enterprise.
+Great commercial enterprises are the exception rather than the rule, and
+they are usually carried on by foreigners who must live a part of the
+time in cooler localities.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image24.jpg" width="600" height="345" alt="THE EFFECTS OF HIGH LATITUDE&mdash;TOO COLD TO PRODUCE
+BREAD-STUFFS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE EFFECTS OF HIGH LATITUDE&mdash;TOO COLD TO PRODUCE
+BREAD-STUFFS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p><p>Polar regions are deficient both in the heat and light necessary for
+food-stuffs. Neither the grasses nor the grains fructify. As a result,
+but few herbivora can live there, and these are practically restricted
+to the musk-ox and the reindeer, which subsist on mosses and lichens.
+The native people are stunted in growth; their food consists mainly of
+raw blubber, and they are scarcely above savagery.</p>
+
+<p>The temperate zones are the regions of the great industries and
+activities of human life. The larger part of the land surface of the
+earth is situated in these zones; moreover, the people who dominate the
+world also live in them, and their supremacy is due largely to
+conditions of climate. The alternation of summer and winter causes a
+struggle for existence that develops the intellectual faculties and
+results in industrial supremacy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effects of Altitude.</b>&mdash;There is a decrease of temperature of 1&deg; F. for
+about every three hundred feet of ascent. But few people live at an
+altitude of more than six thousand feet above sea-level, and in many
+cases they depend on other localities for the greater part of their
+food-stuffs, because very few of such regions produce food-stuffs
+abundantly.</p>
+
+<p>The chief exceptions to this rule are found in tropical regions. The
+highlands of Mexico, the plateau-regions of Bolivia and Ecuador, and the
+highlands of southern Asia are habitable, but they are not densely
+peopled. Because of their altitude they are relieved of the enervating
+effects of tropical climate at the sea-level.</p>
+
+<p>Altitude likewise affects the amount of rainfall. Most plateaus are
+arid. As a rule, they are arid because of their altitude; and because of
+their aridity they are deficient in their power to produce food-stuffs.
+They are therefore sparsely peopled.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effects of Rainfall.</b>&mdash;Regions having considerably more than one hundred
+inches of rain annually are very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> apt to be forest-covered, and
+therefore to be deficient in food-producing plants. Such localities have
+usually a sparse population, in spite of the profusion of vegetation. In
+some parts of India, lands that have been left idle for a few seasons
+produce such a dense jungle of wild vegetation that to reclaim them for
+cultivation is wellnigh impossible.</p>
+
+<p>A deficiency of rainfall is even a greater factor in restricting the
+density of population than too much rain. With less than fifteen or
+twenty inches a year few regions produce good crops of grains and
+grasses, and as a result they are sparsely peopled. Some of the
+exceptions, however, are important. If the rainfall is not quite enough
+to produce a normal overflow to the sea, the soil may be very rich,
+because the nutrition is not leached out and carried away.</p>
+
+<p>Many small areas of this character produce enormous crops when
+artificially watered, and many of them, such as Persia, parts of Asia
+Minor, northern Utah, and large areas of Australia and Chile have become
+regions of considerable commercial importance. The products of such
+regions are apt to be unique in character and of unusual value. Thus,
+the wool of Persia and Australia and the fruit of the Iberian peninsula
+are important articles of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>In Egypt one may see the results of irrigated lands. The area of
+geographical Egypt is somewhat less than half a million square miles;
+the habitable part of the country is confined to a narrow strip, which,
+one or two places excepted, varies from three to six miles in width. In
+other words, almost the whole population of the country is massed in the
+flood-plain and delta of the Nile; the remaining part is a desert
+producing practically nothing.</p>
+
+<p>The water that makes these lands productive falls, not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> in Egypt, but in
+the highlands of Abyssinia, 2,000 miles away. The September overflow of
+the flood-plain is the chief factor in the irrigation of these lands,
+but the area has been greatly increased by the construction of barrages
+and dams at Assiut and Assuan.</p>
+
+<p>In the western highland region of the United States considerable areas
+already have been made productive by irrigation, and it is estimated
+that about two million acres of barren land can be reclaimed by
+impounding the waters of the various streams now running to waste.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of rain with respect to the season in which it falls is
+quite as important as its distribution with respect to quantity. In
+tropical regions the ocean winds, and therefore the rainfall, come from
+the east. The eastern slopes of such regions, therefore, have a season
+in which rains may be expected daily, and another in which no rain falls
+for several months. In the temperate zones seasonal rains for a similar
+reason are on the western coasts.</p>
+
+<p>Thus on the Pacific coast of the United States the rainfall varies from
+about one hundred inches in southern Alaska to about twelve in San
+Diego, Cal. Practically all the rain falls between October and the
+following May; very little or none falls in the interval between May and
+October. As a result, ordinary turf-grass, which will not withstand long
+droughts, grows in only a few localities of the Pacific slope. It is
+replaced by hardier grasses whose roots, instead of forming turf, grow
+very deep in the soil.</p>
+
+<p>Common clover will not grow in this region unless irrigated; it is
+replaced by burr-clover, a variety of the plant that will not thrive in
+moist regions. Now the quality of the merino wool clip of California
+depends in no slight degree upon the burr-clover and other food-products
+that thrive in regions of seasonal rains; that is, a great commercial
+industry exists because of this feature of rainfall, and it could not
+long survive in spite of it.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image26.jpg" width="600" height="350" alt="CLIMATICALLY ADAPTED TO CULTIVATION&mdash;THE LOWLANDS
+PRODUCE BREAD-STUFFS AND FRUIT; THE MOUNTAIN-SLOPES ARE GRAZING REGIONS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CLIMATICALLY ADAPTED TO CULTIVATION&mdash;THE LOWLANDS
+PRODUCE BREAD-STUFFS AND FRUIT; THE MOUNTAIN-SLOPES ARE GRAZING REGIONS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p><p>The seasonal rainfall also affects other agricultural industries. The
+sacked wheat-crop may be left in the field without cover or protection
+until the time is convenient for shipping it. The absence of summer
+rains makes possible in California what would be out of question in the
+Mississippi Valley, where a rainstorm may be expected every few days.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of certain fruits depends largely on the season during which
+the rainfall occurs. Apples, pears, and grapes grown in regions having
+dry summers have usually a very superior flavor. The raisin-making
+industry of California also depends on the same condition, because, in
+order to insure a good quality of the product, the bunches of grapes,
+after picking, must be dried on the ground. To a certain extent this is
+also true of other fruits, such as dates, figs, and prunes, which
+frequently are sun-dried.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of large bodies of water, which both absorb and give out
+their heat very slowly, tempers the climate of the nearby land and to
+that extent modifies the commerce of such districts. The grape-growing
+industry of central New York is a great one and its product is famous.
+Its existence depends almost wholly upon the lake-tempered climate.
+Elsewhere in the State the industry is on a precarious basis, and the
+product is inferior.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effects of Inclination of the Earth's Axis.</b>&mdash;The inclination and
+self-parallelism of the earth's axis is undoubtedly a very important
+factor in climate. Practically it more than doubles the width of the
+belts of ordinary food-stuffs by lengthening the summer day in the
+temperate zone. Beyond the tropics the obliquity of the sun's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> rays are
+more than balanced by the increased length of time in which they fall.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in the latitude of St. Paul, the longest day is about fifteen and
+one-half hours long; at Liverpool it is nearly seventeen hours long; a
+greater number of heat units therefore are received in these latitudes
+during summer than are received in equatorial regions during the
+twelve-hour day. Moreover, the summer temperature is higher in these
+latitudes than in the torrid zone, because the sun is shining upon them
+for a greater length of time.</p>
+
+<p>The result of these various influences is far-reaching. Because of the
+long summer days and short nights, wheat can be cultivated to the
+sixtieth parallel. Corn, which gets scarcely enough warmth and light in
+the torrid zone to become a prolific crop, attains its greatest yield in
+the latitude of fourteen-hour days.</p>
+
+<p>These factors, it is evident, carry the grain and meat industries into
+regions that otherwise would not be habitable. Because the long summer
+days produce these great food-crops, commerce and its allied industries
+have reached their maximum development in these regions. Human
+activities are greatest in the zones bounded by the thirty-fifth and
+fifty-fifth parallels, the zone that includes the greater parts of the
+United States, Europe, China, Japan. They are greatest, moreover,
+because of their geographical position.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What would be the probable effect on the food-crops of the United States
+were the main body of the country moved twenty degrees north in
+latitude? Which would then be the wheat-growing States, the
+cotton-producing States?</p>
+
+<p>Illustrate the connection between occupation and altitude above
+sea-level.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p><p>What difference would it make to the corn-crop were the days and nights
+always twelve hours long?</p>
+
+<p>What would be requisite to make Canada a centre of silk production?</p>
+
+<p>Why is not cod-fishing an industry off the east coast of Florida?</p>
+
+<p>Why is the greater part of the Russian Empire destined to be sparsely
+peopled?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>A rain chart of the world.</p>
+
+<p>A chart of isothermal lines.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>TRANSPORTATION&mdash;OCEAN AND INLAND NAVIGATION</h3>
+
+
+<p class="opening"><span class="smcap">Of</span> all the adjustments which come into the lives of a people none has
+been so far-reaching as the gradual localization of industries each in
+the region best adapted to it. For instance, manufacturing industries
+require power, but not fertile soil; therefore the manufacturing
+industries seek nearness to fuel or to water-power, and a position
+available for quick transportation.</p>
+
+<p>Farming does not require any great amount of natural power; on the
+contrary, level land having a great depth of fertile soil is the
+essential feature. The farmer must therefore look first of all to
+conditions of topography and climate, and secondly to the means of
+transporting his crop.</p>
+
+<p>Mining cannot be an industry in regions destitute of minerals; the miner
+must therefore go where the mineral wealth is found, without regard to
+climate, soil, centres of population, or topography. But two things are
+required&mdash;the mineral products and the means of getting them to the
+people&mdash;that is, ready means of transportation.</p>
+
+<p>A century or more ago, each centre of population in the United States
+was practically self-sustaining. Each grew its own food-stuffs, and
+manufactured the articles used in the household. But very little was
+required in the way of transportation. The means of carriage were mainly
+ox-carts, pack-horses, and rafts. There was a mutual independence among
+the various centres, it is true, but the independence was at the expense
+of civilization and the comforts of life.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image29.jpg" width="600" height="363" alt="OCEAN TRANSPORTATION&mdash;ROYAL MAIL STEAMSHIP OCEANIC,
+WHITE STAR LINE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">OCEAN TRANSPORTATION&mdash;ROYAL MAIL STEAMSHIP OCEANIC,
+WHITE STAR LINE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p><p>Beyond an independence that is more apparent than real, such a plan of
+social and industrial organization has but little in it to commend.
+Intercommunication increases knowledge, and under the conditions that
+formerly prevailed, there was a lack of the breadth of knowledge that
+comes with the mutual contact of peoples.</p>
+
+<p>The utilization of national resources, such as the productiveness of the
+land, the existence of iron ore, coal, copper, and other economic
+minerals, finally brought about the policy of a territorial division of
+industries. This, in turn, made the prompt transportation and exchange
+of commodities essential; indeed, without such a plan, industrial
+centres could not long exist.</p>
+
+<p>The man whose sole business is manufacture must look to others for his
+supply of food-stuffs and raw materials, and these are produced more
+economically at a distance from the centre of manufacture. Thus England
+must look to the United States for wheat and cotton, to the Australian
+Commonwealth for wool, and to New Zealand and the United States for
+meat. Her chief wealth is in her coal and iron, and these make the
+nation a great manufacturing centre. So, also, the manufacturer of New
+York must go to Pittsburg for steel, to Minneapolis for flour, and to
+Chicago for beef.</p>
+
+<p>The application of this principle is very broad; it is the foundation of
+all commerce, and it underlies modern civilization. For this reason the
+question of transportation is just as important to a community as the
+industries of agriculture, mining, and manufacture. Food-stuffs are of
+no use unless they can be transported to the people who want them; nor
+can peoples remain in unproductive regions unless the food-stuffs are
+brought to them.</p>
+
+<p>The gross tonnage of goods is transported mainly in one or another or
+all of three ways&mdash;namely, by animal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> power, by railway, or by water.
+Thus, the cotton-crop of the United States is usually transported by
+wagon from the plantation to the nearest station or boat-landing; by
+rail or by barge to the nearest seaport; and by ocean steamship to the
+foreign seaport.</p>
+
+<p>Water transportation is more economical than land carriage, for the
+reason that less power is required to move a given tonnage through the
+water than on the most perfectly graded railway. Steamship freights, as
+a rule, are lower than those of sailing-vessels, because a steamship has
+more than twice the speed, and, being larger, can carry a greater
+tonnage. Freight rates on the Great Lakes are higher per ton-mile than
+on the ocean, because the vessels are necessarily smaller than those
+built for ocean traffic. For a similar reason, river and canal freights
+are higher than lake freights. Railway transportation is economical,
+partly because a single locomotive will draw an enormous weight of
+goods, and partly because of the high speed at which the goods move from
+point to point. Animal transportation is more expensive than any other
+means ordinarily employed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ocean Transportation.</b>&mdash;In many respects, water-routes form the most
+available and economical methods of transportation. Intercontinental
+commerce must be carried on by means of deep-water vessels. Therefore an
+extraordinary development of ocean carriers has taken place in the past
+century.</p>
+
+<p>One important period of development began with the rise of American
+commerce. Just after the close of the War for Independence, it was found
+that deep-water ships could be built of New England timber for
+thirty-five dollars per ton, rated tonnage, while a vessel of the same
+burden built in Europe cost about forty-five dollars per unit of
+tonnage. Two types of vessels came into use&mdash;one, the clipper ship with
+square sails, was used for long ocean voyages; the other, the schooner,
+with fore-and-aft rigging, was employed mainly in the coast-trade.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image30.jpg" width="600" height="353" alt="A SQUARE-RIGGED SHIP&mdash;A TYPE NOW BEING REPLACED BY
+FORE-AND-AFT RIGGED SCHOONERS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A SQUARE-RIGGED SHIP&mdash;A TYPE NOW BEING REPLACED BY
+FORE-AND-AFT RIGGED SCHOONERS</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p><p>In speed and ease of management these vessels surpassed anything that
+had ever sailed. In time they became the standards for the
+sailing-vessels of all the great commercial nations. The types of the
+vessels are still standards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image31.jpg" width="500" height="506" alt="THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN STEAMSHIP" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN STEAMSHIP</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Development of the Steamship.</b>&mdash;Another important era in ocean
+commerce began when steam was used as a motive power for vessels. The
+first deep-water vessel thus to be propelled was the Savannah. Her
+steam-power was merely incidental, however, and her paddle-wheels were
+unshipped and taken aboard when there was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> enough wind for sailing. Up
+to 1860 almost all the ocean steamships were side-wheelers, propelled by
+low-pressure beam-engines.</p>
+
+<p>The next most important improvement was the screw-blade propeller,
+placed astern. This means of propulsion called for higher speed of the
+engines, and in a very short time compactly built high-pressure engines
+took the place of the low-pressure engine with its heavy walking-beam.
+The latter carried steam at a pressure varying from twenty to thirty-two
+pounds; the modern boiler has steam at 260 pounds per square inch.</p>
+
+<p>Ocean steamships have gradually evolved into two types. The freighter,
+broad in beam and capacious, is built to carry an enormous amount of
+freight at a moderate speed. The White Star liner Celtic is a vessel of
+this class; her schedule time between New York and Liverpool is about
+nine days. The Philadelphia of the American line, though not the fastest
+steamship, makes the same trip in an average time of five and one-half
+days.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>Twin-screws, instead of a single propeller, are employed on nearly all
+the large liners. The gain in speed is not greatly increased, but the
+vessel is far more manageable with two screws than with one; moreover,
+if one engine breaks down, the vessel can make excellent time with the
+other.</p>
+
+<p>Triple-expansion engines are almost universally used on modern
+steamships, and a pound of coal now makes about three times as much
+steam available as in the engines formerly used. As a result a bushel of
+wheat is now carried from Fargo, N. Dak., to Liverpool for about
+twenty-one cents&mdash;less than one-half the freight tariff of 1876.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image32.jpg" width="600" height="412" alt="THE SCHOONER THOMAS A. LAWSON. THE FIRST SEVEN-MASTED
+SAILING-VESSEL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE SCHOONER THOMAS A. LAWSON. THE FIRST SEVEN-MASTED
+SAILING-VESSEL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p><p>The fastest liners consume from three hundred and fifty to more than
+four hundred tons of coal a day, and for each additional knot of speed
+the amount of coal burned must be greatly increased. Freighters like the
+Celtic consume scarcely more than half as much as those of the Kaiser
+Wilhelm II. type.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sailing-Craft.</b>&mdash;In spite of the growth and development of
+steam-navigation, a large amount of freight is still carried by
+sailing-craft; moreover, it is not unlikely that the relative proportion
+of ocean freight carried by sailing-vessels will increase rather than
+decrease, especially in the case of imperishable freight.</p>
+
+<p>The square-rigged ship, or bark, has been very largely replaced by the
+fore-and-aft, or schooner-rigged vessel. A large full-rigged ship
+requires a crew of thirty to thirty-six men; a schooner-rigged vessel
+needs from sixteen to twenty. These vessels are commonly built with
+three and four masts; some of the largest have six or seven. They carry
+as many as five thousand tons of freight at a speed of about ten
+knots&mdash;only a trifle less than that of an ordinary tramp freighter. Some
+of the larger vessels are provided with auxiliary engines and propelling
+apparatus, which enables them to enter or to leave port without the
+assistance of a tug. Donkey-engines hoist and lower the sails, and
+perform the work of loading and unloading. They are admirable colliers
+and grain-carriers.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the twentieth century, about ninety thousand
+sailing-craft and thirty-five thousand steam-vessels were required to
+carry the world's commerce. Of this number, Great Britain and her
+colonies register nearly thirty-five thousand, and the United States
+over twenty thousand.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Harbor Safeguards.</span>&mdash;Excepting the open anchorages formed by angles
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>in coast-lines, the greater number of harbors consist of small
+coves and river-mouths. In these, although there may be a
+considerable area of water, there is not apt to be much sailing
+room; it is therefore necessary to mark off the navigable channels.
+For this purpose buoys of different shapes and colors are used by
+day; by night fixed and flashing lights are employed.</p>
+
+<p>The buoys of permanent channels are usually hollow metal cylinders
+or cones about two feet in diameter, anchored so that the end of
+the cylinder projects about three feet above the water. On entering
+a channel from the seaward, red buoys are on the starboard, or
+right hand; white buoys are kept on the port, or left side. Buoys
+at the end of a channel are usually surmounted each by some device
+or other fastened at the upper end of a perch. Thus, at the outer
+entrance of Gedney Channel in New York Harbor, a ball surmounts the
+perch; at the inner entrance the buoy carries a double square.
+Sharp angles in a channel are similarly marked. In many instances
+the buoy carries, as a warning signal, a bell that rings as the
+buoy is rocked by the waves; in others, a whistle that sounds by
+the air which the rocking motion compresses within the cylinder;
+still others carry electric or gas lights.</p>
+
+<p>The color of a buoy is an index of its character. Thus, one with
+black and red stripes indicates danger; one with black and white
+vertical stripes is a channel-marker. Temporary channels are
+frequently marked by pieces of spar floating upright. In some cases
+it is customary to set untrimmed tree-tops on the port, and trimmed
+sticks on the starboard.</p>
+
+<p>Light-houses are built at all exposed points of navigated
+coast-waters, and beacons are set at all necessary points within a
+harbor for use at night. All lights are kept burning from sunset
+until sunrise. The color, the duration, and the intervals of
+flashing indicate the position of the beacon. In revolving lights
+the beams, concentrated by powerful lenses, sweep the horizon as
+the lantern about the light revolves. Flashing lights are produced
+when the light is obscured at given intervals. Fixed lights burn
+with a steady flame. In some instances a sector of colored glass is
+set so as to cover a given part of a channel. Range lights, set so
+that one shows directly above the other, are used as
+channel-markers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/image33.jpg">
+<img src="images/image33_th.jpg" width="400" height="631" alt="CITY OF NEW YORK AND VICINITY, WITH HARBOR
+APPROACHES" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">CITY OF NEW YORK AND VICINITY, WITH HARBOR
+APPROACHES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>The use of lights may be seen as a vessel enters New York Lower
+Bay. A steamship drawing not more than eighteen feet of water may
+enter through Swash Channel (<i>follow the course on the chart</i>). In
+this case the pilot makes for Scotland lightship, and merely keeps
+New Dorp and Elmtree beacons in range, giving Dry Romer a wide
+berth to starboard, until Chapel Hill and Conover beacons come into
+range on his port side. The vessel is then held on a course between
+Coney Island and Fort Tompkins lights until Robbins Reef light
+shows ahead.</p>
+
+<p>For the liners that draw more than eighteen feet the task is more
+difficult, inasmuch as the channel is tortuous. At Sandy Hook
+lightship a course lying nearly west takes the vessel to the outer
+entrance of Gedney Channel, marked by two buoy-lights. In passing
+between the lights the vessel enters the channel, which is also
+covered by the red sector of Hook beacon. The pilot continues
+between the buoy-lights until Waacaack and Point Comfort beacons
+are in range, and steers to this range until South Beacon and Sandy
+Hook light are in range astern. The helm is then turned, keeping
+these lights in range astern until Chapel Hill and Conover beacons
+are in range on the port bow. Turning northward nearly eight
+points, the pilot holds the bow of the vessel between Fort Tompkins
+and Coney Island lights, keeping sharply to his range astern, until
+Robbins Reef light comes into view through the narrows. From this
+point on, the shore lights are the pilot's chief guide.</p>
+
+<p>So difficult are harbor entrances, that in most cases the
+underwriters will not insure a vessel unless the latter is taken
+from the outer harbor to the dock by a licensed pilot, and the
+latter must spend nearly half a lifetime as an apprentice before he
+receives a license. The charges for pilotage are usually regulated
+by the number of feet the vessel draws. The charges differ in
+various ports, but the devices for marking and lighting the
+channels are much the same in every part of the world. In the
+United States all navigable channels are under the control of the
+general Government.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Inland Waters.</b>&mdash;Lakes, rivers, and canals furnish a very important means
+of transportation. In Europe and Canada an enormous amount of slow
+freight is transported by their use; in China they are the most
+important means of internal traffic.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image34.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="THE COMMERCE OF THE OHIO&mdash;TOWING COAL TO THE STEEL
+MILLS, PITTSBURG" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE COMMERCE OF THE OHIO&mdash;TOWING COAL TO THE STEEL
+MILLS, PITTSBURG</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p><p>In the United States the Great Lakes with the Erie Canal and Hudson
+River form the most important internal water-way, and by them the
+continent is penetrated as far west as Duluth, a distance of more than
+one thousand three hundred miles. The traffic passing out of Lake
+Superior alone is about one-third greater than that passing out of the
+Mediterranean Sea at the Suez Canal. Much of this traffic goes across
+the continent, and the route in question is one of the great commercial
+highways of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The Mississippi River and its branches afford not far from ten thousand
+miles of navigable waters. Canals connect tributaries of this river with
+the Great Lakes at Chicago and at several points in Ohio. The
+development of the navigation of this great water-way was checked by the
+Civil War, and after the close of the war the great advance in railway
+building kept its improvement in the background. The general government,
+nevertheless, has done much to encourage the use of the Mississippi as a
+commercial highway, and many millions of dollars have been spent in
+widening and deepening its channel.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> On the upper river grain and
+lumber form the chief traffic; on the lower part a large part of the
+world's cotton-crop starts on its journey to the various markets.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the soft-coal fields and the steel manufacture in western
+Pennsylvania, the commerce of the Ohio River is very heavy, aggregating
+not far from fifteen million tons yearly. Much of this traffic extends
+to ports on the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>The navigable parts of the Hudson and Delaware Rivers are estuaries of
+the sea or "drowned valleys." In each case navigation extends about to
+the limits of high tide. Both rivers carry a heavy freight commerce; the
+Hudson<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> has a passenger traffic of several million fares each year.
+Nearly every river of the Atlantic coast is navigable to the limit of
+high tide or a little beyond. Navigation extends to the point where the
+coast-plain joins the foot-hills. Above this limit, called the "Fall
+Line," the streams are swift and shallow; below it they are deep and
+sluggish. As a result, a chain of important river ports extends along
+the Fall Line from Maine to Florida.</p>
+
+<p>River-navigation in Europe in the main is inseparably connected with the
+great canal systems. As a rule, the lower parts of the rivers are
+navigable for steamboats of light draught. Some of the smaller streams
+are made navigable by means of a long steel chain, which is laid along
+the bed of the stream; the boat engages the chain by means of heavy
+sprocket wheels driven by steam, and thus wind the boat up and down the
+river.</p>
+
+<p>Ocean steamers penetrate the Amazon Valley to a distance of one thousand
+miles from its mouth; boats of light draught ascend the main stream and
+some of its tributaries a thousand miles farther. The Orinoco is
+navigable within one hundred miles of Bogota. Light-draught boats ascend
+the tributaries of La Plata River a distance of fifteen hundred miles.</p>
+
+<p>The Asian rivers that are important highways of commerce are few in
+number. The Amur, Yangtze, Indus, and Cambodia have each considerable
+local commerce. The Hugli, a channel in the delta of the Ganges, has a
+channel deep enough for ocean steamships. The tributaries of the Lena,
+Yenisei, and Ob have been of the greatest service in the commercial
+development of northern Asia from the fact that their valleys are both
+level and fertile.</p>
+
+<p>Because of a high interior and abrupt slopes, the rivers of Africa are
+not suitable for navigation to any considerable extent; the channels are
+uncertain and the rivers are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>interrupted by rapids. The Nile has an
+occasional steamboat service as far as the "First Cataract," but in high
+water the service is sometimes extended farther. The Kongo has a long
+stretch of navigable water, but is interrupted by rapids below Stanley
+Pool. Similar conditions obtain in the Zambezi. The lower part of the
+Senegal affords good navigation. The Niger has in many respects greater
+commercial possibilities than other rivers of Africa. It is navigable to
+a distance of three hundred miles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canals.</b>&mdash;Canals easily rank among the most important means of traffic,
+as a rule, supplementing other navigable waters. Thus, by means of an
+elaborate system of canals, goods are transferred by water, from one
+river-basin to another, so that practically all the navigable streams of
+western Europe are connected. Canals are extensively used to avoid the
+falls or rapids that separate the various reaches of rivers. The water
+itself by means of locks lifts the boat to a higher level or transfers
+it to a lower reach, thus saving the expense of unloading, transferring,
+and reloading a cargo.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which canals supplement the obstructed navigation of a
+river is seen in the case of the St. Lawrence. This river is obstructed
+in several places by rapids, but by means of canals steamship service
+connects the Great Lakes, not only with Quebec, but with ports of the
+Mediterranean Sea as well; indeed, it is possible to send a cargo from
+Duluth, at the head of Lake Superior, to Odessa or Batum, on the shores
+of the Black Sea.</p>
+
+<p>The internal water-ways of Canada have been splendidly developed. The
+Canadian St. Marys Canal furnishes an outlet to Lake Superior for
+vessels drawing twenty-one feet. The Welland Canal connects Lakes Erie
+and Ontario. The Rideau Canal and River connect Kingston and Lake
+Ontario with the Ottawa, and the latter with its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>canals is navigable to
+the St. Lawrence. With a population of less than six millions the
+Dominion Government has spent nearly one hundred million dollars in the
+improvement of internal water-ways.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image36.jpg" width="600" height="232" alt="PROFILE OF ERIE CANAL
+HORIZONTAL SCALE 100 MILES TO THE INCH, VERTICAL SCALE 1,000 FEET TO THE
+INCH" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PROFILE OF ERIE CANAL<br />
+<small>HORIZONTAL SCALE 100 MILES TO THE INCH, VERTICAL SCALE 1,000 FEET TO THE
+INCH</small></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the United States the possible development of canals has been
+neglected and, to a certain extent, stifled by railway building. The
+Erie Canal, built before the advent of the railway, connects Lake Erie
+with tide-water at Albany, a distance of 387 miles. For many years it
+was the chief means of traffic between the Mississippi Valley and the
+Atlantic seaboard, and although paralleled by the six tracks of a great
+railway system, it is still an important factor in the carriage of grain
+and certain classes of slow freight.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The level way that made the
+canal possible is largely responsible for the decline of its importance,
+for the absence of steep grades enables a powerful locomotive to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> haul
+so many cars that the quick transit more than overbalances a very low
+ton rate by the canal.</p>
+
+<p>The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, designed to connect the Mississippi
+Valley with the Atlantic seaboard, fared much worse than the Erie Canal.
+Less than two hundred miles have been completed, and practically no work
+except that of repair has been done since 1850; the heavy grades between
+Cumberland and Pittsburg render its completion improbable.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent system of canals, the Ohio and Erie and the Miami and Erie,
+connect the Ohio River with Lake Erie. These canals are in the State of
+Ohio and aggregate about six hundred miles in length. They are important
+as coal and ore carriers. Several hundred miles of canals were built
+along the river-valleys of eastern Pennsylvania before 1840 for carrying
+coal to tide-water. Most of them have been abandoned; one, the Delaware
+&amp; Hudson Canal Co., survives as a railway. Inasmuch as the coal went on
+a down grade from the mines to the markets, it could be carried more
+economically by railway than by canal.</p>
+
+<p>Of far greater importance are the St. Marys Canal on the Canadian side,
+and the St. Marys Falls Canal on the American side, of St. Marys River.
+These canals obviate the falls in St. Marys River and form the
+commercial outlet of Lake Superior. The tonnage of goods, mainly iron
+ore and coal, is about one-half greater than that of the Suez Canal.
+About twenty-five thousand vessels pass through these canals yearly.</p>
+
+<p>The Chicago Ship and Sanitary Canal,<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> from Lake Michigan to Lockport,
+on the Illinois River, was designed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> mainly to carry the sewage of
+Chicago which, prior to the construction of the canal, was poured into
+the lake through the Chicago River. The completion of the canal turned
+the course of the river and caused the water to flow out of the lake,
+carrying the city's sewage. It is intended to complete a navigable
+water-way from Chicago to St. Louis deep enough for vessels drawing
+fourteen feet. Its value is therefore strategic as well as industrial,
+for by means of it gun-boats may readily pass from the Gulf of Mexico to
+the Great Lakes.</p>
+
+<p>Oceanic canals are designed both for naval strategic purposes and for
+industrial uses. Thus, the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, from the mouth of the
+Elbe to Kiel Bay, across the base of Jutland, saves two days between
+Hamburg and the Baltic ports. It also enables German war-vessels to
+concentrate quickly in either the North or the Baltic Sea. The
+Manchester Ship Canal makes Manchester a seaport and saves the cost of
+trans-shipping freights by rail from Liverpool. The Corinth Canal across
+the isthmus that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece
+affords a much shorter route between Italian ports and Odessa. The North
+Holland Ship Canal makes Amsterdam practically a seaport.</p>
+
+<p>Probably no other highway of commerce since the discovery of the Cape
+route around Africa has caused such a great change and readjustment of
+trade between Europe and Asia as the Suez Canal. Sailing-vessels still
+take the Cape route, because the heavy towage tolls through the canal
+more than offset the gain in time. Steamships have their own power and
+generally take the canal route, thereby saving about ten days in time
+and fuel, and about four thousand eight hundred miles in distance. In
+spite of the heavy tolls the saving is considerable. About three
+thousand five hundred vessels pass through the canal yearly.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p><p>The Suez Canal, constructed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, for some time was
+under the control of French capitalists. Subsequently, by the purchase
+of stock partly in open market and partly from the Khedive of Egypt, the
+control of the canal passed into the hands of the English. The
+restrictions placed upon the passage of war-ships is such that the canal
+would be of little use to nations at war.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/image38.jpg">
+<img src="images/image38_th.jpg" width="600" height="427" alt="THE ROUTE OF THE PANAMA CANAL" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">THE ROUTE OF THE PANAMA CANAL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The necessity of an interoceanic canal across the American continent has
+become more imperative year by year for fifty years. The discovery of
+gold in California caused an emigration from the Atlantic to the Pacific
+coast which resulted in a permanent settlement of the latter region. A
+railway across the Isthmus of Panama and another across the Isthmus of
+Tehuantepec have afforded very poor means of communication between
+oceans.</p>
+
+<p>In 1881 work on a tide-level canal across the Isthmus of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> Panama was
+begun, but the plan was afterward changed to a high-level canal. The
+change was thought necessary partly on account of the great cost of the
+former, and partly because of the difficulties of constructing so deep a
+cut&mdash;about three hundred and forty feet&mdash;at the summit of the Culebra
+ridge. The construction company, after spending the entire
+capital&mdash;about one hundred and twenty million dollars&mdash;in accomplishing
+one-tenth of the work, became bankrupt. The United States subsequently
+purchased the franchise.</p>
+
+<p>A canal by way of Lake Nicaragua has also been projected, and two
+treaties with Great Britain, whereby the United States agreed to build
+no fortifications to guard it, have been made. No work beyond the
+surveys has yet been undertaken, however. The cost of each canal is
+estimated between one hundred and fifty million and two hundred million
+dollars. The Panama route will require about twelve hours for the
+passage of a vessel; the Nicaragua route about sixty hours.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> (<i>See
+map, p. 270.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>The completion of a canal by either route will cause a readjustment of
+the world's commerce far greater than that which followed the
+construction of the Suez Canal. By such a route San Francisco is brought
+nearer to London than Calcutta now is, and the all-water route between
+the Atlantic ports of the United States and those of China and Japan
+will be shortened by upward of eight thousand miles. The importance of
+the Hawaiian Islands, already a great ocean depot, will be greatly
+increased, and the latter is becoming one of the great commercial
+stations of the world.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What were some of the effects which resulted from the various embargo
+and non-intercourse acts that preceded the war of 1812?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p><p>What is the effect upon an industry when all means of getting the
+products to market are cut off?</p>
+
+<p>In the early history of the country rivers were the most important
+highways of commerce; obtain an account of some instance of this in
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>Certain commodities have been carried about four-fifths of the distance
+between Moscow and Vladivostok by water, across Siberia. Illustrate
+this, using the map of the Russian Empire, plate, <a href="#Page_342">p. 342</a>.</p>
+
+<p>What has been the effect of cheap steel on ocean navigation?</p>
+
+<p>Discuss the difference between a screw-steamship and a side-wheeler; a
+ship and a schooner. How are vessels steered?</p>
+
+<p>How does a triple-expansion engine differ from an ordinary steam-engine?</p>
+
+<p>Cargoes are carried by water across Europe from Havre to Marseilles, and
+from The Hague to the mouth of the Danube; illustrate the route on a map
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The following instruction occasionally is found in the pilothouse of a
+vessel&mdash;what is its meaning?</p>
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">"Green to green and red to red&mdash;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10em;">Perfect safety; go ahead."</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>From the chart on <a href="#Page_49">p. 49</a> show how a pilot uses the range lights in
+entering New York Harbor.</p>
+
+<p>The new freighter Minnesota is designed to carry a load of 30,000 tons;
+how many trains of fifty cars, each car holding 30,000 pounds, are
+required to furnish her cargo?</p>
+
+<p>From the map on <a href="#Page_x">pp. x-xi</a> describe the new ocean routes that will be
+created by an interoceanic canal across the American continent.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Photographs or illustrations of various steam and sailing craft.</p>
+
+<p>An Atlantic Coast Pilot Chart&mdash;any month.</p>
+
+<p>A map showing the canals of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>A map showing the canals of Europe.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image39.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="A MODERN LOCOMOTIVE&mdash;THE TWENTIETH CENTURY LIMITED AT A
+SPEED EXCEEDING NINETY MILES AN HOUR" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A MODERN LOCOMOTIVE&mdash;THE TWENTIETH CENTURY LIMITED AT A
+SPEED EXCEEDING NINETY MILES AN HOUR</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>TRANSPORTATION&mdash;RAILWAYS AND RAILWAY ORGANIZATION; PUBLIC HIGHWAYS</h3>
+
+
+<p>In the United States and western Europe, in spite of the low cost of
+water transportation, the railways have almost wholly monopolized the
+transportation of commodities. This is due in part to the saving of time
+in transit&mdash;for under the demands of modern business, the only economy
+is economy of time&mdash;and in part to prompt delivery at the specified
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Into a large centre of population like New York, London, or Berlin, many
+millions of pounds of perishable food-stuffs must be brought daily for
+consumption. Now these food-stuffs must be delivered with promptness,
+and no delay can be tolerated. A shipper having half a million pounds of
+meat or a hundred thousand pounds of flour or a car-load of fruit to
+deliver can take no risks; he sends it by rail, not only because it is
+the quickest way, but because experience has shown it to be the most
+prompt way; as a rule, it is delivered on the exact minute of schedule
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Cargoes of silks and teas from China and Japan might be sent all the way
+to London by water, but experience has shown a more profitable way. The
+consignments are sent by swift steamships to Seattle; thence by fast
+express trains to New York; there they are transferred to swift liners
+that take them across the Atlantic to European ports. And although this
+method of shipment is enormously <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>expensive as compared with the
+all-water route, the saving of time and certainty of prompt delivery
+more than offset the extra cost of delivery.</p>
+
+<p>In the last half of the nineteenth century the cost of haulage in the
+United States by rail decreased so materially that in a few instances
+only&mdash;notably the Great Lakes and the Hudson River&mdash;do inland waters
+compete with the railways.<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> This is due in part to better
+organization of the railways, but mainly to the substitution of Bessemer
+steel for iron rails and the great improvements in locomotives and
+rolling stock.</p>
+
+<p>The use of a steam-driven locomotive became possible for the first time
+when Stephenson used the tubular boiler and the forced draught,<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+thereby making steam rapidly enough for a short, quick stroke. In 1865 a
+good freight locomotive weighing thirty tons could haul about forty
+box-cars, each loaded with ten tons. This was the maximum load for a
+level track; the average load for a single locomotive was about
+twenty-five or thirty cars. Heavier locomotives could not well be used
+because the iron rails went to pieces under them.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of Bessemer steel produced a rail that was safe under the
+pounding of a locomotive three or four times as heavy as those formerly
+employed; it produced boilers that would carry steam at 250 instead of
+60 pounds pressure per square inch. As a result, with only a moderate
+increase in the fuel burned, a single locomotive on a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> level track will
+haul eighty or ninety box-cars, each carrying nearly seventy thousand
+pounds.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>The application of the double and the triple expansion principle has
+been quite as successful with locomotive as with marine engines in
+saving fuel and gaining power&mdash;that is, it has decreased the cost per
+ton-mile of hauling freight and likewise the cost of transporting
+passengers. Enlarged "fire-boxes," or furnaces,<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> enable steam to be
+made more rapidly and to give higher speed.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Only a few years ago
+forty-eight hours was the scheduled time between New York and Chicago;
+now there are about forty trains a day between these two cities, several
+of which make the trip in twenty-four hours or less.</p>
+
+<p><b>Railway Development.</b>&mdash;The railway as a common carrier, having its right
+by virtue of a government charter, dates from 1801, when a tramway was
+built between Croydon and Wandsworth, two suburbs of London. The rails
+were iron straps, nailed to wooden stringers. The charter was carefully
+drawn in order to prevent the road from competing with omnibus lines and
+public cabs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p><p>When the steam locomotive succeeded horse-power, however, there
+followed an era of railway development that in a few years
+revolutionized the carrying trade in the thickly settled parts of the
+United States and Europe. Short, independent lines were constructed
+without any reference whatever to the natural movement of traffic. There
+seemed but one idea, namely, to connect two cities or towns. Indeed, the
+absence of a definite plan was much similar to that of the interurban
+electric roads a century later; local traffic was the only
+consideration.</p>
+
+<p>At first an opinion prevailed that the road-bed of the railway ought to
+be a public highway upon which any individual or company might run its
+own conveyances, on the payment of a fixed toll; indeed, in both Europe
+and the United States, public opinion could see no difference between
+the railway and the canal. The employment of a steam-driven locomotive
+engine, however, made such a plan impossible, and demonstrated that the
+roads must be thoroughly organized.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of 1850 there were nearly four hundred different railway
+companies in England; in the United States about a dozen companies were
+required to make the connection of New York City and Buffalo. A few of
+these paid dividends; a large majority barely met their operating
+expenses, defaulting the interest on their bonds; a great many were
+hopelessly bankrupt.</p>
+
+<p><b>Consolidation of Connecting Lines.</b>&mdash;Between 1850 and 1865 a new feature
+entered into railway management, namely, the union of connecting lines.
+This was a positive advantage, for the operating expenses of the sixteen
+lines, now a part of the New York Central, between New York and Buffalo
+were scarcely greater than the expenses of one-third that number. The
+service was much quicker, better, and cheaper. In England the several
+hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> companies were reduced to twelve; in France the thirty-five or
+more companies were reduced to six in number.</p>
+
+<p>The consolidation of connecting lines brought about another desirable
+feature&mdash;the extension of the existing lines.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> The lines of
+continental Europe were extended eastward to the Russian frontier, and
+to Constantinople; then the Alps were surmounted. In the United States
+railway extension was equally great. The Union and Central Pacific
+railways were opened in 1869, giving the first all-rail route to the
+Pacific coast. Other routes to the Pacific followed within a few years,
+one of which, the Canadian Pacific, was built from Quebec to Vancouver.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image42.jpg" width="600" height="355" alt="A TRUNK SYSTEM&mdash;THE VARIOUS BRANCHES EXTEND INTO COAL,
+GRAIN, IRON, CATTLE, TIMBER, AND TOBACCO REGIONS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A TRUNK SYSTEM&mdash;THE VARIOUS BRANCHES EXTEND INTO COAL,
+GRAIN, IRON, CATTLE, TIMBER, AND TOBACCO REGIONS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p><p>The period from 1864 was one of extensive railway building both in the
+United States and Europe. Some of the roads, such as the transalpine
+railways of Europe and the Pacific roads of the United States, were
+greatly needed. Others that created new fields of industry by opening to
+communication productive lands were also wise and necessary; the lands
+would have been valueless without them. Not a few lines that were to be
+needed in time were built so far ahead of time that they did not even
+pay their operating expenses for many years.</p>
+
+<p>Another class of roads was intended for speculative purposes. Thus,
+there were instances in which a line occupying a given territory had
+antagonized its patrons by poor service, and extortionate charges.
+Thereupon another company would obtain a charter&mdash;which was then easily
+done&mdash;and build a competing line in the same territory, the former most
+likely having scarcely enough business for one road.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The results
+were almost always the same; a war of rate-cutting followed; the
+stockholders of both roads lost heavily; and one or both went into the
+hands of receivers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Competition and Pools.</b>&mdash;In many instances the consolidation of roads,
+while cutting off disastrous competition in the territory jointly
+occupied by the two roads, brought the consolidated road into fierce
+competition with another adjacent system. If the roads had practically
+the same territory but different terminals the competition was confined
+mainly to local traffic. On the other hand, they might have the same
+terminals but cover different local territories; in this case the roads
+must compete for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> through traffic. Thus the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy
+is brought into competition with the Union Pacific in Nebraska, but
+inasmuch as the roads have different and widely distant terminals, their
+local traffic is easily adjusted. The Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy and
+the Northwestern have common terminals at Chicago, St. Paul, Denver,
+Omaha, and Kansas City. They must therefore compete with each other, and
+with half-a-dozen other roads for their through traffic.</p>
+
+<p>Competition between railways differs greatly from that between two
+firms. If one of two firms cannot afford to compete, the manager may
+discharge his help, and close doors; he then does not suffer actual
+loss. But a railway, being a common carrier, cannot do this; the road
+must keep its trains moving or lose its charter. If it cannot carry
+goods at a profit it must carry them at cost or at a loss. Even the
+latter is better than not carrying them at all, for the operating
+expenses of the road must go on.</p>
+
+<p>So between 1870 and 1880 most of the railway managements were busy
+devising ways to stop a rate-cutting and competition that was ruinous.
+In many instances great trunk lines would have consolidated had not
+State laws prevented. They could not maintain rates because one or
+another of the weaker roads would be compelled to lower their rates in
+order to meet their operating expenses. Therefore they were compelled to
+do one of three things, namely, to divide the territory, to divide
+traffic, or to divide earnings. Either of the two latter plans is called
+a <i>pool</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Of these two forms of pooling the division of the traffic is the easier,
+but it is often unsatisfactory to the patrons of the road. The second
+plan, the division of the earnings, is a more difficult matter to adjust
+because each road is usually dissatisfied with its proportion. As a
+matter of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> fact, however, the first plan of pooling is very apt to grow
+into the second.</p>
+
+<p>In several instances pools have been declared illegal by the courts,
+but, in general, railway service has been more satisfactory under the
+pool system than under any other. They have always aroused popular
+suspicion, however, from the fact that they increase power of the
+railway itself. In various instances important trunk lines have formed a
+general company, each having its separate organization, because they
+could accomplish under a combined organization what they could not as
+independent companies. The restrictions against pooling have therefore
+encouraged combination of competing lines.</p>
+
+<p>Because the railway is an absolute necessity, and because it has power
+given neither to individuals nor to other corporations, it is a settled
+policy that both the State and general Government should have the power
+to regulate its rates, and should in every way prevent unjust
+discrimination. Both problems are very difficult, however, and the
+unintelligent adjustment of rates has frequently resulted in injustice
+both to the roads and their patrons.</p>
+
+<p>A rate per ton-mile for each class of freight is out of question,
+because a large part of the cost to the company consists in loading,
+handling, and storing the goods. Once aboard the car, it costs but
+little more to carry a ton of freight one hundred miles than to move it
+one mile. The rates per mile, therefore, are necessarily greater for
+short distances than for long runs. A mile-rate based on a ten-mile haul
+would be prohibitive to the shipper if applied to a run between Chicago
+and New York. On the other hand, were the charges based on the long run,
+the local rates would be far less than the cost of the service.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p><p>As a result freight rates are based very largely on the cost of the
+service, and this is particularly true of local freights. This practice
+is also modified by charging <i>what the traffic will bear</i>, and, on the
+whole, a combination of the two ideas gives the most reasonable and the
+fairest method of basing charges. Thus, a car filled with fine, crated
+furniture, which is light and bulky, can afford a higher rate than one
+filled with scrap-iron. Cars filled with grain, lumber, coal, or ore are
+made up in train-loads, and form a part of the daily haul; they can
+afford to be taken at a lower rate than the stuffs of which only an
+occasional car-load is hauled. In order to adjust this problem it is
+customary to divide freights into six general classes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image44.jpg" width="600" height="221" alt="THE PROBLEM OF FREIGHT RATES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE PROBLEM OF FREIGHT RATES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In handling through freights the problems are many, and, if two or more
+roads have the same terminal points, a great deal of friction of
+necessity results. The longest roads must either make their through
+rates lower than local rates between distant points, or lose much of
+their through business. They cannot afford to do the latter and the
+statutory laws may forbid the former. As a result the laws most likely
+are evaded, or else openly disobeyed.<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p><p>The difficulties in adjusting the matter of the long and the short
+haul, as has been shown, have caused the formation of pools and various
+other traffic associations, the object of which has been to prevent
+rate-wars. To this extent they resulted in positive good, for a
+rate-war in the end is apt to be as hurtful to the community as to the
+railway company. The attempt to settle such questions has also resulted
+in a great deal of legislation. Some of this has been wise and good; but
+not a little has been hurtful both to the railroads and to the
+community. The general result is seen in the great combination of
+competing lines and, more recently, of competing systems.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span><b>Passenger Service.</b>&mdash;Passenger traffic is more easily managed than the
+movement of freight. For the greater part the rates are fixed by law. On
+a few eastern roads local rates are two cents per mile; in the main,
+however, a three-cent rate prevails, except that in sparsely peopled
+regions the rates are four and five cents per mile. On many roads
+1,000-mile books are sold at the rate of twenty dollars; on some the
+rate is twenty-five dollars per book.</p>
+
+<p>Long-distance rates involving passage over several roads are somewhat
+less than the local rates. These rates are determined by joint
+passenger-tariff associations. Each individual road fixes its own
+excursion and commutation rates; one or another of the joint passenger
+associations determines the rates where several roads divide the
+traffic. The latter are usually one, or one and one-third fares for the
+round trip.</p>
+
+<p>Except on a few local roads in densely peopled regions the passenger
+service is much less remunerative than freight business, and not a few
+railways would abolish passenger trains altogether were they permitted
+to do so. Rate-cutting between competing roads has not been common since
+the existence of joint passenger associations. It is sometimes done
+secretly, however, through the use of ticket-brokers, or "scalpers," who
+are employed to sell tickets at less than the usual rate; it is also
+done by the illicit use of tickets authorized for given purposes, such
+as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> "editors'," "clergymen's," and "advertising" transportation.</p>
+
+<p>In many instances, where several roads have the same terminal points, it
+is customary for the road or roads having the quickest service to allow
+a lower rate to the others. Thus, of the seven or eight roads between
+New York and Chicago, the two best equipped roads charge a fare of
+twenty dollars on their ordinary, and a higher rate on their limited,
+trains. Because of slower time the other roads charge a sum less by two
+or three dollars for the same service. This cut in the rate is called a
+"differential."</p>
+
+<p><b>Railway Mileage.</b>&mdash;The railways of the world in 1900 had an aggregate of
+nearly four hundred and eighty thousand miles distributed as follows:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table width= "350px" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="RAILWAY MILEAGE">
+<tr><td align='left'>North America</td><td align='right'>216,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Europe</td><td align='right'>173,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Asia</td><td align='right'>36,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>South America and West Indies</td><td align='right'>28,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Australasia</td><td align='right'>15,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Africa</td><td align='right'>12,000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In western Europe and the eastern United States there is an average of
+one mile of railway to each six or eight square miles of area. In these
+countries railway construction has reached probably its highest
+development, and the proportion seems to represent the mileage necessary
+for the commercial interests of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The railways of the United States aggregate 193,000 miles&mdash;nearly
+one-half the total mileage of the world. Over this enormous trackage
+38,000 locomotives and 1,400,000 coaches and cars carry yearly
+600,000,000 passengers and 1,000,000,000 tons of freight. They represent
+an outlay of about $5,000,000,000. Owing to the absence of the
+international problems that have greatly interfered with the
+organization of European railways, the roads of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> the United States have
+developed "trunk-system" features to a higher degree than is found
+elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States and Canada the farms of the great central plain,
+together with the coal-mines, are the great centres of production, while
+the seaports of the two coasts form great centres of distribution. Most
+of the trunk lines, therefore, extend east and west; of the north and
+south lines only two are important. The reason for the east-west
+direction of the great trunk lines is obvious; the great markets of
+North America, Europe, and Asia lie respectively to the east and the
+west.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image46.jpg" width="600" height="410" alt="THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED STATES
+THEIR POSITION DEPENDS ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE LAND" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED STATES
+THEIR POSITION DEPENDS ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE LAND</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Railway Ownership.</b>&mdash;The ownership of railways is vested either in
+national governments or else in corporate companies; in only a few
+instances are roads held individually by private owners, and these are
+mainly lumber or plantation roads. Thus, the railways of Prussia are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+owned by the state; most of those of the smaller German states are owned
+either by the state or by the empire; still others are owned by
+corporate companies and managed by the imperial government. In their
+management military use is considered as first in importance.</p>
+
+<p>In France governmental ownership and management have been less
+successful. Plans for an elaborate system of state railways failed, and
+the state now owns and operates only 1,700 miles, mainly, in the
+southwest. Belgium controls and operates all her lines, but as the
+latter are short and the area of the state small, there are no
+difficulties in the way of excellent management. In Great Britain all
+the railways are owned and controlled by corporate companies. The great
+transcontinental line of the Russian Empire was built by the government,
+but the latter does not own it.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the railways are now owned by corporate companies.
+Some of the western roads were built by Government subsidies;<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> other
+roads were built by the aid of States, counties, or cities, which
+afterward sold them to corporate companies. The first transcontinental
+railways required Government assistance, and could not have been built
+without it; nowadays, however, corporate companies find no difficulty in
+providing the capital for any railway that is needed.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as the railway is a positive necessity, upon whose existence
+depends the transportation of the food<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> daily required in the great
+centres of population, the charter of the railway gives the company
+extraordinary powers. Most steam railway companies are permitted by the
+State to exercise the power of <i>eminent domain</i>&mdash;that is, they may seize
+and hold the land on which to locate their tracks and buildings, if it
+cannot be acquired by the consent of the owners; they may also seize
+coal and other materials consigned to them for shipment if such
+materials are necessary to operate their lines.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, in consideration of the unusual powers possessed by the
+companies, the various States reserve the right to regulate the freight
+and passenger tariffs. They may also compel the companies to afford
+equal facilities to all patrons, and take the measures necessary to
+prevent discrimination.</p>
+
+<p>The control of the railways by the government may be absolute, as in the
+German state of Prussia; or it may consist of a general supervision, as
+in the case of the Canadian railways. In almost every European state
+there is a director or else a commission to act as a representative
+between the railways and the people. In the United States the various
+States have each a railway commission, while the general Government is
+represented by the Interstate Commerce Commission.</p>
+
+<p><b>Electric Railways.</b>&mdash;The use of electricity as a motive power has not
+only revolutionized suburban traffic but it has become a great factor in
+rural transportation as well. The speed of the horse-car rarely exceeded
+five or six miles per hour, while that of the electric car is about ten
+miles per hour in city streets and about twice as great over rural
+roads. As a result, the suburban limits of the large centres of
+population have greatly extended, and the population of the outlying
+districts has been increased from four to ten fold.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image47.jpg" width="600" height="402" alt="ELECTRIC RAILWAY--ROCKY MOUNTAINS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ELECTRIC RAILWAY--ROCKY MOUNTAINS</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image47a.jpg" width="600" height="435" alt="ELECTRIC FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE&mdash;ERIE RAILROAD" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ELECTRIC FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE&mdash;ERIE RAILROAD</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p><p>From some of the larger cities the electric roads reach out to
+distances of one hundred miles or more and have become the carriers of
+perishable freight, such as fruit and dairy products. These are not only
+delivered just as promptly as though they were sent over the steam
+roads, but the delivery is more frequent. Indeed, the marvellous success
+of the electric interurban railway is due mainly to the frequency of its
+service.</p>
+
+<p><b>Public Roads and Highways.</b>&mdash;Carriages propelled by steam, electric, and
+gasoline motors have become an important factor in the delivery of goods
+in nearly every city of Europe and America. They are not only speedier
+than the horse and wagon, but their keeping costs less. They are
+economical only on good roads. The bicycle, no longer a plaything,
+exerted a very decided effect on transportation when the "pneumatic" or
+inflated rubber tire came into use. Through the bicycle came the demand
+for good roads; and several thousand miles of the best surfaced roads
+are built in the United States each year.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary highways or roads, the paved streets of the large cities
+excepted, are popularly known either as "dirt" roads or "macadamized"
+roads, the latter name being applied to about every sort of graded
+highway that has been surfaced with broken rock. Most of the roads of
+western Europe are of this character. They are laid out with easy
+grades, and a thick foundation of heavy stone is covered with smaller
+pieces of broken rock, the whole being finished off with a top-dressing
+of fine material. Once built, the expense of keeping them in good order
+is less than that of keeping a dirt road in bad order.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the country highways of the United States are dirt roads that
+are deep with dust in dry weather and almost impassable at the breaking
+of winter. Roads of this character are such a detriment that grain
+farming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> will not pay when the farm is distant twenty miles or more from
+the nearest railway. Many a farmer pays more to haul his grain to the
+nearest railway station than from the railway station to London.</p>
+
+<p>Since it has become apparent that the commercial development of many
+agricultural regions depends quite as much on good wagon roads as upon
+railways and expensive farming machinery, there has been a disposition
+to grade and rock-surface all roads that are important highways.
+Intercommunication becomes vastly easier; the cost of transportation is
+lessened by more than one-half; and the wear and destruction of vehicles
+is reduced to a minimum. In every case the improvement of the road is
+designed to increase traffic by making a given power do more work in
+less time.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What have been the effects of Bessemer steel on the carrying power of
+railways?&mdash;on cheapening freight rates?</p>
+
+<p>What would be some of the effects first apparent were a large city like
+London or New York suddenly cut off from railway communication?</p>
+
+<p>What is meant by a tubular boiler?&mdash;by a forced draught?&mdash;by a
+switch?&mdash;by an automatic coupler?</p>
+
+<p>Ascertain from a railway official the various danger-signals as
+indicated by lights, flags, and whistle-blasts.</p>
+
+<p>Why should not crated furniture and coal have the same freight rate?</p>
+
+<p>What is meant by a pool?&mdash;by long haul and short haul?&mdash;by rebate?</p>
+
+<p>If the rate on a given weight of merchandise is one dollar and fifty
+cents for five miles, should it be three hundred dollars for one
+thousand miles?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Hartley's Railroad Transportation.</p>
+
+<p>American Railways.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/image49.jpg">
+<img src="images/image49_th.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>FACTORS IN THE LOCATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The population of the world is very unevenly distributed. Not far from
+nine-tenths live in lowland plains, below an altitude of 1,200 feet, in
+regions where food-stuffs grow. The remainder live mainly in the
+grass-producing regions of the great plateaus, the mining regions or the
+flood-plains and grassy slopes of the higher montane regions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Communal Life.</b>&mdash;In each of these regions, also, there is a very unequal
+massing of population. In part, the various families live isolated from
+one another; in part, they gather into cities and villages. In other
+words the population of a habitable region may be classed as <i>rural</i> and
+<i>urban</i>. In the United States and western Europe, agricultural pursuits
+encourage rural life, each family living on its own estate. In Russia,
+the agricultural population usually cluster in villages.</p>
+
+<p>The farmer or freeholder who owns or controls his estate, exemplifies
+the most advanced condition of personal and political liberty. Only a
+few centuries have elapsed since not only the land but also the life of
+a subject was the property of the king or the feudal lord, and in those
+days about the only people living in isolation were outlaws. In most
+cases the communal system, best exemplified in Russia, marks an
+intermediate stage between a low and a high state of civilization; in
+other instances it is necessary in order to insure safety. German
+farmers in Siberia usually adopt the village plan for this reason.</p>
+
+<p>For the greater part, the non-agricultural population of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> the civilized
+world is massed in villages and cities for reasons that have nothing to
+do with either civilization or self-defence. The causes that bring about
+the massing of urban population are many and their operation is complex.
+In general, however, it is to facilitate one or more of several things,
+namely&mdash;the receiving, distribution, and transportation of commodities,
+the manufacture of products, the existence of good harbors, and the
+existence of minerals and metals necessary in the various industries.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Beginnings of Towns and Cities.</b>&mdash;The "country town" of agricultural
+regions in many ways is the best type of the centre of population
+engaged in receiving and disbursing commodities. The farmers living in
+their vicinity send their crops to it for transportation or final
+disposition. The country store is a sort of clearing-house, exchanging
+household and other commodities, such as sugar, tea, coffee, spices,
+drugs, silks, woollens, cotton goods, farming machinery, and furniture
+for farm products. A railway station, grain elevator, and one or more
+banks form the rest of its business equipment.</p>
+
+<p>Usually the town has resulted from a position of easy access. It may be
+the crossing of two highways, a good landing-place on a river, the
+existence of a fording-place, a bridge, a ferry, a toll gate, or a point
+that formed a convenient resting-place for a day's journey. The towns
+and villages along the "buffalo" roads are examples almost without
+number.</p>
+
+<p>The "siding" or track where freight cars may be held for unloading, has
+formed the beginning of many a town. The siding was located at the
+convenience of the railway company; the village resulting could have
+grown equally well almost anywhere else along the line.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image50.jpg" width="600" height="370" alt="THE EFFECT OF POSITION&mdash;BUFFALO IS AT THE FOOT OF LAKE
+ERIE AND THE HEAD OF ERIE CANAL; AN EXCELLENT HARBOR FACILITATES ITS
+COMMERCE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE EFFECT OF POSITION&mdash;BUFFALO IS AT THE FOOT OF LAKE
+ERIE AND THE HEAD OF ERIE CANAL; AN EXCELLENT HARBOR FACILITATES ITS
+COMMERCE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p><p>In the early history of nearly every country, military posts formed the
+beginnings of many centres that have grown to be large cities. Thus,
+Rome, Paris, London, the various "chesters"<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> of England, Milan,
+Turin, Paris, Chicago, Pittsburg, and Albany were established first as
+military outposts. The trading post was most conveniently established
+under the protection of the military camp, and the subsequent growth
+depended partly on an accessible position, and partly on the
+intelligence of the men who controlled the trade of the surrounding
+regions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Harbors as Factors in the Growth of Cities.</b>&mdash;A good harbor draws trade
+from a great distance. Thus, with a rate of 14&frac12; cents on a bushel of
+wheat from Chicago, New York City draws a trade from a region having a
+radius of more than one thousand miles. In its trade with Chinese ports,
+Seattle, the chief port of Puget Sound, reaches as far eastward as
+London and Hamburg.</p>
+
+<p><b>Water-Power as a Factor.</b>&mdash;The presence of water-power has brought about
+the establishment of many centres that have grown into populous cities.
+The water-power of the New England plateau had much to do with the rapid
+growth of the New England States. At the time of the various embargo and
+non-intercourse acts preceding the war of 1812, a great amount of
+capital was thrown into idleness. The water-power was made available
+because, during this time, the people were compelled to manufacture for
+themselves the commodities that before had been imported.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacturing industry at first was prosecuted in the southern
+Appalachians as well as in the New England plateau. It survived in the
+latter, partly because of the capital available, and partly owing to the
+business experience of the people. In the meantime villages sprang up in
+pretty nearly every locality in which there was available water-power.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p><p>Since the use of coal and the advent of cheap railway transportation,
+steam has largely supplanted water-power, unless the latter is unlimited
+in supply. As a result, there is a marked growth of the smaller centres
+of population along the various water-fronts. In such cases the
+advantages of a water-front offset the loss of water-power.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Effects of Metals on the Growth of Cities.</b>&mdash;The character of the
+industry of a region has much to do with the character of its
+manufactures. Thus, coal is absolutely essential to the manufacture of
+iron and steel; and, inasmuch as from two to eight tons of the former
+are necessary to manufacture a ton of steel, it is cheaper to ship the
+ore to a place to which coal can be cheaply brought.</p>
+
+<p>The coal-fields are responsible for the greater part of Pittsburg's
+population, and almost wholly for that of Scranton, Wilkesbarre, and
+many other Pennsylvania towns. Iron and coal are responsible, also, for
+many cities and towns in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. Birmingham,
+Salford, and Cardiff in Great Britain, Dortmund and Essen in Germany,
+and St. &Eacute;tienne in France have resulted from the presence of coal and
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>In many instances man is a great factor in the establishment of a centre
+of population. Chicago would have been quite as well off in two or three
+other locations; its present location is the result of man's energy and
+is not likely to be changed. St. Louis might have been built at a dozen
+different places and would have fared just as well; the same is true of
+St. Paul, or of Indianapolis.</p>
+
+<p>Leavenworth at one time was a more promising city than Kansas City, but
+the building of an iron bridge over the Missouri River at the latter
+place gave it a start, and wide-awake men kept it in the lead. It has
+grown at the expense of Leavenworth and St. Joseph, neither one of which
+has become a commercial centre. Cairo, at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> junction of the
+Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, has the geographical position for a great
+city; it waits for the man who can concentrate the commerce there.</p>
+
+<p><b>Adjustment to Environment.</b>&mdash;San Francisco was wisely located at first,
+but its grain trade was more economically carried on at Karquinez
+Strait, while its oriental trade is gradually concentrating at Seattle.
+Philadelphia lost its commercial supremacy when the completion of the
+Erie Canal gave return cargoes to foreign vessels discharging at New
+York City. Oswego, N.Y., had the advantage of both harbor facilities and
+water-power, but Syracuse, with practically no advantages except those
+of leadership, has far outstripped it.</p>
+
+<p>Such instances of the readjustment of centres of population have been
+common in the past; they will also occur in the future. In nearly every
+case the readjustment results from economic causes, the opening of new
+lines of transportation, the lowering of the cost of the production of a
+commodity, the discovery of new economic processes&mdash;all these cause a
+disturbance of population, and the latter must readjust itself to new
+and changed conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Not all peoples have the necessary intelligence and training at first to
+adapt themselves to their environment. For the greater part, the
+American Indians were unable to take advantage of the wonderful
+resources of the continent in which they lived. The Boers occupied about
+the richest part of Africa, but made no use of the natural wealth of the
+country beyond the grazing industry; in fact, their nomadic life reduced
+them to a plane of civilization materially lower than that of their
+ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>People of the highest state of civilization do not always adjust
+themselves to their environment readily. The people of the New England
+plateau were nearly a century in learning that they possessed nearly all
+the best harbors of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> the Atlantic coast of North America. When, however,
+the great commerce of the country had been wiped out of existence, it
+did not take them long to readjust themselves to the industry of
+manufacture, the water-power being the natural resource that made the
+industry profitable.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Were the middle Atlantic coast of the United States to undergo an
+elevation of 100 feet, what would be the effect on New York City?</p>
+
+<p>Find the factors that led to the settlement of the city or town in which
+or near which you live. What caused the settlement of the three or four
+largest towns in the same county?&mdash;of the following places: Minneapolis,
+Fall River, New Haven, New Bedford, Cairo (Ill.), Cairo (Egypt),
+Marseille, Aix-la-Chapelle, Alexandria (Egypt), Washington (D.C.),
+Columbus (O.), Johannesburg (Africa), Kimberley (Africa), Albany (N.Y.),
+Punta Arenas (S.A.), Scranton (Pa.), Vancouver (B.C.), San Francisco,
+Cape Nome?</p>
+
+<p>What circumstances connected with commerce led to the passing of the
+following-named places: Palmyra, Carthage, Babylon, Genoa, Venice,
+Ancient Rome, Jerusalem?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">COLLATERAL REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Any good cyclop&aelig;dia.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CEREALS AND GRASSES</h3>
+
+
+<p>Of all the plants connected with the economies of mankind the grasses
+hold easily the first place. Not only are the seeds of certain species
+the chief food of nearly all peoples, but the plants themselves are the
+food of most animals whose flesh is used as meat. Wheat, maize, and rice
+are used by all except a very few peoples; and about all the animals
+used for food, fish and mollusks excepted, are grain eaters, or grass
+eaters, or both.</p>
+
+<p>The grasses of the Plains in Texas, the Veldt in South Africa, and the
+hills of New Zealand by nature's processes are converted into meat that
+feeds the great cities of western Europe and the eastern United States.
+The corn of the Mississippi valley becomes the pork which, yielded from
+the carcasses of more than forty million swine, is exported to half the
+countries of the world. Even the two and one-half billion pounds of wool
+consumed yearly is converted grass.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wheat.</b>&mdash;The wheat of commerce is the seed of several species of cereal
+grass, one of which, <i>Triticum sativum</i>, is the ordinary cultivated
+plant. Wild species are found in the highlands of Kurdistan, in Greece,
+and in Mesopotamia, that are identical with species cultivated to-day.
+It is thought that the cultivation of the grain began in Mesopotamia,
+but it is also certain that it was grown by the Swiss lake-dwellers far
+back in prehistoric times. It is the "corn" Joseph's brothers sought to
+buy when they went to Egypt, and the records of its harvesting are
+scattered all over the pages of written history.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image53.jpg" width="600" height="948" alt="THE GRAIN CROP&mdash;MODERN METHODS OF CULTIVATION AND
+HARVESTING" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE GRAIN CROP&mdash;MODERN METHODS OF CULTIVATION AND
+HARVESTING</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p><p>Of the one and one-half billion people that constitute the world's
+population, more than one-third, or about eight times the population of
+the United States, are consumers of wheat-bread; and this number is
+yearly increasing by twelve million. Moreover, each individual of this
+aggregate consumes yearly very nearly one barrel of flour, or about four
+and one-half bushels of wheat. In other words, it requires somewhat more
+than two billion three hundred million bushels of wheat each year to
+supply the world's demand.<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> As a matter of fact the world's crop is
+yearly consumed so nearly to the danger-line that very often the
+"visible supply," or the amount known to be in the market, is reduced to
+a few million bushels.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat will grow under very wide ranges of climate, but it thrives best
+between the parallels of 25&deg; and 55&deg;. In a soil very rich in vegetable
+mould it is apt to "run to stalk." A rather poor clay-loam produces the
+best seed,<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> and a hard seed, rather than a heavy stalk, is required.</p>
+
+<p>In the latitude of Kansas the seeds planted in the fall will retain
+their vitality through the winter; in the latitude of Dakota they are
+"winter-killed," as a rule. Because of this feature two broad classes or
+divisions of the crop are recognized in commerce&mdash;the winter and the
+spring varieties. In general, the spring wheats are regarded as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+better, and this is nearly always the case in localities too cold for
+winter wheat. There are exceptions to this rule, however. In the main,
+winter wheat ripens first, and is therefore first in the market.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image54.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="WHEAT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WHEAT</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Europe the plain that faces the North and Baltic Seas, and that part
+which extends through southern Russia,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> yield the chief part of the
+crop, although the plains of the Po, the Danube, and Bohemia furnish
+heavy crops. Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy are all
+wheat states.</p>
+
+<p>In a normal year all Europe produces a little more than one-half
+(fifty-five per cent.) of the world's crop. Russia and France excepted,
+scarcely another state produces as much as is consumed. Great Britain
+consumes her entire crop in three months; Germany in about six months.
+France sends a part of her crop to Great Britain and buys of Russia to
+fill the deficiency. Russia consumes but very little of her wheat-crop;
+it is nearly all sold to the states of western Europe. All Europe
+consumes about one billion seven hundred and ten million bushels, but
+produces about one billion two hundred and fifty million; the remainder
+is supplied by the United States, India, Argentina, Africa, and
+Australia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image55.jpg" width="600" height="381" alt="WHEAT IN UNITED STATES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WHEAT IN UNITED STATES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the United States the great bulk of the crop comes from the upper
+Mississippi valley and Pacific coast States.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> About one-third is
+consumed where it is grown; more than one-third is required for the
+populous centres of the east; a little less than one-third is exported,
+of which about ninety per cent. goes to Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image56.jpg" width="500" height="235" alt="WHEAT PRODUCTION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WHEAT PRODUCTION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Much of this, especially the Pacific coast product, is sold unground,
+but each year an increasing amount is made into flour. The flour
+manufacture of the United States aggregates somewhat more than
+160,000,000 barrels yearly&mdash;the output of 16,000 flour-mills; the
+Pillsbury mills of Minneapolis alone have a capacity of 60,000 barrels a
+week. In Europe the Hungarian mills and their output of Bohemian flour
+are the chief competitors of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image56a.jpg" width="400" height="143" alt="WHEAT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WHEAT</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wheat-crop of the Pacific coast has usually been a factor by itself.
+On account of the absence of summer rains, the kernel is both plump and
+hard. After the threshing process it is sacked and stored in the fields
+in which it has grown.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Heretofore much of the sacked wheat has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> been
+shipped to European markets by the Cape Horn route, but in late years a
+yearly increasing amount is made into flour and sold in China, Japan,
+and Siberia. In 1900 nearly two million barrels were thus sent.</p>
+
+<p>East of the Rocky Mountains, after the grain is harvested much of it is
+sold to dealers whose storage elevators<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> are scattered all over the
+wheat-growing region, and at all great points of shipment, such as
+Duluth, Minneapolis, Buffalo, and the eastern seaports. Before the grain
+is transferred to the elevators it is inspected and graded, and the cars
+which contain it are sealed. This wheat constitutes the "visible
+supply." All the business concerning it is transacted by means of
+"warehouse receipts," that have almost the currency of ready money.
+Banks loan money on them almost to their market value.</p>
+
+<p>Under normal conditions, the cost of growing and harvesting a bushel of
+wheat&mdash;including interest on the land and deterioration of the
+machinery, etc.&mdash;is between fifty and fifty-five cents. The market
+price, when not affected by "corners" and other gambling transactions,
+usually varies between sixty-two and eighty-five cents. The difference
+between these figures is divided between the farmer and the "middlemen,"
+the share of the latter being in the form of commissions and elevator
+charges.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image56b.jpg" width="600" height="880" alt="STORING PACIFIC COAST WHEAT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">STORING PACIFIC COAST WHEAT</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p><p>In addition to bread-making wheat, certain varieties of grain known as
+macaroni wheat have a certain importance in the market. Several
+varieties are so hardy that they easily resist extremely cold winters;
+they will also grow in regions too dry for ordinary varieties. In this
+respect they are well adapted to the plains at the eastern base of the
+Rocky Mountains. The only detriment is the lack of a steady market.
+Macaroni wheat has a very hard kernel and is rich in gluten. It is used
+mainly in the manufacture of macaroni paste, but in Europe, when mixed
+with three times its weight of ordinary soft wheat, it is much used in
+making flour. The small amount now grown in the United States is shipped
+mainly to France.</p>
+
+<p>The yield of wheat varies partly with the rainfall, but the difference
+is due mainly to skill in cultivation. In western Europe it is from two
+to three times as great as in the United States; in Russia and India it
+is much less.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>The yearly consumption of wheat is increasing very rapidly both in the
+United States and in Europe; moreover, China is becoming a
+wheat-consuming country. In the United States the consumption is
+increasing so rapidly that unless either the acreage of the crop, or
+else the yield per acre, is materially increased, there will be no
+surplus for export after the year 1931.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image57.jpg" width="600" height="357" alt="THE WHEAT INDUSTRY&mdash;GRAIN ELEVATORS AT BUFFALO, NEW
+YORK" title="" /><span class="caption">THE WHEAT INDUSTRY&mdash;GRAIN ELEVATORS AT BUFFALO, NEW
+YORK</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p><p>In the United States the acreage may be somewhat increased by the
+irrigation of arid lands now uncultivated, and by the reclamation of
+overflowed and swamp lands. There are far greater possibilities,
+however, in the employment of methods of cultivation which will double
+the rate of present yield. It is doubtful if there can be much increase
+of acreage in the States of the Mississippi Valley, where the acreage
+will of necessity be lessened rather than increased.</p>
+
+<p>In western Europe there can be no material increase of the acreage or
+the rate of yield; in Russia both are possible. The plains of Argentina
+now yield a notable quantity&mdash;about one hundred million bushels&mdash;and the
+amount may be increased. Moreover, a large product may be obtained from
+both Uruguay and Paraguay, and southern Brazil, neither one of which
+produces a considerable quantity. At the present rate of the increase in
+consumption, all of the available land, yielding its maximum, will not
+produce a sufficient crop at the end of the twentieth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>Corn.</b>&mdash;Maize or Indian corn is the seed of a plant, <i>Zea mays</i>, a member
+of the grass family. It is not known to exist in a wild state. The
+species now cultivated are undoubtedly derived from the American
+continent, but evidence is not wanting to show that it was known in
+China and the islands of Asia before the discovery of America.<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> The
+commercial history of corn begins with the discovery of America. Next to
+meat it was the chief food of the native American; next to wheat it is
+the chief food-stuff in the American continent to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Corn requires a rich soil and is not so hardy as wheat. It thrives best
+in regions having long summers and warm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> nights. The growing crop is
+easily injured by too much rain. It is an abundant crop in the central
+Mississippi Valley, but not near the coast; it is very prolific in
+Nebraska, but not in Dakota; it thrives in Italy, Austria, and the
+Balkan Peninsula, but not in the British Isles and Germany. It is a very
+important crop in Australia, and is the staple grain of Mexico. It is
+the crop of fourteen-hour days and warm nights.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image58.jpg" width="600" height="390" alt="CORN" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CORN</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The United States is the chief producer of corn, and from an area of
+80,000,000 acres&mdash;about that of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois
+combined&mdash;more than two billion bushels, or four-fifths of the world's
+crop, are produced. In the past few years the area planted with corn has
+not materially increased, and it is likely to be lessened rather than
+increased in the future. From the same acreage, however, the annual
+yield, now about twenty-five or thirty bushels per acre, can be more
+than doubled by the use of more skilful methods of cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>Corn contains more fatty substance, or natural oil, than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> wheat, and
+therefore has a greater heating power. For this reason it is better than
+wheat for out-of-door workers, and it is almost the only cereal
+food-stuff consumed in Spanish America. It is also a staple food-stuff
+in Egypt. Corn has been used as a bread-stuff in the United States,
+Italy, and Rumania<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> for a long time. In recent years, however, its
+use has become very popular in Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image59.jpg" width="500" height="164" alt="CORN PRODUCTION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CORN PRODUCTION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the United States by far the greater part of the crop is consumed
+where it is grown, being used to fatten swine and cattle. The market
+value of a pound of corn is about one-third of a cent; converted into
+pork or beef, however, it is worth five or six times as much. By feeding
+the corn to stock, therefore, a farmer may turn an unmarketable product
+into one for which there is a steady demand.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image59a.jpg" width="400" height="128" alt="CORN" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CORN</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although corn is not so essential a staple as wheat, it has a much wider
+range of usefulness. The starch made from it is considered a delicacy
+and is used very largely in America and Europe as an article of food.
+Glucose, a cheap but wholesome substitute for sugar, is made from it;
+from the oil a substitute for rubber is prepared; smokeless powder and
+other explosives are made from the pith of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> the stalk; while a very
+large part of the product is used in the manufacture of liquor.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rye.</b>&mdash;Rye is the seed of a cereal grass, <i>Secale cereale</i>, a plant
+closely resembling wheat in external appearance. Rye will grow in soils
+that are too poor for wheat; its northern limit is in latitudes somewhat
+greater than that of wheat, also. It is an ideal crop for the sandy
+plain stretching from the Netherlands into central Russia, and this
+locality produces almost the whole yield. The world's crop is about one
+and a half billion bushels, of which Russia produces nearly two-thirds.
+Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Japan grow nearly all the rest. It is
+consumed where it is grown. In the United States the yearly product is
+about twenty-five million bushels, about one-tenth of which is exported
+to Europe. Rye-bread is almost always sour, and this fact is its chief
+disadvantage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Barley.</b>&mdash;Barley is the seed of several species of cereal grass, mainly
+<i>Hordeum distichum</i> and <i>Hordeum vulgare</i>. It is one of the oldest-used
+of bread-stuffs. It can be cultivated farther north than wheat, and
+about as far within the tropics as corn; it has, therefore, very wide
+limits. Formerly it was much used in northwestern Europe as a
+bread-stuff, but in recent years it has been in part supplanted by wheat
+and corn. Barley is a most excellent food for horses, and in California
+is grown mainly for this purpose. Its chief use is for the manufacture
+of the malt used in brewing.</p>
+
+<p>The world's crop of barley is not far from one billion bushels, of which
+the United States produces about sixty million bushels. Most of the crop
+is grown in the Germanic states of Europe, and in Russia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Oats.</b>&mdash;The oat is the seed of a cereal grass, <i>Avena sativa</i> being the
+species almost always cultivated. It is not known where the cultivated
+species originated, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> earliest known locality is central Europe,
+where it was certainly a domestic plant during the Bronze Age. It seems
+probable that the species now cultivated in Scotland at one time grew
+wild in western Europe; certain it is that wild species are found in
+North America.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image60.jpg" width="500" height="240" alt="OATS PRODUCTION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">OATS PRODUCTION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The oat grows within rather wider limits of latitude, and thrives in a
+greater variety of soils than does wheat. Grown in a moist climate,
+however, the grain is at its best. The oat-crop of the world aggregates
+more than three billion bushels, surpassing that of wheat or corn in
+measurement, but not in weight. A small portion of this is used as a
+bread-stuff, but the greater part is used as horse-food, for which it is
+remarkably adapted.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image60a.jpg" width="400" height="110" alt="OATS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">OATS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Europe, Russia is the greatest producer, and its yearly oat harvest
+is about one-quarter of the world's crop. The states of northwestern
+Europe yield about half the entire crop; the wheat-growing area of the
+United States produces the remaining one-fourth. Russia and the United
+States are both exporters, the grain going to western Europe. By far the
+greater part of the grain is consumed where it is grown.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rice.</b>&mdash;Rice is the seed of a cereal grass, <i>Oryza sativa</i>. It is claimed
+to be native to India, but it is known to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> been cultivated in China
+for more than five thousand years. It grows wild in Australia and
+Malaysia.</p>
+
+<p>Rice requires plenty of warmth and moisture. It is cultivated in the
+warmer parts of the temperate zone, but it thrives best in the tropical
+regions. In China a considerable upland rice is grown, but for the
+greater part it is grown in level lowlands that may be flooded with
+water. The preparation of the fields is a matter of great expense, for
+they may require flooding and draining at a moment's notice. The crop
+matures in from three to six months. After threshing, the seed is still
+covered with a husk, and in this form it is known as "paddy."</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Why is not wheat-growing a profitable industry in the New England
+States?&mdash;in the plains at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains?&mdash;in
+the southern part of the United States?</p>
+
+<p>What are meant by the following terms: No. 1 spring, a corner, a disk
+harrow, a cradle, a flail, a separator, futures, warehouse certificates?</p>
+
+<p>In 1855 the price of a barrel of flour in New York or Boston was about
+twelve dollars; at the close of the century it was less than five.
+Explain how the lessened price came about.</p>
+
+<p>From a census or other report make a list of the ten leading
+wheat-producing States; the ten that produce the most corn.</p>
+
+<p>Why are the foreign shipments of oats less than those of wheat?</p>
+
+<p>What are the prices current of wheat, corn, oats, and barley to-day?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Obtain samples of the different kinds of wheat, oats, barley, corn,
+millet, and rice. Put the grain in small, closely stoppered vials;
+attach the heads of the small grains to sheets of cardboard of the
+proper size.</p>
+
+<p>Read "The Wheat Problem"&mdash;Chapter I.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image61a.jpg" width="400" height="234" alt="PICKING COTTON, ALABAMA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PICKING COTTON, ALABAMA</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image61b.jpg" width="400" height="234" alt="TRANSPORTING COTTON FROM WHARF, CHARLESTON, S.C." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TRANSPORTING COTTON FROM WHARF, CHARLESTON, S.C.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image61c.jpg" width="600" height="235" alt="COTTON PRESS YARD, NEW ORLEANS, LA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COTTON PRESS YARD, NEW ORLEANS, LA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>TEXTILE FIBRES</h3>
+
+
+<p>Under the term "textile" are included the fibrous substances that can be
+spun into threads, and woven or felted into cloth. Some of these, like
+the covering of the sheep, goat, and llama, or the cocoon of the
+silk-worm, are of animal origin; others, like cotton furze, the husk of
+the cocoanut, and the bast of the flax-plant are vegetable products.
+Their use in the manufacture of cloth antedates the period at which
+written history begins; it probably begins with the time when primitive
+man gradually ceased to have the hairy covering necessary to protect him
+from the conditions of climate and weather.</p>
+
+<p>As body coverings all these substances are dependent on a single
+principle, namely&mdash;they are poor conductors of heat; that is, they do
+not permit the natural heat of the body to pass away quickly, nor do
+they allow sudden changes of the temperature to reach the body quickly.
+In other words, because of the artificial covering which mankind alone
+requires, bodily heat is not dissipated more rapidly than it is created;
+if it were, the covering would be worthless. A suit of clothes made of
+steel wire, for instance, because it conducts heat so rapidly, might
+chill, or perhaps heat the body more quickly than the open air.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to warming qualities wool surpasses all other textiles. It
+is employed for clothing in every part of the world and by nearly all
+peoples. Cotton is used mainly also for body coverings, but it is
+inferior to wool for protection against cold. It is used by practically
+all peoples,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> savage and civilized, outside of the frigid zones. Linen
+is inferior both to cotton and wool for clothing; its use is also
+restricted by its great cost. Silk is used mainly for ornamental cloths.
+Hemp is used mainly for cordage, and the use of ramie, jute, and sisal
+hemp is confined mainly to the manufacture of very coarse cloths and
+rugs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cotton.</b>&mdash;The cotton fibre of commerce is the lint surrounding the seeds
+of several species of <i>Gossypium</i>, plants belonging to the same natural
+order as the marshmallow and the hollyhock. The cultivated species have
+been carried from India to different parts of the world, but
+cotton-bearing plants are also native to the American. A native
+tree-cotton, known as Barbados cotton, occurs in the West Indies; a
+herbaceous cotton-plant is known to have been cultivated in Peru long
+before the discovery of Columbus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image62a.jpg" width="600" height="437" alt="COTTON-PRODUCING REGIONS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COTTON-PRODUCING REGIONS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>More than four hundred years before the Christian era Herodotus
+describes it and mentions a gin for separating<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> the lint from the seed.
+Nearchus, an admiral serving under Alexander the Great, brought to
+Europe specimens of cotton cloth, and in the course of time it became an
+article of commerce among Greek and Roman merchants.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton-plant requires warmth, moisture, and a long season. It also
+thrives best near the sea. It grows better, on the whole, in subtropical
+rather than in tropical regions, and the difference is due probably to
+the longer days and higher temperature of the subtropical latitudes. In
+the United States the northern limit is approximately the thirty-eighth
+parallel. The seeds are planted, as a rule, during the first three weeks
+of April and the first two of May. The plants bloom about the middle of
+June; the boll or pod matures during July, and bursts about the first of
+August. The picking begins in August.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image62b.jpg" width="600" height="387" alt="COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The yield and the quality of the textile depend not only on conditions
+of the soil, but on locality. In the river flood-plains of the southern
+United States the yield is about two bales per acre; on the bluff lands
+it is but little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> more than one, unless unusual care is taken in the
+preparation of the land. The islands off the Carolina coast produce a
+very fine long-staple variety, commercially known as <i>sea island
+cotton</i>. A district in China produces a good fibre of brownish color
+known as <i>nankeen</i>, named for the city of Nanking, whence formerly it
+was exported. The valley of Piura River, Peru, produces varieties of
+long-staple cotton that in quality closely resemble silk.</p>
+
+<p>The fibre of ordinary American cotton is about seven-eighths of an inch
+long; it is made into the fabrics commercially known as "domestics" and
+"prints," or calico. If the fibre averages a little longer than the
+common grades it is reserved for canvas. Ordinary Peruvian cotton has a
+fibre nearly two inches long; it is used in the manufacture of hosiery
+and balbriggan underwear, and also to adulterate wool. The long-staple
+cotton of the Piura Valley is bought by British manufacturers at a high
+price, and used in the webbing of rubber tires and hose. Egyptian cotton
+is very fine and is used mainly in the manufacture of thread and the
+finer grades of balbriggan underwear. Sea island fibre is nearly two
+inches long and is used almost wholly in the making of thread and lace.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of cotton cultivation resulted in very far-reaching
+consequences both from a political as well as an economic stand-point.
+The invention of the steam-engine by Watt gave England an enormous
+mechanical power. To utilize this the cotton industry was wrested from
+Hindustan; the mills were concentrated in Manchester and Lancashire; the
+cotton-fields were transferred to the United States.</p>
+
+<p>As a result, the plains of Hindustan were strewn with the bodies of
+starved weavers and spinners, but a great industry grew into existence
+in England. The invention of spinning machinery by Arkwright, Crompton,
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> Hargreaves, and the gradual improvement of the power-loom, greatly
+reduced the cost of making the cloth and, at the same time, enormously
+increased the demand for it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image63.jpg" width="500" height="183" alt="COTTON PRODUCTION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COTTON PRODUCTION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the United States the consequences were far more serious. The
+invention of the engine or "gin" for separating the lint from the seed
+made cotton cultivation highly profitable.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> The negro slaves, who had
+been scattered throughout the colonies and the States that succeeded
+them, were soon drawn to the cotton-growing States to supply the needed
+field-labor; and, indeed, white workmen could not stand the hot, moist
+climate of the cotton-fields.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton-mills grew up in the Northern manufacturing States. The
+Northern manufacturer needed a tariff on imported goods to protect him
+from European competition; the Southern cotton-planter who purchased
+much of his supplies abroad was hurt by the tariff. After about sixty
+years of strained relations between the two sections there occurred the
+Civil War which wiped out nearly one million lives, and rolled up a
+debt, direct and indirect, of nearly six billions of dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The world's cotton-crop aggregates from twelve million<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> to fifteen
+million bales yearly, of which the United States produces, as a rule, a
+little more than three-fourths. Egypt is rapidly taking an important
+place among cotton-producing countries, and, with the completion of the
+various irrigating canals, will very soon rank next to the United
+States. India ranks about third; China and Korea produce about the same
+quantity. There are a few cotton-cloth mills in these states, but in
+Japan the manufacture is increasing, the mills being equipped with the
+best of modern machinery. Brazil has a small product, and Russia in Asia
+needs transportation facilities only to increase largely its growing
+output.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image64a.jpg" width="400" height="138" alt="COTTON" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COTTON</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cotton-crop of the United States is quite evenly distributed;
+one-third is manufactured at home; one-third is purchased by Great
+Britain; and the remaining third goes mainly to western Europe. In the
+past few years China has become a constantly increasing purchaser of
+American cotton. New Orleans, Galveston, Savannah, and New York are the
+chief ports of shipment. The imported Egyptian and Peruvian cotton is
+landed mainly at New York. Most of the cotton manufacture is carried on
+in the New England States, but there is a very rapid extension of cotton
+manufacture in the South.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wool.</b>&mdash;The wool of commerce is a term applied to the fleece of the
+common sheep, to that of certain species of goat, and to that of the
+camel and its kind. There is no hard-and-fast distinction between hair
+and wool,<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> but, in general, wool fibres have rough edges, much
+resembling overlapping scales which interlock with one another; hair, as
+a rule, has a hard, smooth surface. If a mass of loose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> wool be spread
+out and beaten, or if it be pressed between rollers, the fibres
+interlock so closely that there results a thick, strong cloth which has
+been made without either spinning or weaving.</p>
+
+<p>This property, known as "felting," gives to wool a great part of its
+value, and is its chief distinction from hair. Some kinds of hair,
+however, have a slight felting property, and if sufficiently fine may be
+spun and woven. The hair of the common goat is worthless for this
+purpose, but that of the Cashmere and Angora species have the properties
+of wool. The hair of the Bactrian camel, and also that of the llama,
+alpaca, and vicu&ntilde;a is soft and fine, possessing felting qualities that
+make it very superior as a textile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image64b.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt="WOOL PRODUCING REGIONS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WOOL PRODUCING REGIONS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The quality of wool varies greatly according to the conditions of soil,
+climate, and the character of the food of the animal. In commerce,
+however, the fleeces are commonly graded as "long-staple,"
+"short-staple," "merino," and "coarse."</p>
+
+<p>In long-staple wools the fibres are from four to eight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> inches long;
+they are more easily separated by a process much like combing, and are
+therefore called "combing" wools. The cotswold, cheviot, and most of the
+wools of the British Isles are of this kind; indeed, in fairly moist
+lowland regions such as Canada and the United States, there is a
+tendency toward the development of a long-staple product. The English
+long-staple wools are largely made into worsted cloth, the Scotch
+cheviot into tweeds, and the French into the best dress cloth.</p>
+
+<p>If the fibres are materially less than four inches in length, the
+product is classed as a short-staple or "carding" wool. By far the
+greater part of the wool of the United States, Canada, and Europe is of
+this class. It is disposed of according to its fineness or fitness for
+special purposes, the greater part being made into cloths for the medium
+grades of men's clothing.</p>
+
+<p>The finest and softest wool as a rule is grown in arid, plateau regions,
+and of this kind of staple the merino is an example. The fibres are fine
+as silk, and the goods made from them are softer. The Mission wool of
+California is the product of merino sheep, and, indeed, the conditions
+of climate in southern California and Australia are such as to produce
+the best merino wool. The famous Electoral wool of Saxony is a merino,
+the sheep having been introduced into that country from Spain about
+three hundred years ago. The merino wools, as a rule, are used in the
+most highly finished dress and fancy goods.</p>
+
+<p>The coarse-staple wools are very largely used for American carpets,
+coarse blankets, and certain kinds of heavy outer clothing. The Russian
+Donskoi wool, some of the Argentine fleeces, such as the Cordoban, and
+many of those grown in wet lowlands are very coarse and harsh. The
+quality is due more to climatic conditions and food than to the species
+of sheep; indeed, sheep that in other regions produce a fine wool, when
+introduced to this locality, after a few generations produce coarse
+wool.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image65a.jpg" width="600" height="347" alt="SHEEP FEEDING ON ALFALFA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SHEEP FEEDING ON ALFALFA</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 586px;">
+<img src="images/image65b.jpg" width="586" height="338" alt="SHEEP RANCH, UTAH" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SHEEP RANCH, UTAH</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image65c.jpg" width="600" height="347" alt="THE WOOL-GROWING INDUSTRY" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SHEEP IN THE FEEDING YARD<br />
+THE WOOL-GROWING INDUSTRY</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p><p>The rug wools grown in Persia, Turkestan, Turkey in Asia, and the
+Caucasus Mountains are also characteristic. They vary in fineness, and
+because they do not readily felt they are the best in the world for rug
+stock. The "pile" or surface of the rug remains elastic and stands
+upright even after a hundred years of wear. This quality is due mainly
+to conditions of climate and soil.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image66a.jpg" width="500" height="293" alt="WOOL PRODUCTION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WOOL PRODUCTION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In some instances the wool is obtained by a daily combing of the
+half-grown lambs. This process, however, is employed in the rug-making
+districts only; in general, the fleeces are clipped either with shears
+or machine clippers. In the United States the latter are generally
+employed, and but little attempt is made either to sort the fleeces or
+to separate the various qualities of wool in the same fleece.</p>
+
+<p>The raw wool always contains foreign matter such as burs and dirt; it is
+also saturated with a natural oil which prevents felting. The oil,
+commonly called "grease," or "yolk," is an important article of
+commerce; under the name of "lanolin" (<i>adeps lan&aelig;</i>) it is used in
+medicine and pharmacy as a basis for ointments.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The world's yearly clip is a little more than two and one-half billion
+pounds, of which the United States produces about one-eighth. In Europe
+and the United States, owing to the increasing value of the land, the
+area of production is decreasing; in Australia, South Africa, and
+Argentina, where land is cheap, it is increasing. From these three
+regions wool is exported; most European countries and the United States
+buy it. In the latter country the consumption is about six pounds for
+each person.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image66b.jpg" width="400" height="140" alt="WOOL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WOOL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wools of the Mediterranean countries&mdash;France, Spain, Italy, Algiers,
+Egypt, etc.&mdash;are the best for fine cloths; those of central Asia for
+rugs and shawls; the others are used mainly in medium and low grade
+textiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Wools.</b>&mdash;The Angora goat, originally grown in Anatolia (Asia
+Minor), and the Iran States (Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan),
+furnishes a beautiful white wool, commercially known as "mohair." Smyrna
+is an important market for it, and England is the chief buyer. The
+Angora goat has been introduced into South Africa and California, where
+it is successfully grown. From the former country there is a large
+export of mohair.</p>
+
+<p>Cashmere wool is a fine, downy undercovering, obtained by combing the
+fleece of a goat native to the Kashmir Valley in India. A single animal
+yields scarcely more than an ounce or two, and the best product is worth
+about its weight in gold. It is used in the manufacture of the famous
+Cashmere shawls, which are sold at prices varying from five hundred to
+five thousand dollars. They are made in Persia and India.</p>
+
+<p>Llama and alpaca wool are fine textile obtained from animals of the
+camel kind native to South America. The wool is either black or brown in
+color. A considerable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> part is used for native-made articles, such as
+saddle-blankets, etc., but much of it is exported to England.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the "camel's hair" of commerce was originally worn by goats,
+being called by its commercial name because of a similarity in texture
+to that of the camel's hair. The camel of Turkestan, however, furnishes
+a silky textile that is much used. The brown wool often found in Hamadan
+rugs is natural camel's hair, and a considerable amount mixed with
+sheep's wool is used in certain textiles. The camel's hair of China is
+made into artists' brushes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Silk.</b>&mdash;The silk of commerce is the fibre spun by the larv&aelig; or
+caterpillars of a moth, <i>Bombyx mori</i>, as they enter the chrysalis stage
+of existence. The silk-growing industry includes the care and feeding of
+the insect in all its stages. The leaves of the white mulberry-tree
+(<i>morus alba</i>) are the natural food of the insect, and silk-growing
+cannot be carried on in regions where this tree does not thrive. Not all
+areas that produce the mulberry-tree, however, will also grow the
+silk-worm; the latter cannot exist in regions having very cold winters,
+and therefore the industry is restricted by climate.</p>
+
+<p>The moth, shortly after emerging from the chrysalis stage, lays from two
+or three hundred to seven hundred eggs. These are "hardy"&mdash;that is, they
+will remain fertile for a long time if kept in a cool, dry place;
+moisture will cause them to putrify, and heat to germinate. If well
+protected, they may be transported for distances.</p>
+
+<p>In rearing the silk-worm, as soon as the latter is hatched, it is placed
+on mulberry-leaves, and for five weeks it does nothing but eat, in that
+time consuming many times its weight of food.<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> Then it begins to spin
+the material that forms its chrysalis case or cocoon. The outer part of
+the case consists of a tough envelope not unlike coarse tissue-paper;
+the inner part is a fine thread about one thousand feet long that has
+been wound around the body of the worm. This thread or filament is the
+basis of the silk textile industry.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image67.jpg" width="600" height="870" alt="Silk Industry" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Copyright, 1898, by Nature Study Pub. Co.</i><br />
+<br />
+SILK INDUSTRY<br />
+<br />
+1. Silkworm Eggs<br />
+2. Fourth-stage Worm<br />
+3. Pupa in Cocoon<br />
+4. Cocoon<br />
+5. Male Moth<br />
+6. Female Moth<br />
+7. Unspun Silk<br />
+8. Raw Manufactured Silk<br />
+9. Manufactured Silk</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image68a.jpg" width="600" height="477" alt="SILK PRODUCING REGIONS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SILK PRODUCING REGIONS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the proper time the cocoons are gathered and, if immediately to be
+used, are plunged into hot water. This not only kills the chrysalids but
+softens the cocoons as well, so that the outer cases may be removed. The
+cases removed, the rest of the cocoon is soaked in warm water until the
+gummy matter is softened and the fibres are free enough to be reeled. In
+the latter process the ends of a number of cocoons, varying from five to
+twenty, are caught and loosely twisted into a single strand. The silk
+thus prepared forms the "raw silk" of commerce. Sometimes a number of
+strands of raw silk are twisted into a coarse thread, thereby forming
+"thrown silk." For convenience<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> in handling, both raw and thrown silk
+are made into large skeins called hanks, and most of the silk product is
+exported in this form.</p>
+
+<p>A given quantity of cocoons yields scarcely more than one-tenth its
+weight in good raw silk. The remaining part, consisting of broken fibres
+and cases, is shredded and spun into silk thread of inferior quality.
+This material, commonly called "husks" or "knubs," forms an important
+item in silk manufacture, and much of it is exported to Europe and
+America.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image68b.jpg" width="500" height="244" alt="SILK PRODUCTION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SILK PRODUCTION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to traditions, not wholly trustworthy, eggs of the silk-worm
+were smuggled to India in the head-dress of a Chinese princess. Thence
+sericulture slowly made its way westward to Persia, Asia Minor, and the
+Mediterranean countries. Wild silk, a coarse but strong product, is
+grown in many of these countries, but mainly in China, where it forms an
+important export. The Chinese product is commercially known as "tussar"
+silk. Of the product of raw silk, about thirty-five million pounds,
+China yields about two-fifths, Japan and Italy each one-fifth. The
+remainder is grown in the Levant, Spain, and France.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the raw silk of China is exported from Shanghai and Canton; that
+of Japan is shipped mainly from Yokohama. Among European countries Italy
+is the first producer of raw silk, and France the chief manufacturer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+By the operation of a heavy tariff a considerable manufacture of silk
+textiles has grown up in the United States. New York City and Paterson,
+N.J., are the chief centres of the industry.</p>
+
+<p>The southern part of the United States offers an ideal locality for
+sericulture. Various attempts at silk-worm breeding have failed from
+lack of training, but not on account of geographic conditions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flax.</b>&mdash;The flax of commerce, the basis of linen cloth, is the bast or
+inner bark-fibre of an annual plant (<i>Linum usitalissimum</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, most
+useful fibre), native probably to the Mediterranean basin. It ranks
+among the oldest known textiles. Bundles of unwrought fibre have been
+found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland, and linen cloth constituted
+a part of the sepulture wrappings of the ancient Egyptian dead.</p>
+
+<p>Flax has a very wide range, thriving in the colder parts of Europe as
+well as in tropical Asia; it does equally well in the dry summers of
+California or the moist regions of the Mississippi Valley. The chief
+requisite is a firm soil that contains plenty of nutrition.</p>
+
+<p>After the stalks have passed maturity they are pulled up by hand;
+"rippled," or deprived of their seeds and leaves; "retted," or moistened
+in soft water until the bast separates; "broken" and "scutched" by a
+machine which gets rid of the woody fibres; and finally the loosened
+bast fibre is "hetcheled" or combed in order to separate the long, or
+"line," threads from the "tow" or refuse.</p>
+
+<p>Russia produces more than one-half the world's crop, but the finest and
+choicest is that known as Courtrai fibre, which is grown in Belgium.
+This is thought to be due to the quality of the water in the Lys River.
+A considerable amount of flax grown elsewhere in Europe is sent to this
+part of Belgium to be retted. Ireland and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>Germany produce considerable
+amounts, and a small quantity is grown in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The prepared flax is used in the manufacture of linen cloth, and the
+latter is almost exclusively used for table-cloths, napkins,
+shirt-bosoms, collars, cuffs, and handkerchiefs. France is noted for the
+manufacture of linen lawns and cambrics, and Belfast, Ireland, for
+table-cloths and napkins. Nearly the whole linen product is consumed in
+the United States, Canada, and western Europe; indeed, linen is a mark
+of western civilization. Great Britain handles the greater part of the
+linen textiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hemp.</b>&mdash;The true hemp of commerce is the bast or inner bark of a plant,
+<i>Cannabis sativa</i>, belonging to the nettle order. It is an annual plant
+having a very wide range; it occurs in pretty nearly every country of
+North America, Europe, and Asia. In Europe the chief countries producing
+it for commercial uses are Russia, France, Italy, and Hungary; in the
+United States it is grown in California and the central Mississippi
+Valley. Russia produces the largest crop; Italy the finest quality of
+fibre, the best coming from the vicinity of Bologna.</p>
+
+<p>The stalks grow three feet or more in height. When cultivated for the
+fibre they are pulled from the ground, stripped of their leaves and
+soaked until the fibre is free. They are then "retted," or beaten, and
+the fibre is removed. After preparation the fibre is used mainly for the
+manufacture of wrapping-twine, cordage, and a coarse canvas. Great
+Britain is the chief purchaser and manufacturer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Manila Hemp.</b>&mdash;Manila hemp is the name given to a fibre obtained from the
+leaves of a plant, <i>Musa textilis</i>, belonging to the banana family. The
+best fibres are from six to nine feet in length, of light amber color,
+and very strong. The leaves, torn into narrow strips by hand, are
+afterward scraped by hand until the fibre is free of pulp.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> The long and
+coarser fibres are made into rope; the shorter fibres are beaten and
+hetcheled in the same manner as flax, until fine enough to weave into
+mats, carpets, and fine cloth. The fibres that have served their
+usefulness as rope are pulped and manufactured into manila paper.</p>
+
+<p>Practically all the manila fibre of commerce&mdash;which is not hemp at
+all&mdash;is grown in the Philippine Islands, and since peace has prevailed,
+the growth and production is increasing. The crude fibre is prepared by
+hand, by Filipino or by Chinese labor. The manufacture of cordage and
+paper is done mainly in the United States and Great Britain. Fine
+hand-made textiles are made by a few Filipino natives, but most of the
+goods of this character are manufactured in France. Very fine fibre is
+sometimes used as an adulterant of silk. Great Britain and the United
+States are the chief purchasers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sisal Hemp.</b>&mdash;Sisal hemp, or henequen, is a stout, stringy fibre obtained
+from the thick leaves of several species of agave, to which the maguey
+and century-plant belong. The cultivated species, from which most of the
+commercial product is obtained, is the <i>Agave sisalina</i>, which much
+resembles the ordinary century-plant.</p>
+
+<p>The essential feature in the economic production of sisal hemp is
+machinery for separating the fibre from the pulp of the leaf. The fibre
+is whiter, cleaner, and lighter than jute; moreover, in strength it
+ranks next to the best quality of manila hemp. It is used mainly in the
+manufacture of grain-sacks, and the twine used on self-binding
+harvesters. Nearly all the fibre of commerce is grown in the Mexican
+state of Yucatan and consumed in the United States. The cultivation of
+this material has made Yucatan one of the most prosperous states of
+Mexico.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jute.</b>&mdash;Jute is a fibre obtained from the inner bark of a tropical plant,
+<i>Corchorus olitorius</i>, belonging to the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> order as the linden-tree.
+The plant is an annual, growing in various moist, tropical countries,
+but is extensively cultivated in India and parts of China for commercial
+purposes. The fibre is prepared for manufacture in much the same manner
+as hemp and flax. In India it is used mainly for the manufacture of a
+coarse textile known as gunny cloth, used as bale-wrappers, and sacks
+for coffee and rice. On the Pacific coast states it is used for
+wheat-sacks. Calcutta is the chief centre of manufacture, but jute-sacks
+are extensively manufactured by the Chinese in California and China.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ramie.</b>&mdash;This fibre, also known as China grass, is the best of two or
+more species of nettles, prepared in the same manner as hemp fibre. It
+is finer and stronger than jute, and will take dye-stuffs in a superior
+manner. With the introduction of machinery for separating and handling
+the fibre, the cultivation of the ramie-plant has spread from China to
+India, Japan, and the United States. Fine textiles are now manufactured
+from it, the most important being carpets, mattings, and American
+"Smyrna" rugs. The last are generally sold as jute-rugs, and they are
+nearly as durable as woollen floor-covers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Economic Fibres.</b>&mdash;The fibre of <i>cocoanut husk</i> is largely employed
+in the manufacture of coarse matting. A part of this is obtained from
+tropical America, but it is a regular export of British India, where it
+is known as <i>coir</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The mid-rib of the <i>screw pine</i> growing in the forests of tropical
+America furnishes the material of which "Panama" hats are made. The hats
+are made in various parts of Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia, and were
+formerly marketed in Panama. Hats made of a score of grasses and fibres
+are also sold as Panamas.</p>
+
+<p>A plant (<i>Phormium tenax</i>) having leaves somewhat like those of the iris
+or common flag furnishes the material of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> which New Zealand flax is
+prepared. It is used mainly in the manufacture of cordage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plaiting straw</i>, used in the manufacture of hats and bonnets, is grown
+extensively in northern Italy and in Belgium. For this product spring
+wheat is very thickly sown in a soil rich in lime. The thick sowing
+produces a long, slender stalk; the lime gives it whiteness and
+strength. Plaiting straw is also exported from China and Japan. British
+merchants handle most of the product.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cuba bast</i>, a fibre readily bleached to whiteness, is exported to the
+various establishments in which women's hats are made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Esparto grass</i>, also called <i>alfa</i>, grows in Spain and the northern
+part of Africa. It was formerly much used in the manufacture of the
+cheaper grades of paper, but it has been largely supplanted by wood-pulp
+for this purpose. The decline of the esparto grass industry led to no
+little unrest among some of the native tribes of northern Africa.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What fibres were used in cloth-making in Europe before cotton was
+employed?</p>
+
+<p>What textiles are of necessity made of cotton?</p>
+
+<p>What is a spinning jenny?&mdash;a Jacquard loom?</p>
+
+<p>What are the specific differences between cotswold and merino wool?</p>
+
+<p>Why were most of the cloth-making mills of the United States built at
+first in the New England States?</p>
+
+<p>How is the silk-making industry encouraged in the United States?</p>
+
+<p>What are the chief linen manufacturing countries?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Obtain specimens of the cotton seed, boll, raw cotton (sea island,
+Peruvian, and ordinary), cotton thread, calico, gingham,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> domestic,
+canvas, and some of the fancy textiles such as organdie, lawn, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Obtain specimens of the cocoons of the silk-worm, raw silk gros-grain
+cloth, pongee, and tussar silk cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Obtain also specimens of merino cloth, cashmere, cheviot, and other
+similar goods; compare them and note the difference.</p>
+
+<p>Examine the fibres of cotton, silk, and wool under a microscope and note
+the difference.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image72a.jpg" width="400" height="692" alt="BRANCH OF COFFEE TREE, WEST BRAZIL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRANCH OF COFFEE TREE,<br /> WEST BRAZIL</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image72b.jpg" width="400" height="692" alt="COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR JOLO, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR JOLO,<br /> PHILIPPINE ISLANDS</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image72c.jpg" width="600" height="383" alt="COFFEE DRYING FIELD, BRAZIL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COFFEE DRYING FIELD, BRAZIL</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>PLANT PRODUCTS OF ECONOMIC USE&mdash;BEVERAGES AND MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES</h3>
+
+
+<p>It may be assumed that practically all beverages derived from plants owe
+their popularity to the stimulant effects they produce. In coffee, tea,
+cocoa, and mat&eacute;, the stimulant principle is identical with <i>cafein</i>, the
+active principle of coffee; in liquors it is a powerful narcotic
+<i>alcohol</i>; non-potable substances, tobacco, opium, etc., owe their
+popularity also to narcotic poisons.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coffee.</b>&mdash;The coffee "beans" of commerce are the seeds of a tree (<i>Coffea
+arabica</i>) probably native to Abyssinia, but now cultivated in various
+parts of the world. It was introduced into Aden from Africa late in the
+fifteenth century, and from there its use spread to other cities. Rather
+singularly its popularity resulted from the strong efforts made to
+forbid its use.</p>
+
+<p>It was regarded as a stimulant and therefore it was forbidden to
+followers of Islam.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> But its power to prevent drowsiness and sleep
+during the intolerably long religious exercises was a winning feature,
+and so its use became general in spite of the fulminations against it.</p>
+
+<p>Coffee culture was confined to Arabia until the close of the seventeenth
+century; it was then introduced into the Dutch East Indies, and for many
+years the island of Java<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> became the main supply of the world. At the
+present time, Java is second only to Brazil in coffee production. In the
+Old World it is now also cultivated along the Guinea coast of Africa, in
+Madagascar, India, and Ceylon. In the New World the chief areas are
+Brazil, Venezuela, the Central American States, and the West Indies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image73.jpg" width="600" height="383" alt="COFFEE PRODUCING REGIONS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COFFEE PRODUCING REGIONS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The coffee-tree may be cultivated in almost any soil that is fertile; it
+thrives best, however, in red soil. Old, decomposed red lavas produce
+the choicest beans. Coffee grows in any moist climate in which the
+temperature does not range higher than 80&deg; F. nor lower than 55&deg; F. An
+occasional frost injures but does not necessarily kill the trees, which
+grow better in the shade than in the sunlight. For convenience in
+gathering the crop, the trees are pruned until they are not higher than
+bushes.</p>
+
+<p>The fruit of the coffee-tree is a deep-red berry not quite so large as a
+cherry. A juicy pulp encloses a double membrane, or endocarp, and within
+the latter are the seeds which constitute the coffee of commerce.
+Normally there are two seeds, but in some varieties there is a tendency
+for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> one seed to mature, leaving the other undeveloped; this is the
+"peaberry" coffee of commerce. The so-called Mocha coffee is a peaberry.</p>
+
+<p>In their preparation the berries are picked when ripe and deprived of
+their pulp. After pulping they are cured in the sun for about a week and
+then hulled, or divested of the endocarp, a process requiring expensive
+machinery. The coffee is then cleaned, and sacked.</p>
+
+<p>The value of the product depends on two factors, age and the care with
+which it is sorted. Formerly, in the Dutch East Indies, coffee-growing,
+for the greater part, was a government privilege, and the crop was kept
+for several years in storage before it was permitted to be
+sold&mdash;therefore the term "Old Government" Java. Other coffee was
+designated as "Private Plantations." The quality of coffee is greatly
+improved with age. Brazilian and other American coffee-beans are rarely
+seasoned by storage.</p>
+
+<p>American coffees are almost wholly sorted by machinery. This process,
+however, merely collects beans of the same size; it still leaves the
+good and the bad beans together, though it is to be said that among the
+largest beans there are fewer poor ones. In the coffees handled by the
+Arab dealers all the sorting is done by hand, the very choice grade
+selling in the large cities of Europe for the equivalent of nearly three
+dollars per pound. All machine-sorted coffee is greatly improved by a
+subsequent hand-sorting to remove the imperfect beans.</p>
+
+<p>The naming of the different kinds of coffee is somewhat arbitrary. Thus,
+Brazilian coffees are commercially known as <i>Rio</i> because they are
+shipped from the port of Rio de Janeiro; the same name is applied to the
+product shipped from Santos. Nearly all Venezuela coffees are called
+<i>Maracaibo</i> although they differ much in kind and quality; most Central
+American coffee is sold as <i>Costa Rica</i>; most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> peaberry varieties are
+known as <i>Mocha</i>; and most of the East India product is popularly called
+<i>Java</i>, no matter whence it comes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image74.jpg" width="500" height="232" alt="COFFEE PRODUCTION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COFFEE PRODUCTION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the American coffees Rio constitutes about half the world's product.
+After sorting, the larger beans are often marketed as Java coffee, and
+when the beans have been roasted it is exceedingly difficult to tell the
+difference. The best Maracaibo is regarded as choice coffee, but its
+flavor is not liked by all coffee-drinkers. The best Honduras and Puerto
+Rico coffees take a high rank and command very high prices, retailing in
+some instances at sixty cents per pound. A very choice peaberry is grown
+in the volcanic soils of Mexico to which the name of <i>Oaxaca</i> is given;
+most of it is sold in the United States as a choice Mocha.</p>
+
+<p>Mocha is the commercial name of a coffee at one time marketed in the
+Arabian city of that name. Since the completion of the Suez Canal,
+Hodeida has been the chief centre of the Arabian coffee-trade. Formerly
+most of this coffee was grown in the Province of Yemen, but now it is
+brought to Hodeida, from Egypt, Ceylon, and India.</p>
+
+<p>About all the product is hand-sorted. The choicest is sold in
+Constantinople, Cairo, and other cities near by, in some instances
+bringing five dollars per pound. Very little, and only that of the most
+inferior quality, ever finds its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> way into western Europe or the United
+States. Even the best Mocha is not superior to fine Oaxaca coffee.</p>
+
+<p>Java coffee is renowned the world over for its fine flavor. The best
+quality was formerly that which had been held in storage to season for a
+few years. The government coffee was generally the better, but some of
+the private plantations crop is now equally good. Some of the Sumatra
+coffees are equal to the best Java beans.</p>
+
+<p>The Liberia coffees have never been favorites in the United States on
+account of their flavor. In Europe they are used for blending with other
+varieties.</p>
+
+<p>Of the entire coffee-crop of the world, the United States consumes more
+than three-quarters of a billion pounds&mdash;a yearly average of very nearly
+eleven pounds for each inhabitant. This is nearly three times as much
+per inhabitant as is consumed in Germany, and almost fifteen times the
+average used in Great Britain. Nearly all the world's crop is consumed
+in the United States and western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Chicory, parched grain, pease, and burnt parsnip are sometimes added as
+adulterants to ground coffee. Of those, chicory most nearly resembles
+coffee in flavor and taste. It is harmless and usually improves the
+flavor of inferior coffee. A tariff recently placed upon chicory has
+somewhat lessened the use of it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tea.</b>&mdash;The tea of commerce consists of the dried and prepared leaves of
+an evergreen shrub (<i>Thea chinensis</i>) belonging most probably to the
+<i>camellia</i> family. Tea has been a commercial product of China for more
+than fourteen hundred years, but seems to have been carried thither from
+India about five hundred years before the Christian era; for its virtues
+were praised by (the probably mythical) Chinung, an emperor of that
+period.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivated plants are scarcely higher than bushes, but the wild
+plant found in India is a tree fifteen or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> twenty feet in height. The
+cultivated plant is quite hardy; severe winters kill it but ordinary
+freezing weather merely retards its growth. It thrives best in red,
+mouldy soils; the choicest varieties are grown in new soils. The leaves
+are not picked until the plants are three or four years old.</p>
+
+<p>Two general classes of tea are known in commerce&mdash;the green and the
+black. Formerly these were grown on different varieties of the plant,
+but in the newer plantations no distinction is made in the matter of
+variety; the color is due wholly to the manner of preparation.</p>
+
+<p>The plants are watched carefully during the seasons of picking, of which
+there are three or four each year. The April picking yields the choicest
+crop of leaves, and only the youngest leaves and buds are taken.<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> A
+single plant rarely yields more than four or five ounces of tea yearly.
+Each acre of a tea-garden yields about three hundred and fifty pounds.</p>
+
+<p>After picking, the leaves are partly crushed and allowed to wilt until
+they begin to turn brown in color. They are then rolled between the
+hands and either dried very slowly in the sun, or else rapidly in pans
+over a charcoal fire&mdash;a process known as "firing." The former method
+produces <i>black</i>, the latter <i>green</i>, tea. The color of the latter is
+sometimes heightened by the use of a mixture of powdered gypsum and
+Prussian blue. In the black teas the green coloring matter of the leaf
+is destroyed by fermentation; in the green teas it remains unchanged.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of the Chinese tea designed for export is packed rather
+loosely in wooden chests lined with sheet-lead, the folds and joints of
+which are soldered in order to make the cover both air-tight and
+moisture-tight. A full chest contains seventy-five pounds of tea. The
+Japan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> product is also packed in moisture-tight wrappers, the original
+parcels being usually ten-pound, five-pound, and pound packages. Similar
+devices are used in preparing the India and Formosa teas for ocean
+shipment.</p>
+
+<p>The chief tea-producing countries are India (including Ceylon) China,
+Japan (including Formosa), and Java. A successful tea-garden is in
+operation near Charleston, S.C. A small amount is grown in the Fiji and
+Samoan Islands. The Ceylon and Formosa teas take a very high rank.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image75.jpg" width="600" height="455" alt="AREA OF TEA PRODUCTION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">AREA OF TEA PRODUCTION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Great Britain and her colonies consume the bulk of the tea-crop. The
+average yearly consumption per person is eight pounds in Australia, six
+in Great Britain and Cape of Good Hope, and more than four in Canada. In
+the United States and Russia it is less than one pound per person.</p>
+
+<p>Before the opening of the Suez Canal, in 1869, most of the crop for the
+English market was despatched by way of Cape of Good Hope. So important
+was it to get the consignments to London without loss of time, that fast
+clipper ships were built especially for carrying tea. Since the open<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>ing
+of the canal the crop has been shipped mainly by the Suez route.</p>
+
+<p>A part of the tea required for the United States reaches New York by way
+of the Suez Canal, but the movement is gradually changing since the
+building of the fast liners that now ply between Asian and American
+ports. These steamships carry it to Seattle, or to Vancouver, whence it
+is distributed by rail. The increased cost of shipment by this route is
+more than offset by a gain of from five to seven days in time.</p>
+
+<p>In some respects the Russian "caravan route" is the most important
+channel of the tea-trade. The tea is collected mainly at Tientsin, and
+sent by camel caravans through Manchuria to the most convenient point on
+the Siberian railway. Not only the shipments of brick tea<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> for the
+Russian market, but the choicest products for western Europe also are
+sent by this route. It is probably an economical way of shipping the
+brick tea, but a more expensive method of shipment for the latter could
+not be found easily; it is preferred from the fact that, no matter how
+carefully sealed, the flavor of tea is materially injured by an ocean
+voyage.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, therefore, that for the tea product alone the Siberian
+railway will soon become an important factor in the commerce of Europe.
+Shipments of tea are also sent from Canton to Odessa, Russia, but this
+route is not less expensive in the long run than the Cape route, and the
+tea suffers as much deterioration from the shorter as from the longer
+voyage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cacao.</b>&mdash;Cacao, the "cocoa" of commerce, consists of the prepared seeds
+of several species of <i>Theobroma</i>, the greater part being obtained from
+the <i>Theobroma cacao</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> The name is unfortunately confused with that of
+the cocoa-palm, but there is no relation whatever between the two.</p>
+
+<p>The seeds of the cacao were used in ancient America long before its
+discovery by Columbus, and the latter carried the first knowledge of it
+to Europe. By the middle of the seventeenth century it was much used in
+Spain, and less than a hundred years later it had become the fashionable
+drink of western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The cacao-tree, originally native to Mexico, is now cultivated
+throughout tropical America and the West Indies. It is not cultivated to
+any extent in the Eastern continent. The fruit consists of large, fleshy
+pods, which are cut from the trees usually in June and December. The
+seeds are then piled in heaps, or else packed in pits, and allowed to
+undergo a rapid fermentation for a period of several days, to which
+process their flavor is mainly due. The roasted and broken seeds are the
+cocoa-nibs of commerce. The husks are known as cocoa-shells.</p>
+
+<p>A very large part of the cacao product comes from Ecuador, Guayaquil
+being perhaps the chief market of the world. The Venezuelan and
+Brazilian products, however, are the choicest; these are known in
+commerce respectively as Caracas and Trinidad cacao. Spain, Portugal,
+and France are the chief purchasers, and in the first-named country the
+consumption per person is five or six times as great as in other
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>Cacao is not only a stimulant beverage, but a food as well; about
+one-half its weight is fat, and about one-third consists of starch and
+flesh-making substances. The stimulant principle is the same as that
+occurring in tea and coffee, but the proportion is considerably less. In
+preparing the cocoa for the market, much of the fat is intentionally
+withdrawn. The fat, commercially known as "cocoa-butter," and "oil of
+theobroma," does not turn rancid.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p><p>Chocolate consists of cocoa ground to a paste with sugar and flavoring
+matter, and then cast in moulds to harden. It is used mainly in the
+manufacture of confectionery. Most of the chocolate is made in France,
+Spain, and the United States. More than forty million pounds of cocoa
+are yearly consumed in the United States.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mat&eacute;.</b>&mdash;Mat&eacute;, yerba mat&eacute;, or Paraguay tea, is the leaf of a shrub, a
+species of holly, growing profusely in the forests of Brazil, Paraguay,
+Argentina, and Uruguay. In many instances, the shrub is cultivated. The
+leaves are prepared in much the same manner as tea-leaves are, but
+instead of being rolled, they are broken by beating.</p>
+
+<p>The mat&eacute; of commerce has a stimulant principle identical with that of
+tea and coffee, which is the only reason for its use. The consumption,
+about fifteen thousand tons a year, is confined almost wholly to the
+countries named.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco.</b>&mdash;The tobacco of commerce is the prepared and manufactured leaf
+of several species of plant, belonging to the nightshade family. Most of
+the product is derived from the species known as Virginia tobacco
+(<i>Nicotiana tabacum</i>) and the Brazilian species (<i>Nicotiana rustica</i>).
+The former is cultivated in the United States, West Indies, the
+Philippine Islands, and Turkey; the latter has been transplanted to
+central Europe and the East Indies.</p>
+
+<p>The use of tobacco was prevalent in the New World at the time of
+Columbus's first voyage, and was quickly introduced into Europe. The
+prepared leaf contains a substance, nicotine, which is one of the most
+deadly of poisons when swallowed, and an intense narcotic stimulant when
+inhaled. On account of the evil effects arising from its introduction,
+its use was forbidden by the Church and also by sovereigns of several
+European states. The latter, however, finding that its use was becoming
+general, made it a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> Crown monopoly. In Great Britain its cultivation was
+forbidden in order to encourage its cultivation in Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>Tobacco does not thrive best in a poor soil, but the latter produces a
+thin, half-developed leaf, which in other plants would be called
+"sickly." It grows in almost any kind of soil, but requires warm summer
+nights. In many instances the tobacco of temperate latitudes yields a
+more salable leaf when grown under cover. The flavor is due partly to
+soil and climate, and partly to skill in curing. The choicest product is
+obtained in only a few localities of limited area. It sometimes happens
+that the products of two plantations almost side by side, and similarly
+situated, are very unlike in character and quality.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image77.jpg" width="400" height="374" alt="TOBACCO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">TOBACCO</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The choicest cigar-tobacco is grown on the Vuelta Abajo district in the
+province of Pinar del Rio, Cuba; another very choice Cuban leaf is known
+as Partidos. Cuban-made cigars of fine quality are commercially "Havana"
+cigars, although tobacco from Manila and Porto Rico is apt to be largely
+used in their manufacture. In order to avoid the very heavy duty on
+cigars, which is not far from six dollars per pound, a great deal of the
+Havana tobacco is exported to points along the Florida coast, mainly Key
+West and Tampa. The unmanufactured tobacco pays a comparatively small
+duty, and the cigars made from it are commercially known as "Key West."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p><p>In some parts of Mexico a fine-flavored tobacco is grown, but as the
+cigars are not uniform in quality they are not popular. Some of the
+Brazilian tobacco is a high-class product, but not much is exported.
+Porto Rican leaf has a fine flavor, but is not popular because of its
+dark color. The demand for it in the United States is growing, however.
+Of the leaf grown in the East, that from Sumatra and the Philippine
+Islands is by far the best, and the exports are heavy. Cuban
+manufacturers purchase the Manila leaf; the Sumatra wrappers are
+purchased in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The choicest cigarette-tobacco is grown in Asiatic Turkey,
+Transcaucasia, and Egypt. It is selected with great care, and is
+"long-cut." The common grades are made of chopped Virginia tobacco, or
+of chopped cigar-trimmings. The cheapest grades consist of refuse leaf
+mixed with half-smoked cigar-stumps. The United States leads in the
+manufacture of cigarettes, and a large part of the product is sold in
+China, India, and Japan. Most of the world's product of snuff is made in
+the United States, and nearly all of it is sold abroad.</p>
+
+<p>The United States produces yearly about seven hundred million pounds. A
+large part of this is sold to European countries. Great Britain
+purchases about four-fifths of the tobacco there consumed from the
+United States. The latter country purchases from Europe (mainly the
+Netherlands) about half as much as it sells to Europe. Louisville, Ky.,
+is probably the largest tobacco-market in the world. New York,
+Baltimore, Richmond, Manila, and Havana are the chief shipping-ports.</p>
+
+<p>In almost every civilized country tobacco is heavily taxed. In the
+United States there is not only a heavy import duty, but an internal
+revenue in addition. In Austria, France, Italy, Japan, and Spain the
+manufacture and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> sale is in the hands of the government. The consumption
+of tobacco varies greatly. In the Netherlands it averages about seven
+pounds a year to each individual; in the United States it is more than
+four pounds; in central Europe, three pounds; in Spain, Sweden, Great
+Britain, and Italy, it is less than two pounds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Opium.</b>&mdash;The opium of commerce is the hardened juice obtained from the
+seed capsules of several species of the poppy-plant. A variety having a
+large capsule (<i>Papaver somniferum</i>) is most commonly cultivated for the
+commercial production of the substance. Half-a-dozen times during the
+season the capsules are scratched or cut; the juice exuding when hard is
+picked or scraped off and pressed into cakes.</p>
+
+<p>Opium is not only a narcotic poison, but it has the property of
+lessening the pain of disease, and this is its chief use in medicine. In
+Mohammedan countries where the use of alcoholic liquors is forbidden as
+a religious custom, opium is used as a substitute. In Turkey, Persia,
+Arabia, and Egypt the production of opium is an important industry
+connected with social and religious life. In British India it is a
+political factor, being extensively cultivated as a government monopoly
+to be sold to the Chinese, who are probably the chief consumers of it.
+The Indian Government derives a revenue sometimes reaching twenty
+million dollars from this source.</p>
+
+<p>The best quality of opium is marketed at Smyrna, and most of this is
+purchased by the United States. A considerable amount of Chinese opium
+is imported for the use of the Chinese, and a larger amount is probably
+smuggled over the Canadian and Mexican borders. Laudanum is an alcoholic
+tincture, and morphine an extractive of opium; both are used as
+medicine.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p><p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Consult a good physiology and learn the effects of coffee, tea, tobacco,
+and opium.</p>
+
+<p>Where and what are the following: Mocha, Java, Maracaibo, Yokohama,
+Amoy, Canton, Oaxaca, Hodeida, Rio Janeiro, Santos, Havana; how is each
+connected commercially with this chapter?</p>
+
+<p>From the map, Fig. 1, trace the route of a cargo of tea overland from
+China to Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Consult an English history or a cyclop&aelig;dia and learn about the opium
+war.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Obtain samples of the following, preserving them for study and
+inspection in closely stoppered vials: Mocha, Java, Rio, and Sumatra
+coffees; green, black, and gunpowder tea. Soak a tea-leaf a few minutes
+in warm water; unroll the leaf and attach it to a white card, for study.</p>
+
+<p>Obtain samples of gum opium, laudanum, and morphine; note the odor of
+the first two and the taste of the last. Remember that they are
+poisonous.</p>
+
+<p>Unroll a cheap cigarette and note the character of the tobacco in it,
+using a magnifying glass.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>GUMS AND RESINS USED IN THE ARTS</h3>
+
+
+<p>Most vegetable juices exposed to the air harden into firm substances,
+commonly called <i>gum</i>. Some of these dissolve, or at least soften, in
+water; these technically are known as "gums," and usually are so
+designated in commerce. Others are insoluble in water, but dissolve
+readily in alcohol, in naphtha, in turpentine, or in other essential
+oils; these are designated as "gum-resins." Still others yield oils or
+pitchy substances on distillation; these are known as "oleo-resins."
+There are many other dried vegetable juices, however, that in commerce
+are not classified among the gums and resins, and of these the most
+important is the substance commonly known as india-rubber.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rubber and Rubber Products.</b>&mdash;"Caoutchouc" is approximately the name
+given by Indians of the Amazon forests to a substance that had also been
+found in India. Some of it was brought to Europe from the Amazon region
+as early as 1736, and for nearly one hundred years no general purpose
+was discovered for which it could be used, except to erase lead-pencil
+marks&mdash;hence the name india-rubber, which has held ever since.</p>
+
+<p>Common rubber is the prepared juice of a dozen or more shrubs and trees,
+all of which grow in tropical regions.<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The belt of rubber-producing
+plants extends around<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> the world and includes such well-known species as
+the fig, the manihot (or manioc), and the oleander; indeed, it is a
+condition of sap rather than a definite species of plant that produces
+rubber, and the latter is a manufactured rather than a natural product.
+The process of preparing the juice is practically the same in every part
+of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The rubber-gatherer of the Amazon, who is practically a slave, wades
+into the swamp, makes several incisions in the bark of the tree,
+fashions a rough trough of clay under it, and waits till the sap fills
+the clay vessel. When the sap has been gathered he makes a fire of the
+nuts of the urucuri palm and places an inverted funnel over it to
+concentrate the smoke. He first dips the end of a wooden spindle into
+the juice and then holds it in the smoke until the juice coagulates;
+this process is repeated until there has formed a ball of rubber
+weighing from five to ten pounds. The smoke of the palm-nuts is a
+chemical agent that converts the juice into the crude rubber of
+commerce.</p>
+
+<p>Crude gum, however, is lacking both in strength and elasticity. The
+process that makes it a finished product is known as <i>vulcanization</i>.
+The crude rubber, having been exported to the manufacturer in the United
+States or Europe, is shredded, washed, and cleansed, and partly fused
+with varying proportions of sulphur. For a very soft product, such as
+the inner surface of tires, only a small proportion is used; where the
+wear is considerable, a larger proportion is employed.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> White clay is
+sometimes added to give body to the product; coloring matter is also
+sometimes added.</p>
+
+<p>By far the greater part of the crude rubber comes from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> the Amazon
+forests. Brazil produces about one-half, but a considerable quantity is
+obtained in Acr&eacute;, the territory formed where the borders of Brazil,
+Bolivia, and Peru meet, and now ceded to Brazil. Nearly all this
+product, that of the Cear&aacute; region excepted, is marketed at Par&aacute; and is
+known as Par&aacute; rubber. It is the best produced. The African product,
+mainly from the forests of the Kongo, and Madagascar, and nearly all the
+East Indian product is sent to Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image80.jpg" width="600" height="361" alt="REGIONS YIELDING RUBBER" title="" />
+<span class="caption">REGIONS YIELDING RUBBER</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The world's product is about one hundred and thirty-three million pounds
+of crude rubber. Of this product the United States takes nearly
+one-half. The greater part is used in the manufacture of pneumatic
+tires, hose, and overshoes. A large part is used for making water-proof
+cloth,<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> and considerable is made into the small elastic bands for
+which there is a growing use.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p><p><b>Gutta-Percha.</b>&mdash;Gutta-percha is obtained from the juices of several
+plants (chiefly <i>Dichopsis gutta</i> and <i>Supota m&uuml;lleri</i>) both of which
+abound in the Malay peninsula and the East Indies. It is prepared in a
+manner somewhat similar to that employed in making crude rubber; it is
+also easily vulcanized by heating with sulphur. It is used to a limited
+extent in the manufacture of golf-balls, but mainly as the insulating
+cover of copper wires used in ocean telegraph cables. For this purpose
+it has no known substitute, and its essential merit is the fact that it
+is not altered by salt water. Nearly all the product is shipped from
+Singapore to England.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pine-Tree Products.</b>&mdash;The various members of the pine and cone-bearing
+trees yield valuable essential oils and oleo-resins that are very
+important in the arts and sciences. These, in nearly every instance, are
+prepared from the sap of the tree.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oil of turpentine</i> is known as an "essential oil," and in chemical
+structure and properties it does not differ from the various essential
+oils, such as lemon, orange, peppermint, etc. Commercial turpentine is
+generally made from the sap of the long-leafed pine of the Atlantic
+coast-plain.</p>
+
+<p>The bark of the tree is cut near the foot, and the sap that oozes from
+the scar quickly hardens into a gum. The gum, generally known as "crude
+turpentine," is distilled and yields about one-fourth its weight of oil
+or "spirit" of turpentine. It is a staple article of manufacture in
+Europe, India, and the United States, and is used chiefly to dilute the
+oil paints and varnishes used in indoor work. The United States supplies
+about two-thirds of the world's product, a large part of which is
+shipped from Savannah and Brunswick, Ga., to Great Britain.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p><p><i>Resin</i> is the substance remaining after the crude turpentine has been
+distilled. It is used in the manufacture of varnish, sealing-wax, and
+soap. Finely powdered resin is also mixed with wood-pulp in the
+manufacture of wrapping-paper. It gives the latter a glazed surface and
+renders it almost water-proof. Most of the world's product of resin
+comes from the turpentine district of the United States, and about
+four-fifths of it is exported to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>When resin is subjected to distillation at a still higher temperature,
+<i>resin oil</i>, a very heavy turpentine, is given off, and a viscous
+substance known as <i>pitch</i> remains. A considerable amount of this is
+still made in the United States, but the greater part comes from the
+pine-forests of Russia and Scandinavia. When pine-wood is distilled,
+<i>tar</i> is the chief product. In Russia tar is generally made by burning
+green logs covered with turf, over a pit. <i>Creosote</i>, or wood
+preservative, is made from tar. The various pine-tree products, creosote
+excepted, are commonly known as "naval stores," the tar being used in
+water-proofing the rigging of vessels, the pitch in calking the seams in
+between planks, in the decks and hulls.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Resins and Gums Used in the Arts.</b>&mdash;Most of the gums and resins
+used in the arts and sciences are the hardened sap of plants&mdash;in some
+cases exuding by natural means from the bark, in others resulting from
+the puncture of the bark.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lac</i> of commerce is due to the puncture of the young branches of a
+tree, frequently a fig (<i>Ficus religiosa</i>) growing in the tropical
+forests of India. The hardened sap incrusts twigs forming <i>stick-lac</i>;
+when crushed, washed, and freed from the woody matter it is <i>seed-lac</i>;
+when melted and cooled in flakes it is <i>shell-lac</i>, the form best known
+in commerce. It is the chief ingredient in sealing-wax,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> and is
+extensively used as a varnish. It is also used in fireworks on account
+of its inflammability.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dammar</i> is the product of a tree growing in the East Indies; it is the
+basis of a very fine white varnish. <i>Copal</i> is a term applied to
+oleo-resins soluble in turpentine, and used almost universally as
+varnishes. They come from the tropical regions of South America, Africa,
+and from the East Indies. <i>Kauri</i> is the fossil gum of a cone-bearing
+tree dug from the ground in northern New Zealand. <i>Amber</i> is the fossil
+gum of extinct cone-bearing trees found mainly along the Baltic coast of
+Prussia. It is used chiefly for the mouth-pieces of tobacco-pipes and
+cigar-holders; the inferior product is made into varnish. It is sold
+wherever tobacco is used. <i>Sandarach</i>, found on the north African coast,
+is used principally in Europe, being employed as a varnish. The United
+States and Great Britain consume most of the foregoing products.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Name any elastic substance you know about that is in every way a
+substitute for rubber.</p>
+
+<p>What has been the relation between rubber and good roads?</p>
+
+<p>Describe the structure of a bicycle tire.</p>
+
+<p>Why are tar, pitch, and turpentine called naval stores?&mdash;and what
+determines the locality in which they are made?</p>
+
+<p>What is varnish, and for what purposes is it used?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Obtain specimens of crude rubber, vulcanized rubber, and hard rubber;
+note carefully the characteristics of each.</p>
+
+<p>Burn a very small piece of cheap white rubber-tubing in an iron spoon or
+a fire-shovel; note the character of the residue.</p>
+
+<p>Obtain specimens of gutta-percha, resin, pitch, turpentine, shellac,
+copal, dammar, and creosote for study and inspection.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>COAL AND PETROLEUM</h3>
+
+
+<p>The economic history of nearly every country that has achieved eminence
+in modern times dates from its use of coal and iron; and indeed the
+presence of these substances in workable deposits means almost unlimited
+power. The present era is sometimes called the Age of Steel, but the
+possibilities of producing steel in enormous quantities, at less than
+one-fifth its price at the beginning of the nineteenth century, depended
+mainly upon the use of mineral coal instead of charcoal in its
+manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>Coal consists of accumulations of vegetable matter that were formed in
+prior geological ages. Under the action of heat and moisture, and also
+the tremendous pressure of the rock layers that afterward covered them,
+the vegetable matter was converted to mineral coal.</p>
+
+<p>The aggregate coal-fields of the United States are not far from two
+hundred thousand square miles in extent, but of this area not much more
+than one-half is workable. In Europe there are estimated to be about one
+hundred thousand square miles of coal-lands, of which about half are
+productive at the present time. Of this Great Britain has 12,000 square
+miles, Spain 4,000, France 2,000, Germany 1,800, and Belgium 500. In
+Canada there are about 20,000 square miles of coal-land; a part of this
+is included in the Nanaimo field on the Pacific coast, but the most
+important are the Nova Scotia beds, which form about the only supply for
+the British naval stations of America. China has extensive coal-fields.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p><p>In character coal is broadly divided into two classes&mdash;anthracite or
+hard, and bituminous or soft, coal. Anthracite coal occurs in folded and
+metamorphic rocks. It is hard and glassy, and does not split into thin
+layers or leaves. The beds have been subjected to intense heat and
+pressure, and the coal has but a very small amount&mdash;rarely more than
+five per cent.&mdash;of volatile matter; it burns, therefore, with little or
+no smoke and soot, and on this account is very desirable as a fuel in
+cities. Two areas in Colorado and New Mexico produce small quantities of
+pure anthracite; practically all the commercial anthracite comes from
+three small basins in Pennsylvania. In quality it is known as "red ash"
+and "white ash," the former being the superior.</p>
+
+<p>The yearly output of the anthracite mines is upward of fifty-five
+million long tons a year, or somewhat less than five million tons per
+month. In winter the rate of consumption is somewhat greater than that
+of production. A shortage in the summer production is therefore apt to
+be keenly felt in the winter. Before shipment to the market the coal is
+crushed at the breakers, sorted in different sizes, and washed.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the anthracite coal-mines are owned by the railway companies
+centring at New York and Philadelphia, or else are operated by companies
+controlled by the railways. About one-fourth of the output is produced
+by independent operators who, as a rule, sell their coal to the railway
+companies. The Reading, Pennsylvania, Central of New Jersey, Lackawanna,
+Lehigh Valley, Ontario &amp; Western, Erie, and Delaware &amp; Hudson are
+popularly known as "coalers" because the larger part of their eastern
+business consists in carrying anthracite coal.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image86.jpg" width="600" height="380" alt="A VIEW OF THREE COLLIERIES IN THE ANTHRACITE COAL BASIN
+NEAR MAHANOY CITY, PA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A VIEW OF THREE COLLIERIES IN THE ANTHRACITE COAL BASIN
+NEAR MAHANOY CITY, PA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p><p>Formerly much of the coal was shipped by canals, but the latter were
+not able to compete with the railways, and most of the coal-canals have
+been abandoned. The price of anthracite at tide-water (New York) varies
+from $3.20 to $4.50 per long ton. At Philadelphia the price is about
+one-fourth less. Buffalo is the chief lake-port for anthracite. Steam
+sizes are about two-thirds the price of house fuel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image87a.jpg" width="600" height="369" alt="COAL FIELDS IN UNITED STATES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COAL FIELDS IN UNITED STATES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bituminous, or soft coal furnishes the larger part of the house fuel in
+the United States, and nearly all the house coal used in other parts of
+the world. It contains from fifteen to more than forty per cent. of
+volatile matter, burning with a long and smoky flame. The coal which
+contains twenty per cent. or less of volatile matter is a free-burning
+coal that may develop heat enough to partly fuse the ash, forming
+"clinkers"; it is therefore called "caking" coal, and is not only well
+adapted for use as fuel and steam-making, but it is also a good smelting
+coal.</p>
+
+<p>Coal which contains more than thirty per cent. of volatile matter is
+known as "fat" coal and is generally used in the manufacture of coke and
+illuminating gas. Western Pennsylvania produces the largest amount of
+fat coal, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> it is found here and there in nearly all soft-coal
+regions. A so-called smokeless bituminous coal occurs in various
+localities; its low percentage of volatile matter makes it an excellent
+house fuel.</p>
+
+<p>Bituminous coal is mined in twenty-five States of the Union,
+Pennsylvania, Illinois, West Virginia, and Ohio heading the list. In
+about half the mines the coal is cut from the seam by means of machinery
+and is known as machine-mined coal. A very large part of the product is
+consumed within a short distance of the mines, and this is especially
+true of the region about the upper Ohio River.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image87b.jpg" width="500" height="249" alt="COAL PRODUCTION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COAL PRODUCTION</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most of the product is shipped to the large manufacturing cities of the
+middle west, where it is used for steam as well as fuel; a very large
+amount also is sent down the Ohio in barges to the lower Mississippi
+River. The spot value of bituminous coal varies from $0.80 to $1.60 per
+ton; the product of the Pacific coast mines, however, is from $3 to $5.</p>
+
+<p>The output of the mines of the United States aggregates about two
+hundred and forty million long tons yearly, and this is about one-third
+of the world's product. For many years there has been an export trade to
+Canada, the West Indies, Central and South America, amounting in 1900 to
+8,000,000 tons. Within a few years, however, the decreased cost of
+mining due to machinery, and the low rates<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> of transportation to the
+seaboard has developed an export trade to Russia, Germany, and France.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image88.jpg" width="400" height="111" alt="COAL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">COAL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A small amount of coal is imported into the United States. A superior
+quality of Australian coal finds a ready market in Pacific coast points
+as far north as San Francisco, and large quantities of Nanaimo, B.C.,
+coal are sold in Oregon, Washington, and California. A small quantity of
+the "slack" or waste of the Nova Scotia mines is imported to Boston to
+be made into coke. The Canadian fields supply a considerable part of the
+coal used in Montana.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coke and Coal-Tar Products.</b>&mdash;In the manufacture of iron and steel a fuel
+having a high percentage of carbon free from volatile matter is
+essential. The great cost of wood charcoal forbids its use, and so a
+charcoal made from soft coal is used. Fat coal is heated in closed
+chambers until the volatile matter is driven off. The product is "coke";
+the closed chamber is an "oven." The ovens are built of stone or
+fire-brick, in a long row. They are usually on an abrupt slope, so that
+the coal can be dumped into the top, while the coke can be withdrawn
+from the bottom, to be loaded into cars.</p>
+
+<p>About three thousand one hundred and forty pounds of coal are required
+to make a short ton of coke; from three thousand to five thousand cubic
+feet of illuminating gas, together with varying amounts of coal-tar and
+ammonia, are driven off and generally wasted. In a few instances
+"scientific" ovens are in use for the purpose of saving these products;
+but in the coal-mining regions such devices are the exception and not
+the rule. The great waste of energy-products in the manufacture of coke
+is partly offset by the employment of refuse and slack, which could not
+be otherwise used.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p><p>There are more than five hundred and eighteen thousand coke-ovens in
+the United States, of which eighty per cent. are in use. Most of them
+are in the region about the upper Ohio River, and nearly half the total
+number is in the vicinity of Connellsville. The region around
+Birmingham, Ala., ranks next in number. The coke product of the United
+States is more than twenty million short tons a year. This is
+considerably less than the product of Great Britain, which is upward of
+twenty-five million tons.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the "scientific" ovens are near or in large cities where the
+gas, after purification, is used for illuminating purposes. In some
+instances the coke, and not the gas, is a by-product. The coal-tar is
+used in part for fuel, but a portion of it goes to the chemical
+laboratory, where it is made to yield ammonia, benzine, carbolic acid,
+and aniline dyes to the value of nearly seven million dollars.</p>
+
+<p><b>Graphite.</b>&mdash;Graphite, plumbago, or "black lead," as it is popularly
+named, is found in many parts of the United States, but only a few
+localities produce a good commercial article; these are Ticonderoga, N.
+Y., which yields from six hundred to two thousand tons a year, and
+Chester County, Pa., which yields a small but increasing amount; a good
+quality is mined near Ottawa, Canada. It is extensively mined in Ceylon,
+and this island produces the chief bulk of the world's ordinary product.
+The finest grade comes from the Alibert mine in Siberia. A good article
+is manufactured artificially at Niagara Falls.</p>
+
+<p>Graphite is used as a stove polish and for crucibles; in the main,
+however, it is employed in the manufacture of lead<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> pencils; for this
+purpose only a very soft mineral,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> absolutely free from grit, is
+employed, and the Siberian output is used almost wholly. One German firm
+and two American firms supply most of the pencils used.</p>
+
+<p><b>Petroleum.</b>&mdash;Petroleum is the name given to a natural liquid mineral from
+which the well-known illuminating oil "kerosene" is derived, and to
+obtain which it is mined. Petroleum is a mixture of various compounds
+known as hydrocarbons. Some of these compounds are gaseous, some are
+liquid, and some are solid; all of them are articles of commercial
+value. The petroleum from different localities differs greatly in
+appearance and composition.</p>
+
+<p>The pitch that coated Noah's ark, the slime of the builders of the Tower
+of Babel, and the slime-pits of the Vale of Siddim all refer to mineral
+products associated with petroleum. Under the name of "naphtha" it has
+been known in Persia for thirty centuries, and for more than half as
+long a flowing oil spring has existed in the Ionian Islands. The Seneca
+Indians knew of a petroleum spring near the village of Cuba, N.Y., and
+used it as a medicine long before the advent of the white man.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1850 illuminating oil, known as "coal" oil, was made in the
+United States by distilling cannel coal, but this product was supplanted
+within a few years by the natural petroleum discovered in Pennsylvania.
+In 1859 Colonel Drake completed a well bored in solid rock near
+Titusville, Pa. The venture proved successful, and in a few years
+petroleum mining became one of the great industries of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>Petroleum is known to exist in a great many parts of the world; the
+United States and Russia, however, produce practically all the
+commercial product; a very small amount is obtained from a horizon on
+the south slope of the Carpathian Mountains, situated in Rumania and
+Galicia,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> Austria-Hungary. There are also a few producing wells in Peru,
+Germany, Italy, Burma, Argentina, and Sumatra.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 584px;">
+<img src="images/image89.jpg" width="584" height="375" alt="PETROLEUM FIELDS IN THE UNITED STATES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PETROLEUM FIELDS IN THE UNITED STATES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the United States the largest horizon is that of the Appalachian
+region. Since 1859 it has produced more than forty million gallons of
+crude oil. The Lima, Ind., horizon produces about twenty million
+barrels. The California and Texas horizons have become very important
+factors. The crude petroleum is transported partly in tank cars, but
+mainly by means of long lines of pipe, flowing from one pumping station
+to another by gravity. There are pipe-line terminals on the Great Lakes
+and at Pittsburg, but the principal are at the refining and exporting
+stations in New York, Philadelphia, and on the Delaware River.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable amount is exported to European countries to be there
+refined, but in the main the crude oil is refined before exporting it.
+Some of the refined oil is exported in barrels, and some in tin cases;
+the greater part, however, goes in tank steamers, and from these it is
+pumped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> into tank cars to be distributed. Most of the product is
+controlled by the Standard Oil Company, and it reaches nearly every
+country in the world. It is carried into Arctic regions on sledges, and
+over the African deserts by caravans. Great Britain, Germany, and the
+Netherlands are the chief purchasers and distributors. The value of the
+entire product is about one hundred and eighty-five million dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The Russian oil-producing region is on and near the Apsheron peninsula,
+a small area of Trans-Caucasia, that extends into the Caspian Sea; the
+region is commonly known as the Baku field, and in 1900 the production
+of crude oil surpassed that of the United States. The petroleum is
+conveyed by pipe lines to the refineries at Baku. From this port it is
+shipped in tank cars by rail to Batum, whence it is conveyed to the
+various European markets. A considerable part of the product is sent by
+tank steamers to Astrakhan, and thence up the Volga to Russian markets.
+Great Britain takes about one-third; about the same amount is shipped to
+Port Sa&iuml;d for China, India, and other Asian markets; the rest is
+consumed in central Europe.</p>
+
+<p><b>Petroleum Products.</b>&mdash;The various constituents of crude petroleum differ
+greatly in character, some being much more volatile than others. They
+are separated by distillation at different temperatures. By this process
+naphtha, rhigoline, gasoline, benzine, and other highly inflammable
+products are obtained in separate receivers. By a similar process the
+illuminating or refined oil and the lubricating oils are also separated.
+The residuum consists of a gummy mass from which paraffine and petroleum
+jelly are extracted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Naphtha</i> usually contains several volatile compounds, including
+<i>benzine</i> and <i>gasoline</i>. It is used as a solvent of grease and also of
+crude india-rubber, but chiefly the manufacture of illuminating gas.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p><p><i>Kerosene</i> is the name commonly given to the refined oil. A good
+quality should have a fire test of not less than one hundred and fifty
+degrees; that is, when heated to that temperature, it should not give
+off any inflammable gas. This test is now mandatory in most States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lubricating oil</i> is used almost wholly for the lubrication of heavy
+machinery. It varies greatly in composition and quality.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paraffine</i> or petroleum wax has largely superseded beeswax; it is used
+mainly in the manufacture of candles and as an insulator for electric
+wires. A native mineral paraffine, known as ozocerite, is mined in Utah
+and Galicia; it is used as an insulating material.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Vaseline</i>," "<i>cosmoline</i>," or <i>petroleum "jelly"</i> is very largely used
+in pharmacy as the basis of ointments and also as a lubricant for heavy
+machinery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Asphalt</i> is produced by the distillation of petroleum, but the greater
+part of the world's product comes from two "pitch lakes"&mdash;one in
+Bermudez, Venezuela, the other in the island of Trinidad, off the
+Venezuelan coast. The former is the larger and produces a superior
+quality. Small deposits occur near Los Angeles, Cal., and in Utah. The
+output of the Venezuelan asphalt is used almost wholly for street
+pavement.</p>
+
+<p>Probably no other mineral has had a wider influence on both social and
+economic life, and the industrial arts, than petroleum and its
+compounds. The kerosene lamp, the aniline dye, the insulation of
+electric wires, the lubrication of machinery, the cosmetic, the
+india-rubber solution, and the physician's sedative dose represent only
+a few of the devices that are derived from petroleum.</p>
+
+<p><b>Natural Gas.</b>&mdash;A natural inflammable gas occurs in or near several of the
+petroleum horizons. One important belt extends through western
+Pennsylvania and New York,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> and another through northwestern Ohio and
+northeastern Indiana. It is conveyed through pipe-lines and used both as
+fuel and for lighting. Natural gas occurs in a great many localities,
+but is used commercially only in the regions noted. It is better adapted
+for making glass than any other fuel, and on this account extensive
+glass-making establishments have concentrated in the natural-gas belt of
+western Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>The statement is sometimes made to the effect that coal is "condensed
+sunlight"; is it true, or untrue; and why?</p>
+
+<p>Why are the coal areas of Europe and America also areas of various
+manufactures?</p>
+
+<p>A recent cartoon had for its title&mdash;"John Bull and his coal piles
+(<i>i.e.</i>, coaling stations) rule the world"; show why this statement
+contains a great deal of truth.</p>
+
+<p>What are some of the advantages of steam-vessels over sailing-vessels?</p>
+
+<p>Whale oil, crude turpentine, kerosene, and gas have been used each in
+turn for illuminants; what is the advantage of each over the preceding?</p>
+
+<p>Describe the structure of an ordinary kerosene lamp-burner, an argand
+burner, a Welsbach burner.</p>
+
+<p>For what are aniline, paraffine, naphtha, and carbolic acid used?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Obtain specimens of anthracite, bituminous, and cannel coal, and coke
+for comparison and study.</p>
+
+<p>Obtain specimens of crude petroleum, naphtha, refined oil, aniline dye,
+paraffine, and carbolic acid; note the properties of each. Throw away
+the naphtha after using.</p>
+
+<p>Read Mineral Resources of the United States on the foregoing subjects.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>METALS OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES</h3>
+
+
+<p>The development of modern civilization is directly connected with the
+mining and manufacture of the useful metals. Their effect on the affairs
+of mankind can be rightly understood only when they are studied in their
+relations to one another, as well as to the people who used them. Next
+to the discovery of the use of fire, an appreciation of the use of
+metals has been the chief thing to develop the intellect of mankind.
+When human beings discarded natural caves for artificially constructed
+dwellings&mdash;when they began to cook their food and clothe their bodies,
+they required tools. These, in the main, consisted of the spears and
+arrow-heads used as weapons of the chase, and the axes and knives used
+as constructive tools.</p>
+
+<p>Rough stone gave place to flint because the latter would take a better
+edge. For the same reason the people of central Europe sent to the
+deserts of central Asia for jade wherewith to make axes and knives.
+Again, for the same reason, jade was discarded, because an alloy of
+copper and tin produced a bronze that would not only take a sharper edge
+than stone, but it was hard enough to cut and dress the latter. Egypt
+rose to a commanding position because of her control of the copper mines
+in the Sinaitic peninsula, and subsequently of the gold products coming
+from the upper Nile.</p>
+
+<p>A meridian drawn through Cairo, Egypt, practically divides the world
+into two kinds of civilization. East of this meridian the population is
+almost wholly agricultural and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> excepting Japan and India, the
+character of the civilization has changed but little in the past 2,000
+years. West of the line the population is essentially characterized as
+metal-workers. It controls the world&mdash;not especially by virtue of a high
+degree of intellectual development, but because it has availed itself of
+the properties and characteristics of metals and their applications to
+commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The four metals that have had the greatest influence on western
+civilization are gold, silver, iron, and copper. The discovery of gold
+and silver has always resulted in a rapid settlement of the regions in
+which the discoveries were made, and usually in the building of great
+industrial centres. Thus, the discovery of gold in California was the
+first step in making the United States a world power. The acquisition of
+so large an amount of gold caused an industrial expansion that hurried
+the Civil War, and led to the manufacture of iron and steel both for
+agricultural machinery and railroad transportation. This, in turn,
+brought the country so closely in touch with the affairs of China and
+Japan, that European and American diplomacy in eastern Asia are a common
+concern. The commercial position of Great Britain is very largely due to
+her iron mines.</p>
+
+<p>The production of Bessemer steel at a price far less than that of iron
+at the beginning of the nineteenth century lowered the cost of
+transporting commodities to the extent that large areas, once of
+necessity very moderately productive of food-stuffs, are now densely
+peopled because food-stuffs can be transported to these regions more
+economically than they can be grown there. Thus, owing to the
+improvements in iron and steel manufacture, the farmer of Minnesota, the
+planter of Louisiana, the miner of Colorado, and the factory operative
+of Massachusetts have each the same comforts of living that are enjoyed
+by all the others, and have them at scarcely more than half the cost of
+fifty years ago.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image92.jpg" width="600" height="313" alt="STEEL MANUFACTURE&mdash;THE NATIONAL STEEL COMPANY&#39;S SMELTERY
+AND ROLLING-MILLS, MINGO JUNCTION, OHIO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">STEEL MANUFACTURE&mdash;THE NATIONAL STEEL COMPANY&#39;S SMELTERY
+AND ROLLING-MILLS, MINGO JUNCTION, OHIO</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p><p>The gradual decrease in the production of the silver mines near the
+present site of Ergasteria proved a beginning of the fall of Athens; and
+when gold was discovered in the Perim Mountains of Macedonia, the seat
+of Greek power moved thither. Philip of Macedon hoarded the treasure
+from the mines of Pang&aelig;us, and with the capital thus acquired his son,
+Alexander the Great, conquered the East, implanted Hellenic business
+methods there, and drew the various trade routes between Europe and Asia
+under one control.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth century copper from the mines near Budapest and silver
+from the Schwarz Mountains of Germany were the resources that made
+Germanic Europe pre-eminent. The wresting of the trade in these two
+metals from Venice caused the rise of Antwerp and brought immense gains
+to L&uuml;beck, London, Brussels, Augsburg, and Nuremberg. In the latter part
+of the nineteenth century copper again reached a high position of
+importance from the fact that upon it largely depends electric motive
+power and transportation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Iron.</b>&mdash;Iron is one of the most widely diffused of metals. It is abundant
+in the sun; meteorites contain from more than ten to eighty or ninety
+per cent. of it; all earths and rocks contain at least traces of it; and
+in various places the deposits of ore in nearly pure form aggregate
+cubic miles in extent.</p>
+
+<p>In only a few localities is iron ore found in a metallic or "native"
+form. Many meteorites consist of metallic iron mixed with nickel and
+manganese, and in Greenland a volcanic dyke or ledge of metallic iron is
+known to exist. The iron of commerce is derived from "ores," or chemical
+compounds of iron and oxygen, or iron and carbon. The cheapness of the
+product depends upon the ease with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> which the ore may be quarried,
+transported to coal, and smelted. The following are the ores commonly
+employed in the production of iron:</p>
+
+<p><i>Red hematite</i> has a reddish metallic lustre and when pure contains
+seventy per cent. of iron.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> It is the most abundant of the workable
+ores, and certainly the best for the manufacture of Bessemer steel. The
+ores of the Lake Superior region are mainly red hematite, and the latter
+constitutes more than four-fifths of the output of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image93.jpg" width="500" height="235" alt="THE COMPARATIVE PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE COMPARATIVE PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Brown hematite</i>, or limonite, has a chestnut brown color and contains
+very nearly sixty per cent. of iron<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>; it includes the "bog" ores, and
+is very abundant. Not far from one-quarter of the Appalachian ores are
+brown hematite; it constitutes about one-eighth of the output of the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Magnetic</i> iron ore, or magnetite, of which loadstone, a natural magnet,
+is an example, has a metallic, steel lustre and contains 72.4 per cent.
+of iron.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> Most of the ores obtained in Pennsylvania and New York are
+magnetite. The magnetites furnish about one-sixteenth of the output of
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carbonate of Iron</i>, or siderite, occurs in a few localities, the ore
+produced in Ohio being almost wholly of this kind.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> It contains when
+pure about forty-eight per cent. of iron.<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> It constitutes less than
+one per cent. of the output of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Iron pyrites</i>, or sulphide of iron, sometimes called "fools' gold," is
+a very common mineral. It is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid,
+but is worthless for the production of iron; indeed, the presence of a
+very small percentage of sulphur in iron renders the latter worthless
+for many purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Extensive deposits of iron are known to exist in very nearly every
+country in the world, but those which can be advantageously worked are
+few in number. In order to be available, the deposits must be within
+easy transporting distance of the people who use it, and likewise within
+a short distance of the coal used to manufacture it.</p>
+
+<p>For these reasons most of the workable deposits of ore are in or near
+the great centres of population in western Europe and the eastern part
+of the United States; as a matter of fact, practically all the iron and
+steel of the latter country is produced in the populous centres of the
+Atlantic slopes. In most great steel-making districts it is essential to
+mix the native ores with special ores brought from a distance, the
+latter being used to give strength and hardness to the resulting metal.
+Ores from Sweden, and from Juragua, Cuba, are employed for this purpose
+in the steel-making establishments of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>In the past few years the United States has jumped from an insignificant
+position in the production of iron and steel to the first rank among the
+iron-producing countries. This great advance is due to the fortunate
+geographic position of the iron ore and the coal, and also to the
+discovery of the Bessemer process of making steel.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p><p>In general it is more economical to ship the ore to the coal than <i>vice
+versa</i>. The position of the steel-making plant is largely determined by
+the cost of moving the coke and ore, together with that of getting the
+steel to the place of use. Formerly, iron manufacture in the United
+States was not profitable unless the coal, ore, and limestone<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> were
+very near to one another.</p>
+
+<p>These conditions still obtain in the southern Appalachian mineral
+fields; the ore and the coal are at no great distance apart, and a great
+iron-making industry, in which Birmingham and Bessemer form the
+principal centre, has grown into existence. For the greater part the
+coal is coked; and in this form less than a ton<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> is sufficient to
+make a ton of pig-iron. The smelteries and rolling-mills are built at
+places where the materials are most conveniently hauled.</p>
+
+<p>In the past few years the iron and steel industry which formerly centred
+about the navigable waters at the head of the Ohio River, has undergone
+a readjustment. Rolling-mills and smelteries exist at Pittsburg and
+vicinity, and at Youngstown, New Castle, and other nearby localities,
+but greater steel-making plants have been built along the south shores
+of Lakes Michigan and Erie, all of which have come about because of
+reasons that are purely geographic.</p>
+
+<p>Immense deposits of excellent hematite ore in the old mountain-ranges
+near Lake Superior have recently become available. For the greater part
+the ore is very easily quarried. In many instances it is taken out of
+the quarry or pit by steam-shovels which dump it into self-discharging<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+hopper-cars. Thence the ore is carried on a down grade to the nearest
+shipping-port on the lake. There it is dumped into huge bunkers built at
+the docks, and from these it slides down chutes into the holds of the
+steam-barges. A 6,000-ton barge is loaded in less than two hours; a car
+is unloaded in a few seconds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image95a.jpg" width="600" height="483" alt="MOVEMENT OF IRON ORE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">MOVEMENT OF IRON ORE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Water transportation is very cheap compared with railway transportation,
+even when the road is built and equipped as an ore-hauling road. The ore
+is therefore carried a distance varying from one thousand to one
+thousand five hundred miles for less than it could be loaded, on cars
+hauled one-tenth that distance by rail, and unloaded.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image95.jpg" width="600" height="340" alt="STEEL MANUFACTURE&mdash;ORE DOCKS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">STEEL MANUFACTURE&mdash;ORE DOCKS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p><p>At the south shore of Lake Erie, the ore meets the coke from western
+Pennsylvania and coal from the Ohio coal-fields, and as a result new
+centres of iron and steel manufacture have grown up along this line of
+"least resistance." The ore is unloaded at the docks by means of
+mechanical scoops and shovels. So cheaply and quickly is it mined and
+transported that it is delivered to the smelteries at a cost varying
+from $1.75 to $3.25 per ton.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image96.jpg" width="600" height="334" alt="LAKE SUPERIOR IRON ORE FIELDS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">LAKE SUPERIOR IRON ORE FIELDS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are three forms in which iron is used&mdash;cast iron, wrought iron,
+and steel. Cast iron is crystalline and brittle. The product as it comes
+from the blast furnace is called pig-iron. In making such commodities as
+stoves, and articles that do not require great strength, the pig-iron is
+again melted and cast into moulds which give them the required shape.
+Cast iron contains from one to five per cent. of carbon.</p>
+
+<p>Wrought iron is malleable, ductile, and very flexible; when pure it is
+also very soft. It is prepared by melting pig-iron in furnaces having
+such a shape that the molten metal can be stirred or "puddled" in
+contact with the air. By this means the carbon is burnt out, and while
+still at a white heat the pasty iron is kneaded or "wrought," in order
+to expel other impurities.</p>
+
+<p>Steel is a form of iron which is thought to contain a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> chemical compound
+of iron with carbon. It is stronger than iron and finer in grain.
+Formerly, steel was made by packing bars of pure iron in charcoal
+powder, the whole being enclosed in clay retorts that were heated to
+whiteness for about three days. The product obtained by this method is
+known as cementation steel. It is still used in the manufacture of
+cutlery, tools, and fine machinery; it is likewise very expensive. In
+smelting certain ores it is easy to burn out the carbon in open
+furnaces, and "open-hearth" steel is an important factor.</p>
+
+<p>Just about the beginning of the Civil War, when the railways of the
+United States were taxed beyond their capacity to carry the produce of
+the country, it became apparent that something more durable than iron
+must be used for rails. The locomotives, then weighing from twenty-five
+to thirty-five tons each, were too light to haul the freight offered the
+roads; they were also too heavy for the rails, which split at the ends
+and frayed at the edges.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image96a.jpg" width="400" height="107" alt="IRON AND STEEL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">IRON AND STEEL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Bessemer process of making steel was the result of the demand for a
+better and a cheaper method. By this process, the iron is put into a
+"converter" along with certain Swedish or Cuban ores to give the product
+hardness. A hot blast is then forced into the converter which not only
+melts the mass but burns out the excess of carbon as well. The color of
+the flame indicates the moment when the conversion to steel is
+accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>In 1860, before the establishment of the Bessemer process, steel
+commanded a price of about one hundred and twenty-five dollars per ton;
+at the beginning of the twentieth century steel billets were about
+eighteen dollars per ton. In western Europe and the United States there
+are used about three hundred pounds of iron and steel per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> capita; in
+South America the rate of consumption is about fifteen pounds; in Asia
+(Japan excepted) it is probably less than three pounds.</p>
+
+<p>The economic results of low-priced steel are very far-reaching. Steam
+boilers of steel carry a pressure of more than two hundred and fifty
+pounds to each square inch of surface&mdash;about four times as great as in
+the iron boilers formerly used. Locomotives of eighty tons draw the fast
+passenger trains at a speed of sixty miles an hour. Ponderous
+compounding engines weighing one hundred and twenty tons haul ninety or
+more steel freight cars that carry each a load of 100,000 pounds. The
+iron rails formerly in use weighed about forty pounds per yard; now
+steel rails of one hundred pounds per yard are employed on most trunk
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>In the large commercial buildings steel girders have entirely supplanted
+timber, while in nearly all modern buildings of more than six stories in
+height, the frame is constructed of Bessemer steel. Indeed, a
+steel-framed building of twenty-five stories has greater stability than
+a brick or stone building of six. Such a structure as the "Flatiron
+Building" in New York or the Masonic Temple in Chicago would have been
+impossible without Bessemer steel.</p>
+
+<p>In ocean commerce cheap steel has worked even a greater revolution. In
+1860, a vessel of 4,000 tons displacement was thought to be almost up to
+the limit. The Oceanic of the White Star Line has a displacement of
+about twenty-eight thousand five hundred tons. This is nearly equalled
+by the measurement of half a dozen other liners, and is exceeded by the
+freighters built by Mr. J.J. Hill for the China trade.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image97.jpg" width="600" height="922" alt="FLATIRON BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>From a copyrighted photograph by C.L. Ritzmann, N.Y.</i><br />
+<br />
+STEEL MANUFACTURE<br />
+<br />
+THE FULLER (FLATIRON) BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY</span>
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="HISTORICAL">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>HISTORICAL</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1619.&mdash;Iron works established on Falling Creek, Va.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1643.&mdash;First foundry in Massachusetts, at Lynn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1658.&mdash;Blast furnace and forge at New Haven, Conn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1679.&mdash;Father Hennepin discovers coal in Illinois.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1703.&mdash;Mordecai Lincoln, ancestor of Abraham Lincoln, establishes iron works at Scituate, Mass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1717.&mdash;First bar iron exported from American Colonies to West Indies.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1728.&mdash;Steel made, Hebron, Ct.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1732.&mdash;Father of George Washington establishes furnace in Virginia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1740.&mdash;First iron works in New York, near Hudson.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1750.&mdash;Bituminous coal mined in Virginia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1766.&mdash;Anthracite coal discovered in Pennsylvania.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1770.&mdash;First rolling-mill in Colonies, Boonton, N.J.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1801&ndash;1803.&mdash;Lake Champlain iron district, New York, developed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1812.&mdash;First rolling-mill at Pittsburg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1828.&mdash;Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad, first steam railway in the United States, begun.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1829.&mdash;"Stourbridge Lion," first locomotive in America, used in Delaware &amp; Hudson Railway.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1830.&mdash;The T rail invented by Robert L. Stevens.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1830.&mdash;First American locomotive, "Tom Thumb," built by Peter Cooper at Baltimore.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1830.&mdash;Twenty-three miles of railway in the United States.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1844.&mdash;Lake Superior iron ores discovered by William Burt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1850.&mdash;First shipment of Lake Superior ore, ten tons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1857.&mdash;Iron industry founded in Chicago.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1862.&mdash;Phoenix wrought iron column, or girder, first made.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1864.&mdash;Bessemer steel first made in the United States.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1865.&mdash;First Bessemer steel rails in the United States rolled at Chicago.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1890.&mdash;First armor-plate made in the United States rolled at Bethlehem, Pa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1890.&mdash;The United States surpasses Great Britain in production of pig-iron.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>1900.&mdash;The United States leads in the production of open-hearth steel.</td></tr>
+</table><br /><br /></div>
+
+<p><b>Gold.</b>&mdash;Gold is one of the metals earliest to be mined. It is mentioned
+by the ancient profane as well as by sacred writers. Pictorial
+representations of fusing and working the metal are sculptured on early
+Egyptian tombs, and beautiful gold ornaments have been found that were
+made by the prehistoric peoples who once occupied ancient Etruria, in
+Italy. Columbus found gold ornaments in the possession of the aboriginal
+Americans. The Incas of Peru and the Aztecs of Mexico possessed large
+quantities of gold.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image98a.jpg" width="400" height="533" alt="LEACHING (CYANIDE) TANKS DISSOLVING THE GOLD FROM THE
+ROASTED ORE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">LEACHING (CYANIDE) TANKS DISSOLVING THE GOLD FROM THE
+ROASTED ORE</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image98b.jpg" width="400" height="1329" alt="STOPING OUT A TUNNEL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">STOPING OUT A TUNNEL</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image98c.jpg" width="400" height="636" alt="INTERIOR OF MILL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF MILL</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/image98d.jpg" width="800" height="10" alt="GOLD MINING" title="" />
+<span class="caption">GOLD MINING</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p><p>Gold is one of the most widely diffused of metals. Traces of it are
+found in practically all igneous and most sedimentary rocks. It occurs
+in sea-water, and quite frequently in beach-sands. Traces of it are also
+usually to be found in alluvial deposits and in the soils of most
+mountain-folds. In spite of its wide diffusion, however, all the gold
+that has been mined could be stored readily in the vaults of any large
+New York bank.</p>
+
+<p>In all probability most of the gold now in use has been deposited by
+solution in quartz veins, the latter usually filling seams and crevices
+in granitic or volcanic rocks. Quartz veins seldom yield very great
+returns, but they furnish a steady supply of the metal. The rock must be
+mined, hoisted to the surface, and crushed. The gold is then dissolved
+by quicksilver (forming an amalgam from which the quicksilver is removed
+by heat), by potassium cyanide solution, or by chlorine solution.</p>
+
+<p>In many instances the quartz veins have been broken and weathered by
+natural forces. In such cases the gold is usually carried off by swiftly
+running water and deposited in the channel lower down. In this way
+"placer" deposits of gold occur. Placer deposits are sometimes very
+rich, but they are quickly exhausted. The first gold discovered in
+California was placer gold.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the gold mined in the United States has come from the western
+highlands. In 1900, Colorado, California, South Dakota (Black Hills),
+Montana, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> Alaska yielded about seven-eighths of the entire product.
+The placer mines of Alaska are confined mainly to the beach-sands and
+the tributaries of Yukon River. Since 1849 the average annual yield of
+gold in the United States is about forty-three million dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The Guinea coast of Africa, Australia, California, the Transvaal of
+South Africa, and Venezuela have each stood at the front in the
+production of gold. The aggregate annual production of the world has
+increased from one hundred and sixty million dollars in 1853 to more
+than three hundred million dollars in 1900.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable part of the gold product is used in gilding
+picture-frames, book-titles, sign-letters, porcelain, and ornamental
+brass work. Practically, all of this is lost, and in the United States
+alone the loss aggregates about fifteen million dollars yearly. The
+abrasion and unavoidable wear of gold coin is another great source of
+loss.</p>
+
+<p>An enormous amount is used in the manufacture of jewelry, most of which
+is used over and over again. By far the greater part, however, is used
+as a commercial medium of exchange&mdash;that is, as coin. For this purpose
+its employment is wellnigh universal; and indeed this has been its chief
+use since the beginning of written history. Gold coin of the United
+States is 900 fine, that is, 900 parts of every thousand is pure gold;
+gold coin of Great Britain is 916-2/3 fine. In each case a small amount
+of silver, or silver and copper, is added to give the coin the requisite
+hardness. The coining of gold, and also other metals, is a government
+monopoly in every civilized country.</p>
+
+<p>The fiat value of gold throughout the commercial world is the equivalent
+of $20.6718 per troy ounce of fine metal; an eagle weighs, therefore,
+2580 grains. The real value, however, is reckoned by a different and a
+more accurate standard, namely, the labor of man, and this, the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>sporadic finds of placer gold excepted, has not changed much in two
+thousand years or more. The increased production has scarcely equalled
+the demand for the metal; moreover, the longer a mine is worked the
+greater becomes the expense of its operation. Improved processes for the
+extraction of gold have not created any surplus of gold; indeed, the
+supply is not equal to the demand; and this fact keeps the metal
+practically at a fixed value.</p>
+
+<p><b>Silver.</b>&mdash;Silver is about as widely diffused as is gold, but it is more
+plentiful. It is found sparingly in most of the older rocks and also in
+sea-water. It was used by the Greeks for coinage more than eight hundred
+years before the Christian era, and was known to the Jewish people in
+very early times. According to the writer of the Book of Kings (1 Kings
+x. 21), "It was nothing accounted of in the days of Solomon," but
+Tacitus declares that in ancient Germany silver was even more valuable
+than gold. The mines of Laureion (Laurium) gave the Greek state of
+Attica its chief power, and the failure of the mines marked the
+beginning of Athenian decline.</p>
+
+<p>Silver is rarely found in a metallic state. For the greater part it
+occurs combined with chlorine ("horn silver"), or with sulphur ("silver
+glance"), or in combination with antimony and sulphur ("ruby ore"). The
+ranges of the western highland region of the American continent yield
+most of the present supply. The mines of Colorado, Montana, Utah, and
+Idaho produce about six-sevenths of the yield in the United States,
+which in 1900 was 74,500,000 ounces. In Europe the Hartz Mountains have
+been famous for silver for several centuries.</p>
+
+<p>About four-fifths of the silver bullion is used in the arts, most of it
+being manufactured into ornaments or into table-service called "plate."
+A considerable amount is used in photography, certain silver salts,
+especially the chloride<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> and the bromide, changing color by exposure to
+the light. The remaining part of the silver output is made into coin.</p>
+
+<p>The ratio of silver and gold has fluctuated much in the history of
+civilization. In the United States the value of an ounce of fine silver
+is fixed at $1.2929, thereby making the ratio 16 to 1. The silver
+dollars, 900 fine, were coined on this basis, weighing 412.5 grains.
+With the tremendous output of the silver mines between 1870 and 1880 the
+price of silver fell to such an extent that, in time, most countries
+limited the amount of coinage or demonetized it altogether. In the
+United States the purchase of silver bullion for coinage has been
+practically suspended, and the silver purchased is bought at the bullion
+value&mdash;about fifty cents per troy ounce in 1900. In Japan the ratio has
+been officially fixed at 32 to 1.</p>
+
+<p><b>Copper.</b>&mdash;Copper is probably the oldest metal known that has been used in
+making tools. An alloy of copper and tin, hard enough to cut and dress
+stone, succeeded the use of flint and jade, and its employment became so
+general as to give the name "bronze" to the age following that
+characterized by the use of stone implements.</p>
+
+<p>Copper is very widely distributed. It occurs in quantities that pay for
+mining in pretty nearly every country in the world. The rise of Egypt as
+a commercial power was due to the fact that the Egyptians controlled the
+world's trade in that metal, and it is highly probable that the
+conquests of Cyprus at various times were chiefly for the possession of
+the copper mines of Mount Olympus.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time there are several great centres of production which
+yield most of the metal used. These are the Rocky Mountain region,
+including Mexico; the Lake Superior region of the United States; the
+Andean region, including Chile, Peru, Argentina, and Bolivia; the
+Iberian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> region, consisting of Spain and Portugal; and the Hartz
+Mountain region of Germany. In 1900 they produced about four hundred and
+fifty thousand tons, of which two hundred and eighty thousand were mined
+in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Montana, the Lake Superior mines, and Arizona are the most productive
+regions of the United States, and the mines of these three localities
+yield more than half the world's product. Of these mines the Calumet and
+Hecla of the Lake Superior region is the most famous. It was discovered
+by Jesuit explorers about 1660, but was not worked until 1845. It is one
+of the most productive mines in the world, its yearly output averaging
+fifty million tons.</p>
+
+<p>The export trade in copper is very important, amounting at the close of
+the past century to about one hundred and seventy thousand short tons.
+Of this amount, half goes to Germany (most of it through ports of the
+Netherlands), and one-fifth each to France and Great Britain. The market
+price to the consumer during the ten years closing the century averaged
+about sixteen cents per pound. Most of the product is exported from New
+York and Baltimore. The head-quarters of the great copper-mining
+companies of America are at Boston. The imports of raw ores and partly
+reduced ores called "regulus," come mainly from Mexico to New York and
+Baltimore, and from Mexico and Japan to Puget Sound ports. The most
+important American refineries are at New York and Baltimore.</p>
+
+<p>A part of the copper is mixed with zinc to form brass, an alloy much
+used in light machinery. A considerable quantity is rolled into sheets
+to sheath building fronts and the iron hulls of vessels. By far the
+greater part, however, is drawn into wire for carrying electricity, and
+for this purpose it is surpassed by silver alone. The decrease in the
+price of copper in the past few years is due, not to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> falling off in
+the demand, but to methods of reducing the ores and transporting the
+product more economically.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aluminium.</b>&mdash;Aluminium is the base of clay, this mineral being its oxide.
+It occurs in the various feldspars and feldspathic rocks, and in mica.
+The expense of extracting the metal from these minerals has been so
+great as to prohibit its commercial use. In 1870 there were probably
+less than twenty pounds of the metal in existence, and it was to be
+found only as a curiosity in the chemical laboratories. The discovery
+that the metal could be extracted cheaply from cryolite, a mineral with
+an aluminium base, obtained from Ivigtut, Greenland, led to a sparing
+use of the metal in the economic arts.</p>
+
+<p>The chief step in the production of the metal dates from the time that
+the mineral <i>bauxite</i>, a hydroxide of aluminium and iron, was decomposed
+in the electric furnace. The process has been repeatedly improved, and
+under the patents covered by the Hall process the crude metal is now
+produced at a market price of about eighteen cents per pound. The entire
+production of the United States is controlled by the Pittsburg Reduction
+Company, which also manufactures much of the commercial product of
+England. The competitor of the Pittsburg Reduction Company is an
+establishment in Germany, near Bremen.</p>
+
+<p>Aluminium does not corrode; it is easily rolled, drawn, or cast; and,
+bulk for bulk, it is less than one-third as heavy as copper. Because of
+these properties it has a great and constantly growing economic value.
+Because of its greater size, a pound of aluminium wire will carry a
+greater electric current than a pound of copper wire of the same length.
+It therefore has an increasing use as a conductor of electricity.</p>
+
+<p>Bauxite, the mineral from which the metal is now chiefly extracted, is
+obtained in two localities. One<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> extends through Georgia and Alabama;
+the other is in Arkansas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lead.</b>&mdash;Lead is neither so abundant nor so widely diffused as iron,
+copper, and the precious metals, but the supply is fully equal to the
+demand. Lead ores, mainly galena or lead sulphide, occur abundantly in
+the Rocky Mountains, Colorado, Idaho, and Utah, producing more than half
+the total output of the United States. In these localities, in Mexico,
+and in the Andean states of South America it is used mainly in the
+smelting of silver ores.</p>
+
+<p>Metallic lead is used largely in the manufacture of water-pipes, and for
+this purpose it must be very nearly pure. It is also rolled into sheets
+to be used as lining for water-tanks. The fact that the edges of
+sheet-lead and the ends of pipes may be readily joined with solder gives
+to lead a great part of its economic value. Alloyed with arsenic it is
+used in making shot; alloyed with antimony it forms type metal; alloyed
+with tin it forms pewter and solder.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part, however, is manufactured into the carbonate or "white"
+lead that is used as a pigment, or paint. Red lead, an oxide, is a
+pigment; litharge, also an oxide, is used for glazing the cheaper kinds
+of pottery. About two hundred and thirty thousand tons of lead are
+produced in the United States and one-half as much is imported&mdash;mainly
+from Mexico and Canada. The linotype machines, now used in all large
+printing establishments, have increased the demand for lead.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Metals.</b>&mdash;Most of the remaining economic metals occur in small
+quantities as compared with iron, copper, gold, and silver. Some of
+them, however, are highly important from the fact that in various
+industrial processes no substitutes for them are known.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quicksilver</i>, or <i>mercury</i>, is the only industrial metal that at
+ordinary temperatures is a liquid. It is the base of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> substance
+calomel, a chloride, and corrosive sublimate, a dichloride, both of
+which are employed as medicines. It is essential in the manufacture of
+thermometers and barometers, but is used chiefly, however, as a solvent
+of gold, which it separates from the finely powdered ore by solution or
+amalgamation. Quicksilver occurs in the mineral cinnabar, a sulphide.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly one-half the world's product comes from California. The New
+Almaden mines of Santa Clara County produce over five thousand flasks
+(each seventy-six and one-half pounds net); those of Napa County nearly
+nine thousand flasks; the mines of the whole State yield about
+twenty-six thousand flasks, valued at $1,200,000. Almaden, Spain, and
+Idria, Austria, produce nearly all the rest of the output. An average of
+about fifteen thousand flasks are exported from San Francisco, mainly to
+the mines of Mexico, and Central and South America.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tin</i> is about the only metal of industrial value whose ores are not
+found in paying quantities in the United States. Small quantities occur
+in San Bernardino County, Cal., and in the vicinity of Bering Strait,
+Alaska, but it is doubtful if either will ever pay for development.
+About three-fifths of the world's product comes from the Straits
+Settlements on the Malay Peninsula; the nearby islands of Banca and
+Billiton also yield a considerable quantity.</p>
+
+<p>The mines of Cornwall, England, have been worked for two thousand years
+and were probably the source of the tin that made the "bronze age." The
+United States imports yearly about twenty million dollars worth of tin,
+about half of which comes from the Straits Settlements. This is used
+almost wholly for the manufacture of tin plate<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>&mdash;that is, sheet-iron
+coated with tin. Much of the block tin imported from Great Britain is
+returned there in the form of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> tin plate, being manufactured in the
+United States much more economically than in Europe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nickel</i> occurs in New Caledonia, in Canada, and in the State of
+Missouri. It is used in the manufacture of small coins and for plating
+iron and steel. It is an essential in the metal known as "nickel steel"
+which is now generally used in armor-plate and propeller-shafts, about
+four per cent. of nickel being added to the steel. Most of the product
+used in the United States is imported from Canada.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manganese</i>, a metal resembling iron, occurs in Russia, Brazil, and
+Cuba, Russia producing about half the total output. It is used mainly to
+give hardness to steel. The propeller-blades of large steamships are
+usually made of manganese bronze. The building of war-ships in the
+United States during the past few years has led to the extensive use of
+manganese for armor-plate, and manganese ores to the amount of more than
+two hundred and fifty thousand tons were imported in 1900. More than
+one-half of this came from Russia; most of the remaining half from
+Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Zinc</i> is abundant in nearly every part of the world. In the United
+States the best known mines are in the Galena-Joplin District, in
+Missouri and Kansas, which produce about two-thirds of the home
+product&mdash;mainly from the ore <i>blende</i>, a sulphide. There are also
+extensive zinc-mining operations in Illinois, New Jersey, and
+Pennsylvania. The lower Rhine District, Great Britain, and Silesia are
+the chief European sources. Sheet-zinc is found in nearly every dwelling
+in the United States, and zinc-coated or "galvanized" iron has become a
+domestic necessity. Zinc-white is extensively used as a pigment. About
+two hundred and fifty million pounds of crude zinc, or "spelter," are
+produced in the United States; forty-five million pounds were exported
+in 1900, mainly to Great Britain.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p><p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What are the qualities that make iron the most valuable of metals?</p>
+
+<p>In what ways does commerce depend on iron and steel?</p>
+
+<p>What substances are used for food, clothing, or domestic purposes that
+are not manufactured by the aid of iron?</p>
+
+<p>Ingot or billet steel is rated at about one cent per pound; the
+hair-springs of watches are worth several thousand dollars per pound;
+what makes the difference in their value?</p>
+
+<p>What are the qualities that give to gold its value?</p>
+
+<p>Would all the gold mined in the United States pay the national debt at
+the end of the Civil War?</p>
+
+<p>What causes have led to the increasing price of copper during the past
+few years?</p>
+
+<p>What is the market price each of copper, silver, steel rails, and
+aluminium to-day?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Obtain specimens of the following iron ores: Hematite, brown hematite,
+magnetite, carbonate, and pyrites. Note the color and physical
+appearance of each; scratch the first four with a very hard steel point
+and note the color of the streak.</p>
+
+<p>Obtain specimens of pig-iron, cast iron, wrought iron, and cast steel;
+note carefully the fracture or "break" of each; how does cast iron
+differ from wrought iron?</p>
+
+<p>Obtain specimens of the following copper ores: Malachite, azurite,
+chalcopyrite, and red oxide; wet a very small fragment with an acid and
+note the color when it is held in the flame of an alcohol lamp or a
+Bunsen burner; dissolve a crystal of blue vitriol (copper sulphate) in
+water and note what occurs if the end of a bright iron wire be dipped in
+the solution.</p>
+
+<p>Name the various uses to which nickel, tin, lead, and aluminium are put.</p>
+
+<p>Consult the chapters on these subjects in any cyclop&aelig;dia.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image104a.jpg" width="600" height="290" alt="TRANSPORTING SUGAR-CANE, CUBA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">TRANSPORTING SUGAR-CANE, CUBA</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image104b.jpg" width="600" height="290" alt="SUGAR-CANE GROWING IN CUBA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SUGAR-CANE GROWING IN CUBA</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image104c.jpg" width="600" height="206" alt="HAVEMEYER SUGAR-REFINERY, BROOKLYN. N.Y." title="" />
+<span class="caption">HAVEMEYER SUGAR-REFINERY, BROOKLYN, N.Y.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>SUGAR AND ITS COMMERCE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The term sugar is applied rather loosely to a large number of substances
+characterized by the quality of sweetness. In a few instances the name
+is given to certain mineral salts, such as sugar of lead, but in the
+main the sugars are plant products very similar in chemical structure to
+the starches. They are very closely connected with plant growth, and
+even in animal life, starchy substances are changed to sugar in the
+process of digestion. Although sugar does not sustain life, it is
+necessary as an adjunct to other food-stuffs, and it is probably
+consumed by a greater number of people than any other food-stuffs except
+starch and water.</p>
+
+<p>Three kinds of sugar are found in commerce, namely&mdash;<i>cane</i>-sugar,
+<i>grape</i>-sugar, and <i>milk</i>-sugar. Cane-sugar occurs in the sap of the
+sugar-cane, sorghum-cane, certain of the palms, and the juice of the
+beet. Grape-sugar is the sweet principle of most fruits and of honey.
+Sugar of milk occurs in milk, and in several kinds of nuts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sugar-Cane Sugar.</b>&mdash;Cane-sugar is so called because until recently it was
+derived almost wholly from the sap of the sugar-cane (<i>Saccharum
+officinarum</i>). The plant belongs to the grass family and much resembles
+maize before the latter has matured. It is thought to be native to Asia,
+but it is now cultivated in nearly all tropical countries in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Practically every moist tropical region in the world, the basins of the
+Kongo and Amazon Rivers excepted, is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> cane-sugar-producing region. As
+a rule it is grown in the states under native rule for home consumption,
+and in European colonial possessions for commercial purposes. India and
+China are probably the foremost in the production of sugar-cane sugar,
+but the product is not exported. Cuba, Java, the Gulf coast of the
+United States, Mauritius, the Philippine and the Hawaiian Islands
+produce the most of the supply that enters into commerce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Beet-Sugar.</b>&mdash;During the last quarter of the nineteenth century the
+demands for sugar increased so greatly that it became necessary either
+to raise the price of the commodity, or else to utilize some plant other
+than the sugar-cane as a source. After a few years of experimental work
+it was found that sugar could be readily extracted from the juice of the
+common beet (<i>Beta vulgaris</i>). Several varieties of this plant have been
+improved and are now very largely cultivated for the purpose. Beet-sugar
+and cane-sugar are identical.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all the beet-sugar of commerce comes from northwestern Europe;
+Germany leads with nearly one-third the world's product; France,
+Austria, and Russia follow, each producing about one-sixth. A small
+amount is produced in the United States&mdash;mainly in California and
+Michigan. The area of production, however, is increasing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Cane-Sugars.</b>&mdash;Maple-sugar is derived from the sap of several
+species of maple-trees occurring mainly in the northeastern United
+States and in Canada. The sap is obtained by tapping the trees in early
+spring, a single tree often yielding several gallons. The value of
+maple-sugar lies mainly in its pleasant flavor. It is used partly as a
+confection, but in the main as a sirup. A very large part of the
+maple-sirup and not a little of the sugar is artificial, consisting of
+ordinary sugar colored with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> caramel and flavored with an extract
+prepared from the maple-tree.</p>
+
+<p>Sorghum-sugar is obtained from a cane known as Chinese grass, or Chinese
+millet. It has been introduced into the United States from southeastern
+Asia and Japan. The sorghum-cane grows well in the temperate zone, and
+its cultivation in the Mississippi Valley States has been successful.
+The sugar is not easily crystallizable, however, and it is usually made
+into table-sirup.</p>
+
+<p>Maguey-sugar is derived from the sap of the maguey-plant (<i>Agave
+Americana</i>). It is much used in Mexico and the Central American states.
+The method of manufacture is very crude and the product is not exported.
+Palm-sugar is obtained from the sap of several species of palm growing
+in India and Africa.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sugar Manufacture.</b>&mdash;Sugar manufacture includes three
+processes&mdash;expressing the sap, evaporating, and refining. The first two
+are carried on at or near the plantations; the last is an affair
+requiring an immense capital and a most elaborately organized plant. The
+refining is done mainly in the great centres of population at places
+most convenient for transportation. The raw sugar may travel five or ten
+thousand miles to reach the refinery; the refined product rarely travels
+more than a thousand miles.</p>
+
+<p>After it has been cut and stripped of its leaves the sugar-cane is
+crushed between powerful rollers in order to express the juice. The
+sugar-beet is rasped or ground to a pulp and then subjected to great
+pressure. The expressed juice contains about ten or twelve per cent. of
+sugar. In some factories the beet, or the cane, is cut into thin slices
+and thrown into water, the juice being extracted by the solvent
+properties of the latter. This is known as the "diffusion" process.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p><p>The juice is first strained or filtered under pressure in order to
+remove all foreign matter and similar impurities. It is then clarified
+by adding slacked lime, at the same time heating the liquid nearly to
+the boiling point and skimming off the impurities that rise to the
+surface. The purified juice is then boiled rapidly in vacuum pans until
+it is greatly concentrated.</p>
+
+<p>When the proper degree of concentration is reached, the liquid is
+quickly run off into shallow pans, in which most of it immediately
+crystallizes. The crystalline portion forms the <i>raw sugar</i> of commerce;
+the remaining part is molasses. The whole mass is then shovelled into a
+centrifugal machine which in a few minutes separates the two products.</p>
+
+<p>In purchasing raw sugar, the refiner was formerly at a loss to know just
+how much pure sugar could be made from a given weight of the raw sugar.
+In order to aid in making a correct determination, the Dutch government
+formerly prepared sixteen samples put up in glass flasks and sealed.
+These samples varied in color according to the amount of pure sugar
+contained. The pure solution was known in commerce as No. 16 Dutch
+standard, and this was generally taken all over the world as the
+standard of pure sugar. Within recent years the polariscope, an optical
+instrument that determines the percentage of sugar by means of polarized
+light, has largely replaced the Dutch standard.</p>
+
+<p>The refineries, as a rule, are built with reference to a minimum
+handling and transportation of the raw product. The cane-sugar
+refineries are mainly at the great seaports, where the raw sugar does
+not pay railway transportation. The beet-sugar refineries are in the
+midst of the beet-growing districts. So nearly perfect and economically
+managed are these processes, that raw sugar imported from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> Europe or
+from the West Indies, at a cost of from two and a quarter to two and a
+half cents per pound, is refined and sold at retail at about five cents.</p>
+
+<p>The margin of profit is so very close, however, that in the United
+States, as well as most European states, the sugar industry is protected
+by government enactments. In the United States imported raw sugar pays a
+tariff in order to protect the cane-sugar industry of the Gulf coast and
+the beet-sugar grower of the Western States. The duty at the close of
+the nineteenth century was about 1.66 cents per pound; or, if the sugar
+came from a foreign country paying a bounty on sugar exported, an
+additional countervailing duty equal to the bounty was also charged.</p>
+
+<p>In the various states of western Europe the beet-sugar industry is
+governed by a cartel or agreement among the states, which makes the
+whole business a gigantic combination arrayed against the tropical sugar
+interests. In general, the government of each state pays a bounty on
+every pound of beet-sugar exported. The real effect of the export bounty
+is about the same as the imposition of a tax on the sugar purchased for
+consumption at home.</p>
+
+<p>Two-thirds of the entire sugar product are made from the beet, at an
+average cost of about 2.5 cents a pound. In the tropical islands the
+yield of cane-sugar per acre is about double that of beet-sugar and it
+is produced for about five dollars less per ton. This difference is in
+part offset by the fact that the raw cane-sugar must pay transportation
+for a long distance to the place of consumption, and in part by the
+government bounties paid on the beet product.</p>
+
+<p>Both the political and the economic effects of beet sugar-making have
+been far-reaching. In Germany the agricultural interests of the country
+have been completely reorganized. The uncertain profits of cereal
+food-stuffs have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> given place to the sure profits of beet-sugar
+cultivation, with the result that the income of the Germans has been
+enormously increased. In the other lowland countries of western Europe
+the venture has been equally successful. Even the Netherlands has
+profited by it.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of Spain, the result of beet-sugar cultivation was
+disastrous. The price of cane-sugar in Cuba and the Philippine Islands
+fell to such a low point that the islands could not pay the taxes
+imposed by the mother country. Instead of lowering the taxes and
+adjusting affairs to the changed conditions, the Spaniards drove the
+islands into rebellion, and the latter finally resulted in war with the
+United States, and the loss of the colonies. Great Britain wisely
+adjusted her colonial affairs to the changed conditions, but the British
+colonies suffered greatly from beet-sugar competition.</p>
+
+<p><b>Production and Consumption.</b>&mdash;The production and consumption of sugar
+increased about sevenfold during the latter half of the nineteenth
+century, the increase being due very largely to the decreased price.
+Thus, in 1850, white (loaf) sugar was a luxury, retailing at about
+twenty cents per pound; in 1870 the wholesale price of pure granulated
+sugar was fourteen cents; in 1902 it was not quite five cents.</p>
+
+<p>Although the tropical countries are greatly handicapped by the political
+legislation of the European states, they cannot supply the amount of
+sugar required, unless the area of production be greatly extended. It is
+also certain that without governmental protection, sugar growing in the
+temperate zone cannot compete with that of the tropical countries.</p>
+
+<p>Of the eight million tons of sugar yearly consumed, two-thirds are
+beet-sugar. The annual consumption per capita is about ninety pounds in
+Great Britain, seventy pounds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> in the United States, and not far from
+thirty-five pounds in Germany and France. In Russia and the eastern
+European countries it is less than fifteen pounds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Molasses.</b>&mdash;The molasses of commerce is the uncrystallizable sugar that
+is left in the vacuum pans at the close of the process of evaporation.
+The molasses formerly known as "sugar house" is a filthy product that
+nowadays is scarcely used, except in the manufacture of rum. The color
+of molasses is due mainly to the presence of "caramel" or half-charred
+sugar; it cannot be wholly removed by any ordinary clarifying process.</p>
+
+<p>Purified molasses is usually known as "sirup," and much of it is made by
+boiling a solution of raw sugar to the proper degree of concentration. A
+considerable part is made from the sap of the sorghum-cane, and probably
+a larger quantity consists of glucose solution colored with caramel.
+Maple-sirup, formerly a solution of maple-sugar, is now very largely
+made from raw cane-sugar clarified and artificially flavored.</p>
+
+<p><b>Glucose.</b>&mdash;Glucose, or grape-sugar, is the natural sugar of the grape and
+most small fruits. Honey is a nearly pure, concentrated solution of
+glucose. Grape-sugar has, roughly, about three-fifths the sweetening
+power of cane-sugar. Natural grape-sugar is too expensive for ordinary
+commercial use; the commercial product, on the other hand, is
+artificial, and is made mainly from cornstarch.</p>
+
+<p>Glucose is employed in the cheaper kinds of confectionery in the United
+States; most of it, however, is exported to Great Britain, the annual
+product being worth about four million dollars. From the fact that it
+can be made more economically from corn than from any other grain,
+practically all the glucose is made in the United States.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p><p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>It frequently happens that the prices of sugar and tin-plate rise and
+fall together; show how the fruit-crop may cause this fluctuation.</p>
+
+<p>Which of the possessions of the United States are adaptable for
+cane-sugar?&mdash;for beet-sugar?</p>
+
+<p>In what ways has the manufacture of sugar brought about international
+complications?</p>
+
+<p>What is meant by "Dutch Standard" tests?&mdash;by polariscope tests?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR REFERENCE AND STUDY</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Obtain specimens of rock candy, granulated sugar, raw sugar, and
+caramel; observe each carefully with a magnifying glass and note the
+difference.</p>
+
+<p>World's Sugar Production.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h3>FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS</h3>
+
+
+<p>Outside the food-stuffs, probably no other material is more generally
+used by human beings than the products of the forests. More people are
+sheltered by wooden dwellings than by those of brick or stone, and more
+people are warmed by wood fires than by coal. Even in steam-making a
+considerable power is still produced by the use of wood for fuel.</p>
+
+<p>Neither stone nor metal can wholly take the place of wood as a building
+material; indeed, for interior fittings, finishings, and furniture, no
+artificial substitute has yet been found that is acceptable. For such
+purposes it is carried to the interior of continents and transported
+across the oceans; and although the cost has enormously increased, the
+demand has scarcely fallen off.</p>
+
+<p><b>Forest Areas.</b>&mdash;The great belts of forests girdle the land surface of the
+earth. A zone of tropical forest forms a broad belt on each side of the
+equator, but mainly north of it. This forest includes most of the
+ornamental woods, such as mahogany, ebony, rosewood, sandal-wood, etc.
+It also includes the most useful teak as well as the rubber-tree and the
+cinchona. Another forest belt in the north temperate zone is situated
+mainly between the thirty-fifth and fiftieth parallels. It traverses
+middle and northern Europe and the northern United States.</p>
+
+<p>This forest contains the various species of pine, cedar, and other
+conifers, the oaks, maples, elms, birches, etc.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> Most of the forests of
+western Europe have been greatly depleted, though those of Norway and
+Sweden are still productive. The forests of the United States, extending
+from Maine to Dakota, have been so wellnigh exhausted that by 1950 only
+a very little good lumber-making timber will be left.</p>
+
+<p>The destruction of forests has been most wasteful. When a forest-covered
+region is settled, a large area is burnt off in order to clear the land
+for cultivation. In many instances the fires are never fully
+extinguished until the forest disappears. The timber of the United
+States has been depleted not only by frequent fires but in various other
+ways. The lumbermen take the best trees and these are cut into
+building-lumber. The railways follow the lumbermen, cutting out
+everything suitable for ties. The paper-makers vie with the tie-cutters,
+and what is left is the plunder of the charcoal-burner.</p>
+
+<p><b>Forestry.</b>&mdash;In most of Europe the care of the remaining forests is
+usually a government charge. Only a certain number of mature trees may
+be removed each year, and many are planted for each one removed&mdash;in the
+aggregate, several million each year. In the United States, where the
+value of the growing timber destroyed by fire each year nearly equals
+the national debt, not very much has been done to either check the
+ravage or to reforest the denuded areas. Many of the States, however,
+encourage tree-planting. In several, Arbor Day is a holiday provided by
+law.</p>
+
+<p>The general Government has established timber preserves in several
+localities in the West. The State of New York has converted the whole
+Adirondack region into a great preserve. Forest wardens and guards are
+employed both to keep fires in check and to prevent the ravages of
+timber thieves; excepting the State preserves however, the means of
+prevention are inadequate for either purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image109.jpg" width="600" height="368" alt="THE LUMBER INDUSTRY&mdash;A LOG JAM" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE LUMBER INDUSTRY&mdash;A LOG JAM</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p><p>To be valuable for lumber of the best quality, a forest tree must be
+"clear"; that is, it must be free from knots at least fifteen feet from
+the ground. In the case of pines and cedars, the clear part of the trunk
+must have a greater length. To produce such conditions, the trees must
+grow thickly together, in order that the lower branches may not mature.</p>
+
+<p>The growth of trees thus set is very slow. Isolated pine-trees will
+reach the size large enough for cutting in about fifty years, but the
+lumber will be practically worthless because of the knots. On the other
+hand, pine forests with the trees so thickly set as to make a clear,
+merchantable lumber require at least a century for maturity.<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Oak
+forests require a much greater period.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, the forest growths of the United States are found in the
+areas characterized by sandy and gravelly soils. Thus, the glaciated
+region of the United States and Canada for the greater part is
+forest-covered. The sand barrens along the Atlantic coast usually are
+forest areas. The older bottom-lands of most rivers are often
+forest-covered, especially when their soil is coarse and sandy.</p>
+
+<p>There are large areas, however, in both the United States and Europe,
+that are treeless. In some instances this condition, without doubt,
+resulted from the fires that annually burnt the grass. With the
+cessation of the prairie fires, forest growths have steadily increased.</p>
+
+<p>In other instances these areas are treeless because the seeds of trees
+have never been planted there. The high plains at the eastern base of
+the Rocky Mountains are an example. This region is deficient in the
+moisture <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>required to give young trees the vigorous start that will
+carry them to maturity. Moreover, the westerly winds and the streams of
+this region come from localities also deficient in forestry, and there
+are therefore no seeds to be carried.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, the distribution of forests is effected by the winds and by
+moving water. The prevailing westerly winds of the temperate zones have
+carried many species eastward and have extended the forest areas in that
+direction. Freshets, floods, and overflows have been even more active in
+carrying seeds, sprouts, and even trees into new territories. Waves and
+currents have likewise played a similar part. Wherever the soil of the
+region into which the species have been carried is moist and nutritious,
+the forest growth has usually extended.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Pine Family.</b>&mdash;The pine family includes the various species of pine,
+tamarack, spruce, hemlock, fir, juniper, larch, cypress, and cedar. A
+few members of the family thrive in the warmer parts of the temperate
+zone, but for the greater part they flourish between the fortieth and
+sixtieth parallels. Most of the species found in low latitudes are
+mountain-trees. They constitute the greater part of the American and
+Russian forests. The American pine forest is thought to be the largest
+in the world.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>white pine</i> (<i>Pinus strobus</i>) is the most valuable member of the
+family. Its value is due in part to the fact that the wood is soft,
+clear, and easily worked, and in part to the accessibility of the
+forests. Not much inroad has yet been made upon the great Russian
+forest, owing to the fact that the timber is too far away from seaports
+and water transportation. Rough lumber becomes too expensive for use
+when transported by land, but it will stand the expense of shipment by
+water many miles.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p><p>The <i>Georgia</i> or <i>long-leafed pine</i> (<i>Pinus palustris</i>) is also
+commonly called <i>pitch pine</i>, <i>turpentine pine</i>, and <i>southern pine</i>; it
+grows chiefly along the south Atlantic coast and in the northern
+counties of Georgia. It is harder than white pine and makes excellent
+flooring.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>sugar pine</i> (<i>Pinus lambertiana</i>) occurs mainly in Oregon and
+California. The grain is fine and soft and the trees reach a large
+girth.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>loblolly pine</i> (<i>Pinus t&aelig;da</i>) has a considerably larger area than
+the Georgia pine, extending into Indian Territory. The <i>short-leaf pine</i>
+(<i>Pinus echinata</i>) occurs in small areas from New York to the Gulf of
+Mexico, and across to Missouri; it is the Chattahoochee pine of Florida.
+The <i>pitch pine</i> (<i>Pinus rigida</i>) occurs in various areas mainly north
+of the Ohio River and west of the prairies. The lumber cut annually from
+these pines aggregates about thirty billion feet.</p>
+
+<p>The common <i>white cedar</i> (<i>Cham&aelig;cyparis thyoides</i>) occurs along the
+Atlantic and Gulf coasts nearly to the Mississippi. On account of its
+fine grain it is much used in cabinet work and as a finishing wood. <i>Red
+cedar</i>, probably a different species, occurs along the Atlantic coast.
+It is largely used in the manufacture of lead-pencils, and the forests
+are wellnigh exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>redwoods</i> are confined to the California coast, mainly in the coast
+ranges, near the ocean. Ordinary redwood (<i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>)
+resembles red cedar, is soft, and very fine in grain, and shrinks but
+little in seasoning. It is a most valuable timber both for common and
+for ornamental use. It very frequently attains a diameter of five or six
+feet; the big tree sometimes exceeds sixteen feet in diameter and
+reaches a height of nearly four hundred feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Industrial Woods.</b>&mdash;The oaks, like the pines,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> form a nearly
+continuous belt across the northern continents, lying mainly south of
+the pines; they do not extend much south of the thirtieth parallel. The
+white oak of the New England plateau and Canada commands a high price on
+account of its strength; a considerable quantity is exported.</p>
+
+<p>The "quartering" of the lumber used in ornamental work is produced by
+sawing the logs, which have been split in quarters, so that the
+silver-grain shows on the faces of the boards. The bark of the oak is
+rich in tannic acid and it is much used in tanning leather. <i>Cork oak</i>
+(<i>Quercus suber</i>) grows mainly in Spain and Algeria.</p>
+
+<p><i>Black walnut</i> (<i>Juglans nigra</i>) grows in the river-bottoms of the
+Mississippi Valley and in Texas. The merchantable supply is not great,
+and the wood is therefore growing more valuable each year. <i>Hickory</i> is
+used where great strength is required, and also for various
+tool-handles. <i>Maple</i> is largely employed in making furniture. <i>Ash</i> is
+a very common wood for tool-handles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shade-Trees and Ornamental Woods.</b>&mdash;A large number of trees are yearly
+transplanted, or else grown from seed, to be used as ornamental
+shade-trees. For this purpose the elm, maple, acacia ("locust"), linden
+("lime"), catalpa, ash, horse-chestnut ("buckeye"), poplar, and willow
+are most common in ordinary temperate latitudes, both in Europe and
+America. In warmer latitudes the Australian eucalyptus ("red gum" and
+"blue gum"), magnolia, palmetto, laurel, arbutus, and tulip are common.
+The local trade in ornamental trees is very heavy; the trade is local
+for the reason that the transportation of them is very expensive.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tropical Woods and Tree Products.</b>&mdash;Many of the tropical woods are in
+demand on account of their beautiful appearance, and in many species
+this quality is combined with strength and hardness. <i>Mahogany</i> is
+obtained from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> Mexico and the Central American states, and also from the
+West Indies. The former is classed as "Honduras"; the latter is
+generally known as San Domingo mahogany and commands the highest price.
+<i>Rosewood</i> is obtained from Brazil, and is used almost exclusively in
+piano-cases. Both are cut into thin veneers, to be glued to a less
+expensive body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ebony</i> is the heart of a species of persimmon obtained mainly in Ceylon
+and the East Indies. Very little of the so-called ebony is genuine, most
+of the ebony of commerce consisting of fine-grained hardwood, stained
+black. <i>Jarrah</i>, an Australian wood, is now very generally used for
+street-paving, and for this purpose it has no superior. <i>Teak</i> probably
+has no equal for strength and durability. It is not touched by the
+teredo and other marine worms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Boxwood</i> (<i>Buxus balearica</i>) is a high-growing tree, native to India,
+but growing best in the islands of the Mediterranean. The wood is very
+hard, of yellowish-brown color, and so fine in grain that it finds a
+ready market in nearly every part of the world. Probably the larger part
+is used by engravers. A large amount of the wood is also used in the
+manufacture of folding-rules, and in inlaying. Constantinople is the
+principal market, and nearly ten thousand tons of the selected wood are
+sold yearly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lignum vit&aelig;</i>, or <i>guaiac wood</i> (<i>Guaiacum officinale</i>), grows profusely
+in the West Indies and along the Spanish Main. It is used both in
+medicine and in the arts. Shavings of the wood steeped in water were
+once considered a cure-all, hence the name. The wood is very hard,
+heavy, and is split with the greatest difficulty. It is therefore much
+employed in making mallet-heads, tool-handles, nine-pin balls, and
+pulley-blocks. In tropical countries it is employed for railway ties.
+West India ports are the chief markets, and the United States is the
+chief consumer.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image112.jpg" width="600" height="315" alt="A LOG RAFT, WINONA, WIS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A LOG RAFT, WINONA, WIS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image112a.jpg" width="600" height="412" alt="HAULING LOGS TO THE RIVER" title="" />
+<span class="caption">HAULING LOGS TO THE RIVER</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image112b.jpg" width="600" height="355" alt="THE LUMBER INDUSTRY&mdash;A LOGGING STREAM, MENOMINEE, WIS." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Copyright, 1898, Detroit Photographic Co.</i><br />
+<br />
+THE LUMBER INDUSTRY&mdash;A LOGGING STREAM, MENOMINEE, WIS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p><p><i>Logwood</i> is the wood of a tree (<i>H&aelig;matoxylon campechianum</i>) growing in
+Central America and the West Indies. The best quality comes from
+Campeche, and it is marketed mainly from Central American ports. It is
+almost universally used for dyeing the black of woollen and cotton
+textiles, and logwood blacks are the standard of color-prints.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>In what structures has timber been supplanted by iron and steel?</p>
+
+<p>In what manufactured article has timber supplanted the use of rags?</p>
+
+<p>When a pine forest is cut away, what kinds of timber are apt to come up
+in place of the pines?</p>
+
+<p>In what manner does the railway draw upon the forests?&mdash;the
+paper-maker?&mdash;the farmer?&mdash;the tanner?&mdash;the beaver?&mdash;the teredo, or
+ship-worm?</p>
+
+<p>From what country or countries do the following come: boxwood, rosewood,
+sandal-wood, cinchona, bog oak, jarrah?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Make a list of the forestry growing in the State in which you live; so
+far as possible, obtain a specimen of each wood, prepared so as to show
+square, oblique, split, and polished sections; for what purpose, if any,
+is each used?</p>
+
+<p>Consult "Check-list of Forestry of the United States" (U.S. Department
+of Agriculture).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h3>SEA PRODUCTS AND FURS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The world's fish-catch amounts probably to more than one-quarter of a
+billion dollars in value and employs upward of a million people; in the
+United States 200,000 are employed. In some localities, such as the
+oceanic islands, far distant from the grazing lands of the continents,
+the flesh of fish is about the only fresh meat obtainable. Even on the
+continents fish is more available and cheaper than beef. The
+fish-producing areas pay no taxes; they require no cultivation;
+moreover, they do not require to be purchased. In general, fish
+supplements beef as an article of food; it is not a substitute for the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p>The whale-catch excepted, fish are generally caught in the shallow
+waters of the continental coasts. The fish, in great schools, resort to
+such localities at certain seasons, and the seasons in which they school
+is the fisherman's opportunity. For the greater part, such shallows and
+banks are spawning-places. Most of the fish, however, are caught off the
+Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America, these localities being
+nearest to the great centres of population.</p>
+
+<p><b>Whales.</b>&mdash;The whale is sought mainly in cold waters, and at the present
+time the chief whaling-grounds are in the vicinity of Point Barrow. In
+the first half of the nineteenth century whale-fishing was an industry
+involving hundreds of vessels and a large aggregate capital. The
+industry centred about New England seaports.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p><p>The train-oil obtained from the blubber of the animal was used partly
+as a lubricant, but mainly for illuminating purposes. For this purpose,
+however, it has been superseded by coal-oil, gas, and electricity. It is
+still in demand as a lubricant, but the whale-oil of commerce is quite
+as apt to come from the blubber of the porpoise or the sea-cow as from
+the right whale. Whalebone is a horny substance taken from the animal's
+jaw, and is worth from three dollars to eight dollars per pound. It is
+used chiefly in the manufacture of whips. For other purposes, steel,
+hard rubber, and celluloid have taken its place.</p>
+
+<p>The substance called <i>spermaceti</i> is derived from the sperm-whale, an
+inhabitant of warm ocean-waters. Spermaceti is identical in its physical
+properties with paraffine, and the latter is now almost universally its
+substitute.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ambergris</i>, thought to be a morbid secretion or disease of the
+sperm-whale, is found in the body cavity of the animal and also in
+masses floating in the sea. It is used chiefly to give intensity to the
+odor of perfumes, and the best quality brings as much as five dollars
+per ounce. Most of the ambergris of commerce is obtained from the
+neighborhood of the Bahama Islands.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cod.</b>&mdash;In the amount of the product the cod-fisheries are the most
+important. The meat of the fish is not strong in flavor, and it is cured
+with little expense. So valuable is the annual catch that the banks and
+shallows which the schools frequent are governed by international
+treaties.</p>
+
+<p>The cod is a cold-water fish, and the fishing-grounds are confined to
+rather high latitudes. The coast-waters of the Scandinavian peninsula
+and the shores of the Canadian coast, especially the Banks of
+Newfoundland, are the chief areas. The fishing-grounds of the Canadian
+coast are closed to foreign vessels inside a three-mile limit; beyond
+the limit they are occupied mainly by Canadian,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> French, and American
+fishermen. By the terms of treaties foreign vessels may enter the
+three-mile limit under restriction to purchase bait and food-supplies,
+and to cure their fish.</p>
+
+<p>A large part of the cod-catch is exported. Tropical countries buy much
+of the product. In such countries it is more wholesome than meat; it is
+cheaper; moreover, the salted cod will keep for an indefinite length of
+time. A large part of the catch is sold to the Catholic states of Europe
+and America, where during certain times the eating of the flesh of
+animals is forbidden. Gloucester, Mass., London, England, and Trondhjem,
+Norway, are great markets for salted fish. The oil from the liver of the
+cod is much used in medicine.</p>
+
+<p><b>Herring, Alewives, and Sardine.</b>&mdash;The herring is a much smaller fish than
+the cod, and, commercially, is much less important. They school in about
+the same waters as the cod, but are caught at a different season,
+gill-nets being usually employed. Practically no distinction is made
+between full-grown herring and alewives of the same size. The fish are
+usually cured by smoking, pickling, or salting, and in this form are
+either exported or sold in interior markets.</p>
+
+<p>The true sardine is found in latitudes a little farther south than the
+schooling-grounds of the cod. The most important fisheries are along the
+coasts of the Latin states of Europe. Sardine fishing is a great
+industry all along the New England coast of the United States, but the
+"sardines" marketed from this region are young herring. Indeed, nearly
+all sorts of small fry are sold in boxes bearing spurious French labels.</p>
+
+<p><b>Salmon.</b>&mdash;Most of the salmon are caught in the rivers flowing into the
+North Pacific Ocean. The fish are caught in traps and weirs at the time
+of the spring run, when they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> ascend the river to spawn. The rivers are
+frequently so congested with the salmon that thousands of tons are
+caught in a single stream during the run.</p>
+
+<p>The salmon canneries of the Columbia River are very extensive
+establishments, but in the past few years they have been surpassed by
+the Alaskan fisheries, which produce not far from fifty million pounds
+each year. The dressed fish is cooked by steam, canned, and exported to
+all parts of the world. The growth and development of the industry has
+also made an enormous demand on the tin mines of the world. Canned
+salmon is the largest fish export of the United States. There are
+extensive salmon-fisheries in Norway, Japan, and Russia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Fish.</b>&mdash;<i>Mackerel</i> and <i>haddock</i> are caught near the shores of the
+North Atlantic. Most of the mackerel-catch is pickled in brine and sold
+in small kegs known as "kits." The <i>menhaden</i>-catch of the North
+Atlantic is converted into fertilizer. The <i>halibut</i> is a large fish
+that is rarely preserved. The area in which it is caught is about the
+same as that of the cod. <i>Shad</i> are usually caught when ascending the
+rivers of the middle Atlantic coast. In the United States, Chesapeake,
+Delaware, and New York Bays yield the chief supply. The <i>bluefish</i> and
+<i>barracuda</i> are warm-water fish. The market for fresh fish has been
+greatly enlarged by the use of refrigerator-cars.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>sturgeon</i> is captured mainly in the rivers and lakes of the
+temperate zone. Those of the Black Sea sometimes attain a weight of
+2,000 pounds. The flesh is of less importance than the eggs, of which
+caviare is made. Russian caviare is sold all over Europe and America,
+and not a small part of the product is made in Maine. The caviare made
+from the roe of the Delaware River sturgeon is exported to Germany. The
+<i>tunny</i> is confined to Mediterranean waters.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p><p>The <i>anchovy</i> is caught on the coast of Europe; most of the product is
+preserved, or made into the well-known "anchovy sauce." The
+<i>beche-de-mere</i>, or "sea cucumber," is a product of Australasian and
+Malaysian waters. Almost the whole catch is purchased by the Chinese,
+and it is exported to all countries having a Chinese population.</p>
+
+<p><b>Oysters and Lobsters.</b>&mdash;The oyster is among the foremost sea products of
+the United States in value. The oyster thrives best in moderately warm
+and sheltered waters. The coves and estuaries along the middle Atlantic
+coast produce the best in the world. Chesapeake Bay and Long Island
+Sound yield the greater part of the output. In the latter waters
+elaborate methods of propagation are carried out, and the yearly crop is
+increasing both in quality and quantity. The output of the Chesapeake
+beds has decreased materially; that of the Long Island Sound beds has
+increased.</p>
+
+<p>Oysters are plentiful along the Pacific coast of the United States and
+also in European coast-waters, but they are inferior in size and
+quality. The use of refrigerator-cars and vessels has extended the trade
+to the extent that fresh oysters are shipped to points 2,000 miles
+inland; they are also exported to Europe. Baltimore is the chief
+oyster-market.</p>
+
+<p>The consumption of the lobster has been so great that the catch of the
+New England coast has decreased about one-half in the past fifty years,
+and the United States is now an importer. Most of the import, amounting
+to about one million dollars yearly, comes from Canada. The so-called
+lobsters of the Pacific coast of the United States are not lobsters, but
+crayfish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fish Hatcheries.</b>&mdash;The demand for fish has grown so great in past years
+that in many countries the waters, especially the lakes and rivers, are
+restocked. The eggs are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> hatched and the young fry are fed until they
+are large enough to take care of themselves. The chief hatchery and
+laboratory of the United States Fish Commission is at Woods Holl, Mass.
+As many as 860,000,000 eggs, small fry, and adult fish have been
+distributed in a single year. The State of New York has also a similar
+department for restocking its waters.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sponge.</b>&mdash;This substance is practically the skeleton of a low order of
+animal, growing at the bottom of the sea. The sponge is cut from the
+place of attachment, and the gelatinous matter is washed away after
+putrefaction. The chief sponge-fisheries are in the neighborhood of
+Florida and the Bahama Islands.</p>
+
+<p><b>Seal.</b>&mdash;The fur-seal is an amphibian, found only in cold waters. A few
+pelts are obtained along the Greenland coast, but the chief
+sealing-grounds of the world have been at the Pribilof Islands, in
+Bering Sea. The pelts of the young males only are taken. The rookeries
+of the Pribilof Islands have been so nearly exhausted, that the killing
+season has been suspended for a term of years. Much illicit
+seal-catching is still going on, however.</p>
+
+<p>The skins are taken to London, via San Francisco, where the fur is dyed
+a rich brown color; London is the chief market for dyed pelts; San
+Francisco for raw pelts; and New York, Paris, and St. Petersburg for
+garments. The pelts of the sea-otter are obtained mainly in the North
+Pacific Ocean.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Furs.</b>&mdash;The furs employed in the finest garments are in part the
+pelts of land animals living in polar regions. The sable, stone-marten,
+otter, beaver, and red fox are the most valuable. The Persian lamb,
+however, is not a polar animal. The Russian Empire and Canada are the
+chief sources of supply. The Hudson Bay Company, with head-quarters at
+Fort Garry, near Winnipeg, controls most of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> fur-trade of North
+America; the Russian furs are marketed mainly at Lower Novgorod.
+Leipzig, Germany, is also an important fur-market.</p>
+
+<p>Enormous quantities of rabbit-skins from Australia and nutria from
+Argentina are imported into the United States and Europe for the
+manufacture of the felt of which hats are made. The amount of this
+substance may be realized when one considers that not far from two
+hundred million people in the two countries wear felt hats.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Note an instance in which the search for deep-sea fishing-grounds has
+resulted in the discovery of unknown lands.</p>
+
+<p>Why are not whale products as essential now as a century ago?</p>
+
+<p>What international complications have arisen between the United States
+and Great Britain concerning the cod-fisheries?&mdash;the seal-catch?</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/image117.jpg">
+<img src="images/image117_th.jpg" width="600" height="851" alt="NORTH AMERICA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">NORTH AMERICA</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE UNITED STATES&mdash;THE SEAPORTS AND THE ATLANTIC COAST-PLAIN</h3>
+
+
+<p>The United States of America together with the possessions included
+within the domain of the Republic comprise an area somewhat greater than
+that of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to latitude, the position of the main body of the United
+States is extremely fortunate. Practically all its area is situated in
+the warmer half of the temperate zone. Only a small part lies beyond the
+northern limit of the corn belt; wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated
+successfully throughout four-fifths of its extent in latitude; grass,
+and therefore cattle and sheep are grown in nearly every part. Coal,
+iron, copper, gold, and silver, the minerals and metals which give to a
+nation its greatest material power, exist in abundance, and the
+successful working of these deposits have placed the country upon a very
+high commercial plane.</p>
+
+<p>Topographically the United States may be divided into the following
+regions:</p>
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Atlantic Coast-Plain,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Appalachian Ranges and the New England Plateau,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Basin of the Great Lakes,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Northern Mississippi Valley Region,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Southern Mississippi Valley and Gulf Coast,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Arid Plains,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Plateau Region,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Pacific Coast Lowlands.</span><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image118.jpg" width="600" height="358" alt="A HARBOR&mdash;NEW YORK BAY, AT THE BATTERY" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A HARBOR&mdash;NEW YORK BAY, AT THE BATTERY</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p><p>The topographic and climatic features of these various regions have had
+a great influence not only on the political history of the country, but
+their effect has been even greater in determining its industrial
+development. They have resulted in the establishment of the various
+industries, each in the locality best adapted to it, instead of their
+diffusion without respect to the necessary conditions of environment.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing regions are also approximately areas of fundamental
+industries. Thus, the New England plateau supplies the rest of the
+United States with light manufactures, such as cotton textiles, woollen
+clothing, hats, shoes, cutlery, books, writing-paper, household metal
+wares, etc., but sells the excess abroad. The middle and southern
+Appalachians, with the coal which forms their chief resource, supply the
+rest of the country with structural steel, from ores obtained in the
+lake regions, and sell the excess to foreign countries.</p>
+
+<p>The northern Mississippi Valley grows nearly one-fourth of the world's
+wheat-crop. The wheat of this region and the Pacific coast lowlands
+supplies the country with bread-stuffs, and exports the excess to
+western Europe. The Gulf states, which produce three-fourths of the
+world's cotton-crop, supply the whole country and about one-half the
+rest of the world besides with cotton textiles. The grazing regions
+produce an excess of meat for export; the western highlands furnish the
+gold and silver necessary to carry on the enormous commerce.</p>
+
+<p>In the last twenty years the imports of merchandise per capita varied
+but little from $11.50; the exports per capita varied from about $12 to
+more than $18.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Atlantic Coast-Plain and the Seaports.</b>&mdash;Throughout most of its
+extent the Atlantic seaboard of the United States is bordered by a low
+coast-plain. Along the northeastern coast of the United States the
+coast-plain is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> very narrow; south of New York Bay it has a width in
+some places of more than two hundred miles.</p>
+
+<p>The existence of this plain has had a marked effect on the commercial
+development of the country. The sinking or "drowning" of the northern
+part of it has made an exceedingly indented coast. The drowned valleys,
+enclosed by ridges and headlands, form the best of harbors, and nearly
+all of them are northeast of New York Bay. South of New York Bay good
+harbors are comparatively few. For the greater part they occur only when
+old, buried river-channels permit approach to the shore.</p>
+
+<p>The most important port of entry in these harbors is <i>New York</i>, and it
+derives its importance from two factors. It has a very capacious harbor,
+into which vessels drawing as much as thirty-five feet may enter; its
+situation at the lower end of a series of valleys and passes makes it
+almost a dead level route from the Mississippi to the Atlantic seaboard.
+The importance of New York as the commercial gateway between European
+ports and the food-producing region of the American continent began when
+the Erie Canal was opened between the Great Lakes and tide-water. The
+completion of the canal for the first time opened the rich farming lands
+of the interior to European markets. Probably a greater tonnage of
+freight is carried yearly over this route than over any other channel of
+trade in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from two-thirds of the foreign commerce of the country passes
+through the port of New York. The water-front of the city has an
+aggregate length of about three hundred miles, of which one-third is
+available for anchorage. The docks and piers, including those of Jersey
+City and Hoboken, aggregate about ninety miles in frontage.</p>
+
+<p>About sixteen thousand sea-going craft enter and clear yearly, and an
+average of nearly twenty large passenger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> and freight steamships arrive
+and clear daily, about one-half of them being foreign. The latter
+receive their cargoes from about three thousand freight-cars that are
+daily switched into the various freight-yards, a large part of which is
+through freight from the west.</p>
+
+<p>The port of entry of <i>New York</i> is a centre of population of about four
+million, and although there are the industries usually found in great
+communities, the greater business enterprises practically reduce
+themselves to export, import, and exchange. For this reason New York
+City is the financial, as well as the commercial centre of the
+continent. Most of the great industrial corporations of the country have
+their head offices in the city. These are financed by more than one
+hundred banks, together with a clearing-house whose yearly business
+amounted in 1902 to considerably more than seventy billions of
+dollars.<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image119.jpg" width="600" height="642" alt="BOSTON HARBOR" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BOSTON HARBOR</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Boston</i> has been one of the leading ports of the United<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> States for
+considerably more than a century. It ranks second among the ports of the
+United States. Regular lines of transit connect it with the principal
+ports of Great Britain and Canada. The coast trade is also very heavy.
+Boston is the financial and commercial centre of New England; the
+cotton, woollen, and leather goods passing through the port find their
+way to nearly every inhabited part of the world. The city controls a
+considerable export trade of food-stuffs from the upper Mississippi
+Valley. The vessels entering and clearing at Boston indicate a movement
+of about four million five hundred thousand tons, about one-fourth that
+of New York. The clearing-house exchanges average about six billion
+dollars yearly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Philadelphia</i>, on account of its distance inland, is not fortunately
+situated for ocean commerce. Steamships of deep draught reach their
+docks at the lower end of the city under their own steam, but
+sailing-craft pay heavy towage fees. There are regular lines to
+Liverpool, Antwerp, West Indian ports, Baltimore, and Boston.
+Philadelphia is the centre of the anthracite coal trade, and this is the
+chief factor of its domestic trade. The imports of fruit from the West
+Indies, carpet-wool from Europe, and raw sugar from the West Indies,
+form the greater part of its foreign business. The manufactures are
+mainly carpets and rugs, locomotives and iron steamships, and refined
+sugar. The carpet-weaving and the ship-building plants are among the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>
+largest in the world. The ocean movement of freight is more than three
+million five hundred thousand tons yearly. The business of the
+clearing-house in 1902 aggregated nearly six billion dollars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Baltimore</i> is likewise handicapped by its distance inland.
+Sailing-vessels, however, require only a short towage, the docks being
+scarcely a dozen miles from Chesapeake Bay. The harbor is deep and
+capacious. The Pennsylvania and Baltimore &amp; Ohio railway systems have
+made Baltimore an important railway centre. The completion of the Gould
+railway system to the Atlantic seaboard has made the city second to New
+York only in the export of corn, wheat, flour, and tobacco. The most
+noteworthy local industry is the oyster product, which is the greatest
+in the world. Nearly ten thousand people are employed, and during the
+busy season&mdash;from September to the end of April&mdash;about thirty carloads
+of oysters a day are shipped.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image120.jpg" width="600" height="590" alt="CHARLESTON HARBOR" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHARLESTON HARBOR</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The yearly movement of marine freight, entering and clearing, aggregates
+about three million tons. In 1902 the clearing-house exchanges
+aggregated about two and one-quarter billion dollars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Portland</i>, Me., has good harbor facilities, but is distant from the
+great lines of traffic. Steamship lines, which in summer make Montreal a
+terminal point, occasionally make Portland their winter harbor. <i>Newport
+News</i>, <i>Savannah</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> <i>Charleston</i>, and <i>Brunswick</i> are growing in
+importance as clearing ports for the cotton and produce from the region
+west of them. <i>Norfolk</i> obtains importance on account of the United
+States Navy-Yard; it is also the great peanut-market of the world.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What are the requisites of a good seaport?</p>
+
+<p>What is meant by the draught of a vessel?</p>
+
+<p>For what purposes are pilots?</p>
+
+<p>How are navigable channels marked and designated?</p>
+
+<p>From the Statistical Abstract find six or more of the leading exports
+from each of the following ports: New York, Boston, Baltimore,
+Philadelphia, and the port nearest which you live.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Statistical Abstract of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Statesman's Year-Book.</p>
+
+<p>Industrial Evolution of the United States&mdash;Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE UNITED STATES&mdash;THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU AND THE APPALACHIAN REGION</h3>
+
+
+<p>The manufacturing regions of the United States, which connect the
+country with the rest of the world, include mainly the New England
+plateau and the Appalachian ranges.</p>
+
+<p><b>The New England Plateau.</b>&mdash;This region embraces the New England States
+and practically includes all the eastern part of New York and northern
+New Jersey. The abruptly sloping surface affords a great wealth of
+water-power, and the region is one of the most important centres of
+light manufacture in the world. This industry resulted very largely from
+the conditions imposed by the War of 1812 and its consequent
+non-intercourse acts.</p>
+
+<p>The interruption of foreign commerce not only cut off the importation of
+manufactured commodities, but also made idle the capital employed.
+Manufacturing enterprises started in various parts of the United States,
+but they prospered in this region for three reasons&mdash;an abundance of
+power, plenty of capital, and business experience. Steam-power is
+largely supplanting water-power in the manufacturing enterprises, and in
+many instances the establishments have been moved to tide-water in order
+to get their coal at the lowest rates of transportation.</p>
+
+<p>Chief among the manufactures are cotton textiles, the yearly output of
+which is about three hundred million dollars. About nine-tenths of the
+cotton goods made are consumed at home. Of the remainder, China
+purchases one-half. Great Britain and Canada take one-fourth, the South<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+American and Central American states purchase most of the remaining
+output. The great improvement of spinning and weaving machinery has
+enabled the cotton manufacturer to export his wares to about every
+country in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Boots, shoes, and other leather goods are also important manufactures.
+The invention of improved machinery for making shoes has revolutionized
+the industry to the extent that a pair of stylish shoes may be purchased
+anywhere in the United States for about half the price charged in 1880.
+Another result is the enormous importation of hides from South American
+countries and Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>The New England plateau is also the centre of a large number of
+manufactures that require a high degree of mechanical skill and
+intellectual training, such as small fire-arms, machinery, watches and
+clocks, jewelry, machine-tools, etc. The location of such industries
+depends but little upon climate, topography, or the cost of
+transportation; it is wholly a question of an educated and trained
+people. This region is likely to lose a considerable part of its
+manufactures of cotton textiles, inasmuch as the industry is gradually
+moving to the cotton-growing region. The manufactures requiring training
+and skill, however, are likely to remain in the region where they have
+grown up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lawrence</i>, <i>Lowell</i>, <i>Manchester</i>, and <i>Nashua</i>&mdash;all on the Merrimac
+River; <i>Lewiston</i>, <i>Waterville</i>, <i>Augusta</i>, <i>Woonsocket</i>, and
+<i>Adams</i>&mdash;each situated at falls or rapids&mdash;are great centres of cotton
+manufacture. Fall River has an abundance of water-power, and at the same
+time is situated on tide-water. Having the advantage of good power and
+cheap transportation, it has probably the greatest output of cotton
+textiles of any city in the world. Textile establishments have also
+grown up in the cities and towns of the Mohawk Valley, being attracted
+by the excellent facilities for transportation and also by the available
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>water-power. <i>Lynn</i>, <i>Brockton</i>, <i>Haverhill</i>, <i>Marlboro</i>, and
+<i>Worcester</i> are centres of boot and shoe manufacture; they turn out
+about two-thirds of the product of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bridgeport</i> and <i>New Haven</i> have very large plants for the manufacture
+of fire-arms and fixed ammunition; <i>Waterbury</i> and <i>Ansonia</i> for
+watches, clocks, and brass goods; <i>Meriden</i> for silverware, and
+<i>Waltham</i> for watches. <i>Worcester</i>, <i>Hartford</i>, <i>North Adams</i>,
+<i>Fitchburg</i>, and <i>Providence</i> have each a great variety of manufactures.
+The foreign commerce of these manufacturing centres is carried on mainly
+through <i>Boston</i>. <i>New Haven</i>, <i>New Bedford</i>, <i>Providence</i>, <i>Salem</i>,
+<i>Gloucester</i>, and <i>New London</i> control each a very large local commerce.</p>
+
+<p>South of New York Bay the Atlantic coast-plain attains an average width
+of nearly two hundred miles. The pine forests of this plain yield
+lumber, tar, pitch, and turpentine. The productive lands are valuable
+chiefly for their output of dairy stuffs, fruit, and "garden truck,"
+which find a ready market in the larger cities. In order to encourage
+this industry, the railways make special rates for dairy products,
+fruit, and vegetables, and afford quick transit for such freight.</p>
+
+<p>Manufacturing industries are rapidly taking shape in this part of the
+United States. Along the line where the coast-plain proper joins the
+foot-hills of the Appalachian ranges, the rivers reach the lower levels
+by rapids or falls. The estuaries into which they flow are usually
+navigable for river-craft. The manufacturer thus has the double
+advantage of water-power and low transportation. The opening of the
+southern Appalachian coal-mines has also greatly encouraged manufacture
+in this region. <i>Richmond</i>, <i>Columbia</i>, <i>Milledgeville</i>, <i>Augusta</i>, and
+<i>Columbus</i> are thus situated. Their manufactures are very largely
+connected with the cotton-crop.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p><p>The domestic commerce of the Atlantic seaboard of the United States is
+probably larger than that of any other similar region in the world. It
+is considerably larger than the "round-the-island" trade of Great
+Britain. Much of this trade is carried by steam-vessels, but the
+three-masted schooner is everywhere in evidence, and these craft carry a
+very large part of the coal that is moved by water. This trade is
+restricted to vessels flying the American flag.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Appalachian Region.</b>&mdash;The middle and southern Appalachian region has
+become the most important centre of iron and steel manufacture in the
+world. This great development has resulted from several causes, the
+chief being the existence of coal and unlimited quantities of iron ore
+on the one hand, and unusual facilities for cheap transportation on the
+other. There are practically three areas of steel manufacture&mdash;one along
+the Ohio River and its tributaries in western Pennsylvania; another is
+situated along the south shores of Lake Erie and Lake Michigan; the
+third includes the Birmingham district in the southern Appalachians.</p>
+
+<p>The steel-making plants of the Ohio River are located with reference to
+the transportation of their products, and therefore are built usually
+alongside the river. The coal or coke is commonly shipped in barges of
+light draught; the manufactured products are carried by rail. The
+greater part of the ore is brought from the Lake Superior region. It is
+shipped at a very small cost from the ore quarries to the lake-shore,
+and by rail from the lake-shore to the manufacturing plant. In order to
+avoid heavy grades the ore railways are also built along the
+river-valleys.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image123.jpg" width="600" height="348" alt="STEEL MANUFACTURE&mdash;ERECTING SHOP OF THE BALDWIN
+LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, PHILADELPHIA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">STEEL MANUFACTURE&mdash;ERECTING SHOP OF THE BALDWIN
+LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, PHILADELPHIA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p><p>Some of the various steel-making plants are equipped for the
+manufacture of building or "structural" steel, others for rails and
+railway equipments, still others for tin-plate, or for wire, or for tool
+steel. In a few mills armor-plate and ordinary plate for steel vessels
+form the exclusive product. The diversity of the product has led to the
+organization of great corporations, each of which controls half-a-dozen
+or more plants, the transportation lines necessary to carry the product,
+the ore quarries, and the fuel-mines.</p>
+
+<p>The wonderful development of the steel industry in the United States is
+due to the use of labor-saving machinery, and to the superb
+organization. The wages paid for labor are higher than those paid in
+European steel-making centres; the cost of living is not materially
+greater. The price of steel rails, which in 1880 was forty-eight dollars
+per ton, in 1900 was about twenty dollars per ton.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pittsburg</i>, together with <i>Homestead</i>, <i>Carnegie</i>, <i>McKeesport</i>,
+<i>Duquesne</i>, and <i>Braddock</i>, is the chief steel-making centre of the Ohio
+River Valley. There are also large plants at <i>New Castle</i>, <i>Sharon</i>,
+<i>Scranton</i>, <i>Johnstown</i>, <i>Bellaire</i>, <i>Youngstown</i>, <i>Mingo Junction</i>, and
+<i>Wheeling</i>. The steel-plant and rolling-mills at <i>South Bethlehem</i> are
+designed especially for the manufacture of the heavy ordnance used in
+the army and navy. Nearly all the cities and towns of Pennsylvania, West
+Virginia, and eastern Ohio carry on manufacturing enterprises that
+depend on coal mining and steel manufacture. The great and diversified
+manufactures of Philadelphia are due to its fortunate situation at
+tide-water, near the coal-mines. Cheap fuel and water transportation
+have made it one of the great industrial centres of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The anthracite coal of this region is used wholly for fuel and
+steam-making; it is shipped partly by water from Philadelphia, but
+mainly in specially constructed cars to the various points of
+consumption. The soft coal is used also for fuel and steam-making, but a
+large part of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> product is converted into coke and used in the
+steel-plants.</p>
+
+<p>The petroleum of this region is a leading export of the country, the
+states of western Europe being the chief purchasers. Of agricultural
+products, hay, dairy products, and tobacco are the only ones of
+importance. Natural gas is used both as a fuel and in manufactures.</p>
+
+<p>The lake-shore centre of steel manufacture depends largely on the low
+cost of transporting the iron ore, which in part is offset by the
+increased cost of coal. The low cost of shipping the manufactured
+product over nearly level trunk lines is a very substantial gain. <i>South
+Chicago</i>, <i>Toledo</i>, <i>Sandusky</i>, <i>Lorain</i>, <i>Cleveland</i>, <i>Ashtabula</i>,
+<i>Conneaut</i>, <i>Erie</i>, and <i>Buffalo</i> are centres of steel manufacture or
+ore shipment, because they are situated on this great trade-route or
+line of least resistance.</p>
+
+<p>The coal-mines and iron-making plants of the southern Appalachians have
+a considerable area. The chief manufacturing centres are <i>Birmingham</i>,
+<i>Richmond</i>, <i>Roanoke</i>, and <i>Chattanooga</i>. A considerable part of the
+Virginia ores find their way to the Ohio River steel-mills. Open-hearth
+steel is an important manufacture in Birmingham. A large part of the
+ores smelted in the southern Appalachian region are made into foundry
+iron.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What are the advantages and the disadvantages of manufacturing cotton
+textiles in the New England States?</p>
+
+<p>Why have the mining of ore and the manufacture of steel become generally
+unprofitable in the New England States?</p>
+
+<p>What causes have brought about the lowering of the prices of cotton
+textiles during the past fifty years?&mdash;of shoes?</p>
+
+<p>What makes the manufacture of artificial ice a precarious business north
+of the latitude of Philadelphia?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p><p>What are the advantages and the disadvantages arising from the location
+of a manufacturing industry at a seaport?</p>
+
+<p>What is the design of a protective tariff? What are its advantages and
+disadvantages?</p>
+
+<p>Why are most of the great steel-making plants so remote from the mines
+of iron ore used in making steel?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Industrial Evolution of the United States&mdash;Chapters III-V.</p>
+
+<p>Mineral Resources of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Outlines of Political Science&mdash;Chapters VIII-X.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE UNITED STATES&mdash;THE BASIN OF THE GREAT LAKES AND THE MISSISSIPPI
+VALLEY</h3>
+
+
+<p>The principal agricultural region of the United States extends from the
+Appalachian ranges to the Rocky Mountains. A certain amount of
+bread-stuffs, meat, and dairy products are grown in nearly every part of
+the country for local use, but the grain, meat, and cotton of this
+region are designed for export, and are therefore factors in the world's
+commerce. The basin of the Great Lakes connects the Mississippi Valley
+with the Atlantic seaboard.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Basin of the Great Lakes.</b>&mdash;This region includes not only the Great
+Lakes and the area drained by the streams flowing into them, but also a
+considerable region surrounding that commercially is tributary to the
+traffic passing over the lakes. This basin itself is a part of a
+trade-route destined very shortly to become one of the greatest highways
+of traffic in the world.</p>
+
+<p>The lakes afford a navigable water-way which, measured due east and
+west, aggregates nearly six hundred miles. This route is interrupted at
+Niagara Falls and at St. Mary's Falls, between Lake Superior and Lake
+Huron. On the Canadian side, Welland Canal, Lake Ontario, and the St.
+Lawrence connect Lake Erie with tide-water. In the United States the
+Erie Canal connects the lake with the Hudson River and New York Bay.</p>
+
+<p>From the head of Lake Superior railway routes of minimum grades&mdash;the
+Great Northern and the Northern Pacific<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>&mdash;cross the continent to
+Puget Sound, the best harbor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> approach to the Pacific coast of the
+American continent. The harbors of Puget Sound, moreover, are materially
+nearer the great Asian ports than any other port of the United States.
+The level margins of these lakes are roadbeds for many miles of railway
+track; in many instances the railways are built on the tops of terraces
+that once were shores of the lakes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image126a.jpg" width="500" height="502" alt="DULUTH" title="" />
+<span class="caption">DULUTH</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Duluth</i>, at the head of Lake Superior, became commercially important
+when the St. Mary's Falls Canal was completed. Much of the tremendous
+tonnage of freight passing through the canal is assembled at this place.
+The freight shipped consists mainly of farm products collected from an
+area reaching as far west as the Rocky Mountains. There is also a
+considerable shipment of iron ores obtained near by. <i>Buffalo</i>, at the
+lower end of Lake Erie, owes its activity to the trade in lumber, grain,
+and other farm products that come from Western lake-ports. It is the
+eastern terminus of the lake-commerce and the western terminus of the
+Erie Canal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chicago</i>, at the head of Lake Michigan, has a very heavy lake-trade.
+The mouth of Chicago River, the natural harbor of the city, has been
+improved by a system of basins and breakwaters. The river itself has
+been converted into a ship and drainage canal that is connected with the
+Illinois and Mississippi Rivers. It is now an outlet instead of a feeder
+to the lake, and the city built about old Fort Dearborn has become the
+greatest railway centre in the world.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image126b.jpg" width="600" height="367" alt="GENERAL VIEW OF LOCKS AND CANAL, SAULT STE. MARIE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">GENERAL VIEW OF LOCKS AND CANAL, SAULT STE. MARIE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p><p><i>Milwaukee</i> has a situation in many ways resembling that of Chicago,
+its harbor being the mouth of Milwaukee River. Like Chicago, it owes its
+importance to its lake-trade. <i>Detroit</i> (with <i>Windsor</i>, Ont.) owes its
+growth partly to its strategic position on the strait connecting Lake
+Huron and Lake Erie, and partly for its position between the lakes. It
+is an important collecting and distributing point for lake-freights, and
+the chief centre of commerce with Canada. Several east-and-west trunk
+lines and local lines of railway have freight terminals in the city; it
+is also the centre of the most complete system of interurban electric
+railways in the world. <i>Port Huron</i> (with <i>Sarnia</i>, Ont.) has a
+geographic position similar to that of Detroit, and is also an important
+lake-port. The St. Clair River is tunnelled at this point. <i>Cleveland</i>,
+<i>Toledo</i>, <i>Sandusky</i>, and <i>Erie</i> contribute very largely to the
+lake-trade. <i>Grand Rapids</i> is the business centre of furniture
+manufacture of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The great iron-ore ranges about Lake Superior have had much to do with
+the growth of the local lake-trade. This has resulted in the
+establishment of a large number of shipping-ports near the head of the
+lakes, and also a number of receiving ports on the south shores of Lake
+Erie and Lake Michigan. Some of the latter have become also great
+manufacturing centres of structural iron and steel.</p>
+
+<p>Various centres of industry at a considerable distance from the Great
+Lakes are contributors to their trade. Thus, on account of the low rate
+for grain between <i>Chicago</i> and <i>New York City</i>&mdash;about 5&frac14; cents per
+bushel&mdash;there are yearly very heavy shipments of the grain designed for
+Liverpool. <i>St. Paul</i> and <i>Minneapolis</i> are also collecting and
+distributing centres of lake-freights. A considerable part of the
+business of the lake-region is carried on by the Canadians, who have
+improved their resources for production and transportation to the
+utmost.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image127.jpg" width="600" height="353" alt="AURORA IRON MINES, IRONWOOD, MICHIGAN" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Copyright, Detroit Photographic Co.</i><br />
+AURORA IRON MINES, IRONWOOD, MICHIGAN</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p><p><b>The Northern Mississippi Valley Region.</b>&mdash;This region extends from the
+Appalachian ranges to the western limit of wheat and cotton growing. On
+the south it is limited by the cotton-growing region. Its boundaries are
+therefore climatic and commercial.</p>
+
+<p>The surface is level; there is a rich, deep soil and an abundant
+rainfall. It has therefore become one of the foremost regions of the
+world in the production of corn, wheat, pork, dairy-stuffs, and general
+farm produce. The evolution of farming machinery is the direct result of
+topographic conditions. A level, fertile region naturally invites
+grain-farming on a large scale. This, in turn, must depend very largely
+on the ability of the farmer to plant and harvest his crops with the
+minimum of expense and time.</p>
+
+<p>Hand-work in harvesting and planting has almost wholly given way to
+machine-work. Farming carried on under such conditions requires not only
+a considerable capital, but close business management as well. Some of
+the results have been very far-reaching. The machinery and other
+equipments require capital, and this in late years has been borrowed
+from Eastern capitalists. The prompt business methods of the
+money-lender brought about no little friction, and it is only within
+recent years that each adjusted himself to the requirements of the
+other.</p>
+
+<p>The system of machine-farming to a great extent has prevented the
+subdivision of farms. As a rule, quarter and half sections represent the
+size of most of the farms, but tracts varying from five thousand to ten
+thousand acres are by no means uncommon. The chief drawback to this
+method in the case of wheat-farming, however, is the low yield per acre.
+The average yield per acre for the United States, a little more than
+twelve bushels, is scarcely half the average yield in Europe. Although
+the farmer has done much to reorganize his business methods, he has done
+but little to maintain the productivity of his land.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image128.jpg" width="600" height="363" alt="THE WHEAT INDUSTRY&mdash;HARVESTING WITH McCORMICK
+SELF-BINDING REAPERS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE WHEAT INDUSTRY&mdash;HARVESTING WITH McCORMICK
+SELF-BINDING REAPERS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p><p>The cities and towns of this region are mainly receiving and collecting
+points for farm produce. Nearly every village is equipped with elevators
+and grain-handling machinery; the larger towns, as a rule, have
+stock-yards and the necessary facilities for cattle shipment; the large
+cities are usually centres of meat-packing. Most of the meat-packing is
+a necessity; for although cattle may be shipped alive and beef may be
+transported in refrigerator ships and cars, pork is not marketable
+unless pickled, salted, or smoked. The pork thus exported, aggregating
+about six hundred million pounds yearly, must be prepared, therefore,
+somewhere near the cornfields. Manufacturing enterprises are operated on
+a very large scale, but in the main their products are farm-machinery
+and the commodities required by a farming population.</p>
+
+<p>Education in agriculture is provided for in nearly every State in the
+Union. The agricultural colleges in the States composing this group rank
+among the best in the world. In addition to the ordinary courses in such
+institutions, there are also many experiment stations for the study of
+economic plants, cattle diseases, and insect pests.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chicago</i> is the largest food-market in the world. The industries of the
+city are almost wholly connected with the commerce of grain, pork, meat,
+and other food-stuffs. For the transportation of these commodities about
+thirty great trunk lines enter the city and about twelve hundred
+passenger trains daily arrive and depart from its stations.</p>
+
+<p>The freight terminals are connected by transfer and belt lines, which
+receive and distribute the cars passing between the eastern and the
+western roads. More than five hundred freight trains, aggregating about
+twenty thousand cars, arrive and depart daily.</p>
+
+<p><i>St. Louis</i> originally derived its importance as a river-port of the
+Mississippi, having been the connecting commercial link between the
+upper and the lower river. In recent years it has become the metropolis
+of the southern part of the food-producing region. In addition to the
+river-trade, still largely controlled at this point, it is the focus of
+more than twenty trunk lines of railway. Some of these, like the trunk
+lines of Chicago, handle freight exchanged between the East and West;
+but a large proportion are receiving and distributing roads for Southern
+freight.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image129.jpg" width="600" height="881" alt="AUTOMOTIVE POWER IN THE INDUSTRIES OF THE MISSISSIPPI
+VALLEY" title="" />
+<span class="caption">AUTOMOTIVE POWER IN THE INDUSTRIES OF THE MISSISSIPPI
+VALLEY</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p><p><i>St. Paul</i> and <i>Minneapolis</i> are the metropolis of the upper
+Mississippi. The former grew from a trading-post at the head of
+navigation; the latter gained its commercial prominence from the
+water-power at the falls of St. Anthony. The former has become the chief
+railway and distributing centre of the northern Mississippi Valley; the
+latter has the greatest flour-mills in the world, and an extensive
+lumber-trade. Both are situated on the trade-route between the United
+States and Asian ports, and distribute a part of the trade that comes
+from them.</p>
+
+<p>The two <i>Kansas Cities</i>,<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> <i>Omaha</i>, <i>South Omaha</i>, and <i>Sioux City</i>
+are stock-markets and meat-packing centres. The first two named are
+collecting and distributing points not only for the Mississippi Valley,
+but also for a considerable share of the Pacific Coast trade. Kansas
+City is also a transfer station for the cotton destined for China. From
+this place it is sent by way of Billings to Seattle, and thence shipped
+to China.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cincinnati</i> is the metropolis of the Ohio Valley. Its situation on a
+bend of the river gives most excellent landing facilities; the easy
+grade from the bluff to the bottom-lands along the flood-plain of Mill
+Creek makes it accessible to the railways that enter the city. On
+account of low rates of transportation by river-barges, about three
+million tons of coal and one million tons of pig-iron and steel billets<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
+are floated to the city to be manufactured into other steel products.
+<i>Indianapolis</i> is a great railway centre, where much of the freight
+passing between Chicago, Louisville, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg is
+exchanged. <i>Columbus</i> (O.) is similarly situated as a railway and
+farming centre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image130.jpg" width="600" height="396" alt="CATTLE AND DAIRY PRODUCTS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CATTLE AND DAIRY PRODUCTS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Louisville</i> is a market of the tobacco region, and has probably a
+larger business in this industry than any other city in the world.
+<i>Davenport</i>, <i>Rock Island</i>, and <i>Moline</i> form a single commercial
+centre, the last-named having the largest establishment for the
+manufacture of ploughs in the world. <i>Dubuque</i>, <i>Burlington</i>, <i>Quincy</i>,
+and <i>Muscatine</i> are river-ports, all having a considerable trade in the
+lumber that is carried down the river.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Southern Mississippi Valley and Gulf Coast.</b>&mdash;This region receives a
+generous warmth and rainfall. Cotton is its staple product, and nearly
+all the industries are connected with the growth, shipment, and
+manufacture of the crop and its side products. The cotton, raw or
+manufactured, is sold in about every country in the world.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p><p>The commercial part of handling the cotton-crop begins within a very
+few weeks from the time of the first picking. The baled cotton is hauled
+by team from the plantation to the nearest market-town, an item
+sometimes greater than the entire freightage from the nearest seaport to
+Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p>The season for export lasts from September until the middle of January,
+during which time brokers are visiting the smaller markets in order to
+buy it on commission. It is then shipped by rail or by river to the
+nearest general market, where it is sold to the foreign buyers and
+domestic manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p><i>New Orleans</i>, the metropolis of the South, has usually the heaviest
+export of cotton, amounting to about one billion pounds each year. Much
+of this is received by water from the various river-ports. The city is
+not only a river-port, but an important seaport as well, controlling a
+large part of the foreign commerce of the Gulf. Several trunk lines of
+railway enter the city, which is a receiving and distributing depot for
+both Atlantic and Pacific freights. A considerable part of the former
+are sent by ocean steamships from New York. An elaborate system of
+sewerage, well-paved streets, and a good water-supply&mdash;all recently put
+into operation&mdash;have made the city one of the most attractive in the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galveston</i> is destined to become a leading port for cotton export. It
+has the advantage of a fine harbor on the seaboard, and the disadvantage
+of a location so low that very heavy south winds flood the streets with
+water from the Gulf. The growth of the export trade is due chiefly to
+the increasing crop of Texas. Shipments from Galveston begin in
+September, the Texas crop being the first to mature. <i>Savannah</i> and <i>New
+York</i> rank next in their exports. <i>Pensacola</i> and <i>Brunswick</i> are also
+important points of export. <i>Memphis</i>, <i>Vicksburg</i>, <i>Shreveport</i>,
+<i>Houston</i>, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> <i>Montgomery</i> are important collecting stations for the
+cotton.</p>
+
+<p>About one-third of the crop is retained for manufacture in the United
+States; one-third is purchased by Great Britain, one-sixth by Germany,
+and most of the remainder by France, Italy, Spain, and Japan. Of the
+manufactured cotton goods, the Chinese are the heaviest buyers, taking
+about half the entire export. Most of the Chinese purchase is landed at
+Shanghai.</p>
+
+<p>In the main, the manufactures of this region closely concern the cotton
+industry. The increase in the manufacture of textile goods has been very
+great, and a large part of the cotton now manufactured in the New
+England States and abroad, in time will be made in the cities and towns
+of this section. In addition to the textile goods, cottonseed-oil is an
+important product. A part of this is used in the mechanical arts, but
+the refined oil is used mainly for domestic purposes. A considerable
+part of the latter is used to adulterate olive-oil, and in some
+instances is substituted for it. The refuse of the seed is made into
+fertilizer.</p>
+
+<p><i>Atlanta</i> is one of the foremost cities in the South in the manufacture
+of cotton textiles and products. Commercially its situation resembles
+that of Indianapolis; it is a focal point of the chief trunk lines of
+railway in the South, and has the principal railway clearing-house. Like
+New Orleans, it is an educational centre and one of the foremost in the
+South. <i>Macon</i>, <i>Dallas</i>, <i>Fort Worth</i>, and <i>San Antonio</i> are growing
+commercial centres.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacture of cane-sugar has been an industry of Louisiana for more
+than a century. Since the advent of beet-sugar, however, it has been a
+somewhat precarious venture, and has depended for existence very largely
+upon tariff protection and bounties paid to the American <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>sugar-makers.
+Tobacco manufacture centres at Tampa and Key West. Cuban leaf is there
+converted into cigars.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit culture is a great industry. Millions of melons and great
+quantities of pineapples, oranges, and small fruit form the early crop
+that is shipped North. The orange groves are mainly in Florida. The crop
+is exhausted about the time that California oranges are shipped East. A
+great deal of tropical fruit is brought from Mexican, Central American,
+and South American ports. This trade is controlled mainly at <i>Mobile</i>,
+which is also a lumber-market.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Arid Plains and the Grazing Region.</b>&mdash;This region includes the high
+plains approximately west of the 2,000-foot contour of level, together
+with a part of the plateaus of the western highland region. It is
+essentially one of grazing. Formerly there was an attempt to make
+wheat-growing the chief industry, but on account of the limited rainfall
+not more than three crops out of five reached maturity.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier cattle-growing was carried on in a somewhat primitive
+manner; the cattle herded on open lands, wandering from one range to
+another, wherever the grazing might be good. The ownership of the cattle
+was determined by the brand the animal bore,<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> and the herds were
+"rounded up" twice a year to be sorted; at the round-up the "mavericks,"
+or unmarked calves and yearlings, were branded. In time the ranges
+became greatly overstocked; the winter losses by starvation were so
+heavy that a better system became imperative. "Rustling," or
+cattle-stealing, also became a factor in improving the methods of
+cattle-ranching. The cautious rustler would purchase a few head of
+cattle and add to the number by capturing stray mavericks.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image132.jpg" width="600" height="366" alt="A DESERT REGION&mdash;TOO DRY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF
+FOOD-STUFFS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A DESERT REGION&mdash;TOO DRY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF
+FOOD-STUFFS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image133.jpg" width="600" height="381" alt="OPEN GRAZING RANGES, IN WESTERN HIGHLANDS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">OPEN GRAZING RANGES, IN WESTERN HIGHLANDS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Both the legitimate graziers and the rustlers at first were bitterly
+opposed to fencing the land. In time, however, the grazier was compelled
+to do this, and also to grow alfalfa for winter foddering. The great
+open ranges have therefore been broken up and fenced wholly or in part.
+The fencing, moreover, has kept a dozen or more of the largest
+wire-mills in the world turning out a product that is at once shipped
+West. As a rule, the top wire is set on insulators and used for
+telephone connection.<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> This method of cattle-growing has improved the
+business in every way. The cattle are better kept; the loss by winter
+killing is very small; the "long-horn" cattle have given place to the
+best breeds of "meaters," which are heavier, and mature more quickly.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image133a.jpg" width="600" height="365" alt="ON A TEXAS CATTLE RANCH" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co.</i><br />
+ON A TEXAS CATTLE RANCH</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p><p>The success of stock-growing in this region is largely a question of
+climate. The sparse rainfall permits the growth of several species of
+grass that retain nutrition and vitality after turning brown under the
+fierce summer heat. Ordinary turf-grass will not live in this region,
+nor will it retain its nutrition after turning brown if rain falls upon
+it. The native grass is not materially affected by a shower or two; it
+is fairly good fodder even when buried under the winter's snow. The
+existence of this industry, therefore, turns on a very delicate climatic
+balance.</p>
+
+<p>Of the beef grown in the United States the export product is derived
+mainly from this region. Nearly four hundred thousand animals are
+shipped alive; about three hundred million pounds of fresh beef are
+shipped to the Atlantic seaboard in refrigerator-cars and then
+transferred to refrigerator-steamships. Two-thirds of the cattle and
+fresh beef exported are shipped from New York and Boston.</p>
+
+<p>Upward of one hundred and fifty million pounds of canned and pickled
+beef are also exported. All but a very small part of this product is
+consumed in Great Britain, France, and Germany. The cattle are collected
+for transportation at various stations and sidings along the railways
+that traverse this region. <i>Cheyenne</i> is one of the largest
+cattle-markets in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Wool has become a very valuable product, and the sheep grown in this
+region number about one-half the total in the United States. The growing
+of macaroni-wheat is extending to lands that fail to produce crops of
+ordinary wheat.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p><p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>In what ways does the basin of the Great Lakes facilitate the commerce
+of the United States?</p>
+
+<p>How has the topography of the Mississippi Valley affected the evolution
+of farming-machinery?</p>
+
+<p>Why are shippers willing in many cases to pay an all-rail rate on wheat
+sent to the Atlantic seaboard, nearly three times as great as the lake
+and canal rates?</p>
+
+<p>The acre-product of wheat in the United States is about twelve bushels;
+in western Europe it varies from twenty-five to more than forty bushels;
+to what is the difference due?</p>
+
+<p>What is meant by sea-island cotton?&mdash;for what reasons is cotton imported
+from Egypt and Peru into the United States?</p>
+
+<p>In what manner is cotton used in the manufacture of pneumatic tires, and
+why is it thus used?</p>
+
+<p>What are refrigerator-cars?&mdash;refrigerator-steamships? Name some of the
+regulations required in shipping cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Why have American meats been debarred at times from European markets?</p>
+
+<p>Find the value of cotton and meat exported to the following-named
+countries: Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, China.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>The Wheat Problem&mdash;pp. 191 <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p>Statistical Abstract.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image135.jpg" width="600" height="986" alt="DIFFICULT RAILROADING&mdash;LAS ANIMAS CA&Ntilde;ON" title="" />
+<span class="caption">DIFFICULT RAILROADING&mdash;LAS ANIMAS CA&Ntilde;ON</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE UNITED STATES&mdash;THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS AND TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The western part of the United States consists of a succession of high
+mountain-ranges extending nearly north and south. The two highest
+ranges, each about two miles high, enclose a basin-shaped plateau about
+one mile high. This basin is commonly called the "plateau region." The
+rim ranges are broken in a few places by passes that the
+transcontinental railways thread. West of the Sierra Nevada ranges are
+the fertile Pacific coast lowlands.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Plateau Region.</b>&mdash;This region is generally arid, but on the higher
+plateaus there is sufficient rainfall to produce a considerable forestry
+and grazing. The general conditions of rainfall and topography forbid
+any great development of agriculture. Farming is confined to the
+river-flood-plains, the parks, and the old lake beds and margins.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable area, estimated at more than two million acres, may be
+made productive by irrigation, and the United States Government is
+undertaking the construction of an elaborate and extensive system of
+reservoirs for the impounding of stream and storm waters now running to
+waste. The irrigated lands of this region, when their products are
+accessible to markets, are very valuable. The river-bottom lands of New
+Mexico, and the old margins of Great Salt Lake in Utah are examples.
+They produce abundantly, and a single acre often yields as much as four
+or five acres in regions of plentiful rainfall.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p><p>Not much of the crop of this region, the fruit and wool excepted,
+leaves the vicinity in which it is grown, on account of the expense of
+transportation. In the matter of the transportation of their
+commodities, the dwellers of the western highland are doubly
+handicapped. The building of railways is enormously expensive, and in a
+region of sparse population there is comparatively little local freight
+to be hauled. The difficulties of developing such a region from a
+commercial stand-point, therefore, are very great.</p>
+
+<p>Mining is the chief industry of this section, and silver, gold, and
+copper are its most important products. Since the discovery of precious
+metals in the United States, this region has produced gold and silver
+bullion to the value of about four billion dollars. This sum is about
+one-half the value of the railways of the country,<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> and from 1865 to
+1880 a large part of the capital invested in railway building represents
+the gold and silver of these mines. In the last twenty years of the past
+century they produced an average of about one hundred and twenty-five
+million dollars per year, and this average is constantly increasing.</p>
+
+<p>Coal-measures extend along the eastern escarpment of the Rocky
+Mountains, and these are destined at no remote day to create a centre of
+steel and other manufactures. Several of the railways operate coal-mines
+in Colorado and Wyoming for the fuel required. A limited supply of steel
+is also made, the industry being protected by the great distance from
+the Eastern smelteries.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image136.jpg" width="600" height="351" alt="GOLD MINING&mdash;CRIPPLE CREEK, COLORADO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">GOLD MINING&mdash;CRIPPLE CREEK, COLORADO</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p><p><i>Denver</i> is the chief active centre of finance of the mining industry
+in the western highlands, although many of the great enterprises derive
+the capital necessary to develop them from <i>New York</i> and <i>San
+Francisco</i>. <i>Leadville</i>, <i>Cripple Creek</i>, <i>Butte</i>, <i>Helena</i>, and
+<i>Deadwood</i> are regions of gold and silver production. <i>Virginia City</i> is
+the operating centre of the famous Comstock mines. At <i>Anaconda</i> is the
+chief copper-mine of this region. <i>Salt Lake City</i> and <i>Ogden</i> are the
+centre of the Mormon agricultural enterprises. <i>Santa F&eacute;</i>, <i>Las Vegas</i>,
+and <i>Albuquerque</i> are centres of agricultural interests and
+stock-growing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spokane</i> and <i>Walla Walla</i> are commercial centres of the plains of the
+Columbia River. The former is the focal point of a network of local
+roads that collect the wheat and other farm products of this region; the
+latter is the collecting point for much of the freight sent by
+steamboats down the Columbia River from <i>Wallula</i>. Railway
+transportation has largely superseded river-navigation for all except
+local freights, however. <i>Boise City</i> is the financial centre of
+considerable mining interests.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Pacific Coast Lowlands.</b>&mdash;Climatically this region differs from the
+rest of the United States in having a rainy and a dry season&mdash;that is,
+the rainfall is wholly seasonal. In the northern part the rainfall is
+sixty inches or more, and rain may be expected daily from the middle of
+October to May. In central California the precipitation is about half as
+much, the rainy season beginning later and ending earlier. In southern
+California there are occasional showers during the winter months,
+aggregating ten or twenty inches.</p>
+
+<p>The level valley-lands have no superior for wheat-farming, and in but
+one or two places is the rainfall insufficient to insure a good crop. In
+the San Joaquin and southern valleys of California the harvest begins in
+May, in the Sacramento Valley in June, and in the Willamette and Sound
+Valleys of Oregon and Washington in July. The wheat goes mainly to Great
+Britain by way of Cape Horn. It cannot be safely shipped in bulk, and
+the manufacture of jute grain-sacks has become an important industry in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>
+consequence. The yearly wheat product of this region is not far from
+eighty million bushels.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit is a valuable product of the foot-hills of the Sierras, and in
+southern California oranges, lemons, and grapes are now the staple crop.
+In some cases the average yield per acre has reached a value of five
+hundred dollars. Some of the largest vineyards in the world are in this
+region. The Zinfandel claret wine and the raisins find a market as far
+east as London, and considerable quantities are sold in China and Japan.
+The navel orange, although not native to California, reaches its finest
+development in that State. A large part of the fruit-crop of California
+is handled at Minneapolis, Chicago, St. Louis, and New York. It is
+transported in special cars attached to fast trains.</p>
+
+<p>Wool is an important crop. In the northern part the sheep thrive best in
+the foot-hills. The valley of Umpqua River, Ore., produces nearly
+seventeen million pounds of wool yearly, the staple being an ordinary
+variety. California produces nearly as much of the finest merino staple.
+A considerable part is manufactured in the mills of the Pacific coast.
+The Mission Mills blankets made in San Francisco are without an equal
+elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of gold by John Marshall in 1848 resulted in a tremendous
+inflow of people to the gold-fields of California. It also was a factor
+in the acquisition of the territory composing the Pacific coast States.
+The first mining consisted merely in separating the metal deposited in
+the bed-rock of streams by washing away the lighter material. In time
+the quartz ledges which had produced the placer gold became the chief
+factor in gold mining. California is still one of the leading States in
+the production of gold. Quicksilver mining is an important feature of
+the mining interests of the Pacific coast, and the mines of the coast
+ranges produce about half the world's output.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p><p>Lumber manufacture is an important industry. Douglas spruce, commonly
+known as "Oregon pine," grows profusely on the western slopes of the
+high ranges, the belt extending nearly to the Mexican border. It makes a
+most excellent building-lumber, especially for bridge-timber and
+framework. Masts and spars of this material are used in almost every
+maritime country. Sugar-pine is less common, but is abundant. It is
+largely used for interior work. Several species of redwood occur in
+central California, confined to a limited area. The wood is fine-grained
+and makes a most beautiful interior finish.</p>
+
+<p><i>San Francisco</i> is the metropolis of the Pacific coast of the United
+States. It is the terminus of the Santa F&eacute; and Union Pacific railways,
+and the centre of a network of local roads. Steamship lines connect the
+city with Panama, the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, and Australian ports;
+coast steamships reach to the various ports of Alaska, Oregon, and
+California. It is also the financial as well as the commercial centre of
+the Pacific coast. <i>Los Angeles</i> is the centre of the fruit-growing
+region; its port is <i>San Pedro</i>. <i>Stockton</i>, <i>Port Costa</i>, and
+<i>Sacramento</i>, all on navigable waters, are wheat-markets. <i>Portland</i>
+(Ore.) is the metropolis of the basin of the Columbia and Willamette
+Rivers. Navigation of the former is interrupted by falls or rapids at
+<i>Dalles</i> and <i>Cascades</i>, but boats ascend as far as <i>Wallula</i>. The lower
+Willamette is also made navigable by means of a canal and locks at
+Oregon Falls.</p>
+
+<p>Puget Sound is a "drowned valley," with an abundance of deep water. The
+score or more of harbors are among the best in the world. <i>Seattle</i> and
+<i>Tacoma</i>, the leading ports, are terminals of great transcontinental
+railways, and also of the most important trade-route across the
+continent. Lines of steamships connect Seattle with Japan and China, and
+the commerce passing through this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> gateway is drawn from a territory
+that extends more than half-way around the world. These ports are
+destined to become the chief American ports in the Asian trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alaska.</b>&mdash;The most productive industry of the insular part of the
+territory is the fisheries. For many years the Pribilof Islands produced
+practically all the seal-pelts used in the manufacture of seal-fur
+garments. So many seals were killed, however, that the species seemed
+likely to become extinct, and seal-catching has been forbidden for a
+term of years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image138.jpg" width="500" height="712" alt="PUGET SOUND" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PUGET SOUND</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The discovery of gold along the Klondike River and in the beach-sands of
+Cape Nome was followed by the development of surface mines that produced
+a large amount of gold. For the better transportation of products, a
+railway has been completed from <i>Skagway</i> across White Pass to <i>White
+Horse</i>, the head of navigation of the Yukon. About twenty steamboats are
+engaged in the commerce of the river. <i>Skagway</i> and <i>Dyea</i> are
+collecting points for the commerce of the Klondike mines. <i>Juneau</i> has
+probably the largest quartz-mill in the world.</p>
+
+<p><b>Porto Rico.</b>&mdash;Porto Rico, formerly a Spanish colony, is now a possession
+of the United States. The island is about the size of Connecticut and
+has a population <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>somewhat greater. The industries are almost wholly
+agricultural, and nearly the whole surface is under cultivation. Sugar,
+coffee, and tobacco are grown for export, and these constitute the chief
+source of income. The coffee-crop, about sixty million pounds yearly, is
+the most valuable product and commands a high price on account of its
+superior quality. It is sold very largely to European coffee-merchants,
+and is marketed as a "Mocha." Exports of fruit to the United States are
+increasing. In 1900 the exports to United States markets, mainly sugar
+and cattle products, were about six million dollars. The imports from
+the United States were chiefly of cotton-prints and rice, to the amount
+of nearly nine million dollars. The total export and import trade that
+year was about twenty million dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The facilities for the transportation of products are not good. The
+railway lines have a total mileage of about one hundred and fifty miles.
+An excellent wagon-road, built by the Spanish Government from San Juan
+to Ponce, has been supplemented by several hundred miles of roads built
+under the direction of the military authorities. <i>San Juan</i> and <i>Ponce</i>
+are the leading seaports and centres of trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hawaiian Islands.</b>&mdash;These islands were discovered by a Spanish sailor,
+Gaetano, in 1549, and again visited by Captain Cook in 1778. Up to 1893
+they formed a native kingdom. In 1893 foreign influence was sufficient
+to overthrow the native government, and in 1898 they were formally
+annexed to the United States and about the same time organized as a
+territory. From an early date the geographic position of the islands has
+made them a convenient mid-ocean post-station, and they have therefore
+become a most important commercial centre.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image139.jpg" width="600" height="364" alt="HYDRAULIC GOLD MINING&mdash;CALIFORNIA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">HYDRAULIC GOLD MINING&mdash;CALIFORNIA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p><p>Of the various islands composing the group, Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kaui,
+Molokai, Lanai, and Niihau are inhabited. About one-fifth of the
+population consists of native Hawaiians; a little more than one-fifth is
+white; the remainder is composed of Japanese, Chinese, and Porto Ricans.
+The native population is decreasing. About ninety-five per cent. of the
+property is owned by the white people&mdash;Americans, English, and Germans.</p>
+
+<p>The volcanic soils are the very best sugar-lands, and a large amount of
+capital is invested in this industry. The sugar-plantations employ more
+than forty thousand laborers, all Japanese, Chinese, and Porto Ricans.
+The value of the sugar export is nearly twenty-five million dollars
+yearly; that of fruit, rice, and hides is about two hundred and fifty
+thousand dollars. Coffee is rapidly becoming a leading product. The bulk
+of the imports comes from the United States, and consists of clothing,
+cotton textiles, lumber, and machinery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Honolulu</i>, on the island of Oahu, is the capital and commercial centre,
+and foreign steamships and sailing-craft are scarcely ever absent from
+its harbor. Regular steamship service connects this port with San
+Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, B.C., and the principal ports of China
+and Japan. It is connected with the other islands by a system of
+wireless telegraphy. The city has the best of schools, business
+organizations, hotels, and streets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pearl Harbor</i> contains a large area of water, most of which is deep
+enough for the largest vessels afloat. It is intended to deepen the
+entrance and establish a United States naval station at this place. The
+village of <i>Hilo</i> is the chief port of the island of Hawaii.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Philippine Islands</b> are an archipelago of about two thousand islands,
+the two largest of which, Luzon and Mindanao, are each nearly the size
+of New York State. Luzon is by far the most important.</p>
+
+<p>After their cession to the United States (December 10, 1898), they were
+held under military control, but this has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> given place to local
+self-government as rapidly as the circumstances permitted. A general
+school system has been established and is extended wherever practicable.
+In a considerable number of the islands civil organization is still
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal islands and their mineral resources:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="PHILIPPINE ISLANDS">
+<tr class="tr1"><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Name</span></td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Chief Cities and Ports</span></td><td class="td2"><span class="smcap">Mineral Resources</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Luzon</td><td class="td3">Manila, Lipa, Batangas</td><td class="td4">Coal, gold, copper</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Mindanao</td><td class="td3">Zamboanga</td><td class="td4">Coal, gold, copper</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Samar</td><td class="td3">Catbalogan</td><td class="td4">Coal, gold</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Negros</td><td class="td3">Bacolor</td><td class="td4">Coal</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Panay</td><td class="td3">Iloilo</td><td class="td4">Coal, gold, petroleum</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Leyte</td><td class="td3">Tacloban</td><td class="td4">Coal, petroleum</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Mindoro</td><td class="td3">Calapan</td><td class="td4">Coal, gold</td></tr>
+<tr class="tr2"><td class="td3">Cebu</td><td class="td3">Cebu</td><td class="td4">Coal, petroleum, gold</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The native population is mainly of the Malay race, but there are also
+many Negritos. Of the native element the Tagals are the most advanced,
+and are the dominant people. The foreign population includes nearly one
+hundred thousand Chinese, who are the chief commercial factors of the
+islands, and the leading industries are controlled by them. There is a
+considerable population of Chinese and Tagal mixed blood, commonly known
+as "Chinese mestizos"; they inherit, in the main, the Chinese
+characteristics. The European and American population consists mainly of
+officials, troops, and merchant-agents for Philippine products.</p>
+
+<p>The principal products for export are "Manila" hemp, sugar, and tobacco.
+The hemp is used in the manufacture of cordage and paper. On account of
+the great strength of the fibre it has no equal among cordage fibres.
+The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> imports from the United States consist mainly of machinery and
+cotton textiles. The total trade of the islands amounted in 1901 to
+about fifty million dollars, most of which was shared by Great Britain
+and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Coal is mined in the island of Cebu and is abundant in most of the
+islands. Iron ore, copper, and sulphur occur, but they have not been
+made commercially available to any extent. Gold is mined in the island
+of Luzon. A stable government only is needed to make these great
+resources productive. An abundance of timber is found in most of the
+islands. Cedar, ebony, and sapan-wood are available for ornamental
+purposes; there is also a great variety of economic woods.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manila</i> is the commercial centre. Manila Bay is one of the finest
+harbors in the Pacific Ocean, but much work is necessary to give the
+water-front a navigable depth for large steamships. With an improved
+harbor the city is bound to be a great emporium of Oriental trade.
+Steamship lines connect the city with Hongkong, Australia, Japan,
+Singapore, and Liverpool. There is also a military transport service to
+Seattle. A railway to Dagupan extends through the most important
+agricultural region. The wagon-roads throughout the island are very
+poor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lipa</i>, <i>Batanzas</i>, <i>Bauan</i>, and <i>Cavit&eacute;</i> are cities of about forty
+thousand population, all more or less connected with the industries of
+Manila. <i>Iloilo</i> is the second port of importance of the islands, and is
+the centre of a considerable export trade in tobacco, hemp, sugar, and
+sapan-wood. <i>Cebu</i> is also a port having a considerable trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tutuila</b>, one of the Samoan Islands, was acquired by treaty for use as a
+coal-depot and naval station. <i>Pago Pago</i> is a port of call for
+steamships between San Francisco and Australia. <b>Guam</b>, one of the Ladrone
+Islands, is a naval station. These possessions are strategic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> and are
+designed to secure the interests of the United States in the Pacific. An
+ocean telegraphic cable connects the Pacific Ocean possessions with the
+United States and Asia.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Why are mountain-regions apt to be sparsely peopled?</p>
+
+<p>Why are arid regions sparsely peopled, as a rule?</p>
+
+<p>Why are not gold-mining settlements so apt to be permanent as
+agricultural settlements?</p>
+
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics find the production of gold and silver
+of this region for each ten years ending the last half of the century.</p>
+
+<p>What causes the difference between the wool clip of southern California
+and that of the Eastern States?</p>
+
+<p>Follow the route of a grain-carrying ship from San Francisco to
+Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p>What are the advantages to the United States of the accession of the
+Hawaiian Islands?&mdash;of the Philippine Islands?&mdash;of Alaska? What are the
+disadvantages?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Mineral Resources of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Abstract of Statistics.</p>
+
+<p>U.S. Coast Survey Chart of Alaska.</p>
+
+<p>Map of Hawaiian Islands.</p>
+
+<p>Map of Philippine Islands.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image143a.jpg" width="600" height="296" alt="NIAGARA POWER-HOUSE (EXTERIOR)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">NIAGARA POWER-HOUSE (EXTERIOR)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image143b.jpg" width="600" height="484" alt="NIAGARA POWER-HOUSE (INTERIOR)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">NIAGARA POWER-HOUSE (INTERIOR)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+
+<h3>CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND</h3>
+
+
+<p>A very large part of Canada is so far north that the ordinary
+food-stuffs cannot be grown there; the river-valleys of British Columbia
+and the basin of the Saskatchewan excepted, there are but few marks of
+human industry beyond the fiftieth parallel. The general conditions of
+topography resemble those of the United States&mdash;a central plain between
+the high Rocky Mountain ranges in the west and the lower Laurentian
+ranges in the east.</p>
+
+<p>Canada is an agricultural country, and because of the great skill with
+which its resources have been made commercially available, it is the
+most important colony of Great Britain. The basin of the Great Lakes and
+the St. Lawrence River is the most populous part of the country. This
+region is highly cultivated and produces dairy products, beef, and the
+ordinary farm-crops.</p>
+
+<p>From Lake Winnipeg westward, nearly to the Rocky Mountains, the land is
+a succession of prairies admirably suited to wheat-growing.<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> The
+wheat is a hard, spring variety, and the average yield per acre is about
+one-fourth greater than the average yield in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The area of forestry includes the larger remaining part of the great
+pine belt, together with a very heavy reserve<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> of merchantable
+oak-timber. The part of the forest area in Canada aggregates one and
+one-quarter million square miles, and yields an annual product of about
+eighty million dollars; about one-third of the lumber is exported.</p>
+
+<p>The northerly region of Canada produces furs and pelts. As long ago as
+1670, Charles II. granted to Prince Rupert and a stock company the lands
+comprising a very large part of Canada around Hudson Bay, and secured to
+them the sole right to trap the fur-bearing animals of the region. In
+time the company, known as the Hudson Bay Company, transferred all its
+lands to Canada, and out of the domain thus annexed various provinces
+and unorganized districts have been created.</p>
+
+<p>The company now exists as a corporation for the merchandise of furs. For
+the greater part, Indians are employed as hunters and trappers, and the
+pelts are collected at the various trading-posts, known as "houses" and
+"factories," to be sent to the head-quarters of the company near
+Winnipeg. Nearly every Arctic animal furnishes a merchantable pelt. The
+cheaper skins are made into garments in Canada and the United States;
+those commonly classed as furs are sold in London. Several other fur
+companies are also operating in Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The fisheries of the coast-waters and the Great Lakes are among the most
+productive in the world. Everything within the three-mile limit of the
+shore is reserved for Canadian fishermen. The smaller bays and coves are
+reserved also within the three-mile limit. Beyond this limit the waters
+are open to all, and a fleet of swift gun-boats is necessary to prevent
+illicit fishing. Salmon, cod, lobsters, and herring form most of the
+catch, amounting in value to upward of twenty million dollars yearly.</p>
+
+<p>The output of minerals varies from year to year; since 1900 it has
+averaged about sixty million dollars a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> year. The gold product
+constitutes nearly one-half and the coal about one-sixth of the total
+amount. Nickel, petroleum, silver, and lead form the rest of the output.
+Iron ore is abundant, but it is not at present available for production
+on account of the distance from transportation.</p>
+
+<p>Commerce is facilitated by about eighteen thousand miles of railway and
+nearly three thousand miles of canal and improved river-navigation. One
+ocean-to-ocean railway, the Canadian Pacific, is in operation; another,
+an extension of the Grand Trunk, is under way. The rapids and shoals of
+the St. Lawrence and Richelieu Rivers are surmounted by canals and
+locks. Welland Canal connects Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and the
+Canadian lock at St. Mary's Falls joins Lake Superior to Lake Huron. By
+means of the lakes and canals vessels drawing fourteen feet may load at
+Canadian ports and discharge at Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p>The harbors of the Atlantic coast have two great drawbacks&mdash;ice and high
+tides. Some of the steamship lines make Portland, Me., their winter
+terminus. The Pacific coast harbors are not obstructed by ice. An
+attempt has been made in the direction of using Hudson Bay and Strait as
+a grain-route, but the difficulties of navigation are very great and the
+route is open only two months of the year.</p>
+
+<p>Practically all the foreign trade is carried on with Great Britain and
+the United States. The trade with each aggregates about one hundred and
+fifty million dollars yearly. The exports are lumber and wood-pulp,
+cheese and dairy products, wheat and flour, beef-cattle, hog products,
+fish, and gold-quartz. The chief imports are steel, wool, sugar, and
+cotton manufactures.</p>
+
+<p>Politically, Canada consists of a number of provinces, each with the
+usual corps of elective officers. A governor-general appointed by the
+Crown of Great Britain is the chief executive officer.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p><p><b>Nova Scotia.</b>&mdash;This province is prominent on account of its coal and
+iron, and also because of its geographic position. The iron and coal are
+utilized in steel smelteries and rolling-mills, glass-factories,
+sugar-refineries, and textile-mills. It is one of the few localities in
+the eastern part of the continent yielding gold. <i>Halifax</i>, the capital,
+has one of the best harbors of the Atlantic coast of North America; it
+is not often obstructed by ice, and is the chief winter port. Halifax is
+the principal British naval station of North America, and this fact adds
+much to its commercial activity.</p>
+
+<p><b>Prince Edward Island.</b>&mdash;The industries of this province are mainly
+connected with the coast-fisheries. During the summer the island is
+visited by thousands of fishing-vessels for the purpose of preparing the
+catch for market. Fertilizer manufactured from the refuse is an
+incidental product. <i>Charlottetown</i> is the capital.</p>
+
+<p><b>New Brunswick.</b>&mdash;Fisheries and forest products are both resources of this
+province. Coal is mined at <i>Grand Lake</i>, and an excellent lime for
+export to the United States is made at <i>St. John</i>. Lumber, wood-pulp,
+wooden sailing-vessels, cotton textiles, and structural steel for
+ship-building are manufactured. A ship railway, seventeen miles long,
+across the isthmus that connects this province to Nova Scotia, is under
+construction. <i>St. John</i>, the capital, is the chief seat of trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Quebec.</b>&mdash;This province was once a possession of France, and in the
+greater part of it French customs are yet about as prevalent as they
+were a century ago; moreover, the French population is increasing
+rapidly. The English-speaking population lives mainly along the Vermont
+border. As a rule the English are the manufacturers and traders; the
+French people are the farmers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Montreal</i> is the head of navigation of the St. Lawrence for ocean
+steamships. It is also the chief centre of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>manufactures. These are
+mainly sugar, rubber goods, textiles, light steel wares, and leather.
+The last-named goes almost wholly to Great Britain; the rest are
+consumed in Canada and the border American States. <i>Quebec</i> is the most
+strongly fortified city of the Dominion.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ontario.</b>&mdash;This province is a peninsula bordered by Lakes Huron, Erie,
+and Ontario. Farming is the chief employment, and barley is an important
+product. Most of it is used in the manufacture of malt, and "Canada
+malt" is regarded as the best. Several of the trunk railways whose
+terminals are in the United States traverse this peninsula. <i>Toronto</i>,
+the capital and commercial centre, is one of the most rapidly growing
+cities of North America. <i>Hamilton</i> owes its existence to its harbor and
+position at the head of Lake Ontario. <i>Ottawa</i> is the capital of the
+Dominion. At <i>Sudbury</i> are the nickel-mines that are among the most
+productive in the world.</p>
+
+<p><b>Manitoba</b>, <b>Saskatchewan</b>, and <b>Alberta</b>.&mdash;These provinces include the level
+prairie lands of the Saskatchewan and the Red River of the North. They
+comprise the great grain-field of Canada. A considerable part of the
+wheat-growing lands are yet unproductive owing to the lack of railways.
+Much of the product is carried to market by the Canadian Pacific and its
+feeders, but a considerable part finds its way to the Northern Pacific
+and Great Northern roads. The coal of Manitoba and Alberta is an
+important fuel supply not only to the provinces and states surrounding,
+but to the railways above named. A good quality of anthracite coal is
+also mined in Alberta. <i>Winnipeg</i>, the metropolis of the region, is one
+of the great railway centres of Canada.</p>
+
+<p><b>British Columbia.</b>&mdash;British Columbia, the Pacific coast province, has
+several resources of great value. The gold mines led to its settlement
+and commercial opening. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> salmon-fisheries are surpassed by those of
+the United States only. The beds of lignite coal have produced a very
+large part of the coal used in the Pacific coast States. The forests
+produce lumber for shipment both to the Atlantic coast of America and
+the Pacific coast of Asia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vancouver</i>, the terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway, is connected
+with various Asian ports by fast steamships. <i>Nanaimo</i>, <i>Wellington</i>,
+and <i>Commox</i> are the centres of the coal-mining industry. The
+copper-mines at <i>Rossland</i> produce most of the copper mined in Canada.</p>
+
+<p><b>Newfoundland.</b>&mdash;Although a Crown possession, Newfoundland is not a member
+of the Dominion of Canada. The extensive fisheries are its chief
+resource. The Labrador coast, which is used as a resort for curing and
+preserving the catch, is attached to Newfoundland for the purpose of
+government. <i>St. Johns</i> is the capital.</p>
+
+<p>The islands of Miquelon and St. Pierre, south of Newfoundland, are a
+French possession. Fishing is the ostensible industry, but a great deal
+of smuggling is carried on.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What, if any, climatic or topographic boundaries separate Canada and the
+United States?</p>
+
+<p>Which of the two countries is the more fortunately situated for the
+production of food-stuffs?</p>
+
+<p>Which will support the larger population?&mdash;why?</p>
+
+<p>The harbors of the Labrador coast and of Cape Breton Island are superior
+to those of the British Islands, situated in about the same latitude;
+why do the latter have a commerce far greater than that of the former?</p>
+
+<p>Compare the industries of the eastern, middle, and western regions of
+Canada with the corresponding regions of the United States.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Statesman's Year-Book.</p>
+
+<p>Statistical Year-Book of Canada (official government publication,
+Ottawa).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXII</h2>
+
+<h3>MEXICO&mdash;CENTRAL AMERICA&mdash;WEST INDIES</h3>
+
+
+<p>Mexico and the Central American states occupy the narrow, southerly part
+of North America. Structurally they consist of a plateau about a mile
+high, bordered on each side by a low coast-plain. The table-land, or
+<i>tierra templada</i>, has about the same climate as southern California;
+the low coast-plains, or <i>tierra caliente</i>, are tropical.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mexico.</b>&mdash;The United States of Mexico is the most important part of this
+group. The people are of mixed Spanish and Indian blood, but there are
+many families of pure Castilian descent. The latter, in general, are the
+landed proprietors; the former constitute the tradesmen, herders, and
+peons. There is also a large unproductive class, mainly of Indians, who
+are living in a savage state. In general the manners and customs are
+those of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The agricultural pursuits are in a backward condition, partly for the
+want of good system and an educated people, but mainly for lack of the
+capital and engineering skill to construct the irrigating canals that
+are needed to make the land productive. Maize, rice, sugar (cane and
+panocha), and wheat are grown for home consumption.</p>
+
+<p>The agricultural products which connect Mexico with the rest of the
+world are sisal-hemp (henequin), coffee, logwood, and fruit. Sisal-hemp
+is grown in the state of Yucatan, and has become one of its chief
+financial resources. Oaxaca coffee is usually sold as a "Mocha" berry.
+The logwood goes mainly to British textile makers;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> and the fruit,
+chiefly oranges and bananas, finds a market in the large cities of the
+United States, to which large consignments of vanilla and tropical woods
+are also sent. Cattle are grown on more than twenty thousand ranches,
+and the greater part are sent alive to the markets of the United States.
+The native long-horn stock is giving place to improved breeds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image147.jpg">
+<img src="images/image147_th.jpg" width="600" height="453" alt="MEXICO" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">MEXICO</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gold and silver are the products that have made Mexico famous, and the
+mines have produced a total of more than three billion dollars' worth of
+precious metal. The native methods of mining have always been primitive,
+and low-grade ores have been neglected. In recent years American and
+European capital has been invested in low-grade mines, and the bullion
+production has been about doubled in value; it is now about one hundred
+million dollars yearly. Iron ore is abundant, and good coal exists.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p><p>The manufactures, at present of little importance, are growing rapidly.
+The cotton-mills consume the home product and fill their deficiency from
+the Texas crop. All the finer textiles, however, are imported. Most of
+the commodities are supplied by the United States, Great Britain, and
+Germany, the first-named having about half the trade. Most of the
+hardware and machinery is purchased in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Railway systems, with American terminal points at El Paso, San Antonio,
+and New Orleans, extend from the most productive parts of the country.
+One of the most important railways crosses the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,
+and, in order to encourage commerce, the harbors at Coatzacoalcos and
+Salina Cruz have been deepened and improved. This interoceanic route is
+destined to become a very important factor in commerce. It shortens the
+route between European ports and San Francisco by six thousand miles,
+and between New York and San Francisco by twelve hundred miles.<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Mexico</i>, the capital, is the financial and commercial centre. <i>Vera
+Cruz</i> and <i>Tampico</i> are connected with the capital by railway, but both
+have very poor port facilities. Steamship lines connect the former with
+New York, New Orleans, Havana, and French ports. It is the chief port of
+the country. <i>Matamoros</i> on the American frontier has a considerable
+cattle-trade. The crop of sisal-hemp is shipped mainly from <i>Progresso</i>
+and <i>Merida</i>. <i>Acapulco</i>, <i>Manzanillo</i>, and <i>Mazatlan</i> for want of
+railway connections have but little trade. The first-named is one of the
+best harbors in the world. <i>Guadalajara</i> has important textile and
+pottery manufactures.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p><p><b>The Central American States.</b>&mdash;The physical features and climate of
+these states resemble those of Mexico. The Spanish-speaking people live
+in the table-lands, where the climate is healthful. The coast-plain of
+the Atlantic is forest-covered and practically uninhabited save by
+Indians. Guatemala is the most important state. A railway from <i>Puerto
+Barrios</i>, its Atlantic port, through its capital, <i>Guatemala</i>, to its
+Pacific port, <i>San Jos&eacute;</i>, is nearly completed. British Honduras is a
+British territory acquired mainly for the mahogany product, which is
+shipped from <i>Belize</i>. Honduras has great resources in mines, cultivable
+lands, and forests, but these are undeveloped. Salvador is the smallest
+but most progressive state.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image148.jpg" width="600" height="375" alt="ROUTE OF PROPOSED NICARAGUA CANAL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ROUTE OF PROPOSED NICARAGUA CANAL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nicaragua is politically of importance on account of the possibilities
+of an interoceanic canal. A treaty for this canal, involving both
+Nicaragua and Great Britain, has already been signed by the powers
+interested. Many engineers regard the Nicaragua as preferable to that of
+the Panama canal. The shorter distance between New York and the Pacific
+ports of the United States, a saving of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> about four hundred miles, is in
+its favor. The longer distance of transit and the dangers of navigating
+Lake Nicaragua are against it. Costa Rica is favorably situated for
+commerce, but its resources are not developed. A railway from <i>Puerto
+Limon</i> is nearly completed to <i>Puenta Arenas</i>, an excellent harbor on
+the Pacific side.</p>
+
+<p>Coffee, hides, mahogany, and fruit are the only products of importance
+that connect these states with the rest of the world. About half the
+trade goes to the United States. The Germans and English supply a
+considerable part of the textiles and manufactured articles. The coffee
+of Costa Rica is a very superior product. Much of the mahogany and
+forest products goes to Great Britain. Fruit-steamers call at the
+Atlantic ports for bananas, which are sold in New Orleans and the
+Atlantic cities.</p>
+
+<p><b>The West Indies.</b>&mdash;The climate and productions of these islands are
+tropical in character. Sugar, fruit, coffee, tobacco, and cacao are the
+leading products. From the stand-point of the planter, the sugar
+industry has been a history of misfortunes. The abolition of slavery
+ruined the industry in many of the islands belonging to Great Britain.
+The competition of the beet-sugar made in Europe drove the Cubans into
+insurrection on account of the excessive taxes levied by the Spaniards,
+and ended in the Spanish-American War.</p>
+
+<p>The fruit-crop&mdash;mainly pineapples, oranges, and grapefruit&mdash;is shipped
+to the United States. New York, Philadelphia, and the Gulf ports are the
+destination of the greater part of it.</p>
+
+<p>Cuba, the largest island, is one of the most productive regions of the
+world. The famous "Havana" tobacco grows mainly in the western part,
+although practically all Cuban tobacco is classed under this name.
+According to popular opinion it is pre-eminently the best in flavor,
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> the price is not affected by that of other tobaccos.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> About
+two-thirds of the raw leaf and cigars are purchased by the tobacco
+manufacturers of the United States. <i>Havana</i>, <i>Santiago</i>, and
+<i>Cienfuegos</i> are the shipping-ports; most of the export is landed at New
+York, Key West, and Tampa.</p>
+
+<p>From 1900 to 1903 the small fraction of the sugar industry that survived
+the war and the insurrection was crippled by the high tariff on sugar
+imported into the United States. The latter, which was designed to
+protect the home sugar industry, was so high that the Cubans could not
+afford to make sugar at the ruling prices in New York. Hides, honey, and
+Spanish cedar for cigar-boxes are also important exports.</p>
+
+<p>The United States is the chief customer of Cuba, and in turn supplies
+the Cubans with flour, textile goods, hardware, and coal-oil. Smoked
+meat from Latin America and preserved fish from Canada and Newfoundland
+are the remaining imports. There are no manufactures of importance. The
+railways are mainly for the purpose of handling the sugar-crop.</p>
+
+<p><i>Havana</i>, the capital and financial centre, is connected with New York,
+New Orleans, and Key West by steamship lines. <i>Santiago</i>, <i>Matanzas</i>,
+and <i>Cienfuegos</i> are ports having a considerable trade.</p>
+
+<p>The British possessions in the West Indies are commercially the most
+important of the European possessions. The Bahamas are low-lying coral
+islands, producing but little except sponges, fruit, and sisal-hemp.
+<i>Nassau</i>, the only town of importance, is a winter resort. Fruit, sugar,
+rum, coffee, and ginger are exported from <i>Kingston</i>, the port of
+Jamaica. <i>St. Lucia</i> has probably the strongest fortress in the
+Caribbean Sea.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p><p>Barbados produces more sugar than any other British possession in the
+West Indies. The raw sugar, muscovado, is shipped to the United States.
+Bermuda, an outlying island, furnishes the Atlantic states with onions,
+Easter lilies, and early potatoes. From Trinidad is obtained the
+asphaltum, or natural tar, that is used for street paving. Brea Lake,
+the source of the mineral, is leased to a New York company. Sugar and
+cacao are also exported from Port of Spain. The products of St. Vincent
+and Dominica are similar to those of the other islands.</p>
+
+<p>The French own Martinique (<i>Fort de France</i>) and Guadeloupe (<i>Basse
+Terre</i>). St. Thomas (<i>Charlotte Amalie</i>), St. Croix, and St. John are
+Danish possessions. Various attempts to transfer the Danish islands to
+the United States have failed. They are admirably adapted for naval
+stations. The island of Haiti consists of two negro republics, Haiti and
+San Domingo. The only important product is coffee. Most of the product
+is shipped to the United States, which supplies coal oil and textiles in
+return.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What part of the United States was formerly a possession of Mexico, and
+how did it become a possession of the United States?</p>
+
+<p>From a cyclopedia learn the character of the political organization of
+Mexico and the Central American states.</p>
+
+<p>From the report listed below find what commercial routes gain, and what
+ones lose in distance by the Nicaragua, as compared with the Panama
+canal.</p>
+
+<p>From a good atlas make a list of the islands of the West Indies; name
+the country to which each belongs, and its exports to the United States.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>The Statesman's Year-Book.</p>
+
+<p>Great Canals of the World&mdash;pp. 4058&ndash;4059.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/image150.jpg">
+<img src="images/image150_th.jpg" width="500" height="698" alt="SOUTH AMERICA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">SOUTH AMERICA</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXIII</h2>
+
+<h3>SOUTH AMERICA&mdash;THE ANDEAN STATES</h3>
+
+
+<p>In its general surface features South America resembles North
+America&mdash;that is, a central plain is bordered by low ranges on the east
+and by a high mountain system on the west. In the southern part,
+midsummer is in January and midwinter in July. The mineral-producing
+states are traversed by the ranges of the Andes and all of them except
+Chile are situated on both slopes of the mountains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colombia.</b>&mdash;This republic borders both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific
+Ocean. One port excepted, however, most of its commerce is confined to
+the shores of the Caribbean Sea. The lowlands east of the Andes are
+admirably adapted for grazing, and such cattle products as hides, horns,
+and tallow are articles of export. This region, however, even with the
+present facilities for transportation, produces only a small fraction of
+the products possible.</p>
+
+<p>The intermontane valleys between the Andean ranges have the climate of
+the temperate zone; wheat and sheep are produced. The chief industrial
+development, however, is confined to the lands near the Caribbean coast.
+Coffee, cacao, and tobacco are grown for export, the business of
+cultivation being largely controlled by Americans and Europeans. Rubber,
+copaiba, tolu, and vegetable ivory<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> are gathered by Indians from the
+forests.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image151.jpg" width="600" height="393" alt="A PASS IN THE ANDES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A PASS IN THE ANDES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p><p>The montane region has long been famous for its mines of gold and
+silver. The salt mines near Bogota are a government monopoly and yield a
+considerable revenue. Near the same city are the famous Muzo emerald
+mines.</p>
+
+<p>The rivers are the chief channels of internal trade. During the rainy
+season steamboats ascend the Orinoco to Cabugaro, about two hundred
+miles from Bogota. About fifty steamboats are in commission on the
+Magdalena and its tributary, the Cauca. Mule trains traversing wretched
+trails require from one to two weeks to transport the goods from the
+river landings to the chief centres of population. Improvements now
+under way in clearing and canalizing these rivers will add about five
+hundred miles of additional water-way. The railways consist of short
+lines mainly used as portages around obstructions of the rivers.</p>
+
+<p>An unstable government and an onerous system of export taxes hamper
+trade. Coffee, a leading product, goes mainly to Europe. Cattle
+products, and balsam of tolu are purchased mainly in the United States.
+Great Britain purchases the gold and silver ores. The chief
+imports&mdash;textiles, flour, and petroleum&mdash;are purchased in the United
+States. <i>Bogota</i> and <i>Medellin</i> are the largest cities. The isolation of
+the region in which they are situated shapes the indifferent foreign
+policy of the government. <i>Barranquilla</i>, <i>Sabanilla</i>, and <i>Cartagena</i>
+are the chief ports.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panama.</b>&mdash;This state, formerly a part of Colombia, includes the isthmus
+of Panama. Geographically it belongs to North America, and practically
+it can be approached from Colombia by water only. The secession of
+Panama was brought about by the complications of the isthmian canal. A
+treaty with the United States gives the latter sovereign control over
+the canal and the strip of land ten miles wide bordering it. <i>Panama</i>
+and <i>Colon</i> are the two ports of the canal. The United States exercises
+police and sanitary regulations in these cities, but it has no
+sovereignty over them.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p><p><b>Peru.</b>&mdash;Peru has great resources, both agricultural and mineral. Cotton
+is one of the chief products. The ordinary fibre is excelled only by the
+sea-island cotton of the United States; the long-staple fibre of the
+Piura is the best grown. The former is generally employed for mixing
+with wool in the manufacture of underwear, and is sold in the United
+States and Europe; the latter, used in the manufacture of thread and the
+web of pneumatic tires, goes mainly to Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Cane-sugar is a very large export crop, Great Britain, the United
+States, and Chile being the principal customers. The area of coffee
+production is growing rapidly. Coca-growing has become an important
+industry, and the plantations aggregate about three million trees;<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> a
+large part of the product is sent to the chemical laboratories of the
+United States. A small crop of rice for export is grown on the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The Amazon forest products yield a considerable revenue. Rubber and
+vegetable ivory are the most valuable. Cinchona, or Peruvian bark,
+however, is the one for which the state is best known; and there is
+probably not a drug-shop in the civilized world that does not carry it
+in stock.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span></p><p>Cattle are grown for their hides, and of these the United States is the
+chief purchaser. The wool of the llama, alpaca, and vicu&ntilde;a is used in
+manufacture of the cloth known as alpaca, and the value of the shipments
+to Great Britain usually exceeds one million dollars a year. In the
+mining regions the llama is used as a pack-animal, and a large part of
+the mine products reach the markets by this means of transportation. The
+mines yield silver and copper; in the main the ores are exported to
+Great Britain to be smelted.</p>
+
+<p>The products already named are the chief exports; the imports are cotton
+textiles, machinery, steel wares, and coal-oil. Great Britain has about
+one-half the foreign trade; the United States controls about one-fourth.
+<i>Callao</i>, the port of <i>Lima</i>, is the market through which most of the
+foreign trade is carried on. Steamship lines connect it with San
+Francisco and with British ports. <i>Mollendo</i> is the outlet of Bolivian
+trade. The railways are short lines extending from the coast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ecuador.</b>&mdash;This state has but little commercial importance. The only
+cultivated products for export are cacao, coffee, and sugar. The
+first-named constitutes three-fourths of the exports, and most of it
+goes to France. The land is held in large estates, and most of the
+laboring people are in a condition of practical slavery. The
+bread-stuffs consumed by the foreign population and the land proprietors
+are imported. Animals are grown for their hides and these are sold to
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Another manufacture that connects Ecuador with the rest of the world is
+the so-called "Panama" hat. The material used is toquilla straw, the
+mid-rib of the screw-pine (<i>Carlodovica palmata</i>). The prepared straw
+can be plaited only when the atmosphere is very moist, and much of the
+work is done at night. The hats are made by Indians,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> who are governed
+by their own ideas regarding style and shape. They bring from
+twenty-five to fifty dollars apiece in the American markets, where
+nearly all the product is sold.<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>Mule-paths are the only means of inland communication. There is a
+considerable local traffic on the estuaries of the rivers, but this is
+confined to the rainy seasons. A railway built by an American company is
+in operation from <i>Guayaquil</i>, a short distance inland. This city is the
+chief market for foreign goods, and it is the only foreign port of the
+Pacific coast of South America in which the volume of trade of the
+United States approximates that of Germany and Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bolivia.</b>&mdash;Bolivia lost much of its possible commercial possible future
+when, after a disastrous war, its Pacific coast frontage became a
+possession of Chile. The agricultural lands are unfortunately situated
+with reference to the mining population; as a result, a considerable
+amount of food-stuffs must be imported from Argentina. Coffee, cacao,
+and coca are the principal cultivated products. Rubber from the Amazon
+forest is the most valuable vegetable product, but a considerable amount
+of cinchona bark and ivory nuts are also exported.</p>
+
+<p>The mines, however, are the chief wealth of the state and give it the
+only excuse for its political existence. They produce silver, tin,
+copper, gold, and borate of lime. Inasmuch as a large part of the ore
+and ore products must be transported by llamas and mules, only the
+richest mines can be profitably worked. With adequate means of
+transportation, the mines should make Bolivia one of the most powerful
+South American states.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p><p>Railways already connect <i>Oruro</i> with the sea-coast. A railway now
+under construction will connect <i>La Paz</i> (the pass) with the Pacific
+coast, and also Buenos Aires. Excellent roads to take the place of the
+pack-trains are under construction.</p>
+
+<p>Practically all the imports, consisting of cotton and woollen textiles,
+machinery, and steel wares, are purchased in Great Britain. The exports
+are more than double the imports. Most of the goods pass through the
+Chilean port Antofagasto, or Mollendo, Peru. <i>La Paz</i>, <i>Oruro</i>, and
+<i>Sucre</i> are the chief cities.</p>
+
+<p>The hypothetical state of Acr&eacute; is situated in the angle where Bolivia,
+Peru, and Brazil join. The rubber forests, together with the absence of
+legal government, led to its existence. The government is wholly
+insurrectionary, but it at least uses its powers to encourage the rubber
+trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chile.</b>&mdash;This state comprises the narrow western slope of the Andes,
+extending from the tropic of Capricorn to Cape Horn, a distance of about
+three thousand miles. The resources of the state have been so skilfully
+handled, that with the drawback of a very small proportion of cultivable
+land, Chile is the foremost Andean state.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of the ordinary crops is confined to the flood-plains of
+the short rivers. These, as a rule, are from twenty to fifty miles long
+and a mile or two in width. They are densely peopled and cultivated to
+the limit. Between the river-valleys are long stretches of unproductive
+land.</p>
+
+<p>Within the valleys wheat, barley, fruit, and various food-stuffs are
+grown. Of these there are not only enough for home consumption, but
+considerable quantities are exported to Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Much
+of the cultivable land<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> requires to be watered, and the system of
+irrigation has been developed with extraordinary skill. The grazing
+lands are extensive. In the northern part an excellent quality of merino
+wool is produced; the greater part of the clip, however, is an ordinary
+fibre. The cattle furnish a considerable amount of leather for export.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions which have made the northern part a desert have also
+given to the state its greatest resource&mdash;nitre.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The nitrate occurs
+in the northern desert region. The crude salt is crushed and partly
+refined at the mines, and carried by rail to the nearest port. The
+working of the nitrate beds is largely carried on by foreign companies.
+Nearly all the product is used as a fertilizer in Germany, France, and
+Great Britain. Nitrate constitutes about two-thirds of the exports.
+Iodine and bromine are also obtained from the nitrates, and the Chilean
+product yields nearly all the world's supply.</p>
+
+<p>Copper is extensively mined and, next to the nitrates, is the most
+valuable product. Great Britain is the customer for the greater part.
+Coal occurs in the southern part of the state, and is mined for export
+to the various states of the Pacific coast. It is not a good coal for
+iron smelting, however, and about three times as much is imported as is
+exported. A considerable part of the imported coal comes from Australia,
+and with it structural steel is made from pig-iron that is also
+imported.</p>
+
+<p>Chile is well equipped with railways, a part of which has been built and
+are operated by the state. The most important line traverses the valley
+between the Andes and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> the coast ranges, from Concepcion to Valparaiso.
+In this region are most of the manufacturing enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>The imports are chiefly coal, machinery, textile goods, and sugar. The
+British control about two-thirds of the foreign trade; the Germans and
+the French have most of the remainder. The United States supplies the
+Chileans with a part of the textiles, a considerable quantity of Oregon
+pine, and practically all the coal-oil used.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image154.jpg" width="300" height="289" alt="VALPARASIO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">VALPARASIO</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Valparaiso</i> is the chief business centre of the Pacific coast of South
+America. Most of the forwarding business is carried on by British and
+German merchants. The transandine railway, now about completed, will
+make it one of the most important ports of the world. <i>Santiago</i> is the
+capital. <i>Concepcion</i> and <i>Talca</i> are important centres of trade.
+<i>Chillan</i> is the principal cattle-market of the Pacific coast of South
+America. <i>Copiapo</i> is the focal point of the mining interests. <i>Iquique</i>
+is the port from which about all the nitrates are shipped. <i>Punta
+Arenas</i>, one of the "end towns" of the world, is an ocean post-office
+for vessels passing through the Straits of Magellan. It is about as far
+south as Calgary, B.C., is north.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What will be the probable effect of an interoceanic canal on the
+commerce of these states?</p>
+
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics make a list of the exports from the
+United States to these countries.</p>
+
+<p>From the statistics of trade in the Statesman's Year-Book compare the
+trade of the United States with that of other countries in these states.</p>
+
+<p>How have race characteristics affected the commerce and development of
+these states?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p><p>What is meant by peonage?</p>
+
+<p>What cities of the tropical part of these states are in the climate of
+the temperate zone?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Carpenter's South America.</p>
+
+<p>Vincent's Around and About South America.</p>
+
+<p>Fiske's Discovery of America&mdash;Chapters IX-X.</p>
+
+<p>Procure, if possible, specimens of the following: Cacao and its
+products, ivory nuts, cinchona bark, crude nitrate, Panama straw, iodine
+(in a sealed vial), llama wool, alpaca cloth, Peruvian cotton.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXIV</h2>
+
+<h3>SOUTH AMERICA&mdash;THE LOWLAND STATES</h3>
+
+
+<p>The eastern countries of South America are mainly lowland plains. The
+llanos of the Orinoco and the pampas of Plate (La Plata) River are
+grazing lands. The silvas of the Amazon are forest-covered. In tropical
+regions the coast-plain is usually very unhealthful; the seaports
+excepted, most of the cities and towns are therefore built on higher
+land beyond the coast-plain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Venezuela.</b>&mdash;The greater part of Venezuela is a region of llanos, or
+grassy plains, shut off from the harbors of the Caribbean Sea, by
+mountain-ranges. On account of their pleasant climate the
+mountain-valleys constitute the chief region of habitation. The plains
+are flooded in the rainy season and sun-scorched during the period of
+drought; they are therefore unfit for human habitation.</p>
+
+<p>Coffee is cultivated in the montane region; and cacao in the lower coast
+lands. Almost every part of the coast lowlands is fit for sugar
+cultivation, and in order to encourage this industry, the importation of
+sugar is forbidden. As is usual in similar cases, the domestic sugar is
+poor in quality and high in price. Among the forest products rubber,
+fustic, divi-divi,<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> and tonka beans, the last used as a perfume, are
+the only ones of value. The cattle of the llanos, the native long-horns,
+furnish a poor quality of hide, and poorer beef. A few thousand head are
+shipped yearly down the Orinoco to be sent to Cuba and Porto Rico.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p><p>The placer gold-mines of the Yuruari country, a region also claimed by
+Great Britain, have been very productive. Coal, iron ore, and asphaltum
+are abundant. Concessions for mining the two last-named have been
+granted to American companies. The pearl-fisheries around Margarita
+Island, also leased to a foreign company, have become productive under
+the new management.</p>
+
+<p>The means of intercommunication are as primitive as those of Colombia.
+Short railways extend from several seaports to the regions of
+production, and from these coffee and cacao are the only exports of
+importance. The Orinoco River is the natural outlet for the
+cattle-region, but the commerce of this region is small. The lagoon of
+Maracaibo is becoming the centre of a rapidly growing commercial region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caracas</i>, the capital and largest city, receives the imports of
+textiles, domestic wares, flour, and petroleum from the United States
+and Great Britain. The railway to its port, <i>La Guaira</i>, is a remarkable
+work of engineering. <i>Puerto Cabello</i>, the most important port, receives
+the trade of <i>Valencia</i>. From <i>Maracaibo</i>, the port on the lagoon of the
+same name, is shipped the Venezuelan coffee. <i>Ciudad Bolivar</i> is the
+river-port of the Orinoco and an important rubber-market.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Guianas.</b>&mdash;The surface conditions and climate of the Guianas resemble
+those of Venezuela. The native products are also much the same, but good
+business organization has made the countries bearing the general name
+highly productive. For the greater part, the coast-plain is the region
+of cultivation. Sugar is still the most important crop; but on account
+of the fierce competition of beet-sugar, on many of the plantations
+cane-sugar cultivation is unprofitable and has been abandoned for that
+of rice, cacao, and tobacco. Great Britain, Holland, and France possess
+the country. The divisions are known respectively as British Guiana,
+Surinam, and Cayenne, and the trade of each accrues to the
+mother-country. British Guiana is noted quite as much for its
+gold-fields on the Venezuelan border (Cuyuni River) as for its vegetable
+products. <i>Georgetown</i>, better known by the name of the surrounding
+district, <i>Demerara</i>, is the focal point of business. <i>New Amsterdam</i> is
+also a port of considerable trade. The gold-mining interests centre at
+<i>Bartica</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image156a.jpg" width="500" height="197" alt="A CACAO PLANTATION" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A CACAO PLANTATION</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image156b.jpg" width="500" height="247" alt="PREPARING THE BEANS FOR SHIPMENT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PREPARING THE BEANS FOR SHIPMENT</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image156c.jpg" width="300" height="635" alt="CACAO-TREE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CACAO-TREE</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image156d.jpg" width="400" height="362" alt="MAKING CHOCOLATE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">MAKING CHOCOLATE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p><p>Surinam, in addition to its export of vegetable products, contains rich
+gold-mines, and these contribute a considerable revenue. <i>Paramaribo</i> is
+the port and centre of trade. Phosphates and gold are among the
+important exports of Cayenne, whose port bears the same name.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brazil.</b>&mdash;This state, nearly the size of the United States, comprises
+about half the area of South America. Much of it, including the greater
+part of the Amazon River basin, is unfit for the growth of food-stuffs.</p>
+
+<p>There are three regions of production. The Amazon forests yield the
+greater part of the world's rubber supply. The middle coast region has
+various agricultural products, of which cotton and cane-sugar are the
+most important. From the southern region comes two-thirds of the world's
+coffee-crop. There are productive gold-mines in the state of Minas
+Geraes, but this region is best known for the "old mine" diamonds, the
+finest produced.</p>
+
+<p>The Amazon rubber-crop includes not only the crude gum obtained in
+Brazil, but a considerable part, if not the most, of the crop from the
+surrounding states. The bifurcating Cassiquiare, which flows both into
+Amazonian and Orinocan waters, drains a very large area of forest which
+yields the best rubber known. The yield of 1901 aggregated about one
+hundred and thirty million pounds, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> which about one-half was sold in
+the United States, one-third in Liverpool, and the rest mainly in
+Antwerp and Le Havre. The price of rubber is fixed in New York and
+London.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton and cane-sugar are grown in the middle coast region. The
+cotton industry bids fair to add materially to the prosperity of the
+state. A considerable part of the raw cotton is exported, but the
+reserve is sufficient to keep ten thousand looms busy. About three
+hundred and fifty million pounds of the raw sugar is purchased by the
+refineries of the United States, and much of the remainder by British
+dealers.</p>
+
+<p>The seeds of a species of myrtle (<i>Bertholletia excelsa</i>) furnish the
+Brazil nuts of commerce, large quantities of which are shipped to Europe
+and the United States.<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Manganese ore is also an important export,
+and Great Britain purchases nearly all of it.</p>
+
+<p>The coffee-crop of the southern states is the largest in the world; and
+about eight hundred million pounds are landed yearly at the ports of the
+United States. The coffee-crop, more than any other factor, has made the
+great prosperity of the state; for while the rubber yield employs
+comparatively few men and yields but little public revenue, the
+coffee-crop has brought into Brazil an average of about fifty million
+dollars a year for three-quarters of a century.</p>
+
+<p>Cattle products also afford a considerable profit in the vicinity of the
+coffee-region. The hides and tallow are shipped to the United States.
+For want of refrigerating facilities, most of the beef is "jerked" (or
+sun-dried), and shipped in this form to Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>The facilities for transportation, the rivers excepted, are poor. The
+Amazon is navigable for ocean steamships nearly to the junction of the
+Ucayale. The Paraguay <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>affords a navigable water-way to the mouth of
+Plate River. Rapids and falls obstruct most of the rivers at the
+junction of the Brazilian plateau and the low plains, but these streams
+afford several thousand miles of navigable waters both above and below
+the falls.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the railways are plantation roads, extending from the various
+ports to regions of production a few miles inland. The most important
+railway development is that in the vicinity of Rio, where short local
+roads to the suburban settlements and the coffee-plantations converge at
+the harbor. About fourteen thousand miles of railway are completed and
+under actual construction. A considerable part of the mileage is owned
+and operated by the state, and it has become the policy of the latter to
+control its roads and to encourage immigration. One result of this
+policy is the increasing number of German and Italian colonies, that
+establish settlements in every district penetrated by a new road.</p>
+
+<p>In 1900 the total foreign trade aggregated upward of two hundred and
+seventy-five million dollars. The imports consist of cotton and woollen
+manufactures, structural steel and machinery, preserved fish and meats,
+and coal-oil. Great Britain, Germany, the United States, and France have
+nearly all the trade. The United States sells to Brazil textiles and
+coal-oil to the amount of over eleven million dollars yearly, and buys
+of the country coffee and rubber to the amount of six times as much.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rio de Janeiro</i>, commonly called "Rio," is the capital and commercial
+centre. Its harbor is one of the best in South America. Formerly all the
+coffee was shipped from this port, but the greater part now goes from
+<i>Santos</i>. <i>Porto Alegre</i>, the port of the German colonies, has also a
+growing export trade.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bahia</i>, <i>Pernambuco</i> (or <i>Recife</i>), <i>Maceio</i>, <i>Cear&aacute;</i> are the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> markets
+for cotton, sugar, and tobacco, much of which is shipped to other
+Brazilian ports for home consumption. <i>Par&aacute;</i> and <i>Cear&aacute;</i> monopolize
+nearly all the rubber trade. The position of <i>Manaos</i>, at the confluence
+of several rivers, makes it one of the most important markets of the
+Amazon basin, and most of the crude rubber is first collected there for
+shipment. <i>Cuyaba</i> is the commercial centre of the mining region; its
+outlet is the Paraguay River, and Buenos Aires profits by its trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Argentina and the Plate River Countries.</b>&mdash;These states are situated in a
+latitude corresponding to that of the United States. The entire area
+from the coast to the slopes of the Andes is a vast prairie-region. As a
+result of position, climate, and surface the agricultural industries are
+the same as in the United States&mdash;grazing and wheat-growing.</p>
+
+<p>Cattle-growing is the chief employment, and the cost per head of rearing
+stock is practically nothing. For want of better means of transportation
+the shipments of live beef are not very heavy; the quality of the beef
+is poor, and until recently there have been no adequate facilities for
+getting it to market.<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> A small amount of refrigerator beef and a
+large amount of jerked beef are exported, however. Near the markets,
+there are large plants in which the hides, horns, tallow, and meat are
+utilized&mdash;the last being converted to the famous "beef extract," which
+finds a market all over the world.</p>
+
+<p>The sheep industry is on a much better business basis. Both the wool and
+the mutton have been improved by cross-breeding with good stock. As a
+result the trade in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> mutton and wool has increased by leaps and bounds;
+and nearly three million sheep carcasses are landed at the other ports
+of Brazil, at Cuba, and at various European states. The wool is bought
+mainly by Germany and France, but the United States is a heavy
+purchaser. The quality of the fibre, formerly very poor, year by year is
+improving.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat, the staple product, is grown mainly within a radius of four
+hundred miles around the mouth of Plate River. The area of cultivation
+is increasing as the facilities for transportation are extended and,
+little by little, is encroaching on the grazing lands. The wheat
+industry is carried on very largely by German and Italian colonists.
+Flax, grown for the seed, is a very large export crop. Maize, partly for
+export and partly for home consumption, is also grown.</p>
+
+<p>The timber resources, chiefly in Paraguay and the Gran Chaco, are very
+great, but for want of means of transportation the timber-trade cannot
+successfully compete with that of Central America and Mexico. Workable
+gold and silver ores are abundant along the Andean cordillera; gold,
+silver, and copper are exported to Europe. A poor quality of lignite
+occurs in several provinces, but there are no available mines yielding
+coal suitable for making steam. There are petroleum wells near Mendoza.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the manufactures pertain to the preparation of cattle products,
+although a considerable amount of coarse textiles are made in the larger
+cities from the native cotton and wool. Hats, paper (made from grass),
+and leather goods are also made. In general, all manufactures are
+hampered by the difficulties of getting good fuel at a low price.</p>
+
+<p>Transportation is carried on along Plate River and the lower parts of
+its tributaries. The railway has become the chief factor in the carriage
+of commodities, however, and the railways of Argentina have been
+developed on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> plans of North American roads. About twelve thousand
+miles are in actual operation, one of which is a transcontinental line,
+about completed between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso. Electric railways
+have become very popular, and the mileage is rapidly increasing.</p>
+
+<p>The import trade, consisting of textile goods, machinery, steel, and
+petroleum, is carried on with Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium
+(mainly transit trade), the United States, and Italy. The competition
+between the European states for this trade is very strong, and not a
+little has been acquired at the expense of the United States, whose
+trade has not materially increased.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image159.jpg" width="300" height="403" alt="AREA OF THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MAT&Eacute;" title="" />
+<span class="caption">AREA OF THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MAT&Eacute;</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Buenos Aires</i> is the financial centre of this part of South America.
+Among its industries is the largest meat-refrigerating plant in the
+world. The harbor at <i>La Plata</i> is excellent and has drawn a
+considerable part of the foreign trade from Buenos Aires. <i>Rosario</i>,
+<i>Cordoba</i>, <i>Santa F&eacute;</i>, and <i>Parana</i> are the markets of extensive farming
+regions. <i>Mendoza</i> is the focal point of the mining interests.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paraguay</b> has a large forest area, but for want of means of
+transportation it is without value. Even the railway companies find it
+cheaper to buy their ties in the United States and Australia, rather
+than to procure them in Paraguay. In spite of the extent of good land,
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> wheat and much of the bread-stuffs are purchased from Argentina.
+Tobacco and mat&eacute; are the only export crops, and they have but little
+value. The Parana and Paraguay Rivers are the only commercial outlet of
+the state.</p>
+
+<p><b>Uruguay.</b>&mdash;Owing to its foreign population Uruguay is becoming a rich
+country. The native cattle have been improved by cross-breeding with
+European stock, and the state has become one of the foremost cattle and
+sheep ranges of the world. The value of animal products is not far from
+forty million dollars yearly. These go mainly to Europe, and so also
+does the wheat-crop.</p>
+
+<p>France and Argentina purchase most of the exports and Great Britain
+supplies most of the textiles and machinery imported. The trade of the
+United States is about one-fourth that of Great Britain. <i>Montevideo</i> is
+the chief market and port. At <i>Fray Bentos</i> is one of the largest plants
+in the world for the manufacture of cattle products.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What kind of commerce has led to the establishment of the various ports
+along the Spanish Main?</p>
+
+<p>What advantages has the American fruit-shipper, trading at South
+American ports, over his European competitor?</p>
+
+<p>What is meant by "horse latitudes," and what was the origin of the name?</p>
+
+<p>In what way may the opening of an interoceanic canal affect the
+coffee-trade of Brazil?&mdash;the nitrate trade of Chile?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics find the exports of the United States to
+each of these countries.</p>
+
+<p>From the Statesman's Year-Book compare the trade of the United States in
+each of these countries with that of Great Britain, France, Germany, and
+Italy.</p>
+
+<p>If possible, obtain specimens of the following: Crude rubber, pampas
+grass, Brazil nuts (in pod), and raw coffee of several grades for
+comparison with Java and Mocha coffees.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXV</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPE&mdash;GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY</h3>
+
+
+<p>Almost all the commercial activity of Europe is south of the parallel
+and west of the meridian of St. Petersburg. Most of the great industries
+are controlled by Germanic and Latin peoples, and among these Great
+Britain and Germany stand first.</p>
+
+<p><b>Great Britain and Ireland.</b>&mdash;The United Kingdom, or Great Britain and
+Ireland, are commonly known as the British Isles. The British Empire
+consists of the United Kingdom and its colonial possessions; it includes
+also a large number of islands occupied as coaling stations and for
+strategic purposes. All told, the empire embraces about one-seventh of
+the land area of the world and about one-fourth its population.</p>
+
+<p>The wonderful power and great commercial development is due not only to
+conditions of geographic environment but also to the intelligence of a
+people who have adjusted themselves to those conditions. The insular
+position of the United Kingdom has given it natural protection, and for
+more than eight hundred years there has been no successful invasion by a
+foreign power. Its commercial position is both natural and artificial.
+It has utilized the markets to the east and south, and has founded great
+countries which it supplies with manufactured products.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/image161.jpg" width="800" height="538" alt="THE BRITISH EMPIRE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE BRITISH EMPIRE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p><p>The position of the kingdom with respect to climate is fortunate. The
+movement of the Gulf Stream on the American coast carries a large volume
+of water into the latitude of the prevailing westerly winds, and these
+in turn carry warm water to every part of the coast of the islands. As a
+result, the harbors of the latter are never obstructed by ice; those of
+the Labrador coast, situated in the same latitude, are blocked nearly
+half the year.</p>
+
+<p>The high latitude of the islands is an advantage so far as the
+production of food-stuffs is concerned. The summer days in the latitude
+of Liverpool are very nearly eighteen hours in length, and this fact
+together with the mild winters, adds very largely to the food-producing
+power of the islands.</p>
+
+<p>The highlands afford considerable grazing. Great care is taken in
+improving the stock, both of cattle and sheep. In the north the cattle
+are bred mainly as meat producers; in the south for dairy products.
+Durham, Alderney, and Jersey stock are exported to both Americas for
+breeding purposes. The sheep of the highlands produce the heavy, coarse
+wool of which the well known "cheviot" and "frieze" textiles are made.
+Elsewhere they are bred for mutton, of which the "South Down" variety is
+an example.</p>
+
+<p>The lowland regions yield grain abundantly where cultivated. The average
+yield per acre is about double that of the United States, and is
+surpassed by that of Denmark only. Both Ireland and England are famous
+for fine dairy products. These are becoming the chief resource of the
+former country, which is practically without the coal necessary for
+extensive manufacture. The fishing-grounds form an important food
+resource.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivated lands do not supply the food needed for consumption. The
+grain-crop lasts scarcely three months; the meat-crop but little longer.
+Bread-stuffs from the United States and India, and meats from the United
+States, Australia, and New Zealand make up the shortage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> The annual
+import of food-stuffs amounts to more than fifty dollars per capita.</p>
+
+<p>The growing of wool and flax for cloth-making became an industry of
+great importance just after the accession of Henry VII. With the advent
+of peace, it became possible to manufacture into cloth the fibres that
+before had been sent for that purpose to Flanders. The utilization of
+the coal and the iron ore years afterward brought about an economic
+revolution that was intensified by the invention of the steam-engine and
+the power-loom.</p>
+
+<p>These quickly brought the country into the foremost rank as a
+manufacturing centre. Moreover, they also demanded the foreign markets
+that have made the country a maritime power as well&mdash;for an insular
+country must also have the ships with which to carry its merchandise to
+its markets.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the manufactures, therefore, is inseparably connected
+with that of the mineral and metal industries. From very early times the
+metal deposits of the country have been a source of power. Copper and
+tin were used by the aboriginal Britons long before C&aelig;sar's
+reconnaissance of the islands, and it is not unlikely that the Bronze
+Period was the natural development that resulted from the discovery of
+these metals.</p>
+
+<p>Coal occurs in various fields that extend from the River Clyde to the
+River Severn. The annual output of these mines at the close of the
+century was about two hundred and twenty-five million tons. In the past
+century the inroads upon the visible supply were so great that the
+output in the near future will be considerably lessened. Not far from
+one-sixth of the output is sold to consumers in Russia and the
+Mediterranean countries, but a growing sentiment to forbid any sale of
+coal to foreign buyers is taking shape.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image162.jpg">
+<img src="images/image162_th.jpg" width="600" height="868" alt="BRITISH ISLES" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">BRITISH ISLES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p><p>Iron ores are fairly abundant, but the hematite required for the best
+Bessemer steel is limited to the region about Manchester and Birmingham.
+The shortage of this ore has become so apparent within recent years that
+Great Britain has become a heavy purchaser of ores in foreign markets.
+The coal in the Clyde basin is employed mainly in the manufacture of
+railway iron, steamship material, and rolling stock. The manufacture of
+Bessemer steel is gradually moving to the vicinity of South Wales, at
+the ports of which foreign pig-iron can be most cheaply landed. In
+west-central England the several coal-fields form a single centre of
+manufacture, where are located some of the largest woollen and cotton
+mills in Europe. It also includes the plants for the manufacture of
+machinery, cutlery, and pottery.</p>
+
+<p>The import trade of Great Britain consists mainly of food-stuffs and raw
+materials.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> Of the latter, cotton is by far the most important. Most
+of it comes from the United States, but the Nile delta, Brazil, the
+Dekkan of India, the Iran plateau, and the Piura Valley of Peru send
+portions, each region having fibre of specific qualities designed for
+specific uses. The native wool clip forms only a small part of the
+amount used in manufacture. The remainder, more than three million
+pounds, comes from Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The supply of flax is small, and 100,000 tons are imported to meet the
+wants of the mills. The greater part is purchased in Russia, but the
+finer quality is imported from Belgium. Jute is purchased from India and
+manufactured into burlap and rugs.</p>
+
+<p>But little available standing timber remains, and lumber<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> must,
+therefore, be imported. The pine is purchased mainly in Sweden, Norway,
+Canada, and the United States. A considerable amount of wood-pulp is
+imported from Canada for paper-making. Mahogany for ornamental
+manufactures is obtained from Africa and British Honduras. Oak, and the
+woods for interior finish, are purchased largely from Canada and the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>The export trade of Great Britain consists almost wholly of the articles
+manufactured with British coal as the power. These are made from the raw
+materials purchased abroad, and the stamp of the British craftsman is a
+guarantee of excellence and honesty. Of the total export trade,
+amounting yearly to about one billion, two hundred million dollars,
+nearly one-third consists of cotton, woollen, linen, and jute textiles;
+one-fifth consists of iron and steel manufactured stuffs made from
+British ores. About one-third goes to the colonies of the
+mother-country, with whom she keeps in close touch; Germany, the United
+States, and the South American states are the chief foreign buyers.</p>
+
+<p>For the handling and carriage of these goods there is an admirable
+system of railways reaching from every part of the interior to the
+numerous ports. The rolling stock and the locomotives are not nearly so
+heavy as those used in the United States; the railway beds and track
+equipment, on the whole, are probably the best in the world. Freight
+rates are considerably higher than on the corresponding classes of
+merchandise in the United States. The public highways are most
+excellent, but the means of street traffic in the cities are very poor.</p>
+
+<p>The harbor facilities at the various ports are of the best. The docks
+and basins are usually arranged so that while the import goods are being
+landed the export stuffs are made ready to be loaded. The facilities for
+the rapid transfer of freights have been improved by the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>reconstruction
+of the various river estuaries so as to make them ship-channels. The
+estuaries of the Clyde, Tyne, and Mersey have been thus improved, while
+Manchester has been made a seaport by an artificial canal. The British
+merchant marine is the largest in the world, and about ninety per cent.
+of the vessels are steamships.</p>
+
+<p><i>London</i> is the capital; it is also one of the first commercial and
+financial centres of the world. The Thames has not a sufficient depth of
+water for the largest liners, and these dock usually about twenty miles
+below the city. The colonial commerce at London is very heavy,
+especially the India traffic, and it is mainly for this trade that the
+British acquired the control of the Suez Canal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liverpool</i> is one of the most important ports of Europe, and receives
+most of the American traffic. The White Star and Cunard Lines have their
+terminals at this port.</p>
+
+<p><i>Southampton</i> is also a port which receives a large share of American
+traffic. The American and several foreign steamship lines discharge at
+that place. <i>Hull</i> and <i>Shields</i> have a considerable part of the
+European traffic. <i>Glasgow</i> is one of the foremost centres of steel
+ship-building. <i>Cardiff</i> and <i>Swansea</i> are ports connected with the coal
+and iron trade. <i>Queenstown</i> is a calling point for transatlantic
+liners.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manchester</i> is both a cotton port and a great market for the cotton
+textiles made in the nearby towns of the Lancashire coal-field. <i>Leeds</i>
+and <i>Bradford</i> and the towns about them are the chief centres of woollen
+manufacture. <i>Wilton</i> and <i>Kidderminster</i> are famous for carpets.
+<i>Birmingham</i> is the centre of the steel manufactures. <i>Sheffield</i> has a
+world-wide reputation for cutlery. In and near the Staffordshire
+district are the potteries that have made the names of <i>Worcester</i>,
+<i>Coalport</i>, <i>Doulton</i>, <i>Copeland</i>, and <i>Jackfield</i> famous. <i>Belfast</i> is
+noted for its linen textiles,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> and also for some of the largest
+steamships afloat that have been built in its yards. <i>Dundee</i> is the
+chief centre of jute manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><b>The German Empire.</b>&mdash;The German Empire consists of the kingdoms of
+Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and W&uuml;rtemburg, together with a number of
+small states. The "free" cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and L&uuml;beck, whose
+independence was purchased in feudal times, are also incorporated within
+the empire. The present empire was formed in 1871, at the close of the
+war between Germany and France. The merging of the states into the
+empire was designed as a political step, but it proved a great
+industrial revolution as well.</p>
+
+<p>The plain of Europe which slopes to the north and the Baltic Sea, the
+flood-plains of the rivers excepted, is feebly productive of grain. It
+is a fine grazing region, however, and the dairy products are of the
+best quality. Among European states Russia alone surpasses Germany in
+the number of cattle grown. The province of Schleswig-Holstein is famous
+the world over for its fine cattle. Cavalry horses are a special feature
+of the lowland plain, and the government is the chief buyer. The wool
+product has hitherto been important, but the sheep ranges are being
+turned into crop lands, on account of the increase of population in the
+industrial regions.</p>
+
+<p>The midland belt, however, between the coast-plain and the mountains, is
+the chief food-producing part of Germany. Rye and wheat are grown
+wherever possible, but the entire grain-crop is consumed in about eight
+months. The United States, Argentina, and Russia supply the wheat and
+flour; Russia supplies the rye.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/image165.jpg">
+<img src="images/image165_th.jpg" width="500" height="758" alt="GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p><p>The sugar-beet is by far the most important export crop, and Germany
+produces yearly about one million, eight hundred thousand tons, or
+nearly as much as Austria-Hungary and France combined. This industry is
+encouraged by a bounty paid on all sugar exported.<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> A considerable
+amount of raw beet-sugar is sold to the refineries of the United States;
+Great Britain also is a heavy buyer. The home consumption is relatively
+small, being about one-third per capita that of the United States.
+Silesia, the Rhine Valley, and the lowlands of the Hartz Mountains are
+the most important centres of the sugar industry.</p>
+
+<p>Germany is rich in minerals.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Zinc occurs in abundance, and the mines
+of Silesia furnish the world's chief supply. Most of the lithographic
+stone in use is obtained in Bavaria. Copper and silver are mined in the
+Erz and Hartz Mountains. During the sixteenth century the mines of the
+latter region brought the states then forming Germany into commercial
+prominence and thereby diverted the trade between the North and
+Mediterranean Seas to the valleys of the Rhine and Elbe Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>These two metal products made Germany a great financial power. The
+Franco-Prussian War added to Germany the food-producing lands of the
+Rhine and Moselle, and the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. At the same
+time it gave the Germans organization by welding the various German
+states into an empire. As a result there has been an industrial
+development that has placed Germany in the class with the United States
+and Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>By unifying the various interstate systems of commerce and
+transportation, the iron and steel industry has greatly expanded. The
+chief centre of this industry is the valley of the Ruhr River.
+Coal-measures underlie an area somewhat larger than the basin of the
+river. To the industrial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> centres of this valley iron ore is brought by
+the Rhine and Moselle barges from Alsace-Lorraine and Luxemburg, and
+also from the Hartz Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>In the importance and extent of manufactures, Germany ranks next to
+Great Britain among European states, and because of the extent of their
+coal-fields the Germans seem destined in time to surpass their rivals.
+The manufacture of textiles is one of the leading industries, and, next
+to Great Britain, Germany is the heaviest purchaser of raw cotton from
+the United States. The Rhine district is the chief centre of cotton
+textile manufacture. Raw cotton is delivered to the mills by the Rhine
+boats, and these carry the manufactured product to the seaboard. Central
+and South America are the chief purchasers.</p>
+
+<p>Woollen goods are also extensively manufactured, the industry being in
+the region that produces Saxony wool. In Silesia and the lower Rhine
+provinces there are also extensive woollen textile manufactures, but the
+goods are made mainly from imported wool. Argentina and the other Plate
+River countries are the chief buyers of these goods. There is a
+considerable linen manufacture from German-grown flax, and silk-making,
+mainly from raw silk imported from Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The great expansion and financial success of the manufacturing
+enterprises is due very largely to the admirable organization of the
+lines of transportation. The rivers, with their connecting canals,
+supplement the railways instead of competing with them. They are
+utilized mainly for slow freights, while the railways carry the traffic
+that demands speed. The possibilities of both inland water-ways and
+railway transportation have been utilized by the Germans to the utmost,
+with the result of a very low rate both for coal and ore, and for
+structural iron and steel. The latter is carried from the various
+steel-making plants in the Ruhr Valley to the seaboard at a rate of
+eighty to ninety cents per ton.<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image166a.jpg" width="500" height="361" alt="L&Uuml;BECK" title="" />
+<span class="caption">L&Uuml;BECK</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image166b.jpg" width="500" height="362" alt="BREMEN" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BREMEN</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span></p><p>All this has resulted in a wonderful commercial expansion of the
+empire. In 1875 Germany was neither a maritime nor a naval power. At the
+close of the century it ranked about with the United States as a naval
+power, and far surpassed that country in the tonnage of merchant marine.
+The German steamship fleet includes the largest and fastest vessels
+afloat.</p>
+
+<p>German trade may be summed up as an export of manufactured goods and an
+import of food-stuffs and raw materials. At the close of the century the
+annual movement of industrial products amounted to nearly two and
+one-half billion dollars. About one-half the trade of the empire is
+carried on with Great Britain, the United States, Austria-Hungary, and
+Russia. A large part of the foreign trade is carried on through the
+ports of Belgium and Holland.</p>
+
+<p><i>Berlin</i>, the capital, is one of the few cities having a population of
+more than one million. It is not only a great centre of trade, but it is
+one of the leading money-markets of Europe; it is also the chief railway
+centre. <i>Hamburg</i> and <i>Bremen</i> are important ports of German-American
+trade, the former being the largest seaport of continental Europe.
+<i>Breslau</i> is an important market, into which the raw materials of
+eastern Europe are received, and from which they are sent to the
+manufacturing districts. The art galleries of <i>Dresden</i> have had the
+effect of making that city a centre of art manufactures which are famous
+the world over. <i>L&uuml;beck</i> is one of the free cities that was formerly in
+the Hanse League.</p>
+
+<p>The twin cities, <i>Barmen-Eberfeld</i>, in the Ruhr coal-field, form one of
+the principal centres of cotton manufacture in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> the world. <i>Dortmund</i> is
+a coal-market. At <i>Essen</i> are the steel-works founded by Herr Krupp.
+They are the largest and one of the most complete plants in the world.
+The output includes arms, heavy and light ordnance, and about every kind
+of structural iron and steel used. About forty thousand men are
+employed. <i>Chemnitz</i> is an important point, not only of cotton
+manufacture, but also of Saxony wools, underwear and shawls being its
+most noteworthy products. At <i>Stettin</i>, <i>Danzig</i>, and <i>Kiel</i> are built
+the steamships that have given to Germany its great commercial power.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>In what ways are Great Britain and Germany commercial rivals?</p>
+
+<p>What are the advantages of each with respect to position?&mdash;with respect
+to natural resources?</p>
+
+<p>From the Statesman's Year-Book make a list of the leading exports of
+each;&mdash;the leading imports of each. What exports have they in common?</p>
+
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics find what commodities the United States
+sells to each.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Adams's New Empire&mdash;Chapter III.</p>
+
+<p>Gibbins's History of Commerce&mdash;Book III, Chapters III-V.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXVI</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPE&mdash;THE BALTIC AND NORTH SEA STATES</h3>
+
+
+<p>These states, like Great Britain and Germany, belong to Germanic Europe,
+and their situation around the North and Baltic Seas makes their
+commercial interests much the same. From the stand-point of commerce
+Holland might be regarded as an integral part of Germany, inasmuch as a
+large part of the foreign commerce of Germany must reach the sea by
+crossing that state.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sweden and Norway.</b>&mdash;Sweden and Norway occupy the region best known as
+the Scandinavian peninsula. The western side faces the warm, moist winds
+of the Atlantic, but the surface is too rugged to be productive. The
+lands suitable for farming, on the other hand, are on the east side,
+where, owing to the high latitude, the winters are extremely cold.</p>
+
+<p>The plateau lands are in the latitude of the great pine-forest belt that
+extends across the two continents. The forests of the Scandinavian
+peninsula are near the most densely peopled part of Europe, and they are
+also readily accessible. Moreover, the rugged surface offers unlimited
+water-power. As a result Norway and Sweden practically control the
+lumber-market of Europe, and their lumber products form one of the most
+important exports of the kingdom. Norway pine competes with California
+redwood in Australia. The "naval stores," tar and pitch, compete with
+those of Georgia and the Carolinas. The wood-pulp from this region is
+the chief supply of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> paper-makers of Europe. Next to Russia, Sweden
+has the largest lumber-trade in Europe. The Mediterranean states are the
+chief buyers.</p>
+
+<p>The mineral products are a considerable source of income. Building stone
+is shipped to the nearby lowland countries. The famous Swedish
+manganese-iron ores, essential in steel manufacture, are shipped to the
+United States and Europe. For this purpose they compete with the ores of
+Spain and Cuba. The mines of the Gellivare iron district are probably
+the only iron-mines of consequence within the frigid zone. The ore is
+sent to German and British smelteries.</p>
+
+<p>The fisheries are the most important of Europe, and this fact has had a
+great influence on the history of the people. Centuries ago the people
+living about the <i>vigs</i> or fjords of the west coast were compelled to
+depend almost wholly on the fisheries for their food-supplies. As a
+result they became the most famous sailors of the world. They
+established settlements in Iceland and Greenland; they also planted a
+colony in North America 500 years before the voyage of Columbus.
+Herring, salmon, and cod are the principal catch of the fisheries, and
+about four-fifths of the product is cured and exported to the Catholic
+European states and to South America.</p>
+
+<p>South of Kristiania farming is the principal industry. Much of the land
+is suitable for wheat-growing, but the productive area is so small that
+a considerable amount of bread-stuffs must be imported from the United
+States. On account of the high latitude the winters are too long and
+severe for any but the hardiest grains. Dairy products are commercially
+the most important output of the farms, and they find a ready market in
+the popular centres of Europe&mdash;London, Hamburg, Paris, and Berlin.</p>
+
+<p>The lumber, furniture, matches, fish, ores, and dairy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> products sold
+abroad do not pay for the bread-stuffs, coal, petroleum, clothing, and
+machinery. In part, this is made up by the carrying trade of Norwegian
+vessels; the rest of the deficit is more than met by the money which the
+throngs of tourists spend during the summer months.</p>
+
+<p>The United States buys from these countries fish and ores to the amount
+of about three million dollars a year; it sells them cotton, petroleum,
+bread-stuffs, and machinery to the amount of about twelve million
+dollars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stockholm</i>, the capital of Sweden, is the chief financial and
+distributing centre of the Scandinavian trade. Its railway system
+reaches about every area of production. Although having a good harbor of
+its own, it must depend on <i>Trondhjem</i> (Drontheim) for winter traffic,
+because the Baltic ports are closed by ice three or four months of the
+year. <i>Kristiania</i>, the capital of Norway, is the export market of the
+fish and lumber products.</p>
+
+<p><i>G&ouml;teborg</i>, owing to recently completed railway and canal connections,
+is becoming an important port of trade. It is convenient to other
+European ports, and it is rarely closed by ice. <i>Bergen</i>, <i>Trondhjem</i>,
+and <i>Hammerfest</i> derive a heavy income from their fisheries and likewise
+from the tourists who visit the coast during midsummer. The last-named
+port, although farther north than any town in the world, has an open
+harbor during the winter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Denmark.</b>&mdash;Denmark is essentially an agricultural state, and almost every
+square mile of available land is under cultivation. Even the sand-dunes
+have been reclaimed and converted into pasturage. The yield of wheat is
+greater per acre than in any other country, but as only a small area is
+sown, wheat and flour are imported.</p>
+
+<p>About half the area of the state is used in growing fodder for horses
+and cattle. The dairy products, especially butter, are unrivalled
+elsewhere in Europe. The dairy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> business is largely controlled by a
+cooperative association of dairymen and farmers. Pastures, fodder,
+cattle, sheds, creameries, and all the processes involved are subject to
+a most rigid sanitary inspection.</p>
+
+<p><i>Copenhagen</i>, the capital, is the financial centre of the kingdom.
+Commercially it is one of the most important ports of Europe. Various
+shipments consigned to Baltic ports are landed at this city; here the
+cargoes break bulk and are again trans-shipped to their destination. In
+order to facilitate this forwarding business, the Crown has made
+Copenhagen a free port. Steamship lines connect it with New York,
+British ports, and the East Indies.</p>
+
+<p>A great deal of farming and dairy machinery is manufactured; coal,
+cotton goods, and structural machinery are imported from the United
+States. Little, however, is exported to that country, almost all the
+dairy products being sold to Great Britain and other populous centres of
+western Europe. <i>Aalborg</i> and <i>Aarhuus</i> are dairy-markets.</p>
+
+<p>Greenland and Iceland are colonies of Denmark, and the fishing industry
+of the kingdom is carried on mainly along the shores of these islands.
+The furs, seal-skins, seal-oil, and eider-down of Greenland are a
+government monopoly. The mineral cryolite occurs at Ivigtut and is mined
+by soda-making establishments in the United States. Iceland produces
+sheep, cattle, and fish; these are shipped from <i>Reikiavik</i>. The Faroe
+Islands produce but little save wool, feathers, and birds' eggs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Belgium.</b>&mdash;Probably in no other country of Europe has nature done so
+little and man so much to make a great state as in Belgium. The lowland
+region has been made so fertile by artificial means that it yields more
+wheat per acre than any other country except Denmark. The Ardennes
+highland in the southeast is naturally unproductive, but it has become
+one of the great manufacturing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> centres of Europe. Less than one-twelfth
+of the area of the state is unproductive.</p>
+
+<p>The coast, more than twoscore miles in extent, has not a single harbor
+for large vessels, and the two navigable rivers, the Scheldt and Meuse,
+flow into another state before reaching the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image170.jpg" width="500" height="703" alt="HOLLAND AND BELGIUM" title="" />
+<span class="caption">HOLLAND AND BELGIUM</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The low sand-barrens next the coast have been reclaimed by means of a
+grass that holds in place the sand that formerly shifted with each
+movement of the wind. This region is now cultivated pasture-land that
+produces the finest of horses, cattle, and dairy products. The dairy
+products go mainly to London. The Flemish horses, like those of the
+sand-barrens of Germany and France, are purchased in the large cities,
+where heavy draught-horses are required. Many of them are sold to the
+express companies of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Bordering the sand-barrens is a belt of land that produces grain and the
+sugar-beet. Flax is an important product, and its cultivation has had
+much to do with both the history and the political organization of the
+state. Before the advent of the cotton industry, woollen and linen were
+practically the only fibres used in cloth-making. Belgium was then the
+chief flax-growing and cloth-making<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> country, and all western Europe
+depended upon the Flemish looms for cloth. This industry, therefore,
+gave the country not only commercial prominence, but was largely
+responsible for its political independence as well. Flax is still an
+important product, and the linen textiles made in the state are without
+a superior. Much of the flax is grown in the valley of the River Lys.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most productive coal-fields of Europe stretches across
+Belgium, and a few miles south of it are the iron-ore deposits that
+extend also into Luxemburg and Germany. In addition to these, the
+zinc-mines about Moresnet are among the richest in the world. Belgium
+is, therefore, one of the great metal-working centres of Europe. A small
+portion of the coal is exported to France, but most of it is required in
+the manufactures.</p>
+
+<p><i>Li&egrave;ge</i>, <i>Seraing</i>, and <i>Verviers</i> are the great centres of the metal
+industry. They were built at the eastern extremity of the coal-field,
+within easy reach of the iron ores. Firearms, railroad steel, and
+tool-making machinery are the chief products of the region, and because
+of the favorable situation, these products easily compete with the
+manufactures of Germany and France.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ghent</i> is the chief focal point for the flax product, which is
+converted into the finest of linen cloth and art fabrics. Much of the
+weaving and spinning machinery employed in Europe is made in this city.
+<i>Mechlin</i> and the villages near by are famous the world over for
+hand-worked laces.</p>
+
+<p>Expensive porcelains, art tiles, glassware, and cheap crockery are made
+in the line of kilns that reaches almost from one end of the coal-field
+to the other; these products, moreover, are extensively exported.</p>
+
+<p>The railways are owned and operated by the state. They are managed so
+judiciously, moreover, that the rates of carriage are lower than in most
+European states. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> Scheldt is navigable for large ocean steamers to
+<i>Antwerp</i>, and this city is the great Belgian port for ocean traffic.
+The city owes its importance to its position. One branch of the Scheldt
+leads toward the Rhine; the other is connected by a canal with the
+rivers of France; the main stem of the river points toward London. It is
+therefore the meeting of three ways. It is the terminal of the
+steamships of American, and of various other lines. It is also the depot
+of the Kongo trade. Ship-canals deep enough for coasters and freighters
+connect <i>Ghent</i>, <i>Bruges</i>, and <i>Brussels</i> with tide-water. These are
+about to be converted to deep-water ship-canals.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign commerce of Belgium is much like that of other European
+states. Wheat, meat, maize, cotton, and petroleum are imported mainly
+from the United States; iron ore is purchased from Luxemburg and
+Germany, and various raw materials are brought from France. In exchange
+there are exported fine machinery, linen fabrics, porcelains, fire-arms,
+glassware, and beet-sugar. From the Kongo state, at the head of which is
+the King of the Belgians, are obtained rubber and ivory. The rubber is
+sold mainly to the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brussels</i> is the capital and financial centre. On account of the state
+control of the railways, it is also the directive centre of all the
+industries pertaining to commerce and transportation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Holland.</b>&mdash;The names Holland and Netherlands mean "lowland," and the
+state itself has a lower surface than any other country of Europe.
+Nearly half the area is at high-tide level or else below it. A large
+part, mainly the region about the Zuider<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Sea, has been reclaimed
+from the sea.</p>
+
+<p>In the reclamation of these lands stone dikes are built<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> to enclose a
+given area, and from the basin thus constructed the water is pumped. The
+reclaimed lands, or "polders," include not only the sea-bottom, but the
+coast marshes as well; even the rivers are bordered with levees in order
+to prevent overflows. Windmills are the machinery by which the water is
+pumped from the polders into the sea. In no other part of the world is
+wind-power so extensively used. Almost every acre of the polders is
+under cultivation, and these lands grow a very large part of the
+vegetables and flowers consumed in the great cities of England, France,
+and Belgium.</p>
+
+<p>The coast sand-barrens have been converted into pasture-lands that
+produce draught-horses, beef cattle, and dairy cattle. The horses find a
+ready market in the United States and the large European cities; the
+dairy cattle not needed at home are exported, the United States being a
+heavy purchaser. The beef cattle are grown mainly for the markets of
+London. Dutch butter is used far beyond the boundaries of the state, and
+Edam cheese reaches nearly every large city of Europe and America.</p>
+
+<p>The sugar-beet is extensively cultivated, in spite of the great trade
+resulting from the cane-sugar industry of the East Indies. It is more
+profitable to import wheat from the United States and rye from Russia in
+order to use the land for the sugar-beet.</p>
+
+<p>Practically no timber suitable for lumber manufacture exists, and
+building material therefore must be imported. Pine is purchased from
+Russia, Scandinavia, and the United States. Stone is purchased wherever
+it may be obtained as return freight, or as ballast. The coast fisheries
+yield oysters, herrings, and "anchovies," which are not anchovies, but
+sprats.</p>
+
+<p>For want of coal and iron there are few manufactures, and the garden and
+dairy products are about the only <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>export articles. There is an
+abundance of clay, and of this brick for road-making, tiles for building
+purposes, and porcelains are made. But little of the raw sugar is
+refined; most of it is sold to foreign refiners, and the United States
+is one of the chief customers.</p>
+
+<p>Holland is a great commercial country, and for more than five hundred
+years the Dutch flag has been found in almost every large port of the
+world. Much of the commerce is derived from the tobacco, sugar, and
+coffee plantations of the Dutch East Indies.</p>
+
+<p>A very large part of the commerce, however, is neither import or export
+trade, but a "transit" commerce. Thus, American coal-oil is transferred
+from the great ocean tank-steamers to smaller tank-boats, and is then
+carried across the state into Germany, France, and Belgium, through the
+numerous canals.</p>
+
+<p>This trade applies also to many of the products of the German industries
+which will not bear a heavy freight tariff, such as coal, ores, etc. It
+reaches the Rhine and Rhone river-basins and extends even to the Danube.
+Both Switzerland and Austria-Hungary send much of their exports through
+Holland. All trade at the various ports and through the canals is free,
+it being the policy to encourage and not to obstruct commerce.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amsterdam</i>, the constitutional capital, is one of the great financial
+and banking centres of Europe. The completion of the Nord Holland canal
+makes the docks and basins accessible to the largest steamships.
+Diamond-cutting is one of the unique industries of the city. Since the
+discovery of the African mines its former trade in diamonds has been
+largely absorbed by London.</p>
+
+<p>More than half the carrying trade of the state centres at <i>Rotterdam</i>.
+By the improvement of the river estuaries and canals this city has
+become one of the best ports of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> Europe, and the tonnage of goods
+handled at the docks is enormously increasing. <i>Vlissingen</i> (Flushing)
+and the <i>Hook</i> are railway terminals that handle much of the local
+freights consigned to London. <i>Delft</i> is famous the world over for the
+beautiful porcelain made at its potteries.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>How has the topography of each of these states affected its commerce?</p>
+
+<p>How is their commerce affected by latitude and climate?</p>
+
+<p>How has the cultivation of the sugar-beet affected the cane-sugar
+industry in the British West Indies?</p>
+
+<p>From the Statesman's Year-Book make a list of the leading exports and
+imports of each country.</p>
+
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics find the trade of the United States with
+each of these countries.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Adams's New Empire&mdash;pp. 153&ndash;159.</p>
+
+<p>Gibbins's History of Commerce&mdash;Book III, Chapters I and VIII.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXVII</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPE&mdash;THE MEDITERRANEAN STATES AND SWITZERLAND</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Mediterranean states are peopled mainly by races whose social and
+economic development was moulded largely by the Roman occupation of the
+Mediterranean basin for a period of more than one thousand years. The
+occupations of the people have been shaped to a great extent by the
+slope of the land and by the mountain-ranges that long isolated them
+from the Germanic peoples north of the Alps.</p>
+
+<p><b>France.</b>&mdash;The position of France with respect to industrial development
+is fortunate. The North Sea coast faces the ports of Great Britain; the
+Atlantic ports are easily accessible to American centres of commerce;
+the Mediterranean ports command a very large part of the trade of that
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>The easily travelled overland routes between the Mediterranean and North
+Seas in very early times gave the country a commercial prominence that
+ever since has been retained. Even before the time of C&aelig;sar it was a
+famous trading-ground for Mediterranean merchants, and the conquest of
+the country was not so much for the spoils of war as for the extension
+of Roman commercial influence.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of France is an agricultural region, and nowhere is the
+soil cultivated with greater skill. Although the state is not quite as
+large as Texas, there are more farms than in all the United States,
+their small size making thorough cultivation a necessity. Much of the
+land is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> too valuable for wheat-farming, and so the eastern
+manufacturing districts depend upon the Russian wheat-farms for their
+supply. Northwestern France, however, has a surplus of wheat, and this
+is sold to Great Britain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/image173.jpg">
+<img src="images/image173_th.jpg" width="500" height="491" alt="FRANCE" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">FRANCE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sugar-beet is the most profitable crop, and its cultivation is aided
+indirectly by the government, which gives a bounty on all exported
+sugar. The area of sugar-beet cultivation will probably increase to its
+limit for this reason.</p>
+
+<p>The French farmer is an artist in the cultivation of small fruits, and
+the latter form an important source of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> revenue. Of the fruit-crop, the
+grape is by far the most important commercially. French wines,
+especially the champagnes, are exported to a greater extent than the
+wines of any other country.<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Most of the wine is sold in Great
+Britain and the countries north of the grape belt; a considerable part
+is sold in the United States and the eastern countries. Champagne,
+Bordeaux, the Loire, and the Rhone Valleys are famous wine districts.
+Wine is also imported, to be refined or to be made into brandy.</p>
+
+<p>Cattle-breeding, both for meat and for dairy purposes, is extensively
+carried on. The meat is consumed at home. Butter is an important export,
+especially in the northwest, where a large amount is made for London
+consumers. This region produces Camembert and Neufchatel cheese, both of
+which are largely exported; Brie cheese is made chiefly along the German
+border. The Roquefort product, made of ewe's milk, is fermented in
+limestone caves and cellars. All these varieties have a large sale, the
+United States and Great Britain being heavy purchasers.</p>
+
+<p>The Percheron draught-horse is raised for export as well as for home
+use; mules are extensively raised for the army wagon-trains of Great
+Britain and Germany. Sheep are grown for the finer grades of wool, but
+so much of the sheep pasture has been given to the cultivation of the
+sugar-beet, that a considerable part of the woollen textiles are now
+made of wool imported from Argentina. A large part of the eggs and table
+poultry consumed in London are products of northwestern France.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p><p>The coal-fields of the north produce nearly two-thirds of the total
+amount consumed. Iron ores are found near the German border; they are
+sent to coal-fields in the neighborhood of St. &Eacute;tienne and Le Creuz&ocirc;t to
+be manufactured into steel. Both coal and iron ore are deficient. To
+meet the requirements of consumption, the former is imported from Great
+Britain, Germany, and Belgium; the latter, mainly from Germany and
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The manufactures of France have a wide influence. From the coal and iron
+are derived the intricate machinery that has made the country famous,
+the railways, the powerful navy, and the merchant marine that has made
+the country a great commercial nation. Because of the great creative
+skill and taste of the people, French textiles are standards of good
+taste, and they find a ready market in all parts of the world. In
+textile manufactures more than one million people and upward of one
+hundred thousand looms are employed.</p>
+
+<p>The United States is a heavy buyer of the woollen cloths and the finer
+qualities of dress goods. Inasmuch as these goods have not been
+successfully imitated elsewhere, the French trade does not suffer from
+competition. The best goods are made from the fleeces of French merino
+sheep, and are manufactured mainly in the northern towns. The Gobelin
+tapestries of Paris are famous the world over.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton manufactures depend mainly on American cotton. About
+two-thirds of the cotton is purchased in the United States, a part of
+which returns in the form of fine goods that may be classed as muslins,
+tulles, and art textiles. The market for such goods is also general. In
+the manufacture of fine laces, such as the Point d'Alen&ccedil;on fabrics, the
+French have few equals and no superiors. The flax is imported mainly
+from Belgium.</p>
+
+<p>Silk culture is aided by the government, and is carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> on mainly in
+the south. The amount grown, however, is insufficient to keep the
+factories busy, and more than four-fifths of the raw silk and cocoons
+are imported from Italy and other southern countries.</p>
+
+<p>The chief imports to France are coal, raw textile fibres, wine, wheat,
+and lumber. The last two products excepted, they are again exported in
+the form of manufactured products. The great bulk of the imports comes
+from Great Britain, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Russia, and
+Argentina. In 1900 the import trade from these countries aggregated
+about five hundred million dollars. The total export trade during the
+same year was about eight hundred million dollars; it consisted mainly
+of high-priced articles of luxury.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign trade is supported by a navy, which ranks second among the
+world's navies, and a merchant marine of more than fifteen thousand
+vessels. Aside from the subsidies given to mail steamships, government
+encouragement is given for the construction and equipment of home-built
+vessels. It is a settled policy that French vessels shall carry French
+traffic.</p>
+
+<p>Of the 24,000 miles of railway, about 2,000 miles are owned by the
+state. The rivers are connected by canals, and these furnish about 7,000
+miles of navigable waters. As in Germany, the water-routes supplement
+the railway lines. Practically all lines of transportation converge at
+Paris.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paris</i>, the capital, is a great centre of finance, art, science, and
+literature, whose influence in these features has been felt all over the
+world. The character of fine textiles, and also the fashions in the
+United States and Europe, are regulated largely in this city.
+<i>Marseille</i> is the chief seaport, and practically all the trade between
+France and the Mediterranean countries is landed at this port; it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> is
+also the focal point of the trade between France and her African
+colonies, and a landing-place for the cotton brought from Egypt and
+Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Havre</i>, the port receiving most of the trade from the United States, is
+the port of Paris. <i>Rouen</i> is the chief seat of cotton manufacture.
+<i>Paris</i> and <i>Rheims</i> are noted for shawls. <i>Lille</i> and <i>Roubaix</i> are
+centres of woollen manufacture. <i>Lyons</i> is the great seat of silk
+manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><b>Italy.</b>&mdash;Italy is a spur of the Alps extending into the Mediterranean
+Sea. From its earliest history it has been an agricultural state, and,
+excepting the periods when it has been rent by wars, it has been one of
+the most productive countries in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat is extensively grown, but the crop is insufficient for home
+consumption, and the deficit is imported from Russia and Hungary. A
+large part of the wheat-crop is grown in the valley of the Po River.
+Flax and hemp are grown for export in this region; and corn for home
+consumption is a general product. Cotton is a good crop in Sicily and
+the south, but the amount is insufficient for use and must be made up by
+imports from the United States and Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Silk, fruit, and vegetables are the staple products that connect Italy
+commercially with the rest of the world. About a million people are
+concerned in the silk industry, and Italy is one of the foremost
+countries in the world in the production of raw silk. Most of the crop
+is produced in northern Italy; western Europe and the United States are
+the chief buyers. The silk of the Piedmont region is the best in
+quality.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit is the crop next in value to raw silk. Sicilian oranges and
+lemons, from about twenty millions of trees, find a ready market in
+Europe; the oranges come into competition with the California and
+Florida oranges of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> United States, in spite of the tariff imposed
+against them by the latter country. Olives are probably the most
+important fruit-crop. Both the preserved fruit and the oil are exported
+to nearly every civilized people. Much of the oil is consumed at home,
+very largely taking the place of meat and butter. Lucca-oil is regarded
+as the best.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image176.jpg" width="500" height="519" alt="ITALY" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ITALY</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The grape-crop is enormous, and the fruit itself is exported. Some of
+the fruit sold as "Malaga" grapes throughout the United States during
+winter months comes from Italy. Chianti wine, from the vineyards around<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>
+Florence, has hitherto been regarded as an inferior product, but the
+foreign demand for it is steadily increasing. The Marsala wines of
+Sicily are largely exported.</p>
+
+<p>Among mineral products the iron deposits in the island of Elba are
+undoubtedly the most valuable, but they are yet undeveloped to any great
+extent. The quarries at Carrara produce a fine marble that has made
+Italy famous in sculpture and architecture. Much of the boracic acid
+used in the arts comes from Tuscany, and the world's chief supply of
+sulphur comes from the neighborhood of Mount Etna in Sicily. Of this
+Americans buy about one-third.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the lack of coal, the manufactures are restricted mainly
+to art wares, such as jewelry, silk textiles, and fine glassware. The
+Venetian glassware, the Florentine and mosaic jewelry, and the pink
+coral ornaments are famous the world over. Within recent years, however,
+imported coal, together with native lignite, have given steel
+manufacture an impetus. Steel ships and rails made at home are meeting
+the demands of commerce. Goods of American cotton are made for export to
+Turkey and South American countries.</p>
+
+<p>Raw silk, wine, olive-oil, straw goods, sulphur, and art goods are
+exported. Cotton, wheat, tobacco, and farm machinery from the United
+States, and coal, woollen textiles, and steel goods from Great Britain
+are the chief imports. Most of the foreign trade is with the nearby
+states. The raw silk goes to France.</p>
+
+<p>Since the unification of Italy the railways have been readjusted to the
+needs of commerce. Before that time the lines were wholly local in
+character; with the readjustment they were organized into trunk lines.
+They enter France through the Mont Cenis tunnel; they reach Switzerland
+and Germany by way of St. Gotthard Pass; they cross the Austrian border
+through Brenner Pass.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p><p><i>Rome</i>, the capital, is a political rather than an industrial centre.
+<i>Milan</i>, the Chicago of the kingdom, is the chief market for the crops
+of northern Italy and a great railway centre. It is also the market for
+raw silk. <i>Genoa</i>, the principal port, is the one at which most of the
+trade of the United States is landed. <i>Naples</i> monopolizes most of the
+marine traffic between Italy and Great Britain. <i>Leghorn</i> is famous for
+its manufacture and trade in straw goods. A considerable part of the
+grain harvested in the Po Valley is stored for shipment at <i>Venice</i>&mdash;not
+in elevators, but in pits. <i>Palermo</i> is the trading centre of Sicily.
+Most of the sulphur is shipped from <i>Catania</i>. <i>Brindisi</i> and <i>Ancona</i>
+are shipping-points for the Suez Canal route.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spain and Portugal.</b>&mdash;The surface of these states is too rugged and the
+climate too arid for any great agricultural development. Less than half
+the area is under cultivation; nevertheless, they are famous for several
+agricultural products&mdash;merino wool, wine, and fruit. The merino wool of
+the Iberian peninsula has no equal for fine dress goods; it is imported
+into almost every other country having woollen manufactures. A
+considerable amount of ordinary wool is grown, but not enough for home
+needs.</p>
+
+<p>The fruit industry is an important source of income. Oranges, limes, and
+lemons are extensively grown for exports; among these products is the
+bitter orange, from which the famous liqueur cura&ccedil;ao, a Dutch
+manufacture, is made. The heavy, sweet port wine, now famous the world
+over, was first made prominent in the vineyards of Spain and Portugal.
+Malaga raisins are sold in nearly every part of England and America. The
+olive is more extensively cultivated than in any other state, but both
+the fruit and the oil are mainly consumed at home&mdash;the latter taking the
+place of butter. Raw silk is grown for export to France.</p>
+
+<p>Although a larger part of the peninsula must depend on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> the American and
+Scandinavian forests for lumber, there is one tree product that is in
+demand wherever bottles are used&mdash;namely, cork. The cork is prepared
+from the bark of a tree (<i>Quercus suber</i>) commonly known as the cork
+oak,<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> which grows freely in the Iberian peninsula and northern
+Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image177a.jpg" width="500" height="449" alt="SPAIN AND PORTUGAL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SPAIN AND PORTUGAL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Metals and minerals of economic use are abundant. Iron ore is sold to
+Great Britain, France, and Germany. Since the Spanish-American War,
+however, there have been extensive developments in utilizing the coal
+and the ore which before that time had been sold to other countries.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p><p>The undeveloped coal and iron resources are very great, and must figure
+in the payment of a national debt that is near the limit of bankruptcy.
+The state, however, is entering a period of industrial prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>The most available metal resource is quicksilver. Of this metal the
+mines in Almaden produce about one-half the world's supply. The working
+of these mines is practically a government monopoly, and the income was
+mortgaged for many years ahead when Spain was at war with her rebellious
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p>Both Spain and Portugal are poorly equipped with means for
+transportation. The railways lack organization, and freight rates are
+excessive. Not a little of the transportation still depends on the
+ox-cart and the pack-train. The merchant marine has scarcely more than a
+name; the foreign commerce is carried almost wholly in British or French
+bottoms. The imports are mainly cotton, coal, lumber, and
+food-stuffs&mdash;these in spite of the fact that every one save lumber might
+be produced at home.</p>
+
+<p>Wine and fruit products, iron ore, and quicksilver are leading exports.
+Of these the United States purchases wine and raisins for home
+consumption and lace and filigree work for the trade with Mexico. Spain
+has a considerable trade in cotton goods with her colonies, the Canary
+Islands, and the African provinces of Rio de Oro and Adrar.</p>
+
+<p>Portugal likewise supplies her foreign possessions&mdash;Goa (India), Macao
+(China), and the Cape Verde and Azores Islands&mdash;with home products. The
+chief Portuguese trade, however, is with Great Britain and Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Madrid</i> is the capital of Spain. <i>Barcelona</i> is the chief commercial
+centre. <i>Valencia</i>, <i>Alicante</i>, <i>Cartagena</i>, and <i>Malaga</i>, are all ports
+of fruit and wine trade. <i>Oporto</i> has been made famous for the port wine
+that bears its name. Probably not one per cent. of the port now used,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>however, comes from Oporto, and not many Malaga raisins come from
+Malaga.</p>
+
+<p><b>Switzerland.</b>&mdash;This state is situated in the heart of the highest Alps.
+The southeastern half is above the altitude in which food-stuffs can be
+produced, and probably no other inhabited country has a greater
+proportion of its area above the limits of perpetual snow. A
+considerable area of the mountain-slopes affords grazing. The
+valley-lands of the lake-region produce a limited amount of food-stuffs,
+but not enough for the sparse population.</p>
+
+<p>Politically, Switzerland is a republic, having the position of a
+"buffer" state between Germany, Italy, France, and Austria-Hungary.
+Racially, the state is divided among Italians, French, and Germans; as a
+matter of fact, however, the old Helvetian spirit, which not even C&aelig;sar
+could destroy, is still a great factor in dominating the people; this,
+with their montane environment, gives the Swiss a very positive
+nationality.</p>
+
+<p>The agricultural interests of the state are developed to their utmost;
+two-thirds of the bread-stuffs, however, are purchased from the United
+States, the plains of Bohemia, and Russia. Cherries, apples, grapes, and
+other fruit are cultivated in every possible place, and as these can be
+delivered to any part of western and central Europe within a day, the
+fruit industry is a profitable one.</p>
+
+<p>Cattle are bred for dairy purposes, but those for beef must be very
+largely imported, Austria-Hungary and Italy selling the needed supply.
+Goats are raised for their hides, and the latter are converted into
+Morocco leather. Of the dairy products, cheese is in many respects the
+most important; Gruy&egrave;re cheese is exported to nearly every country. On
+account of the long distance from populous centres milk cannot be
+transported; much of it is, therefore, condensed, and in that form
+exported.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span></p><p>A peculiar feature of the dairy industry is the fact that it is
+constantly moving. The dairy herds begin to pasture in the lowlands as
+soon as the snow melts, and as fast as the snow line recedes up the
+mountains the cattle follow. The milk is converted into butter and
+cheese wherever the herds may be, and the second crop of grass below
+them is cut and cured for winter forage.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the fact that Switzerland has no available coal,<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>
+manufacture is pre-eminently the industry of the state. During the long
+winters the Alpine herdsman and his family whittle out wooden toys from
+the stock of rough lumber laid by for the purpose. Farther down in the
+valley-lands the exquisite brocades and muslins are made on hand-looms,
+or by the aid of the abundant water-power. Each industrial district has
+its special line of manufacture, so that there is scarcely an idle day
+in the year.</p>
+
+<p>In the cities and towns of the lowland district, watches, clocks,
+music-boxes, and fine machinery are manufactured. For many years Swiss
+watches were about the only ones used in the United States, but on
+account of the competition of American watches this trade has fallen
+off. The mechanical music-player, operated by perforated paper, has also
+interfered with the trade in music-boxes.</p>
+
+<p>Switzerland is provided with excellent facilities for transportation,
+and this has done about as much for the commercial welfare of the state
+as all other industrial enterprises. In proportion to its area, the
+railway mileage is greater than that of the surrounding states. The
+roads are well built and the rates of transportation are low.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the ordinary trip-tickets, monthly time-tickets are
+issued to travellers, allowing the holders to travel when and where they
+please within the limits of the state on all roads and lake-steamers.
+These are sold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> to the traveller for about two-thirds the price of the
+1,000-mile book of the American railway. The carriage roads have no
+superiors, and they penetrate about every part of the state below the
+snow line; they also cross the main passes of the Alps.</p>
+
+<p>Through one or another of these passes most of the foreign traffic of
+the state must be carried. To Genoa and Milan it crosses the Alps via
+the St. Gotthard tunnel, or the Simplon Pass;<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> to Paris it goes by
+the Rhone Valley; between Vienna and Switzerland, by the Arlberg tunnel;
+and to Germany or to Amsterdam through the valley of the Main.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of this most excellent system of transportation, Switzerland
+is thronged with visiting tourists at all times of the year; moreover,
+it has always been the policy of the Swiss Government not only to
+provide for them, but also to make the country attractive to them. The
+result has shown the wisdom of the policy. Indeed, the foreign tourist
+has become one of the chief sources of income of the Swiss people, and
+the latter profit by the transaction to the amount of about forty
+million dollars a year.</p>
+
+<p>About all the raw material used in manufacture must be imported. The
+cotton is purchased mainly from the United States, and enters by way of
+Marseille. The raw silk is purchased from Italy, China, and Japan. Coal,
+sugar, food-stuffs, and steel are purchased from Germany, and this state
+supplies about half the imports. From the United States are purchased
+wheat, cotton, and coal-oil.</p>
+
+<p>The manufactures are intended for export. The fine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> cotton textiles sold
+to the United States are worth far more than the raw cotton purchased
+therefrom. Silk textiles, straw wares, toys, watches, jewelry, and dairy
+products are leading exports. The surrounding states are the chief
+buyers, and none of them competes with Switzerland to any extent in the
+character of the exports.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geneva</i>, situated at the head of the Rhone Valley, is the chief trade
+depot; it is noted especially for the manufacture of watches, of which
+many hundred thousand are made yearly. <i>Zurich</i> is the centre of
+manufactures of textiles and fine machinery. The silk-brocade industry
+is centred chiefly in this city and <i>Basel</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Why did not France prosper commercially prior to the time of the
+revolution of 1793?</p>
+
+<p>What are the chief natural advantages of the state in favor of
+commercial development?</p>
+
+<p>In what ways have the natural disadvantages of Switzerland been
+overcome?</p>
+
+<p>How has the loss of her colonies affected the industrial development of
+Spain?</p>
+
+<p>Comparing Spain and Italy, which has the better situation with reference
+to the Suez Canal traffic?</p>
+
+<p>From the Statesman's Year-Book find the amount of foreign trade of each
+state.</p>
+
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics find the trade of each one with the
+United States.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Adams's New Empire, pp. 160&ndash;168.</p>
+
+<p>Fiske's Discovery of America, Vol. II, Chapter XI.</p>
+
+<p>Procure for inspection specimens of raw silk and also of the choice
+textile goods made in these states.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPE&mdash;THE DANUBE AND BALKAN STATES</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Danube and Balkan states derive their commercial importance partly
+from the large area in which bread-stuffs may be produced, and also
+because the valley of the Danube has become an overland trade-route of
+growing importance between the Suez Canal and the North Sea.</p>
+
+<p><b>Austria-Hungary.</b>&mdash;This empire is composed of the two monarchies, Austria
+and Hungary, each practically self-governed, but united under a single
+general government. The greater part of the country is walled in by the
+ranges of the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The region known as the Tyrol is topographically continuous with
+Switzerland, and the people have Swiss characteristics. Galicia,
+northeast of the Carpathian Mountains, the fragment of Poland that fell
+to Austria at the time of partition, is a part of the great Russian
+plain. Bohemia, which derives its name from the Keltic peoples, whom
+C&aelig;sar called the Boii, comprises the upper part of the Elbe river-basin.
+Its natural commercial outlet is Germany, but the race-hatred which the
+Czechs have for the Germans, retards commercial progress. Hungary is a
+country of plains occupying the lower basin of the Danube. The Huns are
+of Asian origin. Austria proper occupies the upper valley of the Danube,
+adjoining Germany; the country and the people are Germanic.</p>
+
+<p>To the student of history it is a surprise that a country of such
+diverse peoples, having but little in common save<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> mutual race-hatred,
+should hold together under the same general government. The explanation,
+however, is found in the topography of the region. The basin of the
+Danube is a great food-producing region, and the upper valley of the
+Elbe River forms the easiest passage from the Black to the Baltic Sea.
+The topography therefore gives the greater part of the country
+commercial unity.</p>
+
+<p>The climate and surface of the low plains of Hungary are much the same
+as those of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Grain-growing and stock-raising are
+the chief employments. High freight rates, a long haul, and the
+competition of Russia and Roumania have retarded the development of
+these industries, however. Bohemia is likewise a grain-growing country,
+and the easy route into Germany through the Elbe Valley makes the
+industry a profitable one. Bohemia is also in the sugar-beet area.</p>
+
+<p>There is an abundance of coal in Austria, but most of it is unfit for
+the manufacture of iron and steel. Steel manufacture, however, is
+carried on, the industry being protected by the distance from the German
+steel-making centres. The lead-mines about Bleiberg (or "Leadville") are
+very productive; at Idria are the only quicksilver-mines in Europe that
+compete with those of Almaden, Spain. The salt-mines near Krakow are in
+a mass of rock-salt twelve hundred feet thick.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the manufactured products are for home consumption. American
+cotton and home-grown wool supply the greater part of the textiles. The
+flour-mills are equipped with the very best of machinery, and much of
+the product is for export to Germany and the countries to the south. The
+manufactures that have made the state famous, however, are gloves and
+glassware, both of which are widely exported. The sand, fluxes, and
+coloring minerals of Bohemian glassware are all peculiar to the region,
+and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> wares, therefore, cannot be imitated elsewhere. The gloves are
+made from the skins of Hungarian sheep and goats.</p>
+
+<p>The railways are not well organized, and the mileage is insufficient for
+the needs of the country. Ludwig Canal (in Germany) connects the Danube
+with the Main, a navigable tributary of the Rhine; the Elbe is navigable
+from a point above Prague to the Baltic; the Moravian Gate opens a
+passage from Vienna northward; the Iron Gate, through which the Danube
+flows, is the route to the Black Sea; Semmering Pass and its tunnel is
+the gateway to the ports of the Adriatic. These great routes practically
+converge at Vienna, which also is the great railway centre of the
+empire.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign trade consists mainly of the export of food-stuffs (of which
+sugar and eggs are heavy items), fine cabinet ware, woollen textiles
+(made from imported wool), barley and malt, and fine glassware. Much of
+the German and Italian wine is sent to market in casks made of Austrian
+stock; the coal goes mainly to Italy. The imports are raw cotton from
+the United States and Egypt, wool, silk, and tobacco. Coal is both
+exported and imported. The United States sells to Austria-Hungary
+cotton, pork, and corn&mdash;buying porcelain ware, glassware, and gloves,
+amounting to about one-fifth the value of the exports.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vienna</i>, the capital, is the financial centre and commercial
+clearing-house of central Europe; it has also extensive manufactures.
+<i>Budapest</i> is the great focal point of Hungarian railways and commerce.
+<i>Prague</i> controls the coal, textile, and glass trade of Bohemia.
+<i>Lemberg</i> is the metropolis of Galicia. The states of Liechtenstein,
+Bosnia, and Herzegovina are commercially under the control of Austria.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Lower Danube States.</b>&mdash;Roumania and Bulgaria, the plain of the lower
+Danube, are enclosed by the Carpathian and Balkan ranges. They
+constitute a great <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span>wheat-field whose chief commercial outlets are the
+Iron Gate into Germanic Europe, and the Sulina mouth of the Danube into
+the Black Sea. The growing of maize for home consumption and wheat for
+export form the only noteworthy industries. Most of the grain is shipped
+up the Danube and sold in Great Britain and Germany.</p>
+
+<p>From the Iron Gate to the Black Sea the Danube is held as an
+international highway, and the control of its navigation is directed by
+a commission of the various European powers, having its head-quarters at
+Galatz, Roumania.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image181.jpg" width="500" height="433" alt="TURKEY AND GREECE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">TURKEY AND GREECE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Balkan Mountains is the famous Vale of Roses which furnishes
+about half the world's supply of attar-of-roses. The petals of the
+damask rose are pressed between layers of cloth saturated with lard. The
+latter absorbs the essential oil, from which it is easily removed. About
+half a ton of roses are required to make a pound of the attar. Kazanlik,
+noted also for rugs, is the great market for attar. <i>Galatz</i> and
+<i>Rustchuk</i> are grain-markets and river-ports; from the latter a railway
+extends to <i>Varna</i>, the chief port of the Black Sea. From <i>Sofia</i>, near
+the Bulgarian frontier,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> a trunk line of railway extends through
+Budapest to western Europe.</p>
+
+<p><b>Turkey-in-Europe.</b>&mdash;The European part of the Ottoman Empire has long been
+politically known as the "Sick Man" of Europe, and so far as the
+industries and commerce of the state are concerned, there is no excuse
+for its separate existence as a state. Its political existence, however,
+is regarded as a necessity, in order to prevent the Russians from
+obtaining military and naval control of the Mediterranean and Black
+Seas, and thereby becoming a menace to all western Europe. Less than
+one-half the people are Turks; the greater part of the population
+consists of Armenians, Jews, Magyars, and Latins.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the country is rugged and unfit for grain-growing. The internal
+government is bad, the taxes are so ruinous that the agricultural
+resources are undeveloped, and every sort of farming is primitive. In
+many instances the taxes levied on the growing crops become practical
+confiscation when they are collected. Much of the cultivable land is
+idle because there are no means of getting the crops to market.</p>
+
+<p>Grapes and wine, silk, opium, mohair and wool, valonia (acorn cups used
+in tanning leather), figs, hides, cigarettes, and carpets are the
+leading exports, and these about half pay for the American cotton
+textiles, woollen goods, coal-oil, sugar, and other food-stuffs
+imported. Choice Mocha coffee is imported for home use, and poorer
+grades are exported. Most of the foreign commerce is in the hands of
+English and French merchants. Armenians, Jews, and Greeks are the native
+middlemen and traders.</p>
+
+<p>The native population is subject to the Sultan, whose rule is absolute;
+most foreign merchants and residents are permitted by treaties to remain
+subject to the regulations of the consuls.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p><p><i>Constantinople</i> is the capital. Its situation on the Bosphorus is such
+that under any other European government it would command a tremendous
+foreign commerce. It is naturally the focal point of the trade between
+Europe and Asia. A trunk line of railway connects the city with Paris.
+<i>Salonica</i> is the port of western Turkey, and is likewise connected by
+rail with western Europe. A great deal of the foreign commerce of the
+state is now landed at this port.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image182.jpg" width="400" height="301" alt="HARBOR OF CONSTANTINOPLE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">HARBOR OF CONSTANTINOPLE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chief possessions of the Ottoman Empire are Asia Minor, Armenia,
+Mesopotamia, Syria, and Arabia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Greece.</b>&mdash;Greece is a rugged peninsula, no part of which is more than
+forty miles from the sea. The country is without resources in the way of
+coal, timber, or available capital. Its former commercial position, in
+ancient times, was due largely to the silver-mines near Ergasteria, and
+subsequently to the gold-mines of eastern Macedonia; these, however, are
+no longer productive.</p>
+
+<p>There is but little land suitable for farming, and not far from one-half
+the bread-stuffs must be imported. Much of the timber has been
+destroyed, and this has resulted in a deterioration not only of the
+water-power, but of the cultivable lands as well. The railway lines are
+short and their business is local; there are practically no trunk line
+connections with the great centres of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The harbors and the natural position of the country are its best
+remaining resources. The Greeks are born sailors, and the country is in
+the pathway of European and Asian commerce. Most of the grain-trade
+between the Black and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> Mediterranean Seas is controlled by Greek
+merchants, and the Greeks are everywhere in evidence in the carrying
+trade of the Mediterranean. The construction of the Corinthian canal has
+also given Greek commerce a material impetus.</p>
+
+<p>The chief exports are Corinthian grapes&mdash;commonly known as
+"currants"&mdash;fruit, and iron ore from Ergasteria. Great Britain, France,
+and Belgium are the chief buyers of the fruit-crop. The exports scarcely
+pay for the American cotton, Russian wheat, and the timber products that
+are purchased abroad. There has been a material growth in the
+manufacture of cotton, woollens, and silk in the past few years, much of
+the work being done in households. <i>Athens</i> is the capital and largest
+city. <i>The Pir&aelig;us</i> and <i>Patras</i> are the chief ports.</p>
+
+<p><b>Servia</b> and <b>Montenegro</b> are stock-growing countries. The former has
+suffered greatly from misgovernment and the waste of its resources.
+Wine-cask stock and cattle are sold to Austria, which has five-sixths of
+its trade. <i>Belgrade</i> is its metropolis. Tobacco and live-stock are
+exported from Montenegro to Austria.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>On a good map of central Europe trace an all-water route from the mouth
+of the Danube to the ports of the lower Rhine and the North Sea; what
+connection have the cities of Ratisbon and Lemberg with this route?</p>
+
+<p>How do the forests of these states affect the wine industry of Germany?</p>
+
+<p>From the Statesman's Year-Book find the amount and movement of the
+exports and imports of these countries.</p>
+
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics find the volume of trade of these
+countries with the United States.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Great Canals of the World&mdash;p. 4089.</p>
+
+<p>A good map of central Europe.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/image183.jpg">
+<img src="images/image183_th.jpg" width="500" height="316" alt="RUSSIAN EMPIRE" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">RUSSIAN EMPIRE</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXIX</h2>
+
+<h3>EUROPE-ASIA&mdash;THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The great plain of Eurasia, which borders about half the circuit of the
+Arctic Ocean, is undivided by topographic barriers or boundaries. It is
+physically a unit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Russia.</b>&mdash;Russia comprises more than one-half the area of Europe; the
+Russian Empire embraces about one-half of Europe and Asia combined, and
+constitutes more than one-seventh of the land surface of the earth. East
+and west, from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok, the distance is about six
+thousand miles. It has a similar position with respect to southern
+Europe and China as has Canada to the United States.</p>
+
+<p>In latitude the country is unfortunately situated. North of the latitude
+of St. Petersburg the climate is too cold to grow bread-stuffs; a large
+part of the country is, therefore, unproductive. The central belt is
+forest-covered; the southern part, or "black earth" belt, comprises the
+greater part of the productive lands, and this region is the chief
+granary of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Russia is an agricultural country. Maize and rye grown for home
+consumption, and wheat for export, are the chief products. Flax is a
+leading export product, and the Russian crop constitutes about
+four-fifths of the world's supply. Lands too remote from markets for
+grain-growing produce cattle and sheep, which are grown mainly for their
+hides and tallow. The wool of the Don is a very coarse textile that is
+much used in the manufacture of American carpets;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> that of the arid
+plateaus of the southern country is a fine rug wool.</p>
+
+<p>Agriculture in Russia is on a much lower plane than in western Europe.
+Most of the land is owned in large estates. Individual farming is rare,
+land tillage being usually a community affair. A village community rents
+or purchases a tract of land, and the latter is allotted to the families
+composing it, a part of the land being reserved for pasturage. The
+business is transacted by "elders," or trustees, who exercise a general
+management and supervision over the "mir," or community.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of farming are not the best, and an acre of land produces
+scarcely one-third as much as the same area is made to yield in other
+states. The farming class, or peasantry, was in a condition of serfdom
+until within a few years. Poverty unfits them to compete with farmers of
+western Europe; moreover, the laws of land ownership and tenure also
+serve to discourage farming.</p>
+
+<p>The metal and mineral resources are very great. Iron ore is abundant,
+and the yearly output of both is greatly increasing. There are extensive
+deposits in southern Russia, in the Ural Mountains, and in Poland. Coal
+of good quality is plentiful, and coal mining is encouraged by a heavy
+tariff on the foreign coal that enters regions where the home product is
+available. The most productive coal-fields are those of the lower Don
+River and of Poland.</p>
+
+<p>Gold is obtained in various parts of Siberia and in the Ural Mountains,
+but scarcely enough is mined for the requirements of coinage. Copper is
+also mined in the Ural and Caucasus Mountains. More than nine-tenths of
+the world's supply of platinum is also obtained in the Ural Mountains.
+The petroleum fields of Transcaucasia have a yearly output a little
+greater than those of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p><p>The forest area is surpassed only by the timber belt of North America,
+both of which are in about the same latitudes. This area, within a very
+few years, is destined to be the chief lumber supply of all Europe.
+Moreover, the forests, the grain-growing lands, and the iron and coal
+constitute national resources which are surpassed in no other countries
+save the United States and China.</p>
+
+<p>The Russian Government has done much to encourage manufactures.
+Steel-making in the Ural district, in Poland, and in the iron regions of
+the Don has progressed to the extent that home-made railway material and
+rolling stock are now generally used. Farming machinery is made in the
+cities of the grain-growing region. The manufacture of cotton, woollen,
+and linen fabrics has developed to the extent that the state is becoming
+an exporter rather than an importer of such goods.</p>
+
+<p>Railway building has progressed under government aid, and about
+two-thirds of the 37,000 miles of track are owned by the state. The
+Transsiberian Railway connecting Vladivostok with the trunk lines of
+Europe was built by the state both for strategic and economic purposes.
+Large bodies of emigrants are carried into Siberia at nominal rates and
+are settled on lands that are practically free. The return cargoes
+consist of Chinese products&mdash;mainly silk textiles and tea&mdash;destined for
+western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>A network of railways covers the grain-growing districts; trunk lines,
+mainly for strategic purposes, extend through Russian Turkestan to the
+Chinese border. For many years Russia has endeavored to acquire the
+territory that would afford commercial outlets to the Indian Ocean and
+into China. In this the state has been thwarted by two great
+powers&mdash;Great Britain and Japan. The construction of canals and the
+improvements of river-navigation are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>under government management, and
+the internal water-ways aggregate about fifty thousand miles of
+navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign commerce is changing in character as manufactures develop.
+Wheat, flour, timber products, flax, and petroleum are the chief
+exports. Cotton, tea, wool, and coal are the leading imports, the
+first-named coming mainly from the United States. Germany, Great
+Britain, France, Holland, and the United States are the chief European
+countries utilizing Russian trade. The commerce between Russia and China
+is growing rapidly. The Transsiberian railway is its chief northern
+outlet, and a branch of this road, now under construction, extends
+through to the leading commercial centres of Manchuria, to Port Arthur.
+A considerable amount of manufactured goods is sent to Asia Minor and
+the Iran countries.</p>
+
+<p>The most available ports opening into the Atlantic are on the Baltic
+Sea, but these are blocked by ice in winter; the best ports are on the
+Black Sea, but the Russians do not control the navigable waters that
+connect them with the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the internal trade is carried on by means of annual fairs. The
+most important of these are held at <i>Nijni</i>, (lower) <i>Novgorod</i>,
+<i>Kharkof</i>, <i>Kief</i>, and other points. At the first-named fair goods to
+the amount of $80,000,000 have changed hands during a single season, and
+the annual fair is the recognized common ground on which the oriental
+traders meet the buyers of European and American firms.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the schemes of colonization of other European states, the various
+possessions of the Czar are practically in a single area, the
+dependencies being contiguous. The lines between them, with few
+exceptions, are political rather than natural boundaries.</p>
+
+<p><i>St. Petersburg</i>, the capital, is the centre of finance and trade.
+<i>Riga</i> is the port from which most of the lumber is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> exported; it
+receives the coal purchased from Great Britain for the factories of the
+Baltic coast. The harbor of Riga is not greatly obstructed by ice.
+<i>Archangel</i> has an export trade of lumber and flax during the few months
+when the White Sea is free from ice. <i>Odessa</i> and <i>Rostof</i> are the
+grain-markets of the empire. <i>Astrakhan</i> is the centre of trade for the
+Iran countries, and <i>Baku</i> is the petroleum-market. <i>Moscow</i> is the
+chief focal point of the railways; and in consequence has become a great
+centre of manufacture and trade. <i>Warsaw</i>, next to Moscow, is the most
+important city.</p>
+
+<p><b>Siberia.</b>&mdash;This great territory resembles Russia in surface and climatic
+features. Like the former "west" of the United States, Siberia is the
+open "east" into which much of the surplus population of Russia,
+Germany, and the Scandinavian countries is moving, attracted by fine
+farming lands. The European emigrant becomes a producer when settled in
+Siberia, and, at the same time, a consumer of Russian manufactures. In
+five years more than one million people thus became occupants of the new
+country in Siberia. Russian trade is encouraged by a heavy tariff on
+foreign goods brought into Siberia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tobolsk</i>, <i>Tomsk</i>, and <i>Semipalatinsk</i> are collecting stations for
+Siberian products, and each is built on navigable waters. <i>Irkutsk</i>
+receives the caravan trade that goes from Peking through <i>Urga</i> and
+<i>Kiakhta</i>, the frontier post of Chinese trade. <i>Vladivostok</i> is the
+great Pacific outlet and the terminus of the Transsiberian Railway. It
+is ice-bound in winter. <i>Harbin</i>, in Manchuria, China, is a Russian
+trading post of great commercial importance.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bokhara</b> and <b>Khiva</b> are Russian vassal states. The former was acquired
+chiefly as a trade-route. A railway from <i>Krasnovodsk</i> on the Caspian
+Sea extends through <i>Merv</i>, <i>Bokhara</i>, and <i>Samarkand</i> to <i>Kashgar</i>,
+where it meets<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> the caravan trade from central China. The building of
+this railway has caused a great development of cotton-growing in these
+countries, which furnish Europe and America with the choice Afghan,
+Khiva, and Bokhara rugs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Transcaucasia</b>, now joined to Russia, is a part of the plateau of Iran. A
+railway extends across the country from <i>Batum</i> to <i>Baku</i>, connecting
+the Black and Caspian Seas. Transcaucasia is the petroleum region of the
+East. It is also noted for the Shirvan, Kabistan, Daghestan, and Kazak
+rugs which are sold all over Europe and America. The so-called
+"Cashmere" rugs are not a product of Kashmir, but are made in the town
+of <i>Shemaka</i>. Kabistan rugs are made in <i>Kuba</i>. Kazak fabrics are
+usually the sleeping-blankets of the Kazak (Cossack) rough-riders.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>How will the development of the coal, iron, and lumber resources most
+likely affect the industrial future of Russia?</p>
+
+<p>Discuss the policy of Siberian immigration;&mdash;what are its advantages to
+German colonists?</p>
+
+<p>From the map accompanying this chapter show how the tributary streams of
+the great rivers have served to extend Russian commerce through Siberia.</p>
+
+<p>Note the situation of the cities and towns of Siberia with reference to
+the rivers.</p>
+
+<p>What effect has the high latitude of Russia on its agricultural
+industries?</p>
+
+<p>From the Statesman's Year-Book make a list of the leading exports and
+imports of Russia by articles, and also the volume of trade with other
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics find the statistics of trade between
+Russia and the United States.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Commercial life in Russia&mdash;preferably from the article, "Russia," in the
+Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica.</p>
+
+<p>For a rug of the Caucasus type, see illustration, <a href="#Page_351">p. 351</a>; compare the
+Kabistan with the Persian piece&mdash;which has the floral and which the
+geometric figures?</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE IRAN PLATEAU AND ARABIA</h3>
+
+
+<p>The countries of the Iran plateau extend from the Mediterranean Sea to
+the valley of the Indus River. The Arabian Peninsula is not a part of
+it, but its climate and general character are similar. The Iran
+countries are exceedingly rugged, and a great part of their surface is
+more than a mile above sea-level. The climate is one of great extremes;
+the summer hot-waves and the winter hurricanes are probably unknown
+elsewhere in severity. The greater part of Arabia is an unhabitable
+desert.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/image186.jpg">
+<img src="images/image186_th.jpg" width="500" height="298" alt="THE IRAN PLATEAU AND ARABIA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">THE IRAN PLATEAU AND ARABIA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The rigorous conditions of surface and climate have placed their stamp
+upon the population of the region.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> They are full of the intelligent
+cunning and ferocity that mark people living under such conditions of
+environment. In many parts the sterile soil and arid climate force the
+sparse population into nomadic habits of life and predatory pursuits.
+For the greater part, the land hardly yields enough food-stuffs for the
+population, and any great development of agriculture is out of the
+question. The flood-plain of the Tigris and Euphrates, and a few of the
+river-valleys are highly productive.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image187.jpg" width="500" height="602" alt="AN ANTIQUE TREE-OF-LIFE, KERMANSHAH (PERSIAN) RUG" title="" />
+<span class="caption">AN ANTIQUE TREE-OF-LIFE, KERMANSHAH (PERSIAN) RUG</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before the Christian era several trade-routes between Europe and the
+Orient lay across this region, and along<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> the caravan routes there were
+the usual industries pertaining to commercial peoples. The cities of
+Sinope, Trebizond, Astrabad, Phasis, Mashad, and Bactra (now Balkh) grew
+into existence along one of the northern routes. Tyre, Nineveh, Tarsus,
+Palmyra, Babylon, and Persepolis were founded along one or another of
+the southern routes. Of these, Trebizond only retains its importance,
+being a seaport with a considerable trade. The commerce that once passed
+over this route was crushed out of existence during the invasions by
+Jenghis Khan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image187a.jpg" width="600" height="369" alt="A KABISTAN RUG&mdash;CAUCASUS DISTRICT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A KABISTAN RUG&mdash;CAUCASUS DISTRICT</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the various industries of the Iran plateau, practically but one
+extends beyond its borders, namely, the manufacture of the textile
+fabrics known as Oriental rugs. These are unique; they are made of
+materials, colored with dyes, and are ornamented with designs that
+cannot be successfully imitated anywhere else in the world. The filling
+of the rugs consists of fine wool, selected not only from particular
+localities, but also from certain parts of the fleece. The dye-stuffs
+are common to other parts of the world, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> their names&mdash;indigo,
+saffron, coccus, madder, and orchil&mdash;are familiar. But both the wool and
+the dye-stuffs possess qualities imparted to them by soil and climate
+that are not found elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The absence of floors, and of the furniture found in European dwellings,
+make the rugs essential household articles rather than luxuries. The
+hearth-rug, the bath-mat, the divan-cover, the sleeping-blanket, and the
+saddle-mat must be regarded as necessities. Religion also has its
+requirements, and the prayer rug, sometimes ornamented with the hands of
+the Prophet, is a part of every household equipment, whether of the
+nomadic Arab or the wealthy merchant. Each district and people have
+their own designs and methods of workmanship, and the rugs of each are
+easily distinguished.<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>For the greater part these are gathered by caravans and conveyed to
+convenient shipping-points. Nearly all the cottage-made product is
+obtained in this manner. As a rule the rugs are named from the town or
+district in which they are made. Smyrna and Constantinople are the chief
+ports of shipment. Many of them find their way to European dealers, but
+New York is probably the largest rug-market in the world. The great
+majority are retailed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> at from ten to fifty dollars each; choice
+fabrics, however, bring from three hundred to ten thousand dollars.
+Oriental rugs are hand-woven, and a weaver frequently spends several
+years on a single piece, earning perhaps less than ten cents a day. The
+factory-made rugs are inferior to the cottage-manufactured product.</p>
+
+<p><b>Turkish Possessions.</b>&mdash;Anatolia is the common name of the Turkish
+possession formerly known as Asia Minor. The name properly belongs,
+however, to only a small part of the region. The Asiatic possessions of
+the Ottoman Empire comprise Asia Minor, Armenia, Kurdistan, Syria,
+Mesopotamia, and Arabia. The Armenians are the commercial people of the
+greater part of this region, and although thousands have been massacred
+because of Turkish hatred of them, they practically wield the chief
+power because of their business enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>During the Roman occupation many miles of roads were built from
+Constantinople and other coast-points to the interior. One of these
+extended to Mesopotamia, and became a much-travelled route of the trade
+which centred at Constantinople. Within recent years German capitalists
+have built railways along these roads, thereby creating a considerable
+export trade in fruit, rugs, and mohair cloth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Angora</i> and <i>Konieh</i> (<i>Iconium</i>) are important marts. <i>Trebizond</i> is
+the chief port of the Black Sea, but it lacks railway connections with
+the interior. <i>Smyrna</i> is the chief port of the Mediterranean, and from
+it are shipped to European and American markets the fruit and textile
+fabrics that have made its importance. In Syria, <i>Damascus</i>, one of the
+oldest cities in the world, is the centre of a considerable trade in
+textile manufactures. Rugs, dates, figs, and damask fabrics are exported
+to Europe through <i>Beirut</i>, its seaport, with which it is connected by
+rail. Much of the stuffs exported is gathered from Persia.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> <i>Yafa</i> is
+the port of Jerusalem. <i>Bagdad</i> is the chief trade-centre of
+Mesopotamia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Arabia.</b>&mdash;Arabia is nominally a Turkish possession, but the coast-regions
+only are under the control of the Sultan. The interior is peopled by
+nomadic tribes, who do not acknowledge the sovereignty of Turkey. The
+province of Yemen, on the Red Sea, is about the only noteworthy part of
+the peninsula. Hides and Mocha coffee, gathered by Arab traders, are
+shipped from the port of <i>Hodeida</i>. <i>Mecca</i> is the yearly meeting-place
+of thousands of Mohammedan pilgrims, who go thither as a religious duty;
+it is also the centre from which Asiatic cholera radiates. <i>Aden</i>, the
+chief coaling-station of the British Empire in the Indian Ocean, is also
+a free port, having a considerable trade in American cotton and
+coal-oil.</p>
+
+<p>Although Arabia itself is practically of no commercial importance, the
+same cannot be said of the Arabic people. They are keen, thrifty
+traders, and as brutal in their instincts as they are keen. The commerce
+which connects the western part of Asia with Europe is largely of their
+making. They collect and transport the goods from the interior,
+delivering them to Jewish and Armenian middlemen, who turn them over to
+European and American merchants. Arab traders also control the greater
+part of the commerce of northern Africa. The slave-trade, which is
+wholly in their hands, is very largely the key to the situation. A party
+of slave-dealers makes an attack upon a village and, after massacring
+all who are not able-bodied, load the rest with the goods to be
+transported to the coast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Persia.</b>&mdash;Persia is the modernized name of the province now called Fars,
+or Farsistan. Within its borders, however, the name Persia is almost
+unknown; the native people call the country Iran. In the times of
+Cyrus,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> Xerxes, and Darius, Persia was one of the great powers of the
+world. The cultivable lands produced an abundance of food-stuffs. The
+mines of copper, lead, silver, and iron were worked to their utmost
+extent, and the chief trade-routes between Europe and the Orient crossed
+the country to the Indus River.</p>
+
+<p>The conquest by Alexander the Great changed the course of trade and
+diverted it to other routes, thus depriving the country of much of its
+revenue; the invasions of the Arabs left the empire a hopeless wreck.
+Iran blood dominates the country at the present time, it is true, but
+the religion of Islam does not encourage any material development, and
+the industries are now purely local. There is no organization of trade,
+nor any system of transportation except by means of wretched wagon-roads
+with innumerable toll-gates. "Turkish" tobacco, opium, and small fruits
+are grown for export; silk and wool, however, are the most important
+crops. The former is manufactured into brocaded textiles; the latter
+into rugs and carpets. There are famous pearl-fisheries in the Persian
+Gulf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tabriz</i>, situated in the midst of an agricultural region, has important
+manufactures of shawls and silk fabrics of world renown. The Tabriz rugs
+are regarded as among the finest of the rug-maker's art. <i>Shiraz</i>, the
+former capital, <i>Kermanshah</i>,<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> and <i>Hamadan</i> are noted for rug and
+carpet manufactures. <i>Mashad</i> is the centre of the trade with Russia.
+<i>Bushire</i> and <i>Bender-Abbas</i> are seaports, but have no great importance.
+Most of the trade with Russia passes through the port of Trebizond.</p>
+
+<p><b>Afghanistan.</b>&mdash;The nomadic tribes that inhabit <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>Afghanistan have but
+little in common with the British civilization that is slowly but surely
+closing in upon them, and driving them from routes of commerce. A
+considerable local traffic is carried on between Bokhara and Herat, and
+between Bokhara and Kabul through Balkh, all being fairly prosperous
+centres of population in regions made productive by irrigation.</p>
+
+<p>By far the most important route lies between Kabul and Peshawur, at the
+head of the Indus River. A railway, the Sind-Pishin, extends along the
+valley of this river from Karachi, a port of British India, to Peshawur,
+also in British India near the Afghan border, and the route lies thence
+through Khaibar Pass to Jelalabad and Kabul. A branch of this road is
+completed through Bolan Pass nearly to Kandahar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kabul</i>, the capital, is a military stronghold rather than a business
+centre, although it is a collection depot for the Khiva-Bokhara rugs and
+carpets that are marketed at Peshawur. <i>Kandahar</i> has a growing trade
+resulting from the railway of the Indus Valley. <i>Herat</i> is the market of
+the famous Herati rugs. There is no organized commercial system; a small
+amount of British manufactures&mdash;mainly stuffs for domestic use&mdash;are
+imported; rugs and dried fruit are the only exports to Europe and
+America. The imports enter mainly by way of Karachi, India; the exports
+are carried to Europe, for the greater part, by the Russian railway.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of Afghanistan is due to its position as a buffer state
+between Russia and British India. The various strategic points for
+years, therefore, have been military strongholds. There is an old
+saying: "Whoso would be master of India must first make himself lord of
+Kabul." The meaning of this is seen in the history of Khaibar Pass,
+which for many years has been a scene of slaughter; indeed, it has been
+the chief gateway between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> occidental and oriental civilizations for
+more than twenty centuries. Since the acquisition of India by Great
+Britain Afghanistan has been under British protectoracy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Baluchistan.</b>&mdash;The general features of Baluchistan resemble those of the
+other parts of the Iran plateau. The coast has no harbors in the proper
+sense, but the anchorage off <i>Gwador</i> has fair protection from storms
+and heavy winds. The few valleys produce enough food-stuffs for the
+half-savage population. There is but little organization to the
+government save that which is military in character. The state is a
+protectorate of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Rug-making is the only industry that connects Baluchistan with the rest
+of the world. <i>Quetta</i>, the largest town, is a military station
+controlling Bolan Pass. Its outlet is the Kandahar branch of the
+Sind-Pishin Railway.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What climatic factors prevent these countries from being regions of
+great production?</p>
+
+<p>How do climate and soil affect the character of the wool clip?</p>
+
+<p>How do Arabian horses compare with American thorough-bred stock with
+respect to usefulness?&mdash;how do they compare with the mustang stock?</p>
+
+<p>Why is Khaibar Pass regarded as the key to India?</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>From a cyclop&aelig;dia (or from McCarthy's History of Our Own Times) read an
+account of the British disaster at Kabul.</p>
+
+<p>Study, if possible, one or more rugs of the following kinds, noting the
+colors, designs, and warp of each: Bokhara (antique and modern),
+Anatolian, Kermanshah, and Baluchistan.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXXI</h2>
+
+<h3>BRITISH INDIA AND THE EAST INDIES</h3>
+
+
+<p>These countries are in tropical latitudes and in the main are regions of
+great productivity. A few native states that have resisted annexation
+and conquest excepted, almost the entire area is divided among Great
+Britain, Holland, and France.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image191.jpg" width="600" height="481" alt="INDIA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">INDIA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>British India.</b>&mdash;The Empire of India comprises an area half as large as
+the United States, situated on the southern slope of Asia. It covers the
+same latitude as the span between the Venezuelan coast and the Ohio
+River; from the Indus to the Siam frontier the distance is about two
+thousand miles. It includes also settlements in the Malay peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting the plateau of the Dekkan, and the slopes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> the Himalayan
+ranges, most of the surface consists of plains and low, rolling land
+covered with a great depth of soil. Through these rich lands flow four
+large rivers&mdash;the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Irawadi, which afford
+a great deal of internal communication. The Himalaya Mountains on the
+north and the Hindu Kush on the northwest practically shut off
+communication from the northward, so that all communication in this
+direction is concentrated at Khaibar and Bolan Passes, the most
+important gateways by land approach.</p>
+
+<p>British India is one of the most populous regions of the world; the
+average population per square mile is about one hundred and eighty, a
+density considerably greater than that of New York State. The entire
+population is about three times that of the United States. Nearly all
+the food-stuffs grown are required for home consumption; indeed, dry
+years are apt to be followed by a shortage of food-stuffs. Years ago
+famines followed any considerable deficiency of crops, but since the
+completion of the admirable railway systems the necessary food-stuffs
+are quickly shipped to the district where the shortage occurs.</p>
+
+<p>The Hindus constitute about three-fourths of the population. Along the
+northern border there are many peoples of Afghan and Turkic descent; in
+Burma there is a considerable admixture of Mongol blood. An elaborate
+system of social castes imposed by the teachings of Brahmanism has made
+the introduction of western methods of education and civilization
+somewhat difficult to carry out. The educational system of the
+dominating Brahmanic caste, although of a very high order, does not fit
+the people to cope with the commercialism of western civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Five-sevenths of the population are engaged in agricultural labor. Rice,
+wheat, millet, meat, and sugar are the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> chief food-crops. Of these, rice
+and wheat<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> only are exported; the others are required for home
+consumption.</p>
+
+<p>The articles grown for export are jute, cotton, opium, oil-yielding
+seeds, tea, and opium. No meat is exported, but hides form a large item
+of foreign trade.</p>
+
+<p>The jute is used in the manufacture of rugs and grain-sacks. It is
+cultivated mainly in the delta-lands of the Ganges-Brahmaputra. A
+considerable part of the product is now manufactured in India and in
+China; some is also shipped to California, to be made into wheat-sacks;
+perhaps the larger part is sent to Dundee, Scotland, where it is woven
+into textile fabrics. The choicest product is used to mix with silk
+fibre, or is employed in the manufacture of rugs and coverings.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton cultivation is rapidly taking first rank among the industries of
+India, for which the conditions of soil, climate, and market are
+admirably adapted. India stands second in cotton-growing, and the area
+of production is gradually increasing. Most of the crop is exported to
+Europe for manufacture, although there is an increasing amount sold to
+Japan. Great Britain is the largest purchaser, and the cotton goods
+manufactured at Manchester are reshipped in large quantities to India.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the low wages paid for labor both in the fields and the mills,
+cotton manufacture is a rapidly growing industry in India. In many cases
+the yarn is manufactured in India and then sent to China to be made into
+coarse cloth. Some of the mills are equipped with machinery made in the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>Tea has become one of the most important crops of India. It is grown
+mainly in Ceylon and Assam, and is said to have grown wild in the latter
+state. The quality<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> of Indian tea is regarded as superior to the Chinese
+product, and Indian teas have therefore very largely supplanted those of
+China, in British consumption.</p>
+
+<p>Silk cultivation and manufacture have been growing rapidly in the past
+few years; a considerable part of the product is "tussar," or wild silk.
+The silk rugs of India are not equalled anywhere else in the world. Wool
+is a product of the mountain-regions, but is almost wholly used in the
+manufacture of rugs and coverings.</p>
+
+<p>The British occupation of India is commercial rather than political.
+India furnishes a most valuable market for British manufactures; it
+supplies the British people with a large amount of raw material for
+manufacture. The general government is administrative only so far as the
+construction of railways, irrigating canals, and harbors, and the
+organization of financial affairs are concerned.</p>
+
+<p>There are about two hundred and fifty native states included within the
+territory of British India. In addition to the native ruler, a British
+governor or magistrate carries out the administrative features of the
+British Government. For administrative purposes most of the native
+states are grouped into eight provinces, or "presidencies."</p>
+
+<p><b>Bengal.</b>&mdash;The states of Bengal, mainly in the valley of the Ganges River,
+produce most of the rice and wheat. <i>Calcutta</i>, the capital of the
+empire, is a comparatively young city. The Hugli at this point is
+navigable both for ocean and river craft. The situation of the city is
+much like that of New York, and it is therefore finely adapted for
+commerce. Railways extending from the various food-producing districts
+and from other centres of commerce converge at Calcutta. The city is not
+only the centre of administration, but the chief focus of commerce and
+finance as well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bombay.</b>&mdash;Bombay includes a number of states <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span>bordering on the Arabian
+Sea. The city of <i>Bombay</i> is built on an island of the same name. Its
+situation on the west coast makes it the most convenient port for the
+European trade that passes through the Suez Canal. The opening of the
+route gave Bombay a tremendous growth, and it is destined to become a
+great commercial factor in Indian Ocean trade. It is also a great
+manufacturing centre for cotton textiles. <i>Ahmedabad</i>, an important
+military station, is also an important centre of cotton manufacture and
+wheat-trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sind.</b>&mdash;The native state Sind includes the greater part of the basin of
+the Indus. Its importance is military and strategic rather than
+commercial. The ability of Great Britain to hold India depends very
+largely on British control of the Indus Valley and the passes leading
+from it. The Sind-Pishin Railway traverses the Indus Valley from Karachi
+to Peshawur. <i>Haidarabad</i>, one of the largest cities of India, is the
+centre of an agricultural district. <i>Karachi</i>, the port near the mouth
+of the Indus, next to Khaibar Pass, is the most important strategic
+point of India, and one that the Russians for more than a century have
+been trying to possess.</p>
+
+<p><b>Punjab.</b>&mdash;The states of the Punjab are mainly at the upper part of the
+Indus. <i>Amritsar</i> is an important centre for the manufacture of silk
+rugs and carpets. A large number of these are sold in the United States
+at prices varying from two hundred to six thousand dollars. The designs
+for these textiles are often made in New York. <i>Peshawur</i> is important
+chiefly as a military station.</p>
+
+<p><b>Burma.</b>&mdash;British Burma includes the basin of the Irawadi River. The
+uplands are wheat-fields; the lowlands produce rice. <i>Mandalay</i> is a
+river-port and commercial centre. <i>Rangoon</i> is the seaport, with a
+considerable ship-building industry that results from the teak forests.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>
+Although the Irawadi is navigable for light craft, railways along the
+valley have become a necessity; these centre at Rangoon.</p>
+
+<p>The province of Madras is one of the most densely peopled parts of
+India. The chief commercial products are cotton and teak-wood. <i>Madras</i>,
+its commercial centre, has a very heavy foreign trade in hides, spices,
+and cotton. The cotton manufactures are extensive. A yarn-dyed cotton
+cloth, now imitated both in Europe and the United States, has made the
+name famous.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kashmir.</b>&mdash;The native state Kashmir, situated high on the slopes of the
+Karakorum Mountains, is known chiefly for the "Cashmere" shawls made
+there. The shawls are hand-woven and represent the highest style of the
+weaver's art. The best require many years each in the making; they
+command prices varying from five hundred to five thousand dollars. This
+industry centres at <i>Srinagar</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other British States.</b>&mdash;The Straits Settlements are so called because
+they face the Straits of Malacca. They include several colonies, chief
+of which are Singapore, Penang, and Malacca. The Straits ports are free
+from export and import duties, a regulation designed to encourage the
+concentration of Malaysian products there&mdash;in other words, to encourage
+a transit trade.</p>
+
+<p>The policy has proved a wise one, and the trade at the three
+ports&mdash;<i>Singapore</i>, <i>Penang</i>, and <i>Malacca</i>&mdash;aggregates about six
+hundred million dollars yearly. About two-thirds of this sum represents
+the business of Singapore. Tin constitutes about half the exports, a
+large share going to the United States. Spices, rubber, gutta-percha,
+tapioca, and rattan constitute the remaining trade. Rice, cotton cloth,
+and opium are the imports.</p>
+
+<p>The Federated Malay States, situated in the Malay peninsula, and the
+northern part of Borneo are also British<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> possessions. Their trade and
+products are similar to the rest of the Malaysian possessions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dutch East India.</b>&mdash;The Dutch possessions include nearly all the islands
+of the Malay Archipelago and the western part of New Guinea. Of these,
+Java and Sumatra are the most important. They are divided into
+"residencies," and the administering officers exercise control over the
+various plantations. In addition, there are numerous private
+plantations. The colonial administration is admirable.</p>
+
+<p>Cane-sugar, coffee, rice, indigo, pepper, tobacco, and tea are the chief
+products. The sugar industry has been somewhat crippled by the
+beet-sugar product of Europe. Java and Sumatra coffees are in demand all
+over Europe and the United States. Sumatra wrappers for cigars find also
+a ready market wherever cigars are manufactured. The cultivation of
+cinchona, or Peruvian bark, has proved successful, and this substance is
+becoming an important export. The islands of Banka and Billiton (with
+Riouw) yield a very large part of the world's supply of tin, much of
+which goes finally to the United States. The mother-country profits by
+the trade of these islands in two ways: the Dutch merchants are
+practically middlemen who create and manage the commerce; the Dutch
+Government receives an import tax of six per cent., and a small export
+tax on nearly all articles except sugar. <i>Batavia</i> is the focal point of
+the commerce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Siam.</b>&mdash;This kingdom is chiefly important as a buffer state between
+French and British India, and little by little has been pared by these
+nations until practically nothing but the basin of the Menam River
+remains. The administration of the state is progressive, and much of the
+resources have been developed in the last few years.</p>
+
+<p>Rice and teak are the leading products. The rice is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> cultivated by
+native laborers&mdash;much of it by enforced labor&mdash;and is sold to Hongkong,
+British India, and the more northerly states. It is collected by Chinese
+middlemen, and by them sold to British and German exporters. The
+teak-wood business is managed by British firms. The logs are cut by
+natives, hauled to the Menam River, and floated to Bangkok; there they
+are squared and sent to European markets. Pepper and preserved fish are
+also exported. The Menam River is the chief trade-route, and <i>Bangkok</i>,
+at its mouth, is the focal point of trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>French India.</b>&mdash;The French control the region south of China, called
+French Indo-China, together with various areas in the peninsula of
+Hindustan; of these Pondicheri and Karical are the most important.
+Indo-China includes the basin of Mekong River, and rice is the staple
+product. The most productive rice-fields are the delta-lands of the
+Mekong, formerly known as Cochin-China.</p>
+
+<p>From these lands more than half a million tons of rice are exported, the
+product being sold mainly at Hongkong and Singapore. Pepper is also an
+export of considerable value. France, China, and the Philippine Islands
+are the final destination of the rice export. The imports are mainly
+textiles, machinery, and coal-oil from the United States. The machinery
+pertains chiefly to the manufactures of cotton and silk textiles. On
+account of cheaply mined coal, there is a considerable growth of this
+industry. <i>Saigon</i> is the business centre and port at which the Chinese
+middlemen meet the European merchants and forwarders.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>What have been the chief effects of the British occupation of these
+countries, so far as the natives are concerned?</p>
+
+<p>What is the position of Khaibar Pass with respect to the commerce of
+India?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p><p>How has the building of the Sind-Pishin Railway strengthened British
+occupation of India?</p>
+
+<p>Singapore and Batavia are the two great focal points of trade in the
+East India Islands. At the former all trade is absolutely free; at the
+latter there is both an import and an export tax. What are the
+advantages of each policy?</p>
+
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics find the trade of the United States with
+these countries.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>From a cyclop&aelig;dia, preferably the Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, read the
+following topics:<br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caste</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lord Clive</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rattan</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pepper</span><br />
+</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXXII</h2>
+
+<h3>CHINA AND JAPAN</h3>
+
+
+<p>The relative position of China, Russia, and Japan is not unlike that of
+continental Europe and Great Britain, and the struggle for supremacy in
+the Japan and Yellow Seas is about the same as that which in times past
+took place in the North Sea. In the latter case France and Holland were
+the disturbing powers; in the former, it is Russia.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Chinese Empire.</b>&mdash;A comparison of the Chinese Empire with the United
+States shows that the two countries have about the same position and
+extent of latitude. There is also about the same proportion of
+highlands, arid lands, and fertile lowlands. The similarity of the two
+countries in geographic conditions is very marked.</p>
+
+<p>The fertile lowland in the east and southeast is one of the most
+productive regions in the world, and forms the chief resource of the
+country; on account of its productivity it is densely peopled. The arid
+and mountain lands are peopled mainly by cattle-herders and nomadic
+tribes.</p>
+
+<p>China is essentially an agricultural country, and the farms are held in
+much the same way as in the United States, but the holdings are so small
+that agricultural machinery is not required for their cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat, millet, and pease are grown throughout the lowlands wherever they
+can be cultivated. The cultivation of rice is confined mainly to the
+coast lowlands. The amount of food-stuffs produced, however, is scarcely
+sufficient for home consumption; indeed, a considerable amount is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span>imported, and the imports year by year are increasing. This is due not
+so much to the density of population as to want of means of
+transportation of the soil products from inland regions. It is often
+much cheaper to import food-stuffs from abroad than to transport them,
+even from an adjoining province.</p>
+
+<p>Tea is extensively cultivated, and China exports nearly one-half of the
+world's product; the total amount produced is considerably more than
+half. Most of this goes to Great Britain and Canada. Raw silk is an
+important product, and the mulberry-tree is extensively grown. Cotton is
+one of the most general crops in the southern part of the empire,
+especially along the lower Yangtze. It is a garden-crop, however, and
+nearly all of it is consumed.</p>
+
+<p>The mineral wealth is very great, and with proper management will make
+China one of the most productive and powerful countries in the world.
+Coal is found in every one of the provinces, and the city of Peking is
+supplied with an excellent quality of anthracite from the Fang-shan
+mines, only a few miles distant. It is thought that the coal-fields are
+the most extensive in the world. Iron ore of excellent quality is
+abundant, and in several localities, notably in the province of Shansi,
+the two are near each other.</p>
+
+<p>Foreign capitalists are seeking to develop these resources in several
+localities. The Germans have obtained mining concessions in Shantung
+peninsula, and these involve the iron ore and coal occurring there. The
+Peking syndicate, a London company, has also obtained a coal-mining
+concession in Shansi.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/image197.jpg">
+<img src="images/image197_th.jpg" width="500" height="776" alt="EASTERN CHINA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">EASTERN CHINA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span></p><p>For the greater part the manufactures are home industries.<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> Until
+recently most of the cotton cloth was made by means of cottage looms,
+and the beautiful silk brocades which are not surpassed anywhere else in
+the world are still made in this manner. Porcelain-making is one of the
+oldest industries, and to this day the wares sold in Europe and America
+are known as "china." Straw carpet, or matting, and fans for export are
+also important exports.</p>
+
+<p>The mill system of manufacture is rapidly gaining ground, however, and
+foreign companies find it economical to carry the yarn made in India
+from American cotton into China to be made into cloth. In the vicinity
+of Shanghai alone there are nearly three hundred thousand spindles. This
+phase of the industry is due largely to the factor of cheap labor; the
+Chinese skilled laborer is intelligent; he does not object to a
+sixteen-hour working-day at wages varying from five to twenty cents.</p>
+
+<p>There is no great localization of industrial centres, as in the United
+States and Europe. Each centre of population is practically
+self-supporting and independent from an economic stand-point. The
+introduction of western methods, however, is gradually changing this
+feature.</p>
+
+<p>All industries of a general character are hampered for want of good
+means of transportation. The empire is traversed by a network of unpaved
+roads; but although these are always in a wretched condition, an
+enormous traffic is carried over them by means of wheel-barrows,
+pack-animals, and by equally primitive methods.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous rivers form an important means of communication. The
+Yangtze is now available to commerce a distance of 2,000 miles, and the
+opening of the Si Kiang (West River) adds a large area that is
+commercially tributary to Canton and Hongkong. The most important
+water-way is the Grand Canal, extending from Hang Chow to Tientsin. This
+canal is by no means a good one as compared with American and European
+standards. It was built not so much for the necessities of traffic, as
+to avoid the numerous pirate vessels that infest the coasts. Junks,
+row-boats, house-boats, and foreign steam craft are all employed for
+traffic. The internal water-ways aggregate about fifteen thousand miles
+in length.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image198a.jpg" width="500" height="351" alt="A TEA-PLANTATION&mdash;PICKING THE LEAVES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A TEA-PLANTATION&mdash;PICKING THE LEAVES</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image198b.jpg" width="400" height="724" alt="PREPARING THE LEAVES FOR ROASTING" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PREPARING THE LEAVES FOR ROASTING</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image198c.jpg" width="400" height="566" alt="TEA-BALES FOR EXPORT THROUGH RUSSIA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">TEA-BALES FOR EXPORT THROUGH RUSSIA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span></p><p>Of railways there were less than three hundred and fifty miles at the
+close of the century, the most important being the line from Tientsin to
+Peking. About five thousand miles are projected and under construction
+by American and European companies. A branch of the Transsiberian
+railway is under construction to Port Arthur. Telegraph and telephone
+lines have become popular and have been extended to the interior a
+considerable distance. There are upward of twenty thousand miles of wire
+communication, the most important, in many respects, being a direct
+overland line between Peking and European cities. Inasmuch as there are
+no letters in the Chinese language, the difficulties in using the Morse
+code of telegraphy are very great. In some cases the messages are
+translated into a foreign language before they are transmitted; in
+others, a thousand or more words in colloquial and commercial use are
+numbered, and the number is telegraphed instead of the word.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the business between the natives and foreigners is carried on by
+means of middlemen, or "compradors," and these include both the
+commission merchants and the native bankers. They are intelligent,
+thrifty, and trustworthy. They are the most capable merchants in Asia,
+and have few if any superiors among the merchants of western nations. A
+very large part of the retail trade of the Philippine Islands is carried
+on by Chinese merchants.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese Empire consists of China and the five dependencies, as shown
+in the following table:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="CHINA POPULATION">
+<tr class="tr1"><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">State</span></td><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Population</span></td><td class="td2"><span class="smcap">Capital or<br /> Chief Town</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">China proper</td><td class="td5">380,000,000</td><td class="td4">Peking</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Manchuria</td><td class="td5">7,500,000</td><td class="td4">Kirin</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Tibet</td><td class="td5">6,000,000</td><td class="td4">Lassa</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Mongolia</td><td class="td5">2,000,000</td><td class="td4">Urga</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Jungaria</td><td class="td5">600,000</td><td class="td4">Kur-kara-usu</td></tr>
+<tr class="tr2"><td class="td3">Eastern Turkestan</td><td class="td5">600,000</td><td class="td4">Yarkand</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The five dependencies are mainly arid, unproductive, and sparsely
+peopled. Their chief importance consists in the fact that they are
+"buffer states" between China proper and European states. They produce
+little except meat, wool, and live-stock.</p>
+
+<p>China proper is divided into provinces, each governed by a viceroy
+appointed by the throne. All business with foreign powers is transacted
+through a Foreign Office, the Wai-wu-pu (formerly the Tsung-li-Yamen).
+The government business is managed by a Grand Council whose members are
+advisers to the throne. The government is controlled mainly by Manchu
+officials.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image199.jpg" width="400" height="342" alt="HONGKONG" title="" />
+<span class="caption">HONGKONG</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Until within a few years China nominally allowed no foreign traders
+within her borders; recently, however, about forty cities, commonly
+known as "treaty ports," have been opened to the trade of foreign
+countries. Goods going inland any distance are required to pay a "liken"
+or internal tariff at the border of each province.</p>
+
+<p>Several concessions of territory within recent years have been forced
+from China by foreign powers: thus, Great Britain has Hongkong Island
+(with the peninsula of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>Kaulung) and Weihaiwei; Germany has Kiaochou on
+the bay of the same name; France has Kwang chau wan harbor. These
+concessions carry with them the control of the port and surrounding
+territory. The German concession includes the right to mine coal and
+iron, and to build railways within a territory of much larger extent. At
+the close of the war between Russia and Japan, the latter acquired Port
+Arthur, the gateway to Manchuria.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the political significance of the opening of the treaty
+ports and the granting of the various concessions, the effect has been
+to increase the trade of the United States with China about twenty-fold.
+The imports from the United States consist mainly of cotton and cotton
+cloth, coal-oil, and flour. The chief exports to all countries are tea,
+silk goods, and porcelain ware. Most of those sent to the United States
+are landed at Seattle or San Francisco. Great Britain, through the port
+of Hongkong, has a larger trade than any other nation. Japan and the
+United States have most of the remaining trade.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peking</i>, the capital, is politically, but not commercially, important.
+The part occupied by the foreign legations is modern and well kept.
+<i>Tientsin</i>, the port of Peking, is a larger city, with much more
+business. <i>Canton</i>, the largest city of the empire, and <i>Hongkong</i>, are
+the commercial centres of nearly all the British trade. Most of the
+American and Japanese trade centres at <i>Shanghai</i>. <i>Niuchwang</i>, on the
+Manchurian frontier, is important mainly as a strategic point. <i>Macao</i>,
+a Portuguese possession, is the open door of Portugal into China.</p>
+
+<p>The inland divisions of the Chinese Empire have but little commercial
+importance. Musk, wool, and skins are obtained from Tibet, into whose
+capital, <i>Lassa</i>, scarcely half-a-dozen Europeans have penetrated. The
+closed condition is due to the opposition of the Lamas, an order<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> of
+Buddhist priests. Mongolia is a grazing region that supplies the Chinese
+border country with goats, sheep, and horses. It also supplies the
+camels required for the caravan tea-trade to the Russian frontiers.
+Eastern Turkestan is mainly a desert. <i>Kashgar</i>, the metropolis of the
+fertile portion, is the exchange market for Chinese and Russian
+products. Most of the mineral known as jade is obtained there. Manchuria
+is a grazing and wheat-growing country, exporting food stuffs and
+ginseng into China. <i>Harbin</i>, a Russian trading post, is connected with
+Peking and with European cities by railway.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/image200.jpg">
+<img src="images/image200_th.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="JAPAN AND KOREA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">JAPAN AND KOREA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Korea</b>, formerly a vassal of China, became an independent state after the
+war between China and Japan, this step being forced by Russia. The
+country is a natural market for Japanese manufactures, and in turn
+supplies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> Japan with a considerable amount of food-stuffs. <i>Chemulpo</i> is
+the chief centre of its commerce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Japan.</b>&mdash;Japan is an insular empire, the commercial part of which has
+about the same latitude as the Atlantic coast of the United States; the
+empire extends from Formosa to Kamchatka. It is sometimes called the
+"Great Britain of the East," and the people are also called the "Yankees
+of the East." Structurally, the chain of islands consists of ranges of
+volcanic mountains. The abundant rains, however, have made many fertile
+river-valleys, and have fringed most of the islands with coast-plains.</p>
+
+<p>Since the opening of Japan to foreigners the Japanese have so thoroughly
+adapted themselves to western commercial methods that they have become
+the dominating power in eastern Asia. Their influence has been greatly
+strengthened by a treaty for defensive purposes with Great Britain. A
+most excellent army and a modern navy make the alliance a strong one.
+The Japanese are better adapted to mould the commercial policy of China
+than any other people.</p>
+
+<p>With a population of more than half that of the United States, occupying
+an area not larger than the State of California, every square foot of
+available land must be cultivated. Yet the Japanese not only grow most
+of the food-stuffs they consume, but are able to export rice. There is
+scant facility for growing beef cattle, but fish very largely takes the
+place of beef. The cattle grown are used as draught-animals in farm
+labor. Ordinary dairy products are but little used.</p>
+
+<p>Rice, tea, and silk are the staple crops. Rice is grown on the coast
+lowlands, the west or rainy side<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> producing the larger crop. The
+Japanese crop is so superior that the larger part is exported, while an
+inferior Chinese grain is imported for home consumption. The quality of
+the Japanese rice is due to skilful cultivation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image201a.jpg" width="500" height="283" alt="NATIVE PLOUGHING RICE-FIELDS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">NATIVE PLOUGHING RICE-FIELDS</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image201b.jpg" width="400" height="229" alt="IRRIGATING A RICE-FIELD" title="" />
+<span class="caption">IRRIGATING A RICE-FIELD</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image201c.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="RICE-FIELDS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">RICE-FIELDS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span></p><p>Tea has become the staple crop, and is cultivated from Formosa to the
+forty-fifth parallel. Tea-farms occupy nearly every acre of the
+cultivable hill-side areas in some of the islands, and the soil is
+enriched with a fertilizer made from fish and fish refuse, dried and
+broken. Most of the tea product is made into green tea, and on account
+of its quality it commands a high price. Formosa tea is considered the
+best in the market.</p>
+
+<p>Silk culture is confined almost wholly to the island of Hondo. The raw
+silk is of superior quality, and the exported material is used mainly in
+the manufacture of ribbons and brocades. A limited amount of cotton is
+grown, but the staple is short, and its cultivation is not profitable
+except in a few localities.</p>
+
+<p>Among the forestry there is comparatively little timber suitable for
+building purposes, and a considerable amount of timber is purchased from
+the mills of Puget Sound. Bamboo is largely employed for buildings.
+Camphor is the product of a tree (<i>Camphora officinarum</i>) allied to the
+cinnamon and the sassafras. It is cultivated in the island of Kiushiu.
+The best gum, however, is now obtained from Formosa, and this island now
+controls the world's supply. The camphor product is a government
+monopoly leased to a British company.</p>
+
+<p>The lacquer-tree (<i>Rhus vernicifera</i>) grows mainly in the island of
+Hondo. The sap, after preparation, forms the most durable varnish known.
+Black lacquer is obtained by treating the sap with nutgalls. Lacquered
+wooden-ware is sold all over Europe and the United States. The lacquered
+surface is exceedingly hard and water-proof; it is not affected by
+climate.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></p><p>Gold, porcelain clay, silver, copper, and petroleum are mined. The gold
+and silver are used both for coinage and in the arts; the clay has made
+Japanese porcelains famous. The copper comes from the most productive
+mines of Asia; a considerable amount is exported, but much is used in
+the manufacture of Japanese bronze goods. Coal is mined, and this has
+given a great impetus to manufacture; iron ore is deficient, and steel
+must be imported. The quantity of petroleum is increasing yearly, and is
+becoming an important factor in the world's product.</p>
+
+<p>Manufacturing industries are giving shape to the industrial future of
+the country. The cotton-mills alone employ seventy thousand people and
+keep more than one million spindles busy. More than one million
+operatives are engaged in textile manufactures. Much of the cloth, both
+cotton and silk, is still woven on cottage looms. The cotton cloth is
+sold mainly in China and Korea; the surplus silk textiles find a ready
+market in the United States. The best straw matting used as a
+floor-covering is now made in Japan and constitutes a very important
+export.</p>
+
+<p>Three thousand miles of railway aid the internal industries of the
+country; several steamship lines to Hongkong and Shanghai, and one or
+more each to Vladivostok, Bombay, San Francisco, Seattle, Honolulu,
+Australia, and Vancouver (B.C.) carry the tea, raw silk, and
+manufactured products to Europe and America. Much, if not most, of the
+steamship interests are owned by the Japanese, and the lines are
+encouraged by government subsidies. France and the United States buy
+most of the raw silk. The latter country purchases most of the tea,
+sending coal-oil, cotton, leather, and lumber in return. Great Britain
+and Germany sell to the Japanese a large part of the textiles and the
+machinery they use. The exports to the United<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> States are consigned
+mainly to San Francisco, New York and Seattle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tokio</i> is the capital; <i>Yokohama</i> is the chief port for American
+traffic, and the market for most of the foreign trade. Most of the trade
+between China and Japan centres at <i>Nagasaki</i>, which is the Japanese
+naval station. <i>Osaka</i> and <i>Kioto</i> are the chief centres of cotton and
+textile manufactures.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>How has the policy of seclusion affected the commercial development of
+China?</p>
+
+<p>What has been its effect on the social life of the people?</p>
+
+<p>How did the cultivation of opium in India become a factor in the opening
+of China to foreign trade?</p>
+
+<p>What is meant by "treaty ports"? Make a list of those shown on the map
+of eastern China.</p>
+
+<p>Name two Chinese statesmen who have been factors in the relations
+between China and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the position of Japan with that of the British Isles with
+reference to commerce.</p>
+
+<p>What advantages has Japan with reference to latitude?&mdash;what
+disadvantages with reference to cultivable lands?</p>
+
+<p>From the Statesman's Year-Book find the leading exports and imports and
+the volume of trade of these states.</p>
+
+<p>From the Abstract of Statistics find the leading articles of trade
+between these states and the United States.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>From a cyclop&aelig;dia read the following topics: The opium war, Commodore
+Perry's expedition.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXXIII</h2>
+
+<h3>AFRICA</h3>
+
+
+<p>Africa is in a state of commercial transition. During the last quarter
+of the nineteenth century the partition of its area among European
+nations left but few of the names that formerly were familiar. At the
+beginning of the twentieth century the British, French, and Germans
+controlled the greater part of the continent, although the Portuguese,
+Belgians, Italians, and Spanish have various possessions.</p>
+
+<p>The partition of Africa was designed for the expansion of European
+markets. The population of Africa is about one hundred and seventy
+million, and the continent is practically without manufacturing
+enterprises. The people, therefore, must be supplied with clothing and
+other commodities. In 1900 the total trade of Africa with the rest of
+the world was about one and one-third billion dollars, of which the
+United States had a little more than two per cent., mainly cotton cloth
+and coal-oil.</p>
+
+<p><b>Egypt.</b>&mdash;The Egypt of the maps is a region of indefinite extent so far as
+its western and southern boundaries are concerned; the Egypt of history
+is the flood plain of the Nile. From the Mediterranean Sea to Cairo the
+cultivable area is not far from one hundred miles in width; from Cairo
+to Khartum it varies from three to seven or eight miles wide.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image204.jpg">
+<img src="images/image204_th.jpg" width="600" height="587" alt="AFRICA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">AFRICA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span></p><p>The food-producing power of Egypt depends on the Nile. In lower Egypt a
+considerable area is made productive at the ordinary stage of water by
+means of irrigating canals, but in upper Egypt the crops must depend
+upon the annual flood of the river, which occurs from June until
+September. During this period the river varies from twenty-five to forty
+feet above the low-water mark. In the irrigated regions three crops a
+year may be produced; in the flooded lands only one is grown.</p>
+
+<p>In order to add to the cultivable area two great engineering works have
+been constructed. A barrage and lock control the flow of water at
+Assiut; a huge dam at Assuan impounds the surplus of the flood season.
+These structures, it is thought, will increase the productive power of
+the country about one-fourth. Rice, maize (an Egyptian variety), sugar,
+wheat, and beans are the staple crops.</p>
+
+<p>Rice is the food of the native people, but the crop is insufficient, and
+the deficit must be imported. The wheat, maize, and beans are grown for
+export to Europe, the last named being extensively used for
+horse-fodder. The sugar-growing industry is protected by the heavy yield
+and the cheap fellahin labor. The raw sugar is sent to the refineries
+along the Mediterranean. Onions are exported to the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton-crop is an important factor, and in spite of its own crop the
+United States is a heavy purchaser of the long-staple Egyptian cotton,
+which is used in the manufacture of thread and hosiery. The cultivation
+of tobacco is forbidden by law, but Egyptian cigarettes are an item of
+considerable importance. They are made of imported Turkish tobacco by
+foreign workmen. There is a heavy export duty on native tobacco
+exported, and the ban on the inferior native-grown article is intended
+to prevent its admixture with the high-grade product from Turkey, and
+thereby to keep up the standard of the cigarettes.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt is nominally a vassal of Turkey, paying to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> Sultan a yearly
+tribute of $3,600,000. Great Britain's is the real controlling hand,
+because the Suez Canal is Great Britain's gateway to India. By a
+purchase of the stock held by a former Khedive, Great Britain secured
+financial control of the canal, a necessary step from the fact that more
+than half the trade carried through the canal is British commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The country is deficient in the resources that make most nations
+powerful. There is neither coal, iron, nor timber available, and these
+must be imported. Great Britain supplies the first, and Norway the last.
+Some traffic is carried on the Nile, but railways have been built
+through the crop-lands. One of these threads the Nile Valley and will
+become a part of the "Cape to Cairo" route.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alexandria</i> is the port at which most of the Egyptian commerce lands.
+<i>Cairo</i>, the largest city of Africa, derives its importance from its
+position at the head of the Nile delta. It is a favorite winter-resort.
+<i>Port Sa&iuml;d</i> and <i>Suez</i> are the terminal ports of the Suez Canal; their
+commerce is mainly the transit trade of the canal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Independent States.</b>&mdash;Most of the independent states of Africa are
+in a condition of barbarism and have but little importance to the rest
+of the world. Abyssinia has the natural advantages of gold, iron,
+pasture-lands, and forestry, and the possibilities of cotton
+cultivation. Valuable mining concessions have been granted to foreign
+companies. Ivory, coffee, and gold are shipped to India in exchange for
+textiles. A railway from the coast is under construction, but all the
+traffic is carried by mule-trains, mainly to <i>Harrar</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Morocco has an admirable strategic position at the entrance of the
+Strait of Gibraltar, and is most likely, in time, to become a possession
+of Spain. There are exported, mainly to Great Britain, beans, almonds,
+goat-skins, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span> wool. The goat-skins are sumac-tanned and are still
+used in making the best book-binding leather. Only a small part of the
+so-called Morocco leather of commerce is genuine. There are no railways;
+caravan routes from the Sahara cross the country. <i>Tangier</i> and one or
+two other ports are open to foreign trade. Coal-oil is the only import
+from the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The state of Liberia was established for the benefit of freed slaves
+from the United States. The products are those of tropical Africa,
+including caoutchouc. Coffee cultivation is extensively carried on, and
+coffee is the leading export. <i>Monrovia</i> is the chief centre of trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>North African Possessions.</b>&mdash;French influence is paramount in northern
+Africa. Algeria and Tunis are both French colonies, and the caravan
+trade of the Sahara is generally tributary to French trade. The region
+known as the Tell, a strip between the coast and the Atlas Mountains, is
+the chief agricultural region, and the products are similar to those on
+the other side of the Mediterranean Sea. The ordinary grains are grown
+for home consumption, but the macaroni wheat crop is manufactured into
+macaroni paste for export. The fruit-crop, especially the olive, date,
+and grape, and their products, is exported.</p>
+
+<p>Esparto grass, for making paper, was formerly an important export, but
+the increasing use of wood-pulp for this purpose has had the effect of
+increasing the grazing area, and therefore the wool-crop. Date-palms
+grow in great profusion, and the excess forms an important export, going
+to nearly every part of Europe and the United States. A large part of
+the crop, however, is consumed by the Arabs. Sumac-tanned goat-skins,
+for book-binding leather, are also exported.</p>
+
+<p>The colonies must import coal. Manufactures are therefore restricted to
+the preparation of the fruit and food<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> products. Sponges are an
+important product. Railways provide the necessary transportation for the
+crops. <i>Algiers</i>, the metropolis, is a finely built city and a favorite
+winter-resort. <i>Oran</i> is the shipping-port for grain and esparto grass.
+<i>Biskra</i> is the market for dates.</p>
+
+<p>The caravan trade of northern Africa is considerable, and the greater
+part converges at <i>Tripoli</i>, to which not far from ten thousand
+camel-loads of merchandise are brought annually. This trade is carried
+on mainly by the Arabs, who cover the region from <i>Timbuctu</i> to Lake
+Chad. They bring ivory, ostrich feathers, gold, goat-skins, and slaves.
+In return they carry cloth, fire-arms, ammunition, and various
+commodities to the negro villages of the Sudan. The district is a
+possession of Turkey. Its chief exports are esparto grass, sponges, and
+dye-stuffs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Central Africa.</b>&mdash;Central Africa is divided among the chief European
+powers. Great Britain and Germany divide the lake-region and the
+Zanzibar coast. On the Guinea coast the French are an additional factor.
+The trade of these regions consists of an exchange of tropical
+products&mdash;palm-oil, rubber, ebony, camwood, ivory, and hides&mdash;for cloth,
+tobacco, fire-arms, beads and trinkets, and preserved foods. Most of
+this trade is carried on by companies holding royal charters.</p>
+
+<p>The Kongo State is a semi-official corporation of this character, the
+King of the Belgians being its chief executive officer. The active
+administration is carried on by agents of the company. The chief of each
+tribe or village is required, under penalty, to furnish a certain quota
+of crude rubber and other products; and between the agent and the Arab
+slave-driver the natives have little to choose.</p>
+
+<p>The Kongo River is the outlet of the state, and to facilitate the
+transportation of the products, railways have been built, or are under
+construction, around the rapids. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> region is about the only
+remaining source of elephant ivory, but most of the supply consists of
+the tusks of animals long since dead. A fleet of steamboats carries the
+commercial products to the coast. <i>Stanley Pool</i>, at the head of the
+rapids, is the chief depot for collection. Ocean steamships ascend the
+river to a point above <i>Boma</i>, the place of administration.</p>
+
+<p>Nigeria and Ashanti are British possessions on the Guinea coast,<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>
+having a trading company organization. Sierra Leone is an organized
+colony, a product of which is the kola-nut. British East Africa is
+important for strategic purposes, inasmuch as it includes the upper Nile
+basin, a territory sometimes known as the Egyptian Sudan. <i>Akra</i> is the
+trading port of Nigeria, and <i>Khartum</i> of the upper Nile Valley.
+<i>Zanzibar</i> is the metropolis of the east coast.</p>
+
+<p>The French possessions include a large territory at the mouth of the
+Kongo, the western part of the Sahara, and the islands of Madagascar and
+Reunion. In German East Africa the commercial development has been
+substantial, and large plantations for the cultivation of tropical
+products are in operation. A railway from the coast to the lake-district
+is under construction. <i>Mombasa</i> is its commercial outlet.</p>
+
+<p>The Italians have nominal possession of a territory facing the Strait of
+Bab-el-Mandeb, and also of the peninsula of Guardafui. Their actual
+possession, however, is restricted to the island and trading-post of
+<i>Massawa</i>. Their attempts to conquer Abyssinia have been unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cape of Good Hope and the South African Colonies.</b>&mdash;Up to the time of the
+Suez Canal, Cape of Good Hope was a sort of half-way house between
+British ports and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> India, and this position made it commercially
+important. Even at the present time more than fifteen hundred vessels,
+many of them in the Indian Ocean trade, call at the chief port of the
+colony every year.</p>
+
+<p>Agriculture is the chief industry of these colonies, though not the one
+yielding the greatest returns. Enough wheat, maize (or "mealies"), and
+fruit are grown for home consumption, but the climate is too arid for
+any excess of bread-stuffs. The aridity is a resource, however, in the
+matter of wool, the superior quality of which is due largely to the
+deficient rainfall. As a matter of fact the whole country is a great
+grazing veldt; wool, a very fine quality of Angora mohair, hides, and
+cattle products are exports.</p>
+
+<p>From December to March the fruits ripen, and these, especially the
+grapes, are carried in cold-storage vessels to British and other
+European ports. The wine is likewise of excellent quality and is
+becoming an export of great value. Both the fruit and the wine are
+similar to those of Australia and California.</p>
+
+<p>The business of ostrich farming is in the hands of several large
+companies, and, next to the wool-crop, ostrich plumes are the leading
+product. There are about a quarter of a million birds, and each produces
+about one pound of feathers. The ordinary quality of plumes varies from
+five to ten dollars a pound; very choice plumes command as much as two
+hundred dollars a pound. London is the chief market for them, but most
+of them sooner or later find their way to the milliners of the great
+cities.</p>
+
+<p>The diamond-mines of Griqualand West furnish practically the whole of
+the world's supply. The mines are operated on a most thorough business
+system, and the output of rough stones is carefully regulated to meet
+the demand. All wholesale dealers know the output from year to year, and
+no more stones are put upon the market<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> than the number required to meet
+the demand. All the Kimberley mines are now consolidated under one
+company. The yearly output does not vary much from twenty million
+dollars' worth of stones. The stones are marketed from Kimberley, but
+London dealers buy most of them.</p>
+
+<p>The mines that for several years produced more gold than any others in
+existence are in the Transvaal.<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> Other undeveloped mines in the
+territory of Rhodesia are known to be extremely rich in precious metals;
+indeed, there is much evidence that the famous mines of Ophir were in
+this region. Copper ore is an important export.</p>
+
+<p>The industries of Natal colony do not differ materially from those of
+Cape of Good Hope. The rainfall is sufficient for the growing of
+sugar-cane, and sugar is an important export to the mother-country. The
+colony has productive coal-mines, and these are destined to become an
+important resource.</p>
+
+<p>The home government has encouraged railway building, and a trunk line
+through Rhodesia affords an outlet to the ports of the south coast. It
+is the policy of the mother-country to extend this road along the
+lake-region and the Nile Valley (known as the "Great Rift") to the
+Mediterranean Sea. This plan when carried out will give Great Britain a
+practical control of the trade of eastern Africa. The imports are mainly
+textiles, machinery, and steel wares.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cape Town</i> is the most important centre of trade in South Africa. A
+considerable trade, however, is carried on at <i>Port Elizabeth</i> and at
+<i>Durban</i>, the port of Natal.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> <i>Kimberley</i> is the seat of the
+diamond-mining interests, and <i>Johannesberg</i> of the gold-mines.</p>
+
+<p>Germany and Portugal divide the southwest coast. <i>Walfisch Bay</i> is the
+outlet of the former. Portuguese East Africa is an outlet for the trade
+of the Transvaal region, with which it is connected by rail. The port
+<i>Louren&ccedil;o Marquez</i> has a fine harbor.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Has the partition of Africa been an advantage or a disadvantage to the
+native races of the continent?</p>
+
+<p>What advantages will accrue to Great Britain from the Cape to Cairo
+railway?</p>
+
+<p>Compare the basin of the Kongo with that of the Amazon with respect to
+climate, products, and civilization.</p>
+
+<p>From Commercial Africa prepare a list of the exports and imports between
+the United States and the various African countries.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>Statesman's Year-Book.</p>
+
+<p>Commercial Africa&mdash;pp. 3679 and following.</p>
+
+<p>From a cyclop&aelig;dia read the following topics: Ivory, Suez Canal,
+Gibraltar, Livingstone, Diamonds, Canary Islands.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">CHAPTER XXXIV</h2>
+
+<h3>OCEANIA</h3>
+
+
+<p>Oceania, the island division of the world, includes Australasia and the
+great groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. Some of the larger islands
+are regions of great productivity; others are important as
+coaling-stations; still others have positions of great strategic value.</p>
+
+<p>When it is considered that more than half the people in the world live
+on the slopes of the Pacific Ocean, and that they depend on the
+metal-working and manufacturing people of the Atlantic slopes for
+clothing and commodities, it is apparent that the commerce of the
+Pacific Ocean must reach enormous proportions.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason the various island groups of Oceania have been acquired
+by Europeans, and from the moment of their occupation their commercial
+development began. The great majority of these groups are within the
+limits of the sago-palm, bread-fruit, cocoanut, and banana, and these
+yield not only the food-stuffs of the native people, but the export
+products as well. Copra, or dried cocoanut meat, is the general export.
+It is marketed in Marseille, London, and San Francisco. Sago is prepared
+from the pith of a species of palm. Considerable quantities are also
+exported, and it is used as a table delicacy. The banana is the
+food-stuff upon which many millions of people must depend. In spite of
+their small aggregate area, the food-producing power of these islands is
+very great.<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span></p><p>On account of its central position, Honolulu, the capital and chief
+port of Hawaii, is the most important mid-ocean station of the Pacific.
+It is almost in the direct line of traffic between the Pacific ports of
+the United States and Canada on the one hand, and those of Australia,
+Japan and China on the other. It is also in the route of vessels that
+may hereafter use the American isthmian canal in going between European
+and Asian ports.</p>
+
+<p>In the cultivation of export products native Malay labor is almost
+always employed, inasmuch as Europeans cannot bear out-of-door labor in
+the tropics. The natives are generally known as "Kanakas," and there is
+not a little illicit traffic in their labor. Chinese and Japanese
+coolies are also employed as laborers.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Commonwealth of Australia.</b>&mdash;The commonwealth of Australia consists
+of the various states of Australia together with Tasmania. Their
+position corresponds very closely to that of Mexico and Central America,
+and the climate and products are not unlike. A considerable part of
+Australia is a desert, and a large area is too arid for the production
+of bread-stuffs; the eastern coast, however, receives abundant rains.</p>
+
+<p>Australia produces nearly one-third of the wool-clip of the world. On
+account of the climate, the quality of the wool, much of it merino, is
+excellent. More than half the clip comes from New South Wales.
+Two-thirds of the wool goes to Great Britain to be manufactured; nearly
+all the rest is purchased by France, Germany, and Belgium. Less than two
+per cent. is sold to the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Since the introduction of cold-storage plants in steamships, Australia
+has become a heavy exporter of meat. Areas long unproductive are now
+cattle-ranges; mutton constitutes the heaviest shipment. Inasmuch as the
+transportation is almost wholly by water, the cost is very light, and
+the mutton can be sold to London dealers at less than four cents per
+pound.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/image209.jpg">
+<img src="images/image209_th.jpg" width="600" height="384" alt="THE COMMERCE OF THE PACIFIC" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">THE COMMERCE OF THE PACIFIC</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image210.jpg" width="500" height="401" alt="AUSTRALIA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">AUSTRALIA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Wheat is grown mainly for home consumption. Grapes for wine and for
+raisins are good-paying crops in Victoria and New South Wales. Both
+products find a ready market in Great Britain. Australian claret is a
+strong competitor of California claret for public favor, and the two are
+similar in character. Cane-sugar is grown in the moist regions of
+Queensland; it is the chief supply of the commonwealth and the
+neighboring islands. The forests produce an abundance of hard woods, but
+practically no building-timber. Jarrah wood paving-blocks are an
+important export. British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon supply much
+of the building-timber.</p>
+
+<p>Gold has been the chief mineral product since the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span>settlement of the
+country. The mints convert the metal into coin. As a rule the value of
+the exports exceeds that of the imports, and the excess swells the
+amount of metal exported. The most productive mines are in the district
+of Ballarat. Coal is abundant on the east coast, and a considerable part
+is sold to California, and more to Asian ports. Tin is extensively mined
+in Tasmania.</p>
+
+<p>More than fifteen thousand miles of railway have been built to carry the
+traffic of the country. Most of them were built by private corporations,
+but on account of financial difficulties and poor service they were
+acquired by the government. The policy proved a wise one.</p>
+
+<p>Great Britain encourages the trade of her colonies, and gets about
+three-fourths of the traffic of the commonwealth, the imports being
+manufactured goods. Of the foreign trade the United States has about
+half, nearly all of which is landed at San Francisco and Puget Sound.
+Wool, cattle products, and coal are exported to the United States, and
+the latter sends to Australia structural steel&mdash;mainly
+rails&mdash;printing-paper, and coal-oil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Melbourne</i> is the largest city. <i>Sydney</i> is the port at which most of
+the ocean trade is landed. <i>Brisbane</i>, mainly a coal and a wool market,
+is connected with British Columbia by an ocean cable. Steamships by way
+of the Suez Canal generally call at <i>Perth</i> and <i>Adelaide</i>. <i>Hobart</i> and
+<i>Launcestown</i> are the markets of Tasmania.</p>
+
+<p><b>New Zealand.</b>&mdash;This colony is one of the most prosperous and best
+administered states in existence. The cultivable lands produce enough
+wheat for home use, and an excess for export. Cattle and sheep are the
+chief resource, however, and pretty nearly everything&mdash;meat, hides,
+wool, horn, and bones&mdash;is exported. Dairy products are not forgotten,
+and under the management of an association, these are of the best
+quality.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span></p><p>New Zealand flax (<i>Phormium tenax</i>), a kind of marsh hemp, yields a
+fibre used in making cordage. The kauri pine furnishes the chief supply
+of lumber. A fossil kauri gum is collected for export; it makes a
+varnish almost equal to Japanese lacquer. Gold is mined, and there being
+no mint, all the bullion is exported. The only manufactures are those
+which are connected with the meat export and the dairy industry. The
+exports noted more than pay for the manufactured goods. Most of the
+trade is carried on with Great Britain. <i>Wellington</i>, the capital, and
+<i>Auckland</i> are the centres of trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>New Guinea.</b>&mdash;This island, one of the largest in the world, is somewhat
+larger than the State of Texas, or about one-third larger than Germany
+or France. The gold-mines first led to the exploration and settlement of
+the island, but it was soon apparent that the agricultural resources
+were even more valuable, and it was divided among the British, Germans,
+and Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>The western part of the island is distinctly Asian in character; the
+eastern and southern parts resemble Australia. Coffee, rice, and tobacco
+plantations have been established in the former; grazing is the chief
+industry in the latter. Ebony and bamboo are among the forest products.</p>
+
+<p><b>British Possessions.</b>&mdash;The Fiji Islands are among the most important
+British possessions. They number about eighty habitable and twice as
+many small islands. Sugar is the chief export product, and it goes
+mainly to Australia and New Zealand. Cocoanuts are also a large item of
+export trade. <i>Suva</i> is the chief trading-port.</p>
+
+<p>The Tonga Islands are nominally independent, but are practically a
+British protectorate. Among other British possessions are Cook, Gilbert,
+and Ellice archipelagoes, and Pitcairn Island.</p>
+
+<p><b>German Possessions.</b>&mdash;The Samoa Islands are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>perhaps the most important
+German possession, and German planters have made them highly productive.
+They were formerly held under a community-of-interest plan by Great
+Britain, Germany, and the United States. A joint commission awarded the
+greater part of the territory to Germany. In addition to the ordinary
+products, pineapples and limes are exported. Most of the trade is
+carried on by way of Australia. <i>Apia</i> is the trading-port.</p>
+
+<p>Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon, Marshall, and Caroline groups
+have also been acquired by Germany. The last named was purchased from
+Spain at the close of the Spanish-American War.</p>
+
+<p><b>French Possessions.</b>&mdash;New Caledonia, together with Loyalty Islands,
+Fortuna, and the New Hebrides group, have great wealth in the matter of
+resources. New Caledonia, a penal colony, has productive mines of chrome
+iron ore and copper. It is the source of a considerable supply of nickel
+and cobalt. A railway to the coast has been built for the carriage of
+these products.</p>
+
+<p>Tahiti is the principal island of the Society group, and under the
+missions long established there, the natives have become civilized. In
+addition to the usual trade, sugar and mother-of-pearl are important
+exports.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>How will the commerce of the Pacific be changed by the construction of
+an isthmian canal?</p>
+
+<p>What has been the effect of the Australian wool-clip on the cloth-making
+industry of England and Germany?</p>
+
+<p>How will the acquisition of Hawaii and the Philippine Islands affect the
+commerce of the United States?</p>
+
+<p>From Commercial Australia find the trade of the United States with the
+Commonwealth.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="subsect">FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE</p>
+<div class="qanda">
+<p>From a cyclop&aelig;dia read the history of Australia as a convict colony.</p>
+
+<p>Commercial Australia.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">APPENDIX</h2>
+
+<h3>TRADE OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD AT THE BEGINNING OF THE
+TWENTIETH CENTURY</h3>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="TRADE SUMMARY">
+<tr class="tr3"><td class="td1">Country</td><td class="td1">Imports</td><td class="td1">Exports</td><td class="td1">Sells to U.S.</td><td class="td2">Buys from U.S.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Argentina</td><td class="td7">$110,000,000</td><td class="td7">$161,850,000</td><td class="td7">$10,000,000</td><td class="td8">$11,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Australia</td><td class="td7">201,000,000</td><td class="td7">224,000,000</td><td class="td7">5,263,000</td><td class="td8">28,164,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Austria-Hungary</td><td class="td7">335,486,000</td><td class="td7">383,748,000</td><td class="td7">10,000,000</td><td class="td8">6,844,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Belgium</td><td class="td7">428,651,000</td><td class="td7">352,850,000</td><td class="td7">14,920,000</td><td class="td8">51,444,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Bolivia</td><td class="td7">5,845,000</td><td class="td7">15,618,000</td><td class="td7">22</td><td class="td8">120,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Brazil</td><td class="td7">97,330,000</td><td class="td7">165,461,000</td><td class="td7">64,914,000</td><td class="td8">11,517,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Canada</td><td class="td7">181,238,000</td><td class="td7">177,443,000</td><td class="td7">42,482,000</td><td class="td8">105,790,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Chile</td><td class="td7">46,916,000</td><td class="td7">61,201,000</td><td class="td7">7,474,000</td><td class="td8">4,507,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">China</td><td class="td7">203,421,000</td><td class="td7">124,528,000</td><td class="td7">18,126,000</td><td class="td8">18,176,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Colombia</td><td class="td7">10,695,000</td><td class="td7">18,487,000</td><td class="td7">4,811,000</td><td class="td8">2,924,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Cuba</td><td class="td7">66,584,000</td><td class="td7">63,278,000</td><td class="td7">46,664,000</td><td class="td8">27,007,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Denmark</td><td class="td7">111,542,000</td><td class="td7">75,549,000</td><td class="td7">797,000</td><td class="td8">15,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Ecuador</td><td class="td7">6,541,000</td><td class="td7">7,509,000</td><td class="td7">1,578,000</td><td class="td8">1,590,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Egypt</td><td class="td7">75,366,000</td><td class="td7">77,754,000</td><td class="td7">8,867,000</td><td class="td8">1,321,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">France</td><td class="td7">843,255,000</td><td class="td7">774,497,000</td><td class="td7">81,315,000</td><td class="td8">78,406,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Germany</td><td class="td7">1,290,254,000</td><td class="td7">1,054,685,000</td><td class="td7">99,970,000</td><td class="td8">184,679,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Greece</td><td class="td7">26,782,000</td><td class="td7">18,100,000</td><td class="td7">1,447,000</td><td class="td8">286,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">India, British</td><td class="td7">264,318,000</td><td class="td7">392,025,000</td><td class="td7">47,172,000</td><td class="td8">5,647,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">India, Dutch</td><td class="td7">67,755,000</td><td class="td7">100,632,000</td><td class="td7">32,309,000</td><td class="td8">1,653,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">India, French</td><td class="td7">36,576,000</td><td class="td7">30,513,000</td><td class="td7">...</td><td class="td8">118,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Italy</td><td class="td7">331,668,000</td><td class="td7">265,270,000</td><td class="td7">27,631,000</td><td class="td8">34,046,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Japan</td><td class="td7">127,397,000</td><td class="td7">124,209,000</td><td class="td7">36,855,000</td><td class="td8">21,163,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Mexico</td><td class="td7">64,036,000</td><td class="td7">77,583,000</td><td class="td7">17,273,000</td><td class="td8">83,722,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Netherlands</td><td class="td7">815,442,000</td><td class="td7">695,763,000</td><td class="td7">17,273,000</td><td class="td8">83,722,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Norway</td><td class="td7">83,255,000</td><td class="td7">43,616,000</td><td class="td7">...</td><td class="td8">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Peru</td><td class="td7">11,276,000</td><td class="td7">21,890,000</td><td class="td7">2,911,000</td><td class="td8">2,312,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Phillippine Islands</td><td class="td7">30,279,000</td><td class="td7">23,215,000</td><td class="td7">4,421,000</td><td class="td8">4,027,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Portugal</td><td class="td7">62,497,000</td><td class="td7">30,546,000</td><td class="td7">3,642,000</td><td class="td8">4,454,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Roumania</td><td class="td7">41,878,000</td><td class="td7">54,041,000</td><td class="td7">101,000</td><td class="td8">31,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Russia</td><td class="td7">269,493,000</td><td class="td7">375,276,000</td><td class="td7">7,236,000</td><td class="td8">6,506,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Spain</td><td class="td7">161,867,000</td><td class="td7">129,399,000</td><td class="td7">7,041,000</td><td class="td8">16,786,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Sweden</td><td class="td7">143,363,000</td><td class="td7">104,878,000</td><td class="td7">4,370,000</td><td class="td8">11,521,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Switzerland</td><td class="td7">202,651,000</td><td class="td7">161,458,000</td><td class="td7">16,035,000</td><td class="td8">233,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Turkey</td><td class="td7">103,110,000</td><td class="td7">64,876,000</td><td class="td7">2,437,000</td><td class="td8">184,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">United Kingdom</td><td class="td7">2,540,265,000</td><td class="td7">1,362,729,000</td><td class="td7">155,292,000</td><td class="td8">598,767,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">United States</td><td class="td7">903,321,000</td><td class="td7">1,355,482,000</td><td class="td7">...</td><td class="td8">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td6">Uruguay</td><td class="td7">24,497,000</td><td class="td7">28,674,000</td><td class="td7">1,975,000</td><td class="td8">1,481,000</td></tr>
+<tr class="tr2"><td class="td6">Venezuela</td><td class="td7">8,457,000</td><td class="td7">17,962,000</td><td class="td7">6,610,000</td><td class="td8">2,737,000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead">INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p>Acapulco, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></p>
+
+<p>Acr&eacute;, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>Activities classified, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Adams, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p>
+
+<p>Aden, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></p>
+
+<p>Adjustment to environment, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></p>
+
+<p>Afghanistan, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></p>
+
+<p>Alaska, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p>
+
+<p>Alberta, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Alexandria, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></p>
+
+<p>Alfa, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></p>
+
+<p>Algeria, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></p>
+
+<p>Alpaca, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></p>
+
+<p>Altitude, effects of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></p>
+
+<p>Aluminium, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></p>
+
+<p>Amazon River, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></p>
+
+<p>Amber, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></p>
+
+<p>Ambergris, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></p>
+
+<p>American Indians, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></p>
+
+<p>Amritsar, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></p>
+
+<p>Anaconda, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Anchovy, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></p>
+
+<p>Angora wool, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></p>
+
+<p>Anthracite coal, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p>
+
+<p>Appalachian region, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></p>
+
+<p>Arabia, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></p>
+
+<p>Argentina, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></p>
+
+<p>Arid region of U.S., <a href="#Page_240">240</a></p>
+
+<p>Arkwright, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></p>
+
+<p>Asian Rivers, navigation of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></p>
+
+<p>Asphalt, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></p>
+
+<p>Assiniboia, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Astrakhan, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Athens, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></p>
+
+<p>Atlanta, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></p>
+
+<p>Atlantic coast-plain, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p>
+
+<p>Attar-of-roses, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></p>
+
+<p>Australia, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></p>
+
+<p>Austria-Hungary, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Bagdad, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></p>
+
+<p>Baku, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></p>
+
+<p>Baltimore, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></p>
+
+<p>Baluchistan, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></p>
+
+<p>Banca, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></p>
+
+<p>Barbados, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p>Barley, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></p>
+
+<p>Barmen-Elberfeld, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></p>
+
+<p>Batavia, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></p>
+
+<p>Bauxite, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></p>
+
+<p>Beef, exports of U.S., <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p>
+
+<p>Beet sugar, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></p>
+
+<p>Beginnings of cities, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></p>
+
+<p>Belgium, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></p>
+
+<p>Belgrade, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></p>
+
+<p>Bengal, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></p>
+
+<p>Benzine, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></p>
+
+<p>Bergen, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></p>
+
+<p>Berlin, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></p>
+
+<p>Bermuda, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p>Bessemer-steel boilers, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></p>
+
+<p>Big tree, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></p>
+
+<p>Billiton, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></p>
+
+<p>Birmingham, Ala., <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></p>
+
+<p>Birmingham, Eng., <a href="#Page_302">302</a></p>
+
+<p>Bismarck Archipelago, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></p>
+
+<p>Black walnut, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></p>
+
+<p>Blende, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></p>
+
+<p>Bluefish, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></p>
+
+<p>Boers, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></p>
+
+<p>Bogota, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></p>
+
+<p>Bohemian glass, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></p>
+
+<p>Boise City, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Bokhara, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Bolivia, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></p>
+
+<p>Bombay, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Bosnia, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></p>
+
+<p>Boston, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></p>
+
+<p>Boxwood, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></p>
+
+<p>Brass, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span></p><p>Brazil, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nuts, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br /></p>
+
+<p>Breakfast, travels of a, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></p>
+
+<p>Bremen, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></p>
+
+<p>Brenner Pass, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></p>
+
+<p>Brick tea, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></p>
+
+<p>Bridgeport, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p>
+
+<p>British Columbia, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bronze Age, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></p>
+
+<p>Brussels, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></p>
+
+<p>Budapest, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></p>
+
+<p>Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></p>
+
+<p>Buffalo, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></p>
+
+<p>Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></p>
+
+<p>Burlington, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></p>
+
+<p>Burma, British, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Burr clover, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></p>
+
+<p>Butte, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Cacao, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></p>
+
+<p>Cairo, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></p>
+
+<p>Calcutta, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></p>
+
+<p>California fruits, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></p>
+
+<p>Callao, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></p>
+
+<p>Camel's hair, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></p>
+
+<p>Camphor, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></p>
+
+<p>Canada, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></p>
+
+<p>Canadian Pacific Railway, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p>
+
+<p>Canal, Chesapeake &amp; Ohio, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicago ship, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Erie, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grand, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaiser Wilhelm, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ludwig, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Manchester, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nord Holland, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panama, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rideau, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Mary's Falls, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Suez, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Welland, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Ca&ntilde;ons, effects of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p>
+
+<p>Canton, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></p>
+
+<p>Caoutchouc, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Capacity of locomotives, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></p>
+
+<p>Cape Nome, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p>
+
+<p>Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></p>
+
+<p>Cape Town, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></p>
+
+<p>Caravan tea, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></p>
+
+<p>Carpet wools, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Cashmere shawls, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></p>
+
+<p>Cattle-growing, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></p>
+
+<p>Cavit&eacute;, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></p>
+
+<p>Cereals, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></p>
+
+<p>Charleston, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></p>
+
+<p>Cheviot, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Cheyenne, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></p>
+
+<p>Chicago, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></p>
+
+<p>Chicago River, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></p>
+
+<p>Chicory, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></p>
+
+<p>Chile, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>Chinook winds, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></p>
+
+<p>Chocolate, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></p>
+
+<p>Cigars, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></p>
+
+<p>Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p>
+
+<p>Cities, growth of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></p>
+
+<p>Clearing-houses, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></p>
+
+<p>Cleveland, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></p>
+
+<p>Climate, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></p>
+
+<p>Clipper ship, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></p>
+
+<p>Cloth, antiquity of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></p>
+
+<p>Coal, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">areas of the world, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prices of, in U.S., <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tar products, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Coast commerce of U.S., <a href="#Page_222">222</a></p>
+
+<p>Coastplains, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></p>
+
+<p>Coca, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></p>
+
+<p>Cocoa, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></p>
+
+<p>Cocoon silk, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></p>
+
+<p>Cod fisheries, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></p>
+
+<p>Coffee, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p>
+
+<p>Coke, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></p>
+
+<p>Colombia, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></p>
+
+<p>Columbus, voyages of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></p>
+
+<p>Commerce in Western Europe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p>
+
+<p>Communal life, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></p>
+
+<p>Competition and pools, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></p>
+
+<p>Constantinople, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></p>
+
+<p>Copal, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></p>
+
+<p>Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></p>
+
+<p>Copper, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></p>
+
+<p>Cordage, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></p>
+
+<p>Corn, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></p>
+
+<p>Corn, oil of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></p>
+
+<p>Cotton, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>Cotton, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gin, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peruvian, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sea island, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Cotton crop, distribution of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></p>
+
+<p>Creosote, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p>
+
+<p>Cripple Creek, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></p>
+
+<p>Crompton, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></p>
+
+<p>Crusades, wars of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></p>
+
+<p>Cuba, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bast, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Currant grapes, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Da Gama, voyage of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></p>
+
+<p>Dammar, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></p>
+
+<p>Davenport, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></p>
+
+<p>Deadwood, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Demerara, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Denmark, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></p>
+
+<p>Denver, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Detroit, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></p>
+
+<p>Diamonds, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></p>
+
+<p>Dias, voyage of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></p>
+
+<p>Differentials, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></p>
+
+<p>Divi-divi, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></p>
+
+<p>Division of industries, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></p>
+
+<p>Dubuque, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></p>
+
+<p>Dutch East Indies, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">standards, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Eastern Turkestan, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Ebony, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></p>
+
+<p>Economic regions of U.S., <a href="#Page_213">213</a></p>
+
+<p>Ecuador, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></p>
+
+<p>Egypt, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></p>
+
+<p>Electric railways, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p>
+
+<p>Eminent domain, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p>
+
+<p>Esparto grass, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></p>
+
+<p>Exchange of products, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Fairs, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></p>
+
+<p>Fall line, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p>
+
+<p>Fall River, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p>
+
+<p>Felt hats, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></p>
+
+<p>Fertility of irrigated regions, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></p>
+
+<p>Feudalism, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p>
+
+<p>Fiji Islands, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></p>
+
+<p>Fisheries, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p>
+
+<p>Fish hatcheries, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></p>
+
+<p>Flax, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Zealand, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Forced draught, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></p>
+
+<p>Forest areas, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></p>
+
+<p>Fort Dearborn, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></p>
+
+<p>France, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></p>
+
+<p>Freight rates, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></p>
+
+<p>French India, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Galveston, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></p>
+
+<p>Gasoline, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></p>
+
+<p>Geneva, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></p>
+
+<p>German Empire, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></p>
+
+<p>Ghent, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></p>
+
+<p>Glucose, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>Gold, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></p>
+
+<p>Grain elevators, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></p>
+
+<p>Grape industry in New York, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p>
+
+<p>Graphite, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></p>
+
+<p>Grasses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></p>
+
+<p>Great Britain, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></p>
+
+<p>Great Central Plain, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></p>
+
+<p>Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></p>
+
+<p>Great Salt Lake, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></p>
+
+<p>Greece, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></p>
+
+<p>Griqualand West, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></p>
+
+<p>Guam, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></p>
+
+<p>Guatemala, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></p>
+
+<p>Guayaquil, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></p>
+
+<p>Guiana, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Gulf coast, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></p>
+
+<p>Gums, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Gutta-percha, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Halibut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></p>
+
+<p>Halifax, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></p>
+
+<p>Hamburg, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></p>
+
+<p>Hamilton, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Hanse League, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p>
+
+<p>Harbors, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></p>
+
+<p>Hargreaves, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></p>
+
+<p>Hartford, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p>
+
+<p>Havana, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cigars, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hawaiian Islands, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></p>
+
+<p>Helena, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Hematite, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></p>
+
+<p>Hemp, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></p>
+
+<p>Henequen, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span></p><p>Herodotus quoted, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></p>
+
+<p>Herring fisheries, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></p>
+
+<p>Herzegovina, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></p>
+
+<p>Hickory, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></p>
+
+<p>Hilo, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></p>
+
+<p>Hodeida, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></p>
+
+<p>Holland, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></p>
+
+<p>Hongkong, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></p>
+
+<p>Honolulu, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></p>
+
+<p>Houston, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></p>
+
+<p>Hudson's Bay Company, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Iloilo, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></p>
+
+<p>Inclination of axis, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p>
+
+<p>Indianapolis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></p>
+
+<p>Inland waters, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></p>
+
+<p>Intermontane valleys, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p>
+
+<p>Interstate Commerce Commission, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p>
+
+<p>Iodine, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p>
+
+<p>Iquique, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></p>
+
+<p>Iran plateau, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></p>
+
+<p>Ireland, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Irkutsk, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Iron, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">galvanized, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ore, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Iron Gate, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></p>
+
+<p>Italy, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Jade, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></p>
+
+<p>Japan, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></p>
+
+<p>Jarrah, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></p>
+
+<p>Java, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></p>
+
+<p>Joint tariff associations, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></p>
+
+<p>Jute, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Kabue, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></p>
+
+<p>Kansas City, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p>
+
+<p>Kashmir, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></p>
+
+<p>Kauri, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></p>
+
+<p>Kerosene, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></p>
+
+<p>Key West cigars, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></p>
+
+<p>Khaibar Pass, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></p>
+
+<p>Khiva, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Kiakhta, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Kiel, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></p>
+
+<p>Kimberley, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></p>
+
+<p>Klondike mines, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p>
+
+<p>Kongo River, navigation of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></p>
+
+<p>Kongo State, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></p>
+
+<p>Korea, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Kristiania, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Lac, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p>
+
+<p>Lacquer, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></p>
+
+<p>La Guaira, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></p>
+
+<p>Lanolin, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></p>
+
+<p>Lassa, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></p>
+
+<p>Las Vegas, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Laudanum, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></p>
+
+<p>Lawrence, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p>
+
+<p>Lead, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Lead pencils, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></p>
+
+<p>Leadville, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Leather goods, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p>
+
+<p>Liechtenstein, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></p>
+
+<p>Lignum vit&aelig;, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></p>
+
+<p>Lithographic stone, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></p>
+
+<p>Liverpool, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></p>
+
+<p>Llama, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></p>
+
+<p>Lobster fisheries, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></p>
+
+<p>Locomotive, Central-Atlantic type, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></p>
+
+<p>Logwood, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></p>
+
+<p>London, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></p>
+
+<p>Los Angeles, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Louisville, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></p>
+
+<p>Louren&ccedil;o Marquez, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></p>
+
+<p>Lowell, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p>
+
+<p>Lynn, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Macao, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></p>
+
+<p>Mackerel, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></p>
+
+<p>Mackintosh, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Madagascar, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></p>
+
+<p>Madras, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></p>
+
+<p>Magnetite, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></p>
+
+<p>Maguey sugar, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></p>
+
+<p>Mahogany, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></p>
+
+<p>Malay States, Federated, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></p>
+
+<p>Manchester, Eng., <a href="#Page_382">382</a></p>
+
+<p>Manchester, N.H., <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p>
+
+<p>Manchuria, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Mandalay, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Manganese, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></p>
+
+<p>Manila, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hemp, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Manitoba, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Maple, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sugar, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span></p><p>Martinique, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p>Mat&eacute;, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></p>
+
+<p>Maverick, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></p>
+
+<p>Melbourne, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></p>
+
+<p>Memphis, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></p>
+
+<p>Merino wool, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Metals, influence of, in cities, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></p>
+
+<p>Mexico, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">city of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Milan, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></p>
+
+<p>Mileage books, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></p>
+
+<p>Millet, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></p>
+
+<p>Milwaukee, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></p>
+
+<p>Mingo Junction, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p>
+
+<p>Mining, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></p>
+
+<p>Minneapolis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p>
+
+<p>Miquelon, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p>
+
+<p>Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">valley, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mobile, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></p>
+
+<p>Mocha coffee, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></p>
+
+<p>Mohair, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></p>
+
+<p>Mohawk valley, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p>
+
+<p>Molasses, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>Moline, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></p>
+
+<p>Mongolia, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Mont Cenis tunnel, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></p>
+
+<p>Montenegro, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></p>
+
+<p>Montreal, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></p>
+
+<p>Morocco, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></p>
+
+<p>Mountains, contents of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></p>
+
+<p>Moscow, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Mulberry, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Nagasaki, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></p>
+
+<p>Nankeen cotton, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></p>
+
+<p>Naphtha, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></p>
+
+<p>Nashua, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></p>
+
+<p>Natural gas, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></p>
+
+<p>Naval stores, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p>
+
+<p>Nearchus, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></p>
+
+<p>New Brunswick, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></p>
+
+<p>New Caledonia, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></p>
+
+<p>New England Plateau, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></p>
+
+<p>New Guinea, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></p>
+
+<p>New Haven, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p>
+
+<p>New Orleans, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></p>
+
+<p>New York City, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>New Zealand, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></p>
+
+<p>New Zealand flax, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></p>
+
+<p>Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p>
+
+<p>Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></p>
+
+<p>Nickel, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></p>
+
+<p>Nieuwchwang, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></p>
+
+<p>Nigeria, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></p>
+
+<p>Nile River, barrage of, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">floods of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navigation of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Nitrate, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p>
+
+<p>Norfolk, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></p>
+
+<p>Northern Securities Company, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></p>
+
+<p>Norway, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></p>
+
+<p>Nova Scotia, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></p>
+
+<p>Novgorod, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Oak, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></p>
+
+<p>Oats, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></p>
+
+<p>Ocean steamships, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></p>
+
+<p>Odessa, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Ogden, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Ohio River, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></p>
+
+<p>Oil of theobroma, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></p>
+
+<p>Old Government Java, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></p>
+
+<p>Oleo-resins, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Omaha, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p>
+
+<p>Ontario, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Opium, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></p>
+
+<p>Oregon pine, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Ottawa, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Oyster fisheries, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Pacific Coast lowlands, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Paddy, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Pago Pago Harbor, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></p>
+
+<p>Panama, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hats, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Par&aacute;, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></p>
+
+<p>Paraffine, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></p>
+
+<p>Paraguay, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tea, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Paris, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></p>
+
+<p>Passes, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p>
+
+<p>Pearl Harbor, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></p>
+
+<p>Peking, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></p>
+
+<p>Penang, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></p>
+
+<p>Pepper, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></p>
+
+<p>Persia, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></p>
+
+<p>Persian lamb, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></p>
+
+<p>Peru, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span></p><p>Peshawur, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Petroleum, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jelly, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></p>
+
+<p>Philippine Islands, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></p>
+
+<p>Pine, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></p>
+
+<p>Pir&aelig;us, The, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></p>
+
+<p>Pitch, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p>
+
+<p>Pittsburg, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p>
+
+<p>Plains, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></p>
+
+<p>Plaiting straw, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></p>
+
+<p>Plateaus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></p>
+
+<p>Ponce, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></p>
+
+<p>Pools, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></p>
+
+<p>Population, distribution of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></p>
+
+<p>Pork, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></p>
+
+<p>Port Arthur, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Port Huron, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></p>
+
+<p>Port Sa&iuml;d, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></p>
+
+<p>Port wine, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></p>
+
+<p>Portland, Me., <a href="#Page_217">217</a></p>
+
+<p>Portland, Ore., <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p>
+
+<p>Portugal, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></p>
+
+<p>Pribilof Islands, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p>
+
+<p>Prince Edward Island, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></p>
+
+<p>Providence, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p>
+
+<p>Puget Sound, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Punjab, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Pyrites, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Quebec, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">city of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Quicksilver, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Rabbit skins, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></p>
+
+<p>Railway, Canadian Pacific, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chesapeake &amp; Ohio, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York Central, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Northern Pacific, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sind-Pishin, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Southern, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tehuantepec, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Transportation, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Transsiberian, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Union Pacific, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Rainfall, effects of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deficiency of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Ramie, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></p>
+
+<p>Rangoon, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Raw silk, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Rebates, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></p>
+
+<p>Redwood, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Resins, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Rhodesia, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></p>
+
+<p>Rice, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></p>
+
+<p>Richmond, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p>
+
+<p>Riga, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Rio Janeiro, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p>
+
+<p>River navigation in Europe, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">valleys, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Roads, macadamized, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></p>
+
+<p>Rock Island, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></p>
+
+<p>Rome, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></p>
+
+<p>Rotterdam, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></p>
+
+<p>Roumania, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></p>
+
+<p>Rubber, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></p>
+
+<p>Rug wools, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></p>
+
+<p>Rugs, oriental, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></p>
+
+<p>Ruhr iron fields, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></p>
+
+<p>Russia, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></p>
+
+<p>Rye, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Sacramento, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Sahara, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></p>
+
+<p>Saigon, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></p>
+
+<p>Sailing vessels, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Gotthard tunnel, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Louis, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Paul, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Pierre, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Thomas, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p>Salmon, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></p>
+
+<p>Salonica, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></p>
+
+<p>Samoa Islands, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></p>
+
+<p>San Antonio, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></p>
+
+<p>San Francisco, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>San Joaquin valley, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>San Juan, P.R., <a href="#Page_255">255</a></p>
+
+<p>San Pedro, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Sandarach, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></p>
+
+<p>Santa F&eacute;, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Santiago, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></p>
+
+<p>Santos, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p>
+
+<p>Saskatchewan, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Savannah, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></p>
+
+<p>Schooners, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></p>
+
+<p>Scranton, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span></p><p>Seal fisheries, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></p>
+
+<p>Seasonal rains, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></p>
+
+<p>Seattle, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Servia, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></p>
+
+<p>Shad, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></p>
+
+<p>Shanghai, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></p>
+
+<p>Sheep-growing, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></p>
+
+<p>Shell-lac, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p>
+
+<p>Shoe manufacture, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p>
+
+<p>Siam, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></p>
+
+<p>Siberia, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Silk, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></p>
+
+<p>Silver, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></p>
+
+<p>Sind, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Singapore, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></p>
+
+<p>Sioux City, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></p>
+
+<p>Sisal hemp, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></p>
+
+<p>Skagway, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p>
+
+<p>Smyrna, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></p>
+
+<p>Sorghum, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></p>
+
+<p>Sound Valley, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>South Bethlehem, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p>
+
+<p>South Chicago, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></p>
+
+<p>Southampton, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></p>
+
+<p>Spain, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></p>
+
+<p>Spermaceti, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></p>
+
+<p>Spokane, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Sponge, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></p>
+
+<p>Steel, Bessemer, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></p>
+
+<p>Stephenson, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></p>
+
+<p>Stockholm, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></p>
+
+<p>Stockton, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Sugar, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></p>
+
+<p>Swash channel, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></p>
+
+<p>Sweden, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></p>
+
+<p>Switzerland, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></p>
+
+<p>Sydney, <a href="#Page_395">395</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Tacoma, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></p>
+
+<p>Tar, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></p>
+
+<p>Tea, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></p>
+
+<p>Teak, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></p>
+
+<p>Temperate zone, activities of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></p>
+
+<p>Textiles, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></p>
+
+<p>Three-mile fishing limit, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></p>
+
+<p>Thrown silk, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Tientsin, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></p>
+
+<p>Tin, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></p>
+
+<p>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></p>
+
+<p>Tokio, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></p>
+
+<p>Toledo, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></p>
+
+<p>Topography and trade routes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></p>
+
+<p>Toronto, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Torrid zone, temperature of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></p>
+
+<p>Tortilla, Mexican, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></p>
+
+<p>Trade routes, ancient, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></p>
+
+<p>Transcaucasia, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></p>
+
+<p>Transvaal, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></p>
+
+<p>Treaty ports, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></p>
+
+<p>Trebizond, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></p>
+
+<p>Triple-expansion principle, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></p>
+
+<p>Tripoli, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></p>
+
+<p>Tunis, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></p>
+
+<p>Turf grass, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></p>
+
+<p>Turkey-in-Europe, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></p>
+
+<p>Turks invade Europe, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></p>
+
+<p>Turpentine, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></p>
+
+<p>Tussar silk, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></p>
+
+<p>Tutuila, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></p>
+
+<p>Tweed, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Uruguay, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Valparaiso, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></p>
+
+<p>Vancouver, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p>
+
+<p>Vanderbilt locomotive fire-box, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></p>
+
+<p>Vanilla, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></p>
+
+<p>Vaseline, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></p>
+
+<p>Venezuela, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></p>
+
+<p>Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></p>
+
+<p>Vienna, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></p>
+
+<p>Virginia City, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Vladivostok, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Vuelta Abajo, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></p>
+
+<p>Vulcanized rubber, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Wai-wu-pu, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></p>
+
+<p>Walla Walla, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Warsaw, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></p>
+
+<p>Water-power, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></p>
+
+<p>Waterproof cloth, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Welland Canal, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></p>
+
+<p>Wellington, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></p>
+
+<p>Whale fisheries, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></p>
+
+<p>Wheat, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></p>
+
+<p>White Pass, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></p>
+
+<p>Willamette Valley, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Winnipeg, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Wood-pulp, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span></p><p>Wool, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,<a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Yafa, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></p>
+
+<p>Yokohama, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></p>
+
+<p>Youngstown, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></p>
+
+<p>Yucatan, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Zinc, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></p>
+
+<p>Zinfandel, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center"><big>Footnotes:</big></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> If the edition for free distribution is exhausted, these may be
+purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Public Printer,
+Washington, D.C.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The greatness of Palmyra was due to the trade along this route, and
+its decay began when the route was abandoned. The present town of Tadmor
+is near the ruins of the former city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Cosmas Indicopleustes&mdash;in early life a merchant, in later years a
+monk&mdash;visited India and Ceylon during the first part of the sixth
+century. His writings contain much valuable knowledge, but in the main
+they are theological arguments intended to disprove the Geography
+written by Ptolemy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The date is variously given as 1169, 1200, and 1241.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> To Waldemar III. of Denmark it dictated terms that made its power in
+Scandinavia supreme.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> For a complete list of books for reference, see <a href="#Page_xii">p. xii.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The record time on this route was made by the Lucania in five days,
+seven hours, and twenty-three minutes, from Daunts Rock, Queenstown, to
+Sandy Hook light. The fastest day's run yet recorded was made by the
+Deutschland&mdash;601 nautical miles, a speed of 24.19 knots.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> In Congress the River and Harbor Bill always receives a generous
+appropriation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> In many instances goods designed for the spring trade in the Western
+States are started via the canal in October, reaching their destination
+at Chicago some time in April, the cargo having been frozen up in one or
+another of the canal basins during the winter. The rate paid for this
+slow transit is considerably less than the amount which otherwise would
+have been paid for storage; moreover, it is nearly all clear profit to
+the canal boatmen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The minimum depth of the canal is 22 feet; its width at the bottom
+is 160 feet. It was begun September, 1892, and completed January 2,
+1902, at a cost of thirty-four million dollars. More than forty million
+cubic yards of earth and rock were excavated. All the bridges crossing
+it are movable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> This is on the supposition that night travel will be too dangerous
+a risk. With a continuous travel the time would be about thirty-three
+hours.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> On one great trunk system the average ton-mile rate in 1870 was one
+and one-seventh cents; in 1900 it was just one-half that sum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The modern steam-making boiler has from thirty to one hundred or
+more tubes passing through it from end to end. The heat from the
+fire-box as a rule passes under the boiler and through the tubular
+flues; it thus increases the heating surface very greatly. The forced
+draught is made by allowing the exhaust steam to escape into the
+smokestack, thereby increasing the draught through the fire-box.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> A single locomotive of the New York Central has hauled 4,000 tons
+of freight at a speed of twenty-five miles an hour. A "camel-back" of
+the Philadelphia &amp; Reading hauled 4,800 tons of coal from the mines to
+tide-water without a helper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The Vanderbilt boiler with cylindrical corrugated fire-box invented
+by Cornelius Vanderbilt, great-grandson of the founder of the New York
+Central, marks an important step in locomotive building. The cylindrical
+form largely obviates the necessity of an array of stay-bolts to prevent
+warping; the corrugated surface gives greater heating power.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The Central-Atlantic type of locomotive illustrates a modern
+improvement. The driving-wheels are placed a little forward of their
+usual position, while the fire-box, formerly set between the wheels, now
+overhangs each side of a pair of low trailing-wheels. By this means the
+heating surface of the fire-box is increased nearly one-half. A lever
+controlled by the engineer enables the latter to transfer 5,000 pounds
+weight from the trucks to the driving-wheels when a grade is to be
+surmounted. The daily run of such a locomotive is greatly increased.
+(<i>See cut, <a href="#Page_61">p. 61.</a></i>)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> A line from Vienna to Triest was opened about 1854; Germany was
+joined to Italy across Brenner Pass in 1868; France was connected with
+Italy through a tunnel near Mont Cenis in 1871; in 1882 the traffic of
+Germany was opened to Mediterranean ports by a tunnel under St.
+Gotthard. In this manner trunk systems have gradually developed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The building of the West Shore Railroad is an illustration. After
+both roads had suffered tremendous losses the New York Central settled
+the matter by purchasing the West Shore. This was one of a great number
+of similar cases both in the United States and Europe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> In Great Britain the ton-rate is about $2.30 per hundred miles; in
+Germany, $1.75; in Russia, $1.30; in the United States, $0.70. The
+difference is due as much to the length of distance hauled as to
+economical management.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Thus, A, B, and C are roads whose chief terminal points are Chicago
+and New York City. The road C is the shortest of the three lines, but
+its grades are very heavy. B is, say, one hundred miles longer, but has
+no heavy grades. A is a very indirect route, and its New York traffic
+must be trans-shipped at Boston, or perhaps at New London, and sent a
+part of the way by water. If now an absolute ton-mile rate is fixed for
+either road, it is evident that neither of the others can carry through
+freight without altering rates. If C fixes a rate, then A and B must
+either charge higher rates between Chicago and Montreal, or Chicago and
+Albany, than between their terminals. And although this is illegal in
+most States, the laws are evaded by "rebate," or repayment of a certain
+sum to the shipper. Of the three roads B, on account of easy grades, is
+in the best position to fix rates. It therefore makes, not the lowest
+rate, but the one that will yield the best returns. C conforms to this,
+and A takes what it can get, hauling at a very small profit. But if A
+happens to be outside of the limits of the United States, it may openly
+cut rates, because pretty nearly all the through freight it gets is
+clear profit, and inasmuch as none of the laws of a State apply to the
+Canadian portion of the road, it may do what the others cannot. And
+while B is struggling with A, the three roads X, Y, and Z are perhaps
+endeavoring to have some of the freight sent from Buffalo eastward over
+their own lines. In instances similar to the foregoing it is customary
+for B and C to divide the through business and to allow a "differential"
+to A&mdash;that is, on account of its slower delivery of through freight, to
+carry it at a slightly lower rate. B then adjusts its traffic with X, Y,
+and Z in a similar manner; and on the whole this is the fairest way to
+all concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The following, one of many instances, shows the difficulties in fixing
+rates that will not be unjust to either party: Danville and Lynchburg
+compete for a certain trade. The Southern Railway passes through both
+cities, but the Chesapeake &amp; Ohio makes Lynchburg by another route;
+Danville, therefore, is not a competing point, while Lynchburg is. As a
+result, the Southern Railway charged $1.08 for a certain traffic from
+Chicago to Danville and only 72 cents to Lynchburg, some distance
+beyond, this being the rate over the other road. The matter finally
+reached the Court of Appeals, and the latter sustained the Southern
+Railway. The rate to Danville was shown to be not excessive, but if the
+railway were required to maintain a rate to Lynchburg higher than 72
+cents, it would lose all its traffic to that point, amounting to
+$433,000 yearly. In a case of this kind there can be no help except by a
+consolidation of the two roads; by virtue of the consolidation all the
+Lynchburg freight will then go over the line having the easiest haul.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> That is, the Government pledged its credit for the money borrowed,
+and in addition gave the companies alternate sections of public land on
+both sides of the proposed line, the land-grants being designed partly
+to encourage immigration and partly to increase the building funds of
+the various companies. In several instances both the land-grants and the
+money subsidies were scandalously used. At least one road used its
+earnings to build a competing line and, after disposing of the
+land-grant and pocketing the proceeds, allowed the Government to
+foreclose the mortgage and sell the original road.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> From the Latin "castra," a camp.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> In 1897 the world's crop was 2,226,750,000 bushels, and as a
+result, the countries in which the crop was short suffered from high
+prices. Had it not been for the prompt carrying service of railways and
+steamships famine would have resulted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> In order to yield a crop of twenty-five bushels per acre the soil
+must supply 110 lbs. of nitrogen, 45 lbs. of phosphoric acid, 30.5 lbs.
+of lime, 14.5 lbs. of magnesia, and 142 lbs. of potash; these are
+approximately the mineral elements taken out of the soil with each crop,
+and it is needless to say that they must be replaced or the grain will
+starve for want of nutrient substances.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> In the United States there are about seven wheat-districts, each
+characterized by particular varieties that grow best in the given
+locality. In the New England and most of the middle Atlantic division
+Early Genesee Giant, Jones Winter Fife, and Fultz are chiefly grown. In
+the Southern States Fultz, Fulcaster, Purple Straw, and May are
+foremost. In the north central group of States Early Red Clawson, Poole,
+Dawson's Golden Chaff, Buda Pest, and Fultz are common. In the Dakotas
+and Minnesota Scotch Fife and Velvet Blue Stem (both spring wheats) are
+generally planted. In Kansas and Texas and the adjacent locality the
+principal varieties are Turkey, Fulcaster, and Mediterranean (all winter
+wheats). In California and the southern plateau region Sonora,
+California Club, and Defiance are the principal kinds (all winter
+wheats). In Washington and Oregon Little Club, Red Chaff, and Blue Stem
+(which are either winter or spring) are the main varieties.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Sometimes the owner sends it to the nearest elevator at tide-water
+where the grain is stored, not in bulk, but in the original packages,
+subject to his demand. In the course of a month or six weeks it absorbs
+so much moisture that the gain in weight more than pays the storage
+charges.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The elevators are equipped with "legs" or long spouts, within which
+belts with metal scoops transfer the grain from car to vessel or <i>vice
+versa</i>. The elevators at Buffalo will fill a canal-boat in an hour's
+time, or load six grain-cars in five minutes. A large whaleback
+steamship may be relieved of its 200,000 bushels in about three hours.
+Most of the east-bound wheat of the Middle West is transferred to the
+seaboard by rail, but that of the northwest, which forms the chief part
+of the crop, is shipped from Duluth through the St. Marys Falls Canal to
+Buffalo, where it is transferred to cars or to canal-boats. New York is
+the leading export market, but Boston, New Orleans, Galveston,
+Baltimore, and Philadelphia are also important shipping ports.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The following is approximately the yield of the chief wheat-growing
+countries in bushels per acre:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Denmark</td><td align='right'>42</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>England</td><td align='right'>29</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>New Zealand</td><td align='right'>26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Germany</td><td align='right'>23.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Holland &amp; Belgium</td><td align='right'>21.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hungary</td><td align='right'>18.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>France</td><td align='right'>19.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Austria</td><td align='right'>16.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Canada</td><td align='right'>15.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>United States</td><td align='right'>12.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Argentina</td><td align='right'>12.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Italy</td><td align='right'>12.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Australia</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>India</td><td align='right'>9.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Russia</td><td align='right'>8.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Algeria</td><td align='right'>7.5</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The low average in Australia, India, and Algeria is due mainly to lack
+of rainfall; in the United States and Russia, mainly to unskilful
+cultivation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> It seems to have been introduced into Turkey from India about the
+latter part of the fifteenth century, after which it was occasionally
+heard of in Europe as "Turkey corn."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The "tortilla," the national bread of the Mexican, consists of a
+thick corn-meal paste pressed into thin wafers between the hands, and
+baked on hot slabs of stone. The corn-meal "mush" of the American, the
+"polenta" of the Italian, and the "mamaliga" of the Rumanian are all
+practically corn-meal boiled to a thick paste in water.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> The gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, enabled one man to do by
+machinery about the same amount of work as previously had required one
+hundred laborers. For want of the laws necessary to protect his
+invention, Whitney was defrauded of the profits arising from it. Neither
+Congress nor the courts gave him any relief from the numerous
+infringements, and he died a poor man.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> The commercial distinction is a sensible one: hair is hard, crisp,
+straight, and does not felt; wool is soft, curly, and felts readily.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> An ounce of eggs produces about forty thousand worms, and these,
+during the grub stage, require about fifteen hundred pounds of leaves,
+about one-half of which is actually consumed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Charles II. of England also forbade its use (1675) and attempted to
+close the coffee-houses that had sprung up in London, but in spite of
+the ban and the prohibitive tax laid upon it, the use of coffee became
+general. Similar efforts to close the coffee-houses in Constantinople
+failed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> The full-grown leaf attains a length of from four to nine inches;
+those picked rarely exceed one-and-a-half inches in length.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Brick tea consists of leaves moulded into bricks under heavy
+pressure. Refuse and stems are also thus prepared for the cheaper
+grades.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The following are the chief rubber-producing trees: <i>Siphonia
+elastica</i>, or <i>Hevea brasiliensis</i>, Amazon forests, yields Par&aacute; rubber;
+<i>Manihot Glaziovii</i>, also a tapioca-producing shrub, Cear&aacute; province,
+Brazil, furnishes Cear&aacute; rubber; <i>Castilloa elastica</i>, Central American
+States, Nicaragua rubber; <i>Ficus elastica</i>, British India, and <i>Urceola
+elastica</i>, Borneo, Indian rubber. There are rubber-producing trees in
+Florida, but they have little commercial value at the present time.
+African rubber is taken from a variety of plants.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The process of vulcanizing was made practicable during the ten
+years ending in 1850. It was invented and perfected by Goodyear in the
+United States and by Hancock in England; for ordinary purposes, where
+both strength and elasticity are required, about five per cent. of
+sulphur is added. The addition of about fifty per cent. changes the
+rubber to a hard black substance known as "ebonite," or "hard rubber."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> In 1823 a Scotchman, Mackintosh, applied the discovery, that rubber
+gum was soluble in benzine, to the water-proofing of the cloth that
+bears his name. This invention was about the first extensive commercial
+use to which rubber had been put.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> From the fact that most of the dwellings in the United States are
+built of wood, the United States is a very heavy consumer of turpentine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> A slender strip of metallic lead was used instead of graphite in
+the first pencils made. The use of graphite did not become general until
+about 1850. The hardness of a pencil is regulated by mixing clay with
+the powdered graphite.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> The limestone has no essential part in the smelting of the ore
+except to produce an easily-flowing, liquid slag; hence it is called a
+<i>flux</i>. Some ores smelt and flow so easily that a flux is not required.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Under ordinary circumstances about two tons of coal, or
+three-quarters of a ton of coke, are required to produce a ton of
+pig-iron.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Terne plate is sheet-iron coated with an alloy of lead and tin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Heredity is likewise a factor. The seeds of knotty, scraggly trees
+are very apt to produce trees of their own kind and <i>vice versa</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> This sum represents more than ten times the amount of gold coin now
+in existence. Less than five per cent. of the business of the great
+industrial centres is a cash business. Even if the money existed, the
+transfer of such immense sums would greatly retard commerce. In order to
+effect a speedy settlement of payments, clearing-houses are established.
+At the clearing-house the representatives of the various banks meet
+daily and liquidate the checks drawn against one another; and although
+the total yearly volume of payment aggregates the sum mentioned above,
+the <i>balances</i> for a year are but little more than two billion dollars.
+Even this does not always represent cash payment, for a bank that is a
+debtor to another at the close of one day may be a creditor for an equal
+sum on the next.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> These roads are financed by the Northern Securities Company and
+form a link in the Hill-Morgan lines. Their intercontinental traffic is
+large.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Their dividing line is the centre of a street.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> The brand consisted of any specific device, such as an initial, a
+monogram, or a conventional form that might be easily recognized. The
+device was registered and imprinted with a red-hot iron on the flank of
+the animal. Ear-marks, such as notches or similar devices, also
+indicated ownership.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> In many cases Government land, not owned by the rancher, has been
+fenced in. No objection was made, however, until the sheep-grazier came.
+He demanded the removal of the fences, claiming that he had an equal
+right to graze his herds on public lands. But inasmuch as a range once
+grazed by sheep is ruined for cattle-growing, the quarrel between the
+grazier and the rustler has become one in which both the grazier and the
+rustler turned upon the sheep-owner.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> It is one-third of their capital stock plus the bonded
+indebtedness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> The high latitude of the wheat-region, which in most cases is too
+cold for the growing of food-stuffs, in this region is tempered by
+occasional warm winds known as "Chinook winds." These winds are the
+saving feature of wheat-growing. They prevail also in British Columbia,
+Washington, and Oregon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Freight rates from Coatzacoalcos to San Francisco are already fixed
+at $6.50 per ton; by the transcontinental railways they vary from $12 to
+$15 per ton.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> The entire Cuban crop is comparatively small, being but little more
+than one-eighth that of the United States.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Vegetable ivory is the seed or nut of a species of palm
+(<i>Phytelephas macrocarpa</i>). The kernel of the nut gradually acquires the
+hardness and appearance of the best ivory, for which it is employed as a
+substitute.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> The leaves of this shrub (<i>Erythroxylon coca</i>) contain a stimulant
+substance that in its effects is much like the active principle of
+coffee. They are much used by the native laborers to ward off the
+feeling of lassitude that comes with severe labor in a tropical climate.
+A native porter will carry a load of one hundred pounds a distance of
+sixty miles with no food or rest, but merely chewing a few coca-leaves.
+The plant yields the substance <i>cocaine</i>, now in demand all over the
+world as an an&aelig;sthetic in eye and throat surgery.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> More than a score of species of the tree from which this bark is
+obtained grow in the higher eastern slopes of the Andes, but a very
+large part is obtained from the tree, <i>Cinchona calisaya</i>. The medicinal
+substance, quinine, is extracted from the bark, and in the past
+half-century it has become the specific for malarial fevers. So great is
+the demand for it, that the cinchona-tree is now cultivated in India,
+Java, and Mexico.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Only a very small proportion of the Panama hats in the market are
+genuine. Many of the imitations, selling at retail for ten dollars or
+more, are serviceable hats; most of them, however, have but little
+worth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Nitre, or "nitrate," is a native nitrate of potash, or nitrate of
+soda. The latter, commonly called cubic nitre or Chile saltpetre, is the
+kind occurring in Chile. Inasmuch as it is very soluble, a plentiful
+rainfall would soon leach it from the ground and carry it to the sea.
+The nitrate is thought to be of vegetable origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> The pod of a shrub (<i>C&aelig;salpina coriaria</i>); it contains a
+considerable proportion of tannin and is used for tanning leather.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> The pericarp or pod contains about twenty-four prismatic-shaped
+nuts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> The cattle for Cuba and Brazil must be shipped in open pens in
+crossing the tropics. With the exports for Europe the case is different.
+If it is summer at the one port it is winter at the other, but it is
+always summer in the tropics, and cattle-ships fit for one zone are not
+fit for the other&mdash;hence the great difficulties in shipment of live
+animals to Europe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> For this reason Great Britain is practically a free-trade country.
+A protective tariff on imported food-stuffs and materials to be
+manufactured would hurt rather than protect British industries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> This is equivalent to the imposition of a tax on all the sugar
+consumed at home.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Most of the lithographic stone is obtained at Solnhofen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> This is a little greater than the average ton-mile rate on the New
+York Central Railroad between New York and Chicago.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> The name Zuider, or Zuyder, means "south"; it was so named to
+distinguish it from the North Sea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Some years ago many of the most valuable vineyards were destroyed
+by an insect pest known as the <i>phylloxera</i>, introduced from California.
+The trouble was overcome by replanting with American vines, the roots of
+which were immune to the pest. On these roots were grafted the choice
+French vines, the leaves and twigs of which were immune. In this manner
+the vineyards were restored with vines that are proof against attack,
+and the wine output has reached its normal amount.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> It is cultivated as an ornamental tree in the Southern States and
+in California.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> A small vein of coal occurs near Freiburg.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The St. Gotthard tunnel is almost nine and one-half miles long; the
+Arlberg tunnel is six and one-half miles in length. The tunnel now
+nearing completion under the Simplon Pass is more than twelve miles
+long. Five railways cross the northern frontier into Germany, and German
+commerce profits most by them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Persian rugs are the finest. As a rule the designs are floral and
+many of them contain legendary history worked in fantastic but beautiful
+patterns. Among those of especial merit are the Kermanshah tree-of-life
+fabrics, now somewhat rare. The rugs of Tabriz and Shiraz are also of
+high value. In general, Persian fabrics are characterized by very fine
+weaving, a short pile, and elaborate designs. Turkoman rugs are usually
+a rich brown or maroon in color, and are apt to contain slightly
+elongated octagonal figures. The Bokhara and Khiva-Bokhara, or Afghan
+rugs, are the best examples. The Baluchistan rugs are usually very dark
+in color, with bright red designs and striped ends of cotton warp.
+Turkish rugs are made almost wholly in Asia Minor or Anatolia. Large
+carpets of American and European designs are made at Ushak and Smyrna.
+"Smyrna" rugs are made in Philadelphia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> The most valuable Kermanshah rug, now no longer made there, is the
+tree-of-life prayer-rug, an illustration of which is shown on <a href="#Page_350">p. 350</a>.
+The design is emblematic of the story of the Garden of Eden.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> In 1900 the aggregate value of the wheat exported to Great Britain
+was only &pound;2,200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Since the treaty of 1901, which forbids the importation of
+fire-arms, a number of large plants for the manufacture of fire-arms,
+smokeless powder, and fixed ammunition have been established on the
+lower Yangtze.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> The islands are mainly in the belt of prevailing westerly winds.
+More rain, therefore, falls on the west than on the east coasts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> This region is also known us the Gold Coast. Formerly it furnished
+the chief British supply of gold, and the gold coin known as the
+"guinea" received its name from this circumstance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> This region was formerly comprised in the Boer republics, Orange
+Free State and South African Republic. In 1899 they declared war against
+Great Britain, with the result that they were defeated and annexed to
+that country&mdash;the former as Orange Colony, the latter as Transvaal
+Colony.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> It is estimated that twenty-two acres of land are necessary to
+sustain one adult on fresh meat. The same area of wheat would feed
+forty-two people; of oats about eighty-five people; of maize, potatoes,
+and rice, one hundred and seventy people. But twenty-two acres planted
+with bread-fruit or bananas will support about six thousand.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY***</p>
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+are filed in directories based on their release date.  If you want to
+download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular
+search system you may utilize the following addresses and just
+download by the etext year.
+
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/</a>
+
+    (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99,
+     98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90)
+
+EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are
+filed in a different way.  The year of a release date is no longer part
+of the directory path.  The path is based on the etext number (which is
+identical to the filename).  The path to the file is made up of single
+digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename.  For
+example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at:
+
+http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/2/3/10234
+
+or filename 24689 would be found at:
+http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/6/8/24689
+
+An alternative method of locating eBooks:
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL</a>
+
+*** END: FULL LICENSE ***
+</pre>
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Commercial Geography, by Jacques W. Redway
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Commercial Geography
+       A Book for High Schools, Commercial Courses, and Business Colleges
+
+
+Author: Jacques W. Redway
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 20, 2008  [eBook #24884]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson, Greg Bergquist, and the
+Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 24884-h.htm or 24884-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/8/8/24884/24884-h/24884-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/8/8/24884/24884-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs was in bold face in the
+      original (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
+
+A Book for High Schools
+Commercial Courses, and
+Business Colleges
+
+by
+
+JACQUES W. REDWAY, F.R.G.S.
+
+Author of "A Series of Geographies," "An Elementary
+Physical Geography," "The New Basis of Geography"
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+New York ... 1907
+
+Copyright, 1903, by
+Jacques W. Redway
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The quiet industrial struggle through which the United States passed
+during the last decade of the nineteenth century cannot fail to impress
+the student of political economy with the fact that commercial
+revolution is a normal result of industrial evolution. Within a period
+of twenty-five years the transportation of commodities has grown to be
+not only a science, but a power in the betterment of civil and political
+life as well; and the world, which in the time of M. Jules Verne was
+eighty days wide, is now scarcely forty.
+
+The invention of the Bessemer process for making steel was intended
+primarily to give the railway-operator a track that should be free from
+the defects of the soft, wrought-iron rail; in fact, however, it created
+new industrial centres all over the world and brought Asia and Africa
+under commercial conquest. The possibilities of increased trade between
+the Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific Coast States led to the building
+of the Northern Pacific and Great Northern Railways. But when these were
+thoroughly organized, there unexpectedly resulted a new trade-route that
+already is drawing traffic away from the Suez Canal and landing it at
+Asian shores by way of the ports of Puget Sound. It is a repetition of
+the adjustment that occurred when the opening of the Cape route to India
+transferred the trade that had gathered about Venice and Genoa to the
+shores of the North and Baltic Seas.
+
+In other words, a new order of things has come about, and the world and
+the people therein are readjusting themselves to the requirements made
+upon them by commerce. And so at the beginning of a new century,
+civilized man is drawing upon all the rest of the world to satisfy his
+wants, and giving to all the world in return; he is civilized because of
+this interchange and not in spite of it.
+
+The necessity for instruction in a subject that pertains so closely to
+the welfare of a people is apparent, and an apology for presenting this
+manual is needless. Moreover, it should not interfere in any way with
+the regular course in geography; indeed, more comprehensive work in the
+latter is becoming imperative, and it should be enriched rather than
+curtailed.
+
+In the preparation of the work, I wish to express my appreciation of the
+great assistance of Principal Myron T. Pritchard, Edward Everett School,
+Boston, Mass. I am also much indebted to the map-engraving department of
+Messrs. The Matthews-Northrup Company, Buffalo, N.Y.
+
+                                                                   J.W.R.
+
+
+ CONTENTS
+
+  CHAPTER                                                      PAGE
+
+
+       I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES                                      1
+
+      II. HOW COMMERCE CIVILIZED MANKIND                          7
+
+     III. TOPOGRAPHIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE                        17
+
+      IV. CLIMATIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE                           29
+
+       V. TRANSPORTATION--OCEAN AND INLAND NAVIGATION            39
+
+      VI. TRANSPORTATION--RAILWAYS AND RAILWAY ORGANIZATION;
+            PUBLIC HIGHWAYS                                      62
+
+     VII. FACTORS IN THE LOCATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS            81
+
+    VIII. THE CEREALS AND GRASSES                                88
+
+      IX. TEXTILE FIBRES                                        105
+
+       X. PLANT PRODUCTS OF ECONOMIC USE--BEVERAGES AND
+            MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES                                127
+
+      XI. GUMS AND RESINS USED IN THE ARTS                      141
+
+     XII. COAL AND PETROLEUM                                    147
+
+    XIII. METALS OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES                       159
+
+     XIV. SUGAR AND ITS COMMERCE                                185
+
+      XV. FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS                           193
+
+     XVI. SEA PRODUCTS AND FURS                                 203
+
+    XVII. THE UNITED STATES--THE SEAPORTS AND THE ATLANTIC
+             COAST-PLAIN                                        211
+
+   XVIII. THE UNITED STATES--THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU
+            AND THE APPALACHIAN REGION                          219
+
+     XIX. THE UNITED STATES--THE BASIN OF THE GREAT LAKES
+              AND THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY                        227
+
+      XX. THE UNITED STATES--THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS AND
+            TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS                             247
+
+     XXI. CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND                               261
+
+    XXII. MEXICO--CENTRAL AMERICA--WEST INDIES                  267
+
+   XXIII. SOUTH AMERICA--THE ANDEAN STATES                      275
+
+    XXIV. SOUTH AMERICA--THE LOWLAND STATES                     285
+
+     XXV. EUROPE--GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY                     295
+
+    XXVI. EUROPE--THE BALTIC AND NORTH SEA STATES               310
+
+   XXVII. EUROPE--THE MEDITERRANEAN STATES AND SWITZERLAND      320
+
+  XXVIII. EUROPE--THE DANUBE AND BALKAN STATES                  335
+
+    XXIX. EUROPE-ASIA--THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE                       343
+
+     XXX. THE IRAN PLATEAU AND ARABIA                           349
+
+    XXXI. BRITISH INDIA AND THE EAST INDIES                     358
+
+   XXXII. CHINA AND JAPAN                                       367
+
+  XXXIII. AFRICA                                                381
+
+   XXXIV. OCEANIA                                               391
+
+  APPENDIX                                                      398
+
+  INDEX                                                         399
+
+
+
+
+  COLORED MAPS
+
+                                                             PAGE
+
+
+  PRINCIPAL TRANSPORTATION LINES AND REGIONS OF LARGEST
+   COMMERCE                                                 x, xi
+
+  MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL                                         28
+
+  CITY OF NEW YORK AND VICINITY, WITH HARBOR APPROACHES        49
+
+  DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION                                   80
+
+  NORTH AMERICA                                               210
+
+  PUGET SOUND                                                 253
+
+  MEXICO                                                      268
+
+  SOUTH AMERICA                                               274
+
+  BRITISH ISLES                                               299
+
+  GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES                          304
+
+  HOLLAND AND BELGIUM                                         314
+
+  FRANCE                                                      321
+
+  ITALY                                                       326
+
+  SPAIN AND PORTUGAL                                          329
+
+  TURKEY AND GREECE                                           338
+
+  RUSSIAN EMPIRE                                              342
+
+  THE IRAN PLATEAU AND ARABIA                                 349
+
+  EASTERN CHINA                                               369
+
+  JAPAN AND KOREA                                             375
+
+  AFRICA                                                      382
+
+  THE COMMERCE OF THE PACIFIC                                 393
+
+[Illustration: PRINCIPAL TRANSPORTATION LINES AND REGIONS OF LARGEST
+COMMERCE]
+
+TO THE TEACHER:--The contents of this book are so topicalized and
+arranged that, if the time for the study is limited, a short course may
+be selected. Under no circumstances, however, should Chapters V, VI,
+VIII, IX, XII, and XIII be omitted. A casual inspection of the questions
+at the end of each chapter will serve to show that they cannot be
+answered from the pages of the book, and they have been selected with
+this idea in view. They are intended first of all to stimulate
+individual thought, and secondly to encourage the pupil to investigate
+the topics by consulting original sources. The practice of corresponding
+with pupils in other parts of the world cannot be too highly commended.
+
+The following list represents a minimum rather than a maximum reference
+library. It may be enlarged at the judgment of the teacher. A good atlas
+and a cyclopaedia are also necessary.
+
+     Industrial Evolution of the United States. WRIGHT. Charles
+     Scribner's Sons.
+
+     History of Commerce in Europe. GIBBINS. The Macmillan Company.
+
+     Discovery of America. FISKE. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
+
+     The New Empire. ADAMS. The Macmillan Company.
+
+     Statesman's Year-Book. KELTIE. The Macmillan Company.
+
+     Outlines of Political Science. GUNTON AND ROBBINS. D. Appleton &
+     Co.
+
+     The Wheat Problem. CROOKES. G.P. Putnam's Sons.
+
+     South America. CARPENTER. American Book Company.
+
+     From the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce, Washington,
+     D.C., the following monographs may be procured:[1]
+
+     Commercial China. American Commerce. Commercial Australia.
+     Commercial Japan. Commercial Africa. Commercial India. Statistical
+     Abstract. Great Canals of the World. World's Sugar Production and
+     Consumption.
+
+     The following from the Department of Agriculture is necessary:
+
+     Check List of Forest Trees of the United States.
+
+Lantern slides illustrating the subjects treated in this book may be
+procured from T.H. McAllister, 49 Nassau Street, New York. Stereoscopic
+views may be obtained from Underwood & Underwood, Fifth Avenue and
+Nineteenth Street, New York.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GENERAL PRINCIPLES
+
+
+Commerce and modern civilization go hand in hand, and the history of the
+one is the history of the other; and whatever may be the basis of
+civilization, commerce has been the chief agent by which it has been
+spread throughout the world. Peoples who receive nothing from their
+fellow-men, and who give nothing in return, are usually but little above
+a savage state. Civilized man draws upon all the rest of the world for
+what he requires, and gives to the rest of the world in return. He is
+civilized because of this fact and not in spite of it.
+
+There is scarcely a country in the world that does not yield something
+or other to civilized peoples. There is scarcely a household whose
+furnishings and contents do not represent an aggregate journey of
+several times around the earth. A family in New York at breakfast occupy
+chairs from Grand Rapids, Mich.; they partake of bread made of wheat
+from Minnesota, and meat from Texas prepared in a range made in St.
+Louis; coffee grown in Sumatra or Java, or tea from China is served in
+cups made in Japan, sweetened with sugar from Cuba, stirred with spoons
+of silver from Nevada. Spices from Africa, South America, and Asia
+season the food, which is served on a table of New Hampshire oak,
+covered with a linen spread made from flax grown in Ireland or in
+Russia. Rugs from Bokhara, or from Baluchistan, cover the floors;
+portieres made in Constantinople hang at the doors; and the room is
+heated with coal from Pennsylvania that burns in a furnace made in Rhode
+Island.
+
+Now all these things may be, and usually are, found in the great
+majority of families in the United States or Europe, and most of them
+will be found in nearly all households. Certain it is that peoples do
+exist who, from the immediate vicinity in which they live, procure all
+the things they use or consume. In the main, however, such peoples are
+savages.
+
+A moment's thought will make it clear that before an ordinary meal can
+be served there must be railways, steamships, great manufacturing
+establishments, iron quarries, and coal mines, aggregating many thousand
+millions of dollars, and employing many million people. A casual
+inspection, too, reveals the fact that all of the substances and things
+required by mankind come from the earth, and, a very few excepted, every
+one requires a certain amount of manufacture or preliminary treatment
+before it is usable. The grains and nearly all the other food-stuffs
+require various processes of preparation before they are ready for
+consumption by civilized peoples. Iron and the various other ores used
+in the arts must undergo elaborate processes of manufacture; coal must
+be mined, broken, cleaned, and transported; the soil in which
+food-stuffs are grown must be fertilized and mechanically prepared; and
+even the water required for domestic purposes in many instances must be
+transported long distances.
+
+[Illustration: AGRICULTURE AND MANUFACTURE SUPPLEMENT EACH OTHER]
+
+A little thought will suffice to show that not only are all food-stuffs
+derived from the earth, but that also every usable resource which
+constitutes wealth is also drawn from the same source. The same is also
+pretty nearly true of the various forms of energy, for although the sun
+is the real source of light and heat, and probably of electricity, these
+agents are usable only when they have been transformed into earth
+energies. Thus, the physical energy generated by falling water is merely
+a transformed portion of solar heat; so also the coal-beds contain both
+the chemical and physical energy of solar heat and light converted into
+potential energy--that is, into force that can be used at the will of
+intelligence. Indeed, the physical being of mankind is an organism born
+of the earth, and adapted to the earth; and when that physical form
+dies, it merely is transformed again to ordinary earth substances.
+
+The chief activities of living beings are those relating to the
+maintenance of life. In other words, animals must feed, and they must
+also protect themselves against extermination. In the case of all other
+animals this is a very simple matter, they simply live in immediate
+contact with their food, migrating or perishing if the supply gives out.
+In the case of mankind the conditions are different and vastly more
+elaborate. Savage peoples excepted, man does not live within close touch
+of the things he requires; indeed, he cannot, for he depends upon all
+the world for what he uses. In a less enlightened state many of these
+commodities were luxuries; in a civilized state they have become
+necessities. Moreover, nearly everything civilized man employs has been
+prepared by processes in which heat is employed.
+
+Therefore one may specify several classes of human activities and
+employments:
+
+     (_a_) The production of food-stuffs and other commodities by the
+     cultivation of the soil--_Agriculture_.
+
+     (_b_) The preparation of food-stuffs and things used for shelter,
+     protection, or ornament--_Manufacture_.
+
+     (_c_) The production of minerals for the generation of power, such
+     as coal, or those such as iron, copper, stone, etc., required in
+     the arts and sciences--_Mining_.
+
+     (_d_) The exchange of food stuffs and commodities--_Commerce_.
+
+     (_e_) The transfer of commodities--_Transportation_.
+
+It is evident that the prosperity and happiness of a people depend very
+largely on the condition of their surroundings--that is, their
+environment. If a country or an inhabited area produces all the
+food-stuffs and commodities required by its people, the conditions are
+very fortunate. A very few nations, notably China and the United States,
+have such diverse conditions of climate, topography, and mineral
+resources, that they can, if necessary, produce within their national
+borders everything needed by their peoples.
+
+The prosecution of such a policy, however, is rarely economical; in the
+history of the past it has always resulted in weakness and
+disintegration. China is to-day helpless because of a policy of
+self-seclusion; and the marvellous growth of Japan began when her trade
+was thrown open to the world.
+
+For the greater part the environment of a people is deficient--that is,
+the locality of a people does not yield all that is required for the
+necessities of life. For instance, the New England plateau requires an
+enormous amount of fuel for its manufacturing enterprises; but
+practically no coal is found within its borders; hence the manufacturers
+must either command the coal to be shipped from other regions or give up
+their employment. The people of Canada require a certain amount of
+cotton cloth; but the cotton plant will not grow in a cold climate, so
+they must either exchange some of their own commodities for cotton, or
+else go without it. The inhabitants of Great Britain produce only a
+small part of the food-stuffs they consume; therefore they are
+constantly exchanging their manufactured products for the food-stuffs
+that of necessity must be produced in other parts of the world.
+
+The dwellers of the New England plateau might grow the bread-stuffs they
+require, and in times past they did so. At that time, however, a barrel
+of flour was worth twelve dollars. But the wheat of the prairie regions
+can be grown, manufactured into flour, transported a thousand miles, and
+sold at a profit for less than five dollars a barrel. Therefore it is
+evidently more economical to buy flour in Minnesota than to grow the
+wheat and make it into flour in Massachusetts.
+
+All these problems, and they exist without number, show that man may
+overcome most of the obstacles that surround him. So we find civilized
+man living in almost every part of the world. Tropical regions are not
+too scorching, nor are arctic fastnesses too cold for him. In other
+words, because of commerce and transportation, he can and usually does
+master the conditions of his environment; his intelligence enables him
+to do so, and his ability to do so is the result of the intelligent use
+of experience and education.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW COMMERCE CIVILIZED MANKIND
+
+
+The history of western civilization is so closely connected with the
+development of the great routes of travel and the growth of commerce
+that one cannot possibly separate them. Commerce cannot exist without
+the intercourse of peoples, and peoples cannot be in mutual
+communication unless each learns from the other.
+
+=Feudalism.=--When the Roman Empire fell civilization in western Europe
+was not on a high plane; indeed, the feudalism that followed was not
+much above barbarism. The people were living in a manner that was not
+very much unlike the communal system under which the serfs of Russia
+lived only a few years ago. Each centre of population was a sort of
+military camp governed by a feudal lord. The followers and retainers
+were scarcely better off than slaves; indeed, many of them were slaves.
+There was no ownership of the land except by the feudal lords, and the
+latter were responsible for their acts to the king only.
+
+But very few people cared to be absolutely free, because they had but
+little chance to protect themselves; so it was the common custom to
+attach one's self to a feudal lord in order to have his protection; even
+a sort of peonage or slavery under him was better than no protection at
+all. A few of the people were engaged in trade and manufacture of some
+kind or other, and they were the only ones through whom the feudal lord
+could supply himself with the commodities needed for his retainers and
+the luxuries necessary to himself.
+
+Each feudal estate, therefore, became a sort of industrial centre by
+itself, producing its own food-stuffs and much of the coarser
+manufactures. It was not a very high condition of enlightenment, but it
+was much better than the one which preceded it, for at least it offered
+protection. It encouraged a certain amount of trade and commerce,
+because the feudal lord had many wants, and he was usually willing to
+protect the merchant who supplied them.
+
+=The Crusades and Commerce.=--The Crusades, or wars by which the
+Christians sought to recover the Holy Land from the Turk, resulted in a
+trade between Europe and India that grew to wonderful proportions. Silk
+fabrics, cotton cloth, precious stones, ostrich plumes, ivory, spices,
+and drugs--all of which were practically unknown in Europe--were eagerly
+sought by the nobility and their dependencies. In return, linen and
+woollen fabrics, leather goods, glassware, blacklead, and steel
+implements were carried to the far East.
+
+Milan, Florence, Venice and Genoa, Constantinople and a number of less
+important towns along the Mediterranean basin became important trade
+centres, but Venice and Genoa grew to be world powers in commerce. Not
+only were they great receiving and distributing depots of trade, but
+they were great manufacturing centres as well.
+
+The routes over which this enormous commerce was carried were few in
+number. For the greater part, the Venetian trade went to Alexandria, and
+thence by the Red Sea to India. Genoese merchants sent their goods to
+Constantinople and Trebizond, thence down the Tigris River to the
+Persian Gulf and to India. There was also another route that had been
+used by the Phoenicians. It extended from Tyre through Damascus and
+Palmyra[2] to the head of the Persian Gulf; this gradually fell into
+disuse after the founding of Alexandria.
+
+The general effects of this trade were very far-reaching. To the greater
+number of the people of Europe, the countries of India, China, and Japan
+were mythical. According to tradition they were infested with dragons
+and gryphons, and peopled by dog-headed folk or by one-eyed Arimaspians.
+About the first real information of them to be spread over Europe was
+brought by Marco Polo, whose father and uncle had travelled all through
+these countries during the latter part of the thirteenth century.[3]
+Marco Polo's writings were very widely read, and influenced a great many
+people who could not be reached through the ordinary channels of
+commerce. So between the wars of the Crusades on the one hand, and the
+growth of commerce on the other, a new and a better civilization began
+to spread over Europe.
+
+=The Turkish Invasions.=--But the magnificent trade that had thus grown up
+was checked for a time by an unforeseen factor. The half-savage
+Turkomans living southeast of Russia had become converted to the
+religion of Islam, and in their zeal for the new belief, determined to
+destroy the commerce which seemed to be connected with Christianity. So
+they moved in upon the borderland between Europe and Asia, and one after
+another the trade routes were tightly closed. Then they captured
+Constantinople, and the routes between Genoa and the Orient were
+hermetically sealed. Moslem power also spread over Syria and Egypt, and
+so, little by little, the trade of Venice was throttled.
+
+[Illustration: ROUTES TO INDIA--THE TURK CHANGES THE COMMERCE OF THE
+WORLD]
+
+Now a commerce that involved not only many millions of dollars, but the
+employment of thousands of people as well, is not likely to be given up
+without a struggle. So the energy that had been devoted to this great
+trade was turned in a new direction, and there began a search for a new
+route to India--one that the Turks could not blockade.
+
+=The Search for an All-Water Route to India.=--Overland routes were out of
+the question; there were none that could be made available, and so the
+search was made for a sea-route. Rather singularly the Venetians and
+Genoese, who had hitherto controlled this trade, took no part in the
+search; it was conducted by the Spanish and the Portuguese.
+
+The Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, fitted out an
+expedition under Christopher Columbus, a master-mariner and
+cartographer, the funds being provided by Isabella, who pledged her
+private property as security for the cost of the expedition. This
+expedition resulted in the discovery, October 10-21, 1492, of the West
+India Islands. In a subsequent voyage, Columbus discovered the mainland
+of South America.
+
+Even before the voyage of Columbus, the Portuguese had been trying to
+find a way around Africa to India, and Pope Eugenius IV. had conferred
+on Portugal "all heathen lands from Cape Bojador eastward even to the
+Indies." Little by little, therefore, Portuguese navigators were pushing
+southward until, in 1487, Bartholomew Dias sighted the Cape of Good
+Hope, and got about as far as Algoa Bay. Then he unwillingly turned back
+because of the threats of his crew. It was a most remarkable voyage, and
+one of the shipmates of Dias was Bartholomew Columbus, a brother of the
+discoverer of the New World.
+
+Ten years later, or five years after the voyage of Columbus, Vasco da
+Gama sailed from Lisbon for the Cape of Good Hope. As he passed the Cape
+he was terribly storm-tossed, but the storms carried him in a fortunate
+direction. And when at last he got his reckonings, he was off the coast
+of India; he therefore kept along the coast until in sight of a port.
+The port was the well-known city of Calicut. Two years later he returned
+to Europe by the same route, his ships laden with spices, precious
+stones, beautiful tapestries and brocades, ivory and bronzes. The
+long-sought sea-route to India had been discovered.
+
+[Illustration: A HANSE CITY--HAMBURG, ALONG THE WATER-FRONT]
+
+=Commerce in Western Europe.=--After the discovery of the new route,
+Venice and Genoa were scarcely heard of in relation to commerce; they
+lost everything and gained nothing. The great commerce with the Orient
+was to have a new western terminus, and the latter was to be on the
+shores of the North and Baltic Seas.
+
+The commerce between Europe and India stimulated trade in western Europe
+as well. As early as the twelfth century the manufacture of linen and
+woollen cloth had grown to be a very important industry that had
+resulted in the rapid growth of population. The older cities grew
+rapidly, and new ones sprang up wherever the commodities of trade were
+gathered, manufactured, or distributed.
+
+These centres of trade had two hostile elements against them. The feudal
+lords used to pillage them legally by extorting heavy taxes and forced
+loans whenever their treasuries were empty. The portionless brothers and
+relatives of the feudal lords, to whom no employments save war,
+adventure, and piracy were open, pillaged them illegally. Along the
+coasts especially, piracy was considered not only a legitimate, but a
+genteel, profession. So in order to protect themselves, the cities began
+to join themselves into leagues.
+
+=The Hanse League.=--About the beginning of the thirteenth century[4]
+Hamburg and Luebeck formed an alliance afterward called a _hansa_; at the
+beginning of the fourteenth century it embraced seventy cities, having
+the capital at Luebeck. At the time of its greatest power the League
+embraced all the principal cities of western Europe nearly as far south
+as the Danube. Large agencies, called "factories," were established in
+London, Bruges, Novgorod, Bergen, and Wisby. The influence of the League
+practically controlled western Europe.
+
+The Hanse League performed a wonderful work. It stopped piracy on the
+seas and robbery on the land. Industrially, it encouraged
+self-government and obedience to constitutional authority. Shipbuilding
+and navigation so greatly improved that the ocean traffic resulting from
+the discovery of the cape route to India quickly fell into the hands of
+Hanse sailors and master-mariners. The League not only encouraged and
+protected all sorts of manufactures, but its schools trained thousands
+of operatives. The mines were worked and the idle land cultivated. It
+was the greatest industrial movement that ever occurred.
+
+[Illustration: HANSE ROUTES--THE HANSE LEAGUE REORGANIZES THE TRADE OF
+THE WORLD]
+
+Socially, the Hanse League brought the wealth that gave those comforts
+and conveniences before unknown. The standards of social life,
+education, art, and science were raised from a condition scarcely
+better than barbarism to a high plane of civilization. Indeed, the
+civilization of western Europe was the most important result of it.
+
+It forced the rights of individual freedom, as well as municipal
+independence, from more than one monarch, and punished severely the
+kings who sought to betray it. It crushed the power of those who opposed
+it,[5] and rewarded those who were faithful to it. Its most important
+mission, however, was the overthrow of feudalism and the gradual
+substitution of popular government in its place.
+
+Having accomplished the regeneration of Europe, the Hanse League died
+partly by its own hand, because of its arrogance, but mainly from the
+fact that, having educated western Europe to self-government and
+commercial independence, there was no longer need for its existence.
+Independent cities grew rapidly into importance, and these got along
+very well without the protection of the League. The great industrial
+progress was at times temporarily checked by wars, but it never took a
+backward step. Indeed the progress of commerce has always been a contest
+between brains and brute force, and in such a struggle there is never
+any doubt about the final outcome.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What were some of the effects of Caesar's invasion of Germanic Europe so
+far as commerce is concerned?
+
+What were some of the effects on commerce of the breaking up of the
+Roman Empire?
+
+How did the invasion of England by William of Normandy affect the
+commerce of the English people?
+
+Who was Henry the Navigator, and what did he accomplish?
+
+How did the blockade of the routes between Europe and India bring about
+the discovery of America?
+
+What was the result of the great voyage of the Cabots?
+
+Was the overthrow of feudalism in Europe a gain or a loss to commerce?
+
+Why are not commercial leagues, such as the Hanse, necessary at the
+present time?
+
+Why did Spain's commerce decline as Portugal's thrived?
+
+
+COLLATERAL READING[6]
+
+Gibbins's History of Commerce--Chapters IV-V.
+
+Fiske's Discovery of America, Vol. 1--Chapters IV-V.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+TOPOGRAPHIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE
+
+
+The great industry of commerce, which includes both the trade in the
+commodities of life and the transportation of them, is governed very
+largely by the character of the earth's surface. But very few
+food-stuffs can be grown economically in mountain-regions. Steep
+mountain-slopes are apt to be destitute of soil; moreover, even the
+mountain-valleys are apt to be difficult of access, and in such cases
+the cost of moving the crops may be greater than the market value of the
+products. Mountainous countries, therefore, are apt to be sparsely
+peopled regions.
+
+But although the great mountain-systems are unhabitable, or at least
+sparsely peopled, they have a very definite place in the economics of
+life. Thus, the great western highland of the United States diverts the
+flow of moisture from the Gulf of Mexico northward into the central
+plain, and gives to the region most of its food-growing power. In a
+similar manner, moisture intercepted by the Alps and the Himalayas has
+not only created the plains of the Po and the Ganges from the rock-waste
+carried from the slopes, but has also made them exceedingly fertile.
+
+Mountain-ranges are also valuable for their contents. The broken
+condition of the rock-folds and the rapid weathering to which they are
+subjected have exposed the minerals and metals so useful in the arts of
+commerce and civilization. Thus, the weathering of the Appalachian folds
+has made accessible about the only available anthracite coal measures
+yet worked; and the worn folds about Lake Superior have yielded the
+ores that have made the United States the foremost copper and steel
+manufacturing country of the world. Gold, silver, tin, lead, zinc,
+platinum, granite, slate, and marble occur mainly in mountain-folds.
+
+=Mountains and Valleys.=--Mountain-ranges are great obstacles to commerce
+and intercommunication. The Greek peoples found it much easier to
+scatter along the Mediterranean coast than to cross the Balkan
+Mountains. For twenty years after the settlement of California, it was
+easier and less expensive to send traffic by way of Cape Horn than to
+carry it across the Rocky Mountains.
+
+The deep canyons of mountainous regions are quite as difficult to
+overcome as the high ranges. In modern methods of transportation a range
+that cannot be surmounted may be tunnelled, and a tunnel five or six
+miles in length is no uncommon feat of engineering. A canyon, however,
+cannot be tunnelled, and if too wide for cantilever or suspension
+bridges, a detour of many miles is necessary. In crossing a deep chasm
+the route of transportation may aggregate ten or fifteen times the
+distance spanned by a straight line.
+
+Excepting the mining regions, the population of mountainous countries is
+apt to be found mainly in the intermontane valleys. A reason for this is
+not hard to find; the valleys are usually filled with rich soil brought
+from the higher slopes and levelled by the water. The population,
+therefore, is concentrated in the valley because of the food-producing
+power of the land. For this reason the Sound, Willamette, and San
+Joaquin-Sacramento Valleys contain the chief part of the Pacific coast
+population. The Shenandoah and the Great Valley of Virginia are similar
+instances.
+
+What is true of the larger intermontane valleys is true also of the
+narrow stream valleys of mountain and plateau regions. Thus, in the New
+England plateau the chief growth during the past forty years has been in
+the valley lands. In that time if the uplands have not suffered actual
+loss, they certainly have made no material gains. Upland farming has not
+proved a remunerative venture, and many of the farms have either been
+abandoned or converted to other uses.
+
+=Passes.=--Transverse valleys form very important topographic features of
+mountain-regions. Inasmuch as the ranges themselves are obstacles to
+communication, it follows that the latter must be concentrated at such
+cross valleys or gaps as may be traversed. Khaibar Pass, a narrow defile
+in the Hindu Kush Mountains, between Peshawur and Jelalabad, for many
+years was the chief gateway between Europe and India. Even now the cost
+of holding it is an enormous tax upon England.
+
+Brenner, St. Gotthard, and the Mont Cenis Passes are about the only land
+channels of commerce between Italy and transalpine Europe, and most of
+the communication between northern Italy and the rest of Europe is
+carried on by means of these passes. Every transcontinental railway of
+the American continent crosses the various highlands by means of gaps
+and passes, and some of them would never have been built were it not for
+the existence of the passes. Fremont, South, and Marshall Passes have
+been of historic importance for half a century.
+
+The Hudson and Champlain Valley played an important part in the history
+of the colonies a century before the existence of the United States, and
+its importance as a gateway to eastern Canada is not likely to be
+lessened. The Mohawk gap was the first practical route to be maintained
+between the Atlantic seaboard and the food-producing region of the Great
+Central Plain. It is to-day the most important one. It is so nearly
+level that the total lift of freight going from Buffalo to tide-water is
+less than five hundred feet.
+
+[Illustration: A PASS--THE ROUTE OF A RAILWAY]
+
+=Rivers.=--River-valleys are closely connected with the economic
+development of a country. Navigable rivers are free and open highways of
+communication. In newly settled countries the river is always the least
+expensive means of carriage, and often it is the only one available for
+the transportation of heavy goods.
+
+In late years, since the railway has become the chief means for the
+transportation of commodities, river transportation has greatly
+declined. The river-valley, however, has lost none of its importance; in
+most instances it is a naturally levelled and graded route, highly
+suitable for the tracks of the railway. As a result, outside of the
+level lands of the Great Central Plain, not far from eighty per cent. of
+the railway mileage of the United States is constructed along
+river-valleys.
+
+=Plateaus.=--Plateaus are usually characterized by broken and more or less
+rugged surface features. As a rule they are deficient in the amount of
+rainfall necessary to produce an abundance of the grains and similar
+food-stuffs, although this is by no means the case with all.
+
+Most plateaus produce an abundance of grass, and cattle-growing is
+therefore an important industry in such regions. Thus, the plateaus of
+the Rocky Mountains are famous for cattle, and the same is true of the
+Mexican and the South American plateaus. The Iberian plateau, including
+Spain and Portugal, is noted for the merino sheep, which furnish the
+finest wool known. The plateau of Iran is also noted for its wool, and
+the rugs from this region cannot be imitated elsewhere in the world.
+
+=Plains.=--Plains are of the highest importance to life and its
+activities. Not only do they present fewer obstacles to
+intercommunication than any other topographic features, but almost
+always they are deeply covered with the fine rock-waste that forms the
+chief components of soil. Plains, therefore, contain the elements of
+nutrition, and are capable of supporting life to a greater extent than
+either mountains or plateaus. About ninety per cent. of the world's
+population dwell in the lowland plains.
+
+The Great Central Plain of North America produces more than one-quarter
+of the world's wheat, and about four-fifths of the corn. The southern
+part of the great Arctic plain, and its extension, the plains of the
+Baltic also yield immense quantities of grain and cattle products. The
+coast-plains of the Atlantic Ocean, on both the American and the
+European side, are highly productive.
+
+River flood-plains are almost always densely peopled because of their
+productivity. The bottom-lands of the Mississippi and the Yangtze Rivers
+are among the chief food-producing regions of the world. Lacustrine
+plains, the beds of former lakes, are also highly productive regions.
+The valley of the Red River of the North is an example, and its wheat is
+of a very high quality.
+
+Fertile coast-plains and lowlands that are adjacent to good harbors, as
+a rule are the most thickly peopled regions of the world. In many such
+regions the density of population exceeds two hundred or more per square
+mile. The reason is obvious. Life seeks that environment which yields
+the greatest amount of nutrition with the least expenditure of energy.
+
+The study of a good relief map shows that, as a rule, the Pacific Ocean
+is bordered by a rugged highland, which has a more or less abrupt slope,
+and a narrow coast-plain. Indeed, the latter is absent for the greater
+part. The slopes of the Atlantic, on the other hand, are long and
+gentle--being a thousand miles or more in width throughout the greater
+part of their extent. The area of productive land is correspondingly
+great, and the character of the surface features is such that
+intercommunication is easy.
+
+[Illustration: A RIVER FLOOD-PLAIN--A REGION ADAPTED TO CULTIVATION]
+
+The result of these conditions is evident. The Atlantic slopes, though
+not everywhere the most densely peopled areas, contain the great centres
+of the world's activities and economies. In the past 400 years they have
+not only overtaken the Pacific coast races, but have far surpassed them.
+They are now entering upon a commercial invasion of the Pacific nations
+that is resulting in a reorganization of the entire industrial world.
+
+=Topography and Trade Routes.=--As the settlement and commerce of a
+country grow, roads succeed trails, and trails are apt to follow the
+paths of migrating animals. Until the time of the Civil War in the
+United States, most of the great highways of the country were the direct
+descendants of "buffalo roads," as they were formerly called.
+
+In the crossing of divides from one river-valley to another, the
+mountain-sections of the railways for the greater part follow the trails
+of the bison. This is especially marked in the Pennsylvania, the
+Baltimore and Ohio, and the Chesapeake and Ohio railways; in some
+instances the tunnels through ranges have been constructed directly
+under the trails. The reason is obvious; the instinct of the bison led
+him along routes having the minimum of grade.
+
+Throughout the Mississippi Valley and the great plains the Indian trails
+usually avoided the bottom-lands of the river-valleys, following the
+divides and portages instead. This selection of routes was probably due
+to the fact that the lowlands were swampy and subject to overflow; the
+portages and divides offered no steep grades, and were therefore more
+easily traversed.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE COMMODITIES ARE EXCHANGED--NEW YORK CITY
+WATER-FRONT]
+
+=Harbors.=--Coast outlines have much to do with the commercial
+possibilities of a region. The "drowned valleys" and similar inlets
+along the North Atlantic coast, both of Europe and America, form harbors
+in which vessels ride at anchor in safety, no matter what the existing
+conditions outside may be. As a result, the two greatest centres of
+commerce in the world are found at these harbors--one on the American,
+the other on the European coast.
+
+From New York Bay southward along the Atlantic seaboard there are but
+few harbors, and this accounts for the enormous development of commerce
+in the stretch of coast between Portland and Baltimore. San Francisco
+Bay and the harbors of Puget Sound monopolize most of the commerce of
+the Pacific coast of the United States. South America has several good
+harbors on the Atlantic seaboard, and in consequence a large city has
+grown at the site of each. On the Pacific coast the good harbors are
+very few in number, and they are not situated near productive regions.
+
+Asiatic peoples, as a rule, are not promoters of foreign commerce, and,
+those of Japan excepted, the only good harbors are those that have been
+improved by European governments. These are confined mainly to India and
+China. The many possible harbors make certain a tremendous commerce in
+the future. Africa has but very few good harbors. There are excellent
+harbors in the islands of the Pacific, and many of them are of great
+strategic value as coaling stations and bases of supply to the various
+maritime powers.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+The Pennsylvania Railroad has found it more economical to tunnel the
+mountain-range under Horseshoe Curve, near Altoona, than to haul the
+trains over the mountains; discuss the details in which there will be a
+saving.
+
+Why are rugged and mountainous regions apt to be sparsely peopled?
+
+The first valuable discovery in the Rocky Mountains was gold; what were
+the chief effects that resulted?
+
+Would the industries of the Pacific coast of the United States be
+benefited or impaired by the existence of a coast-plain?
+
+Which are more conducive to commerce--the large mediterraneans, such as
+the Gulf of Mexico, or the small estuaries, such as New York Bay?
+Discuss the merits or demerits of each.
+
+What are the chief products of mountains, of plateaus, of lowland
+plains?
+
+
+COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Adams's New Empire--Chapter I.
+
+Redway's Physical Geography--Chapter IV.
+
+A topographic map of the United States.
+
+[Illustration: MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CLIMATIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE
+
+
+In its effect upon life and the various industries of peoples, climate
+is a factor even more important than topography. Of the 53,000,000
+square miles of the land surface of the earth, scarcely more than
+one-half is capable of producing any great amount of food-stuffs, and
+only a very small area can support a population of more than one hundred
+people to each square mile.
+
+=Climate and Habitability.=--In the main, regions that are inhabited by
+human beings produce either food-stuffs or something of value that may
+be exchanged for food-stuffs; and inasmuch as food and shelter are the
+chief objects of human activity, regions that will not furnish them are
+not habitable.
+
+The growth and production of food-stuffs is governed even more by
+conditions of climate than by those of topography. Thus the great
+Russian plain is too cold to produce any great amount of food-stuffs,
+and it is, therefore, sparsely peopled. The northern part of Africa and
+the closed basins of North America and Asia lack the rainfall necessary
+to insure productivity, and these regions are also unhabitable. The
+basin of the Amazon has a rainfall too great for cereals and grasses,
+and the larger part of it is unfit for habitation.
+
+All the food-stuffs are exceedingly sensitive to climate. Rice will not
+grow where swampy conditions do not prevail at least during part of the
+year. Turf-grass will not live where there are repeated droughts of more
+than three months' duration, and corn will not ripen in regions having
+cool nights. Wheat does not produce a kernel fit for flour anywhere
+except in the temperate zone; and the banana will not grow outside the
+torrid zone.
+
+The two chief factors of climate are temperature and moisture. No forms
+of life can withstand a temperature constantly below the freezing-point
+of water, and but few, if any, can endure a constant heat of one hundred
+and twenty-five degrees, although most species can exist at temperatures
+beyond these limits for a short time.
+
+=Zones of Climate.=--The belt of earth upon which the sun's rays are
+nearly or quite vertical is comparatively narrow. But the inclination of
+the earth's axis and the fact that it is parallel to itself at all times
+of the year create zones of climate. These differ materially in the
+character of the life, forms, and the activities of the people who dwell
+in them.
+
+In the torrid zone the temperature varies but little. During the season
+of rains it rarely falls to 70 deg. F., and in the dry season it is seldom
+higher than 95 deg. F. As a result, all sorts of plants that are sensitive
+to low temperatures thrive in the torrid zone. It is not a climate
+suitable for heat-producing food-plants, and they are not required.
+
+The constant heat and excessive moisture of the atmosphere in the torrid
+zone is apt to produce a feeling of lassitude among the dwellers in such
+regions, moreover, and great bodily activity is out of question. These
+conditions seriously affect the lives of the people, and, with few
+exceptions, tropical peoples are rarely noted for energy or enterprise.
+Great commercial enterprises are the exception rather than the rule, and
+they are usually carried on by foreigners who must live a part of the
+time in cooler localities.
+
+[Illustration: THE EFFECTS OF HIGH LATITUDE--TOO COLD TO PRODUCE
+BREAD-STUFFS]
+
+Polar regions are deficient both in the heat and light necessary for
+food-stuffs. Neither the grasses nor the grains fructify. As a result,
+but few herbivora can live there, and these are practically restricted
+to the musk-ox and the reindeer, which subsist on mosses and lichens.
+The native people are stunted in growth; their food consists mainly of
+raw blubber, and they are scarcely above savagery.
+
+The temperate zones are the regions of the great industries and
+activities of human life. The larger part of the land surface of the
+earth is situated in these zones; moreover, the people who dominate the
+world also live in them, and their supremacy is due largely to
+conditions of climate. The alternation of summer and winter causes a
+struggle for existence that develops the intellectual faculties and
+results in industrial supremacy.
+
+=Effects of Altitude.=--There is a decrease of temperature of 1 deg. F. for
+about every three hundred feet of ascent. But few people live at an
+altitude of more than six thousand feet above sea-level, and in many
+cases they depend on other localities for the greater part of their
+food-stuffs, because very few of such regions produce food-stuffs
+abundantly.
+
+The chief exceptions to this rule are found in tropical regions. The
+highlands of Mexico, the plateau-regions of Bolivia and Ecuador, and the
+highlands of southern Asia are habitable, but they are not densely
+peopled. Because of their altitude they are relieved of the enervating
+effects of tropical climate at the sea-level.
+
+Altitude likewise affects the amount of rainfall. Most plateaus are
+arid. As a rule, they are arid because of their altitude; and because of
+their aridity they are deficient in their power to produce food-stuffs.
+They are therefore sparsely peopled.
+
+=Effects of Rainfall.=--Regions having considerably more than one hundred
+inches of rain annually are very apt to be forest-covered, and
+therefore to be deficient in food-producing plants. Such localities have
+usually a sparse population, in spite of the profusion of vegetation. In
+some parts of India, lands that have been left idle for a few seasons
+produce such a dense jungle of wild vegetation that to reclaim them for
+cultivation is wellnigh impossible.
+
+A deficiency of rainfall is even a greater factor in restricting the
+density of population than too much rain. With less than fifteen or
+twenty inches a year few regions produce good crops of grains and
+grasses, and as a result they are sparsely peopled. Some of the
+exceptions, however, are important. If the rainfall is not quite enough
+to produce a normal overflow to the sea, the soil may be very rich,
+because the nutrition is not leached out and carried away.
+
+Many small areas of this character produce enormous crops when
+artificially watered, and many of them, such as Persia, parts of Asia
+Minor, northern Utah, and large areas of Australia and Chile have become
+regions of considerable commercial importance. The products of such
+regions are apt to be unique in character and of unusual value. Thus,
+the wool of Persia and Australia and the fruit of the Iberian peninsula
+are important articles of commerce.
+
+In Egypt one may see the results of irrigated lands. The area of
+geographical Egypt is somewhat less than half a million square miles;
+the habitable part of the country is confined to a narrow strip, which,
+one or two places excepted, varies from three to six miles in width. In
+other words, almost the whole population of the country is massed in the
+flood-plain and delta of the Nile; the remaining part is a desert
+producing practically nothing.
+
+The water that makes these lands productive falls, not in Egypt, but in
+the highlands of Abyssinia, 2,000 miles away. The September overflow of
+the flood-plain is the chief factor in the irrigation of these lands,
+but the area has been greatly increased by the construction of barrages
+and dams at Assiut and Assuan.
+
+In the western highland region of the United States considerable areas
+already have been made productive by irrigation, and it is estimated
+that about two million acres of barren land can be reclaimed by
+impounding the waters of the various streams now running to waste.
+
+The distribution of rain with respect to the season in which it falls is
+quite as important as its distribution with respect to quantity. In
+tropical regions the ocean winds, and therefore the rainfall, come from
+the east. The eastern slopes of such regions, therefore, have a season
+in which rains may be expected daily, and another in which no rain falls
+for several months. In the temperate zones seasonal rains for a similar
+reason are on the western coasts.
+
+Thus on the Pacific coast of the United States the rainfall varies from
+about one hundred inches in southern Alaska to about twelve in San
+Diego, Cal. Practically all the rain falls between October and the
+following May; very little or none falls in the interval between May and
+October. As a result, ordinary turf-grass, which will not withstand long
+droughts, grows in only a few localities of the Pacific slope. It is
+replaced by hardier grasses whose roots, instead of forming turf, grow
+very deep in the soil.
+
+Common clover will not grow in this region unless irrigated; it is
+replaced by burr-clover, a variety of the plant that will not thrive in
+moist regions. Now the quality of the merino wool clip of California
+depends in no slight degree upon the burr-clover and other food-products
+that thrive in regions of seasonal rains; that is, a great commercial
+industry exists because of this feature of rainfall, and it could not
+long survive in spite of it.
+
+[Illustration: CLIMATICALLY ADAPTED TO CULTIVATION--THE LOWLANDS
+PRODUCE BREAD-STUFFS AND FRUIT; THE MOUNTAIN-SLOPES ARE GRAZING REGIONS]
+
+The seasonal rainfall also affects other agricultural industries. The
+sacked wheat-crop may be left in the field without cover or protection
+until the time is convenient for shipping it. The absence of summer
+rains makes possible in California what would be out of question in the
+Mississippi Valley, where a rainstorm may be expected every few days.
+
+The quality of certain fruits depends largely on the season during which
+the rainfall occurs. Apples, pears, and grapes grown in regions having
+dry summers have usually a very superior flavor. The raisin-making
+industry of California also depends on the same condition, because, in
+order to insure a good quality of the product, the bunches of grapes,
+after picking, must be dried on the ground. To a certain extent this is
+also true of other fruits, such as dates, figs, and prunes, which
+frequently are sun-dried.
+
+The presence of large bodies of water, which both absorb and give out
+their heat very slowly, tempers the climate of the nearby land and to
+that extent modifies the commerce of such districts. The grape-growing
+industry of central New York is a great one and its product is famous.
+Its existence depends almost wholly upon the lake-tempered climate.
+Elsewhere in the State the industry is on a precarious basis, and the
+product is inferior.
+
+=Effects of Inclination of the Earth's Axis.=--The inclination and
+self-parallelism of the earth's axis is undoubtedly a very important
+factor in climate. Practically it more than doubles the width of the
+belts of ordinary food-stuffs by lengthening the summer day in the
+temperate zone. Beyond the tropics the obliquity of the sun's rays are
+more than balanced by the increased length of time in which they fall.
+
+Thus, in the latitude of St. Paul, the longest day is about fifteen and
+one-half hours long; at Liverpool it is nearly seventeen hours long; a
+greater number of heat units therefore are received in these latitudes
+during summer than are received in equatorial regions during the
+twelve-hour day. Moreover, the summer temperature is higher in these
+latitudes than in the torrid zone, because the sun is shining upon them
+for a greater length of time.
+
+The result of these various influences is far-reaching. Because of the
+long summer days and short nights, wheat can be cultivated to the
+sixtieth parallel. Corn, which gets scarcely enough warmth and light in
+the torrid zone to become a prolific crop, attains its greatest yield in
+the latitude of fourteen-hour days.
+
+These factors, it is evident, carry the grain and meat industries into
+regions that otherwise would not be habitable. Because the long summer
+days produce these great food-crops, commerce and its allied industries
+have reached their maximum development in these regions. Human
+activities are greatest in the zones bounded by the thirty-fifth and
+fifty-fifth parallels, the zone that includes the greater parts of the
+United States, Europe, China, Japan. They are greatest, moreover,
+because of their geographical position.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What would be the probable effect on the food-crops of the United States
+were the main body of the country moved twenty degrees north in
+latitude? Which would then be the wheat-growing States, the
+cotton-producing States?
+
+Illustrate the connection between occupation and altitude above
+sea-level.
+
+What difference would it make to the corn-crop were the days and nights
+always twelve hours long?
+
+What would be requisite to make Canada a centre of silk production?
+
+Why is not cod-fishing an industry off the east coast of Florida?
+
+Why is the greater part of the Russian Empire destined to be sparsely
+peopled?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+A rain chart of the world.
+
+A chart of isothermal lines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TRANSPORTATION--OCEAN AND INLAND NAVIGATION
+
+
+Of all the adjustments which come into the lives of a people none has
+been so far-reaching as the gradual localization of industries each in
+the region best adapted to it. For instance, manufacturing industries
+require power, but not fertile soil; therefore the manufacturing
+industries seek nearness to fuel or to water-power, and a position
+available for quick transportation.
+
+Farming does not require any great amount of natural power; on the
+contrary, level land having a great depth of fertile soil is the
+essential feature. The farmer must therefore look first of all to
+conditions of topography and climate, and secondly to the means of
+transporting his crop.
+
+Mining cannot be an industry in regions destitute of minerals; the miner
+must therefore go where the mineral wealth is found, without regard to
+climate, soil, centres of population, or topography. But two things are
+required--the mineral products and the means of getting them to the
+people--that is, ready means of transportation.
+
+A century or more ago, each centre of population in the United States
+was practically self-sustaining. Each grew its own food-stuffs, and
+manufactured the articles used in the household. But very little was
+required in the way of transportation. The means of carriage were mainly
+ox-carts, pack-horses, and rafts. There was a mutual independence among
+the various centres, it is true, but the independence was at the expense
+of civilization and the comforts of life.
+
+[Illustration: OCEAN TRANSPORTATION--ROYAL MAIL STEAMSHIP OCEANIC,
+WHITE STAR LINE]
+
+Beyond an independence that is more apparent than real, such a plan of
+social and industrial organization has but little in it to commend.
+Intercommunication increases knowledge, and under the conditions that
+formerly prevailed, there was a lack of the breadth of knowledge that
+comes with the mutual contact of peoples.
+
+The utilization of national resources, such as the productiveness of the
+land, the existence of iron ore, coal, copper, and other economic
+minerals, finally brought about the policy of a territorial division of
+industries. This, in turn, made the prompt transportation and exchange
+of commodities essential; indeed, without such a plan, industrial
+centres could not long exist.
+
+The man whose sole business is manufacture must look to others for his
+supply of food-stuffs and raw materials, and these are produced more
+economically at a distance from the centre of manufacture. Thus England
+must look to the United States for wheat and cotton, to the Australian
+Commonwealth for wool, and to New Zealand and the United States for
+meat. Her chief wealth is in her coal and iron, and these make the
+nation a great manufacturing centre. So, also, the manufacturer of New
+York must go to Pittsburg for steel, to Minneapolis for flour, and to
+Chicago for beef.
+
+The application of this principle is very broad; it is the foundation of
+all commerce, and it underlies modern civilization. For this reason the
+question of transportation is just as important to a community as the
+industries of agriculture, mining, and manufacture. Food-stuffs are of
+no use unless they can be transported to the people who want them; nor
+can peoples remain in unproductive regions unless the food-stuffs are
+brought to them.
+
+The gross tonnage of goods is transported mainly in one or another or
+all of three ways--namely, by animal power, by railway, or by water.
+Thus, the cotton-crop of the United States is usually transported by
+wagon from the plantation to the nearest station or boat-landing; by
+rail or by barge to the nearest seaport; and by ocean steamship to the
+foreign seaport.
+
+Water transportation is more economical than land carriage, for the
+reason that less power is required to move a given tonnage through the
+water than on the most perfectly graded railway. Steamship freights, as
+a rule, are lower than those of sailing-vessels, because a steamship has
+more than twice the speed, and, being larger, can carry a greater
+tonnage. Freight rates on the Great Lakes are higher per ton-mile than
+on the ocean, because the vessels are necessarily smaller than those
+built for ocean traffic. For a similar reason, river and canal freights
+are higher than lake freights. Railway transportation is economical,
+partly because a single locomotive will draw an enormous weight of
+goods, and partly because of the high speed at which the goods move from
+point to point. Animal transportation is more expensive than any other
+means ordinarily employed.
+
+=Ocean Transportation.=--In many respects, water-routes form the most
+available and economical methods of transportation. Intercontinental
+commerce must be carried on by means of deep-water vessels. Therefore an
+extraordinary development of ocean carriers has taken place in the past
+century.
+
+One important period of development began with the rise of American
+commerce. Just after the close of the War for Independence, it was found
+that deep-water ships could be built of New England timber for
+thirty-five dollars per ton, rated tonnage, while a vessel of the same
+burden built in Europe cost about forty-five dollars per unit of
+tonnage. Two types of vessels came into use--one, the clipper ship with
+square sails, was used for long ocean voyages; the other, the schooner,
+with fore-and-aft rigging, was employed mainly in the coast-trade.
+
+[Illustration: A SQUARE-RIGGED SHIP--A TYPE NOW BEING REPLACED BY
+FORE-AND-AFT RIGGED SCHOONERS]
+
+In speed and ease of management these vessels surpassed anything that
+had ever sailed. In time they became the standards for the
+sailing-vessels of all the great commercial nations. The types of the
+vessels are still standards.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN STEAMSHIP]
+
+=The Development of the Steamship.=--Another important era in ocean
+commerce began when steam was used as a motive power for vessels. The
+first deep-water vessel thus to be propelled was the Savannah. Her
+steam-power was merely incidental, however, and her paddle-wheels were
+unshipped and taken aboard when there was enough wind for sailing. Up
+to 1860 almost all the ocean steamships were side-wheelers, propelled by
+low-pressure beam-engines.
+
+The next most important improvement was the screw-blade propeller,
+placed astern. This means of propulsion called for higher speed of the
+engines, and in a very short time compactly built high-pressure engines
+took the place of the low-pressure engine with its heavy walking-beam.
+The latter carried steam at a pressure varying from twenty to thirty-two
+pounds; the modern boiler has steam at 260 pounds per square inch.
+
+Ocean steamships have gradually evolved into two types. The freighter,
+broad in beam and capacious, is built to carry an enormous amount of
+freight at a moderate speed. The White Star liner Celtic is a vessel of
+this class; her schedule time between New York and Liverpool is about
+nine days. The Philadelphia of the American line, though not the fastest
+steamship, makes the same trip in an average time of five and one-half
+days.[7]
+
+Twin-screws, instead of a single propeller, are employed on nearly all
+the large liners. The gain in speed is not greatly increased, but the
+vessel is far more manageable with two screws than with one; moreover,
+if one engine breaks down, the vessel can make excellent time with the
+other.
+
+Triple-expansion engines are almost universally used on modern
+steamships, and a pound of coal now makes about three times as much
+steam available as in the engines formerly used. As a result a bushel of
+wheat is now carried from Fargo, N. Dak., to Liverpool for about
+twenty-one cents--less than one-half the freight tariff of 1876.
+
+[Illustration: THE SCHOONER THOMAS A. LAWSON. THE FIRST SEVEN-MASTED
+SAILING-VESSEL]
+
+The fastest liners consume from three hundred and fifty to more than
+four hundred tons of coal a day, and for each additional knot of speed
+the amount of coal burned must be greatly increased. Freighters like the
+Celtic consume scarcely more than half as much as those of the Kaiser
+Wilhelm II. type.
+
+=Sailing-Craft.=--In spite of the growth and development of
+steam-navigation, a large amount of freight is still carried by
+sailing-craft; moreover, it is not unlikely that the relative proportion
+of ocean freight carried by sailing-vessels will increase rather than
+decrease, especially in the case of imperishable freight.
+
+The square-rigged ship, or bark, has been very largely replaced by the
+fore-and-aft, or schooner-rigged vessel. A large full-rigged ship
+requires a crew of thirty to thirty-six men; a schooner-rigged vessel
+needs from sixteen to twenty. These vessels are commonly built with
+three and four masts; some of the largest have six or seven. They carry
+as many as five thousand tons of freight at a speed of about ten
+knots--only a trifle less than that of an ordinary tramp freighter. Some
+of the larger vessels are provided with auxiliary engines and propelling
+apparatus, which enables them to enter or to leave port without the
+assistance of a tug. Donkey-engines hoist and lower the sails, and
+perform the work of loading and unloading. They are admirable colliers
+and grain-carriers.
+
+At the beginning of the twentieth century, about ninety thousand
+sailing-craft and thirty-five thousand steam-vessels were required to
+carry the world's commerce. Of this number, Great Britain and her
+colonies register nearly thirty-five thousand, and the United States
+over twenty thousand.
+
+     HARBOR SAFEGUARDS.--Excepting the open anchorages formed by angles
+     in coast-lines, the greater number of harbors consist of small
+     coves and river-mouths. In these, although there may be a
+     considerable area of water, there is not apt to be much sailing
+     room; it is therefore necessary to mark off the navigable channels.
+     For this purpose buoys of different shapes and colors are used by
+     day; by night fixed and flashing lights are employed.
+
+     The buoys of permanent channels are usually hollow metal cylinders
+     or cones about two feet in diameter, anchored so that the end of
+     the cylinder projects about three feet above the water. On entering
+     a channel from the seaward, red buoys are on the starboard, or
+     right hand; white buoys are kept on the port, or left side. Buoys
+     at the end of a channel are usually surmounted each by some device
+     or other fastened at the upper end of a perch. Thus, at the outer
+     entrance of Gedney Channel in New York Harbor, a ball surmounts the
+     perch; at the inner entrance the buoy carries a double square.
+     Sharp angles in a channel are similarly marked. In many instances
+     the buoy carries, as a warning signal, a bell that rings as the
+     buoy is rocked by the waves; in others, a whistle that sounds by
+     the air which the rocking motion compresses within the cylinder;
+     still others carry electric or gas lights.
+
+     The color of a buoy is an index of its character. Thus, one with
+     black and red stripes indicates danger; one with black and white
+     vertical stripes is a channel-marker. Temporary channels are
+     frequently marked by pieces of spar floating upright. In some cases
+     it is customary to set untrimmed tree-tops on the port, and trimmed
+     sticks on the starboard.
+
+     Light-houses are built at all exposed points of navigated
+     coast-waters, and beacons are set at all necessary points within a
+     harbor for use at night. All lights are kept burning from sunset
+     until sunrise. The color, the duration, and the intervals of
+     flashing indicate the position of the beacon. In revolving lights
+     the beams, concentrated by powerful lenses, sweep the horizon as
+     the lantern about the light revolves. Flashing lights are produced
+     when the light is obscured at given intervals. Fixed lights burn
+     with a steady flame. In some instances a sector of colored glass is
+     set so as to cover a given part of a channel. Range lights, set so
+     that one shows directly above the other, are used as
+     channel-markers.
+
+     [Illustration: CITY OF NEW YORK AND VICINITY, WITH HARBOR
+     APPROACHES.]
+
+     The use of lights may be seen as a vessel enters New York Lower
+     Bay. A steamship drawing not more than eighteen feet of water may
+     enter through Swash Channel (_follow the course on the chart_). In
+     this case the pilot makes for Scotland lightship, and merely keeps
+     New Dorp and Elmtree beacons in range, giving Dry Romer a wide
+     berth to starboard, until Chapel Hill and Conover beacons come into
+     range on his port side. The vessel is then held on a course between
+     Coney Island and Fort Tompkins lights until Robbins Reef light
+     shows ahead.
+
+     For the liners that draw more than eighteen feet the task is more
+     difficult, inasmuch as the channel is tortuous. At Sandy Hook
+     lightship a course lying nearly west takes the vessel to the outer
+     entrance of Gedney Channel, marked by two buoy-lights. In passing
+     between the lights the vessel enters the channel, which is also
+     covered by the red sector of Hook beacon. The pilot continues
+     between the buoy-lights until Waacaack and Point Comfort beacons
+     are in range, and steers to this range until South Beacon and Sandy
+     Hook light are in range astern. The helm is then turned, keeping
+     these lights in range astern until Chapel Hill and Conover beacons
+     are in range on the port bow. Turning northward nearly eight
+     points, the pilot holds the bow of the vessel between Fort Tompkins
+     and Coney Island lights, keeping sharply to his range astern, until
+     Robbins Reef light comes into view through the narrows. From this
+     point on, the shore lights are the pilot's chief guide.
+
+     So difficult are harbor entrances, that in most cases the
+     underwriters will not insure a vessel unless the latter is taken
+     from the outer harbor to the dock by a licensed pilot, and the
+     latter must spend nearly half a lifetime as an apprentice before he
+     receives a license. The charges for pilotage are usually regulated
+     by the number of feet the vessel draws. The charges differ in
+     various ports, but the devices for marking and lighting the
+     channels are much the same in every part of the world. In the
+     United States all navigable channels are under the control of the
+     general Government.
+
+=Inland Waters.=--Lakes, rivers, and canals furnish a very important means
+of transportation. In Europe and Canada an enormous amount of slow
+freight is transported by their use; in China they are the most
+important means of internal traffic.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMERCE OF THE OHIO--TOWING COAL TO THE STEEL
+MILLS, PITTSBURG]
+
+In the United States the Great Lakes with the Erie Canal and Hudson
+River form the most important internal water-way, and by them the
+continent is penetrated as far west as Duluth, a distance of more than
+one thousand three hundred miles. The traffic passing out of Lake
+Superior alone is about one-third greater than that passing out of the
+Mediterranean Sea at the Suez Canal. Much of this traffic goes across
+the continent, and the route in question is one of the great commercial
+highways of the world.
+
+The Mississippi River and its branches afford not far from ten thousand
+miles of navigable waters. Canals connect tributaries of this river with
+the Great Lakes at Chicago and at several points in Ohio. The
+development of the navigation of this great water-way was checked by the
+Civil War, and after the close of the war the great advance in railway
+building kept its improvement in the background. The general government,
+nevertheless, has done much to encourage the use of the Mississippi as a
+commercial highway, and many millions of dollars have been spent in
+widening and deepening its channel.[8] On the upper river grain and
+lumber form the chief traffic; on the lower part a large part of the
+world's cotton-crop starts on its journey to the various markets.
+
+On account of the soft-coal fields and the steel manufacture in western
+Pennsylvania, the commerce of the Ohio River is very heavy, aggregating
+not far from fifteen million tons yearly. Much of this traffic extends
+to ports on the Mississippi.
+
+The navigable parts of the Hudson and Delaware Rivers are estuaries of
+the sea or "drowned valleys." In each case navigation extends about to
+the limits of high tide. Both rivers carry a heavy freight commerce; the
+Hudson has a passenger traffic of several million fares each year.
+Nearly every river of the Atlantic coast is navigable to the limit of
+high tide or a little beyond. Navigation extends to the point where the
+coast-plain joins the foot-hills. Above this limit, called the "Fall
+Line," the streams are swift and shallow; below it they are deep and
+sluggish. As a result, a chain of important river ports extends along
+the Fall Line from Maine to Florida.
+
+River-navigation in Europe in the main is inseparably connected with the
+great canal systems. As a rule, the lower parts of the rivers are
+navigable for steamboats of light draught. Some of the smaller streams
+are made navigable by means of a long steel chain, which is laid along
+the bed of the stream; the boat engages the chain by means of heavy
+sprocket wheels driven by steam, and thus wind the boat up and down the
+river.
+
+Ocean steamers penetrate the Amazon Valley to a distance of one thousand
+miles from its mouth; boats of light draught ascend the main stream and
+some of its tributaries a thousand miles farther. The Orinoco is
+navigable within one hundred miles of Bogota. Light-draught boats ascend
+the tributaries of La Plata River a distance of fifteen hundred miles.
+
+The Asian rivers that are important highways of commerce are few in
+number. The Amur, Yangtze, Indus, and Cambodia have each considerable
+local commerce. The Hugli, a channel in the delta of the Ganges, has a
+channel deep enough for ocean steamships. The tributaries of the Lena,
+Yenisei, and Ob have been of the greatest service in the commercial
+development of northern Asia from the fact that their valleys are both
+level and fertile.
+
+Because of a high interior and abrupt slopes, the rivers of Africa are
+not suitable for navigation to any considerable extent; the channels are
+uncertain and the rivers are interrupted by rapids. The Nile has an
+occasional steamboat service as far as the "First Cataract," but in high
+water the service is sometimes extended farther. The Kongo has a long
+stretch of navigable water, but is interrupted by rapids below Stanley
+Pool. Similar conditions obtain in the Zambezi. The lower part of the
+Senegal affords good navigation. The Niger has in many respects greater
+commercial possibilities than other rivers of Africa. It is navigable to
+a distance of three hundred miles.
+
+=Canals.=--Canals easily rank among the most important means of traffic,
+as a rule, supplementing other navigable waters. Thus, by means of an
+elaborate system of canals, goods are transferred by water, from one
+river-basin to another, so that practically all the navigable streams of
+western Europe are connected. Canals are extensively used to avoid the
+falls or rapids that separate the various reaches of rivers. The water
+itself by means of locks lifts the boat to a higher level or transfers
+it to a lower reach, thus saving the expense of unloading, transferring,
+and reloading a cargo.
+
+The manner in which canals supplement the obstructed navigation of a
+river is seen in the case of the St. Lawrence. This river is obstructed
+in several places by rapids, but by means of canals steamship service
+connects the Great Lakes, not only with Quebec, but with ports of the
+Mediterranean Sea as well; indeed, it is possible to send a cargo from
+Duluth, at the head of Lake Superior, to Odessa or Batum, on the shores
+of the Black Sea.
+
+The internal water-ways of Canada have been splendidly developed. The
+Canadian St. Marys Canal furnishes an outlet to Lake Superior for
+vessels drawing twenty-one feet. The Welland Canal connects Lakes Erie
+and Ontario. The Rideau Canal and River connect Kingston and Lake
+Ontario with the Ottawa, and the latter with its canals is navigable to
+the St. Lawrence. With a population of less than six millions the
+Dominion Government has spent nearly one hundred million dollars in the
+improvement of internal water-ways.
+
+[Illustration: PROFILE OF ERIE CANAL
+
+HORIZONTAL SCALE 100 MILES TO THE INCH, VERTICAL SCALE 1,000 FEET TO THE
+INCH]
+
+In the United States the possible development of canals has been
+neglected and, to a certain extent, stifled by railway building. The
+Erie Canal, built before the advent of the railway, connects Lake Erie
+with tide-water at Albany, a distance of 387 miles. For many years it
+was the chief means of traffic between the Mississippi Valley and the
+Atlantic seaboard, and although paralleled by the six tracks of a great
+railway system, it is still an important factor in the carriage of grain
+and certain classes of slow freight.[9] The level way that made the
+canal possible is largely responsible for the decline of its importance,
+for the absence of steep grades enables a powerful locomotive to haul
+so many cars that the quick transit more than overbalances a very low
+ton rate by the canal.
+
+The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, designed to connect the Mississippi
+Valley with the Atlantic seaboard, fared much worse than the Erie Canal.
+Less than two hundred miles have been completed, and practically no work
+except that of repair has been done since 1850; the heavy grades between
+Cumberland and Pittsburg render its completion improbable.
+
+An excellent system of canals, the Ohio and Erie and the Miami and Erie,
+connect the Ohio River with Lake Erie. These canals are in the State of
+Ohio and aggregate about six hundred miles in length. They are important
+as coal and ore carriers. Several hundred miles of canals were built
+along the river-valleys of eastern Pennsylvania before 1840 for carrying
+coal to tide-water. Most of them have been abandoned; one, the Delaware
+& Hudson Canal Co., survives as a railway. Inasmuch as the coal went on
+a down grade from the mines to the markets, it could be carried more
+economically by railway than by canal.
+
+Of far greater importance are the St. Marys Canal on the Canadian side,
+and the St. Marys Falls Canal on the American side, of St. Marys River.
+These canals obviate the falls in St. Marys River and form the
+commercial outlet of Lake Superior. The tonnage of goods, mainly iron
+ore and coal, is about one-half greater than that of the Suez Canal.
+About twenty-five thousand vessels pass through these canals yearly.
+
+The Chicago Ship and Sanitary Canal,[10] from Lake Michigan to Lockport,
+on the Illinois River, was designed mainly to carry the sewage of
+Chicago which, prior to the construction of the canal, was poured into
+the lake through the Chicago River. The completion of the canal turned
+the course of the river and caused the water to flow out of the lake,
+carrying the city's sewage. It is intended to complete a navigable
+water-way from Chicago to St. Louis deep enough for vessels drawing
+fourteen feet. Its value is therefore strategic as well as industrial,
+for by means of it gun-boats may readily pass from the Gulf of Mexico to
+the Great Lakes.
+
+Oceanic canals are designed both for naval strategic purposes and for
+industrial uses. Thus, the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, from the mouth of the
+Elbe to Kiel Bay, across the base of Jutland, saves two days between
+Hamburg and the Baltic ports. It also enables German war-vessels to
+concentrate quickly in either the North or the Baltic Sea. The
+Manchester Ship Canal makes Manchester a seaport and saves the cost of
+trans-shipping freights by rail from Liverpool. The Corinth Canal across
+the isthmus that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece
+affords a much shorter route between Italian ports and Odessa. The North
+Holland Ship Canal makes Amsterdam practically a seaport.
+
+Probably no other highway of commerce since the discovery of the Cape
+route around Africa has caused such a great change and readjustment of
+trade between Europe and Asia as the Suez Canal. Sailing-vessels still
+take the Cape route, because the heavy towage tolls through the canal
+more than offset the gain in time. Steamships have their own power and
+generally take the canal route, thereby saving about ten days in time
+and fuel, and about four thousand eight hundred miles in distance. In
+spite of the heavy tolls the saving is considerable. About three
+thousand five hundred vessels pass through the canal yearly.
+
+The Suez Canal, constructed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, for some time was
+under the control of French capitalists. Subsequently, by the purchase
+of stock partly in open market and partly from the Khedive of Egypt, the
+control of the canal passed into the hands of the English. The
+restrictions placed upon the passage of war-ships is such that the canal
+would be of little use to nations at war.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROUTE OF THE PANAMA CANAL]
+
+The necessity of an interoceanic canal across the American continent has
+become more imperative year by year for fifty years. The discovery of
+gold in California caused an emigration from the Atlantic to the Pacific
+coast which resulted in a permanent settlement of the latter region. A
+railway across the Isthmus of Panama and another across the Isthmus of
+Tehuantepec have afforded very poor means of communication between
+oceans.
+
+In 1881 work on a tide-level canal across the Isthmus of Panama was
+begun, but the plan was afterward changed to a high-level canal. The
+change was thought necessary partly on account of the great cost of the
+former, and partly because of the difficulties of constructing so deep a
+cut--about three hundred and forty feet--at the summit of the Culebra
+ridge. The construction company, after spending the entire
+capital--about one hundred and twenty million dollars--in accomplishing
+one-tenth of the work, became bankrupt. The United States subsequently
+purchased the franchise.
+
+A canal by way of Lake Nicaragua has also been projected, and two
+treaties with Great Britain, whereby the United States agreed to build
+no fortifications to guard it, have been made. No work beyond the
+surveys has yet been undertaken, however. The cost of each canal is
+estimated between one hundred and fifty million and two hundred million
+dollars. The Panama route will require about twelve hours for the
+passage of a vessel; the Nicaragua route about sixty hours.[11] (_See
+map, p. 270._)
+
+The completion of a canal by either route will cause a readjustment of
+the world's commerce far greater than that which followed the
+construction of the Suez Canal. By such a route San Francisco is brought
+nearer to London than Calcutta now is, and the all-water route between
+the Atlantic ports of the United States and those of China and Japan
+will be shortened by upward of eight thousand miles. The importance of
+the Hawaiian Islands, already a great ocean depot, will be greatly
+increased, and the latter is becoming one of the great commercial
+stations of the world.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What were some of the effects which resulted from the various embargo
+and non-intercourse acts that preceded the war of 1812?
+
+What is the effect upon an industry when all means of getting the
+products to market are cut off?
+
+In the early history of the country rivers were the most important
+highways of commerce; obtain an account of some instance of this in
+detail.
+
+Certain commodities have been carried about four-fifths of the distance
+between Moscow and Vladivostok by water, across Siberia. Illustrate
+this, using the map of the Russian Empire, plate, p. 342.
+
+What has been the effect of cheap steel on ocean navigation?
+
+Discuss the difference between a screw-steamship and a side-wheeler; a
+ship and a schooner. How are vessels steered?
+
+How does a triple-expansion engine differ from an ordinary steam-engine?
+
+Cargoes are carried by water across Europe from Havre to Marseilles, and
+from The Hague to the mouth of the Danube; illustrate the route on a map
+of Europe.
+
+The following instruction occasionally is found in the pilothouse of a
+vessel--what is its meaning?
+
+    "Green to green and red to red--
+    Perfect safety; go ahead."
+
+From the chart on p. 49 show how a pilot uses the range lights in
+entering New York Harbor.
+
+The new freighter Minnesota is designed to carry a load of 30,000 tons;
+how many trains of fifty cars, each car holding 30,000 pounds, are
+required to furnish her cargo?
+
+From the map on pp. x-xi describe the new ocean routes that will be
+created by an interoceanic canal across the American continent.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Photographs or illustrations of various steam and sailing craft.
+
+An Atlantic Coast Pilot Chart--any month.
+
+A map showing the canals of the United States.
+
+A map showing the canals of Europe.
+
+[Illustration: A MODERN LOCOMOTIVE--THE TWENTIETH CENTURY LIMITED AT A
+SPEED EXCEEDING NINETY MILES AN HOUR]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TRANSPORTATION--RAILWAYS AND RAILWAY ORGANIZATION; PUBLIC HIGHWAYS
+
+
+In the United States and western Europe, in spite of the low cost of
+water transportation, the railways have almost wholly monopolized the
+transportation of commodities. This is due in part to the saving of time
+in transit--for under the demands of modern business, the only economy
+is economy of time--and in part to prompt delivery at the specified
+time.
+
+Into a large centre of population like New York, London, or Berlin, many
+millions of pounds of perishable food-stuffs must be brought daily for
+consumption. Now these food-stuffs must be delivered with promptness,
+and no delay can be tolerated. A shipper having half a million pounds of
+meat or a hundred thousand pounds of flour or a car-load of fruit to
+deliver can take no risks; he sends it by rail, not only because it is
+the quickest way, but because experience has shown it to be the most
+prompt way; as a rule, it is delivered on the exact minute of schedule
+time.
+
+Cargoes of silks and teas from China and Japan might be sent all the way
+to London by water, but experience has shown a more profitable way. The
+consignments are sent by swift steamships to Seattle; thence by fast
+express trains to New York; there they are transferred to swift liners
+that take them across the Atlantic to European ports. And although this
+method of shipment is enormously expensive as compared with the
+all-water route, the saving of time and certainty of prompt delivery
+more than offset the extra cost of delivery.
+
+In the last half of the nineteenth century the cost of haulage in the
+United States by rail decreased so materially that in a few instances
+only--notably the Great Lakes and the Hudson River--do inland waters
+compete with the railways.[12] This is due in part to better
+organization of the railways, but mainly to the substitution of Bessemer
+steel for iron rails and the great improvements in locomotives and
+rolling stock.
+
+The use of a steam-driven locomotive became possible for the first time
+when Stephenson used the tubular boiler and the forced draught,[13]
+thereby making steam rapidly enough for a short, quick stroke. In 1865 a
+good freight locomotive weighing thirty tons could haul about forty
+box-cars, each loaded with ten tons. This was the maximum load for a
+level track; the average load for a single locomotive was about
+twenty-five or thirty cars. Heavier locomotives could not well be used
+because the iron rails went to pieces under them.
+
+The invention of Bessemer steel produced a rail that was safe under the
+pounding of a locomotive three or four times as heavy as those formerly
+employed; it produced boilers that would carry steam at 250 instead of
+60 pounds pressure per square inch. As a result, with only a moderate
+increase in the fuel burned, a single locomotive on a level track will
+haul eighty or ninety box-cars, each carrying nearly seventy thousand
+pounds.[14]
+
+The application of the double and the triple expansion principle has
+been quite as successful with locomotive as with marine engines in
+saving fuel and gaining power--that is, it has decreased the cost per
+ton-mile of hauling freight and likewise the cost of transporting
+passengers. Enlarged "fire-boxes," or furnaces,[15] enable steam to be
+made more rapidly and to give higher speed.[16] Only a few years ago
+forty-eight hours was the scheduled time between New York and Chicago;
+now there are about forty trains a day between these two cities, several
+of which make the trip in twenty-four hours or less.
+
+=Railway Development.=--The railway as a common carrier, having its right
+by virtue of a government charter, dates from 1801, when a tramway was
+built between Croydon and Wandsworth, two suburbs of London. The rails
+were iron straps, nailed to wooden stringers. The charter was carefully
+drawn in order to prevent the road from competing with omnibus lines and
+public cabs.
+
+When the steam locomotive succeeded horse-power, however, there
+followed an era of railway development that in a few years
+revolutionized the carrying trade in the thickly settled parts of the
+United States and Europe. Short, independent lines were constructed
+without any reference whatever to the natural movement of traffic. There
+seemed but one idea, namely, to connect two cities or towns. Indeed, the
+absence of a definite plan was much similar to that of the interurban
+electric roads a century later; local traffic was the only
+consideration.
+
+At first an opinion prevailed that the road-bed of the railway ought to
+be a public highway upon which any individual or company might run its
+own conveyances, on the payment of a fixed toll; indeed, in both Europe
+and the United States, public opinion could see no difference between
+the railway and the canal. The employment of a steam-driven locomotive
+engine, however, made such a plan impossible, and demonstrated that the
+roads must be thoroughly organized.
+
+At the close of 1850 there were nearly four hundred different railway
+companies in England; in the United States about a dozen companies were
+required to make the connection of New York City and Buffalo. A few of
+these paid dividends; a large majority barely met their operating
+expenses, defaulting the interest on their bonds; a great many were
+hopelessly bankrupt.
+
+=Consolidation of Connecting Lines.=--Between 1850 and 1865 a new feature
+entered into railway management, namely, the union of connecting lines.
+This was a positive advantage, for the operating expenses of the sixteen
+lines, now a part of the New York Central, between New York and Buffalo
+were scarcely greater than the expenses of one-third that number. The
+service was much quicker, better, and cheaper. In England the several
+hundred companies were reduced to twelve; in France the thirty-five or
+more companies were reduced to six in number.
+
+The consolidation of connecting lines brought about another desirable
+feature--the extension of the existing lines.[17] The lines of
+continental Europe were extended eastward to the Russian frontier, and
+to Constantinople; then the Alps were surmounted. In the United States
+railway extension was equally great. The Union and Central Pacific
+railways were opened in 1869, giving the first all-rail route to the
+Pacific coast. Other routes to the Pacific followed within a few years,
+one of which, the Canadian Pacific, was built from Quebec to Vancouver.
+
+[Illustration: A TRUNK SYSTEM--THE VARIOUS BRANCHES EXTEND INTO COAL,
+GRAIN, IRON, CATTLE, TIMBER, AND TOBACCO REGIONS]
+
+The period from 1864 was one of extensive railway building both in the
+United States and Europe. Some of the roads, such as the transalpine
+railways of Europe and the Pacific roads of the United States, were
+greatly needed. Others that created new fields of industry by opening to
+communication productive lands were also wise and necessary; the lands
+would have been valueless without them. Not a few lines that were to be
+needed in time were built so far ahead of time that they did not even
+pay their operating expenses for many years.
+
+Another class of roads was intended for speculative purposes. Thus,
+there were instances in which a line occupying a given territory had
+antagonized its patrons by poor service, and extortionate charges.
+Thereupon another company would obtain a charter--which was then easily
+done--and build a competing line in the same territory, the former most
+likely having scarcely enough business for one road.[18] The results
+were almost always the same; a war of rate-cutting followed; the
+stockholders of both roads lost heavily; and one or both went into the
+hands of receivers.
+
+=Competition and Pools.=--In many instances the consolidation of roads,
+while cutting off disastrous competition in the territory jointly
+occupied by the two roads, brought the consolidated road into fierce
+competition with another adjacent system. If the roads had practically
+the same territory but different terminals the competition was confined
+mainly to local traffic. On the other hand, they might have the same
+terminals but cover different local territories; in this case the roads
+must compete for through traffic. Thus the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy
+is brought into competition with the Union Pacific in Nebraska, but
+inasmuch as the roads have different and widely distant terminals, their
+local traffic is easily adjusted. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and
+the Northwestern have common terminals at Chicago, St. Paul, Denver,
+Omaha, and Kansas City. They must therefore compete with each other, and
+with half-a-dozen other roads for their through traffic.
+
+Competition between railways differs greatly from that between two
+firms. If one of two firms cannot afford to compete, the manager may
+discharge his help, and close doors; he then does not suffer actual
+loss. But a railway, being a common carrier, cannot do this; the road
+must keep its trains moving or lose its charter. If it cannot carry
+goods at a profit it must carry them at cost or at a loss. Even the
+latter is better than not carrying them at all, for the operating
+expenses of the road must go on.
+
+So between 1870 and 1880 most of the railway managements were busy
+devising ways to stop a rate-cutting and competition that was ruinous.
+In many instances great trunk lines would have consolidated had not
+State laws prevented. They could not maintain rates because one or
+another of the weaker roads would be compelled to lower their rates in
+order to meet their operating expenses. Therefore they were compelled to
+do one of three things, namely, to divide the territory, to divide
+traffic, or to divide earnings. Either of the two latter plans is called
+a _pool_.
+
+Of these two forms of pooling the division of the traffic is the easier,
+but it is often unsatisfactory to the patrons of the road. The second
+plan, the division of the earnings, is a more difficult matter to adjust
+because each road is usually dissatisfied with its proportion. As a
+matter of fact, however, the first plan of pooling is very apt to grow
+into the second.
+
+In several instances pools have been declared illegal by the courts,
+but, in general, railway service has been more satisfactory under the
+pool system than under any other. They have always aroused popular
+suspicion, however, from the fact that they increase power of the
+railway itself. In various instances important trunk lines have formed a
+general company, each having its separate organization, because they
+could accomplish under a combined organization what they could not as
+independent companies. The restrictions against pooling have therefore
+encouraged combination of competing lines.
+
+Because the railway is an absolute necessity, and because it has power
+given neither to individuals nor to other corporations, it is a settled
+policy that both the State and general Government should have the power
+to regulate its rates, and should in every way prevent unjust
+discrimination. Both problems are very difficult, however, and the
+unintelligent adjustment of rates has frequently resulted in injustice
+both to the roads and their patrons.
+
+A rate per ton-mile for each class of freight is out of question,
+because a large part of the cost to the company consists in loading,
+handling, and storing the goods. Once aboard the car, it costs but
+little more to carry a ton of freight one hundred miles than to move it
+one mile. The rates per mile, therefore, are necessarily greater for
+short distances than for long runs. A mile-rate based on a ten-mile haul
+would be prohibitive to the shipper if applied to a run between Chicago
+and New York. On the other hand, were the charges based on the long run,
+the local rates would be far less than the cost of the service.[19]
+
+As a result freight rates are based very largely on the cost of the
+service, and this is particularly true of local freights. This practice
+is also modified by charging _what the traffic will bear_, and, on the
+whole, a combination of the two ideas gives the most reasonable and the
+fairest method of basing charges. Thus, a car filled with fine, crated
+furniture, which is light and bulky, can afford a higher rate than one
+filled with scrap-iron. Cars filled with grain, lumber, coal, or ore are
+made up in train-loads, and form a part of the daily haul; they can
+afford to be taken at a lower rate than the stuffs of which only an
+occasional car-load is hauled. In order to adjust this problem it is
+customary to divide freights into six general classes.
+
+[Illustration: THE PROBLEM OF FREIGHT RATES]
+
+In handling through freights the problems are many, and, if two or more
+roads have the same terminal points, a great deal of friction of
+necessity results. The longest roads must either make their through
+rates lower than local rates between distant points, or lose much of
+their through business. They cannot afford to do the latter and the
+statutory laws may forbid the former. As a result the laws most likely
+are evaded, or else openly disobeyed.[20]
+
+The difficulties in adjusting the matter of the long and the short
+haul, as has been shown, have caused the formation of pools and various
+other traffic associations, the object of which has been to prevent
+rate-wars. To this extent they resulted in positive good, for a
+rate-war in the end is apt to be as hurtful to the community as to the
+railway company. The attempt to settle such questions has also resulted
+in a great deal of legislation. Some of this has been wise and good; but
+not a little has been hurtful both to the railroads and to the
+community. The general result is seen in the great combination of
+competing lines and, more recently, of competing systems.
+
+=Passenger Service.=--Passenger traffic is more easily managed than the
+movement of freight. For the greater part the rates are fixed by law. On
+a few eastern roads local rates are two cents per mile; in the main,
+however, a three-cent rate prevails, except that in sparsely peopled
+regions the rates are four and five cents per mile. On many roads
+1,000-mile books are sold at the rate of twenty dollars; on some the
+rate is twenty-five dollars per book.
+
+Long-distance rates involving passage over several roads are somewhat
+less than the local rates. These rates are determined by joint
+passenger-tariff associations. Each individual road fixes its own
+excursion and commutation rates; one or another of the joint passenger
+associations determines the rates where several roads divide the
+traffic. The latter are usually one, or one and one-third fares for the
+round trip.
+
+Except on a few local roads in densely peopled regions the passenger
+service is much less remunerative than freight business, and not a few
+railways would abolish passenger trains altogether were they permitted
+to do so. Rate-cutting between competing roads has not been common since
+the existence of joint passenger associations. It is sometimes done
+secretly, however, through the use of ticket-brokers, or "scalpers," who
+are employed to sell tickets at less than the usual rate; it is also
+done by the illicit use of tickets authorized for given purposes, such
+as "editors'," "clergymen's," and "advertising" transportation.
+
+In many instances, where several roads have the same terminal points, it
+is customary for the road or roads having the quickest service to allow
+a lower rate to the others. Thus, of the seven or eight roads between
+New York and Chicago, the two best equipped roads charge a fare of
+twenty dollars on their ordinary, and a higher rate on their limited,
+trains. Because of slower time the other roads charge a sum less by two
+or three dollars for the same service. This cut in the rate is called a
+"differential."
+
+=Railway Mileage.=--The railways of the world in 1900 had an aggregate of
+nearly four hundred and eighty thousand miles distributed as follows:
+
+  North America                   216,000
+  Europe                          173,000
+  Asia                             36,000
+  South America and West Indies    28,000
+  Australasia                      15,000
+  Africa                           12,000
+
+In western Europe and the eastern United States there is an average of
+one mile of railway to each six or eight square miles of area. In these
+countries railway construction has reached probably its highest
+development, and the proportion seems to represent the mileage necessary
+for the commercial interests of the people.
+
+The railways of the United States aggregate 193,000 miles--nearly
+one-half the total mileage of the world. Over this enormous trackage
+38,000 locomotives and 1,400,000 coaches and cars carry yearly
+600,000,000 passengers and 1,000,000,000 tons of freight. They represent
+an outlay of about $5,000,000,000. Owing to the absence of the
+international problems that have greatly interfered with the
+organization of European railways, the roads of the United States have
+developed "trunk-system" features to a higher degree than is found
+elsewhere.
+
+In the United States and Canada the farms of the great central plain,
+together with the coal-mines, are the great centres of production, while
+the seaports of the two coasts form great centres of distribution. Most
+of the trunk lines, therefore, extend east and west; of the north and
+south lines only two are important. The reason for the east-west
+direction of the great trunk lines is obvious; the great markets of
+North America, Europe, and Asia lie respectively to the east and the
+west.
+
+[Illustration: THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED STATES
+THEIR POSITION DEPENDS ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE LAND]
+
+=Railway Ownership.=--The ownership of railways is vested either in
+national governments or else in corporate companies; in only a few
+instances are roads held individually by private owners, and these are
+mainly lumber or plantation roads. Thus, the railways of Prussia are
+owned by the state; most of those of the smaller German states are owned
+either by the state or by the empire; still others are owned by
+corporate companies and managed by the imperial government. In their
+management military use is considered as first in importance.
+
+In France governmental ownership and management have been less
+successful. Plans for an elaborate system of state railways failed, and
+the state now owns and operates only 1,700 miles, mainly, in the
+southwest. Belgium controls and operates all her lines, but as the
+latter are short and the area of the state small, there are no
+difficulties in the way of excellent management. In Great Britain all
+the railways are owned and controlled by corporate companies. The great
+transcontinental line of the Russian Empire was built by the government,
+but the latter does not own it.
+
+In the United States the railways are now owned by corporate companies.
+Some of the western roads were built by Government subsidies;[21] other
+roads were built by the aid of States, counties, or cities, which
+afterward sold them to corporate companies. The first transcontinental
+railways required Government assistance, and could not have been built
+without it; nowadays, however, corporate companies find no difficulty in
+providing the capital for any railway that is needed.
+
+Inasmuch as the railway is a positive necessity, upon whose existence
+depends the transportation of the food daily required in the great
+centres of population, the charter of the railway gives the company
+extraordinary powers. Most steam railway companies are permitted by the
+State to exercise the power of _eminent domain_--that is, they may seize
+and hold the land on which to locate their tracks and buildings, if it
+cannot be acquired by the consent of the owners; they may also seize
+coal and other materials consigned to them for shipment if such
+materials are necessary to operate their lines.
+
+Therefore, in consideration of the unusual powers possessed by the
+companies, the various States reserve the right to regulate the freight
+and passenger tariffs. They may also compel the companies to afford
+equal facilities to all patrons, and take the measures necessary to
+prevent discrimination.
+
+The control of the railways by the government may be absolute, as in the
+German state of Prussia; or it may consist of a general supervision, as
+in the case of the Canadian railways. In almost every European state
+there is a director or else a commission to act as a representative
+between the railways and the people. In the United States the various
+States have each a railway commission, while the general Government is
+represented by the Interstate Commerce Commission.
+
+=Electric Railways.=--The use of electricity as a motive power has not
+only revolutionized suburban traffic but it has become a great factor in
+rural transportation as well. The speed of the horse-car rarely exceeded
+five or six miles per hour, while that of the electric car is about ten
+miles per hour in city streets and about twice as great over rural
+roads. As a result, the suburban limits of the large centres of
+population have greatly extended, and the population of the outlying
+districts has been increased from four to ten fold.
+
+[Illustration: ELECTRIC RAILWAY--ROCKY MOUNTAINS]
+
+[Illustration: ELECTRIC FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE--ERIE RAILROAD]
+
+From some of the larger cities the electric roads reach out to
+distances of one hundred miles or more and have become the carriers of
+perishable freight, such as fruit and dairy products. These are not only
+delivered just as promptly as though they were sent over the steam
+roads, but the delivery is more frequent. Indeed, the marvellous success
+of the electric interurban railway is due mainly to the frequency of its
+service.
+
+=Public Roads and Highways.=--Carriages propelled by steam, electric, and
+gasoline motors have become an important factor in the delivery of goods
+in nearly every city of Europe and America. They are not only speedier
+than the horse and wagon, but their keeping costs less. They are
+economical only on good roads. The bicycle, no longer a plaything,
+exerted a very decided effect on transportation when the "pneumatic" or
+inflated rubber tire came into use. Through the bicycle came the demand
+for good roads; and several thousand miles of the best surfaced roads
+are built in the United States each year.
+
+The ordinary highways or roads, the paved streets of the large cities
+excepted, are popularly known either as "dirt" roads or "macadamized"
+roads, the latter name being applied to about every sort of graded
+highway that has been surfaced with broken rock. Most of the roads of
+western Europe are of this character. They are laid out with easy
+grades, and a thick foundation of heavy stone is covered with smaller
+pieces of broken rock, the whole being finished off with a top-dressing
+of fine material. Once built, the expense of keeping them in good order
+is less than that of keeping a dirt road in bad order.
+
+Most of the country highways of the United States are dirt roads that
+are deep with dust in dry weather and almost impassable at the breaking
+of winter. Roads of this character are such a detriment that grain
+farming will not pay when the farm is distant twenty miles or more from
+the nearest railway. Many a farmer pays more to haul his grain to the
+nearest railway station than from the railway station to London.
+
+Since it has become apparent that the commercial development of many
+agricultural regions depends quite as much on good wagon roads as upon
+railways and expensive farming machinery, there has been a disposition
+to grade and rock-surface all roads that are important highways.
+Intercommunication becomes vastly easier; the cost of transportation is
+lessened by more than one-half; and the wear and destruction of vehicles
+is reduced to a minimum. In every case the improvement of the road is
+designed to increase traffic by making a given power do more work in
+less time.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What have been the effects of Bessemer steel on the carrying power of
+railways?--on cheapening freight rates?
+
+What would be some of the effects first apparent were a large city like
+London or New York suddenly cut off from railway communication?
+
+What is meant by a tubular boiler?--by a forced draught?--by a
+switch?--by an automatic coupler?
+
+Ascertain from a railway official the various danger-signals as
+indicated by lights, flags, and whistle-blasts.
+
+Why should not crated furniture and coal have the same freight rate?
+
+What is meant by a pool?--by long haul and short haul?--by rebate?
+
+If the rate on a given weight of merchandise is one dollar and fifty
+cents for five miles, should it be three hundred dollars for one
+thousand miles?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Hartley's Railroad Transportation.
+
+American Railways.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FACTORS IN THE LOCATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS
+
+
+The population of the world is very unevenly distributed. Not far from
+nine-tenths live in lowland plains, below an altitude of 1,200 feet, in
+regions where food-stuffs grow. The remainder live mainly in the
+grass-producing regions of the great plateaus, the mining regions or the
+flood-plains and grassy slopes of the higher montane regions.
+
+=Communal Life.=--In each of these regions, also, there is a very unequal
+massing of population. In part, the various families live isolated from
+one another; in part, they gather into cities and villages. In other
+words the population of a habitable region may be classed as _rural_ and
+_urban_. In the United States and western Europe, agricultural pursuits
+encourage rural life, each family living on its own estate. In Russia,
+the agricultural population usually cluster in villages.
+
+The farmer or freeholder who owns or controls his estate, exemplifies
+the most advanced condition of personal and political liberty. Only a
+few centuries have elapsed since not only the land but also the life of
+a subject was the property of the king or the feudal lord, and in those
+days about the only people living in isolation were outlaws. In most
+cases the communal system, best exemplified in Russia, marks an
+intermediate stage between a low and a high state of civilization; in
+other instances it is necessary in order to insure safety. German
+farmers in Siberia usually adopt the village plan for this reason.
+
+For the greater part, the non-agricultural population of the civilized
+world is massed in villages and cities for reasons that have nothing to
+do with either civilization or self-defence. The causes that bring about
+the massing of urban population are many and their operation is complex.
+In general, however, it is to facilitate one or more of several things,
+namely--the receiving, distribution, and transportation of commodities,
+the manufacture of products, the existence of good harbors, and the
+existence of minerals and metals necessary in the various industries.
+
+=The Beginnings of Towns and Cities.=--The "country town" of agricultural
+regions in many ways is the best type of the centre of population
+engaged in receiving and disbursing commodities. The farmers living in
+their vicinity send their crops to it for transportation or final
+disposition. The country store is a sort of clearing-house, exchanging
+household and other commodities, such as sugar, tea, coffee, spices,
+drugs, silks, woollens, cotton goods, farming machinery, and furniture
+for farm products. A railway station, grain elevator, and one or more
+banks form the rest of its business equipment.
+
+Usually the town has resulted from a position of easy access. It may be
+the crossing of two highways, a good landing-place on a river, the
+existence of a fording-place, a bridge, a ferry, a toll gate, or a point
+that formed a convenient resting-place for a day's journey. The towns
+and villages along the "buffalo" roads are examples almost without
+number.
+
+The "siding" or track where freight cars may be held for unloading, has
+formed the beginning of many a town. The siding was located at the
+convenience of the railway company; the village resulting could have
+grown equally well almost anywhere else along the line.
+
+[Illustration: THE EFFECT OF POSITION--BUFFALO IS AT THE FOOT OF LAKE
+ERIE AND THE HEAD OF ERIE CANAL; AN EXCELLENT HARBOR FACILITATES ITS
+COMMERCE]
+
+In the early history of nearly every country, military posts formed the
+beginnings of many centres that have grown to be large cities. Thus,
+Rome, Paris, London, the various "chesters"[22] of England, Milan,
+Turin, Paris, Chicago, Pittsburg, and Albany were established first as
+military outposts. The trading post was most conveniently established
+under the protection of the military camp, and the subsequent growth
+depended partly on an accessible position, and partly on the
+intelligence of the men who controlled the trade of the surrounding
+regions.
+
+=Harbors as Factors in the Growth of Cities.=--A good harbor draws trade
+from a great distance. Thus, with a rate of 14-1/2 cents on a bushel of
+wheat from Chicago, New York City draws a trade from a region having a
+radius of more than one thousand miles. In its trade with Chinese ports,
+Seattle, the chief port of Puget Sound, reaches as far eastward as
+London and Hamburg.
+
+=Water-Power as a Factor.=--The presence of water-power has brought about
+the establishment of many centres that have grown into populous cities.
+The water-power of the New England plateau had much to do with the rapid
+growth of the New England States. At the time of the various embargo and
+non-intercourse acts preceding the war of 1812, a great amount of
+capital was thrown into idleness. The water-power was made available
+because, during this time, the people were compelled to manufacture for
+themselves the commodities that before had been imported.
+
+The manufacturing industry at first was prosecuted in the southern
+Appalachians as well as in the New England plateau. It survived in the
+latter, partly because of the capital available, and partly owing to the
+business experience of the people. In the meantime villages sprang up in
+pretty nearly every locality in which there was available water-power.
+
+Since the use of coal and the advent of cheap railway transportation,
+steam has largely supplanted water-power, unless the latter is unlimited
+in supply. As a result, there is a marked growth of the smaller centres
+of population along the various water-fronts. In such cases the
+advantages of a water-front offset the loss of water-power.
+
+=The Effects of Metals on the Growth of Cities.=--The character of the
+industry of a region has much to do with the character of its
+manufactures. Thus, coal is absolutely essential to the manufacture of
+iron and steel; and, inasmuch as from two to eight tons of the former
+are necessary to manufacture a ton of steel, it is cheaper to ship the
+ore to a place to which coal can be cheaply brought.
+
+The coal-fields are responsible for the greater part of Pittsburg's
+population, and almost wholly for that of Scranton, Wilkesbarre, and
+many other Pennsylvania towns. Iron and coal are responsible, also, for
+many cities and towns in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. Birmingham,
+Salford, and Cardiff in Great Britain, Dortmund and Essen in Germany,
+and St. Etienne in France have resulted from the presence of coal and
+iron.
+
+In many instances man is a great factor in the establishment of a centre
+of population. Chicago would have been quite as well off in two or three
+other locations; its present location is the result of man's energy and
+is not likely to be changed. St. Louis might have been built at a dozen
+different places and would have fared just as well; the same is true of
+St. Paul, or of Indianapolis.
+
+Leavenworth at one time was a more promising city than Kansas City, but
+the building of an iron bridge over the Missouri River at the latter
+place gave it a start, and wide-awake men kept it in the lead. It has
+grown at the expense of Leavenworth and St. Joseph, neither one of which
+has become a commercial centre. Cairo, at the junction of the
+Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, has the geographical position for a great
+city; it waits for the man who can concentrate the commerce there.
+
+=Adjustment to Environment.=--San Francisco was wisely located at first,
+but its grain trade was more economically carried on at Karquinez
+Strait, while its oriental trade is gradually concentrating at Seattle.
+Philadelphia lost its commercial supremacy when the completion of the
+Erie Canal gave return cargoes to foreign vessels discharging at New
+York City. Oswego, N.Y., had the advantage of both harbor facilities and
+water-power, but Syracuse, with practically no advantages except those
+of leadership, has far outstripped it.
+
+Such instances of the readjustment of centres of population have been
+common in the past; they will also occur in the future. In nearly every
+case the readjustment results from economic causes, the opening of new
+lines of transportation, the lowering of the cost of the production of a
+commodity, the discovery of new economic processes--all these cause a
+disturbance of population, and the latter must readjust itself to new
+and changed conditions.
+
+Not all peoples have the necessary intelligence and training at first to
+adapt themselves to their environment. For the greater part, the
+American Indians were unable to take advantage of the wonderful
+resources of the continent in which they lived. The Boers occupied about
+the richest part of Africa, but made no use of the natural wealth of the
+country beyond the grazing industry; in fact, their nomadic life reduced
+them to a plane of civilization materially lower than that of their
+ancestors.
+
+People of the highest state of civilization do not always adjust
+themselves to their environment readily. The people of the New England
+plateau were nearly a century in learning that they possessed nearly all
+the best harbors of the Atlantic coast of North America. When, however,
+the great commerce of the country had been wiped out of existence, it
+did not take them long to readjust themselves to the industry of
+manufacture, the water-power being the natural resource that made the
+industry profitable.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Were the middle Atlantic coast of the United States to undergo an
+elevation of 100 feet, what would be the effect on New York City?
+
+Find the factors that led to the settlement of the city or town in which
+or near which you live. What caused the settlement of the three or four
+largest towns in the same county?--of the following places: Minneapolis,
+Fall River, New Haven, New Bedford, Cairo (Ill.), Cairo (Egypt),
+Marseille, Aix-la-Chapelle, Alexandria (Egypt), Washington (D.C.),
+Columbus (O.), Johannesburg (Africa), Kimberley (Africa), Albany (N.Y.),
+Punta Arenas (S.A.), Scranton (Pa.), Vancouver (B.C.), San Francisco,
+Cape Nome?
+
+What circumstances connected with commerce led to the passing of the
+following-named places: Palmyra, Carthage, Babylon, Genoa, Venice,
+Ancient Rome, Jerusalem?
+
+
+COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Any good cyclopaedia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE CEREALS AND GRASSES
+
+
+Of all the plants connected with the economies of mankind the grasses
+hold easily the first place. Not only are the seeds of certain species
+the chief food of nearly all peoples, but the plants themselves are the
+food of most animals whose flesh is used as meat. Wheat, maize, and rice
+are used by all except a very few peoples; and about all the animals
+used for food, fish and mollusks excepted, are grain eaters, or grass
+eaters, or both.
+
+The grasses of the Plains in Texas, the Veldt in South Africa, and the
+hills of New Zealand by nature's processes are converted into meat that
+feeds the great cities of western Europe and the eastern United States.
+The corn of the Mississippi valley becomes the pork which, yielded from
+the carcasses of more than forty million swine, is exported to half the
+countries of the world. Even the two and one-half billion pounds of wool
+consumed yearly is converted grass.
+
+=Wheat.=--The wheat of commerce is the seed of several species of cereal
+grass, one of which, _Triticum sativum_, is the ordinary cultivated
+plant. Wild species are found in the highlands of Kurdistan, in Greece,
+and in Mesopotamia, that are identical with species cultivated to-day.
+It is thought that the cultivation of the grain began in Mesopotamia,
+but it is also certain that it was grown by the Swiss lake-dwellers far
+back in prehistoric times. It is the "corn" Joseph's brothers sought to
+buy when they went to Egypt, and the records of its harvesting are
+scattered all over the pages of written history.
+
+[Illustration: THE GRAIN CROP--MODERN METHODS OF CULTIVATION AND
+HARVESTING]
+
+Of the one and one-half billion people that constitute the world's
+population, more than one-third, or about eight times the population of
+the United States, are consumers of wheat-bread; and this number is
+yearly increasing by twelve million. Moreover, each individual of this
+aggregate consumes yearly very nearly one barrel of flour, or about four
+and one-half bushels of wheat. In other words, it requires somewhat more
+than two billion three hundred million bushels of wheat each year to
+supply the world's demand.[23] As a matter of fact the world's crop is
+yearly consumed so nearly to the danger-line that very often the
+"visible supply," or the amount known to be in the market, is reduced to
+a few million bushels.
+
+Wheat will grow under very wide ranges of climate, but it thrives best
+between the parallels of 25 deg. and 55 deg. In a soil very rich in
+vegetable mould it is apt to "run to stalk." A rather poor clay-loam
+produces the best seed,[24] and a hard seed, rather than a heavy stalk,
+is required.
+
+In the latitude of Kansas the seeds planted in the fall will retain
+their vitality through the winter; in the latitude of Dakota they are
+"winter-killed," as a rule. Because of this feature two broad classes or
+divisions of the crop are recognized in commerce--the winter and the
+spring varieties. In general, the spring wheats are regarded as the
+better, and this is nearly always the case in localities too cold for
+winter wheat. There are exceptions to this rule, however. In the main,
+winter wheat ripens first, and is therefore first in the market.[25]
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT]
+
+In Europe the plain that faces the North and Baltic Seas, and that part
+which extends through southern Russia, yield the chief part of the
+crop, although the plains of the Po, the Danube, and Bohemia furnish
+heavy crops. Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy are all
+wheat states.
+
+In a normal year all Europe produces a little more than one-half
+(fifty-five per cent.) of the world's crop. Russia and France excepted,
+scarcely another state produces as much as is consumed. Great Britain
+consumes her entire crop in three months; Germany in about six months.
+France sends a part of her crop to Great Britain and buys of Russia to
+fill the deficiency. Russia consumes but very little of her wheat-crop;
+it is nearly all sold to the states of western Europe. All Europe
+consumes about one billion seven hundred and ten million bushels, but
+produces about one billion two hundred and fifty million; the remainder
+is supplied by the United States, India, Argentina, Africa, and
+Australia.
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT IN UNITED STATES]
+
+In the United States the great bulk of the crop comes from the upper
+Mississippi valley and Pacific coast States. About one-third is
+consumed where it is grown; more than one-third is required for the
+populous centres of the east; a little less than one-third is exported,
+of which about ninety per cent. goes to Europe.
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT PRODUCTION]
+
+Much of this, especially the Pacific coast product, is sold unground,
+but each year an increasing amount is made into flour. The flour
+manufacture of the United States aggregates somewhat more than
+160,000,000 barrels yearly--the output of 16,000 flour-mills; the
+Pillsbury mills of Minneapolis alone have a capacity of 60,000 barrels a
+week. In Europe the Hungarian mills and their output of Bohemian flour
+are the chief competitors of the United States.
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT]
+
+The wheat-crop of the Pacific coast has usually been a factor by itself.
+On account of the absence of summer rains, the kernel is both plump and
+hard. After the threshing process it is sacked and stored in the fields
+in which it has grown.[26] Heretofore much of the sacked wheat has been
+shipped to European markets by the Cape Horn route, but in late years a
+yearly increasing amount is made into flour and sold in China, Japan,
+and Siberia. In 1900 nearly two million barrels were thus sent.
+
+East of the Rocky Mountains, after the grain is harvested much of it is
+sold to dealers whose storage elevators[27] are scattered all over the
+wheat-growing region, and at all great points of shipment, such as
+Duluth, Minneapolis, Buffalo, and the eastern seaports. Before the grain
+is transferred to the elevators it is inspected and graded, and the cars
+which contain it are sealed. This wheat constitutes the "visible
+supply." All the business concerning it is transacted by means of
+"warehouse receipts," that have almost the currency of ready money.
+Banks loan money on them almost to their market value.
+
+Under normal conditions, the cost of growing and harvesting a bushel of
+wheat--including interest on the land and deterioration of the
+machinery, etc.--is between fifty and fifty-five cents. The market
+price, when not affected by "corners" and other gambling transactions,
+usually varies between sixty-two and eighty-five cents. The difference
+between these figures is divided between the farmer and the "middlemen,"
+the share of the latter being in the form of commissions and elevator
+charges.
+
+[Illustration: STORING PACIFIC COAST WHEAT]
+
+In addition to bread-making wheat, certain varieties of grain known as
+macaroni wheat have a certain importance in the market. Several
+varieties are so hardy that they easily resist extremely cold winters;
+they will also grow in regions too dry for ordinary varieties. In this
+respect they are well adapted to the plains at the eastern base of the
+Rocky Mountains. The only detriment is the lack of a steady market.
+Macaroni wheat has a very hard kernel and is rich in gluten. It is used
+mainly in the manufacture of macaroni paste, but in Europe, when mixed
+with three times its weight of ordinary soft wheat, it is much used in
+making flour. The small amount now grown in the United States is shipped
+mainly to France.
+
+The yield of wheat varies partly with the rainfall, but the difference
+is due mainly to skill in cultivation. In western Europe it is from two
+to three times as great as in the United States; in Russia and India it
+is much less.[28]
+
+The yearly consumption of wheat is increasing very rapidly both in the
+United States and in Europe; moreover, China is becoming a
+wheat-consuming country. In the United States the consumption is
+increasing so rapidly that unless either the acreage of the crop, or
+else the yield per acre, is materially increased, there will be no
+surplus for export after the year 1931.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHEAT INDUSTRY--GRAIN ELEVATORS AT BUFFALO, NEW
+YORK]
+
+In the United States the acreage may be somewhat increased by the
+irrigation of arid lands now uncultivated, and by the reclamation of
+overflowed and swamp lands. There are far greater possibilities,
+however, in the employment of methods of cultivation which will double
+the rate of present yield. It is doubtful if there can be much increase
+of acreage in the States of the Mississippi Valley, where the acreage
+will of necessity be lessened rather than increased.
+
+In western Europe there can be no material increase of the acreage or
+the rate of yield; in Russia both are possible. The plains of Argentina
+now yield a notable quantity--about one hundred million bushels--and the
+amount may be increased. Moreover, a large product may be obtained from
+both Uruguay and Paraguay, and southern Brazil, neither one of which
+produces a considerable quantity. At the present rate of the increase in
+consumption, all of the available land, yielding its maximum, will not
+produce a sufficient crop at the end of the twentieth century.
+
+=Corn.=--Maize or Indian corn is the seed of a plant, _Zea mays_, a member
+of the grass family. It is not known to exist in a wild state. The
+species now cultivated are undoubtedly derived from the American
+continent, but evidence is not wanting to show that it was known in
+China and the islands of Asia before the discovery of America.[29] The
+commercial history of corn begins with the discovery of America. Next to
+meat it was the chief food of the native American; next to wheat it is
+the chief food-stuff in the American continent to-day.
+
+Corn requires a rich soil and is not so hardy as wheat. It thrives best
+in regions having long summers and warm nights. The growing crop is
+easily injured by too much rain. It is an abundant crop in the central
+Mississippi Valley, but not near the coast; it is very prolific in
+Nebraska, but not in Dakota; it thrives in Italy, Austria, and the
+Balkan Peninsula, but not in the British Isles and Germany. It is a very
+important crop in Australia, and is the staple grain of Mexico. It is
+the crop of fourteen-hour days and warm nights.
+
+[Illustration: CORN]
+
+The United States is the chief producer of corn, and from an area of
+80,000,000 acres--about that of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois
+combined--more than two billion bushels, or four-fifths of the world's
+crop, are produced. In the past few years the area planted with corn has
+not materially increased, and it is likely to be lessened rather than
+increased in the future. From the same acreage, however, the annual
+yield, now about twenty-five or thirty bushels per acre, can be more
+than doubled by the use of more skilful methods of cultivation.
+
+Corn contains more fatty substance, or natural oil, than wheat, and
+therefore has a greater heating power. For this reason it is better than
+wheat for out-of-door workers, and it is almost the only cereal
+food-stuff consumed in Spanish America. It is also a staple food-stuff
+in Egypt. Corn has been used as a bread-stuff in the United States,
+Italy, and Rumania[30] for a long time. In recent years, however, its
+use has become very popular in Europe.
+
+[Illustration: CORN PRODUCTION]
+
+In the United States by far the greater part of the crop is consumed
+where it is grown, being used to fatten swine and cattle. The market
+value of a pound of corn is about one-third of a cent; converted into
+pork or beef, however, it is worth five or six times as much. By feeding
+the corn to stock, therefore, a farmer may turn an unmarketable product
+into one for which there is a steady demand.
+
+[Illustration: CORN]
+
+Although corn is not so essential a staple as wheat, it has a much wider
+range of usefulness. The starch made from it is considered a delicacy
+and is used very largely in America and Europe as an article of food.
+Glucose, a cheap but wholesome substitute for sugar, is made from it;
+from the oil a substitute for rubber is prepared; smokeless powder and
+other explosives are made from the pith of the stalk; while a very
+large part of the product is used in the manufacture of liquor.
+
+=Rye.=--Rye is the seed of a cereal grass, _Secale cereale_, a plant
+closely resembling wheat in external appearance. Rye will grow in soils
+that are too poor for wheat; its northern limit is in latitudes somewhat
+greater than that of wheat, also. It is an ideal crop for the sandy
+plain stretching from the Netherlands into central Russia, and this
+locality produces almost the whole yield. The world's crop is about one
+and a half billion bushels, of which Russia produces nearly two-thirds.
+Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Japan grow nearly all the rest. It is
+consumed where it is grown. In the United States the yearly product is
+about twenty-five million bushels, about one-tenth of which is exported
+to Europe. Rye-bread is almost always sour, and this fact is its chief
+disadvantage.
+
+=Barley.=--Barley is the seed of several species of cereal grass, mainly
+_Hordeum distichum_ and _Hordeum vulgare_. It is one of the oldest-used
+of bread-stuffs. It can be cultivated farther north than wheat, and
+about as far within the tropics as corn; it has, therefore, very wide
+limits. Formerly it was much used in northwestern Europe as a
+bread-stuff, but in recent years it has been in part supplanted by wheat
+and corn. Barley is a most excellent food for horses, and in California
+is grown mainly for this purpose. Its chief use is for the manufacture
+of the malt used in brewing.
+
+The world's crop of barley is not far from one billion bushels, of which
+the United States produces about sixty million bushels. Most of the crop
+is grown in the Germanic states of Europe, and in Russia.
+
+=Oats.=--The oat is the seed of a cereal grass, _Avena sativa_ being the
+species almost always cultivated. It is not known where the cultivated
+species originated, but the earliest known locality is central Europe,
+where it was certainly a domestic plant during the Bronze Age. It seems
+probable that the species now cultivated in Scotland at one time grew
+wild in western Europe; certain it is that wild species are found in
+North America.
+
+[Illustration: OATS PRODUCTION]
+
+The oat grows within rather wider limits of latitude, and thrives in a
+greater variety of soils than does wheat. Grown in a moist climate,
+however, the grain is at its best. The oat-crop of the world aggregates
+more than three billion bushels, surpassing that of wheat or corn in
+measurement, but not in weight. A small portion of this is used as a
+bread-stuff, but the greater part is used as horse-food, for which it is
+remarkably adapted.
+
+[Illustration: OATS]
+
+In Europe, Russia is the greatest producer, and its yearly oat harvest
+is about one-quarter of the world's crop. The states of northwestern
+Europe yield about half the entire crop; the wheat-growing area of the
+United States produces the remaining one-fourth. Russia and the United
+States are both exporters, the grain going to western Europe. By far the
+greater part of the grain is consumed where it is grown.
+
+=Rice.=--Rice is the seed of a cereal grass, _Oryza sativa_. It is claimed
+to be native to India, but it is known to have been cultivated in China
+for more than five thousand years. It grows wild in Australia and
+Malaysia.
+
+Rice requires plenty of warmth and moisture. It is cultivated in the
+warmer parts of the temperate zone, but it thrives best in the tropical
+regions. In China a considerable upland rice is grown, but for the
+greater part it is grown in level lowlands that may be flooded with
+water. The preparation of the fields is a matter of great expense, for
+they may require flooding and draining at a moment's notice. The crop
+matures in from three to six months. After threshing, the seed is still
+covered with a husk, and in this form it is known as "paddy."
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Why is not wheat-growing a profitable industry in the New England
+States?--in the plains at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains?--in
+the southern part of the United States?
+
+What are meant by the following terms: No. 1 spring, a corner, a disk
+harrow, a cradle, a flail, a separator, futures, warehouse certificates?
+
+In 1855 the price of a barrel of flour in New York or Boston was about
+twelve dollars; at the close of the century it was less than five.
+Explain how the lessened price came about.
+
+From a census or other report make a list of the ten leading
+wheat-producing States; the ten that produce the most corn.
+
+Why are the foreign shipments of oats less than those of wheat?
+
+What are the prices current of wheat, corn, oats, and barley to-day?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain samples of the different kinds of wheat, oats, barley, corn,
+millet, and rice. Put the grain in small, closely stoppered vials;
+attach the heads of the small grains to sheets of cardboard of the
+proper size.
+
+Read "The Wheat Problem"--Chapter I.
+
+[Illustration: PICKING COTTON, ALABAMA]
+
+[Illustration: TRANSPORTING COTTON FROM WHARF, CHARLESTON, S.C.]
+
+[Illustration: COTTON PRESS YARD, NEW ORLEANS, LA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+TEXTILE FIBRES
+
+
+Under the term "textile" are included the fibrous substances that can be
+spun into threads, and woven or felted into cloth. Some of these, like
+the covering of the sheep, goat, and llama, or the cocoon of the
+silk-worm, are of animal origin; others, like cotton furze, the husk of
+the cocoanut, and the bast of the flax-plant are vegetable products.
+Their use in the manufacture of cloth antedates the period at which
+written history begins; it probably begins with the time when primitive
+man gradually ceased to have the hairy covering necessary to protect him
+from the conditions of climate and weather.
+
+As body coverings all these substances are dependent on a single
+principle, namely--they are poor conductors of heat; that is, they do
+not permit the natural heat of the body to pass away quickly, nor do
+they allow sudden changes of the temperature to reach the body quickly.
+In other words, because of the artificial covering which mankind alone
+requires, bodily heat is not dissipated more rapidly than it is created;
+if it were, the covering would be worthless. A suit of clothes made of
+steel wire, for instance, because it conducts heat so rapidly, might
+chill, or perhaps heat the body more quickly than the open air.
+
+With respect to warming qualities wool surpasses all other textiles. It
+is employed for clothing in every part of the world and by nearly all
+peoples. Cotton is used mainly also for body coverings, but it is
+inferior to wool for protection against cold. It is used by practically
+all peoples, savage and civilized, outside of the frigid zones. Linen
+is inferior both to cotton and wool for clothing; its use is also
+restricted by its great cost. Silk is used mainly for ornamental cloths.
+Hemp is used mainly for cordage, and the use of ramie, jute, and sisal
+hemp is confined mainly to the manufacture of very coarse cloths and
+rugs.
+
+=Cotton.=--The cotton fibre of commerce is the lint surrounding the seeds
+of several species of _Gossypium_, plants belonging to the same natural
+order as the marshmallow and the hollyhock. The cultivated species have
+been carried from India to different parts of the world, but
+cotton-bearing plants are also native to the American. A native
+tree-cotton, known as Barbados cotton, occurs in the West Indies; a
+herbaceous cotton-plant is known to have been cultivated in Peru long
+before the discovery of Columbus.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON-PRODUCING REGIONS]
+
+More than four hundred years before the Christian era Herodotus
+describes it and mentions a gin for separating the lint from the seed.
+Nearchus, an admiral serving under Alexander the Great, brought to
+Europe specimens of cotton cloth, and in the course of time it became an
+article of commerce among Greek and Roman merchants.
+
+The cotton-plant requires warmth, moisture, and a long season. It also
+thrives best near the sea. It grows better, on the whole, in subtropical
+rather than in tropical regions, and the difference is due probably to
+the longer days and higher temperature of the subtropical latitudes. In
+the United States the northern limit is approximately the thirty-eighth
+parallel. The seeds are planted, as a rule, during the first three weeks
+of April and the first two of May. The plants bloom about the middle of
+June; the boll or pod matures during July, and bursts about the first of
+August. The picking begins in August.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES]
+
+The yield and the quality of the textile depend not only on conditions
+of the soil, but on locality. In the river flood-plains of the southern
+United States the yield is about two bales per acre; on the bluff lands
+it is but little more than one, unless unusual care is taken in the
+preparation of the land. The islands off the Carolina coast produce a
+very fine long-staple variety, commercially known as _sea island
+cotton_. A district in China produces a good fibre of brownish color
+known as _nankeen_, named for the city of Nanking, whence formerly it
+was exported. The valley of Piura River, Peru, produces varieties of
+long-staple cotton that in quality closely resemble silk.
+
+The fibre of ordinary American cotton is about seven-eighths of an inch
+long; it is made into the fabrics commercially known as "domestics" and
+"prints," or calico. If the fibre averages a little longer than the
+common grades it is reserved for canvas. Ordinary Peruvian cotton has a
+fibre nearly two inches long; it is used in the manufacture of hosiery
+and balbriggan underwear, and also to adulterate wool. The long-staple
+cotton of the Piura Valley is bought by British manufacturers at a high
+price, and used in the webbing of rubber tires and hose. Egyptian cotton
+is very fine and is used mainly in the manufacture of thread and the
+finer grades of balbriggan underwear. Sea island fibre is nearly two
+inches long and is used almost wholly in the making of thread and lace.
+
+The introduction of cotton cultivation resulted in very far-reaching
+consequences both from a political as well as an economic stand-point.
+The invention of the steam-engine by Watt gave England an enormous
+mechanical power. To utilize this the cotton industry was wrested from
+Hindustan; the mills were concentrated in Manchester and Lancashire; the
+cotton-fields were transferred to the United States.
+
+As a result, the plains of Hindustan were strewn with the bodies of
+starved weavers and spinners, but a great industry grew into existence
+in England. The invention of spinning machinery by Arkwright, Crompton,
+and Hargreaves, and the gradual improvement of the power-loom, greatly
+reduced the cost of making the cloth and, at the same time, enormously
+increased the demand for it.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON PRODUCTION]
+
+In the United States the consequences were far more serious. The
+invention of the engine or "gin" for separating the lint from the seed
+made cotton cultivation highly profitable.[31] The negro slaves, who had
+been scattered throughout the colonies and the States that succeeded
+them, were soon drawn to the cotton-growing States to supply the needed
+field-labor; and, indeed, white workmen could not stand the hot, moist
+climate of the cotton-fields.
+
+The cotton-mills grew up in the Northern manufacturing States. The
+Northern manufacturer needed a tariff on imported goods to protect him
+from European competition; the Southern cotton-planter who purchased
+much of his supplies abroad was hurt by the tariff. After about sixty
+years of strained relations between the two sections there occurred the
+Civil War which wiped out nearly one million lives, and rolled up a
+debt, direct and indirect, of nearly six billions of dollars.
+
+The world's cotton-crop aggregates from twelve million to fifteen
+million bales yearly, of which the United States produces, as a rule, a
+little more than three-fourths. Egypt is rapidly taking an important
+place among cotton-producing countries, and, with the completion of the
+various irrigating canals, will very soon rank next to the United
+States. India ranks about third; China and Korea produce about the same
+quantity. There are a few cotton-cloth mills in these states, but in
+Japan the manufacture is increasing, the mills being equipped with the
+best of modern machinery. Brazil has a small product, and Russia in Asia
+needs transportation facilities only to increase largely its growing
+output.
+
+[Illustration: COTTON]
+
+The cotton-crop of the United States is quite evenly distributed;
+one-third is manufactured at home; one-third is purchased by Great
+Britain; and the remaining third goes mainly to western Europe. In the
+past few years China has become a constantly increasing purchaser of
+American cotton. New Orleans, Galveston, Savannah, and New York are the
+chief ports of shipment. The imported Egyptian and Peruvian cotton is
+landed mainly at New York. Most of the cotton manufacture is carried on
+in the New England States, but there is a very rapid extension of cotton
+manufacture in the South.
+
+=Wool.=--The wool of commerce is a term applied to the fleece of the
+common sheep, to that of certain species of goat, and to that of the
+camel and its kind. There is no hard-and-fast distinction between hair
+and wool,[32] but, in general, wool fibres have rough edges, much
+resembling overlapping scales which interlock with one another; hair, as
+a rule, has a hard, smooth surface. If a mass of loose wool be spread
+out and beaten, or if it be pressed between rollers, the fibres
+interlock so closely that there results a thick, strong cloth which has
+been made without either spinning or weaving.
+
+This property, known as "felting," gives to wool a great part of its
+value, and is its chief distinction from hair. Some kinds of hair,
+however, have a slight felting property, and if sufficiently fine may be
+spun and woven. The hair of the common goat is worthless for this
+purpose, but that of the Cashmere and Angora species have the properties
+of wool. The hair of the Bactrian camel, and also that of the llama,
+alpaca, and vicuna is soft and fine, possessing felting qualities that
+make it very superior as a textile.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL PRODUCING REGIONS]
+
+The quality of wool varies greatly according to the conditions of soil,
+climate, and the character of the food of the animal. In commerce,
+however, the fleeces are commonly graded as "long-staple,"
+"short-staple," "merino," and "coarse."
+
+In long-staple wools the fibres are from four to eight inches long;
+they are more easily separated by a process much like combing, and are
+therefore called "combing" wools. The cotswold, cheviot, and most of the
+wools of the British Isles are of this kind; indeed, in fairly moist
+lowland regions such as Canada and the United States, there is a
+tendency toward the development of a long-staple product. The English
+long-staple wools are largely made into worsted cloth, the Scotch
+cheviot into tweeds, and the French into the best dress cloth.
+
+If the fibres are materially less than four inches in length, the
+product is classed as a short-staple or "carding" wool. By far the
+greater part of the wool of the United States, Canada, and Europe is of
+this class. It is disposed of according to its fineness or fitness for
+special purposes, the greater part being made into cloths for the medium
+grades of men's clothing.
+
+The finest and softest wool as a rule is grown in arid, plateau regions,
+and of this kind of staple the merino is an example. The fibres are fine
+as silk, and the goods made from them are softer. The Mission wool of
+California is the product of merino sheep, and, indeed, the conditions
+of climate in southern California and Australia are such as to produce
+the best merino wool. The famous Electoral wool of Saxony is a merino,
+the sheep having been introduced into that country from Spain about
+three hundred years ago. The merino wools, as a rule, are used in the
+most highly finished dress and fancy goods.
+
+The coarse-staple wools are very largely used for American carpets,
+coarse blankets, and certain kinds of heavy outer clothing. The Russian
+Donskoi wool, some of the Argentine fleeces, such as the Cordoban, and
+many of those grown in wet lowlands are very coarse and harsh. The
+quality is due more to climatic conditions and food than to the species
+of sheep; indeed, sheep that in other regions produce a fine wool, when
+introduced to this locality, after a few generations produce coarse
+wool.
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP FEEDING ON ALFALFA]
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP RANGE, UTAH]
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP IN FEEDING YARD
+
+THE WOOL-GROWING INDUSTRY]
+
+The rug wools grown in Persia, Turkestan, Turkey in Asia, and the
+Caucasus Mountains are also characteristic. They vary in fineness, and
+because they do not readily felt they are the best in the world for rug
+stock. The "pile" or surface of the rug remains elastic and stands
+upright even after a hundred years of wear. This quality is due mainly
+to conditions of climate and soil.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL PRODUCTION]
+
+In some instances the wool is obtained by a daily combing of the
+half-grown lambs. This process, however, is employed in the rug-making
+districts only; in general, the fleeces are clipped either with shears
+or machine clippers. In the United States the latter are generally
+employed, and but little attempt is made either to sort the fleeces or
+to separate the various qualities of wool in the same fleece.
+
+The raw wool always contains foreign matter such as burs and dirt; it is
+also saturated with a natural oil which prevents felting. The oil,
+commonly called "grease," or "yolk," is an important article of
+commerce; under the name of "lanolin" (_adeps lanae_) it is used in
+medicine and pharmacy as a basis for ointments.
+
+The world's yearly clip is a little more than two and one-half billion
+pounds, of which the United States produces about one-eighth. In Europe
+and the United States, owing to the increasing value of the land, the
+area of production is decreasing; in Australia, South Africa, and
+Argentina, where land is cheap, it is increasing. From these three
+regions wool is exported; most European countries and the United States
+buy it. In the latter country the consumption is about six pounds for
+each person.
+
+[Illustration: WOOL]
+
+The wools of the Mediterranean countries--France, Spain, Italy, Algiers,
+Egypt, etc.--are the best for fine cloths; those of central Asia for
+rugs and shawls; the others are used mainly in medium and low grade
+textiles.
+
+=Other Wools.=--The Angora goat, originally grown in Anatolia (Asia
+Minor), and the Iran States (Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan),
+furnishes a beautiful white wool, commercially known as "mohair." Smyrna
+is an important market for it, and England is the chief buyer. The
+Angora goat has been introduced into South Africa and California, where
+it is successfully grown. From the former country there is a large
+export of mohair.
+
+Cashmere wool is a fine, downy undercovering, obtained by combing the
+fleece of a goat native to the Kashmir Valley in India. A single animal
+yields scarcely more than an ounce or two, and the best product is worth
+about its weight in gold. It is used in the manufacture of the famous
+Cashmere shawls, which are sold at prices varying from five hundred to
+five thousand dollars. They are made in Persia and India.
+
+Llama and alpaca wool are fine textile obtained from animals of the
+camel kind native to South America. The wool is either black or brown in
+color. A considerable part is used for native-made articles, such as
+saddle-blankets, etc., but much of it is exported to England.
+
+Most of the "camel's hair" of commerce was originally worn by goats,
+being called by its commercial name because of a similarity in texture
+to that of the camel's hair. The camel of Turkestan, however, furnishes
+a silky textile that is much used. The brown wool often found in Hamadan
+rugs is natural camel's hair, and a considerable amount mixed with
+sheep's wool is used in certain textiles. The camel's hair of China is
+made into artists' brushes.
+
+=Silk.=--The silk of commerce is the fibre spun by the larvae or
+caterpillars of a moth, _Bombyx mori_, as they enter the chrysalis stage
+of existence. The silk-growing industry includes the care and feeding of
+the insect in all its stages. The leaves of the white mulberry-tree
+(_morus alba_) are the natural food of the insect, and silk-growing
+cannot be carried on in regions where this tree does not thrive. Not all
+areas that produce the mulberry-tree, however, will also grow the
+silk-worm; the latter cannot exist in regions having very cold winters,
+and therefore the industry is restricted by climate.
+
+The moth, shortly after emerging from the chrysalis stage, lays from two
+or three hundred to seven hundred eggs. These are "hardy"--that is, they
+will remain fertile for a long time if kept in a cool, dry place;
+moisture will cause them to putrify, and heat to germinate. If well
+protected, they may be transported for distances.
+
+In rearing the silk-worm, as soon as the latter is hatched, it is placed
+on mulberry-leaves, and for five weeks it does nothing but eat, in that
+time consuming many times its weight of food.[33] Then it begins to spin
+the material that forms its chrysalis case or cocoon. The outer part of
+the case consists of a tough envelope not unlike coarse tissue-paper;
+the inner part is a fine thread about one thousand feet long that has
+been wound around the body of the worm. This thread or filament is the
+basis of the silk textile industry.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright, 1898, by Nature Study Pub. Co._
+
+SILK INDUSTRY
+
+  1. Silkworm Eggs
+  2. Fourth-stage Worm
+  3. Pupa in Cocoon
+  4. Cocoon
+  5. Male Moth
+  6. Female Moth
+  7. Unspun Silk
+  8. Raw Manufactured Silk
+  9. Manufactured Silk]
+
+[Illustration: SILK PRODUCING REGIONS]
+
+At the proper time the cocoons are gathered and, if immediately to be
+used, are plunged into hot water. This not only kills the chrysalids but
+softens the cocoons as well, so that the outer cases may be removed. The
+cases removed, the rest of the cocoon is soaked in warm water until the
+gummy matter is softened and the fibres are free enough to be reeled. In
+the latter process the ends of a number of cocoons, varying from five to
+twenty, are caught and loosely twisted into a single strand. The silk
+thus prepared forms the "raw silk" of commerce. Sometimes a number of
+strands of raw silk are twisted into a coarse thread, thereby forming
+"thrown silk." For convenience in handling, both raw and thrown silk
+are made into large skeins called hanks, and most of the silk product is
+exported in this form.
+
+A given quantity of cocoons yields scarcely more than one-tenth its
+weight in good raw silk. The remaining part, consisting of broken fibres
+and cases, is shredded and spun into silk thread of inferior quality.
+This material, commonly called "husks" or "knubs," forms an important
+item in silk manufacture, and much of it is exported to Europe and
+America.
+
+[Illustration: SILK PRODUCTION]
+
+According to traditions, not wholly trustworthy, eggs of the silk-worm
+were smuggled to India in the head-dress of a Chinese princess. Thence
+sericulture slowly made its way westward to Persia, Asia Minor, and the
+Mediterranean countries. Wild silk, a coarse but strong product, is
+grown in many of these countries, but mainly in China, where it forms an
+important export. The Chinese product is commercially known as "tussar"
+silk. Of the product of raw silk, about thirty-five million pounds,
+China yields about two-fifths, Japan and Italy each one-fifth. The
+remainder is grown in the Levant, Spain, and France.
+
+Most of the raw silk of China is exported from Shanghai and Canton; that
+of Japan is shipped mainly from Yokohama. Among European countries Italy
+is the first producer of raw silk, and France the chief manufacturer.
+By the operation of a heavy tariff a considerable manufacture of silk
+textiles has grown up in the United States. New York City and Paterson,
+N.J., are the chief centres of the industry.
+
+The southern part of the United States offers an ideal locality for
+sericulture. Various attempts at silk-worm breeding have failed from
+lack of training, but not on account of geographic conditions.
+
+=Flax.=--The flax of commerce, the basis of linen cloth, is the bast or
+inner bark-fibre of an annual plant (_Linum usitalissimum_, _i.e._, most
+useful fibre), native probably to the Mediterranean basin. It ranks
+among the oldest known textiles. Bundles of unwrought fibre have been
+found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland, and linen cloth constituted
+a part of the sepulture wrappings of the ancient Egyptian dead.
+
+Flax has a very wide range, thriving in the colder parts of Europe as
+well as in tropical Asia; it does equally well in the dry summers of
+California or the moist regions of the Mississippi Valley. The chief
+requisite is a firm soil that contains plenty of nutrition.
+
+After the stalks have passed maturity they are pulled up by hand;
+"rippled," or deprived of their seeds and leaves; "retted," or moistened
+in soft water until the bast separates; "broken" and "scutched" by a
+machine which gets rid of the woody fibres; and finally the loosened
+bast fibre is "hetcheled" or combed in order to separate the long, or
+"line," threads from the "tow" or refuse.
+
+Russia produces more than one-half the world's crop, but the finest and
+choicest is that known as Courtrai fibre, which is grown in Belgium.
+This is thought to be due to the quality of the water in the Lys River.
+A considerable amount of flax grown elsewhere in Europe is sent to this
+part of Belgium to be retted. Ireland and Germany produce considerable
+amounts, and a small quantity is grown in the United States.
+
+The prepared flax is used in the manufacture of linen cloth, and the
+latter is almost exclusively used for table-cloths, napkins,
+shirt-bosoms, collars, cuffs, and handkerchiefs. France is noted for the
+manufacture of linen lawns and cambrics, and Belfast, Ireland, for
+table-cloths and napkins. Nearly the whole linen product is consumed in
+the United States, Canada, and western Europe; indeed, linen is a mark
+of western civilization. Great Britain handles the greater part of the
+linen textiles.
+
+=Hemp.=--The true hemp of commerce is the bast or inner bark of a plant,
+_Cannabis sativa_, belonging to the nettle order. It is an annual plant
+having a very wide range; it occurs in pretty nearly every country of
+North America, Europe, and Asia. In Europe the chief countries producing
+it for commercial uses are Russia, France, Italy, and Hungary; in the
+United States it is grown in California and the central Mississippi
+Valley. Russia produces the largest crop; Italy the finest quality of
+fibre, the best coming from the vicinity of Bologna.
+
+The stalks grow three feet or more in height. When cultivated for the
+fibre they are pulled from the ground, stripped of their leaves and
+soaked until the fibre is free. They are then "retted," or beaten, and
+the fibre is removed. After preparation the fibre is used mainly for the
+manufacture of wrapping-twine, cordage, and a coarse canvas. Great
+Britain is the chief purchaser and manufacturer.
+
+=Manila Hemp.=--Manila hemp is the name given to a fibre obtained from the
+leaves of a plant, _Musa textilis_, belonging to the banana family. The
+best fibres are from six to nine feet in length, of light amber color,
+and very strong. The leaves, torn into narrow strips by hand, are
+afterward scraped by hand until the fibre is free of pulp. The long and
+coarser fibres are made into rope; the shorter fibres are beaten and
+hetcheled in the same manner as flax, until fine enough to weave into
+mats, carpets, and fine cloth. The fibres that have served their
+usefulness as rope are pulped and manufactured into manila paper.
+
+Practically all the manila fibre of commerce--which is not hemp at
+all--is grown in the Philippine Islands, and since peace has prevailed,
+the growth and production is increasing. The crude fibre is prepared by
+hand, by Filipino or by Chinese labor. The manufacture of cordage and
+paper is done mainly in the United States and Great Britain. Fine
+hand-made textiles are made by a few Filipino natives, but most of the
+goods of this character are manufactured in France. Very fine fibre is
+sometimes used as an adulterant of silk. Great Britain and the United
+States are the chief purchasers.
+
+=Sisal Hemp.=--Sisal hemp, or henequen, is a stout, stringy fibre obtained
+from the thick leaves of several species of agave, to which the maguey
+and century-plant belong. The cultivated species, from which most of the
+commercial product is obtained, is the _Agave sisalina_, which much
+resembles the ordinary century-plant.
+
+The essential feature in the economic production of sisal hemp is
+machinery for separating the fibre from the pulp of the leaf. The fibre
+is whiter, cleaner, and lighter than jute; moreover, in strength it
+ranks next to the best quality of manila hemp. It is used mainly in the
+manufacture of grain-sacks, and the twine used on self-binding
+harvesters. Nearly all the fibre of commerce is grown in the Mexican
+state of Yucatan and consumed in the United States. The cultivation of
+this material has made Yucatan one of the most prosperous states of
+Mexico.
+
+=Jute.=--Jute is a fibre obtained from the inner bark of a tropical plant,
+_Corchorus olitorius_, belonging to the same order as the linden-tree.
+The plant is an annual, growing in various moist, tropical countries,
+but is extensively cultivated in India and parts of China for commercial
+purposes. The fibre is prepared for manufacture in much the same manner
+as hemp and flax. In India it is used mainly for the manufacture of a
+coarse textile known as gunny cloth, used as bale-wrappers, and sacks
+for coffee and rice. On the Pacific coast states it is used for
+wheat-sacks. Calcutta is the chief centre of manufacture, but jute-sacks
+are extensively manufactured by the Chinese in California and China.
+
+=Ramie.=--This fibre, also known as China grass, is the best of two or
+more species of nettles, prepared in the same manner as hemp fibre. It
+is finer and stronger than jute, and will take dye-stuffs in a superior
+manner. With the introduction of machinery for separating and handling
+the fibre, the cultivation of the ramie-plant has spread from China to
+India, Japan, and the United States. Fine textiles are now manufactured
+from it, the most important being carpets, mattings, and American
+"Smyrna" rugs. The last are generally sold as jute-rugs, and they are
+nearly as durable as woollen floor-covers.
+
+=Other Economic Fibres.=--The fibre of _cocoanut husk_ is largely employed
+in the manufacture of coarse matting. A part of this is obtained from
+tropical America, but it is a regular export of British India, where it
+is known as _coir_.
+
+The mid-rib of the _screw pine_ growing in the forests of tropical
+America furnishes the material of which "Panama" hats are made. The hats
+are made in various parts of Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia, and were
+formerly marketed in Panama. Hats made of a score of grasses and fibres
+are also sold as Panamas.
+
+A plant (_Phormium tenax_) having leaves somewhat like those of the iris
+or common flag furnishes the material of which New Zealand flax is
+prepared. It is used mainly in the manufacture of cordage.
+
+_Plaiting straw_, used in the manufacture of hats and bonnets, is grown
+extensively in northern Italy and in Belgium. For this product spring
+wheat is very thickly sown in a soil rich in lime. The thick sowing
+produces a long, slender stalk; the lime gives it whiteness and
+strength. Plaiting straw is also exported from China and Japan. British
+merchants handle most of the product.
+
+_Cuba bast_, a fibre readily bleached to whiteness, is exported to the
+various establishments in which women's hats are made.
+
+_Esparto grass_, also called _alfa_, grows in Spain and the northern
+part of Africa. It was formerly much used in the manufacture of the
+cheaper grades of paper, but it has been largely supplanted by wood-pulp
+for this purpose. The decline of the esparto grass industry led to no
+little unrest among some of the native tribes of northern Africa.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What fibres were used in cloth-making in Europe before cotton was
+employed?
+
+What textiles are of necessity made of cotton?
+
+What is a spinning jenny?--a Jacquard loom?
+
+What are the specific differences between cotswold and merino wool?
+
+Why were most of the cloth-making mills of the United States built at
+first in the New England States?
+
+How is the silk-making industry encouraged in the United States?
+
+What are the chief linen manufacturing countries?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain specimens of the cotton seed, boll, raw cotton (sea island,
+Peruvian, and ordinary), cotton thread, calico, gingham, domestic,
+canvas, and some of the fancy textiles such as organdie, lawn, etc.
+
+Obtain specimens of the cocoons of the silk-worm, raw silk gros-grain
+cloth, pongee, and tussar silk cloth.
+
+Obtain also specimens of merino cloth, cashmere, cheviot, and other
+similar goods; compare them and note the difference.
+
+Examine the fibres of cotton, silk, and wool under a microscope and note
+the difference.
+
+[Illustration: BRANCH OF COFFEE TREE, WEST BRAZIL]
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR JOLO, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS]
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE DRYING FIELD, BRAZIL]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+PLANT PRODUCTS OF ECONOMIC USE--BEVERAGES AND MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES
+
+
+It may be assumed that practically all beverages derived from plants owe
+their popularity to the stimulant effects they produce. In coffee, tea,
+cocoa, and mate, the stimulant principle is identical with _cafein_, the
+active principle of coffee; in liquors it is a powerful narcotic
+_alcohol_; non-potable substances, tobacco, opium, etc., owe their
+popularity also to narcotic poisons.
+
+=Coffee.=--The coffee "beans" of commerce are the seeds of a tree (_Coffea
+arabica_) probably native to Abyssinia, but now cultivated in various
+parts of the world. It was introduced into Aden from Africa late in the
+fifteenth century, and from there its use spread to other cities. Rather
+singularly its popularity resulted from the strong efforts made to
+forbid its use.
+
+It was regarded as a stimulant and therefore it was forbidden to
+followers of Islam.[34] But its power to prevent drowsiness and sleep
+during the intolerably long religious exercises was a winning feature,
+and so its use became general in spite of the fulminations against it.
+
+Coffee culture was confined to Arabia until the close of the seventeenth
+century; it was then introduced into the Dutch East Indies, and for many
+years the island of Java became the main supply of the world. At the
+present time, Java is second only to Brazil in coffee production. In the
+Old World it is now also cultivated along the Guinea coast of Africa, in
+Madagascar, India, and Ceylon. In the New World the chief areas are
+Brazil, Venezuela, the Central American States, and the West Indies.
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE PRODUCING REGIONS]
+
+The coffee-tree may be cultivated in almost any soil that is fertile; it
+thrives best, however, in red soil. Old, decomposed red lavas produce
+the choicest beans. Coffee grows in any moist climate in which the
+temperature does not range higher than 80 deg. F. nor lower than 55 deg.
+F. An occasional frost injures but does not necessarily kill the trees,
+which grow better in the shade than in the sunlight. For convenience in
+gathering the crop, the trees are pruned until they are not higher than
+bushes.
+
+The fruit of the coffee-tree is a deep-red berry not quite so large as a
+cherry. A juicy pulp encloses a double membrane, or endocarp, and within
+the latter are the seeds which constitute the coffee of commerce.
+Normally there are two seeds, but in some varieties there is a tendency
+for one seed to mature, leaving the other undeveloped; this is the
+"peaberry" coffee of commerce. The so-called Mocha coffee is a peaberry.
+
+In their preparation the berries are picked when ripe and deprived of
+their pulp. After pulping they are cured in the sun for about a week and
+then hulled, or divested of the endocarp, a process requiring expensive
+machinery. The coffee is then cleaned, and sacked.
+
+The value of the product depends on two factors, age and the care with
+which it is sorted. Formerly, in the Dutch East Indies, coffee-growing,
+for the greater part, was a government privilege, and the crop was kept
+for several years in storage before it was permitted to be
+sold--therefore the term "Old Government" Java. Other coffee was
+designated as "Private Plantations." The quality of coffee is greatly
+improved with age. Brazilian and other American coffee-beans are rarely
+seasoned by storage.
+
+American coffees are almost wholly sorted by machinery. This process,
+however, merely collects beans of the same size; it still leaves the
+good and the bad beans together, though it is to be said that among the
+largest beans there are fewer poor ones. In the coffees handled by the
+Arab dealers all the sorting is done by hand, the very choice grade
+selling in the large cities of Europe for the equivalent of nearly three
+dollars per pound. All machine-sorted coffee is greatly improved by a
+subsequent hand-sorting to remove the imperfect beans.
+
+The naming of the different kinds of coffee is somewhat arbitrary. Thus,
+Brazilian coffees are commercially known as _Rio_ because they are
+shipped from the port of Rio de Janeiro; the same name is applied to the
+product shipped from Santos. Nearly all Venezuela coffees are called
+_Maracaibo_ although they differ much in kind and quality; most Central
+American coffee is sold as _Costa Rica_; most peaberry varieties are
+known as _Mocha_; and most of the East India product is popularly called
+_Java_, no matter whence it comes.
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE PRODUCTION]
+
+Of the American coffees Rio constitutes about half the world's product.
+After sorting, the larger beans are often marketed as Java coffee, and
+when the beans have been roasted it is exceedingly difficult to tell the
+difference. The best Maracaibo is regarded as choice coffee, but its
+flavor is not liked by all coffee-drinkers. The best Honduras and Puerto
+Rico coffees take a high rank and command very high prices, retailing in
+some instances at sixty cents per pound. A very choice peaberry is grown
+in the volcanic soils of Mexico to which the name of _Oaxaca_ is given;
+most of it is sold in the United States as a choice Mocha.
+
+Mocha is the commercial name of a coffee at one time marketed in the
+Arabian city of that name. Since the completion of the Suez Canal,
+Hodeida has been the chief centre of the Arabian coffee-trade. Formerly
+most of this coffee was grown in the Province of Yemen, but now it is
+brought to Hodeida, from Egypt, Ceylon, and India.
+
+About all the product is hand-sorted. The choicest is sold in
+Constantinople, Cairo, and other cities near by, in some instances
+bringing five dollars per pound. Very little, and only that of the most
+inferior quality, ever finds its way into western Europe or the United
+States. Even the best Mocha is not superior to fine Oaxaca coffee.
+
+Java coffee is renowned the world over for its fine flavor. The best
+quality was formerly that which had been held in storage to season for a
+few years. The government coffee was generally the better, but some of
+the private plantations crop is now equally good. Some of the Sumatra
+coffees are equal to the best Java beans.
+
+The Liberia coffees have never been favorites in the United States on
+account of their flavor. In Europe they are used for blending with other
+varieties.
+
+Of the entire coffee-crop of the world, the United States consumes more
+than three-quarters of a billion pounds--a yearly average of very nearly
+eleven pounds for each inhabitant. This is nearly three times as much
+per inhabitant as is consumed in Germany, and almost fifteen times the
+average used in Great Britain. Nearly all the world's crop is consumed
+in the United States and western Europe.
+
+Chicory, parched grain, pease, and burnt parsnip are sometimes added as
+adulterants to ground coffee. Of those, chicory most nearly resembles
+coffee in flavor and taste. It is harmless and usually improves the
+flavor of inferior coffee. A tariff recently placed upon chicory has
+somewhat lessened the use of it.
+
+=Tea.=--The tea of commerce consists of the dried and prepared leaves of
+an evergreen shrub (_Thea chinensis_) belonging most probably to the
+_camellia_ family. Tea has been a commercial product of China for more
+than fourteen hundred years, but seems to have been carried thither from
+India about five hundred years before the Christian era; for its virtues
+were praised by (the probably mythical) Chinung, an emperor of that
+period.
+
+The cultivated plants are scarcely higher than bushes, but the wild
+plant found in India is a tree fifteen or twenty feet in height. The
+cultivated plant is quite hardy; severe winters kill it but ordinary
+freezing weather merely retards its growth. It thrives best in red,
+mouldy soils; the choicest varieties are grown in new soils. The leaves
+are not picked until the plants are three or four years old.
+
+Two general classes of tea are known in commerce--the green and the
+black. Formerly these were grown on different varieties of the plant,
+but in the newer plantations no distinction is made in the matter of
+variety; the color is due wholly to the manner of preparation.
+
+The plants are watched carefully during the seasons of picking, of which
+there are three or four each year. The April picking yields the choicest
+crop of leaves, and only the youngest leaves and buds are taken.[35] A
+single plant rarely yields more than four or five ounces of tea yearly.
+Each acre of a tea-garden yields about three hundred and fifty pounds.
+
+After picking, the leaves are partly crushed and allowed to wilt until
+they begin to turn brown in color. They are then rolled between the
+hands and either dried very slowly in the sun, or else rapidly in pans
+over a charcoal fire--a process known as "firing." The former method
+produces _black_, the latter _green_, tea. The color of the latter is
+sometimes heightened by the use of a mixture of powdered gypsum and
+Prussian blue. In the black teas the green coloring matter of the leaf
+is destroyed by fermentation; in the green teas it remains unchanged.
+
+The greater part of the Chinese tea designed for export is packed rather
+loosely in wooden chests lined with sheet-lead, the folds and joints of
+which are soldered in order to make the cover both air-tight and
+moisture-tight. A full chest contains seventy-five pounds of tea. The
+Japan product is also packed in moisture-tight wrappers, the original
+parcels being usually ten-pound, five-pound, and pound packages. Similar
+devices are used in preparing the India and Formosa teas for ocean
+shipment.
+
+The chief tea-producing countries are India (including Ceylon) China,
+Japan (including Formosa), and Java. A successful tea-garden is in
+operation near Charleston, S.C. A small amount is grown in the Fiji and
+Samoan Islands. The Ceylon and Formosa teas take a very high rank.
+
+[Illustration: AREA OF TEA PRODUCTION]
+
+Great Britain and her colonies consume the bulk of the tea-crop. The
+average yearly consumption per person is eight pounds in Australia, six
+in Great Britain and Cape of Good Hope, and more than four in Canada. In
+the United States and Russia it is less than one pound per person.
+
+Before the opening of the Suez Canal, in 1869, most of the crop for the
+English market was despatched by way of Cape of Good Hope. So important
+was it to get the consignments to London without loss of time, that fast
+clipper ships were built especially for carrying tea. Since the opening
+of the canal the crop has been shipped mainly by the Suez route.
+
+A part of the tea required for the United States reaches New York by way
+of the Suez Canal, but the movement is gradually changing since the
+building of the fast liners that now ply between Asian and American
+ports. These steamships carry it to Seattle, or to Vancouver, whence it
+is distributed by rail. The increased cost of shipment by this route is
+more than offset by a gain of from five to seven days in time.
+
+In some respects the Russian "caravan route" is the most important
+channel of the tea-trade. The tea is collected mainly at Tientsin, and
+sent by camel caravans through Manchuria to the most convenient point on
+the Siberian railway. Not only the shipments of brick tea[36] for the
+Russian market, but the choicest products for western Europe also are
+sent by this route. It is probably an economical way of shipping the
+brick tea, but a more expensive method of shipment for the latter could
+not be found easily; it is preferred from the fact that, no matter how
+carefully sealed, the flavor of tea is materially injured by an ocean
+voyage.
+
+It is evident, therefore, that for the tea product alone the Siberian
+railway will soon become an important factor in the commerce of Europe.
+Shipments of tea are also sent from Canton to Odessa, Russia, but this
+route is not less expensive in the long run than the Cape route, and the
+tea suffers as much deterioration from the shorter as from the longer
+voyage.
+
+=Cacao.=--Cacao, the "cocoa" of commerce, consists of the prepared seeds
+of several species of _Theobroma_, the greater part being obtained from
+the _Theobroma cacao_. The name is unfortunately confused with that of
+the cocoa-palm, but there is no relation whatever between the two.
+
+The seeds of the cacao were used in ancient America long before its
+discovery by Columbus, and the latter carried the first knowledge of it
+to Europe. By the middle of the seventeenth century it was much used in
+Spain, and less than a hundred years later it had become the fashionable
+drink of western Europe.
+
+The cacao-tree, originally native to Mexico, is now cultivated
+throughout tropical America and the West Indies. It is not cultivated to
+any extent in the Eastern continent. The fruit consists of large, fleshy
+pods, which are cut from the trees usually in June and December. The
+seeds are then piled in heaps, or else packed in pits, and allowed to
+undergo a rapid fermentation for a period of several days, to which
+process their flavor is mainly due. The roasted and broken seeds are the
+cocoa-nibs of commerce. The husks are known as cocoa-shells.
+
+A very large part of the cacao product comes from Ecuador, Guayaquil
+being perhaps the chief market of the world. The Venezuelan and
+Brazilian products, however, are the choicest; these are known in
+commerce respectively as Caracas and Trinidad cacao. Spain, Portugal,
+and France are the chief purchasers, and in the first-named country the
+consumption per person is five or six times as great as in other
+countries.
+
+Cacao is not only a stimulant beverage, but a food as well; about
+one-half its weight is fat, and about one-third consists of starch and
+flesh-making substances. The stimulant principle is the same as that
+occurring in tea and coffee, but the proportion is considerably less. In
+preparing the cocoa for the market, much of the fat is intentionally
+withdrawn. The fat, commercially known as "cocoa-butter," and "oil of
+theobroma," does not turn rancid.
+
+Chocolate consists of cocoa ground to a paste with sugar and flavoring
+matter, and then cast in moulds to harden. It is used mainly in the
+manufacture of confectionery. Most of the chocolate is made in France,
+Spain, and the United States. More than forty million pounds of cocoa
+are yearly consumed in the United States.
+
+=Mate.=--Mate, yerba mate, or Paraguay tea, is the leaf of a shrub, a
+species of holly, growing profusely in the forests of Brazil, Paraguay,
+Argentina, and Uruguay. In many instances, the shrub is cultivated. The
+leaves are prepared in much the same manner as tea-leaves are, but
+instead of being rolled, they are broken by beating.
+
+The mate of commerce has a stimulant principle identical with that of
+tea and coffee, which is the only reason for its use. The consumption,
+about fifteen thousand tons a year, is confined almost wholly to the
+countries named.
+
+=Tobacco.=--The tobacco of commerce is the prepared and manufactured leaf
+of several species of plant, belonging to the nightshade family. Most of
+the product is derived from the species known as Virginia tobacco
+(_Nicotiana tabacum_) and the Brazilian species (_Nicotiana rustica_).
+The former is cultivated in the United States, West Indies, the
+Philippine Islands, and Turkey; the latter has been transplanted to
+central Europe and the East Indies.
+
+The use of tobacco was prevalent in the New World at the time of
+Columbus's first voyage, and was quickly introduced into Europe. The
+prepared leaf contains a substance, nicotine, which is one of the most
+deadly of poisons when swallowed, and an intense narcotic stimulant when
+inhaled. On account of the evil effects arising from its introduction,
+its use was forbidden by the Church and also by sovereigns of several
+European states. The latter, however, finding that its use was becoming
+general, made it a Crown monopoly. In Great Britain its cultivation was
+forbidden in order to encourage its cultivation in Virginia.
+
+Tobacco does not thrive best in a poor soil, but the latter produces a
+thin, half-developed leaf, which in other plants would be called
+"sickly." It grows in almost any kind of soil, but requires warm summer
+nights. In many instances the tobacco of temperate latitudes yields a
+more salable leaf when grown under cover. The flavor is due partly to
+soil and climate, and partly to skill in curing. The choicest product is
+obtained in only a few localities of limited area. It sometimes happens
+that the products of two plantations almost side by side, and similarly
+situated, are very unlike in character and quality.
+
+[Illustration: TOBACCO]
+
+The choicest cigar-tobacco is grown on the Vuelta Abajo district in the
+province of Pinar del Rio, Cuba; another very choice Cuban leaf is known
+as Partidos. Cuban-made cigars of fine quality are commercially "Havana"
+cigars, although tobacco from Manila and Porto Rico is apt to be largely
+used in their manufacture. In order to avoid the very heavy duty on
+cigars, which is not far from six dollars per pound, a great deal of the
+Havana tobacco is exported to points along the Florida coast, mainly Key
+West and Tampa. The unmanufactured tobacco pays a comparatively small
+duty, and the cigars made from it are commercially known as "Key West."
+
+In some parts of Mexico a fine-flavored tobacco is grown, but as the
+cigars are not uniform in quality they are not popular. Some of the
+Brazilian tobacco is a high-class product, but not much is exported.
+Porto Rican leaf has a fine flavor, but is not popular because of its
+dark color. The demand for it in the United States is growing, however.
+Of the leaf grown in the East, that from Sumatra and the Philippine
+Islands is by far the best, and the exports are heavy. Cuban
+manufacturers purchase the Manila leaf; the Sumatra wrappers are
+purchased in the United States.
+
+The choicest cigarette-tobacco is grown in Asiatic Turkey,
+Transcaucasia, and Egypt. It is selected with great care, and is
+"long-cut." The common grades are made of chopped Virginia tobacco, or
+of chopped cigar-trimmings. The cheapest grades consist of refuse leaf
+mixed with half-smoked cigar-stumps. The United States leads in the
+manufacture of cigarettes, and a large part of the product is sold in
+China, India, and Japan. Most of the world's product of snuff is made in
+the United States, and nearly all of it is sold abroad.
+
+The United States produces yearly about seven hundred million pounds. A
+large part of this is sold to European countries. Great Britain
+purchases about four-fifths of the tobacco there consumed from the
+United States. The latter country purchases from Europe (mainly the
+Netherlands) about half as much as it sells to Europe. Louisville, Ky.,
+is probably the largest tobacco-market in the world. New York,
+Baltimore, Richmond, Manila, and Havana are the chief shipping-ports.
+
+In almost every civilized country tobacco is heavily taxed. In the
+United States there is not only a heavy import duty, but an internal
+revenue in addition. In Austria, France, Italy, Japan, and Spain the
+manufacture and sale is in the hands of the government. The consumption
+of tobacco varies greatly. In the Netherlands it averages about seven
+pounds a year to each individual; in the United States it is more than
+four pounds; in central Europe, three pounds; in Spain, Sweden, Great
+Britain, and Italy, it is less than two pounds.
+
+=Opium.=--The opium of commerce is the hardened juice obtained from the
+seed capsules of several species of the poppy-plant. A variety having a
+large capsule (_Papaver somniferum_) is most commonly cultivated for the
+commercial production of the substance. Half-a-dozen times during the
+season the capsules are scratched or cut; the juice exuding when hard is
+picked or scraped off and pressed into cakes.
+
+Opium is not only a narcotic poison, but it has the property of
+lessening the pain of disease, and this is its chief use in medicine. In
+Mohammedan countries where the use of alcoholic liquors is forbidden as
+a religious custom, opium is used as a substitute. In Turkey, Persia,
+Arabia, and Egypt the production of opium is an important industry
+connected with social and religious life. In British India it is a
+political factor, being extensively cultivated as a government monopoly
+to be sold to the Chinese, who are probably the chief consumers of it.
+The Indian Government derives a revenue sometimes reaching twenty
+million dollars from this source.
+
+The best quality of opium is marketed at Smyrna, and most of this is
+purchased by the United States. A considerable amount of Chinese opium
+is imported for the use of the Chinese, and a larger amount is probably
+smuggled over the Canadian and Mexican borders. Laudanum is an alcoholic
+tincture, and morphine an extractive of opium; both are used as
+medicine.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Consult a good physiology and learn the effects of coffee, tea, tobacco,
+and opium.
+
+Where and what are the following: Mocha, Java, Maracaibo, Yokohama,
+Amoy, Canton, Oaxaca, Hodeida, Rio Janeiro, Santos, Havana; how is each
+connected commercially with this chapter?
+
+From the map, Fig. 1, trace the route of a cargo of tea overland from
+China to Great Britain.
+
+Consult an English history or a cyclopaedia and learn about the opium
+war.
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain samples of the following, preserving them for study and
+inspection in closely stoppered vials: Mocha, Java, Rio, and Sumatra
+coffees; green, black, and gunpowder tea. Soak a tea-leaf a few minutes
+in warm water; unroll the leaf and attach it to a white card, for study.
+
+Obtain samples of gum opium, laudanum, and morphine; note the odor of
+the first two and the taste of the last. Remember that they are
+poisonous.
+
+Unroll a cheap cigarette and note the character of the tobacco in it,
+using a magnifying glass.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GUMS AND RESINS USED IN THE ARTS
+
+
+Most vegetable juices exposed to the air harden into firm substances,
+commonly called _gum_. Some of these dissolve, or at least soften, in
+water; these technically are known as "gums," and usually are so
+designated in commerce. Others are insoluble in water, but dissolve
+readily in alcohol, in naphtha, in turpentine, or in other essential
+oils; these are designated as "gum-resins." Still others yield oils or
+pitchy substances on distillation; these are known as "oleo-resins."
+There are many other dried vegetable juices, however, that in commerce
+are not classified among the gums and resins, and of these the most
+important is the substance commonly known as india-rubber.
+
+=Rubber and Rubber Products.=--"Caoutchouc" is approximately the name
+given by Indians of the Amazon forests to a substance that had also been
+found in India. Some of it was brought to Europe from the Amazon region
+as early as 1736, and for nearly one hundred years no general purpose
+was discovered for which it could be used, except to erase lead-pencil
+marks--hence the name india-rubber, which has held ever since.
+
+Common rubber is the prepared juice of a dozen or more shrubs and trees,
+all of which grow in tropical regions.[37] The belt of rubber-producing
+plants extends around the world and includes such well-known species as
+the fig, the manihot (or manioc), and the oleander; indeed, it is a
+condition of sap rather than a definite species of plant that produces
+rubber, and the latter is a manufactured rather than a natural product.
+The process of preparing the juice is practically the same in every part
+of the world.
+
+The rubber-gatherer of the Amazon, who is practically a slave, wades
+into the swamp, makes several incisions in the bark of the tree,
+fashions a rough trough of clay under it, and waits till the sap fills
+the clay vessel. When the sap has been gathered he makes a fire of the
+nuts of the urucuri palm and places an inverted funnel over it to
+concentrate the smoke. He first dips the end of a wooden spindle into
+the juice and then holds it in the smoke until the juice coagulates;
+this process is repeated until there has formed a ball of rubber
+weighing from five to ten pounds. The smoke of the palm-nuts is a
+chemical agent that converts the juice into the crude rubber of
+commerce.
+
+Crude gum, however, is lacking both in strength and elasticity. The
+process that makes it a finished product is known as _vulcanization_.
+The crude rubber, having been exported to the manufacturer in the United
+States or Europe, is shredded, washed, and cleansed, and partly fused
+with varying proportions of sulphur. For a very soft product, such as
+the inner surface of tires, only a small proportion is used; where the
+wear is considerable, a larger proportion is employed.[38] White clay is
+sometimes added to give body to the product; coloring matter is also
+sometimes added.
+
+By far the greater part of the crude rubber comes from the Amazon
+forests. Brazil produces about one-half, but a considerable quantity is
+obtained in Acre, the territory formed where the borders of Brazil,
+Bolivia, and Peru meet, and now ceded to Brazil. Nearly all this
+product, that of the Ceara region excepted, is marketed at Para and is
+known as Para rubber. It is the best produced. The African product,
+mainly from the forests of the Kongo, and Madagascar, and nearly all the
+East Indian product is sent to Europe.
+
+[Illustration: REGIONS YIELDING RUBBER]
+
+The world's product is about one hundred and thirty-three million pounds
+of crude rubber. Of this product the United States takes nearly
+one-half. The greater part is used in the manufacture of pneumatic
+tires, hose, and overshoes. A large part is used for making water-proof
+cloth,[39] and considerable is made into the small elastic bands for
+which there is a growing use.
+
+=Gutta-Percha.=--Gutta-percha is obtained from the juices of several
+plants (chiefly _Dichopsis gutta_ and _Supota muelleri_) both of which
+abound in the Malay peninsula and the East Indies. It is prepared in a
+manner somewhat similar to that employed in making crude rubber; it is
+also easily vulcanized by heating with sulphur. It is used to a limited
+extent in the manufacture of golf-balls, but mainly as the insulating
+cover of copper wires used in ocean telegraph cables. For this purpose
+it has no known substitute, and its essential merit is the fact that it
+is not altered by salt water. Nearly all the product is shipped from
+Singapore to England.
+
+=Pine-Tree Products.=--The various members of the pine and cone-bearing
+trees yield valuable essential oils and oleo-resins that are very
+important in the arts and sciences. These, in nearly every instance, are
+prepared from the sap of the tree.
+
+_Oil of turpentine_ is known as an "essential oil," and in chemical
+structure and properties it does not differ from the various essential
+oils, such as lemon, orange, peppermint, etc. Commercial turpentine is
+generally made from the sap of the long-leafed pine of the Atlantic
+coast-plain.
+
+The bark of the tree is cut near the foot, and the sap that oozes from
+the scar quickly hardens into a gum. The gum, generally known as "crude
+turpentine," is distilled and yields about one-fourth its weight of oil
+or "spirit" of turpentine. It is a staple article of manufacture in
+Europe, India, and the United States, and is used chiefly to dilute the
+oil paints and varnishes used in indoor work. The United States supplies
+about two-thirds of the world's product, a large part of which is
+shipped from Savannah and Brunswick, Ga., to Great Britain.[40]
+
+_Resin_ is the substance remaining after the crude turpentine has been
+distilled. It is used in the manufacture of varnish, sealing-wax, and
+soap. Finely powdered resin is also mixed with wood-pulp in the
+manufacture of wrapping-paper. It gives the latter a glazed surface and
+renders it almost water-proof. Most of the world's product of resin
+comes from the turpentine district of the United States, and about
+four-fifths of it is exported to Europe.
+
+When resin is subjected to distillation at a still higher temperature,
+_resin oil_, a very heavy turpentine, is given off, and a viscous
+substance known as _pitch_ remains. A considerable amount of this is
+still made in the United States, but the greater part comes from the
+pine-forests of Russia and Scandinavia. When pine-wood is distilled,
+_tar_ is the chief product. In Russia tar is generally made by burning
+green logs covered with turf, over a pit. _Creosote_, or wood
+preservative, is made from tar. The various pine-tree products, creosote
+excepted, are commonly known as "naval stores," the tar being used in
+water-proofing the rigging of vessels, the pitch in calking the seams in
+between planks, in the decks and hulls.
+
+=Other Resins and Gums Used in the Arts.=--Most of the gums and resins
+used in the arts and sciences are the hardened sap of plants--in some
+cases exuding by natural means from the bark, in others resulting from
+the puncture of the bark.
+
+The _lac_ of commerce is due to the puncture of the young branches of a
+tree, frequently a fig (_Ficus religiosa_) growing in the tropical
+forests of India. The hardened sap incrusts twigs forming _stick-lac_;
+when crushed, washed, and freed from the woody matter it is _seed-lac_;
+when melted and cooled in flakes it is _shell-lac_, the form best known
+in commerce. It is the chief ingredient in sealing-wax, and is
+extensively used as a varnish. It is also used in fireworks on account
+of its inflammability.
+
+_Dammar_ is the product of a tree growing in the East Indies; it is the
+basis of a very fine white varnish. _Copal_ is a term applied to
+oleo-resins soluble in turpentine, and used almost universally as
+varnishes. They come from the tropical regions of South America, Africa,
+and from the East Indies. _Kauri_ is the fossil gum of a cone-bearing
+tree dug from the ground in northern New Zealand. _Amber_ is the fossil
+gum of extinct cone-bearing trees found mainly along the Baltic coast of
+Prussia. It is used chiefly for the mouth-pieces of tobacco-pipes and
+cigar-holders; the inferior product is made into varnish. It is sold
+wherever tobacco is used. _Sandarach_, found on the north African coast,
+is used principally in Europe, being employed as a varnish. The United
+States and Great Britain consume most of the foregoing products.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Name any elastic substance you know about that is in every way a
+substitute for rubber.
+
+What has been the relation between rubber and good roads?
+
+Describe the structure of a bicycle tire.
+
+Why are tar, pitch, and turpentine called naval stores?--and what
+determines the locality in which they are made?
+
+What is varnish, and for what purposes is it used?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain specimens of crude rubber, vulcanized rubber, and hard rubber;
+note carefully the characteristics of each.
+
+Burn a very small piece of cheap white rubber-tubing in an iron spoon or
+a fire-shovel; note the character of the residue.
+
+Obtain specimens of gutta-percha, resin, pitch, turpentine, shellac,
+copal, dammar, and creosote for study and inspection.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+COAL AND PETROLEUM
+
+
+The economic history of nearly every country that has achieved eminence
+in modern times dates from its use of coal and iron; and indeed the
+presence of these substances in workable deposits means almost unlimited
+power. The present era is sometimes called the Age of Steel, but the
+possibilities of producing steel in enormous quantities, at less than
+one-fifth its price at the beginning of the nineteenth century, depended
+mainly upon the use of mineral coal instead of charcoal in its
+manufacture.
+
+Coal consists of accumulations of vegetable matter that were formed in
+prior geological ages. Under the action of heat and moisture, and also
+the tremendous pressure of the rock layers that afterward covered them,
+the vegetable matter was converted to mineral coal.
+
+The aggregate coal-fields of the United States are not far from two
+hundred thousand square miles in extent, but of this area not much more
+than one-half is workable. In Europe there are estimated to be about one
+hundred thousand square miles of coal-lands, of which about half are
+productive at the present time. Of this Great Britain has 12,000 square
+miles, Spain 4,000, France 2,000, Germany 1,800, and Belgium 500. In
+Canada there are about 20,000 square miles of coal-land; a part of this
+is included in the Nanaimo field on the Pacific coast, but the most
+important are the Nova Scotia beds, which form about the only supply for
+the British naval stations of America. China has extensive coal-fields.
+
+In character coal is broadly divided into two classes--anthracite or
+hard, and bituminous or soft, coal. Anthracite coal occurs in folded and
+metamorphic rocks. It is hard and glassy, and does not split into thin
+layers or leaves. The beds have been subjected to intense heat and
+pressure, and the coal has but a very small amount--rarely more than
+five per cent.--of volatile matter; it burns, therefore, with little or
+no smoke and soot, and on this account is very desirable as a fuel in
+cities. Two areas in Colorado and New Mexico produce small quantities of
+pure anthracite; practically all the commercial anthracite comes from
+three small basins in Pennsylvania. In quality it is known as "red ash"
+and "white ash," the former being the superior.
+
+The yearly output of the anthracite mines is upward of fifty-five
+million long tons a year, or somewhat less than five million tons per
+month. In winter the rate of consumption is somewhat greater than that
+of production. A shortage in the summer production is therefore apt to
+be keenly felt in the winter. Before shipment to the market the coal is
+crushed at the breakers, sorted in different sizes, and washed.
+
+Most of the anthracite coal-mines are owned by the railway companies
+centring at New York and Philadelphia, or else are operated by companies
+controlled by the railways. About one-fourth of the output is produced
+by independent operators who, as a rule, sell their coal to the railway
+companies. The Reading, Pennsylvania, Central of New Jersey, Lackawanna,
+Lehigh Valley, Ontario & Western, Erie, and Delaware & Hudson are
+popularly known as "coalers" because the larger part of their eastern
+business consists in carrying anthracite coal.
+
+[Illustration: A VIEW OF THREE COLLIERIES IN THE ANTHRACITE COAL BASIN
+NEAR MAHANOY CITY, PA.]
+
+Formerly much of the coal was shipped by canals, but the latter were
+not able to compete with the railways, and most of the coal-canals have
+been abandoned. The price of anthracite at tide-water (New York) varies
+from $3.20 to $4.50 per long ton. At Philadelphia the price is about
+one-fourth less. Buffalo is the chief lake-port for anthracite. Steam
+sizes are about two-thirds the price of house fuel.
+
+[Illustration: COAL FIELDS IN UNITED STATES]
+
+Bituminous, or soft coal furnishes the larger part of the house fuel in
+the United States, and nearly all the house coal used in other parts of
+the world. It contains from fifteen to more than forty per cent. of
+volatile matter, burning with a long and smoky flame. The coal which
+contains twenty per cent. or less of volatile matter is a free-burning
+coal that may develop heat enough to partly fuse the ash, forming
+"clinkers"; it is therefore called "caking" coal, and is not only well
+adapted for use as fuel and steam-making, but it is also a good smelting
+coal.
+
+Coal which contains more than thirty per cent. of volatile matter is
+known as "fat" coal and is generally used in the manufacture of coke and
+illuminating gas. Western Pennsylvania produces the largest amount of
+fat coal, but it is found here and there in nearly all soft-coal
+regions. A so-called smokeless bituminous coal occurs in various
+localities; its low percentage of volatile matter makes it an excellent
+house fuel.
+
+Bituminous coal is mined in twenty-five States of the Union,
+Pennsylvania, Illinois, West Virginia, and Ohio heading the list. In
+about half the mines the coal is cut from the seam by means of machinery
+and is known as machine-mined coal. A very large part of the product is
+consumed within a short distance of the mines, and this is especially
+true of the region about the upper Ohio River.
+
+[Illustration: COAL PRODUCTION]
+
+Most of the product is shipped to the large manufacturing cities of the
+middle west, where it is used for steam as well as fuel; a very large
+amount also is sent down the Ohio in barges to the lower Mississippi
+River. The spot value of bituminous coal varies from $0.80 to $1.60 per
+ton; the product of the Pacific coast mines, however, is from $3 to $5.
+
+The output of the mines of the United States aggregates about two
+hundred and forty million long tons yearly, and this is about one-third
+of the world's product. For many years there has been an export trade to
+Canada, the West Indies, Central and South America, amounting in 1900 to
+8,000,000 tons. Within a few years, however, the decreased cost of
+mining due to machinery, and the low rates of transportation to the
+seaboard has developed an export trade to Russia, Germany, and France.
+
+[Illustration: COAL]
+
+A small amount of coal is imported into the United States. A superior
+quality of Australian coal finds a ready market in Pacific coast points
+as far north as San Francisco, and large quantities of Nanaimo, B.C.,
+coal are sold in Oregon, Washington, and California. A small quantity of
+the "slack" or waste of the Nova Scotia mines is imported to Boston to
+be made into coke. The Canadian fields supply a considerable part of the
+coal used in Montana.
+
+=Coke and Coal-Tar Products.=--In the manufacture of iron and steel a fuel
+having a high percentage of carbon free from volatile matter is
+essential. The great cost of wood charcoal forbids its use, and so a
+charcoal made from soft coal is used. Fat coal is heated in closed
+chambers until the volatile matter is driven off. The product is "coke";
+the closed chamber is an "oven." The ovens are built of stone or
+fire-brick, in a long row. They are usually on an abrupt slope, so that
+the coal can be dumped into the top, while the coke can be withdrawn
+from the bottom, to be loaded into cars.
+
+About three thousand one hundred and forty pounds of coal are required
+to make a short ton of coke; from three thousand to five thousand cubic
+feet of illuminating gas, together with varying amounts of coal-tar and
+ammonia, are driven off and generally wasted. In a few instances
+"scientific" ovens are in use for the purpose of saving these products;
+but in the coal-mining regions such devices are the exception and not
+the rule. The great waste of energy-products in the manufacture of coke
+is partly offset by the employment of refuse and slack, which could not
+be otherwise used.
+
+There are more than five hundred and eighteen thousand coke-ovens in
+the United States, of which eighty per cent. are in use. Most of them
+are in the region about the upper Ohio River, and nearly half the total
+number is in the vicinity of Connellsville. The region around
+Birmingham, Ala., ranks next in number. The coke product of the United
+States is more than twenty million short tons a year. This is
+considerably less than the product of Great Britain, which is upward of
+twenty-five million tons.
+
+Most of the "scientific" ovens are near or in large cities where the
+gas, after purification, is used for illuminating purposes. In some
+instances the coke, and not the gas, is a by-product. The coal-tar is
+used in part for fuel, but a portion of it goes to the chemical
+laboratory, where it is made to yield ammonia, benzine, carbolic acid,
+and aniline dyes to the value of nearly seven million dollars.
+
+=Graphite.=--Graphite, plumbago, or "black lead," as it is popularly
+named, is found in many parts of the United States, but only a few
+localities produce a good commercial article; these are Ticonderoga, N.Y.,
+which yields from six hundred to two thousand tons a year, and
+Chester County, Pa., which yields a small but increasing amount; a good
+quality is mined near Ottawa, Canada. It is extensively mined in Ceylon,
+and this island produces the chief bulk of the world's ordinary product.
+The finest grade comes from the Alibert mine in Siberia. A good article
+is manufactured artificially at Niagara Falls.
+
+Graphite is used as a stove polish and for crucibles; in the main,
+however, it is employed in the manufacture of lead[41] pencils; for this
+purpose only a very soft mineral, absolutely free from grit, is
+employed, and the Siberian output is used almost wholly. One German firm
+and two American firms supply most of the pencils used.
+
+=Petroleum.=--Petroleum is the name given to a natural liquid mineral from
+which the well-known illuminating oil "kerosene" is derived, and to
+obtain which it is mined. Petroleum is a mixture of various compounds
+known as hydrocarbons. Some of these compounds are gaseous, some are
+liquid, and some are solid; all of them are articles of commercial
+value. The petroleum from different localities differs greatly in
+appearance and composition.
+
+The pitch that coated Noah's ark, the slime of the builders of the Tower
+of Babel, and the slime-pits of the Vale of Siddim all refer to mineral
+products associated with petroleum. Under the name of "naphtha" it has
+been known in Persia for thirty centuries, and for more than half as
+long a flowing oil spring has existed in the Ionian Islands. The Seneca
+Indians knew of a petroleum spring near the village of Cuba, N.Y., and
+used it as a medicine long before the advent of the white man.
+
+As early as 1850 illuminating oil, known as "coal" oil, was made in the
+United States by distilling cannel coal, but this product was supplanted
+within a few years by the natural petroleum discovered in Pennsylvania.
+In 1859 Colonel Drake completed a well bored in solid rock near
+Titusville, Pa. The venture proved successful, and in a few years
+petroleum mining became one of the great industries of the United
+States.
+
+Petroleum is known to exist in a great many parts of the world; the
+United States and Russia, however, produce practically all the
+commercial product; a very small amount is obtained from a horizon on
+the south slope of the Carpathian Mountains, situated in Rumania and
+Galicia, Austria-Hungary. There are also a few producing wells in Peru,
+Germany, Italy, Burma, Argentina, and Sumatra.
+
+[Illustration: PETROLEUM FIELDS IN THE UNITED STATES]
+
+In the United States the largest horizon is that of the Appalachian
+region. Since 1859 it has produced more than forty million gallons of
+crude oil. The Lima, Ind., horizon produces about twenty million
+barrels. The California and Texas horizons have become very important
+factors. The crude petroleum is transported partly in tank cars, but
+mainly by means of long lines of pipe, flowing from one pumping station
+to another by gravity. There are pipe-line terminals on the Great Lakes
+and at Pittsburg, but the principal are at the refining and exporting
+stations in New York, Philadelphia, and on the Delaware River.
+
+A considerable amount is exported to European countries to be there
+refined, but in the main the crude oil is refined before exporting it.
+Some of the refined oil is exported in barrels, and some in tin cases;
+the greater part, however, goes in tank steamers, and from these it is
+pumped into tank cars to be distributed. Most of the product is
+controlled by the Standard Oil Company, and it reaches nearly every
+country in the world. It is carried into Arctic regions on sledges, and
+over the African deserts by caravans. Great Britain, Germany, and the
+Netherlands are the chief purchasers and distributors. The value of the
+entire product is about one hundred and eighty-five million dollars.
+
+The Russian oil-producing region is on and near the Apsheron peninsula,
+a small area of Trans-Caucasia, that extends into the Caspian Sea; the
+region is commonly known as the Baku field, and in 1900 the production
+of crude oil surpassed that of the United States. The petroleum is
+conveyed by pipe lines to the refineries at Baku. From this port it is
+shipped in tank cars by rail to Batum, whence it is conveyed to the
+various European markets. A considerable part of the product is sent by
+tank steamers to Astrakhan, and thence up the Volga to Russian markets.
+Great Britain takes about one-third; about the same amount is shipped to
+Port Said for China, India, and other Asian markets; the rest is
+consumed in central Europe.
+
+=Petroleum Products.=--The various constituents of crude petroleum differ
+greatly in character, some being much more volatile than others. They
+are separated by distillation at different temperatures. By this process
+naphtha, rhigoline, gasoline, benzine, and other highly inflammable
+products are obtained in separate receivers. By a similar process the
+illuminating or refined oil and the lubricating oils are also separated.
+The residuum consists of a gummy mass from which paraffine and petroleum
+jelly are extracted.
+
+_Naphtha_ usually contains several volatile compounds, including
+_benzine_ and _gasoline_. It is used as a solvent of grease and also of
+crude india-rubber, but chiefly the manufacture of illuminating gas.
+
+_Kerosene_ is the name commonly given to the refined oil. A good
+quality should have a fire test of not less than one hundred and fifty
+degrees; that is, when heated to that temperature, it should not give
+off any inflammable gas. This test is now mandatory in most States.
+
+_Lubricating oil_ is used almost wholly for the lubrication of heavy
+machinery. It varies greatly in composition and quality.
+
+_Paraffine_ or petroleum wax has largely superseded beeswax; it is used
+mainly in the manufacture of candles and as an insulator for electric
+wires. A native mineral paraffine, known as ozocerite, is mined in Utah
+and Galicia; it is used as an insulating material.
+
+"_Vaseline_," "_cosmoline_," or _petroleum "jelly"_ is very largely used
+in pharmacy as the basis of ointments and also as a lubricant for heavy
+machinery.
+
+_Asphalt_ is produced by the distillation of petroleum, but the greater
+part of the world's product comes from two "pitch lakes"--one in
+Bermudez, Venezuela, the other in the island of Trinidad, off the
+Venezuelan coast. The former is the larger and produces a superior
+quality. Small deposits occur near Los Angeles, Cal., and in Utah. The
+output of the Venezuelan asphalt is used almost wholly for street
+pavement.
+
+Probably no other mineral has had a wider influence on both social and
+economic life, and the industrial arts, than petroleum and its
+compounds. The kerosene lamp, the aniline dye, the insulation of
+electric wires, the lubrication of machinery, the cosmetic, the
+india-rubber solution, and the physician's sedative dose represent only
+a few of the devices that are derived from petroleum.
+
+=Natural Gas.=--A natural inflammable gas occurs in or near several of the
+petroleum horizons. One important belt extends through western
+Pennsylvania and New York, and another through northwestern Ohio and
+northeastern Indiana. It is conveyed through pipe-lines and used both as
+fuel and for lighting. Natural gas occurs in a great many localities,
+but is used commercially only in the regions noted. It is better adapted
+for making glass than any other fuel, and on this account extensive
+glass-making establishments have concentrated in the natural-gas belt of
+western Pennsylvania.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+The statement is sometimes made to the effect that coal is "condensed
+sunlight"; is it true, or untrue; and why?
+
+Why are the coal areas of Europe and America also areas of various
+manufactures?
+
+A recent cartoon had for its title--"John Bull and his coal piles
+(_i.e._, coaling stations) rule the world"; show why this statement
+contains a great deal of truth.
+
+What are some of the advantages of steam-vessels over sailing-vessels?
+
+Whale oil, crude turpentine, kerosene, and gas have been used each in
+turn for illuminants; what is the advantage of each over the preceding?
+
+Describe the structure of an ordinary kerosene lamp-burner, an argand
+burner, a Welsbach burner.
+
+For what are aniline, paraffine, naphtha, and carbolic acid used?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain specimens of anthracite, bituminous, and cannel coal, and coke
+for comparison and study.
+
+Obtain specimens of crude petroleum, naphtha, refined oil, aniline dye,
+paraffine, and carbolic acid; note the properties of each. Throw away
+the naphtha after using.
+
+Read Mineral Resources of the United States on the foregoing subjects.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+METALS OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES
+
+
+The development of modern civilization is directly connected with the
+mining and manufacture of the useful metals. Their effect on the affairs
+of mankind can be rightly understood only when they are studied in their
+relations to one another, as well as to the people who used them. Next
+to the discovery of the use of fire, an appreciation of the use of
+metals has been the chief thing to develop the intellect of mankind.
+When human beings discarded natural caves for artificially constructed
+dwellings--when they began to cook their food and clothe their bodies,
+they required tools. These, in the main, consisted of the spears and
+arrow-heads used as weapons of the chase, and the axes and knives used
+as constructive tools.
+
+Rough stone gave place to flint because the latter would take a better
+edge. For the same reason the people of central Europe sent to the
+deserts of central Asia for jade wherewith to make axes and knives.
+Again, for the same reason, jade was discarded, because an alloy of
+copper and tin produced a bronze that would not only take a sharper edge
+than stone, but it was hard enough to cut and dress the latter. Egypt
+rose to a commanding position because of her control of the copper mines
+in the Sinaitic peninsula, and subsequently of the gold products coming
+from the upper Nile.
+
+A meridian drawn through Cairo, Egypt, practically divides the world
+into two kinds of civilization. East of this meridian the population is
+almost wholly agricultural and, excepting Japan and India, the
+character of the civilization has changed but little in the past 2,000
+years. West of the line the population is essentially characterized as
+metal-workers. It controls the world--not especially by virtue of a high
+degree of intellectual development, but because it has availed itself of
+the properties and characteristics of metals and their applications to
+commerce.
+
+The four metals that have had the greatest influence on western
+civilization are gold, silver, iron, and copper. The discovery of gold
+and silver has always resulted in a rapid settlement of the regions in
+which the discoveries were made, and usually in the building of great
+industrial centres. Thus, the discovery of gold in California was the
+first step in making the United States a world power. The acquisition of
+so large an amount of gold caused an industrial expansion that hurried
+the Civil War, and led to the manufacture of iron and steel both for
+agricultural machinery and railroad transportation. This, in turn,
+brought the country so closely in touch with the affairs of China and
+Japan, that European and American diplomacy in eastern Asia are a common
+concern. The commercial position of Great Britain is very largely due to
+her iron mines.
+
+The production of Bessemer steel at a price far less than that of iron
+at the beginning of the nineteenth century lowered the cost of
+transporting commodities to the extent that large areas, once of
+necessity very moderately productive of food-stuffs, are now densely
+peopled because food-stuffs can be transported to these regions more
+economically than they can be grown there. Thus, owing to the
+improvements in iron and steel manufacture, the farmer of Minnesota, the
+planter of Louisiana, the miner of Colorado, and the factory operative
+of Massachusetts have each the same comforts of living that are enjoyed
+by all the others, and have them at scarcely more than half the cost of
+fifty years ago.
+
+[Illustration: STEEL MANUFACTURE--THE NATIONAL STEEL COMPANY'S SMELTERY
+AND ROLLING-MILLS, MINGO JUNCTION, OHIO]
+
+The gradual decrease in the production of the silver mines near the
+present site of Ergasteria proved a beginning of the fall of Athens; and
+when gold was discovered in the Perim Mountains of Macedonia, the seat
+of Greek power moved thither. Philip of Macedon hoarded the treasure
+from the mines of Pangaeus, and with the capital thus acquired his son,
+Alexander the Great, conquered the East, implanted Hellenic business
+methods there, and drew the various trade routes between Europe and Asia
+under one control.
+
+In the fifteenth century copper from the mines near Budapest and silver
+from the Schwarz Mountains of Germany were the resources that made
+Germanic Europe pre-eminent. The wresting of the trade in these two
+metals from Venice caused the rise of Antwerp and brought immense gains
+to Luebeck, London, Brussels, Augsburg, and Nuremberg. In the latter part
+of the nineteenth century copper again reached a high position of
+importance from the fact that upon it largely depends electric motive
+power and transportation.
+
+=Iron.=--Iron is one of the most widely diffused of metals. It is abundant
+in the sun; meteorites contain from more than ten to eighty or ninety
+per cent. of it; all earths and rocks contain at least traces of it; and
+in various places the deposits of ore in nearly pure form aggregate
+cubic miles in extent.
+
+In only a few localities is iron ore found in a metallic or "native"
+form. Many meteorites consist of metallic iron mixed with nickel and
+manganese, and in Greenland a volcanic dyke or ledge of metallic iron is
+known to exist. The iron of commerce is derived from "ores," or chemical
+compounds of iron and oxygen, or iron and carbon. The cheapness of the
+product depends upon the ease with which the ore may be quarried,
+transported to coal, and smelted. The following are the ores commonly
+employed in the production of iron:
+
+_Red hematite_ has a reddish metallic lustre and when pure contains
+seventy per cent. of iron.[42] It is the most abundant of the workable
+ores, and certainly the best for the manufacture of Bessemer steel. The
+ores of the Lake Superior region are mainly red hematite, and the latter
+constitutes more than four-fifths of the output of the United States.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMPARATIVE PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL]
+
+_Brown hematite_, or limonite, has a chestnut brown color and contains
+very nearly sixty per cent. of iron[43]; it includes the "bog" ores, and
+is very abundant. Not far from one-quarter of the Appalachian ores are
+brown hematite; it constitutes about one-eighth of the output of the
+United States.
+
+_Magnetic_ iron ore, or magnetite, of which loadstone, a natural magnet,
+is an example, has a metallic, steel lustre and contains 72.4 per cent.
+of iron.[44] Most of the ores obtained in Pennsylvania and New York are
+magnetite. The magnetites furnish about one-sixteenth of the output of
+the United States.
+
+_Carbonate of Iron_, or siderite, occurs in a few localities, the ore
+produced in Ohio being almost wholly of this kind. It contains when
+pure about forty-eight per cent. of iron.[45] It constitutes less than
+one per cent. of the output of the United States.
+
+_Iron pyrites_, or sulphide of iron, sometimes called "fools' gold," is
+a very common mineral. It is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid,
+but is worthless for the production of iron; indeed, the presence of a
+very small percentage of sulphur in iron renders the latter worthless
+for many purposes.
+
+Extensive deposits of iron are known to exist in very nearly every
+country in the world, but those which can be advantageously worked are
+few in number. In order to be available, the deposits must be within
+easy transporting distance of the people who use it, and likewise within
+a short distance of the coal used to manufacture it.
+
+For these reasons most of the workable deposits of ore are in or near
+the great centres of population in western Europe and the eastern part
+of the United States; as a matter of fact, practically all the iron and
+steel of the latter country is produced in the populous centres of the
+Atlantic slopes. In most great steel-making districts it is essential to
+mix the native ores with special ores brought from a distance, the
+latter being used to give strength and hardness to the resulting metal.
+Ores from Sweden, and from Juragua, Cuba, are employed for this purpose
+in the steel-making establishments of the United States.
+
+In the past few years the United States has jumped from an insignificant
+position in the production of iron and steel to the first rank among the
+iron-producing countries. This great advance is due to the fortunate
+geographic position of the iron ore and the coal, and also to the
+discovery of the Bessemer process of making steel.
+
+In general it is more economical to ship the ore to the coal than _vice
+versa_. The position of the steel-making plant is largely determined by
+the cost of moving the coke and ore, together with that of getting the
+steel to the place of use. Formerly, iron manufacture in the United
+States was not profitable unless the coal, ore, and limestone[46] were
+very near to one another.
+
+These conditions still obtain in the southern Appalachian mineral
+fields; the ore and the coal are at no great distance apart, and a great
+iron-making industry, in which Birmingham and Bessemer form the
+principal centre, has grown into existence. For the greater part the
+coal is coked; and in this form less than a ton[47] is sufficient to
+make a ton of pig-iron. The smelteries and rolling-mills are built at
+places where the materials are most conveniently hauled.
+
+In the past few years the iron and steel industry which formerly centred
+about the navigable waters at the head of the Ohio River, has undergone
+a readjustment. Rolling-mills and smelteries exist at Pittsburg and
+vicinity, and at Youngstown, New Castle, and other nearby localities,
+but greater steel-making plants have been built along the south shores
+of Lakes Michigan and Erie, all of which have come about because of
+reasons that are purely geographic.
+
+Immense deposits of excellent hematite ore in the old mountain-ranges
+near Lake Superior have recently become available. For the greater part
+the ore is very easily quarried. In many instances it is taken out of
+the quarry or pit by steam-shovels which dump it into self-discharging
+hopper-cars. Thence the ore is carried on a down grade to the nearest
+shipping-port on the lake. There it is dumped into huge bunkers built at
+the docks, and from these it slides down chutes into the holds of the
+steam-barges. A 6,000-ton barge is loaded in less than two hours; a car
+is unloaded in a few seconds.
+
+[Illustration: MOVEMENT OF IRON ORE]
+
+Water transportation is very cheap compared with railway transportation,
+even when the road is built and equipped as an ore-hauling road. The ore
+is therefore carried a distance varying from one thousand to one
+thousand five hundred miles for less than it could be loaded, on cars
+hauled one-tenth that distance by rail, and unloaded.
+
+[Illustration: STEEL MANUFACTURE--ORE DOCKS]
+
+At the south shore of Lake Erie, the ore meets the coke from western
+Pennsylvania and coal from the Ohio coal-fields, and as a result new
+centres of iron and steel manufacture have grown up along this line of
+"least resistance." The ore is unloaded at the docks by means of
+mechanical scoops and shovels. So cheaply and quickly is it mined and
+transported that it is delivered to the smelteries at a cost varying
+from $1.75 to $3.25 per ton.
+
+[Illustration: LAKE SUPERIOR IRON ORE FIELDS]
+
+There are three forms in which iron is used--cast iron, wrought iron,
+and steel. Cast iron is crystalline and brittle. The product as it comes
+from the blast furnace is called pig-iron. In making such commodities as
+stoves, and articles that do not require great strength, the pig-iron is
+again melted and cast into moulds which give them the required shape.
+Cast iron contains from one to five per cent. of carbon.
+
+Wrought iron is malleable, ductile, and very flexible; when pure it is
+also very soft. It is prepared by melting pig-iron in furnaces having
+such a shape that the molten metal can be stirred or "puddled" in
+contact with the air. By this means the carbon is burnt out, and while
+still at a white heat the pasty iron is kneaded or "wrought," in order
+to expel other impurities.
+
+Steel is a form of iron which is thought to contain a chemical compound
+of iron with carbon. It is stronger than iron and finer in grain.
+Formerly, steel was made by packing bars of pure iron in charcoal
+powder, the whole being enclosed in clay retorts that were heated to
+whiteness for about three days. The product obtained by this method is
+known as cementation steel. It is still used in the manufacture of
+cutlery, tools, and fine machinery; it is likewise very expensive. In
+smelting certain ores it is easy to burn out the carbon in open
+furnaces, and "open-hearth" steel is an important factor.
+
+Just about the beginning of the Civil War, when the railways of the
+United States were taxed beyond their capacity to carry the produce of
+the country, it became apparent that something more durable than iron
+must be used for rails. The locomotives, then weighing from twenty-five
+to thirty-five tons each, were too light to haul the freight offered the
+roads; they were also too heavy for the rails, which split at the ends
+and frayed at the edges.
+
+[Illustration: IRON AND STEEL]
+
+The Bessemer process of making steel was the result of the demand for a
+better and a cheaper method. By this process, the iron is put into a
+"converter" along with certain Swedish or Cuban ores to give the product
+hardness. A hot blast is then forced into the converter which not only
+melts the mass but burns out the excess of carbon as well. The color of
+the flame indicates the moment when the conversion to steel is
+accomplished.
+
+In 1860, before the establishment of the Bessemer process, steel
+commanded a price of about one hundred and twenty-five dollars per ton;
+at the beginning of the twentieth century steel billets were about
+eighteen dollars per ton. In western Europe and the United States there
+are used about three hundred pounds of iron and steel per capita; in
+South America the rate of consumption is about fifteen pounds; in Asia
+(Japan excepted) it is probably less than three pounds.
+
+The economic results of low-priced steel are very far-reaching. Steam
+boilers of steel carry a pressure of more than two hundred and fifty
+pounds to each square inch of surface--about four times as great as in
+the iron boilers formerly used. Locomotives of eighty tons draw the fast
+passenger trains at a speed of sixty miles an hour. Ponderous
+compounding engines weighing one hundred and twenty tons haul ninety or
+more steel freight cars that carry each a load of 100,000 pounds. The
+iron rails formerly in use weighed about forty pounds per yard; now
+steel rails of one hundred pounds per yard are employed on most trunk
+lines.
+
+In the large commercial buildings steel girders have entirely supplanted
+timber, while in nearly all modern buildings of more than six stories in
+height, the frame is constructed of Bessemer steel. Indeed, a
+steel-framed building of twenty-five stories has greater stability than
+a brick or stone building of six. Such a structure as the "Flatiron
+Building" in New York or the Masonic Temple in Chicago would have been
+impossible without Bessemer steel.
+
+In ocean commerce cheap steel has worked even a greater revolution. In
+1860, a vessel of 4,000 tons displacement was thought to be almost up to
+the limit. The Oceanic of the White Star Line has a displacement of
+about twenty-eight thousand five hundred tons. This is nearly equalled
+by the measurement of half a dozen other liners, and is exceeded by the
+freighters built by Mr. J.J. Hill for the China trade.
+
+[Illustration: _From a copyrighted photograph by C.L. Ritzmann, N.Y._
+
+STEEL MANUFACTURE
+
+THE FULLER (FLATIRON) BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY]
+
+HISTORICAL
+
+     1619.--Iron works established on Falling Creek, Va.
+
+     1643.--First foundry in Massachusetts, at Lynn.
+
+     1658.--Blast furnace and forge at New Haven, Conn.
+
+     1679.--Father Hennepin discovers coal in Illinois.
+
+     1703.--Mordecai Lincoln, ancestor of Abraham Lincoln, establishes
+     iron works at Scituate, Mass.
+
+     1717.--First bar iron exported from American Colonies to West
+     Indies.
+
+     1728.--Steel made, Hebron, Ct.
+
+     1732.--Father of George Washington establishes furnace in Virginia.
+
+     1740.--First iron works in New York, near Hudson.
+
+     1750.--Bituminous coal mined in Virginia.
+
+     1766.--Anthracite coal discovered in Pennsylvania.
+
+     1770.--First rolling-mill in Colonies, Boonton, N.J.
+
+     1801-1803.--Lake Champlain iron district, New York, developed.
+
+     1812.--First rolling-mill at Pittsburg.
+
+     1828.--Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, first steam railway in the United
+     States, begun.
+
+     1829.--"Stourbridge Lion," first locomotive in America, used in
+     Delaware & Hudson Railway.
+
+     1830.--The T rail invented by Robert L. Stevens.
+
+     1830.--First American locomotive, "Tom Thumb," built by Peter
+     Cooper at Baltimore.
+
+     1830.--Twenty-three miles of railway in the United States.
+
+     1844.--Lake Superior iron ores discovered by William Burt.
+
+     1850.--First shipment of Lake Superior ore, ten tons.
+
+     1857.--Iron industry founded in Chicago.
+
+     1862.--Phoenix wrought iron column, or girder, first made.
+
+     1864.--Bessemer steel first made in the United States.
+
+     1865.--First Bessemer steel rails in the United States rolled at
+     Chicago.
+
+     1890.--First armor-plate made in the United States rolled at
+     Bethlehem, Pa.
+
+     1890.--The United States surpasses Great Britain in production of
+     pig-iron.
+
+     1900.--The United States leads in the production of open-hearth
+     steel.
+
+=Gold.=--Gold is one of the metals earliest to be mined. It is mentioned
+by the ancient profane as well as by sacred writers. Pictorial
+representations of fusing and working the metal are sculptured on early
+Egyptian tombs, and beautiful gold ornaments have been found that were
+made by the prehistoric peoples who once occupied ancient Etruria, in
+Italy. Columbus found gold ornaments in the possession of the aboriginal
+Americans. The Incas of Peru and the Aztecs of Mexico possessed large
+quantities of gold.
+
+[Illustration: LEACHING (CYANIDE) TANKS DISSOLVING THE GOLD FROM THE
+ROASTED ORE]
+
+[Illustration: STOPING OUT A TUNNEL]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF MILL]
+
+[Illustration: GOLD MINING]
+
+Gold is one of the most widely diffused of metals. Traces of it are
+found in practically all igneous and most sedimentary rocks. It occurs
+in sea-water, and quite frequently in beach-sands. Traces of it are also
+usually to be found in alluvial deposits and in the soils of most
+mountain-folds. In spite of its wide diffusion, however, all the gold
+that has been mined could be stored readily in the vaults of any large
+New York bank.
+
+In all probability most of the gold now in use has been deposited by
+solution in quartz veins, the latter usually filling seams and crevices
+in granitic or volcanic rocks. Quartz veins seldom yield very great
+returns, but they furnish a steady supply of the metal. The rock must be
+mined, hoisted to the surface, and crushed. The gold is then dissolved
+by quicksilver (forming an amalgam from which the quicksilver is removed
+by heat), by potassium cyanide solution, or by chlorine solution.
+
+In many instances the quartz veins have been broken and weathered by
+natural forces. In such cases the gold is usually carried off by swiftly
+running water and deposited in the channel lower down. In this way
+"placer" deposits of gold occur. Placer deposits are sometimes very
+rich, but they are quickly exhausted. The first gold discovered in
+California was placer gold.
+
+Nearly all the gold mined in the United States has come from the western
+highlands. In 1900, Colorado, California, South Dakota (Black Hills),
+Montana, and Alaska yielded about seven-eighths of the entire product.
+The placer mines of Alaska are confined mainly to the beach-sands and
+the tributaries of Yukon River. Since 1849 the average annual yield of
+gold in the United States is about forty-three million dollars.
+
+The Guinea coast of Africa, Australia, California, the Transvaal of
+South Africa, and Venezuela have each stood at the front in the
+production of gold. The aggregate annual production of the world has
+increased from one hundred and sixty million dollars in 1853 to more
+than three hundred million dollars in 1900.
+
+A considerable part of the gold product is used in gilding
+picture-frames, book-titles, sign-letters, porcelain, and ornamental
+brass work. Practically, all of this is lost, and in the United States
+alone the loss aggregates about fifteen million dollars yearly. The
+abrasion and unavoidable wear of gold coin is another great source of
+loss.
+
+An enormous amount is used in the manufacture of jewelry, most of which
+is used over and over again. By far the greater part, however, is used
+as a commercial medium of exchange--that is, as coin. For this purpose
+its employment is wellnigh universal; and indeed this has been its chief
+use since the beginning of written history. Gold coin of the United
+States is 900 fine, that is, 900 parts of every thousand is pure gold;
+gold coin of Great Britain is 916-2/3 fine. In each case a small amount
+of silver, or silver and copper, is added to give the coin the requisite
+hardness. The coining of gold, and also other metals, is a government
+monopoly in every civilized country.
+
+The fiat value of gold throughout the commercial world is the equivalent
+of $20.6718 per troy ounce of fine metal; an eagle weighs, therefore,
+2580 grains. The real value, however, is reckoned by a different and a
+more accurate standard, namely, the labor of man, and this, the
+sporadic finds of placer gold excepted, has not changed much in two
+thousand years or more. The increased production has scarcely equalled
+the demand for the metal; moreover, the longer a mine is worked the
+greater becomes the expense of its operation. Improved processes for the
+extraction of gold have not created any surplus of gold; indeed, the
+supply is not equal to the demand; and this fact keeps the metal
+practically at a fixed value.
+
+=Silver.=--Silver is about as widely diffused as is gold, but it is more
+plentiful. It is found sparingly in most of the older rocks and also in
+sea-water. It was used by the Greeks for coinage more than eight hundred
+years before the Christian era, and was known to the Jewish people in
+very early times. According to the writer of the Book of Kings (1 Kings
+x. 21), "It was nothing accounted of in the days of Solomon," but
+Tacitus declares that in ancient Germany silver was even more valuable
+than gold. The mines of Laureion (Laurium) gave the Greek state of
+Attica its chief power, and the failure of the mines marked the
+beginning of Athenian decline.
+
+Silver is rarely found in a metallic state. For the greater part it
+occurs combined with chlorine ("horn silver"), or with sulphur ("silver
+glance"), or in combination with antimony and sulphur ("ruby ore"). The
+ranges of the western highland region of the American continent yield
+most of the present supply. The mines of Colorado, Montana, Utah, and
+Idaho produce about six-sevenths of the yield in the United States,
+which in 1900 was 74,500,000 ounces. In Europe the Hartz Mountains have
+been famous for silver for several centuries.
+
+About four-fifths of the silver bullion is used in the arts, most of it
+being manufactured into ornaments or into table-service called "plate."
+A considerable amount is used in photography, certain silver salts,
+especially the chloride and the bromide, changing color by exposure to
+the light. The remaining part of the silver output is made into coin.
+
+The ratio of silver and gold has fluctuated much in the history of
+civilization. In the United States the value of an ounce of fine silver
+is fixed at $1.2929, thereby making the ratio 16 to 1. The silver
+dollars, 900 fine, were coined on this basis, weighing 412.5 grains.
+With the tremendous output of the silver mines between 1870 and 1880 the
+price of silver fell to such an extent that, in time, most countries
+limited the amount of coinage or demonetized it altogether. In the
+United States the purchase of silver bullion for coinage has been
+practically suspended, and the silver purchased is bought at the bullion
+value--about fifty cents per troy ounce in 1900. In Japan the ratio has
+been officially fixed at 32 to 1.
+
+=Copper.=--Copper is probably the oldest metal known that has been used in
+making tools. An alloy of copper and tin, hard enough to cut and dress
+stone, succeeded the use of flint and jade, and its employment became so
+general as to give the name "bronze" to the age following that
+characterized by the use of stone implements.
+
+Copper is very widely distributed. It occurs in quantities that pay for
+mining in pretty nearly every country in the world. The rise of Egypt as
+a commercial power was due to the fact that the Egyptians controlled the
+world's trade in that metal, and it is highly probable that the
+conquests of Cyprus at various times were chiefly for the possession of
+the copper mines of Mount Olympus.
+
+At the present time there are several great centres of production which
+yield most of the metal used. These are the Rocky Mountain region,
+including Mexico; the Lake Superior region of the United States; the
+Andean region, including Chile, Peru, Argentina, and Bolivia; the
+Iberian region, consisting of Spain and Portugal; and the Hartz
+Mountain region of Germany. In 1900 they produced about four hundred and
+fifty thousand tons, of which two hundred and eighty thousand were mined
+in the United States.
+
+Montana, the Lake Superior mines, and Arizona are the most productive
+regions of the United States, and the mines of these three localities
+yield more than half the world's product. Of these mines the Calumet and
+Hecla of the Lake Superior region is the most famous. It was discovered
+by Jesuit explorers about 1660, but was not worked until 1845. It is one
+of the most productive mines in the world, its yearly output averaging
+fifty million tons.
+
+The export trade in copper is very important, amounting at the close of
+the past century to about one hundred and seventy thousand short tons.
+Of this amount, half goes to Germany (most of it through ports of the
+Netherlands), and one-fifth each to France and Great Britain. The market
+price to the consumer during the ten years closing the century averaged
+about sixteen cents per pound. Most of the product is exported from New
+York and Baltimore. The head-quarters of the great copper-mining
+companies of America are at Boston. The imports of raw ores and partly
+reduced ores called "regulus," come mainly from Mexico to New York and
+Baltimore, and from Mexico and Japan to Puget Sound ports. The most
+important American refineries are at New York and Baltimore.
+
+A part of the copper is mixed with zinc to form brass, an alloy much
+used in light machinery. A considerable quantity is rolled into sheets
+to sheath building fronts and the iron hulls of vessels. By far the
+greater part, however, is drawn into wire for carrying electricity, and
+for this purpose it is surpassed by silver alone. The decrease in the
+price of copper in the past few years is due, not to a falling off in
+the demand, but to methods of reducing the ores and transporting the
+product more economically.
+
+=Aluminium.=--Aluminium is the base of clay, this mineral being its oxide.
+It occurs in the various feldspars and feldspathic rocks, and in mica.
+The expense of extracting the metal from these minerals has been so
+great as to prohibit its commercial use. In 1870 there were probably
+less than twenty pounds of the metal in existence, and it was to be
+found only as a curiosity in the chemical laboratories. The discovery
+that the metal could be extracted cheaply from cryolite, a mineral with
+an aluminium base, obtained from Ivigtut, Greenland, led to a sparing
+use of the metal in the economic arts.
+
+The chief step in the production of the metal dates from the time that
+the mineral _bauxite_, a hydroxide of aluminium and iron, was decomposed
+in the electric furnace. The process has been repeatedly improved, and
+under the patents covered by the Hall process the crude metal is now
+produced at a market price of about eighteen cents per pound. The entire
+production of the United States is controlled by the Pittsburg Reduction
+Company, which also manufactures much of the commercial product of
+England. The competitor of the Pittsburg Reduction Company is an
+establishment in Germany, near Bremen.
+
+Aluminium does not corrode; it is easily rolled, drawn, or cast; and,
+bulk for bulk, it is less than one-third as heavy as copper. Because of
+these properties it has a great and constantly growing economic value.
+Because of its greater size, a pound of aluminium wire will carry a
+greater electric current than a pound of copper wire of the same length.
+It therefore has an increasing use as a conductor of electricity.
+
+Bauxite, the mineral from which the metal is now chiefly extracted, is
+obtained in two localities. One extends through Georgia and Alabama;
+the other is in Arkansas.
+
+=Lead.=--Lead is neither so abundant nor so widely diffused as iron,
+copper, and the precious metals, but the supply is fully equal to the
+demand. Lead ores, mainly galena or lead sulphide, occur abundantly in
+the Rocky Mountains, Colorado, Idaho, and Utah, producing more than half
+the total output of the United States. In these localities, in Mexico,
+and in the Andean states of South America it is used mainly in the
+smelting of silver ores.
+
+Metallic lead is used largely in the manufacture of water-pipes, and for
+this purpose it must be very nearly pure. It is also rolled into sheets
+to be used as lining for water-tanks. The fact that the edges of
+sheet-lead and the ends of pipes may be readily joined with solder gives
+to lead a great part of its economic value. Alloyed with arsenic it is
+used in making shot; alloyed with antimony it forms type metal; alloyed
+with tin it forms pewter and solder.
+
+The greater part, however, is manufactured into the carbonate or "white"
+lead that is used as a pigment, or paint. Red lead, an oxide, is a
+pigment; litharge, also an oxide, is used for glazing the cheaper kinds
+of pottery. About two hundred and thirty thousand tons of lead are
+produced in the United States and one-half as much is imported--mainly
+from Mexico and Canada. The linotype machines, now used in all large
+printing establishments, have increased the demand for lead.
+
+=Other Metals.=--Most of the remaining economic metals occur in small
+quantities as compared with iron, copper, gold, and silver. Some of
+them, however, are highly important from the fact that in various
+industrial processes no substitutes for them are known.
+
+_Quicksilver_, or _mercury_, is the only industrial metal that at
+ordinary temperatures is a liquid. It is the base of the substance
+calomel, a chloride, and corrosive sublimate, a dichloride, both of
+which are employed as medicines. It is essential in the manufacture of
+thermometers and barometers, but is used chiefly, however, as a solvent
+of gold, which it separates from the finely powdered ore by solution or
+amalgamation. Quicksilver occurs in the mineral cinnabar, a sulphide.
+
+Nearly one-half the world's product comes from California. The New
+Almaden mines of Santa Clara County produce over five thousand flasks
+(each seventy-six and one-half pounds net); those of Napa County nearly
+nine thousand flasks; the mines of the whole State yield about
+twenty-six thousand flasks, valued at $1,200,000. Almaden, Spain, and
+Idria, Austria, produce nearly all the rest of the output. An average of
+about fifteen thousand flasks are exported from San Francisco, mainly to
+the mines of Mexico, and Central and South America.
+
+_Tin_ is about the only metal of industrial value whose ores are not
+found in paying quantities in the United States. Small quantities occur
+in San Bernardino County, Cal., and in the vicinity of Bering Strait,
+Alaska, but it is doubtful if either will ever pay for development.
+About three-fifths of the world's product comes from the Straits
+Settlements on the Malay Peninsula; the nearby islands of Banca and
+Billiton also yield a considerable quantity.
+
+The mines of Cornwall, England, have been worked for two thousand years
+and were probably the source of the tin that made the "bronze age." The
+United States imports yearly about twenty million dollars worth of tin,
+about half of which comes from the Straits Settlements. This is used
+almost wholly for the manufacture of tin plate[48]--that is, sheet-iron
+coated with tin. Much of the block tin imported from Great Britain is
+returned there in the form of tin plate, being manufactured in the
+United States much more economically than in Europe.
+
+_Nickel_ occurs in New Caledonia, in Canada, and in the State of
+Missouri. It is used in the manufacture of small coins and for plating
+iron and steel. It is an essential in the metal known as "nickel steel"
+which is now generally used in armor-plate and propeller-shafts, about
+four per cent. of nickel being added to the steel. Most of the product
+used in the United States is imported from Canada.
+
+_Manganese_, a metal resembling iron, occurs in Russia, Brazil, and
+Cuba, Russia producing about half the total output. It is used mainly to
+give hardness to steel. The propeller-blades of large steamships are
+usually made of manganese bronze. The building of war-ships in the
+United States during the past few years has led to the extensive use of
+manganese for armor-plate, and manganese ores to the amount of more than
+two hundred and fifty thousand tons were imported in 1900. More than
+one-half of this came from Russia; most of the remaining half from
+Brazil.
+
+_Zinc_ is abundant in nearly every part of the world. In the United
+States the best known mines are in the Galena-Joplin District, in
+Missouri and Kansas, which produce about two-thirds of the home
+product--mainly from the ore _blende_, a sulphide. There are also
+extensive zinc-mining operations in Illinois, New Jersey, and
+Pennsylvania. The lower Rhine District, Great Britain, and Silesia are
+the chief European sources. Sheet-zinc is found in nearly every dwelling
+in the United States, and zinc-coated or "galvanized" iron has become a
+domestic necessity. Zinc-white is extensively used as a pigment. About
+two hundred and fifty million pounds of crude zinc, or "spelter," are
+produced in the United States; forty-five million pounds were exported
+in 1900, mainly to Great Britain.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What are the qualities that make iron the most valuable of metals?
+
+In what ways does commerce depend on iron and steel?
+
+What substances are used for food, clothing, or domestic purposes that
+are not manufactured by the aid of iron?
+
+Ingot or billet steel is rated at about one cent per pound; the
+hair-springs of watches are worth several thousand dollars per pound;
+what makes the difference in their value?
+
+What are the qualities that give to gold its value?
+
+Would all the gold mined in the United States pay the national debt at
+the end of the Civil War?
+
+What causes have led to the increasing price of copper during the past
+few years?
+
+What is the market price each of copper, silver, steel rails, and
+aluminium to-day?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Obtain specimens of the following iron ores: Hematite, brown hematite,
+magnetite, carbonate, and pyrites. Note the color and physical
+appearance of each; scratch the first four with a very hard steel point
+and note the color of the streak.
+
+Obtain specimens of pig-iron, cast iron, wrought iron, and cast steel;
+note carefully the fracture or "break" of each; how does cast iron
+differ from wrought iron?
+
+Obtain specimens of the following copper ores: Malachite, azurite,
+chalcopyrite, and red oxide; wet a very small fragment with an acid and
+note the color when it is held in the flame of an alcohol lamp or a
+Bunsen burner; dissolve a crystal of blue vitriol (copper sulphate) in
+water and note what occurs if the end of a bright iron wire be dipped in
+the solution.
+
+Name the various uses to which nickel, tin, lead, and aluminium are put.
+
+Consult the chapters on these subjects in any cyclopaedia.
+
+[Illustration: TRANSPORTING SUGAR-CANE, CUBA]
+
+[Illustration: SUGAR-CANE GROWING IN CUBA]
+
+[Illustration: HAVEMEYER SUGAR-REFINERY, BROOKLYN, N.Y.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+SUGAR AND ITS COMMERCE
+
+
+The term sugar is applied rather loosely to a large number of substances
+characterized by the quality of sweetness. In a few instances the name
+is given to certain mineral salts, such as sugar of lead, but in the
+main the sugars are plant products very similar in chemical structure to
+the starches. They are very closely connected with plant growth, and
+even in animal life, starchy substances are changed to sugar in the
+process of digestion. Although sugar does not sustain life, it is
+necessary as an adjunct to other food-stuffs, and it is probably
+consumed by a greater number of people than any other food-stuffs except
+starch and water.
+
+Three kinds of sugar are found in commerce, namely--_cane_-sugar,
+_grape_-sugar, and _milk_-sugar. Cane-sugar occurs in the sap of the
+sugar-cane, sorghum-cane, certain of the palms, and the juice of the
+beet. Grape-sugar is the sweet principle of most fruits and of honey.
+Sugar of milk occurs in milk, and in several kinds of nuts.
+
+=Sugar-Cane Sugar.=--Cane-sugar is so called because until recently it was
+derived almost wholly from the sap of the sugar-cane (_Saccharum
+officinarum_). The plant belongs to the grass family and much resembles
+maize before the latter has matured. It is thought to be native to Asia,
+but it is now cultivated in nearly all tropical countries in the world.
+
+Practically every moist tropical region in the world, the basins of the
+Kongo and Amazon Rivers excepted, is a cane-sugar-producing region. As
+a rule it is grown in the states under native rule for home consumption,
+and in European colonial possessions for commercial purposes. India and
+China are probably the foremost in the production of sugar-cane sugar,
+but the product is not exported. Cuba, Java, the Gulf coast of the
+United States, Mauritius, the Philippine and the Hawaiian Islands
+produce the most of the supply that enters into commerce.
+
+=Beet-Sugar.=--During the last quarter of the nineteenth century the
+demands for sugar increased so greatly that it became necessary either
+to raise the price of the commodity, or else to utilize some plant other
+than the sugar-cane as a source. After a few years of experimental work
+it was found that sugar could be readily extracted from the juice of the
+common beet (_Beta vulgaris_). Several varieties of this plant have been
+improved and are now very largely cultivated for the purpose. Beet-sugar
+and cane-sugar are identical.
+
+Almost all the beet-sugar of commerce comes from northwestern Europe;
+Germany leads with nearly one-third the world's product; France,
+Austria, and Russia follow, each producing about one-sixth. A small
+amount is produced in the United States--mainly in California and
+Michigan. The area of production, however, is increasing.
+
+=Other Cane-Sugars.=--Maple-sugar is derived from the sap of several
+species of maple-trees occurring mainly in the northeastern United
+States and in Canada. The sap is obtained by tapping the trees in early
+spring, a single tree often yielding several gallons. The value of
+maple-sugar lies mainly in its pleasant flavor. It is used partly as a
+confection, but in the main as a sirup. A very large part of the
+maple-sirup and not a little of the sugar is artificial, consisting of
+ordinary sugar colored with caramel and flavored with an extract
+prepared from the maple-tree.
+
+Sorghum-sugar is obtained from a cane known as Chinese grass, or Chinese
+millet. It has been introduced into the United States from southeastern
+Asia and Japan. The sorghum-cane grows well in the temperate zone, and
+its cultivation in the Mississippi Valley States has been successful.
+The sugar is not easily crystallizable, however, and it is usually made
+into table-sirup.
+
+Maguey-sugar is derived from the sap of the maguey-plant (_Agave
+Americana_). It is much used in Mexico and the Central American states.
+The method of manufacture is very crude and the product is not exported.
+Palm-sugar is obtained from the sap of several species of palm growing
+in India and Africa.
+
+=Sugar Manufacture.=--Sugar manufacture includes three
+processes--expressing the sap, evaporating, and refining. The first two
+are carried on at or near the plantations; the last is an affair
+requiring an immense capital and a most elaborately organized plant. The
+refining is done mainly in the great centres of population at places
+most convenient for transportation. The raw sugar may travel five or ten
+thousand miles to reach the refinery; the refined product rarely travels
+more than a thousand miles.
+
+After it has been cut and stripped of its leaves the sugar-cane is
+crushed between powerful rollers in order to express the juice. The
+sugar-beet is rasped or ground to a pulp and then subjected to great
+pressure. The expressed juice contains about ten or twelve per cent. of
+sugar. In some factories the beet, or the cane, is cut into thin slices
+and thrown into water, the juice being extracted by the solvent
+properties of the latter. This is known as the "diffusion" process.
+
+The juice is first strained or filtered under pressure in order to
+remove all foreign matter and similar impurities. It is then clarified
+by adding slacked lime, at the same time heating the liquid nearly to
+the boiling point and skimming off the impurities that rise to the
+surface. The purified juice is then boiled rapidly in vacuum pans until
+it is greatly concentrated.
+
+When the proper degree of concentration is reached, the liquid is
+quickly run off into shallow pans, in which most of it immediately
+crystallizes. The crystalline portion forms the _raw sugar_ of commerce;
+the remaining part is molasses. The whole mass is then shovelled into a
+centrifugal machine which in a few minutes separates the two products.
+
+In purchasing raw sugar, the refiner was formerly at a loss to know just
+how much pure sugar could be made from a given weight of the raw sugar.
+In order to aid in making a correct determination, the Dutch government
+formerly prepared sixteen samples put up in glass flasks and sealed.
+These samples varied in color according to the amount of pure sugar
+contained. The pure solution was known in commerce as No. 16 Dutch
+standard, and this was generally taken all over the world as the
+standard of pure sugar. Within recent years the polariscope, an optical
+instrument that determines the percentage of sugar by means of polarized
+light, has largely replaced the Dutch standard.
+
+The refineries, as a rule, are built with reference to a minimum
+handling and transportation of the raw product. The cane-sugar
+refineries are mainly at the great seaports, where the raw sugar does
+not pay railway transportation. The beet-sugar refineries are in the
+midst of the beet-growing districts. So nearly perfect and economically
+managed are these processes, that raw sugar imported from Europe or
+from the West Indies, at a cost of from two and a quarter to two and a
+half cents per pound, is refined and sold at retail at about five cents.
+
+The margin of profit is so very close, however, that in the United
+States, as well as most European states, the sugar industry is protected
+by government enactments. In the United States imported raw sugar pays a
+tariff in order to protect the cane-sugar industry of the Gulf coast and
+the beet-sugar grower of the Western States. The duty at the close of
+the nineteenth century was about 1.66 cents per pound; or, if the sugar
+came from a foreign country paying a bounty on sugar exported, an
+additional countervailing duty equal to the bounty was also charged.
+
+In the various states of western Europe the beet-sugar industry is
+governed by a cartel or agreement among the states, which makes the
+whole business a gigantic combination arrayed against the tropical sugar
+interests. In general, the government of each state pays a bounty on
+every pound of beet-sugar exported. The real effect of the export bounty
+is about the same as the imposition of a tax on the sugar purchased for
+consumption at home.
+
+Two-thirds of the entire sugar product are made from the beet, at an
+average cost of about 2.5 cents a pound. In the tropical islands the
+yield of cane-sugar per acre is about double that of beet-sugar and it
+is produced for about five dollars less per ton. This difference is in
+part offset by the fact that the raw cane-sugar must pay transportation
+for a long distance to the place of consumption, and in part by the
+government bounties paid on the beet product.
+
+Both the political and the economic effects of beet sugar-making have
+been far-reaching. In Germany the agricultural interests of the country
+have been completely reorganized. The uncertain profits of cereal
+food-stuffs have given place to the sure profits of beet-sugar
+cultivation, with the result that the income of the Germans has been
+enormously increased. In the other lowland countries of western Europe
+the venture has been equally successful. Even the Netherlands has
+profited by it.
+
+In the case of Spain, the result of beet-sugar cultivation was
+disastrous. The price of cane-sugar in Cuba and the Philippine Islands
+fell to such a low point that the islands could not pay the taxes
+imposed by the mother country. Instead of lowering the taxes and
+adjusting affairs to the changed conditions, the Spaniards drove the
+islands into rebellion, and the latter finally resulted in war with the
+United States, and the loss of the colonies. Great Britain wisely
+adjusted her colonial affairs to the changed conditions, but the British
+colonies suffered greatly from beet-sugar competition.
+
+=Production and Consumption.=--The production and consumption of sugar
+increased about sevenfold during the latter half of the nineteenth
+century, the increase being due very largely to the decreased price.
+Thus, in 1850, white (loaf) sugar was a luxury, retailing at about
+twenty cents per pound; in 1870 the wholesale price of pure granulated
+sugar was fourteen cents; in 1902 it was not quite five cents.
+
+Although the tropical countries are greatly handicapped by the political
+legislation of the European states, they cannot supply the amount of
+sugar required, unless the area of production be greatly extended. It is
+also certain that without governmental protection, sugar growing in the
+temperate zone cannot compete with that of the tropical countries.
+
+Of the eight million tons of sugar yearly consumed, two-thirds are
+beet-sugar. The annual consumption per capita is about ninety pounds in
+Great Britain, seventy pounds in the United States, and not far from
+thirty-five pounds in Germany and France. In Russia and the eastern
+European countries it is less than fifteen pounds.
+
+=Molasses.=--The molasses of commerce is the uncrystallizable sugar that
+is left in the vacuum pans at the close of the process of evaporation.
+The molasses formerly known as "sugar house" is a filthy product that
+nowadays is scarcely used, except in the manufacture of rum. The color
+of molasses is due mainly to the presence of "caramel" or half-charred
+sugar; it cannot be wholly removed by any ordinary clarifying process.
+
+Purified molasses is usually known as "sirup," and much of it is made by
+boiling a solution of raw sugar to the proper degree of concentration. A
+considerable part is made from the sap of the sorghum-cane, and probably
+a larger quantity consists of glucose solution colored with caramel.
+Maple-sirup, formerly a solution of maple-sugar, is now very largely
+made from raw cane-sugar clarified and artificially flavored.
+
+=Glucose.=--Glucose, or grape-sugar, is the natural sugar of the grape and
+most small fruits. Honey is a nearly pure, concentrated solution of
+glucose. Grape-sugar has, roughly, about three-fifths the sweetening
+power of cane-sugar. Natural grape-sugar is too expensive for ordinary
+commercial use; the commercial product, on the other hand, is
+artificial, and is made mainly from cornstarch.
+
+Glucose is employed in the cheaper kinds of confectionery in the United
+States; most of it, however, is exported to Great Britain, the annual
+product being worth about four million dollars. From the fact that it
+can be made more economically from corn than from any other grain,
+practically all the glucose is made in the United States.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+It frequently happens that the prices of sugar and tin-plate rise and
+fall together; show how the fruit-crop may cause this fluctuation.
+
+Which of the possessions of the United States are adaptable for
+cane-sugar?--for beet-sugar?
+
+In what ways has the manufacture of sugar brought about international
+complications?
+
+What is meant by "Dutch Standard" tests?--by polariscope tests?
+
+
+FOR REFERENCE AND STUDY
+
+Obtain specimens of rock candy, granulated sugar, raw sugar, and
+caramel; observe each carefully with a magnifying glass and note the
+difference.
+
+World's Sugar Production.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS
+
+
+Outside the food-stuffs, probably no other material is more generally
+used by human beings than the products of the forests. More people are
+sheltered by wooden dwellings than by those of brick or stone, and more
+people are warmed by wood fires than by coal. Even in steam-making a
+considerable power is still produced by the use of wood for fuel.
+
+Neither stone nor metal can wholly take the place of wood as a building
+material; indeed, for interior fittings, finishings, and furniture, no
+artificial substitute has yet been found that is acceptable. For such
+purposes it is carried to the interior of continents and transported
+across the oceans; and although the cost has enormously increased, the
+demand has scarcely fallen off.
+
+=Forest Areas.=--The great belts of forests girdle the land surface of the
+earth. A zone of tropical forest forms a broad belt on each side of the
+equator, but mainly north of it. This forest includes most of the
+ornamental woods, such as mahogany, ebony, rosewood, sandal-wood, etc.
+It also includes the most useful teak as well as the rubber-tree and the
+cinchona. Another forest belt in the north temperate zone is situated
+mainly between the thirty-fifth and fiftieth parallels. It traverses
+middle and northern Europe and the northern United States.
+
+This forest contains the various species of pine, cedar, and other
+conifers, the oaks, maples, elms, birches, etc. Most of the forests of
+western Europe have been greatly depleted, though those of Norway and
+Sweden are still productive. The forests of the United States, extending
+from Maine to Dakota, have been so wellnigh exhausted that by 1950 only
+a very little good lumber-making timber will be left.
+
+The destruction of forests has been most wasteful. When a forest-covered
+region is settled, a large area is burnt off in order to clear the land
+for cultivation. In many instances the fires are never fully
+extinguished until the forest disappears. The timber of the United
+States has been depleted not only by frequent fires but in various other
+ways. The lumbermen take the best trees and these are cut into
+building-lumber. The railways follow the lumbermen, cutting out
+everything suitable for ties. The paper-makers vie with the tie-cutters,
+and what is left is the plunder of the charcoal-burner.
+
+=Forestry.=--In most of Europe the care of the remaining forests is
+usually a government charge. Only a certain number of mature trees may
+be removed each year, and many are planted for each one removed--in the
+aggregate, several million each year. In the United States, where the
+value of the growing timber destroyed by fire each year nearly equals
+the national debt, not very much has been done to either check the
+ravage or to reforest the denuded areas. Many of the States, however,
+encourage tree-planting. In several, Arbor Day is a holiday provided by
+law.
+
+The general Government has established timber preserves in several
+localities in the West. The State of New York has converted the whole
+Adirondack region into a great preserve. Forest wardens and guards are
+employed both to keep fires in check and to prevent the ravages of
+timber thieves; excepting the State preserves however, the means of
+prevention are inadequate for either purpose.
+
+[Illustration: THE LUMBER INDUSTRY--A LOG JAM]
+
+To be valuable for lumber of the best quality, a forest tree must be
+"clear"; that is, it must be free from knots at least fifteen feet from
+the ground. In the case of pines and cedars, the clear part of the trunk
+must have a greater length. To produce such conditions, the trees must
+grow thickly together, in order that the lower branches may not mature.
+
+The growth of trees thus set is very slow. Isolated pine-trees will
+reach the size large enough for cutting in about fifty years, but the
+lumber will be practically worthless because of the knots. On the other
+hand, pine forests with the trees so thickly set as to make a clear,
+merchantable lumber require at least a century for maturity.[49] Oak
+forests require a much greater period.
+
+As a rule, the forest growths of the United States are found in the
+areas characterized by sandy and gravelly soils. Thus, the glaciated
+region of the United States and Canada for the greater part is
+forest-covered. The sand barrens along the Atlantic coast usually are
+forest areas. The older bottom-lands of most rivers are often
+forest-covered, especially when their soil is coarse and sandy.
+
+There are large areas, however, in both the United States and Europe,
+that are treeless. In some instances this condition, without doubt,
+resulted from the fires that annually burnt the grass. With the
+cessation of the prairie fires, forest growths have steadily increased.
+
+In other instances these areas are treeless because the seeds of trees
+have never been planted there. The high plains at the eastern base of
+the Rocky Mountains are an example. This region is deficient in the
+moisture required to give young trees the vigorous start that will
+carry them to maturity. Moreover, the westerly winds and the streams of
+this region come from localities also deficient in forestry, and there
+are therefore no seeds to be carried.
+
+As a rule, the distribution of forests is effected by the winds and by
+moving water. The prevailing westerly winds of the temperate zones have
+carried many species eastward and have extended the forest areas in that
+direction. Freshets, floods, and overflows have been even more active in
+carrying seeds, sprouts, and even trees into new territories. Waves and
+currents have likewise played a similar part. Wherever the soil of the
+region into which the species have been carried is moist and nutritious,
+the forest growth has usually extended.
+
+=The Pine Family.=--The pine family includes the various species of pine,
+tamarack, spruce, hemlock, fir, juniper, larch, cypress, and cedar. A
+few members of the family thrive in the warmer parts of the temperate
+zone, but for the greater part they flourish between the fortieth and
+sixtieth parallels. Most of the species found in low latitudes are
+mountain-trees. They constitute the greater part of the American and
+Russian forests. The American pine forest is thought to be the largest
+in the world.
+
+The _white pine_ (_Pinus strobus_) is the most valuable member of the
+family. Its value is due in part to the fact that the wood is soft,
+clear, and easily worked, and in part to the accessibility of the
+forests. Not much inroad has yet been made upon the great Russian
+forest, owing to the fact that the timber is too far away from seaports
+and water transportation. Rough lumber becomes too expensive for use
+when transported by land, but it will stand the expense of shipment by
+water many miles.
+
+The _Georgia_ or _long-leafed pine_ (_Pinus palustris_) is also
+commonly called _pitch pine_, _turpentine pine_, and _southern pine_; it
+grows chiefly along the south Atlantic coast and in the northern
+counties of Georgia. It is harder than white pine and makes excellent
+flooring.
+
+The _sugar pine_ (_Pinus lambertiana_) occurs mainly in Oregon and
+California. The grain is fine and soft and the trees reach a large
+girth.
+
+The _loblolly pine_ (_Pinus taeda_) has a considerably larger area than
+the Georgia pine, extending into Indian Territory. The _short-leaf pine_
+(_Pinus echinata_) occurs in small areas from New York to the Gulf of
+Mexico, and across to Missouri; it is the Chattahoochee pine of Florida.
+The _pitch pine_ (_Pinus rigida_) occurs in various areas mainly north
+of the Ohio River and west of the prairies. The lumber cut annually from
+these pines aggregates about thirty billion feet.
+
+The common _white cedar_ (_Chamaecyparis thyoides_) occurs along the
+Atlantic and Gulf coasts nearly to the Mississippi. On account of its
+fine grain it is much used in cabinet work and as a finishing wood. _Red
+cedar_, probably a different species, occurs along the Atlantic coast.
+It is largely used in the manufacture of lead-pencils, and the forests
+are wellnigh exhausted.
+
+The _redwoods_ are confined to the California coast, mainly in the coast
+ranges, near the ocean. Ordinary redwood (_Sequoia sempervirens_)
+resembles red cedar, is soft, and very fine in grain, and shrinks but
+little in seasoning. It is a most valuable timber both for common and
+for ornamental use. It very frequently attains a diameter of five or six
+feet; the big tree sometimes exceeds sixteen feet in diameter and
+reaches a height of nearly four hundred feet.
+
+=Other Industrial Woods.=--The oaks, like the pines, form a nearly
+continuous belt across the northern continents, lying mainly south of
+the pines; they do not extend much south of the thirtieth parallel. The
+white oak of the New England plateau and Canada commands a high price on
+account of its strength; a considerable quantity is exported.
+
+The "quartering" of the lumber used in ornamental work is produced by
+sawing the logs, which have been split in quarters, so that the
+silver-grain shows on the faces of the boards. The bark of the oak is
+rich in tannic acid and it is much used in tanning leather. _Cork oak_
+(_Quercus suber_) grows mainly in Spain and Algeria.
+
+_Black walnut_ (_Juglans nigra_) grows in the river-bottoms of the
+Mississippi Valley and in Texas. The merchantable supply is not great,
+and the wood is therefore growing more valuable each year. _Hickory_ is
+used where great strength is required, and also for various
+tool-handles. _Maple_ is largely employed in making furniture. _Ash_ is
+a very common wood for tool-handles.
+
+=Shade-Trees and Ornamental Woods.=--A large number of trees are yearly
+transplanted, or else grown from seed, to be used as ornamental
+shade-trees. For this purpose the elm, maple, acacia ("locust"), linden
+("lime"), catalpa, ash, horse-chestnut ("buckeye"), poplar, and willow
+are most common in ordinary temperate latitudes, both in Europe and
+America. In warmer latitudes the Australian eucalyptus ("red gum" and
+"blue gum"), magnolia, palmetto, laurel, arbutus, and tulip are common.
+The local trade in ornamental trees is very heavy; the trade is local
+for the reason that the transportation of them is very expensive.
+
+=Tropical Woods and Tree Products.=--Many of the tropical woods are in
+demand on account of their beautiful appearance, and in many species
+this quality is combined with strength and hardness. _Mahogany_ is
+obtained from Mexico and the Central American states, and also from the
+West Indies. The former is classed as "Honduras"; the latter is
+generally known as San Domingo mahogany and commands the highest price.
+_Rosewood_ is obtained from Brazil, and is used almost exclusively in
+piano-cases. Both are cut into thin veneers, to be glued to a less
+expensive body.
+
+_Ebony_ is the heart of a species of persimmon obtained mainly in Ceylon
+and the East Indies. Very little of the so-called ebony is genuine, most
+of the ebony of commerce consisting of fine-grained hardwood, stained
+black. _Jarrah_, an Australian wood, is now very generally used for
+street-paving, and for this purpose it has no superior. _Teak_ probably
+has no equal for strength and durability. It is not touched by the
+teredo and other marine worms.
+
+_Boxwood_ (_Buxus balearica_) is a high-growing tree, native to India,
+but growing best in the islands of the Mediterranean. The wood is very
+hard, of yellowish-brown color, and so fine in grain that it finds a
+ready market in nearly every part of the world. Probably the larger part
+is used by engravers. A large amount of the wood is also used in the
+manufacture of folding-rules, and in inlaying. Constantinople is the
+principal market, and nearly ten thousand tons of the selected wood are
+sold yearly.
+
+_Lignum vitae_, or _guaiac wood_ (_Guaiacum officinale_), grows profusely
+in the West Indies and along the Spanish Main. It is used both in
+medicine and in the arts. Shavings of the wood steeped in water were
+once considered a cure-all, hence the name. The wood is very hard,
+heavy, and is split with the greatest difficulty. It is therefore much
+employed in making mallet-heads, tool-handles, nine-pin balls, and
+pulley-blocks. In tropical countries it is employed for railway ties.
+West India ports are the chief markets, and the United States is the
+chief consumer.
+
+[Illustration: A LOG RAFT, WINONA, WIS.]
+
+[Illustration: HAULING LOGS TO THE RIVER]
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright, 1898, Detroit Photographic Co._
+
+THE LUMBER INDUSTRY--A LOGGING STREAM, MENOMINEE, WIS.]
+
+_Logwood_ is the wood of a tree (_Haematoxylon campechianum_) growing in
+Central America and the West Indies. The best quality comes from
+Campeche, and it is marketed mainly from Central American ports. It is
+almost universally used for dyeing the black of woollen and cotton
+textiles, and logwood blacks are the standard of color-prints.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+In what structures has timber been supplanted by iron and steel?
+
+In what manufactured article has timber supplanted the use of rags?
+
+When a pine forest is cut away, what kinds of timber are apt to come up
+in place of the pines?
+
+In what manner does the railway draw upon the forests?--the
+paper-maker?--the farmer?--the tanner?--the beaver?--the teredo, or
+ship-worm?
+
+From what country or countries do the following come: boxwood, rosewood,
+sandal-wood, cinchona, bog oak, jarrah?
+
+
+FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE
+
+Make a list of the forestry growing in the State in which you live; so
+far as possible, obtain a specimen of each wood, prepared so as to show
+square, oblique, split, and polished sections; for what purpose, if any,
+is each used?
+
+Consult "Check-list of Forestry of the United States" (U.S. Department
+of Agriculture).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+SEA PRODUCTS AND FURS
+
+
+The world's fish-catch amounts probably to more than one-quarter of a
+billion dollars in value and employs upward of a million people; in the
+United States 200,000 are employed. In some localities, such as the
+oceanic islands, far distant from the grazing lands of the continents,
+the flesh of fish is about the only fresh meat obtainable. Even on the
+continents fish is more available and cheaper than beef. The
+fish-producing areas pay no taxes; they require no cultivation;
+moreover, they do not require to be purchased. In general, fish
+supplements beef as an article of food; it is not a substitute for the
+latter.
+
+The whale-catch excepted, fish are generally caught in the shallow
+waters of the continental coasts. The fish, in great schools, resort to
+such localities at certain seasons, and the seasons in which they school
+is the fisherman's opportunity. For the greater part, such shallows and
+banks are spawning-places. Most of the fish, however, are caught off the
+Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America, these localities being
+nearest to the great centres of population.
+
+=Whales.=--The whale is sought mainly in cold waters, and at the present
+time the chief whaling-grounds are in the vicinity of Point Barrow. In
+the first half of the nineteenth century whale-fishing was an industry
+involving hundreds of vessels and a large aggregate capital. The
+industry centred about New England seaports.
+
+The train-oil obtained from the blubber of the animal was used partly
+as a lubricant, but mainly for illuminating purposes. For this purpose,
+however, it has been superseded by coal-oil, gas, and electricity. It is
+still in demand as a lubricant, but the whale-oil of commerce is quite
+as apt to come from the blubber of the porpoise or the sea-cow as from
+the right whale. Whalebone is a horny substance taken from the animal's
+jaw, and is worth from three dollars to eight dollars per pound. It is
+used chiefly in the manufacture of whips. For other purposes, steel,
+hard rubber, and celluloid have taken its place.
+
+The substance called _spermaceti_ is derived from the sperm-whale, an
+inhabitant of warm ocean-waters. Spermaceti is identical in its physical
+properties with paraffine, and the latter is now almost universally its
+substitute.
+
+_Ambergris_, thought to be a morbid secretion or disease of the
+sperm-whale, is found in the body cavity of the animal and also in
+masses floating in the sea. It is used chiefly to give intensity to the
+odor of perfumes, and the best quality brings as much as five dollars
+per ounce. Most of the ambergris of commerce is obtained from the
+neighborhood of the Bahama Islands.
+
+=Cod.=--In the amount of the product the cod-fisheries are the most
+important. The meat of the fish is not strong in flavor, and it is cured
+with little expense. So valuable is the annual catch that the banks and
+shallows which the schools frequent are governed by international
+treaties.
+
+The cod is a cold-water fish, and the fishing-grounds are confined to
+rather high latitudes. The coast-waters of the Scandinavian peninsula
+and the shores of the Canadian coast, especially the Banks of
+Newfoundland, are the chief areas. The fishing-grounds of the Canadian
+coast are closed to foreign vessels inside a three-mile limit; beyond
+the limit they are occupied mainly by Canadian, French, and American
+fishermen. By the terms of treaties foreign vessels may enter the
+three-mile limit under restriction to purchase bait and food-supplies,
+and to cure their fish.
+
+A large part of the cod-catch is exported. Tropical countries buy much
+of the product. In such countries it is more wholesome than meat; it is
+cheaper; moreover, the salted cod will keep for an indefinite length of
+time. A large part of the catch is sold to the Catholic states of Europe
+and America, where during certain times the eating of the flesh of
+animals is forbidden. Gloucester, Mass., London, England, and Trondhjem,
+Norway, are great markets for salted fish. The oil from the liver of the
+cod is much used in medicine.
+
+=Herring, Alewives, and Sardine.=--The herring is a much smaller fish than
+the cod, and, commercially, is much less important. They school in about
+the same waters as the cod, but are caught at a different season,
+gill-nets being usually employed. Practically no distinction is made
+between full-grown herring and alewives of the same size. The fish are
+usually cured by smoking, pickling, or salting, and in this form are
+either exported or sold in interior markets.
+
+The true sardine is found in latitudes a little farther south than the
+schooling-grounds of the cod. The most important fisheries are along the
+coasts of the Latin states of Europe. Sardine fishing is a great
+industry all along the New England coast of the United States, but the
+"sardines" marketed from this region are young herring. Indeed, nearly
+all sorts of small fry are sold in boxes bearing spurious French labels.
+
+=Salmon.=--Most of the salmon are caught in the rivers flowing into the
+North Pacific Ocean. The fish are caught in traps and weirs at the time
+of the spring run, when they ascend the river to spawn. The rivers are
+frequently so congested with the salmon that thousands of tons are
+caught in a single stream during the run.
+
+The salmon canneries of the Columbia River are very extensive
+establishments, but in the past few years they have been surpassed by
+the Alaskan fisheries, which produce not far from fifty million pounds
+each year. The dressed fish is cooked by steam, canned, and exported to
+all parts of the world. The growth and development of the industry has
+also made an enormous demand on the tin mines of the world. Canned
+salmon is the largest fish export of the United States. There are
+extensive salmon-fisheries in Norway, Japan, and Russia.
+
+=Other Fish.=--_Mackerel_ and _haddock_ are caught near the shores of the
+North Atlantic. Most of the mackerel-catch is pickled in brine and sold
+in small kegs known as "kits." The _menhaden_-catch of the North
+Atlantic is converted into fertilizer. The _halibut_ is a large fish
+that is rarely preserved. The area in which it is caught is about the
+same as that of the cod. _Shad_ are usually caught when ascending the
+rivers of the middle Atlantic coast. In the United States, Chesapeake,
+Delaware, and New York Bays yield the chief supply. The _bluefish_ and
+_barracuda_ are warm-water fish. The market for fresh fish has been
+greatly enlarged by the use of refrigerator-cars.
+
+The _sturgeon_ is captured mainly in the rivers and lakes of the
+temperate zone. Those of the Black Sea sometimes attain a weight of
+2,000 pounds. The flesh is of less importance than the eggs, of which
+caviare is made. Russian caviare is sold all over Europe and America,
+and not a small part of the product is made in Maine. The caviare made
+from the roe of the Delaware River sturgeon is exported to Germany. The
+_tunny_ is confined to Mediterranean waters.
+
+The _anchovy_ is caught on the coast of Europe; most of the product is
+preserved, or made into the well-known "anchovy sauce." The
+_beche-de-mere_, or "sea cucumber," is a product of Australasian and
+Malaysian waters. Almost the whole catch is purchased by the Chinese,
+and it is exported to all countries having a Chinese population.
+
+=Oysters and Lobsters.=--The oyster is among the foremost sea products of
+the United States in value. The oyster thrives best in moderately warm
+and sheltered waters. The coves and estuaries along the middle Atlantic
+coast produce the best in the world. Chesapeake Bay and Long Island
+Sound yield the greater part of the output. In the latter waters
+elaborate methods of propagation are carried out, and the yearly crop is
+increasing both in quality and quantity. The output of the Chesapeake
+beds has decreased materially; that of the Long Island Sound beds has
+increased.
+
+Oysters are plentiful along the Pacific coast of the United States and
+also in European coast-waters, but they are inferior in size and
+quality. The use of refrigerator-cars and vessels has extended the trade
+to the extent that fresh oysters are shipped to points 2,000 miles
+inland; they are also exported to Europe. Baltimore is the chief
+oyster-market.
+
+The consumption of the lobster has been so great that the catch of the
+New England coast has decreased about one-half in the past fifty years,
+and the United States is now an importer. Most of the import, amounting
+to about one million dollars yearly, comes from Canada. The so-called
+lobsters of the Pacific coast of the United States are not lobsters, but
+crayfish.
+
+=Fish Hatcheries.=--The demand for fish has grown so great in past years
+that in many countries the waters, especially the lakes and rivers, are
+restocked. The eggs are hatched and the young fry are fed until they
+are large enough to take care of themselves. The chief hatchery and
+laboratory of the United States Fish Commission is at Woods Holl, Mass.
+As many as 860,000,000 eggs, small fry, and adult fish have been
+distributed in a single year. The State of New York has also a similar
+department for restocking its waters.
+
+=Sponge.=--This substance is practically the skeleton of a low order of
+animal, growing at the bottom of the sea. The sponge is cut from the
+place of attachment, and the gelatinous matter is washed away after
+putrefaction. The chief sponge-fisheries are in the neighborhood of
+Florida and the Bahama Islands.
+
+=Seal.=--The fur-seal is an amphibian, found only in cold waters. A few
+pelts are obtained along the Greenland coast, but the chief
+sealing-grounds of the world have been at the Pribilof Islands, in
+Bering Sea. The pelts of the young males only are taken. The rookeries
+of the Pribilof Islands have been so nearly exhausted, that the killing
+season has been suspended for a term of years. Much illicit
+seal-catching is still going on, however.
+
+The skins are taken to London, via San Francisco, where the fur is dyed
+a rich brown color; London is the chief market for dyed pelts; San
+Francisco for raw pelts; and New York, Paris, and St. Petersburg for
+garments. The pelts of the sea-otter are obtained mainly in the North
+Pacific Ocean.
+
+=Other Furs.=--The furs employed in the finest garments are in part the
+pelts of land animals living in polar regions. The sable, stone-marten,
+otter, beaver, and red fox are the most valuable. The Persian lamb,
+however, is not a polar animal. The Russian Empire and Canada are the
+chief sources of supply. The Hudson Bay Company, with head-quarters at
+Fort Garry, near Winnipeg, controls most of the fur-trade of North
+America; the Russian furs are marketed mainly at Lower Novgorod.
+Leipzig, Germany, is also an important fur-market.
+
+Enormous quantities of rabbit-skins from Australia and nutria from
+Argentina are imported into the United States and Europe for the
+manufacture of the felt of which hats are made. The amount of this
+substance may be realized when one considers that not far from two
+hundred million people in the two countries wear felt hats.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Note an instance in which the search for deep-sea fishing-grounds has
+resulted in the discovery of unknown lands.
+
+Why are not whale products as essential now as a century ago?
+
+What international complications have arisen between the United States
+and Great Britain concerning the cod-fisheries?--the seal-catch?
+
+[Illustration: NORTH AMERICA]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE UNITED STATES--THE SEAPORTS AND THE ATLANTIC COAST-PLAIN
+
+
+The United States of America together with the possessions included
+within the domain of the Republic comprise an area somewhat greater than
+that of Europe.
+
+With respect to latitude, the position of the main body of the United
+States is extremely fortunate. Practically all its area is situated in
+the warmer half of the temperate zone. Only a small part lies beyond the
+northern limit of the corn belt; wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated
+successfully throughout four-fifths of its extent in latitude; grass,
+and therefore cattle and sheep are grown in nearly every part. Coal,
+iron, copper, gold, and silver, the minerals and metals which give to a
+nation its greatest material power, exist in abundance, and the
+successful working of these deposits have placed the country upon a very
+high commercial plane.
+
+Topographically the United States may be divided into the following
+regions:
+
+     The Atlantic Coast-Plain,
+     The Appalachian Ranges and the New England Plateau,
+     The Basin of the Great Lakes,
+     The Northern Mississippi Valley Region,
+     The Southern Mississippi Valley and Gulf Coast,
+     The Arid Plains,
+     The Plateau Region,
+     The Pacific Coast Lowlands.
+
+[Illustration: A HARBOR--NEW YORK BAY, AT THE BATTERY]
+
+The topographic and climatic features of these various regions have had
+a great influence not only on the political history of the country, but
+their effect has been even greater in determining its industrial
+development. They have resulted in the establishment of the various
+industries, each in the locality best adapted to it, instead of their
+diffusion without respect to the necessary conditions of environment.
+
+The foregoing regions are also approximately areas of fundamental
+industries. Thus, the New England plateau supplies the rest of the
+United States with light manufactures, such as cotton textiles, woollen
+clothing, hats, shoes, cutlery, books, writing-paper, household metal
+wares, etc., but sells the excess abroad. The middle and southern
+Appalachians, with the coal which forms their chief resource, supply the
+rest of the country with structural steel, from ores obtained in the
+lake regions, and sell the excess to foreign countries.
+
+The northern Mississippi Valley grows nearly one-fourth of the world's
+wheat-crop. The wheat of this region and the Pacific coast lowlands
+supplies the country with bread-stuffs, and exports the excess to
+western Europe. The Gulf states, which produce three-fourths of the
+world's cotton-crop, supply the whole country and about one-half the
+rest of the world besides with cotton textiles. The grazing regions
+produce an excess of meat for export; the western highlands furnish the
+gold and silver necessary to carry on the enormous commerce.
+
+In the last twenty years the imports of merchandise per capita varied
+but little from $11.50; the exports per capita varied from about $12 to
+more than $18.
+
+=The Atlantic Coast-Plain and the Seaports.=--Throughout most of its
+extent the Atlantic seaboard of the United States is bordered by a low
+coast-plain. Along the northeastern coast of the United States the
+coast-plain is very narrow; south of New York Bay it has a width in
+some places of more than two hundred miles.
+
+The existence of this plain has had a marked effect on the commercial
+development of the country. The sinking or "drowning" of the northern
+part of it has made an exceedingly indented coast. The drowned valleys,
+enclosed by ridges and headlands, form the best of harbors, and nearly
+all of them are northeast of New York Bay. South of New York Bay good
+harbors are comparatively few. For the greater part they occur only when
+old, buried river-channels permit approach to the shore.
+
+The most important port of entry in these harbors is _New York_, and it
+derives its importance from two factors. It has a very capacious harbor,
+into which vessels drawing as much as thirty-five feet may enter; its
+situation at the lower end of a series of valleys and passes makes it
+almost a dead level route from the Mississippi to the Atlantic seaboard.
+The importance of New York as the commercial gateway between European
+ports and the food-producing region of the American continent began when
+the Erie Canal was opened between the Great Lakes and tide-water. The
+completion of the canal for the first time opened the rich farming lands
+of the interior to European markets. Probably a greater tonnage of
+freight is carried yearly over this route than over any other channel of
+trade in the world.
+
+Not far from two-thirds of the foreign commerce of the country passes
+through the port of New York. The water-front of the city has an
+aggregate length of about three hundred miles, of which one-third is
+available for anchorage. The docks and piers, including those of Jersey
+City and Hoboken, aggregate about ninety miles in frontage.
+
+About sixteen thousand sea-going craft enter and clear yearly, and an
+average of nearly twenty large passenger and freight steamships arrive
+and clear daily, about one-half of them being foreign. The latter
+receive their cargoes from about three thousand freight-cars that are
+daily switched into the various freight-yards, a large part of which is
+through freight from the west.
+
+The port of entry of _New York_ is a centre of population of about four
+million, and although there are the industries usually found in great
+communities, the greater business enterprises practically reduce
+themselves to export, import, and exchange. For this reason New York
+City is the financial, as well as the commercial centre of the
+continent. Most of the great industrial corporations of the country have
+their head offices in the city. These are financed by more than one
+hundred banks, together with a clearing-house whose yearly business
+amounted in 1902 to considerably more than seventy billions of
+dollars.[50]
+
+[Illustration: BOSTON HARBOR]
+
+_Boston_ has been one of the leading ports of the United States for
+considerably more than a century. It ranks second among the ports of the
+United States. Regular lines of transit connect it with the principal
+ports of Great Britain and Canada. The coast trade is also very heavy.
+Boston is the financial and commercial centre of New England; the
+cotton, woollen, and leather goods passing through the port find their
+way to nearly every inhabited part of the world. The city controls a
+considerable export trade of food-stuffs from the upper Mississippi
+Valley. The vessels entering and clearing at Boston indicate a movement
+of about four million five hundred thousand tons, about one-fourth that
+of New York. The clearing-house exchanges average about six billion
+dollars yearly.
+
+_Philadelphia_, on account of its distance inland, is not fortunately
+situated for ocean commerce. Steamships of deep draught reach their
+docks at the lower end of the city under their own steam, but
+sailing-craft pay heavy towage fees. There are regular lines to
+Liverpool, Antwerp, West Indian ports, Baltimore, and Boston.
+Philadelphia is the centre of the anthracite coal trade, and this is the
+chief factor of its domestic trade. The imports of fruit from the West
+Indies, carpet-wool from Europe, and raw sugar from the West Indies,
+form the greater part of its foreign business. The manufactures are
+mainly carpets and rugs, locomotives and iron steamships, and refined
+sugar. The carpet-weaving and the ship-building plants are among the
+largest in the world. The ocean movement of freight is more than three
+million five hundred thousand tons yearly. The business of the
+clearing-house in 1902 aggregated nearly six billion dollars.
+
+_Baltimore_ is likewise handicapped by its distance inland.
+Sailing-vessels, however, require only a short towage, the docks being
+scarcely a dozen miles from Chesapeake Bay. The harbor is deep and
+capacious. The Pennsylvania and Baltimore & Ohio railway systems have
+made Baltimore an important railway centre. The completion of the Gould
+railway system to the Atlantic seaboard has made the city second to New
+York only in the export of corn, wheat, flour, and tobacco. The most
+noteworthy local industry is the oyster product, which is the greatest
+in the world. Nearly ten thousand people are employed, and during the
+busy season--from September to the end of April--about thirty carloads
+of oysters a day are shipped.
+
+[Illustration: CHARLESTON HARBOR]
+
+The yearly movement of marine freight, entering and clearing, aggregates
+about three million tons. In 1902 the clearing-house exchanges
+aggregated about two and one-quarter billion dollars.
+
+_Portland_, Me., has good harbor facilities, but is distant from the
+great lines of traffic. Steamship lines, which in summer make Montreal a
+terminal point, occasionally make Portland their winter harbor. _Newport
+News_, _Savannah_, _Charleston_, and _Brunswick_ are growing in
+importance as clearing ports for the cotton and produce from the region
+west of them. _Norfolk_ obtains importance on account of the United
+States Navy-Yard; it is also the great peanut-market of the world.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What are the requisites of a good seaport?
+
+What is meant by the draught of a vessel?
+
+For what purposes are pilots?
+
+How are navigable channels marked and designated?
+
+From the Statistical Abstract find six or more of the leading exports
+from each of the following ports: New York, Boston, Baltimore,
+Philadelphia, and the port nearest which you live.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Statistical Abstract of the United States.
+
+Statesman's Year-Book.
+
+Industrial Evolution of the United States--Chapter II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE UNITED STATES--THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU AND THE APPALACHIAN REGION
+
+
+The manufacturing regions of the United States, which connect the
+country with the rest of the world, include mainly the New England
+plateau and the Appalachian ranges.
+
+=The New England Plateau.=--This region embraces the New England States
+and practically includes all the eastern part of New York and northern
+New Jersey. The abruptly sloping surface affords a great wealth of
+water-power, and the region is one of the most important centres of
+light manufacture in the world. This industry resulted very largely from
+the conditions imposed by the War of 1812 and its consequent
+non-intercourse acts.
+
+The interruption of foreign commerce not only cut off the importation of
+manufactured commodities, but also made idle the capital employed.
+Manufacturing enterprises started in various parts of the United States,
+but they prospered in this region for three reasons--an abundance of
+power, plenty of capital, and business experience. Steam-power is
+largely supplanting water-power in the manufacturing enterprises, and in
+many instances the establishments have been moved to tide-water in order
+to get their coal at the lowest rates of transportation.
+
+Chief among the manufactures are cotton textiles, the yearly output of
+which is about three hundred million dollars. About nine-tenths of the
+cotton goods made are consumed at home. Of the remainder, China
+purchases one-half. Great Britain and Canada take one-fourth, the South
+American and Central American states purchase most of the remaining
+output. The great improvement of spinning and weaving machinery has
+enabled the cotton manufacturer to export his wares to about every
+country in the world.
+
+Boots, shoes, and other leather goods are also important manufactures.
+The invention of improved machinery for making shoes has revolutionized
+the industry to the extent that a pair of stylish shoes may be purchased
+anywhere in the United States for about half the price charged in 1880.
+Another result is the enormous importation of hides from South American
+countries and Mexico.
+
+The New England plateau is also the centre of a large number of
+manufactures that require a high degree of mechanical skill and
+intellectual training, such as small fire-arms, machinery, watches and
+clocks, jewelry, machine-tools, etc. The location of such industries
+depends but little upon climate, topography, or the cost of
+transportation; it is wholly a question of an educated and trained
+people. This region is likely to lose a considerable part of its
+manufactures of cotton textiles, inasmuch as the industry is gradually
+moving to the cotton-growing region. The manufactures requiring training
+and skill, however, are likely to remain in the region where they have
+grown up.
+
+_Lawrence_, _Lowell_, _Manchester_, and _Nashua_--all on the Merrimac
+River; _Lewiston_, _Waterville_, _Augusta_, _Woonsocket_, and
+_Adams_--each situated at falls or rapids--are great centres of cotton
+manufacture. Fall River has an abundance of water-power, and at the same
+time is situated on tide-water. Having the advantage of good power and
+cheap transportation, it has probably the greatest output of cotton
+textiles of any city in the world. Textile establishments have also
+grown up in the cities and towns of the Mohawk Valley, being attracted
+by the excellent facilities for transportation and also by the available
+water-power. _Lynn_, _Brockton_, _Haverhill_, _Marlboro_, and
+_Worcester_ are centres of boot and shoe manufacture; they turn out
+about two-thirds of the product of the United States.
+
+_Bridgeport_ and _New Haven_ have very large plants for the manufacture
+of fire-arms and fixed ammunition; _Waterbury_ and _Ansonia_ for
+watches, clocks, and brass goods; _Meriden_ for silverware, and
+_Waltham_ for watches. _Worcester_, _Hartford_, _North Adams_,
+_Fitchburg_, and _Providence_ have each a great variety of manufactures.
+The foreign commerce of these manufacturing centres is carried on mainly
+through _Boston_. _New Haven_, _New Bedford_, _Providence_, _Salem_,
+_Gloucester_, and _New London_ control each a very large local commerce.
+
+South of New York Bay the Atlantic coast-plain attains an average width
+of nearly two hundred miles. The pine forests of this plain yield
+lumber, tar, pitch, and turpentine. The productive lands are valuable
+chiefly for their output of dairy stuffs, fruit, and "garden truck,"
+which find a ready market in the larger cities. In order to encourage
+this industry, the railways make special rates for dairy products,
+fruit, and vegetables, and afford quick transit for such freight.
+
+Manufacturing industries are rapidly taking shape in this part of the
+United States. Along the line where the coast-plain proper joins the
+foot-hills of the Appalachian ranges, the rivers reach the lower levels
+by rapids or falls. The estuaries into which they flow are usually
+navigable for river-craft. The manufacturer thus has the double
+advantage of water-power and low transportation. The opening of the
+southern Appalachian coal-mines has also greatly encouraged manufacture
+in this region. _Richmond_, _Columbia_, _Milledgeville_, _Augusta_, and
+_Columbus_ are thus situated. Their manufactures are very largely
+connected with the cotton-crop.
+
+The domestic commerce of the Atlantic seaboard of the United States is
+probably larger than that of any other similar region in the world. It
+is considerably larger than the "round-the-island" trade of Great
+Britain. Much of this trade is carried by steam-vessels, but the
+three-masted schooner is everywhere in evidence, and these craft carry a
+very large part of the coal that is moved by water. This trade is
+restricted to vessels flying the American flag.
+
+=The Appalachian Region.=--The middle and southern Appalachian region has
+become the most important centre of iron and steel manufacture in the
+world. This great development has resulted from several causes, the
+chief being the existence of coal and unlimited quantities of iron ore
+on the one hand, and unusual facilities for cheap transportation on the
+other. There are practically three areas of steel manufacture--one along
+the Ohio River and its tributaries in western Pennsylvania; another is
+situated along the south shores of Lake Erie and Lake Michigan; the
+third includes the Birmingham district in the southern Appalachians.
+
+The steel-making plants of the Ohio River are located with reference to
+the transportation of their products, and therefore are built usually
+alongside the river. The coal or coke is commonly shipped in barges of
+light draught; the manufactured products are carried by rail. The
+greater part of the ore is brought from the Lake Superior region. It is
+shipped at a very small cost from the ore quarries to the lake-shore,
+and by rail from the lake-shore to the manufacturing plant. In order to
+avoid heavy grades the ore railways are also built along the
+river-valleys.
+
+[Illustration: STEEL MANUFACTURE--ERECTING SHOP OF THE BALDWIN
+LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, PHILADELPHIA]
+
+Some of the various steel-making plants are equipped for the
+manufacture of building or "structural" steel, others for rails and
+railway equipments, still others for tin-plate, or for wire, or for tool
+steel. In a few mills armor-plate and ordinary plate for steel vessels
+form the exclusive product. The diversity of the product has led to the
+organization of great corporations, each of which controls half-a-dozen
+or more plants, the transportation lines necessary to carry the product,
+the ore quarries, and the fuel-mines.
+
+The wonderful development of the steel industry in the United States is
+due to the use of labor-saving machinery, and to the superb
+organization. The wages paid for labor are higher than those paid in
+European steel-making centres; the cost of living is not materially
+greater. The price of steel rails, which in 1880 was forty-eight dollars
+per ton, in 1900 was about twenty dollars per ton.
+
+_Pittsburg_, together with _Homestead_, _Carnegie_, _McKeesport_,
+_Duquesne_, and _Braddock_, is the chief steel-making centre of the Ohio
+River Valley. There are also large plants at _New Castle_, _Sharon_,
+_Scranton_, _Johnstown_, _Bellaire_, _Youngstown_, _Mingo Junction_, and
+_Wheeling_. The steel-plant and rolling-mills at _South Bethlehem_ are
+designed especially for the manufacture of the heavy ordnance used in
+the army and navy. Nearly all the cities and towns of Pennsylvania, West
+Virginia, and eastern Ohio carry on manufacturing enterprises that
+depend on coal mining and steel manufacture. The great and diversified
+manufactures of Philadelphia are due to its fortunate situation at
+tide-water, near the coal-mines. Cheap fuel and water transportation
+have made it one of the great industrial centres of the world.
+
+The anthracite coal of this region is used wholly for fuel and
+steam-making; it is shipped partly by water from Philadelphia, but
+mainly in specially constructed cars to the various points of
+consumption. The soft coal is used also for fuel and steam-making, but a
+large part of the product is converted into coke and used in the
+steel-plants.
+
+The petroleum of this region is a leading export of the country, the
+states of western Europe being the chief purchasers. Of agricultural
+products, hay, dairy products, and tobacco are the only ones of
+importance. Natural gas is used both as a fuel and in manufactures.
+
+The lake-shore centre of steel manufacture depends largely on the low
+cost of transporting the iron ore, which in part is offset by the
+increased cost of coal. The low cost of shipping the manufactured
+product over nearly level trunk lines is a very substantial gain. _South
+Chicago_, _Toledo_, _Sandusky_, _Lorain_, _Cleveland_, _Ashtabula_,
+_Conneaut_, _Erie_, and _Buffalo_ are centres of steel manufacture or
+ore shipment, because they are situated on this great trade-route or
+line of least resistance.
+
+The coal-mines and iron-making plants of the southern Appalachians have
+a considerable area. The chief manufacturing centres are _Birmingham_,
+_Richmond_, _Roanoke_, and _Chattanooga_. A considerable part of the
+Virginia ores find their way to the Ohio River steel-mills. Open-hearth
+steel is an important manufacture in Birmingham. A large part of the
+ores smelted in the southern Appalachian region are made into foundry
+iron.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What are the advantages and the disadvantages of manufacturing cotton
+textiles in the New England States?
+
+Why have the mining of ore and the manufacture of steel become generally
+unprofitable in the New England States?
+
+What causes have brought about the lowering of the prices of cotton
+textiles during the past fifty years?--of shoes?
+
+What makes the manufacture of artificial ice a precarious business north
+of the latitude of Philadelphia?
+
+What are the advantages and the disadvantages arising from the location
+of a manufacturing industry at a seaport?
+
+What is the design of a protective tariff? What are its advantages and
+disadvantages?
+
+Why are most of the great steel-making plants so remote from the mines
+of iron ore used in making steel?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING
+
+Industrial Evolution of the United States--Chapters III-V.
+
+Mineral Resources of the United States.
+
+Outlines of Political Science--Chapters VIII-X.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE UNITED STATES--THE BASIN OF THE GREAT LAKES AND THE MISSISSIPPI
+VALLEY
+
+
+The principal agricultural region of the United States extends from the
+Appalachian ranges to the Rocky Mountains. A certain amount of
+bread-stuffs, meat, and dairy products are grown in nearly every part of
+the country for local use, but the grain, meat, and cotton of this
+region are designed for export, and are therefore factors in the world's
+commerce. The basin of the Great Lakes connects the Mississippi Valley
+with the Atlantic seaboard.
+
+=The Basin of the Great Lakes.=--This region includes not only the Great
+Lakes and the area drained by the streams flowing into them, but also a
+considerable region surrounding that commercially is tributary to the
+traffic passing over the lakes. This basin itself is a part of a
+trade-route destined very shortly to become one of the greatest highways
+of traffic in the world.
+
+The lakes afford a navigable water-way which, measured due east and
+west, aggregates nearly six hundred miles. This route is interrupted at
+Niagara Falls and at St. Mary's Falls, between Lake Superior and Lake
+Huron. On the Canadian side, Welland Canal, Lake Ontario, and the St.
+Lawrence connect Lake Erie with tide-water. In the United States the
+Erie Canal connects the lake with the Hudson River and New York Bay.
+
+From the head of Lake Superior railway routes of minimum grades--the
+Great Northern and the Northern Pacific[51]--cross the continent to
+Puget Sound, the best harbor approach to the Pacific coast of the
+American continent. The harbors of Puget Sound, moreover, are materially
+nearer the great Asian ports than any other port of the United States.
+The level margins of these lakes are roadbeds for many miles of railway
+track; in many instances the railways are built on the tops of terraces
+that once were shores of the lakes.
+
+[Illustration: DULUTH]
+
+_Duluth_, at the head of Lake Superior, became commercially important
+when the St. Mary's Falls Canal was completed. Much of the tremendous
+tonnage of freight passing through the canal is assembled at this place.
+The freight shipped consists mainly of farm products collected from an
+area reaching as far west as the Rocky Mountains. There is also a
+considerable shipment of iron ores obtained near by. _Buffalo_, at the
+lower end of Lake Erie, owes its activity to the trade in lumber, grain,
+and other farm products that come from Western lake-ports. It is the
+eastern terminus of the lake-commerce and the western terminus of the
+Erie Canal.
+
+_Chicago_, at the head of Lake Michigan, has a very heavy lake-trade.
+The mouth of Chicago River, the natural harbor of the city, has been
+improved by a system of basins and breakwaters. The river itself has
+been converted into a ship and drainage canal that is connected with the
+Illinois and Mississippi Rivers. It is now an outlet instead of a feeder
+to the lake, and the city built about old Fort Dearborn has become the
+greatest railway centre in the world.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF LOCKS AND CANAL, SAULT STE. MARIE]
+
+_Milwaukee_ has a situation in many ways resembling that of Chicago,
+its harbor being the mouth of Milwaukee River. Like Chicago, it owes its
+importance to its lake-trade. _Detroit_ (with _Windsor_, Ont.) owes its
+growth partly to its strategic position on the strait connecting Lake
+Huron and Lake Erie, and partly for its position between the lakes. It
+is an important collecting and distributing point for lake-freights, and
+the chief centre of commerce with Canada. Several east-and-west trunk
+lines and local lines of railway have freight terminals in the city; it
+is also the centre of the most complete system of interurban electric
+railways in the world. _Port Huron_ (with _Sarnia_, Ont.) has a
+geographic position similar to that of Detroit, and is also an important
+lake-port. The St. Clair River is tunnelled at this point. _Cleveland_,
+_Toledo_, _Sandusky_, and _Erie_ contribute very largely to the
+lake-trade. _Grand Rapids_ is the business centre of furniture
+manufacture of the United States.
+
+The great iron-ore ranges about Lake Superior have had much to do with
+the growth of the local lake-trade. This has resulted in the
+establishment of a large number of shipping-ports near the head of the
+lakes, and also a number of receiving ports on the south shores of Lake
+Erie and Lake Michigan. Some of the latter have become also great
+manufacturing centres of structural iron and steel.
+
+Various centres of industry at a considerable distance from the Great
+Lakes are contributors to their trade. Thus, on account of the low rate
+for grain between _Chicago_ and _New York City_--about 5-1/4 cents per
+bushel--there are yearly very heavy shipments of the grain designed for
+Liverpool. _St. Paul_ and _Minneapolis_ are also collecting and
+distributing centres of lake-freights. A considerable part of the
+business of the lake-region is carried on by the Canadians, who have
+improved their resources for production and transportation to the
+utmost.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright, Detroit Photographic Co._
+
+AURORA IRON MINES, IRONWOOD, MICHIGAN]
+
+=The Northern Mississippi Valley Region.=--This region extends from the
+Appalachian ranges to the western limit of wheat and cotton growing. On
+the south it is limited by the cotton-growing region. Its boundaries are
+therefore climatic and commercial.
+
+The surface is level; there is a rich, deep soil and an abundant
+rainfall. It has therefore become one of the foremost regions of the
+world in the production of corn, wheat, pork, dairy-stuffs, and general
+farm produce. The evolution of farming machinery is the direct result of
+topographic conditions. A level, fertile region naturally invites
+grain-farming on a large scale. This, in turn, must depend very largely
+on the ability of the farmer to plant and harvest his crops with the
+minimum of expense and time.
+
+Hand-work in harvesting and planting has almost wholly given way to
+machine-work. Farming carried on under such conditions requires not only
+a considerable capital, but close business management as well. Some of
+the results have been very far-reaching. The machinery and other
+equipments require capital, and this in late years has been borrowed
+from Eastern capitalists. The prompt business methods of the
+money-lender brought about no little friction, and it is only within
+recent years that each adjusted himself to the requirements of the
+other.
+
+The system of machine-farming to a great extent has prevented the
+subdivision of farms. As a rule, quarter and half sections represent the
+size of most of the farms, but tracts varying from five thousand to ten
+thousand acres are by no means uncommon. The chief drawback to this
+method in the case of wheat-farming, however, is the low yield per acre.
+The average yield per acre for the United States, a little more than
+twelve bushels, is scarcely half the average yield in Europe. Although
+the farmer has done much to reorganize his business methods, he has done
+but little to maintain the productivity of his land.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHEAT INDUSTRY--HARVESTING WITH McCORMICK
+SELF-BINDING REAPERS]
+
+The cities and towns of this region are mainly receiving and collecting
+points for farm produce. Nearly every village is equipped with elevators
+and grain-handling machinery; the larger towns, as a rule, have
+stock-yards and the necessary facilities for cattle shipment; the large
+cities are usually centres of meat-packing. Most of the meat-packing is
+a necessity; for although cattle may be shipped alive and beef may be
+transported in refrigerator ships and cars, pork is not marketable
+unless pickled, salted, or smoked. The pork thus exported, aggregating
+about six hundred million pounds yearly, must be prepared, therefore,
+somewhere near the cornfields. Manufacturing enterprises are operated on
+a very large scale, but in the main their products are farm-machinery
+and the commodities required by a farming population.
+
+Education in agriculture is provided for in nearly every State in the
+Union. The agricultural colleges in the States composing this group rank
+among the best in the world. In addition to the ordinary courses in such
+institutions, there are also many experiment stations for the study of
+economic plants, cattle diseases, and insect pests.
+
+_Chicago_ is the largest food-market in the world. The industries of the
+city are almost wholly connected with the commerce of grain, pork, meat,
+and other food-stuffs. For the transportation of these commodities about
+thirty great trunk lines enter the city and about twelve hundred
+passenger trains daily arrive and depart from its stations.
+
+The freight terminals are connected by transfer and belt lines, which
+receive and distribute the cars passing between the eastern and the
+western roads. More than five hundred freight trains, aggregating about
+twenty thousand cars, arrive and depart daily.
+
+_St. Louis_ originally derived its importance as a river-port of the
+Mississippi, having been the connecting commercial link between the
+upper and the lower river. In recent years it has become the metropolis
+of the southern part of the food-producing region. In addition to the
+river-trade, still largely controlled at this point, it is the focus of
+more than twenty trunk lines of railway. Some of these, like the trunk
+lines of Chicago, handle freight exchanged between the East and West;
+but a large proportion are receiving and distributing roads for Southern
+freight.
+
+[Illustration: AUTOMOTIVE POWER IN THE INDUSTRIES OF THE MISSISSIPPI
+VALLEY]
+
+_St. Paul_ and _Minneapolis_ are the metropolis of the upper
+Mississippi. The former grew from a trading-post at the head of
+navigation; the latter gained its commercial prominence from the
+water-power at the falls of St. Anthony. The former has become the chief
+railway and distributing centre of the northern Mississippi Valley; the
+latter has the greatest flour-mills in the world, and an extensive
+lumber-trade. Both are situated on the trade-route between the United
+States and Asian ports, and distribute a part of the trade that comes
+from them.
+
+The two _Kansas Cities_,[52] _Omaha_, _South Omaha_, and _Sioux City_
+are stock-markets and meat-packing centres. The first two named are
+collecting and distributing points not only for the Mississippi Valley,
+but also for a considerable share of the Pacific Coast trade. Kansas
+City is also a transfer station for the cotton destined for China. From
+this place it is sent by way of Billings to Seattle, and thence shipped
+to China.
+
+_Cincinnati_ is the metropolis of the Ohio Valley. Its situation on a
+bend of the river gives most excellent landing facilities; the easy
+grade from the bluff to the bottom-lands along the flood-plain of Mill
+Creek makes it accessible to the railways that enter the city. On
+account of low rates of transportation by river-barges, about three
+million tons of coal and one million tons of pig-iron and steel billets
+are floated to the city to be manufactured into other steel products.
+_Indianapolis_ is a great railway centre, where much of the freight
+passing between Chicago, Louisville, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg is
+exchanged. _Columbus_ (O.) is similarly situated as a railway and
+farming centre.
+
+[Illustration: CATTLE AND DAIRY PRODUCTS]
+
+_Louisville_ is a market of the tobacco region, and has probably a
+larger business in this industry than any other city in the world.
+_Davenport_, _Rock Island_, and _Moline_ form a single commercial
+centre, the last-named having the largest establishment for the
+manufacture of ploughs in the world. _Dubuque_, _Burlington_, _Quincy_,
+and _Muscatine_ are river-ports, all having a considerable trade in the
+lumber that is carried down the river.
+
+=The Southern Mississippi Valley and Gulf Coast.=--This region receives a
+generous warmth and rainfall. Cotton is its staple product, and nearly
+all the industries are connected with the growth, shipment, and
+manufacture of the crop and its side products. The cotton, raw or
+manufactured, is sold in about every country in the world.
+
+The commercial part of handling the cotton-crop begins within a very
+few weeks from the time of the first picking. The baled cotton is hauled
+by team from the plantation to the nearest market-town, an item
+sometimes greater than the entire freightage from the nearest seaport to
+Liverpool.
+
+The season for export lasts from September until the middle of January,
+during which time brokers are visiting the smaller markets in order to
+buy it on commission. It is then shipped by rail or by river to the
+nearest general market, where it is sold to the foreign buyers and
+domestic manufacturers.
+
+_New Orleans_, the metropolis of the South, has usually the heaviest
+export of cotton, amounting to about one billion pounds each year. Much
+of this is received by water from the various river-ports. The city is
+not only a river-port, but an important seaport as well, controlling a
+large part of the foreign commerce of the Gulf. Several trunk lines of
+railway enter the city, which is a receiving and distributing depot for
+both Atlantic and Pacific freights. A considerable part of the former
+are sent by ocean steamships from New York. An elaborate system of
+sewerage, well-paved streets, and a good water-supply--all recently put
+into operation--have made the city one of the most attractive in the
+United States.
+
+_Galveston_ is destined to become a leading port for cotton export. It
+has the advantage of a fine harbor on the seaboard, and the disadvantage
+of a location so low that very heavy south winds flood the streets with
+water from the Gulf. The growth of the export trade is due chiefly to
+the increasing crop of Texas. Shipments from Galveston begin in
+September, the Texas crop being the first to mature. _Savannah_ and _New
+York_ rank next in their exports. _Pensacola_ and _Brunswick_ are also
+important points of export. _Memphis_, _Vicksburg_, _Shreveport_,
+_Houston_, and _Montgomery_ are important collecting stations for the
+cotton.
+
+About one-third of the crop is retained for manufacture in the United
+States; one-third is purchased by Great Britain, one-sixth by Germany,
+and most of the remainder by France, Italy, Spain, and Japan. Of the
+manufactured cotton goods, the Chinese are the heaviest buyers, taking
+about half the entire export. Most of the Chinese purchase is landed at
+Shanghai.
+
+In the main, the manufactures of this region closely concern the cotton
+industry. The increase in the manufacture of textile goods has been very
+great, and a large part of the cotton now manufactured in the New
+England States and abroad, in time will be made in the cities and towns
+of this section. In addition to the textile goods, cottonseed-oil is an
+important product. A part of this is used in the mechanical arts, but
+the refined oil is used mainly for domestic purposes. A considerable
+part of the latter is used to adulterate olive-oil, and in some
+instances is substituted for it. The refuse of the seed is made into
+fertilizer.
+
+_Atlanta_ is one of the foremost cities in the South in the manufacture
+of cotton textiles and products. Commercially its situation resembles
+that of Indianapolis; it is a focal point of the chief trunk lines of
+railway in the South, and has the principal railway clearing-house. Like
+New Orleans, it is an educational centre and one of the foremost in the
+South. _Macon_, _Dallas_, _Fort Worth_, and _San Antonio_ are growing
+commercial centres.
+
+The manufacture of cane-sugar has been an industry of Louisiana for more
+than a century. Since the advent of beet-sugar, however, it has been a
+somewhat precarious venture, and has depended for existence very largely
+upon tariff protection and bounties paid to the American sugar-makers.
+Tobacco manufacture centres at Tampa and Key West. Cuban leaf is there
+converted into cigars.
+
+Fruit culture is a great industry. Millions of melons and great
+quantities of pineapples, oranges, and small fruit form the early crop
+that is shipped North. The orange groves are mainly in Florida. The crop
+is exhausted about the time that California oranges are shipped East. A
+great deal of tropical fruit is brought from Mexican, Central American,
+and South American ports. This trade is controlled mainly at _Mobile_,
+which is also a lumber-market.
+
+=The Arid Plains and the Grazing Region.=--This region includes the high
+plains approximately west of the 2,000-foot contour of level, together
+with a part of the plateaus of the western highland region. It is
+essentially one of grazing. Formerly there was an attempt to make
+wheat-growing the chief industry, but on account of the limited rainfall
+not more than three crops out of five reached maturity.
+
+The earlier cattle-growing was carried on in a somewhat primitive
+manner; the cattle herded on open lands, wandering from one range to
+another, wherever the grazing might be good. The ownership of the cattle
+was determined by the brand the animal bore,[53] and the herds were
+"rounded up" twice a year to be sorted; at the round-up the "mavericks,"
+or unmarked calves and yearlings, were branded. In time the ranges
+became greatly overstocked; the winter losses by starvation were so
+heavy that a better system became imperative. "Rustling," or
+cattle-stealing, also became a factor in improving the methods of
+cattle-ranching. The cautious rustler would purchase a few head of
+cattle and add to the number by capturing stray mavericks.
+
+[Illustration: A DESERT REGION--TOO DRY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF
+FOOD-STUFFS]
+
+[Illustration: OPEN GRAZING RANGES, IN WESTERN HIGHLANDS]
+
+Both the legitimate graziers and the rustlers at first were bitterly
+opposed to fencing the land. In time, however, the grazier was compelled
+to do this, and also to grow alfalfa for winter foddering. The great
+open ranges have therefore been broken up and fenced wholly or in part.
+The fencing, moreover, has kept a dozen or more of the largest
+wire-mills in the world turning out a product that is at once shipped
+West. As a rule, the top wire is set on insulators and used for
+telephone connection.[54] This method of cattle-growing has improved the
+business in every way. The cattle are better kept; the loss by winter
+killing is very small; the "long-horn" cattle have given place to the
+best breeds of "meaters," which are heavier, and mature more quickly.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co._
+
+ON A TEXAS CATTLE RANCH]
+
+The success of stock-growing in this region is largely a question of
+climate. The sparse rainfall permits the growth of several species of
+grass that retain nutrition and vitality after turning brown under the
+fierce summer heat. Ordinary turf-grass will not live in this region,
+nor will it retain its nutrition after turning brown if rain falls upon
+it. The native grass is not materially affected by a shower or two; it
+is fairly good fodder even when buried under the winter's snow. The
+existence of this industry, therefore, turns on a very delicate climatic
+balance.
+
+Of the beef grown in the United States the export product is derived
+mainly from this region. Nearly four hundred thousand animals are
+shipped alive; about three hundred million pounds of fresh beef are
+shipped to the Atlantic seaboard in refrigerator-cars and then
+transferred to refrigerator-steamships. Two-thirds of the cattle and
+fresh beef exported are shipped from New York and Boston.
+
+Upward of one hundred and fifty million pounds of canned and pickled
+beef are also exported. All but a very small part of this product is
+consumed in Great Britain, France, and Germany. The cattle are collected
+for transportation at various stations and sidings along the railways
+that traverse this region. _Cheyenne_ is one of the largest
+cattle-markets in the world.
+
+Wool has become a very valuable product, and the sheep grown in this
+region number about one-half the total in the United States. The growing
+of macaroni-wheat is extending to lands that fail to produce crops of
+ordinary wheat.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+In what ways does the basin of the Great Lakes facilitate the commerce
+of the United States?
+
+How has the topography of the Mississippi Valley affected the evolution
+of farming-machinery?
+
+Why are shippers willing in many cases to pay an all-rail rate on wheat
+sent to the Atlantic seaboard, nearly three times as great as the lake
+and canal rates?
+
+The acre-product of wheat in the United States is about twelve bushels;
+in western Europe it varies from twenty-five to more than forty bushels;
+to what is the difference due?
+
+What is meant by sea-island cotton?--for what reasons is cotton imported
+from Egypt and Peru into the United States?
+
+In what manner is cotton used in the manufacture of pneumatic tires, and
+why is it thus used?
+
+What are refrigerator-cars?--refrigerator-steamships? Name some of the
+regulations required in shipping cattle.
+
+Why have American meats been debarred at times from European markets?
+
+Find the value of cotton and meat exported to the following-named
+countries: Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, China.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+The Wheat Problem--pp. 191 _et seq._
+
+Statistical Abstract.
+
+[Illustration: DIFFICULT RAILROADING--LAS ANIMAS CANYON]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+THE UNITED STATES--THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS AND TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS
+
+
+The western part of the United States consists of a succession of high
+mountain-ranges extending nearly north and south. The two highest
+ranges, each about two miles high, enclose a basin-shaped plateau about
+one mile high. This basin is commonly called the "plateau region." The
+rim ranges are broken in a few places by passes that the
+transcontinental railways thread. West of the Sierra Nevada ranges are
+the fertile Pacific coast lowlands.
+
+=The Plateau Region.=--This region is generally arid, but on the higher
+plateaus there is sufficient rainfall to produce a considerable forestry
+and grazing. The general conditions of rainfall and topography forbid
+any great development of agriculture. Farming is confined to the
+river-flood-plains, the parks, and the old lake beds and margins.
+
+A considerable area, estimated at more than two million acres, may be
+made productive by irrigation, and the United States Government is
+undertaking the construction of an elaborate and extensive system of
+reservoirs for the impounding of stream and storm waters now running to
+waste. The irrigated lands of this region, when their products are
+accessible to markets, are very valuable. The river-bottom lands of New
+Mexico, and the old margins of Great Salt Lake in Utah are examples.
+They produce abundantly, and a single acre often yields as much as four
+or five acres in regions of plentiful rainfall.
+
+Not much of the crop of this region, the fruit and wool excepted,
+leaves the vicinity in which it is grown, on account of the expense of
+transportation. In the matter of the transportation of their
+commodities, the dwellers of the western highland are doubly
+handicapped. The building of railways is enormously expensive, and in a
+region of sparse population there is comparatively little local freight
+to be hauled. The difficulties of developing such a region from a
+commercial stand-point, therefore, are very great.
+
+Mining is the chief industry of this section, and silver, gold, and
+copper are its most important products. Since the discovery of precious
+metals in the United States, this region has produced gold and silver
+bullion to the value of about four billion dollars. This sum is about
+one-half the value of the railways of the country,[55] and from 1865 to
+1880 a large part of the capital invested in railway building represents
+the gold and silver of these mines. In the last twenty years of the past
+century they produced an average of about one hundred and twenty-five
+million dollars per year, and this average is constantly increasing.
+
+Coal-measures extend along the eastern escarpment of the Rocky
+Mountains, and these are destined at no remote day to create a centre of
+steel and other manufactures. Several of the railways operate coal-mines
+in Colorado and Wyoming for the fuel required. A limited supply of steel
+is also made, the industry being protected by the great distance from
+the Eastern smelteries.
+
+[Illustration: GOLD MINING--CRIPPLE CREEK, COLORADO]
+
+_Denver_ is the chief active centre of finance of the mining industry
+in the western highlands, although many of the great enterprises derive
+the capital necessary to develop them from _New York_ and _San
+Francisco_. _Leadville_, _Cripple Creek_, _Butte_, _Helena_, and
+_Deadwood_ are regions of gold and silver production. _Virginia City_ is
+the operating centre of the famous Comstock mines. At _Anaconda_ is the
+chief copper-mine of this region. _Salt Lake City_ and _Ogden_ are the
+centre of the Mormon agricultural enterprises. _Santa Fe_, _Las Vegas_,
+and _Albuquerque_ are centres of agricultural interests and
+stock-growing.
+
+_Spokane_ and _Walla Walla_ are commercial centres of the plains of the
+Columbia River. The former is the focal point of a network of local
+roads that collect the wheat and other farm products of this region; the
+latter is the collecting point for much of the freight sent by
+steamboats down the Columbia River from _Wallula_. Railway
+transportation has largely superseded river-navigation for all except
+local freights, however. _Boise City_ is the financial centre of
+considerable mining interests.
+
+=The Pacific Coast Lowlands.=--Climatically this region differs from the
+rest of the United States in having a rainy and a dry season--that is,
+the rainfall is wholly seasonal. In the northern part the rainfall is
+sixty inches or more, and rain may be expected daily from the middle of
+October to May. In central California the precipitation is about half as
+much, the rainy season beginning later and ending earlier. In southern
+California there are occasional showers during the winter months,
+aggregating ten or twenty inches.
+
+The level valley-lands have no superior for wheat-farming, and in but
+one or two places is the rainfall insufficient to insure a good crop. In
+the San Joaquin and southern valleys of California the harvest begins in
+May, in the Sacramento Valley in June, and in the Willamette and Sound
+Valleys of Oregon and Washington in July. The wheat goes mainly to Great
+Britain by way of Cape Horn. It cannot be safely shipped in bulk, and
+the manufacture of jute grain-sacks has become an important industry in
+consequence. The yearly wheat product of this region is not far from
+eighty million bushels.
+
+Fruit is a valuable product of the foot-hills of the Sierras, and in
+southern California oranges, lemons, and grapes are now the staple crop.
+In some cases the average yield per acre has reached a value of five
+hundred dollars. Some of the largest vineyards in the world are in this
+region. The Zinfandel claret wine and the raisins find a market as far
+east as London, and considerable quantities are sold in China and Japan.
+The navel orange, although not native to California, reaches its finest
+development in that State. A large part of the fruit-crop of California
+is handled at Minneapolis, Chicago, St. Louis, and New York. It is
+transported in special cars attached to fast trains.
+
+Wool is an important crop. In the northern part the sheep thrive best in
+the foot-hills. The valley of Umpqua River, Ore., produces nearly
+seventeen million pounds of wool yearly, the staple being an ordinary
+variety. California produces nearly as much of the finest merino staple.
+A considerable part is manufactured in the mills of the Pacific coast.
+The Mission Mills blankets made in San Francisco are without an equal
+elsewhere.
+
+The discovery of gold by John Marshall in 1848 resulted in a tremendous
+inflow of people to the gold-fields of California. It also was a factor
+in the acquisition of the territory composing the Pacific coast States.
+The first mining consisted merely in separating the metal deposited in
+the bed-rock of streams by washing away the lighter material. In time
+the quartz ledges which had produced the placer gold became the chief
+factor in gold mining. California is still one of the leading States in
+the production of gold. Quicksilver mining is an important feature of
+the mining interests of the Pacific coast, and the mines of the coast
+ranges produce about half the world's output.
+
+Lumber manufacture is an important industry. Douglas spruce, commonly
+known as "Oregon pine," grows profusely on the western slopes of the
+high ranges, the belt extending nearly to the Mexican border. It makes a
+most excellent building-lumber, especially for bridge-timber and
+framework. Masts and spars of this material are used in almost every
+maritime country. Sugar-pine is less common, but is abundant. It is
+largely used for interior work. Several species of redwood occur in
+central California, confined to a limited area. The wood is fine-grained
+and makes a most beautiful interior finish.
+
+_San Francisco_ is the metropolis of the Pacific coast of the United
+States. It is the terminus of the Santa Fe and Union Pacific railways,
+and the centre of a network of local roads. Steamship lines connect the
+city with Panama, the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, and Australian ports;
+coast steamships reach to the various ports of Alaska, Oregon, and
+California. It is also the financial as well as the commercial centre of
+the Pacific coast. _Los Angeles_ is the centre of the fruit-growing
+region; its port is _San Pedro_. _Stockton_, _Port Costa_, and
+_Sacramento_, all on navigable waters, are wheat-markets. _Portland_
+(Ore.) is the metropolis of the basin of the Columbia and Willamette
+Rivers. Navigation of the former is interrupted by falls or rapids at
+_Dalles_ and _Cascades_, but boats ascend as far as _Wallula_. The lower
+Willamette is also made navigable by means of a canal and locks at
+Oregon Falls.
+
+Puget Sound is a "drowned valley," with an abundance of deep water. The
+score or more of harbors are among the best in the world. _Seattle_ and
+_Tacoma_, the leading ports, are terminals of great transcontinental
+railways, and also of the most important trade-route across the
+continent. Lines of steamships connect Seattle with Japan and China, and
+the commerce passing through this gateway is drawn from a territory
+that extends more than half-way around the world. These ports are
+destined to become the chief American ports in the Asian trade.
+
+=Alaska.=--The most productive industry of the insular part of the
+territory is the fisheries. For many years the Pribilof Islands produced
+practically all the seal-pelts used in the manufacture of seal-fur
+garments. So many seals were killed, however, that the species seemed
+likely to become extinct, and seal-catching has been forbidden for a
+term of years.
+
+[Illustration: PUGET SOUND]
+
+The discovery of gold along the Klondike River and in the beach-sands of
+Cape Nome was followed by the development of surface mines that produced
+a large amount of gold. For the better transportation of products, a
+railway has been completed from _Skagway_ across White Pass to _White
+Horse_, the head of navigation of the Yukon. About twenty steamboats are
+engaged in the commerce of the river. _Skagway_ and _Dyea_ are
+collecting points for the commerce of the Klondike mines. _Juneau_ has
+probably the largest quartz-mill in the world.
+
+=Porto Rico.=--Porto Rico, formerly a Spanish colony, is now a possession
+of the United States. The island is about the size of Connecticut and
+has a population somewhat greater. The industries are almost wholly
+agricultural, and nearly the whole surface is under cultivation. Sugar,
+coffee, and tobacco are grown for export, and these constitute the chief
+source of income. The coffee-crop, about sixty million pounds yearly, is
+the most valuable product and commands a high price on account of its
+superior quality. It is sold very largely to European coffee-merchants,
+and is marketed as a "Mocha." Exports of fruit to the United States are
+increasing. In 1900 the exports to United States markets, mainly sugar
+and cattle products, were about six million dollars. The imports from
+the United States were chiefly of cotton-prints and rice, to the amount
+of nearly nine million dollars. The total export and import trade that
+year was about twenty million dollars.
+
+The facilities for the transportation of products are not good. The
+railway lines have a total mileage of about one hundred and fifty miles.
+An excellent wagon-road, built by the Spanish Government from San Juan
+to Ponce, has been supplemented by several hundred miles of roads built
+under the direction of the military authorities. _San Juan_ and _Ponce_
+are the leading seaports and centres of trade.
+
+=Hawaiian Islands.=--These islands were discovered by a Spanish sailor,
+Gaetano, in 1549, and again visited by Captain Cook in 1778. Up to 1893
+they formed a native kingdom. In 1893 foreign influence was sufficient
+to overthrow the native government, and in 1898 they were formally
+annexed to the United States and about the same time organized as a
+territory. From an early date the geographic position of the islands has
+made them a convenient mid-ocean post-station, and they have therefore
+become a most important commercial centre.
+
+[Illustration: HYDRAULIC GOLD MINING--CALIFORNIA]
+
+Of the various islands composing the group, Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kaui,
+Molokai, Lanai, and Niihau are inhabited. About one-fifth of the
+population consists of native Hawaiians; a little more than one-fifth is
+white; the remainder is composed of Japanese, Chinese, and Porto Ricans.
+The native population is decreasing. About ninety-five per cent. of the
+property is owned by the white people--Americans, English, and Germans.
+
+The volcanic soils are the very best sugar-lands, and a large amount of
+capital is invested in this industry. The sugar-plantations employ more
+than forty thousand laborers, all Japanese, Chinese, and Porto Ricans.
+The value of the sugar export is nearly twenty-five million dollars
+yearly; that of fruit, rice, and hides is about two hundred and fifty
+thousand dollars. Coffee is rapidly becoming a leading product. The bulk
+of the imports comes from the United States, and consists of clothing,
+cotton textiles, lumber, and machinery.
+
+_Honolulu_, on the island of Oahu, is the capital and commercial centre,
+and foreign steamships and sailing-craft are scarcely ever absent from
+its harbor. Regular steamship service connects this port with San
+Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, B.C., and the principal ports of China
+and Japan. It is connected with the other islands by a system of
+wireless telegraphy. The city has the best of schools, business
+organizations, hotels, and streets.
+
+_Pearl Harbor_ contains a large area of water, most of which is deep
+enough for the largest vessels afloat. It is intended to deepen the
+entrance and establish a United States naval station at this place. The
+village of _Hilo_ is the chief port of the island of Hawaii.
+
+=The Philippine Islands= are an archipelago of about two thousand islands,
+the two largest of which, Luzon and Mindanao, are each nearly the size
+of New York State. Luzon is by far the most important.
+
+After their cession to the United States (December 10, 1898), they were
+held under military control, but this has given place to local
+self-government as rapidly as the circumstances permitted. A general
+school system has been established and is extended wherever practicable.
+In a considerable number of the islands civil organization is still
+impossible.
+
+The following are the principal islands and their mineral resources:
+
+  ----------------+----------------------+---------------------
+        NAME      |CHIEF CITIES AND PORTS|MINERAL RESOURCES
+  ----------------+----------------------+---------------------
+  Luzon           |Manila, Lipa, Batangas|Coal, gold, copper
+  Mindanao        |Zamboanga             |Coal, gold, copper
+  Samar           |Catbalogan            |Coal, gold
+  Negros          |Bacolor               |Coal
+  Panay           |Iloilo                |Coal, gold, petroleum
+  Leyte           |Tacloban              |Coal, petroleum
+  Mindoro         |Calapan               |Coal, gold
+  Cebu            |Cebu                  |Coal, petroleum, gold
+  ----------------+----------------------+----------------------
+
+The native population is mainly of the Malay race, but there are also
+many Negritos. Of the native element the Tagals are the most advanced,
+and are the dominant people. The foreign population includes nearly one
+hundred thousand Chinese, who are the chief commercial factors of the
+islands, and the leading industries are controlled by them. There is a
+considerable population of Chinese and Tagal mixed blood, commonly known
+as "Chinese mestizos"; they inherit, in the main, the Chinese
+characteristics. The European and American population consists mainly of
+officials, troops, and merchant-agents for Philippine products.
+
+The principal products for export are "Manila" hemp, sugar, and tobacco.
+The hemp is used in the manufacture of cordage and paper. On account of
+the great strength of the fibre it has no equal among cordage fibres.
+The imports from the United States consist mainly of machinery and
+cotton textiles. The total trade of the islands amounted in 1901 to
+about fifty million dollars, most of which was shared by Great Britain
+and the United States.
+
+Coal is mined in the island of Cebu and is abundant in most of the
+islands. Iron ore, copper, and sulphur occur, but they have not been
+made commercially available to any extent. Gold is mined in the island
+of Luzon. A stable government only is needed to make these great
+resources productive. An abundance of timber is found in most of the
+islands. Cedar, ebony, and sapan-wood are available for ornamental
+purposes; there is also a great variety of economic woods.
+
+_Manila_ is the commercial centre. Manila Bay is one of the finest
+harbors in the Pacific Ocean, but much work is necessary to give the
+water-front a navigable depth for large steamships. With an improved
+harbor the city is bound to be a great emporium of Oriental trade.
+Steamship lines connect the city with Hongkong, Australia, Japan,
+Singapore, and Liverpool. There is also a military transport service to
+Seattle. A railway to Dagupan extends through the most important
+agricultural region. The wagon-roads throughout the island are very
+poor.
+
+_Lipa_, _Batanzas_, _Bauan_, and _Cavite_ are cities of about forty
+thousand population, all more or less connected with the industries of
+Manila. _Iloilo_ is the second port of importance of the islands, and is
+the centre of a considerable export trade in tobacco, hemp, sugar, and
+sapan-wood. _Cebu_ is also a port having a considerable trade.
+
+=Tutuila=, one of the Samoan Islands, was acquired by treaty for use as a
+coal-depot and naval station. _Pago Pago_ is a port of call for
+steamships between San Francisco and Australia. =Guam=, one of the Ladrone
+Islands, is a naval station. These possessions are strategic and are
+designed to secure the interests of the United States in the Pacific. An
+ocean telegraphic cable connects the Pacific Ocean possessions with the
+United States and Asia.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Why are mountain-regions apt to be sparsely peopled?
+
+Why are arid regions sparsely peopled, as a rule?
+
+Why are not gold-mining settlements so apt to be permanent as
+agricultural settlements?
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the production of gold and silver
+of this region for each ten years ending the last half of the century.
+
+What causes the difference between the wool clip of southern California
+and that of the Eastern States?
+
+Follow the route of a grain-carrying ship from San Francisco to
+Liverpool.
+
+What are the advantages to the United States of the accession of the
+Hawaiian Islands?--of the Philippine Islands?--of Alaska? What are the
+disadvantages?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Mineral Resources of the United States.
+
+Abstract of Statistics.
+
+U.S. Coast Survey Chart of Alaska.
+
+Map of Hawaiian Islands.
+
+Map of Philippine Islands.
+
+[Illustration: NIAGARA POWER-HOUSE (EXTERIOR)]
+
+[Illustration: NIAGARA POWER-HOUSE (INTERIOR)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND
+
+
+A very large part of Canada is so far north that the ordinary
+food-stuffs cannot be grown there; the river-valleys of British Columbia
+and the basin of the Saskatchewan excepted, there are but few marks of
+human industry beyond the fiftieth parallel. The general conditions of
+topography resemble those of the United States--a central plain between
+the high Rocky Mountain ranges in the west and the lower Laurentian
+ranges in the east.
+
+Canada is an agricultural country, and because of the great skill with
+which its resources have been made commercially available, it is the
+most important colony of Great Britain. The basin of the Great Lakes and
+the St. Lawrence River is the most populous part of the country. This
+region is highly cultivated and produces dairy products, beef, and the
+ordinary farm-crops.
+
+From Lake Winnipeg westward, nearly to the Rocky Mountains, the land is
+a succession of prairies admirably suited to wheat-growing.[56] The
+wheat is a hard, spring variety, and the average yield per acre is about
+one-fourth greater than the average yield in the United States.
+
+The area of forestry includes the larger remaining part of the great
+pine belt, together with a very heavy reserve of merchantable
+oak-timber. The part of the forest area in Canada aggregates one and
+one-quarter million square miles, and yields an annual product of about
+eighty million dollars; about one-third of the lumber is exported.
+
+The northerly region of Canada produces furs and pelts. As long ago as
+1670, Charles II. granted to Prince Rupert and a stock company the lands
+comprising a very large part of Canada around Hudson Bay, and secured to
+them the sole right to trap the fur-bearing animals of the region. In
+time the company, known as the Hudson Bay Company, transferred all its
+lands to Canada, and out of the domain thus annexed various provinces
+and unorganized districts have been created.
+
+The company now exists as a corporation for the merchandise of furs. For
+the greater part, Indians are employed as hunters and trappers, and the
+pelts are collected at the various trading-posts, known as "houses" and
+"factories," to be sent to the head-quarters of the company near
+Winnipeg. Nearly every Arctic animal furnishes a merchantable pelt. The
+cheaper skins are made into garments in Canada and the United States;
+those commonly classed as furs are sold in London. Several other fur
+companies are also operating in Canada.
+
+The fisheries of the coast-waters and the Great Lakes are among the most
+productive in the world. Everything within the three-mile limit of the
+shore is reserved for Canadian fishermen. The smaller bays and coves are
+reserved also within the three-mile limit. Beyond this limit the waters
+are open to all, and a fleet of swift gun-boats is necessary to prevent
+illicit fishing. Salmon, cod, lobsters, and herring form most of the
+catch, amounting in value to upward of twenty million dollars yearly.
+
+The output of minerals varies from year to year; since 1900 it has
+averaged about sixty million dollars a year. The gold product
+constitutes nearly one-half and the coal about one-sixth of the total
+amount. Nickel, petroleum, silver, and lead form the rest of the output.
+Iron ore is abundant, but it is not at present available for production
+on account of the distance from transportation.
+
+Commerce is facilitated by about eighteen thousand miles of railway and
+nearly three thousand miles of canal and improved river-navigation. One
+ocean-to-ocean railway, the Canadian Pacific, is in operation; another,
+an extension of the Grand Trunk, is under way. The rapids and shoals of
+the St. Lawrence and Richelieu Rivers are surmounted by canals and
+locks. Welland Canal connects Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and the
+Canadian lock at St. Mary's Falls joins Lake Superior to Lake Huron. By
+means of the lakes and canals vessels drawing fourteen feet may load at
+Canadian ports and discharge at Liverpool.
+
+The harbors of the Atlantic coast have two great drawbacks--ice and high
+tides. Some of the steamship lines make Portland, Me., their winter
+terminus. The Pacific coast harbors are not obstructed by ice. An
+attempt has been made in the direction of using Hudson Bay and Strait as
+a grain-route, but the difficulties of navigation are very great and the
+route is open only two months of the year.
+
+Practically all the foreign trade is carried on with Great Britain and
+the United States. The trade with each aggregates about one hundred and
+fifty million dollars yearly. The exports are lumber and wood-pulp,
+cheese and dairy products, wheat and flour, beef-cattle, hog products,
+fish, and gold-quartz. The chief imports are steel, wool, sugar, and
+cotton manufactures.
+
+Politically, Canada consists of a number of provinces, each with the
+usual corps of elective officers. A governor-general appointed by the
+Crown of Great Britain is the chief executive officer.
+
+=Nova Scotia.=--This province is prominent on account of its coal and
+iron, and also because of its geographic position. The iron and coal are
+utilized in steel smelteries and rolling-mills, glass-factories,
+sugar-refineries, and textile-mills. It is one of the few localities in
+the eastern part of the continent yielding gold. _Halifax_, the capital,
+has one of the best harbors of the Atlantic coast of North America; it
+is not often obstructed by ice, and is the chief winter port. Halifax is
+the principal British naval station of North America, and this fact adds
+much to its commercial activity.
+
+=Prince Edward Island.=--The industries of this province are mainly
+connected with the coast-fisheries. During the summer the island is
+visited by thousands of fishing-vessels for the purpose of preparing the
+catch for market. Fertilizer manufactured from the refuse is an
+incidental product. _Charlottetown_ is the capital.
+
+=New Brunswick.=--Fisheries and forest products are both resources of this
+province. Coal is mined at _Grand Lake_, and an excellent lime for
+export to the United States is made at _St. John_. Lumber, wood-pulp,
+wooden sailing-vessels, cotton textiles, and structural steel for
+ship-building are manufactured. A ship railway, seventeen miles long,
+across the isthmus that connects this province to Nova Scotia, is under
+construction. _St. John_, the capital, is the chief seat of trade.
+
+=Quebec.=--This province was once a possession of France, and in the
+greater part of it French customs are yet about as prevalent as they
+were a century ago; moreover, the French population is increasing
+rapidly. The English-speaking population lives mainly along the Vermont
+border. As a rule the English are the manufacturers and traders; the
+French people are the farmers.
+
+_Montreal_ is the head of navigation of the St. Lawrence for ocean
+steamships. It is also the chief centre of manufactures. These are
+mainly sugar, rubber goods, textiles, light steel wares, and leather.
+The last-named goes almost wholly to Great Britain; the rest are
+consumed in Canada and the border American States. _Quebec_ is the most
+strongly fortified city of the Dominion.
+
+=Ontario.=--This province is a peninsula bordered by Lakes Huron, Erie,
+and Ontario. Farming is the chief employment, and barley is an important
+product. Most of it is used in the manufacture of malt, and "Canada
+malt" is regarded as the best. Several of the trunk railways whose
+terminals are in the United States traverse this peninsula. _Toronto_,
+the capital and commercial centre, is one of the most rapidly growing
+cities of North America. _Hamilton_ owes its existence to its harbor and
+position at the head of Lake Ontario. _Ottawa_ is the capital of the
+Dominion. At _Sudbury_ are the nickel-mines that are among the most
+productive in the world.
+
+=Manitoba=, =Saskatchewan=, and =Alberta=.--These provinces include the
+level prairie lands of the Saskatchewan and the Red River of the North.
+They comprise the great grain-field of Canada. A considerable part of
+the wheat-growing lands are yet unproductive owing to the lack of
+railways. Much of the product is carried to market by the Canadian
+Pacific and its feeders, but a considerable part finds its way to the
+Northern Pacific and Great Northern roads. The coal of Manitoba and
+Alberta is an important fuel supply not only to the provinces and states
+surrounding, but to the railways above named. A good quality of
+anthracite coal is also mined in Alberta. _Winnipeg_, the metropolis of
+the region, is one of the great railway centres of Canada.
+
+=British Columbia.=--British Columbia, the Pacific coast province, has
+several resources of great value. The gold mines led to its settlement
+and commercial opening. The salmon-fisheries are surpassed by those of
+the United States only. The beds of lignite coal have produced a very
+large part of the coal used in the Pacific coast States. The forests
+produce lumber for shipment both to the Atlantic coast of America and
+the Pacific coast of Asia.
+
+_Vancouver_, the terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway, is connected
+with various Asian ports by fast steamships. _Nanaimo_, _Wellington_,
+and _Commox_ are the centres of the coal-mining industry. The
+copper-mines at _Rossland_ produce most of the copper mined in Canada.
+
+=Newfoundland.=--Although a Crown possession, Newfoundland is not a member
+of the Dominion of Canada. The extensive fisheries are its chief
+resource. The Labrador coast, which is used as a resort for curing and
+preserving the catch, is attached to Newfoundland for the purpose of
+government. _St. Johns_ is the capital.
+
+The islands of Miquelon and St. Pierre, south of Newfoundland, are a
+French possession. Fishing is the ostensible industry, but a great deal
+of smuggling is carried on.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What, if any, climatic or topographic boundaries separate Canada and the
+United States?
+
+Which of the two countries is the more fortunately situated for the
+production of food-stuffs?
+
+Which will support the larger population?--why?
+
+The harbors of the Labrador coast and of Cape Breton Island are superior
+to those of the British Islands, situated in about the same latitude;
+why do the latter have a commerce far greater than that of the former?
+
+Compare the industries of the eastern, middle, and western regions of
+Canada with the corresponding regions of the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Statesman's Year-Book.
+
+Statistical Year-Book of Canada (official government publication,
+Ottawa).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+MEXICO--CENTRAL AMERICA--WEST INDIES
+
+
+Mexico and the Central American states occupy the narrow, southerly part
+of North America. Structurally they consist of a plateau about a mile
+high, bordered on each side by a low coast-plain. The table-land, or
+_tierra templada_, has about the same climate as southern California;
+the low coast-plains, or _tierra caliente_, are tropical.
+
+=Mexico.=--The United States of Mexico is the most important part of this
+group. The people are of mixed Spanish and Indian blood, but there are
+many families of pure Castilian descent. The latter, in general, are the
+landed proprietors; the former constitute the tradesmen, herders, and
+peons. There is also a large unproductive class, mainly of Indians, who
+are living in a savage state. In general the manners and customs are
+those of Spain.
+
+The agricultural pursuits are in a backward condition, partly for the
+want of good system and an educated people, but mainly for lack of the
+capital and engineering skill to construct the irrigating canals that
+are needed to make the land productive. Maize, rice, sugar (cane and
+panocha), and wheat are grown for home consumption.
+
+The agricultural products which connect Mexico with the rest of the
+world are sisal-hemp (henequin), coffee, logwood, and fruit. Sisal-hemp
+is grown in the state of Yucatan, and has become one of its chief
+financial resources. Oaxaca coffee is usually sold as a "Mocha" berry.
+The logwood goes mainly to British textile makers; and the fruit,
+chiefly oranges and bananas, finds a market in the large cities of the
+United States, to which large consignments of vanilla and tropical woods
+are also sent. Cattle are grown on more than twenty thousand ranches,
+and the greater part are sent alive to the markets of the United States.
+The native long-horn stock is giving place to improved breeds.
+
+[Illustration: MEXICO]
+
+Gold and silver are the products that have made Mexico famous, and the
+mines have produced a total of more than three billion dollars' worth of
+precious metal. The native methods of mining have always been primitive,
+and low-grade ores have been neglected. In recent years American and
+European capital has been invested in low-grade mines, and the bullion
+production has been about doubled in value; it is now about one hundred
+million dollars yearly. Iron ore is abundant, and good coal exists.
+
+The manufactures, at present of little importance, are growing rapidly.
+The cotton-mills consume the home product and fill their deficiency from
+the Texas crop. All the finer textiles, however, are imported. Most of
+the commodities are supplied by the United States, Great Britain, and
+Germany, the first-named having about half the trade. Most of the
+hardware and machinery is purchased in the United States.
+
+Railway systems, with American terminal points at El Paso, San Antonio,
+and New Orleans, extend from the most productive parts of the country.
+One of the most important railways crosses the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,
+and, in order to encourage commerce, the harbors at Coatzacoalcos and
+Salina Cruz have been deepened and improved. This interoceanic route is
+destined to become a very important factor in commerce. It shortens the
+route between European ports and San Francisco by six thousand miles,
+and between New York and San Francisco by twelve hundred miles.[57]
+
+_Mexico_, the capital, is the financial and commercial centre. _Vera
+Cruz_ and _Tampico_ are connected with the capital by railway, but both
+have very poor port facilities. Steamship lines connect the former with
+New York, New Orleans, Havana, and French ports. It is the chief port of
+the country. _Matamoros_ on the American frontier has a considerable
+cattle-trade. The crop of sisal-hemp is shipped mainly from _Progresso_
+and _Merida_. _Acapulco_, _Manzanillo_, and _Mazatlan_ for want of
+railway connections have but little trade. The first-named is one of the
+best harbors in the world. _Guadalajara_ has important textile and
+pottery manufactures.
+
+=The Central American States.=--The physical features and climate of
+these states resemble those of Mexico. The Spanish-speaking people live
+in the table-lands, where the climate is healthful. The coast-plain of
+the Atlantic is forest-covered and practically uninhabited save by
+Indians. Guatemala is the most important state. A railway from _Puerto
+Barrios_, its Atlantic port, through its capital, _Guatemala_, to its
+Pacific port, _San Jose_, is nearly completed. British Honduras is a
+British territory acquired mainly for the mahogany product, which is
+shipped from _Belize_. Honduras has great resources in mines, cultivable
+lands, and forests, but these are undeveloped. Salvador is the smallest
+but most progressive state.
+
+[Illustration: ROUTE OF PROPOSED NICARAGUA CANAL.]
+
+Nicaragua is politically of importance on account of the possibilities
+of an interoceanic canal. A treaty for this canal, involving both
+Nicaragua and Great Britain, has already been signed by the powers
+interested. Many engineers regard the Nicaragua as preferable to that of
+the Panama canal. The shorter distance between New York and the Pacific
+ports of the United States, a saving of about four hundred miles, is in
+its favor. The longer distance of transit and the dangers of navigating
+Lake Nicaragua are against it. Costa Rica is favorably situated for
+commerce, but its resources are not developed. A railway from _Puerto
+Limon_ is nearly completed to _Puenta Arenas_, an excellent harbor on
+the Pacific side.
+
+Coffee, hides, mahogany, and fruit are the only products of importance
+that connect these states with the rest of the world. About half the
+trade goes to the United States. The Germans and English supply a
+considerable part of the textiles and manufactured articles. The coffee
+of Costa Rica is a very superior product. Much of the mahogany and
+forest products goes to Great Britain. Fruit-steamers call at the
+Atlantic ports for bananas, which are sold in New Orleans and the
+Atlantic cities.
+
+=The West Indies.=--The climate and productions of these islands are
+tropical in character. Sugar, fruit, coffee, tobacco, and cacao are the
+leading products. From the stand-point of the planter, the sugar
+industry has been a history of misfortunes. The abolition of slavery
+ruined the industry in many of the islands belonging to Great Britain.
+The competition of the beet-sugar made in Europe drove the Cubans into
+insurrection on account of the excessive taxes levied by the Spaniards,
+and ended in the Spanish-American War.
+
+The fruit-crop--mainly pineapples, oranges, and grapefruit--is shipped
+to the United States. New York, Philadelphia, and the Gulf ports are the
+destination of the greater part of it.
+
+Cuba, the largest island, is one of the most productive regions of the
+world. The famous "Havana" tobacco grows mainly in the western part,
+although practically all Cuban tobacco is classed under this name.
+According to popular opinion it is pre-eminently the best in flavor,
+and the price is not affected by that of other tobaccos.[58] About
+two-thirds of the raw leaf and cigars are purchased by the tobacco
+manufacturers of the United States. _Havana_, _Santiago_, and
+_Cienfuegos_ are the shipping-ports; most of the export is landed at New
+York, Key West, and Tampa.
+
+From 1900 to 1903 the small fraction of the sugar industry that survived
+the war and the insurrection was crippled by the high tariff on sugar
+imported into the United States. The latter, which was designed to
+protect the home sugar industry, was so high that the Cubans could not
+afford to make sugar at the ruling prices in New York. Hides, honey, and
+Spanish cedar for cigar-boxes are also important exports.
+
+The United States is the chief customer of Cuba, and in turn supplies
+the Cubans with flour, textile goods, hardware, and coal-oil. Smoked
+meat from Latin America and preserved fish from Canada and Newfoundland
+are the remaining imports. There are no manufactures of importance. The
+railways are mainly for the purpose of handling the sugar-crop.
+
+_Havana_, the capital and financial centre, is connected with New York,
+New Orleans, and Key West by steamship lines. _Santiago_, _Matanzas_,
+and _Cienfuegos_ are ports having a considerable trade.
+
+The British possessions in the West Indies are commercially the most
+important of the European possessions. The Bahamas are low-lying coral
+islands, producing but little except sponges, fruit, and sisal-hemp.
+_Nassau_, the only town of importance, is a winter resort. Fruit, sugar,
+rum, coffee, and ginger are exported from _Kingston_, the port of
+Jamaica. _St. Lucia_ has probably the strongest fortress in the
+Caribbean Sea.
+
+Barbados produces more sugar than any other British possession in the
+West Indies. The raw sugar, muscovado, is shipped to the United States.
+Bermuda, an outlying island, furnishes the Atlantic states with onions,
+Easter lilies, and early potatoes. From Trinidad is obtained the
+asphaltum, or natural tar, that is used for street paving. Brea Lake,
+the source of the mineral, is leased to a New York company. Sugar and
+cacao are also exported from Port of Spain. The products of St. Vincent
+and Dominica are similar to those of the other islands.
+
+The French own Martinique (_Fort de France_) and Guadeloupe (_Basse
+Terre_). St. Thomas (_Charlotte Amalie_), St. Croix, and St. John are
+Danish possessions. Various attempts to transfer the Danish islands to
+the United States have failed. They are admirably adapted for naval
+stations. The island of Haiti consists of two negro republics, Haiti and
+San Domingo. The only important product is coffee. Most of the product
+is shipped to the United States, which supplies coal oil and textiles in
+return.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What part of the United States was formerly a possession of Mexico, and
+how did it become a possession of the United States?
+
+From a cyclopedia learn the character of the political organization of
+Mexico and the Central American states.
+
+From the report listed below find what commercial routes gain, and what
+ones lose in distance by the Nicaragua, as compared with the Panama
+canal.
+
+From a good atlas make a list of the islands of the West Indies; name
+the country to which each belongs, and its exports to the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+The Statesman's Year-Book.
+
+Great Canals of the World--pp. 4058-4059.
+
+[Illustration: SOUTH AMERICA]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+SOUTH AMERICA--THE ANDEAN STATES
+
+
+In its general surface features South America resembles North
+America--that is, a central plain is bordered by low ranges on the east
+and by a high mountain system on the west. In the southern part,
+midsummer is in January and midwinter in July. The mineral-producing
+states are traversed by the ranges of the Andes and all of them except
+Chile are situated on both slopes of the mountains.
+
+=Colombia.=--This republic borders both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific
+Ocean. One port excepted, however, most of its commerce is confined to
+the shores of the Caribbean Sea. The lowlands east of the Andes are
+admirably adapted for grazing, and such cattle products as hides, horns,
+and tallow are articles of export. This region, however, even with the
+present facilities for transportation, produces only a small fraction of
+the products possible.
+
+The intermontane valleys between the Andean ranges have the climate of
+the temperate zone; wheat and sheep are produced. The chief industrial
+development, however, is confined to the lands near the Caribbean coast.
+Coffee, cacao, and tobacco are grown for export, the business of
+cultivation being largely controlled by Americans and Europeans. Rubber,
+copaiba, tolu, and vegetable ivory[59] are gathered by Indians from the
+forests.
+
+[Illustration: A PASS IN THE ANDES]
+
+The montane region has long been famous for its mines of gold and
+silver. The salt mines near Bogota are a government monopoly and yield a
+considerable revenue. Near the same city are the famous Muzo emerald
+mines.
+
+The rivers are the chief channels of internal trade. During the rainy
+season steamboats ascend the Orinoco to Cabugaro, about two hundred
+miles from Bogota. About fifty steamboats are in commission on the
+Magdalena and its tributary, the Cauca. Mule trains traversing wretched
+trails require from one to two weeks to transport the goods from the
+river landings to the chief centres of population. Improvements now
+under way in clearing and canalizing these rivers will add about five
+hundred miles of additional water-way. The railways consist of short
+lines mainly used as portages around obstructions of the rivers.
+
+An unstable government and an onerous system of export taxes hamper
+trade. Coffee, a leading product, goes mainly to Europe. Cattle
+products, and balsam of tolu are purchased mainly in the United States.
+Great Britain purchases the gold and silver ores. The chief
+imports--textiles, flour, and petroleum--are purchased in the United
+States. _Bogota_ and _Medellin_ are the largest cities. The isolation of
+the region in which they are situated shapes the indifferent foreign
+policy of the government. _Barranquilla_, _Sabanilla_, and _Cartagena_
+are the chief ports.
+
+=Panama.=--This state, formerly a part of Colombia, includes the isthmus
+of Panama. Geographically it belongs to North America, and practically
+it can be approached from Colombia by water only. The secession of
+Panama was brought about by the complications of the isthmian canal. A
+treaty with the United States gives the latter sovereign control over
+the canal and the strip of land ten miles wide bordering it. _Panama_
+and _Colon_ are the two ports of the canal. The United States exercises
+police and sanitary regulations in these cities, but it has no
+sovereignty over them.
+
+=Peru.=--Peru has great resources, both agricultural and mineral. Cotton
+is one of the chief products. The ordinary fibre is excelled only by the
+sea-island cotton of the United States; the long-staple fibre of the
+Piura is the best grown. The former is generally employed for mixing
+with wool in the manufacture of underwear, and is sold in the United
+States and Europe; the latter, used in the manufacture of thread and the
+web of pneumatic tires, goes mainly to Great Britain.
+
+Cane-sugar is a very large export crop, Great Britain, the United
+States, and Chile being the principal customers. The area of coffee
+production is growing rapidly. Coca-growing has become an important
+industry, and the plantations aggregate about three million trees;[60] a
+large part of the product is sent to the chemical laboratories of the
+United States. A small crop of rice for export is grown on the coast.
+
+The Amazon forest products yield a considerable revenue. Rubber and
+vegetable ivory are the most valuable. Cinchona, or Peruvian bark,
+however, is the one for which the state is best known; and there is
+probably not a drug-shop in the civilized world that does not carry it
+in stock.[61]
+
+Cattle are grown for their hides, and of these the United States is the
+chief purchaser. The wool of the llama, alpaca, and vicuna is used in
+manufacture of the cloth known as alpaca, and the value of the shipments
+to Great Britain usually exceeds one million dollars a year. In the
+mining regions the llama is used as a pack-animal, and a large part of
+the mine products reach the markets by this means of transportation. The
+mines yield silver and copper; in the main the ores are exported to
+Great Britain to be smelted.
+
+The products already named are the chief exports; the imports are cotton
+textiles, machinery, steel wares, and coal-oil. Great Britain has about
+one-half the foreign trade; the United States controls about one-fourth.
+_Callao_, the port of _Lima_, is the market through which most of the
+foreign trade is carried on. Steamship lines connect it with San
+Francisco and with British ports. _Mollendo_ is the outlet of Bolivian
+trade. The railways are short lines extending from the coast.
+
+=Ecuador.=--This state has but little commercial importance. The only
+cultivated products for export are cacao, coffee, and sugar. The
+first-named constitutes three-fourths of the exports, and most of it
+goes to France. The land is held in large estates, and most of the
+laboring people are in a condition of practical slavery. The
+bread-stuffs consumed by the foreign population and the land proprietors
+are imported. Animals are grown for their hides and these are sold to
+the United States.
+
+Another manufacture that connects Ecuador with the rest of the world is
+the so-called "Panama" hat. The material used is toquilla straw, the
+mid-rib of the screw-pine (_Carlodovica palmata_). The prepared straw
+can be plaited only when the atmosphere is very moist, and much of the
+work is done at night. The hats are made by Indians, who are governed
+by their own ideas regarding style and shape. They bring from
+twenty-five to fifty dollars apiece in the American markets, where
+nearly all the product is sold.[62]
+
+Mule-paths are the only means of inland communication. There is a
+considerable local traffic on the estuaries of the rivers, but this is
+confined to the rainy seasons. A railway built by an American company is
+in operation from _Guayaquil_, a short distance inland. This city is the
+chief market for foreign goods, and it is the only foreign port of the
+Pacific coast of South America in which the volume of trade of the
+United States approximates that of Germany and Great Britain.
+
+=Bolivia.=--Bolivia lost much of its possible commercial possible future
+when, after a disastrous war, its Pacific coast frontage became a
+possession of Chile. The agricultural lands are unfortunately situated
+with reference to the mining population; as a result, a considerable
+amount of food-stuffs must be imported from Argentina. Coffee, cacao,
+and coca are the principal cultivated products. Rubber from the Amazon
+forest is the most valuable vegetable product, but a considerable amount
+of cinchona bark and ivory nuts are also exported.
+
+The mines, however, are the chief wealth of the state and give it the
+only excuse for its political existence. They produce silver, tin,
+copper, gold, and borate of lime. Inasmuch as a large part of the ore
+and ore products must be transported by llamas and mules, only the
+richest mines can be profitably worked. With adequate means of
+transportation, the mines should make Bolivia one of the most powerful
+South American states.
+
+Railways already connect _Oruro_ with the sea-coast. A railway now
+under construction will connect _La Paz_ (the pass) with the Pacific
+coast, and also Buenos Aires. Excellent roads to take the place of the
+pack-trains are under construction.
+
+Practically all the imports, consisting of cotton and woollen textiles,
+machinery, and steel wares, are purchased in Great Britain. The exports
+are more than double the imports. Most of the goods pass through the
+Chilean port Antofagasto, or Mollendo, Peru. _La Paz_, _Oruro_, and
+_Sucre_ are the chief cities.
+
+The hypothetical state of Acre is situated in the angle where Bolivia,
+Peru, and Brazil join. The rubber forests, together with the absence of
+legal government, led to its existence. The government is wholly
+insurrectionary, but it at least uses its powers to encourage the rubber
+trade.
+
+=Chile.=--This state comprises the narrow western slope of the Andes,
+extending from the tropic of Capricorn to Cape Horn, a distance of about
+three thousand miles. The resources of the state have been so skilfully
+handled, that with the drawback of a very small proportion of cultivable
+land, Chile is the foremost Andean state.
+
+The cultivation of the ordinary crops is confined to the flood-plains of
+the short rivers. These, as a rule, are from twenty to fifty miles long
+and a mile or two in width. They are densely peopled and cultivated to
+the limit. Between the river-valleys are long stretches of unproductive
+land.
+
+Within the valleys wheat, barley, fruit, and various food-stuffs are
+grown. Of these there are not only enough for home consumption, but
+considerable quantities are exported to Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Much
+of the cultivable land requires to be watered, and the system of
+irrigation has been developed with extraordinary skill. The grazing
+lands are extensive. In the northern part an excellent quality of merino
+wool is produced; the greater part of the clip, however, is an ordinary
+fibre. The cattle furnish a considerable amount of leather for export.
+
+The conditions which have made the northern part a desert have also
+given to the state its greatest resource--nitre.[63] The nitrate occurs
+in the northern desert region. The crude salt is crushed and partly
+refined at the mines, and carried by rail to the nearest port. The
+working of the nitrate beds is largely carried on by foreign companies.
+Nearly all the product is used as a fertilizer in Germany, France, and
+Great Britain. Nitrate constitutes about two-thirds of the exports.
+Iodine and bromine are also obtained from the nitrates, and the Chilean
+product yields nearly all the world's supply.
+
+Copper is extensively mined and, next to the nitrates, is the most
+valuable product. Great Britain is the customer for the greater part.
+Coal occurs in the southern part of the state, and is mined for export
+to the various states of the Pacific coast. It is not a good coal for
+iron smelting, however, and about three times as much is imported as is
+exported. A considerable part of the imported coal comes from Australia,
+and with it structural steel is made from pig-iron that is also
+imported.
+
+Chile is well equipped with railways, a part of which has been built and
+are operated by the state. The most important line traverses the valley
+between the Andes and the coast ranges, from Concepcion to Valparaiso.
+In this region are most of the manufacturing enterprises.
+
+The imports are chiefly coal, machinery, textile goods, and sugar. The
+British control about two-thirds of the foreign trade; the Germans and
+the French have most of the remainder. The United States supplies the
+Chileans with a part of the textiles, a considerable quantity of Oregon
+pine, and practically all the coal-oil used.
+
+[Illustration: VALPARASIO]
+
+_Valparaiso_ is the chief business centre of the Pacific coast of South
+America. Most of the forwarding business is carried on by British and
+German merchants. The transandine railway, now about completed, will
+make it one of the most important ports of the world. _Santiago_ is the
+capital. _Concepcion_ and _Talca_ are important centres of trade.
+_Chillan_ is the principal cattle-market of the Pacific coast of South
+America. _Copiapo_ is the focal point of the mining interests. _Iquique_
+is the port from which about all the nitrates are shipped. _Punta
+Arenas_, one of the "end towns" of the world, is an ocean post-office
+for vessels passing through the Straits of Magellan. It is about as far
+south as Calgary, B.C., is north.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What will be the probable effect of an interoceanic canal on the
+commerce of these states?
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics make a list of the exports from the
+United States to these countries.
+
+From the statistics of trade in the Statesman's Year-Book compare the
+trade of the United States with that of other countries in these states.
+
+How have race characteristics affected the commerce and development of
+these states?
+
+What is meant by peonage?
+
+What cities of the tropical part of these states are in the climate of
+the temperate zone?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Carpenter's South America.
+
+Vincent's Around and About South America.
+
+Fiske's Discovery of America--Chapters IX-X.
+
+Procure, if possible, specimens of the following: Cacao and its
+products, ivory nuts, cinchona bark, crude nitrate, Panama straw, iodine
+(in a sealed vial), llama wool, alpaca cloth, Peruvian cotton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+SOUTH AMERICA--THE LOWLAND STATES
+
+
+The eastern countries of South America are mainly lowland plains. The
+llanos of the Orinoco and the pampas of Plate (La Plata) River are
+grazing lands. The silvas of the Amazon are forest-covered. In tropical
+regions the coast-plain is usually very unhealthful; the seaports
+excepted, most of the cities and towns are therefore built on higher
+land beyond the coast-plain.
+
+=Venezuela.=--The greater part of Venezuela is a region of llanos, or
+grassy plains, shut off from the harbors of the Caribbean Sea, by
+mountain-ranges. On account of their pleasant climate the
+mountain-valleys constitute the chief region of habitation. The plains
+are flooded in the rainy season and sun-scorched during the period of
+drought; they are therefore unfit for human habitation.
+
+Coffee is cultivated in the montane region; and cacao in the lower coast
+lands. Almost every part of the coast lowlands is fit for sugar
+cultivation, and in order to encourage this industry, the importation of
+sugar is forbidden. As is usual in similar cases, the domestic sugar is
+poor in quality and high in price. Among the forest products rubber,
+fustic, divi-divi,[64] and tonka beans, the last used as a perfume, are
+the only ones of value. The cattle of the llanos, the native long-horns,
+furnish a poor quality of hide, and poorer beef. A few thousand head are
+shipped yearly down the Orinoco to be sent to Cuba and Porto Rico.
+
+The placer gold-mines of the Yuruari country, a region also claimed by
+Great Britain, have been very productive. Coal, iron ore, and asphaltum
+are abundant. Concessions for mining the two last-named have been
+granted to American companies. The pearl-fisheries around Margarita
+Island, also leased to a foreign company, have become productive under
+the new management.
+
+The means of intercommunication are as primitive as those of Colombia.
+Short railways extend from several seaports to the regions of
+production, and from these coffee and cacao are the only exports of
+importance. The Orinoco River is the natural outlet for the
+cattle-region, but the commerce of this region is small. The lagoon of
+Maracaibo is becoming the centre of a rapidly growing commercial region.
+
+_Caracas_, the capital and largest city, receives the imports of
+textiles, domestic wares, flour, and petroleum from the United States
+and Great Britain. The railway to its port, _La Guaira_, is a remarkable
+work of engineering. _Puerto Cabello_, the most important port, receives
+the trade of _Valencia_. From _Maracaibo_, the port on the lagoon of the
+same name, is shipped the Venezuelan coffee. _Ciudad Bolivar_ is the
+river-port of the Orinoco and an important rubber-market.
+
+=The Guianas.=--The surface conditions and climate of the Guianas resemble
+those of Venezuela. The native products are also much the same, but good
+business organization has made the countries bearing the general name
+highly productive. For the greater part, the coast-plain is the region
+of cultivation. Sugar is still the most important crop; but on account
+of the fierce competition of beet-sugar, on many of the plantations
+cane-sugar cultivation is unprofitable and has been abandoned for that
+of rice, cacao, and tobacco. Great Britain, Holland, and France possess
+the country. The divisions are known respectively as British Guiana,
+Surinam, and Cayenne, and the trade of each accrues to the
+mother-country. British Guiana is noted quite as much for its
+gold-fields on the Venezuelan border (Cuyuni River) as for its vegetable
+products. _Georgetown_, better known by the name of the surrounding
+district, _Demerara_, is the focal point of business. _New Amsterdam_ is
+also a port of considerable trade. The gold-mining interests centre at
+_Bartica_.
+
+[Illustration: A CACAO PLANTATION]
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING THE BEANS FOR SHIPMENT]
+
+[Illustration: CACAO-TREE]
+
+[Illustration: MAKING CHOCOLATE]
+
+Surinam, in addition to its export of vegetable products, contains rich
+gold-mines, and these contribute a considerable revenue. _Paramaribo_ is
+the port and centre of trade. Phosphates and gold are among the
+important exports of Cayenne, whose port bears the same name.
+
+=Brazil.=--This state, nearly the size of the United States, comprises
+about half the area of South America. Much of it, including the greater
+part of the Amazon River basin, is unfit for the growth of food-stuffs.
+
+There are three regions of production. The Amazon forests yield the
+greater part of the world's rubber supply. The middle coast region has
+various agricultural products, of which cotton and cane-sugar are the
+most important. From the southern region comes two-thirds of the world's
+coffee-crop. There are productive gold-mines in the state of Minas
+Geraes, but this region is best known for the "old mine" diamonds, the
+finest produced.
+
+The Amazon rubber-crop includes not only the crude gum obtained in
+Brazil, but a considerable part, if not the most, of the crop from the
+surrounding states. The bifurcating Cassiquiare, which flows both into
+Amazonian and Orinocan waters, drains a very large area of forest which
+yields the best rubber known. The yield of 1901 aggregated about one
+hundred and thirty million pounds, of which about one-half was sold in
+the United States, one-third in Liverpool, and the rest mainly in
+Antwerp and Le Havre. The price of rubber is fixed in New York and
+London.
+
+The cotton and cane-sugar are grown in the middle coast region. The
+cotton industry bids fair to add materially to the prosperity of the
+state. A considerable part of the raw cotton is exported, but the
+reserve is sufficient to keep ten thousand looms busy. About three
+hundred and fifty million pounds of the raw sugar is purchased by the
+refineries of the United States, and much of the remainder by British
+dealers.
+
+The seeds of a species of myrtle (_Bertholletia excelsa_) furnish the
+Brazil nuts of commerce, large quantities of which are shipped to Europe
+and the United States.[65] Manganese ore is also an important export,
+and Great Britain purchases nearly all of it.
+
+The coffee-crop of the southern states is the largest in the world; and
+about eight hundred million pounds are landed yearly at the ports of the
+United States. The coffee-crop, more than any other factor, has made the
+great prosperity of the state; for while the rubber yield employs
+comparatively few men and yields but little public revenue, the
+coffee-crop has brought into Brazil an average of about fifty million
+dollars a year for three-quarters of a century.
+
+Cattle products also afford a considerable profit in the vicinity of the
+coffee-region. The hides and tallow are shipped to the United States.
+For want of refrigerating facilities, most of the beef is "jerked" (or
+sun-dried), and shipped in this form to Cuba.
+
+The facilities for transportation, the rivers excepted, are poor. The
+Amazon is navigable for ocean steamships nearly to the junction of the
+Ucayale. The Paraguay affords a navigable water-way to the mouth of
+Plate River. Rapids and falls obstruct most of the rivers at the
+junction of the Brazilian plateau and the low plains, but these streams
+afford several thousand miles of navigable waters both above and below
+the falls.
+
+Nearly all the railways are plantation roads, extending from the various
+ports to regions of production a few miles inland. The most important
+railway development is that in the vicinity of Rio, where short local
+roads to the suburban settlements and the coffee-plantations converge at
+the harbor. About fourteen thousand miles of railway are completed and
+under actual construction. A considerable part of the mileage is owned
+and operated by the state, and it has become the policy of the latter to
+control its roads and to encourage immigration. One result of this
+policy is the increasing number of German and Italian colonies, that
+establish settlements in every district penetrated by a new road.
+
+In 1900 the total foreign trade aggregated upward of two hundred and
+seventy-five million dollars. The imports consist of cotton and woollen
+manufactures, structural steel and machinery, preserved fish and meats,
+and coal-oil. Great Britain, Germany, the United States, and France have
+nearly all the trade. The United States sells to Brazil textiles and
+coal-oil to the amount of over eleven million dollars yearly, and buys
+of the country coffee and rubber to the amount of six times as much.
+
+_Rio de Janeiro_, commonly called "Rio," is the capital and commercial
+centre. Its harbor is one of the best in South America. Formerly all the
+coffee was shipped from this port, but the greater part now goes from
+_Santos_. _Porto Alegre_, the port of the German colonies, has also a
+growing export trade.
+
+_Bahia_, _Pernambuco_ (or _Recife_), _Maceio_, _Ceara_ are the markets
+for cotton, sugar, and tobacco, much of which is shipped to other
+Brazilian ports for home consumption. _Para_ and _Ceara_ monopolize
+nearly all the rubber trade. The position of _Manaos_, at the confluence
+of several rivers, makes it one of the most important markets of the
+Amazon basin, and most of the crude rubber is first collected there for
+shipment. _Cuyaba_ is the commercial centre of the mining region; its
+outlet is the Paraguay River, and Buenos Aires profits by its trade.
+
+=Argentina and the Plate River Countries.=--These states are situated in a
+latitude corresponding to that of the United States. The entire area
+from the coast to the slopes of the Andes is a vast prairie-region. As a
+result of position, climate, and surface the agricultural industries are
+the same as in the United States--grazing and wheat-growing.
+
+Cattle-growing is the chief employment, and the cost per head of rearing
+stock is practically nothing. For want of better means of transportation
+the shipments of live beef are not very heavy; the quality of the beef
+is poor, and until recently there have been no adequate facilities for
+getting it to market.[66] A small amount of refrigerator beef and a
+large amount of jerked beef are exported, however. Near the markets,
+there are large plants in which the hides, horns, tallow, and meat are
+utilized--the last being converted to the famous "beef extract," which
+finds a market all over the world.
+
+The sheep industry is on a much better business basis. Both the wool and
+the mutton have been improved by cross-breeding with good stock. As a
+result the trade in mutton and wool has increased by leaps and bounds;
+and nearly three million sheep carcasses are landed at the other ports
+of Brazil, at Cuba, and at various European states. The wool is bought
+mainly by Germany and France, but the United States is a heavy
+purchaser. The quality of the fibre, formerly very poor, year by year is
+improving.
+
+Wheat, the staple product, is grown mainly within a radius of four
+hundred miles around the mouth of Plate River. The area of cultivation
+is increasing as the facilities for transportation are extended and,
+little by little, is encroaching on the grazing lands. The wheat
+industry is carried on very largely by German and Italian colonists.
+Flax, grown for the seed, is a very large export crop. Maize, partly for
+export and partly for home consumption, is also grown.
+
+The timber resources, chiefly in Paraguay and the Gran Chaco, are very
+great, but for want of means of transportation the timber-trade cannot
+successfully compete with that of Central America and Mexico. Workable
+gold and silver ores are abundant along the Andean cordillera; gold,
+silver, and copper are exported to Europe. A poor quality of lignite
+occurs in several provinces, but there are no available mines yielding
+coal suitable for making steam. There are petroleum wells near Mendoza.
+
+Most of the manufactures pertain to the preparation of cattle products,
+although a considerable amount of coarse textiles are made in the larger
+cities from the native cotton and wool. Hats, paper (made from grass),
+and leather goods are also made. In general, all manufactures are
+hampered by the difficulties of getting good fuel at a low price.
+
+Transportation is carried on along Plate River and the lower parts of
+its tributaries. The railway has become the chief factor in the carriage
+of commodities, however, and the railways of Argentina have been
+developed on the plans of North American roads. About twelve thousand
+miles are in actual operation, one of which is a transcontinental line,
+about completed between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso. Electric railways
+have become very popular, and the mileage is rapidly increasing.
+
+The import trade, consisting of textile goods, machinery, steel, and
+petroleum, is carried on with Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium
+(mainly transit trade), the United States, and Italy. The competition
+between the European states for this trade is very strong, and not a
+little has been acquired at the expense of the United States, whose
+trade has not materially increased.
+
+[Illustration: AREA OF THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MATE]
+
+_Buenos Aires_ is the financial centre of this part of South America.
+Among its industries is the largest meat-refrigerating plant in the
+world. The harbor at _La Plata_ is excellent and has drawn a
+considerable part of the foreign trade from Buenos Aires. _Rosario_,
+_Cordoba_, _Santa Fe_, and _Parana_ are the markets of extensive farming
+regions. _Mendoza_ is the focal point of the mining interests.
+
+=Paraguay= has a large forest area, but for want of means of
+transportation it is without value. Even the railway companies find it
+cheaper to buy their ties in the United States and Australia, rather
+than to procure them in Paraguay. In spite of the extent of good land,
+the wheat and much of the bread-stuffs are purchased from Argentina.
+Tobacco and mate are the only export crops, and they have but little
+value. The Parana and Paraguay Rivers are the only commercial outlet of
+the state.
+
+=Uruguay.=--Owing to its foreign population Uruguay is becoming a rich
+country. The native cattle have been improved by cross-breeding with
+European stock, and the state has become one of the foremost cattle and
+sheep ranges of the world. The value of animal products is not far from
+forty million dollars yearly. These go mainly to Europe, and so also
+does the wheat-crop.
+
+France and Argentina purchase most of the exports and Great Britain
+supplies most of the textiles and machinery imported. The trade of the
+United States is about one-fourth that of Great Britain. _Montevideo_ is
+the chief market and port. At _Fray Bentos_ is one of the largest plants
+in the world for the manufacture of cattle products.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What kind of commerce has led to the establishment of the various ports
+along the Spanish Main?
+
+What advantages has the American fruit-shipper, trading at South
+American ports, over his European competitor?
+
+What is meant by "horse latitudes," and what was the origin of the name?
+
+In what way may the opening of an interoceanic canal affect the
+coffee-trade of Brazil?--the nitrate trade of Chile?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the exports of the United States to
+each of these countries.
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book compare the trade of the United States in
+each of these countries with that of Great Britain, France, Germany, and
+Italy.
+
+If possible, obtain specimens of the following: Crude rubber, pampas
+grass, Brazil nuts (in pod), and raw coffee of several grades for
+comparison with Java and Mocha coffees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+EUROPE--GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY
+
+
+Almost all the commercial activity of Europe is south of the parallel
+and west of the meridian of St. Petersburg. Most of the great industries
+are controlled by Germanic and Latin peoples, and among these Great
+Britain and Germany stand first.
+
+=Great Britain and Ireland.=--The United Kingdom, or Great Britain and
+Ireland, are commonly known as the British Isles. The British Empire
+consists of the United Kingdom and its colonial possessions; it includes
+also a large number of islands occupied as coaling stations and for
+strategic purposes. All told, the empire embraces about one-seventh of
+the land area of the world and about one-fourth its population.
+
+The wonderful power and great commercial development is due not only to
+conditions of geographic environment but also to the intelligence of a
+people who have adjusted themselves to those conditions. The insular
+position of the United Kingdom has given it natural protection, and for
+more than eight hundred years there has been no successful invasion by a
+foreign power. Its commercial position is both natural and artificial.
+It has utilized the markets to the east and south, and has founded great
+countries which it supplies with manufactured products.
+
+[Illustration: THE BRITISH EMPIRE]
+
+The position of the kingdom with respect to climate is fortunate. The
+movement of the Gulf Stream on the American coast carries a large volume
+of water into the latitude of the prevailing westerly winds, and these
+in turn carry warm water to every part of the coast of the islands. As a
+result, the harbors of the latter are never obstructed by ice; those of
+the Labrador coast, situated in the same latitude, are blocked nearly
+half the year.
+
+The high latitude of the islands is an advantage so far as the
+production of food-stuffs is concerned. The summer days in the latitude
+of Liverpool are very nearly eighteen hours in length, and this fact
+together with the mild winters, adds very largely to the food-producing
+power of the islands.
+
+The highlands afford considerable grazing. Great care is taken in
+improving the stock, both of cattle and sheep. In the north the cattle
+are bred mainly as meat producers; in the south for dairy products.
+Durham, Alderney, and Jersey stock are exported to both Americas for
+breeding purposes. The sheep of the highlands produce the heavy, coarse
+wool of which the well known "cheviot" and "frieze" textiles are made.
+Elsewhere they are bred for mutton, of which the "South Down" variety is
+an example.
+
+The lowland regions yield grain abundantly where cultivated. The average
+yield per acre is about double that of the United States, and is
+surpassed by that of Denmark only. Both Ireland and England are famous
+for fine dairy products. These are becoming the chief resource of the
+former country, which is practically without the coal necessary for
+extensive manufacture. The fishing-grounds form an important food
+resource.
+
+The cultivated lands do not supply the food needed for consumption. The
+grain-crop lasts scarcely three months; the meat-crop but little longer.
+Bread-stuffs from the United States and India, and meats from the United
+States, Australia, and New Zealand make up the shortage. The annual
+import of food-stuffs amounts to more than fifty dollars per capita.
+
+The growing of wool and flax for cloth-making became an industry of
+great importance just after the accession of Henry VII. With the advent
+of peace, it became possible to manufacture into cloth the fibres that
+before had been sent for that purpose to Flanders. The utilization of
+the coal and the iron ore years afterward brought about an economic
+revolution that was intensified by the invention of the steam-engine and
+the power-loom.
+
+These quickly brought the country into the foremost rank as a
+manufacturing centre. Moreover, they also demanded the foreign markets
+that have made the country a maritime power as well--for an insular
+country must also have the ships with which to carry its merchandise to
+its markets.
+
+The development of the manufactures, therefore, is inseparably connected
+with that of the mineral and metal industries. From very early times the
+metal deposits of the country have been a source of power. Copper and
+tin were used by the aboriginal Britons long before Caesar's
+reconnaissance of the islands, and it is not unlikely that the Bronze
+Period was the natural development that resulted from the discovery of
+these metals.
+
+Coal occurs in various fields that extend from the River Clyde to the
+River Severn. The annual output of these mines at the close of the
+century was about two hundred and twenty-five million tons. In the past
+century the inroads upon the visible supply were so great that the
+output in the near future will be considerably lessened. Not far from
+one-sixth of the output is sold to consumers in Russia and the
+Mediterranean countries, but a growing sentiment to forbid any sale of
+coal to foreign buyers is taking shape.
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH ISLES]
+
+Iron ores are fairly abundant, but the hematite required for the best
+Bessemer steel is limited to the region about Manchester and Birmingham.
+The shortage of this ore has become so apparent within recent years that
+Great Britain has become a heavy purchaser of ores in foreign markets.
+The coal in the Clyde basin is employed mainly in the manufacture of
+railway iron, steamship material, and rolling stock. The manufacture of
+Bessemer steel is gradually moving to the vicinity of South Wales, at
+the ports of which foreign pig-iron can be most cheaply landed. In
+west-central England the several coal-fields form a single centre of
+manufacture, where are located some of the largest woollen and cotton
+mills in Europe. It also includes the plants for the manufacture of
+machinery, cutlery, and pottery.
+
+The import trade of Great Britain consists mainly of food-stuffs and raw
+materials.[67] Of the latter, cotton is by far the most important. Most
+of it comes from the United States, but the Nile delta, Brazil, the
+Dekkan of India, the Iran plateau, and the Piura Valley of Peru send
+portions, each region having fibre of specific qualities designed for
+specific uses. The native wool clip forms only a small part of the
+amount used in manufacture. The remainder, more than three million
+pounds, comes from Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
+
+The supply of flax is small, and 100,000 tons are imported to meet the
+wants of the mills. The greater part is purchased in Russia, but the
+finer quality is imported from Belgium. Jute is purchased from India and
+manufactured into burlap and rugs.
+
+But little available standing timber remains, and lumber must,
+therefore, be imported. The pine is purchased mainly in Sweden, Norway,
+Canada, and the United States. A considerable amount of wood-pulp is
+imported from Canada for paper-making. Mahogany for ornamental
+manufactures is obtained from Africa and British Honduras. Oak, and the
+woods for interior finish, are purchased largely from Canada and the
+United States.
+
+The export trade of Great Britain consists almost wholly of the articles
+manufactured with British coal as the power. These are made from the raw
+materials purchased abroad, and the stamp of the British craftsman is a
+guarantee of excellence and honesty. Of the total export trade,
+amounting yearly to about one billion, two hundred million dollars,
+nearly one-third consists of cotton, woollen, linen, and jute textiles;
+one-fifth consists of iron and steel manufactured stuffs made from
+British ores. About one-third goes to the colonies of the
+mother-country, with whom she keeps in close touch; Germany, the United
+States, and the South American states are the chief foreign buyers.
+
+For the handling and carriage of these goods there is an admirable
+system of railways reaching from every part of the interior to the
+numerous ports. The rolling stock and the locomotives are not nearly so
+heavy as those used in the United States; the railway beds and track
+equipment, on the whole, are probably the best in the world. Freight
+rates are considerably higher than on the corresponding classes of
+merchandise in the United States. The public highways are most
+excellent, but the means of street traffic in the cities are very poor.
+
+The harbor facilities at the various ports are of the best. The docks
+and basins are usually arranged so that while the import goods are being
+landed the export stuffs are made ready to be loaded. The facilities for
+the rapid transfer of freights have been improved by the reconstruction
+of the various river estuaries so as to make them ship-channels. The
+estuaries of the Clyde, Tyne, and Mersey have been thus improved, while
+Manchester has been made a seaport by an artificial canal. The British
+merchant marine is the largest in the world, and about ninety per cent.
+of the vessels are steamships.
+
+_London_ is the capital; it is also one of the first commercial and
+financial centres of the world. The Thames has not a sufficient depth of
+water for the largest liners, and these dock usually about twenty miles
+below the city. The colonial commerce at London is very heavy,
+especially the India traffic, and it is mainly for this trade that the
+British acquired the control of the Suez Canal.
+
+_Liverpool_ is one of the most important ports of Europe, and receives
+most of the American traffic. The White Star and Cunard Lines have their
+terminals at this port.
+
+_Southampton_ is also a port which receives a large share of American
+traffic. The American and several foreign steamship lines discharge at
+that place. _Hull_ and _Shields_ have a considerable part of the
+European traffic. _Glasgow_ is one of the foremost centres of steel
+ship-building. _Cardiff_ and _Swansea_ are ports connected with the coal
+and iron trade. _Queenstown_ is a calling point for transatlantic
+liners.
+
+_Manchester_ is both a cotton port and a great market for the cotton
+textiles made in the nearby towns of the Lancashire coal-field. _Leeds_
+and _Bradford_ and the towns about them are the chief centres of woollen
+manufacture. _Wilton_ and _Kidderminster_ are famous for carpets.
+_Birmingham_ is the centre of the steel manufactures. _Sheffield_ has a
+world-wide reputation for cutlery. In and near the Staffordshire
+district are the potteries that have made the names of _Worcester_,
+_Coalport_, _Doulton_, _Copeland_, and _Jackfield_ famous. _Belfast_ is
+noted for its linen textiles, and also for some of the largest
+steamships afloat that have been built in its yards. _Dundee_ is the
+chief centre of jute manufacture.
+
+=The German Empire.=--The German Empire consists of the kingdoms of
+Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wuertemburg, together with a number of
+small states. The "free" cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Luebeck, whose
+independence was purchased in feudal times, are also incorporated within
+the empire. The present empire was formed in 1871, at the close of the
+war between Germany and France. The merging of the states into the
+empire was designed as a political step, but it proved a great
+industrial revolution as well.
+
+The plain of Europe which slopes to the north and the Baltic Sea, the
+flood-plains of the rivers excepted, is feebly productive of grain. It
+is a fine grazing region, however, and the dairy products are of the
+best quality. Among European states Russia alone surpasses Germany in
+the number of cattle grown. The province of Schleswig-Holstein is famous
+the world over for its fine cattle. Cavalry horses are a special feature
+of the lowland plain, and the government is the chief buyer. The wool
+product has hitherto been important, but the sheep ranges are being
+turned into crop lands, on account of the increase of population in the
+industrial regions.
+
+The midland belt, however, between the coast-plain and the mountains, is
+the chief food-producing part of Germany. Rye and wheat are grown
+wherever possible, but the entire grain-crop is consumed in about eight
+months. The United States, Argentina, and Russia supply the wheat and
+flour; Russia supplies the rye.
+
+[Illustration: GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES]
+
+The sugar-beet is by far the most important export crop, and Germany
+produces yearly about one million, eight hundred thousand tons, or
+nearly as much as Austria-Hungary and France combined. This industry is
+encouraged by a bounty paid on all sugar exported.[68] A considerable
+amount of raw beet-sugar is sold to the refineries of the United States;
+Great Britain also is a heavy buyer. The home consumption is relatively
+small, being about one-third per capita that of the United States.
+Silesia, the Rhine Valley, and the lowlands of the Hartz Mountains are
+the most important centres of the sugar industry.
+
+Germany is rich in minerals.[69] Zinc occurs in abundance, and the mines
+of Silesia furnish the world's chief supply. Most of the lithographic
+stone in use is obtained in Bavaria. Copper and silver are mined in the
+Erz and Hartz Mountains. During the sixteenth century the mines of the
+latter region brought the states then forming Germany into commercial
+prominence and thereby diverted the trade between the North and
+Mediterranean Seas to the valleys of the Rhine and Elbe Rivers.
+
+These two metal products made Germany a great financial power. The
+Franco-Prussian War added to Germany the food-producing lands of the
+Rhine and Moselle, and the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. At the same
+time it gave the Germans organization by welding the various German
+states into an empire. As a result there has been an industrial
+development that has placed Germany in the class with the United States
+and Great Britain.
+
+By unifying the various interstate systems of commerce and
+transportation, the iron and steel industry has greatly expanded. The
+chief centre of this industry is the valley of the Ruhr River.
+Coal-measures underlie an area somewhat larger than the basin of the
+river. To the industrial centres of this valley iron ore is brought by
+the Rhine and Moselle barges from Alsace-Lorraine and Luxemburg, and
+also from the Hartz Mountains.
+
+In the importance and extent of manufactures, Germany ranks next to
+Great Britain among European states, and because of the extent of their
+coal-fields the Germans seem destined in time to surpass their rivals.
+The manufacture of textiles is one of the leading industries, and, next
+to Great Britain, Germany is the heaviest purchaser of raw cotton from
+the United States. The Rhine district is the chief centre of cotton
+textile manufacture. Raw cotton is delivered to the mills by the Rhine
+boats, and these carry the manufactured product to the seaboard. Central
+and South America are the chief purchasers.
+
+Woollen goods are also extensively manufactured, the industry being in
+the region that produces Saxony wool. In Silesia and the lower Rhine
+provinces there are also extensive woollen textile manufactures, but the
+goods are made mainly from imported wool. Argentina and the other Plate
+River countries are the chief buyers of these goods. There is a
+considerable linen manufacture from German-grown flax, and silk-making,
+mainly from raw silk imported from Italy.
+
+The great expansion and financial success of the manufacturing
+enterprises is due very largely to the admirable organization of the
+lines of transportation. The rivers, with their connecting canals,
+supplement the railways instead of competing with them. They are
+utilized mainly for slow freights, while the railways carry the traffic
+that demands speed. The possibilities of both inland water-ways and
+railway transportation have been utilized by the Germans to the utmost,
+with the result of a very low rate both for coal and ore, and for
+structural iron and steel. The latter is carried from the various
+steel-making plants in the Ruhr Valley to the seaboard at a rate of
+eighty to ninety cents per ton.[70]
+
+[Illustration: LUeBECK]
+
+[Illustration: BREMEN]
+
+All this has resulted in a wonderful commercial expansion of the
+empire. In 1875 Germany was neither a maritime nor a naval power. At the
+close of the century it ranked about with the United States as a naval
+power, and far surpassed that country in the tonnage of merchant marine.
+The German steamship fleet includes the largest and fastest vessels
+afloat.
+
+German trade may be summed up as an export of manufactured goods and an
+import of food-stuffs and raw materials. At the close of the century the
+annual movement of industrial products amounted to nearly two and
+one-half billion dollars. About one-half the trade of the empire is
+carried on with Great Britain, the United States, Austria-Hungary, and
+Russia. A large part of the foreign trade is carried on through the
+ports of Belgium and Holland.
+
+_Berlin_, the capital, is one of the few cities having a population of
+more than one million. It is not only a great centre of trade, but it is
+one of the leading money-markets of Europe; it is also the chief railway
+centre. _Hamburg_ and _Bremen_ are important ports of German-American
+trade, the former being the largest seaport of continental Europe.
+_Breslau_ is an important market, into which the raw materials of
+eastern Europe are received, and from which they are sent to the
+manufacturing districts. The art galleries of _Dresden_ have had the
+effect of making that city a centre of art manufactures which are famous
+the world over. _Luebeck_ is one of the free cities that was formerly in
+the Hanse League.
+
+The twin cities, _Barmen-Eberfeld_, in the Ruhr coal-field, form one of
+the principal centres of cotton manufacture in the world. _Dortmund_ is
+a coal-market. At _Essen_ are the steel-works founded by Herr Krupp.
+They are the largest and one of the most complete plants in the world.
+The output includes arms, heavy and light ordnance, and about every kind
+of structural iron and steel used. About forty thousand men are
+employed. _Chemnitz_ is an important point, not only of cotton
+manufacture, but also of Saxony wools, underwear and shawls being its
+most noteworthy products. At _Stettin_, _Danzig_, and _Kiel_ are built
+the steamships that have given to Germany its great commercial power.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+In what ways are Great Britain and Germany commercial rivals?
+
+What are the advantages of each with respect to position?--with respect
+to natural resources?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book make a list of the leading exports of
+each;--the leading imports of each. What exports have they in common?
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find what commodities the United States
+sells to each.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Adams's New Empire--Chapter III.
+
+Gibbins's History of Commerce--Book III, Chapters III-V.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+EUROPE--THE BALTIC AND NORTH SEA STATES
+
+
+These states, like Great Britain and Germany, belong to Germanic Europe,
+and their situation around the North and Baltic Seas makes their
+commercial interests much the same. From the stand-point of commerce
+Holland might be regarded as an integral part of Germany, inasmuch as a
+large part of the foreign commerce of Germany must reach the sea by
+crossing that state.
+
+=Sweden and Norway.=--Sweden and Norway occupy the region best known as
+the Scandinavian peninsula. The western side faces the warm, moist winds
+of the Atlantic, but the surface is too rugged to be productive. The
+lands suitable for farming, on the other hand, are on the east side,
+where, owing to the high latitude, the winters are extremely cold.
+
+The plateau lands are in the latitude of the great pine-forest belt that
+extends across the two continents. The forests of the Scandinavian
+peninsula are near the most densely peopled part of Europe, and they are
+also readily accessible. Moreover, the rugged surface offers unlimited
+water-power. As a result Norway and Sweden practically control the
+lumber-market of Europe, and their lumber products form one of the most
+important exports of the kingdom. Norway pine competes with California
+redwood in Australia. The "naval stores," tar and pitch, compete with
+those of Georgia and the Carolinas. The wood-pulp from this region is
+the chief supply of the paper-makers of Europe. Next to Russia, Sweden
+has the largest lumber-trade in Europe. The Mediterranean states are the
+chief buyers.
+
+The mineral products are a considerable source of income. Building stone
+is shipped to the nearby lowland countries. The famous Swedish
+manganese-iron ores, essential in steel manufacture, are shipped to the
+United States and Europe. For this purpose they compete with the ores of
+Spain and Cuba. The mines of the Gellivare iron district are probably
+the only iron-mines of consequence within the frigid zone. The ore is
+sent to German and British smelteries.
+
+The fisheries are the most important of Europe, and this fact has had a
+great influence on the history of the people. Centuries ago the people
+living about the _vigs_ or fjords of the west coast were compelled to
+depend almost wholly on the fisheries for their food-supplies. As a
+result they became the most famous sailors of the world. They
+established settlements in Iceland and Greenland; they also planted a
+colony in North America 500 years before the voyage of Columbus.
+Herring, salmon, and cod are the principal catch of the fisheries, and
+about four-fifths of the product is cured and exported to the Catholic
+European states and to South America.
+
+South of Kristiania farming is the principal industry. Much of the land
+is suitable for wheat-growing, but the productive area is so small that
+a considerable amount of bread-stuffs must be imported from the United
+States. On account of the high latitude the winters are too long and
+severe for any but the hardiest grains. Dairy products are commercially
+the most important output of the farms, and they find a ready market in
+the popular centres of Europe--London, Hamburg, Paris, and Berlin.
+
+The lumber, furniture, matches, fish, ores, and dairy products sold
+abroad do not pay for the bread-stuffs, coal, petroleum, clothing, and
+machinery. In part, this is made up by the carrying trade of Norwegian
+vessels; the rest of the deficit is more than met by the money which the
+throngs of tourists spend during the summer months.
+
+The United States buys from these countries fish and ores to the amount
+of about three million dollars a year; it sells them cotton, petroleum,
+bread-stuffs, and machinery to the amount of about twelve million
+dollars.
+
+_Stockholm_, the capital of Sweden, is the chief financial and
+distributing centre of the Scandinavian trade. Its railway system
+reaches about every area of production. Although having a good harbor of
+its own, it must depend on _Trondhjem_ (Drontheim) for winter traffic,
+because the Baltic ports are closed by ice three or four months of the
+year. _Kristiania_, the capital of Norway, is the export market of the
+fish and lumber products.
+
+_Goteborg_, owing to recently completed railway and canal connections,
+is becoming an important port of trade. It is convenient to other
+European ports, and it is rarely closed by ice. _Bergen_, _Trondhjem_,
+and _Hammerfest_ derive a heavy income from their fisheries and likewise
+from the tourists who visit the coast during midsummer. The last-named
+port, although farther north than any town in the world, has an open
+harbor during the winter.
+
+=Denmark.=--Denmark is essentially an agricultural state, and almost every
+square mile of available land is under cultivation. Even the sand-dunes
+have been reclaimed and converted into pasturage. The yield of wheat is
+greater per acre than in any other country, but as only a small area is
+sown, wheat and flour are imported.
+
+About half the area of the state is used in growing fodder for horses
+and cattle. The dairy products, especially butter, are unrivalled
+elsewhere in Europe. The dairy business is largely controlled by a
+cooperative association of dairymen and farmers. Pastures, fodder,
+cattle, sheds, creameries, and all the processes involved are subject to
+a most rigid sanitary inspection.
+
+_Copenhagen_, the capital, is the financial centre of the kingdom.
+Commercially it is one of the most important ports of Europe. Various
+shipments consigned to Baltic ports are landed at this city; here the
+cargoes break bulk and are again trans-shipped to their destination. In
+order to facilitate this forwarding business, the Crown has made
+Copenhagen a free port. Steamship lines connect it with New York,
+British ports, and the East Indies.
+
+A great deal of farming and dairy machinery is manufactured; coal,
+cotton goods, and structural machinery are imported from the United
+States. Little, however, is exported to that country, almost all the
+dairy products being sold to Great Britain and other populous centres of
+western Europe. _Aalborg_ and _Aarhuus_ are dairy-markets.
+
+Greenland and Iceland are colonies of Denmark, and the fishing industry
+of the kingdom is carried on mainly along the shores of these islands.
+The furs, seal-skins, seal-oil, and eider-down of Greenland are a
+government monopoly. The mineral cryolite occurs at Ivigtut and is mined
+by soda-making establishments in the United States. Iceland produces
+sheep, cattle, and fish; these are shipped from _Reikiavik_. The Faroe
+Islands produce but little save wool, feathers, and birds' eggs.
+
+=Belgium.=--Probably in no other country of Europe has nature done so
+little and man so much to make a great state as in Belgium. The lowland
+region has been made so fertile by artificial means that it yields more
+wheat per acre than any other country except Denmark. The Ardennes
+highland in the southeast is naturally unproductive, but it has become
+one of the great manufacturing centres of Europe. Less than one-twelfth
+of the area of the state is unproductive.
+
+The coast, more than twoscore miles in extent, has not a single harbor
+for large vessels, and the two navigable rivers, the Scheldt and Meuse,
+flow into another state before reaching the sea.
+
+[Illustration: HOLLAND AND BELGIUM]
+
+The low sand-barrens next the coast have been reclaimed by means of a
+grass that holds in place the sand that formerly shifted with each
+movement of the wind. This region is now cultivated pasture-land that
+produces the finest of horses, cattle, and dairy products. The dairy
+products go mainly to London. The Flemish horses, like those of the
+sand-barrens of Germany and France, are purchased in the large cities,
+where heavy draught-horses are required. Many of them are sold to the
+express companies of the United States.
+
+Bordering the sand-barrens is a belt of land that produces grain and the
+sugar-beet. Flax is an important product, and its cultivation has had
+much to do with both the history and the political organization of the
+state. Before the advent of the cotton industry, woollen and linen were
+practically the only fibres used in cloth-making. Belgium was then the
+chief flax-growing and cloth-making country, and all western Europe
+depended upon the Flemish looms for cloth. This industry, therefore,
+gave the country not only commercial prominence, but was largely
+responsible for its political independence as well. Flax is still an
+important product, and the linen textiles made in the state are without
+a superior. Much of the flax is grown in the valley of the River Lys.
+
+One of the most productive coal-fields of Europe stretches across
+Belgium, and a few miles south of it are the iron-ore deposits that
+extend also into Luxemburg and Germany. In addition to these, the
+zinc-mines about Moresnet are among the richest in the world. Belgium
+is, therefore, one of the great metal-working centres of Europe. A small
+portion of the coal is exported to France, but most of it is required in
+the manufactures.
+
+_Liege_, _Seraing_, and _Verviers_ are the great centres of the metal
+industry. They were built at the eastern extremity of the coal-field,
+within easy reach of the iron ores. Firearms, railroad steel, and
+tool-making machinery are the chief products of the region, and because
+of the favorable situation, these products easily compete with the
+manufactures of Germany and France.
+
+_Ghent_ is the chief focal point for the flax product, which is
+converted into the finest of linen cloth and art fabrics. Much of the
+weaving and spinning machinery employed in Europe is made in this city.
+_Mechlin_ and the villages near by are famous the world over for
+hand-worked laces.
+
+Expensive porcelains, art tiles, glassware, and cheap crockery are made
+in the line of kilns that reaches almost from one end of the coal-field
+to the other; these products, moreover, are extensively exported.
+
+The railways are owned and operated by the state. They are managed so
+judiciously, moreover, that the rates of carriage are lower than in most
+European states. The Scheldt is navigable for large ocean steamers to
+_Antwerp_, and this city is the great Belgian port for ocean traffic.
+The city owes its importance to its position. One branch of the Scheldt
+leads toward the Rhine; the other is connected by a canal with the
+rivers of France; the main stem of the river points toward London. It is
+therefore the meeting of three ways. It is the terminal of the
+steamships of American, and of various other lines. It is also the depot
+of the Kongo trade. Ship-canals deep enough for coasters and freighters
+connect _Ghent_, _Bruges_, and _Brussels_ with tide-water. These are
+about to be converted to deep-water ship-canals.
+
+The foreign commerce of Belgium is much like that of other European
+states. Wheat, meat, maize, cotton, and petroleum are imported mainly
+from the United States; iron ore is purchased from Luxemburg and
+Germany, and various raw materials are brought from France. In exchange
+there are exported fine machinery, linen fabrics, porcelains, fire-arms,
+glassware, and beet-sugar. From the Kongo state, at the head of which is
+the King of the Belgians, are obtained rubber and ivory. The rubber is
+sold mainly to the United States.
+
+_Brussels_ is the capital and financial centre. On account of the state
+control of the railways, it is also the directive centre of all the
+industries pertaining to commerce and transportation.
+
+=Holland.=--The names Holland and Netherlands mean "lowland," and the
+state itself has a lower surface than any other country of Europe.
+Nearly half the area is at high-tide level or else below it. A large
+part, mainly the region about the Zuider[71] Sea, has been reclaimed
+from the sea.
+
+In the reclamation of these lands stone dikes are built to enclose a
+given area, and from the basin thus constructed the water is pumped. The
+reclaimed lands, or "polders," include not only the sea-bottom, but the
+coast marshes as well; even the rivers are bordered with levees in order
+to prevent overflows. Windmills are the machinery by which the water is
+pumped from the polders into the sea. In no other part of the world is
+wind-power so extensively used. Almost every acre of the polders is
+under cultivation, and these lands grow a very large part of the
+vegetables and flowers consumed in the great cities of England, France,
+and Belgium.
+
+The coast sand-barrens have been converted into pasture-lands that
+produce draught-horses, beef cattle, and dairy cattle. The horses find a
+ready market in the United States and the large European cities; the
+dairy cattle not needed at home are exported, the United States being a
+heavy purchaser. The beef cattle are grown mainly for the markets of
+London. Dutch butter is used far beyond the boundaries of the state, and
+Edam cheese reaches nearly every large city of Europe and America.
+
+The sugar-beet is extensively cultivated, in spite of the great trade
+resulting from the cane-sugar industry of the East Indies. It is more
+profitable to import wheat from the United States and rye from Russia in
+order to use the land for the sugar-beet.
+
+Practically no timber suitable for lumber manufacture exists, and
+building material therefore must be imported. Pine is purchased from
+Russia, Scandinavia, and the United States. Stone is purchased wherever
+it may be obtained as return freight, or as ballast. The coast fisheries
+yield oysters, herrings, and "anchovies," which are not anchovies, but
+sprats.
+
+For want of coal and iron there are few manufactures, and the garden and
+dairy products are about the only export articles. There is an
+abundance of clay, and of this brick for road-making, tiles for building
+purposes, and porcelains are made. But little of the raw sugar is
+refined; most of it is sold to foreign refiners, and the United States
+is one of the chief customers.
+
+Holland is a great commercial country, and for more than five hundred
+years the Dutch flag has been found in almost every large port of the
+world. Much of the commerce is derived from the tobacco, sugar, and
+coffee plantations of the Dutch East Indies.
+
+A very large part of the commerce, however, is neither import or export
+trade, but a "transit" commerce. Thus, American coal-oil is transferred
+from the great ocean tank-steamers to smaller tank-boats, and is then
+carried across the state into Germany, France, and Belgium, through the
+numerous canals.
+
+This trade applies also to many of the products of the German industries
+which will not bear a heavy freight tariff, such as coal, ores, etc. It
+reaches the Rhine and Rhone river-basins and extends even to the Danube.
+Both Switzerland and Austria-Hungary send much of their exports through
+Holland. All trade at the various ports and through the canals is free,
+it being the policy to encourage and not to obstruct commerce.
+
+_Amsterdam_, the constitutional capital, is one of the great financial
+and banking centres of Europe. The completion of the Nord Holland canal
+makes the docks and basins accessible to the largest steamships.
+Diamond-cutting is one of the unique industries of the city. Since the
+discovery of the African mines its former trade in diamonds has been
+largely absorbed by London.
+
+More than half the carrying trade of the state centres at _Rotterdam_.
+By the improvement of the river estuaries and canals this city has
+become one of the best ports of Europe, and the tonnage of goods
+handled at the docks is enormously increasing. _Vlissingen_ (Flushing)
+and the _Hook_ are railway terminals that handle much of the local
+freights consigned to London. _Delft_ is famous the world over for the
+beautiful porcelain made at its potteries.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+How has the topography of each of these states affected its commerce?
+
+How is their commerce affected by latitude and climate?
+
+How has the cultivation of the sugar-beet affected the cane-sugar
+industry in the British West Indies?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book make a list of the leading exports and
+imports of each country.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the trade of the United States with
+each of these countries.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Adams's New Empire--pp. 153-159.
+
+Gibbins's History of Commerce--Book III, Chapters I and VIII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+EUROPE--THE MEDITERRANEAN STATES AND SWITZERLAND
+
+
+The Mediterranean states are peopled mainly by races whose social and
+economic development was moulded largely by the Roman occupation of the
+Mediterranean basin for a period of more than one thousand years. The
+occupations of the people have been shaped to a great extent by the
+slope of the land and by the mountain-ranges that long isolated them
+from the Germanic peoples north of the Alps.
+
+=France.=--The position of France with respect to industrial development
+is fortunate. The North Sea coast faces the ports of Great Britain; the
+Atlantic ports are easily accessible to American centres of commerce;
+the Mediterranean ports command a very large part of the trade of that
+sea.
+
+The easily travelled overland routes between the Mediterranean and North
+Seas in very early times gave the country a commercial prominence that
+ever since has been retained. Even before the time of Caesar it was a
+famous trading-ground for Mediterranean merchants, and the conquest of
+the country was not so much for the spoils of war as for the extension
+of Roman commercial influence.
+
+The greater part of France is an agricultural region, and nowhere is the
+soil cultivated with greater skill. Although the state is not quite as
+large as Texas, there are more farms than in all the United States,
+their small size making thorough cultivation a necessity. Much of the
+land is too valuable for wheat-farming, and so the eastern
+manufacturing districts depend upon the Russian wheat-farms for their
+supply. Northwestern France, however, has a surplus of wheat, and this
+is sold to Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FRANCE]
+
+The sugar-beet is the most profitable crop, and its cultivation is aided
+indirectly by the government, which gives a bounty on all exported
+sugar. The area of sugar-beet cultivation will probably increase to its
+limit for this reason.
+
+The French farmer is an artist in the cultivation of small fruits, and
+the latter form an important source of revenue. Of the fruit-crop, the
+grape is by far the most important commercially. French wines,
+especially the champagnes, are exported to a greater extent than the
+wines of any other country.[72] Most of the wine is sold in Great
+Britain and the countries north of the grape belt; a considerable part
+is sold in the United States and the eastern countries. Champagne,
+Bordeaux, the Loire, and the Rhone Valleys are famous wine districts.
+Wine is also imported, to be refined or to be made into brandy.
+
+Cattle-breeding, both for meat and for dairy purposes, is extensively
+carried on. The meat is consumed at home. Butter is an important export,
+especially in the northwest, where a large amount is made for London
+consumers. This region produces Camembert and Neufchatel cheese, both of
+which are largely exported; Brie cheese is made chiefly along the German
+border. The Roquefort product, made of ewe's milk, is fermented in
+limestone caves and cellars. All these varieties have a large sale, the
+United States and Great Britain being heavy purchasers.
+
+The Percheron draught-horse is raised for export as well as for home
+use; mules are extensively raised for the army wagon-trains of Great
+Britain and Germany. Sheep are grown for the finer grades of wool, but
+so much of the sheep pasture has been given to the cultivation of the
+sugar-beet, that a considerable part of the woollen textiles are now
+made of wool imported from Argentina. A large part of the eggs and table
+poultry consumed in London are products of northwestern France.
+
+The coal-fields of the north produce nearly two-thirds of the total
+amount consumed. Iron ores are found near the German border; they are
+sent to coal-fields in the neighborhood of St. Etienne and Le Creuzot to
+be manufactured into steel. Both coal and iron ore are deficient. To
+meet the requirements of consumption, the former is imported from Great
+Britain, Germany, and Belgium; the latter, mainly from Germany and
+Spain.
+
+The manufactures of France have a wide influence. From the coal and iron
+are derived the intricate machinery that has made the country famous,
+the railways, the powerful navy, and the merchant marine that has made
+the country a great commercial nation. Because of the great creative
+skill and taste of the people, French textiles are standards of good
+taste, and they find a ready market in all parts of the world. In
+textile manufactures more than one million people and upward of one
+hundred thousand looms are employed.
+
+The United States is a heavy buyer of the woollen cloths and the finer
+qualities of dress goods. Inasmuch as these goods have not been
+successfully imitated elsewhere, the French trade does not suffer from
+competition. The best goods are made from the fleeces of French merino
+sheep, and are manufactured mainly in the northern towns. The Gobelin
+tapestries of Paris are famous the world over.
+
+The cotton manufactures depend mainly on American cotton. About
+two-thirds of the cotton is purchased in the United States, a part of
+which returns in the form of fine goods that may be classed as muslins,
+tulles, and art textiles. The market for such goods is also general. In
+the manufacture of fine laces, such as the Point d'Alencon fabrics, the
+French have few equals and no superiors. The flax is imported mainly
+from Belgium.
+
+Silk culture is aided by the government, and is carried on mainly in
+the south. The amount grown, however, is insufficient to keep the
+factories busy, and more than four-fifths of the raw silk and cocoons
+are imported from Italy and other southern countries.
+
+The chief imports to France are coal, raw textile fibres, wine, wheat,
+and lumber. The last two products excepted, they are again exported in
+the form of manufactured products. The great bulk of the imports comes
+from Great Britain, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Russia, and
+Argentina. In 1900 the import trade from these countries aggregated
+about five hundred million dollars. The total export trade during the
+same year was about eight hundred million dollars; it consisted mainly
+of high-priced articles of luxury.
+
+The foreign trade is supported by a navy, which ranks second among the
+world's navies, and a merchant marine of more than fifteen thousand
+vessels. Aside from the subsidies given to mail steamships, government
+encouragement is given for the construction and equipment of home-built
+vessels. It is a settled policy that French vessels shall carry French
+traffic.
+
+Of the 24,000 miles of railway, about 2,000 miles are owned by the
+state. The rivers are connected by canals, and these furnish about 7,000
+miles of navigable waters. As in Germany, the water-routes supplement
+the railway lines. Practically all lines of transportation converge at
+Paris.
+
+_Paris_, the capital, is a great centre of finance, art, science, and
+literature, whose influence in these features has been felt all over the
+world. The character of fine textiles, and also the fashions in the
+United States and Europe, are regulated largely in this city.
+_Marseille_ is the chief seaport, and practically all the trade between
+France and the Mediterranean countries is landed at this port; it is
+also the focal point of the trade between France and her African
+colonies, and a landing-place for the cotton brought from Egypt and
+Brazil.
+
+_Havre_, the port receiving most of the trade from the United States, is
+the port of Paris. _Rouen_ is the chief seat of cotton manufacture.
+_Paris_ and _Rheims_ are noted for shawls. _Lille_ and _Roubaix_ are
+centres of woollen manufacture. _Lyons_ is the great seat of silk
+manufacture.
+
+=Italy.=--Italy is a spur of the Alps extending into the Mediterranean
+Sea. From its earliest history it has been an agricultural state, and,
+excepting the periods when it has been rent by wars, it has been one of
+the most productive countries in the world.
+
+Wheat is extensively grown, but the crop is insufficient for home
+consumption, and the deficit is imported from Russia and Hungary. A
+large part of the wheat-crop is grown in the valley of the Po River.
+Flax and hemp are grown for export in this region; and corn for home
+consumption is a general product. Cotton is a good crop in Sicily and
+the south, but the amount is insufficient for use and must be made up by
+imports from the United States and Egypt.
+
+Silk, fruit, and vegetables are the staple products that connect Italy
+commercially with the rest of the world. About a million people are
+concerned in the silk industry, and Italy is one of the foremost
+countries in the world in the production of raw silk. Most of the crop
+is produced in northern Italy; western Europe and the United States are
+the chief buyers. The silk of the Piedmont region is the best in
+quality.
+
+Fruit is the crop next in value to raw silk. Sicilian oranges and
+lemons, from about twenty millions of trees, find a ready market in
+Europe; the oranges come into competition with the California and
+Florida oranges of the United States, in spite of the tariff imposed
+against them by the latter country. Olives are probably the most
+important fruit-crop. Both the preserved fruit and the oil are exported
+to nearly every civilized people. Much of the oil is consumed at home,
+very largely taking the place of meat and butter. Lucca-oil is regarded
+as the best.
+
+[Illustration: ITALY]
+
+The grape-crop is enormous, and the fruit itself is exported. Some of
+the fruit sold as "Malaga" grapes throughout the United States during
+winter months comes from Italy. Chianti wine, from the vineyards around
+Florence, has hitherto been regarded as an inferior product, but the
+foreign demand for it is steadily increasing. The Marsala wines of
+Sicily are largely exported.
+
+Among mineral products the iron deposits in the island of Elba are
+undoubtedly the most valuable, but they are yet undeveloped to any great
+extent. The quarries at Carrara produce a fine marble that has made
+Italy famous in sculpture and architecture. Much of the boracic acid
+used in the arts comes from Tuscany, and the world's chief supply of
+sulphur comes from the neighborhood of Mount Etna in Sicily. Of this
+Americans buy about one-third.
+
+On account of the lack of coal, the manufactures are restricted mainly
+to art wares, such as jewelry, silk textiles, and fine glassware. The
+Venetian glassware, the Florentine and mosaic jewelry, and the pink
+coral ornaments are famous the world over. Within recent years, however,
+imported coal, together with native lignite, have given steel
+manufacture an impetus. Steel ships and rails made at home are meeting
+the demands of commerce. Goods of American cotton are made for export to
+Turkey and South American countries.
+
+Raw silk, wine, olive-oil, straw goods, sulphur, and art goods are
+exported. Cotton, wheat, tobacco, and farm machinery from the United
+States, and coal, woollen textiles, and steel goods from Great Britain
+are the chief imports. Most of the foreign trade is with the nearby
+states. The raw silk goes to France.
+
+Since the unification of Italy the railways have been readjusted to the
+needs of commerce. Before that time the lines were wholly local in
+character; with the readjustment they were organized into trunk lines.
+They enter France through the Mont Cenis tunnel; they reach Switzerland
+and Germany by way of St. Gotthard Pass; they cross the Austrian border
+through Brenner Pass.
+
+_Rome_, the capital, is a political rather than an industrial centre.
+_Milan_, the Chicago of the kingdom, is the chief market for the crops
+of northern Italy and a great railway centre. It is also the market for
+raw silk. _Genoa_, the principal port, is the one at which most of the
+trade of the United States is landed. _Naples_ monopolizes most of the
+marine traffic between Italy and Great Britain. _Leghorn_ is famous for
+its manufacture and trade in straw goods. A considerable part of the
+grain harvested in the Po Valley is stored for shipment at _Venice_--not
+in elevators, but in pits. _Palermo_ is the trading centre of Sicily.
+Most of the sulphur is shipped from _Catania_. _Brindisi_ and _Ancona_
+are shipping-points for the Suez Canal route.
+
+=Spain and Portugal.=--The surface of these states is too rugged and the
+climate too arid for any great agricultural development. Less than half
+the area is under cultivation; nevertheless, they are famous for several
+agricultural products--merino wool, wine, and fruit. The merino wool of
+the Iberian peninsula has no equal for fine dress goods; it is imported
+into almost every other country having woollen manufactures. A
+considerable amount of ordinary wool is grown, but not enough for home
+needs.
+
+The fruit industry is an important source of income. Oranges, limes, and
+lemons are extensively grown for exports; among these products is the
+bitter orange, from which the famous liqueur curacao, a Dutch
+manufacture, is made. The heavy, sweet port wine, now famous the world
+over, was first made prominent in the vineyards of Spain and Portugal.
+Malaga raisins are sold in nearly every part of England and America. The
+olive is more extensively cultivated than in any other state, but both
+the fruit and the oil are mainly consumed at home--the latter taking the
+place of butter. Raw silk is grown for export to France.
+
+Although a larger part of the peninsula must depend on the American and
+Scandinavian forests for lumber, there is one tree product that is in
+demand wherever bottles are used--namely, cork. The cork is prepared
+from the bark of a tree (_Quercus suber_) commonly known as the cork
+oak,[73] which grows freely in the Iberian peninsula and northern
+Africa.
+
+[Illustration: SPAIN AND PORTUGAL]
+
+Metals and minerals of economic use are abundant. Iron ore is sold to
+Great Britain, France, and Germany. Since the Spanish-American War,
+however, there have been extensive developments in utilizing the coal
+and the ore which before that time had been sold to other countries.
+
+The undeveloped coal and iron resources are very great, and must figure
+in the payment of a national debt that is near the limit of bankruptcy.
+The state, however, is entering a period of industrial prosperity.
+
+The most available metal resource is quicksilver. Of this metal the
+mines in Almaden produce about one-half the world's supply. The working
+of these mines is practically a government monopoly, and the income was
+mortgaged for many years ahead when Spain was at war with her rebellious
+colonies.
+
+Both Spain and Portugal are poorly equipped with means for
+transportation. The railways lack organization, and freight rates are
+excessive. Not a little of the transportation still depends on the
+ox-cart and the pack-train. The merchant marine has scarcely more than a
+name; the foreign commerce is carried almost wholly in British or French
+bottoms. The imports are mainly cotton, coal, lumber, and
+food-stuffs--these in spite of the fact that every one save lumber might
+be produced at home.
+
+Wine and fruit products, iron ore, and quicksilver are leading exports.
+Of these the United States purchases wine and raisins for home
+consumption and lace and filigree work for the trade with Mexico. Spain
+has a considerable trade in cotton goods with her colonies, the Canary
+Islands, and the African provinces of Rio de Oro and Adrar.
+
+Portugal likewise supplies her foreign possessions--Goa (India), Macao
+(China), and the Cape Verde and Azores Islands--with home products. The
+chief Portuguese trade, however, is with Great Britain and Brazil.
+
+_Madrid_ is the capital of Spain. _Barcelona_ is the chief commercial
+centre. _Valencia_, _Alicante_, _Cartagena_, and _Malaga_, are all ports
+of fruit and wine trade. _Oporto_ has been made famous for the port wine
+that bears its name. Probably not one per cent. of the port now used,
+however, comes from Oporto, and not many Malaga raisins come from
+Malaga.
+
+=Switzerland.=--This state is situated in the heart of the highest Alps.
+The southeastern half is above the altitude in which food-stuffs can be
+produced, and probably no other inhabited country has a greater
+proportion of its area above the limits of perpetual snow. A
+considerable area of the mountain-slopes affords grazing. The
+valley-lands of the lake-region produce a limited amount of food-stuffs,
+but not enough for the sparse population.
+
+Politically, Switzerland is a republic, having the position of a
+"buffer" state between Germany, Italy, France, and Austria-Hungary.
+Racially, the state is divided among Italians, French, and Germans; as a
+matter of fact, however, the old Helvetian spirit, which not even Caesar
+could destroy, is still a great factor in dominating the people; this,
+with their montane environment, gives the Swiss a very positive
+nationality.
+
+The agricultural interests of the state are developed to their utmost;
+two-thirds of the bread-stuffs, however, are purchased from the United
+States, the plains of Bohemia, and Russia. Cherries, apples, grapes, and
+other fruit are cultivated in every possible place, and as these can be
+delivered to any part of western and central Europe within a day, the
+fruit industry is a profitable one.
+
+Cattle are bred for dairy purposes, but those for beef must be very
+largely imported, Austria-Hungary and Italy selling the needed supply.
+Goats are raised for their hides, and the latter are converted into
+Morocco leather. Of the dairy products, cheese is in many respects the
+most important; Gruyere cheese is exported to nearly every country. On
+account of the long distance from populous centres milk cannot be
+transported; much of it is, therefore, condensed, and in that form
+exported.
+
+A peculiar feature of the dairy industry is the fact that it is
+constantly moving. The dairy herds begin to pasture in the lowlands as
+soon as the snow melts, and as fast as the snow line recedes up the
+mountains the cattle follow. The milk is converted into butter and
+cheese wherever the herds may be, and the second crop of grass below
+them is cut and cured for winter forage.
+
+In spite of the fact that Switzerland has no available coal,[74]
+manufacture is pre-eminently the industry of the state. During the long
+winters the Alpine herdsman and his family whittle out wooden toys from
+the stock of rough lumber laid by for the purpose. Farther down in the
+valley-lands the exquisite brocades and muslins are made on hand-looms,
+or by the aid of the abundant water-power. Each industrial district has
+its special line of manufacture, so that there is scarcely an idle day
+in the year.
+
+In the cities and towns of the lowland district, watches, clocks,
+music-boxes, and fine machinery are manufactured. For many years Swiss
+watches were about the only ones used in the United States, but on
+account of the competition of American watches this trade has fallen
+off. The mechanical music-player, operated by perforated paper, has also
+interfered with the trade in music-boxes.
+
+Switzerland is provided with excellent facilities for transportation,
+and this has done about as much for the commercial welfare of the state
+as all other industrial enterprises. In proportion to its area, the
+railway mileage is greater than that of the surrounding states. The
+roads are well built and the rates of transportation are low.
+
+In addition to the ordinary trip-tickets, monthly time-tickets are
+issued to travellers, allowing the holders to travel when and where they
+please within the limits of the state on all roads and lake-steamers.
+These are sold to the traveller for about two-thirds the price of the
+1,000-mile book of the American railway. The carriage roads have no
+superiors, and they penetrate about every part of the state below the
+snow line; they also cross the main passes of the Alps.
+
+Through one or another of these passes most of the foreign traffic of
+the state must be carried. To Genoa and Milan it crosses the Alps via
+the St. Gotthard tunnel, or the Simplon Pass;[75] to Paris it goes by
+the Rhone Valley; between Vienna and Switzerland, by the Arlberg tunnel;
+and to Germany or to Amsterdam through the valley of the Main.
+
+As a result of this most excellent system of transportation, Switzerland
+is thronged with visiting tourists at all times of the year; moreover,
+it has always been the policy of the Swiss Government not only to
+provide for them, but also to make the country attractive to them. The
+result has shown the wisdom of the policy. Indeed, the foreign tourist
+has become one of the chief sources of income of the Swiss people, and
+the latter profit by the transaction to the amount of about forty
+million dollars a year.
+
+About all the raw material used in manufacture must be imported. The
+cotton is purchased mainly from the United States, and enters by way of
+Marseille. The raw silk is purchased from Italy, China, and Japan. Coal,
+sugar, food-stuffs, and steel are purchased from Germany, and this state
+supplies about half the imports. From the United States are purchased
+wheat, cotton, and coal-oil.
+
+The manufactures are intended for export. The fine cotton textiles sold
+to the United States are worth far more than the raw cotton purchased
+therefrom. Silk textiles, straw wares, toys, watches, jewelry, and dairy
+products are leading exports. The surrounding states are the chief
+buyers, and none of them competes with Switzerland to any extent in the
+character of the exports.
+
+_Geneva_, situated at the head of the Rhone Valley, is the chief trade
+depot; it is noted especially for the manufacture of watches, of which
+many hundred thousand are made yearly. _Zurich_ is the centre of
+manufactures of textiles and fine machinery. The silk-brocade industry
+is centred chiefly in this city and _Basel_.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Why did not France prosper commercially prior to the time of the
+revolution of 1793?
+
+What are the chief natural advantages of the state in favor of
+commercial development?
+
+In what ways have the natural disadvantages of Switzerland been
+overcome?
+
+How has the loss of her colonies affected the industrial development of
+Spain?
+
+Comparing Spain and Italy, which has the better situation with reference
+to the Suez Canal traffic?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book find the amount of foreign trade of each
+state.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the trade of each one with the
+United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Adams's New Empire, pp. 160-168.
+
+Fiske's Discovery of America, Vol. II, Chapter XI.
+
+Procure for inspection specimens of raw silk and also of the choice
+textile goods made in these states.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+EUROPE--THE DANUBE AND BALKAN STATES
+
+
+The Danube and Balkan states derive their commercial importance partly
+from the large area in which bread-stuffs may be produced, and also
+because the valley of the Danube has become an overland trade-route of
+growing importance between the Suez Canal and the North Sea.
+
+=Austria-Hungary.=--This empire is composed of the two monarchies, Austria
+and Hungary, each practically self-governed, but united under a single
+general government. The greater part of the country is walled in by the
+ranges of the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains.
+
+The region known as the Tyrol is topographically continuous with
+Switzerland, and the people have Swiss characteristics. Galicia,
+northeast of the Carpathian Mountains, the fragment of Poland that fell
+to Austria at the time of partition, is a part of the great Russian
+plain. Bohemia, which derives its name from the Keltic peoples, whom
+Caesar called the Boii, comprises the upper part of the Elbe river-basin.
+Its natural commercial outlet is Germany, but the race-hatred which the
+Czechs have for the Germans, retards commercial progress. Hungary is a
+country of plains occupying the lower basin of the Danube. The Huns are
+of Asian origin. Austria proper occupies the upper valley of the Danube,
+adjoining Germany; the country and the people are Germanic.
+
+To the student of history it is a surprise that a country of such
+diverse peoples, having but little in common save mutual race-hatred,
+should hold together under the same general government. The explanation,
+however, is found in the topography of the region. The basin of the
+Danube is a great food-producing region, and the upper valley of the
+Elbe River forms the easiest passage from the Black to the Baltic Sea.
+The topography therefore gives the greater part of the country
+commercial unity.
+
+The climate and surface of the low plains of Hungary are much the same
+as those of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Grain-growing and stock-raising are
+the chief employments. High freight rates, a long haul, and the
+competition of Russia and Roumania have retarded the development of
+these industries, however. Bohemia is likewise a grain-growing country,
+and the easy route into Germany through the Elbe Valley makes the
+industry a profitable one. Bohemia is also in the sugar-beet area.
+
+There is an abundance of coal in Austria, but most of it is unfit for
+the manufacture of iron and steel. Steel manufacture, however, is
+carried on, the industry being protected by the distance from the German
+steel-making centres. The lead-mines about Bleiberg (or "Leadville") are
+very productive; at Idria are the only quicksilver-mines in Europe that
+compete with those of Almaden, Spain. The salt-mines near Krakow are in
+a mass of rock-salt twelve hundred feet thick.
+
+Most of the manufactured products are for home consumption. American
+cotton and home-grown wool supply the greater part of the textiles. The
+flour-mills are equipped with the very best of machinery, and much of
+the product is for export to Germany and the countries to the south. The
+manufactures that have made the state famous, however, are gloves and
+glassware, both of which are widely exported. The sand, fluxes, and
+coloring minerals of Bohemian glassware are all peculiar to the region,
+and the wares, therefore, cannot be imitated elsewhere. The gloves are
+made from the skins of Hungarian sheep and goats.
+
+The railways are not well organized, and the mileage is insufficient for
+the needs of the country. Ludwig Canal (in Germany) connects the Danube
+with the Main, a navigable tributary of the Rhine; the Elbe is navigable
+from a point above Prague to the Baltic; the Moravian Gate opens a
+passage from Vienna northward; the Iron Gate, through which the Danube
+flows, is the route to the Black Sea; Semmering Pass and its tunnel is
+the gateway to the ports of the Adriatic. These great routes practically
+converge at Vienna, which also is the great railway centre of the
+empire.
+
+The foreign trade consists mainly of the export of food-stuffs (of which
+sugar and eggs are heavy items), fine cabinet ware, woollen textiles
+(made from imported wool), barley and malt, and fine glassware. Much of
+the German and Italian wine is sent to market in casks made of Austrian
+stock; the coal goes mainly to Italy. The imports are raw cotton from
+the United States and Egypt, wool, silk, and tobacco. Coal is both
+exported and imported. The United States sells to Austria-Hungary
+cotton, pork, and corn--buying porcelain ware, glassware, and gloves,
+amounting to about one-fifth the value of the exports.
+
+_Vienna_, the capital, is the financial centre and commercial
+clearing-house of central Europe; it has also extensive manufactures.
+_Budapest_ is the great focal point of Hungarian railways and commerce.
+_Prague_ controls the coal, textile, and glass trade of Bohemia.
+_Lemberg_ is the metropolis of Galicia. The states of Liechtenstein,
+Bosnia, and Herzegovina are commercially under the control of Austria.
+
+=The Lower Danube States.=--Roumania and Bulgaria, the plain of the lower
+Danube, are enclosed by the Carpathian and Balkan ranges. They
+constitute a great wheat-field whose chief commercial outlets are the
+Iron Gate into Germanic Europe, and the Sulina mouth of the Danube into
+the Black Sea. The growing of maize for home consumption and wheat for
+export form the only noteworthy industries. Most of the grain is shipped
+up the Danube and sold in Great Britain and Germany.
+
+From the Iron Gate to the Black Sea the Danube is held as an
+international highway, and the control of its navigation is directed by
+a commission of the various European powers, having its head-quarters at
+Galatz, Roumania.
+
+[Illustration: TURKEY AND GREECE]
+
+In the Balkan Mountains is the famous Vale of Roses which furnishes
+about half the world's supply of attar-of-roses. The petals of the
+damask rose are pressed between layers of cloth saturated with lard. The
+latter absorbs the essential oil, from which it is easily removed. About
+half a ton of roses are required to make a pound of the attar. Kazanlik,
+noted also for rugs, is the great market for attar. _Galatz_ and
+_Rustchuk_ are grain-markets and river-ports; from the latter a railway
+extends to _Varna_, the chief port of the Black Sea. From _Sofia_, near
+the Bulgarian frontier, a trunk line of railway extends through
+Budapest to western Europe.
+
+=Turkey-in-Europe.=--The European part of the Ottoman Empire has long been
+politically known as the "Sick Man" of Europe, and so far as the
+industries and commerce of the state are concerned, there is no excuse
+for its separate existence as a state. Its political existence, however,
+is regarded as a necessity, in order to prevent the Russians from
+obtaining military and naval control of the Mediterranean and Black
+Seas, and thereby becoming a menace to all western Europe. Less than
+one-half the people are Turks; the greater part of the population
+consists of Armenians, Jews, Magyars, and Latins.
+
+Most of the country is rugged and unfit for grain-growing. The internal
+government is bad, the taxes are so ruinous that the agricultural
+resources are undeveloped, and every sort of farming is primitive. In
+many instances the taxes levied on the growing crops become practical
+confiscation when they are collected. Much of the cultivable land is
+idle because there are no means of getting the crops to market.
+
+Grapes and wine, silk, opium, mohair and wool, valonia (acorn cups used
+in tanning leather), figs, hides, cigarettes, and carpets are the
+leading exports, and these about half pay for the American cotton
+textiles, woollen goods, coal-oil, sugar, and other food-stuffs
+imported. Choice Mocha coffee is imported for home use, and poorer
+grades are exported. Most of the foreign commerce is in the hands of
+English and French merchants. Armenians, Jews, and Greeks are the native
+middlemen and traders.
+
+The native population is subject to the Sultan, whose rule is absolute;
+most foreign merchants and residents are permitted by treaties to remain
+subject to the regulations of the consuls.
+
+_Constantinople_ is the capital. Its situation on the Bosphorus is such
+that under any other European government it would command a tremendous
+foreign commerce. It is naturally the focal point of the trade between
+Europe and Asia. A trunk line of railway connects the city with Paris.
+_Salonica_ is the port of western Turkey, and is likewise connected by
+rail with western Europe. A great deal of the foreign commerce of the
+state is now landed at this port.
+
+[Illustration: HARBOR OF CONSTANTINOPLE]
+
+The chief possessions of the Ottoman Empire are Asia Minor, Armenia,
+Mesopotamia, Syria, and Arabia.
+
+=Greece.=--Greece is a rugged peninsula, no part of which is more than
+forty miles from the sea. The country is without resources in the way of
+coal, timber, or available capital. Its former commercial position, in
+ancient times, was due largely to the silver-mines near Ergasteria, and
+subsequently to the gold-mines of eastern Macedonia; these, however, are
+no longer productive.
+
+There is but little land suitable for farming, and not far from one-half
+the bread-stuffs must be imported. Much of the timber has been
+destroyed, and this has resulted in a deterioration not only of the
+water-power, but of the cultivable lands as well. The railway lines are
+short and their business is local; there are practically no trunk line
+connections with the great centres of commerce.
+
+The harbors and the natural position of the country are its best
+remaining resources. The Greeks are born sailors, and the country is in
+the pathway of European and Asian commerce. Most of the grain-trade
+between the Black and Mediterranean Seas is controlled by Greek
+merchants, and the Greeks are everywhere in evidence in the carrying
+trade of the Mediterranean. The construction of the Corinthian canal has
+also given Greek commerce a material impetus.
+
+The chief exports are Corinthian grapes--commonly known as
+"currants"--fruit, and iron ore from Ergasteria. Great Britain, France,
+and Belgium are the chief buyers of the fruit-crop. The exports scarcely
+pay for the American cotton, Russian wheat, and the timber products that
+are purchased abroad. There has been a material growth in the
+manufacture of cotton, woollens, and silk in the past few years, much of
+the work being done in households. _Athens_ is the capital and largest
+city. _The Piraeus_ and _Patras_ are the chief ports.
+
+=Servia= and =Montenegro= are stock-growing countries. The former has
+suffered greatly from misgovernment and the waste of its resources.
+Wine-cask stock and cattle are sold to Austria, which has five-sixths of
+its trade. _Belgrade_ is its metropolis. Tobacco and live-stock are
+exported from Montenegro to Austria.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+On a good map of central Europe trace an all-water route from the mouth
+of the Danube to the ports of the lower Rhine and the North Sea; what
+connection have the cities of Ratisbon and Lemberg with this route?
+
+How do the forests of these states affect the wine industry of Germany?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book find the amount and movement of the
+exports and imports of these countries.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the volume of trade of these
+countries with the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL REFERENCE
+
+Great Canals of the World--p. 4089.
+
+A good map of central Europe.
+
+[Illustration: RUSSIAN EMPIRE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+EUROPE-ASIA--THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
+
+
+The great plain of Eurasia, which borders about half the circuit of the
+Arctic Ocean, is undivided by topographic barriers or boundaries. It is
+physically a unit.
+
+=Russia.=--Russia comprises more than one-half the area of Europe; the
+Russian Empire embraces about one-half of Europe and Asia combined, and
+constitutes more than one-seventh of the land surface of the earth. East
+and west, from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok, the distance is about six
+thousand miles. It has a similar position with respect to southern
+Europe and China as has Canada to the United States.
+
+In latitude the country is unfortunately situated. North of the latitude
+of St. Petersburg the climate is too cold to grow bread-stuffs; a large
+part of the country is, therefore, unproductive. The central belt is
+forest-covered; the southern part, or "black earth" belt, comprises the
+greater part of the productive lands, and this region is the chief
+granary of Europe.
+
+Russia is an agricultural country. Maize and rye grown for home
+consumption, and wheat for export, are the chief products. Flax is a
+leading export product, and the Russian crop constitutes about
+four-fifths of the world's supply. Lands too remote from markets for
+grain-growing produce cattle and sheep, which are grown mainly for their
+hides and tallow. The wool of the Don is a very coarse textile that is
+much used in the manufacture of American carpets; that of the arid
+plateaus of the southern country is a fine rug wool.
+
+Agriculture in Russia is on a much lower plane than in western Europe.
+Most of the land is owned in large estates. Individual farming is rare,
+land tillage being usually a community affair. A village community rents
+or purchases a tract of land, and the latter is allotted to the families
+composing it, a part of the land being reserved for pasturage. The
+business is transacted by "elders," or trustees, who exercise a general
+management and supervision over the "mir," or community.
+
+The methods of farming are not the best, and an acre of land produces
+scarcely one-third as much as the same area is made to yield in other
+states. The farming class, or peasantry, was in a condition of serfdom
+until within a few years. Poverty unfits them to compete with farmers of
+western Europe; moreover, the laws of land ownership and tenure also
+serve to discourage farming.
+
+The metal and mineral resources are very great. Iron ore is abundant,
+and the yearly output of both is greatly increasing. There are extensive
+deposits in southern Russia, in the Ural Mountains, and in Poland. Coal
+of good quality is plentiful, and coal mining is encouraged by a heavy
+tariff on the foreign coal that enters regions where the home product is
+available. The most productive coal-fields are those of the lower Don
+River and of Poland.
+
+Gold is obtained in various parts of Siberia and in the Ural Mountains,
+but scarcely enough is mined for the requirements of coinage. Copper is
+also mined in the Ural and Caucasus Mountains. More than nine-tenths of
+the world's supply of platinum is also obtained in the Ural Mountains.
+The petroleum fields of Transcaucasia have a yearly output a little
+greater than those of the United States.
+
+The forest area is surpassed only by the timber belt of North America,
+both of which are in about the same latitudes. This area, within a very
+few years, is destined to be the chief lumber supply of all Europe.
+Moreover, the forests, the grain-growing lands, and the iron and coal
+constitute national resources which are surpassed in no other countries
+save the United States and China.
+
+The Russian Government has done much to encourage manufactures.
+Steel-making in the Ural district, in Poland, and in the iron regions of
+the Don has progressed to the extent that home-made railway material and
+rolling stock are now generally used. Farming machinery is made in the
+cities of the grain-growing region. The manufacture of cotton, woollen,
+and linen fabrics has developed to the extent that the state is becoming
+an exporter rather than an importer of such goods.
+
+Railway building has progressed under government aid, and about
+two-thirds of the 37,000 miles of track are owned by the state. The
+Transsiberian Railway connecting Vladivostok with the trunk lines of
+Europe was built by the state both for strategic and economic purposes.
+Large bodies of emigrants are carried into Siberia at nominal rates and
+are settled on lands that are practically free. The return cargoes
+consist of Chinese products--mainly silk textiles and tea--destined for
+western Europe.
+
+A network of railways covers the grain-growing districts; trunk lines,
+mainly for strategic purposes, extend through Russian Turkestan to the
+Chinese border. For many years Russia has endeavored to acquire the
+territory that would afford commercial outlets to the Indian Ocean and
+into China. In this the state has been thwarted by two great
+powers--Great Britain and Japan. The construction of canals and the
+improvements of river-navigation are under government management, and
+the internal water-ways aggregate about fifty thousand miles of
+navigation.
+
+The foreign commerce is changing in character as manufactures develop.
+Wheat, flour, timber products, flax, and petroleum are the chief
+exports. Cotton, tea, wool, and coal are the leading imports, the
+first-named coming mainly from the United States. Germany, Great
+Britain, France, Holland, and the United States are the chief European
+countries utilizing Russian trade. The commerce between Russia and China
+is growing rapidly. The Transsiberian railway is its chief northern
+outlet, and a branch of this road, now under construction, extends
+through to the leading commercial centres of Manchuria, to Port Arthur.
+A considerable amount of manufactured goods is sent to Asia Minor and
+the Iran countries.
+
+The most available ports opening into the Atlantic are on the Baltic
+Sea, but these are blocked by ice in winter; the best ports are on the
+Black Sea, but the Russians do not control the navigable waters that
+connect them with the Atlantic.
+
+Much of the internal trade is carried on by means of annual fairs. The
+most important of these are held at _Nijni_, (lower) _Novgorod_,
+_Kharkof_, _Kief_, and other points. At the first-named fair goods to
+the amount of $80,000,000 have changed hands during a single season, and
+the annual fair is the recognized common ground on which the oriental
+traders meet the buyers of European and American firms.
+
+Unlike the schemes of colonization of other European states, the various
+possessions of the Czar are practically in a single area, the
+dependencies being contiguous. The lines between them, with few
+exceptions, are political rather than natural boundaries.
+
+_St. Petersburg_, the capital, is the centre of finance and trade.
+_Riga_ is the port from which most of the lumber is exported; it
+receives the coal purchased from Great Britain for the factories of the
+Baltic coast. The harbor of Riga is not greatly obstructed by ice.
+_Archangel_ has an export trade of lumber and flax during the few months
+when the White Sea is free from ice. _Odessa_ and _Rostof_ are the
+grain-markets of the empire. _Astrakhan_ is the centre of trade for the
+Iran countries, and _Baku_ is the petroleum-market. _Moscow_ is the
+chief focal point of the railways; and in consequence has become a great
+centre of manufacture and trade. _Warsaw_, next to Moscow, is the most
+important city.
+
+=Siberia.=--This great territory resembles Russia in surface and climatic
+features. Like the former "west" of the United States, Siberia is the
+open "east" into which much of the surplus population of Russia,
+Germany, and the Scandinavian countries is moving, attracted by fine
+farming lands. The European emigrant becomes a producer when settled in
+Siberia, and, at the same time, a consumer of Russian manufactures. In
+five years more than one million people thus became occupants of the new
+country in Siberia. Russian trade is encouraged by a heavy tariff on
+foreign goods brought into Siberia.
+
+_Tobolsk_, _Tomsk_, and _Semipalatinsk_ are collecting stations for
+Siberian products, and each is built on navigable waters. _Irkutsk_
+receives the caravan trade that goes from Peking through _Urga_ and
+_Kiakhta_, the frontier post of Chinese trade. _Vladivostok_ is the
+great Pacific outlet and the terminus of the Transsiberian Railway. It
+is ice-bound in winter. _Harbin_, in Manchuria, China, is a Russian
+trading post of great commercial importance.
+
+=Bokhara= and =Khiva= are Russian vassal states. The former was acquired
+chiefly as a trade-route. A railway from _Krasnovodsk_ on the Caspian
+Sea extends through _Merv_, _Bokhara_, and _Samarkand_ to _Kashgar_,
+where it meets the caravan trade from central China. The building of
+this railway has caused a great development of cotton-growing in these
+countries, which furnish Europe and America with the choice Afghan,
+Khiva, and Bokhara rugs.
+
+=Transcaucasia=, now joined to Russia, is a part of the plateau of Iran. A
+railway extends across the country from _Batum_ to _Baku_, connecting
+the Black and Caspian Seas. Transcaucasia is the petroleum region of the
+East. It is also noted for the Shirvan, Kabistan, Daghestan, and Kazak
+rugs which are sold all over Europe and America. The so-called
+"Cashmere" rugs are not a product of Kashmir, but are made in the town
+of _Shemaka_. Kabistan rugs are made in _Kuba_. Kazak fabrics are
+usually the sleeping-blankets of the Kazak (Cossack) rough-riders.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+How will the development of the coal, iron, and lumber resources most
+likely affect the industrial future of Russia?
+
+Discuss the policy of Siberian immigration;--what are its advantages to
+German colonists?
+
+From the map accompanying this chapter show how the tributary streams of
+the great rivers have served to extend Russian commerce through Siberia.
+
+Note the situation of the cities and towns of Siberia with reference to
+the rivers.
+
+What effect has the high latitude of Russia on its agricultural
+industries?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book make a list of the leading exports and
+imports of Russia by articles, and also the volume of trade with other
+countries.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the statistics of trade between
+Russia and the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Commercial life in Russia--preferably from the article, "Russia," in the
+Encyclopaedia Britannica.
+
+For a rug of the Caucasus type, see illustration, p. 351; compare the
+Kabistan with the Persian piece--which has the floral and which the
+geometric figures?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE IRAN PLATEAU AND ARABIA
+
+
+The countries of the Iran plateau extend from the Mediterranean Sea to
+the valley of the Indus River. The Arabian Peninsula is not a part of
+it, but its climate and general character are similar. The Iran
+countries are exceedingly rugged, and a great part of their surface is
+more than a mile above sea-level. The climate is one of great extremes;
+the summer hot-waves and the winter hurricanes are probably unknown
+elsewhere in severity. The greater part of Arabia is an unhabitable
+desert.
+
+[Illustration: THE RUG-MAKING COUNTRIES]
+
+The rigorous conditions of surface and climate have placed their stamp
+upon the population of the region. They are full of the intelligent
+cunning and ferocity that mark people living under such conditions of
+environment. In many parts the sterile soil and arid climate force the
+sparse population into nomadic habits of life and predatory pursuits.
+For the greater part, the land hardly yields enough food-stuffs for the
+population, and any great development of agriculture is out of the
+question. The flood-plain of the Tigris and Euphrates, and a few of the
+river-valleys are highly productive.
+
+[Illustration: AN ANTIQUE TREE-OF-LIFE, KERMANSHAH (PERSIAN) RUG]
+
+Before the Christian era several trade-routes between Europe and the
+Orient lay across this region, and along the caravan routes there were
+the usual industries pertaining to commercial peoples. The cities of
+Sinope, Trebizond, Astrabad, Phasis, Mashad, and Bactra (now Balkh) grew
+into existence along one of the northern routes. Tyre, Nineveh, Tarsus,
+Palmyra, Babylon, and Persepolis were founded along one or another of
+the southern routes. Of these, Trebizond only retains its importance,
+being a seaport with a considerable trade. The commerce that once passed
+over this route was crushed out of existence during the invasions by
+Jenghis Khan.
+
+[Illustration: A KABISTAN RUG--CAUCASUS DISTRICT]
+
+Of the various industries of the Iran plateau, practically but one
+extends beyond its borders, namely, the manufacture of the textile
+fabrics known as Oriental rugs. These are unique; they are made of
+materials, colored with dyes, and are ornamented with designs that
+cannot be successfully imitated anywhere else in the world. The filling
+of the rugs consists of fine wool, selected not only from particular
+localities, but also from certain parts of the fleece. The dye-stuffs
+are common to other parts of the world, and their names--indigo,
+saffron, coccus, madder, and orchil--are familiar. But both the wool and
+the dye-stuffs possess qualities imparted to them by soil and climate
+that are not found elsewhere.
+
+The absence of floors, and of the furniture found in European dwellings,
+make the rugs essential household articles rather than luxuries. The
+hearth-rug, the bath-mat, the divan-cover, the sleeping-blanket, and the
+saddle-mat must be regarded as necessities. Religion also has its
+requirements, and the prayer rug, sometimes ornamented with the hands of
+the Prophet, is a part of every household equipment, whether of the
+nomadic Arab or the wealthy merchant. Each district and people have
+their own designs and methods of workmanship, and the rugs of each are
+easily distinguished.[76]
+
+For the greater part these are gathered by caravans and conveyed to
+convenient shipping-points. Nearly all the cottage-made product is
+obtained in this manner. As a rule the rugs are named from the town or
+district in which they are made. Smyrna and Constantinople are the chief
+ports of shipment. Many of them find their way to European dealers, but
+New York is probably the largest rug-market in the world. The great
+majority are retailed at from ten to fifty dollars each; choice
+fabrics, however, bring from three hundred to ten thousand dollars.
+Oriental rugs are hand-woven, and a weaver frequently spends several
+years on a single piece, earning perhaps less than ten cents a day. The
+factory-made rugs are inferior to the cottage-manufactured product.
+
+=Turkish Possessions.=--Anatolia is the common name of the Turkish
+possession formerly known as Asia Minor. The name properly belongs,
+however, to only a small part of the region. The Asiatic possessions of
+the Ottoman Empire comprise Asia Minor, Armenia, Kurdistan, Syria,
+Mesopotamia, and Arabia. The Armenians are the commercial people of the
+greater part of this region, and although thousands have been massacred
+because of Turkish hatred of them, they practically wield the chief
+power because of their business enterprise.
+
+During the Roman occupation many miles of roads were built from
+Constantinople and other coast-points to the interior. One of these
+extended to Mesopotamia, and became a much-travelled route of the trade
+which centred at Constantinople. Within recent years German capitalists
+have built railways along these roads, thereby creating a considerable
+export trade in fruit, rugs, and mohair cloth.
+
+_Angora_ and _Konieh_ (_Iconium_) are important marts. _Trebizond_ is
+the chief port of the Black Sea, but it lacks railway connections with
+the interior. _Smyrna_ is the chief port of the Mediterranean, and from
+it are shipped to European and American markets the fruit and textile
+fabrics that have made its importance. In Syria, _Damascus_, one of the
+oldest cities in the world, is the centre of a considerable trade in
+textile manufactures. Rugs, dates, figs, and damask fabrics are exported
+to Europe through _Beirut_, its seaport, with which it is connected by
+rail. Much of the stuffs exported is gathered from Persia. _Yafa_ is
+the port of Jerusalem. _Bagdad_ is the chief trade-centre of
+Mesopotamia.
+
+=Arabia.=--Arabia is nominally a Turkish possession, but the coast-regions
+only are under the control of the Sultan. The interior is peopled by
+nomadic tribes, who do not acknowledge the sovereignty of Turkey. The
+province of Yemen, on the Red Sea, is about the only noteworthy part of
+the peninsula. Hides and Mocha coffee, gathered by Arab traders, are
+shipped from the port of _Hodeida_. _Mecca_ is the yearly meeting-place
+of thousands of Mohammedan pilgrims, who go thither as a religious duty;
+it is also the centre from which Asiatic cholera radiates. _Aden_, the
+chief coaling-station of the British Empire in the Indian Ocean, is also
+a free port, having a considerable trade in American cotton and
+coal-oil.
+
+Although Arabia itself is practically of no commercial importance, the
+same cannot be said of the Arabic people. They are keen, thrifty
+traders, and as brutal in their instincts as they are keen. The commerce
+which connects the western part of Asia with Europe is largely of their
+making. They collect and transport the goods from the interior,
+delivering them to Jewish and Armenian middlemen, who turn them over to
+European and American merchants. Arab traders also control the greater
+part of the commerce of northern Africa. The slave-trade, which is
+wholly in their hands, is very largely the key to the situation. A party
+of slave-dealers makes an attack upon a village and, after massacring
+all who are not able-bodied, load the rest with the goods to be
+transported to the coast.
+
+=Persia.=--Persia is the modernized name of the province now called Fars,
+or Farsistan. Within its borders, however, the name Persia is almost
+unknown; the native people call the country Iran. In the times of
+Cyrus, Xerxes, and Darius, Persia was one of the great powers of the
+world. The cultivable lands produced an abundance of food-stuffs. The
+mines of copper, lead, silver, and iron were worked to their utmost
+extent, and the chief trade-routes between Europe and the Orient crossed
+the country to the Indus River.
+
+The conquest by Alexander the Great changed the course of trade and
+diverted it to other routes, thus depriving the country of much of its
+revenue; the invasions of the Arabs left the empire a hopeless wreck.
+Iran blood dominates the country at the present time, it is true, but
+the religion of Islam does not encourage any material development, and
+the industries are now purely local. There is no organization of trade,
+nor any system of transportation except by means of wretched wagon-roads
+with innumerable toll-gates. "Turkish" tobacco, opium, and small fruits
+are grown for export; silk and wool, however, are the most important
+crops. The former is manufactured into brocaded textiles; the latter
+into rugs and carpets. There are famous pearl-fisheries in the Persian
+Gulf.
+
+_Tabriz_, situated in the midst of an agricultural region, has important
+manufactures of shawls and silk fabrics of world renown. The Tabriz rugs
+are regarded as among the finest of the rug-maker's art. _Shiraz_, the
+former capital, _Kermanshah_,[77] and _Hamadan_ are noted for rug and
+carpet manufactures. _Mashad_ is the centre of the trade with Russia.
+_Bushire_ and _Bender-Abbas_ are seaports, but have no great importance.
+Most of the trade with Russia passes through the port of Trebizond.
+
+=Afghanistan.=--The nomadic tribes that inhabit Afghanistan have but
+little in common with the British civilization that is slowly but surely
+closing in upon them, and driving them from routes of commerce. A
+considerable local traffic is carried on between Bokhara and Herat, and
+between Bokhara and Kabul through Balkh, all being fairly prosperous
+centres of population in regions made productive by irrigation.
+
+By far the most important route lies between Kabul and Peshawur, at the
+head of the Indus River. A railway, the Sind-Pishin, extends along the
+valley of this river from Karachi, a port of British India, to Peshawur,
+also in British India near the Afghan border, and the route lies thence
+through Khaibar Pass to Jelalabad and Kabul. A branch of this road is
+completed through Bolan Pass nearly to Kandahar.
+
+_Kabul_, the capital, is a military stronghold rather than a business
+centre, although it is a collection depot for the Khiva-Bokhara rugs and
+carpets that are marketed at Peshawur. _Kandahar_ has a growing trade
+resulting from the railway of the Indus Valley. _Herat_ is the market of
+the famous Herati rugs. There is no organized commercial system; a small
+amount of British manufactures--mainly stuffs for domestic use--are
+imported; rugs and dried fruit are the only exports to Europe and
+America. The imports enter mainly by way of Karachi, India; the exports
+are carried to Europe, for the greater part, by the Russian railway.
+
+The importance of Afghanistan is due to its position as a buffer state
+between Russia and British India. The various strategic points for
+years, therefore, have been military strongholds. There is an old
+saying: "Whoso would be master of India must first make himself lord of
+Kabul." The meaning of this is seen in the history of Khaibar Pass,
+which for many years has been a scene of slaughter; indeed, it has been
+the chief gateway between occidental and oriental civilizations for
+more than twenty centuries. Since the acquisition of India by Great
+Britain Afghanistan has been under British protectoracy.
+
+=Baluchistan.=--The general features of Baluchistan resemble those of the
+other parts of the Iran plateau. The coast has no harbors in the proper
+sense, but the anchorage off _Gwador_ has fair protection from storms
+and heavy winds. The few valleys produce enough food-stuffs for the
+half-savage population. There is but little organization to the
+government save that which is military in character. The state is a
+protectorate of Great Britain.
+
+Rug-making is the only industry that connects Baluchistan with the rest
+of the world. _Quetta_, the largest town, is a military station
+controlling Bolan Pass. Its outlet is the Kandahar branch of the
+Sind-Pishin Railway.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What climatic factors prevent these countries from being regions of
+great production?
+
+How do climate and soil affect the character of the wool clip?
+
+How do Arabian horses compare with American thorough-bred stock with
+respect to usefulness?--how do they compare with the mustang stock?
+
+Why is Khaibar Pass regarded as the key to India?
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From a cyclopaedia (or from McCarthy's History of Our Own Times) read an
+account of the British disaster at Kabul.
+
+Study, if possible, one or more rugs of the following kinds, noting the
+colors, designs, and warp of each: Bokhara (antique and modern),
+Anatolian, Kermanshah, and Baluchistan.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+BRITISH INDIA AND THE EAST INDIES
+
+
+These countries are in tropical latitudes and in the main are regions of
+great productivity. A few native states that have resisted annexation
+and conquest excepted, almost the entire area is divided among Great
+Britain, Holland, and France.
+
+[Illustration: INDIA]
+
+=British India.=--The Empire of India comprises an area half as large as
+the United States, situated on the southern slope of Asia. It covers the
+same latitude as the span between the Venezuelan coast and the Ohio
+River; from the Indus to the Siam frontier the distance is about two
+thousand miles. It includes also settlements in the Malay peninsula.
+
+Excepting the plateau of the Dekkan, and the slopes of the Himalayan
+ranges, most of the surface consists of plains and low, rolling land
+covered with a great depth of soil. Through these rich lands flow four
+large rivers--the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Irawadi, which afford
+a great deal of internal communication. The Himalaya Mountains on the
+north and the Hindu Kush on the northwest practically shut off
+communication from the northward, so that all communication in this
+direction is concentrated at Khaibar and Bolan Passes, the most
+important gateways by land approach.
+
+British India is one of the most populous regions of the world; the
+average population per square mile is about one hundred and eighty, a
+density considerably greater than that of New York State. The entire
+population is about three times that of the United States. Nearly all
+the food-stuffs grown are required for home consumption; indeed, dry
+years are apt to be followed by a shortage of food-stuffs. Years ago
+famines followed any considerable deficiency of crops, but since the
+completion of the admirable railway systems the necessary food-stuffs
+are quickly shipped to the district where the shortage occurs.
+
+The Hindus constitute about three-fourths of the population. Along the
+northern border there are many peoples of Afghan and Turkic descent; in
+Burma there is a considerable admixture of Mongol blood. An elaborate
+system of social castes imposed by the teachings of Brahmanism has made
+the introduction of western methods of education and civilization
+somewhat difficult to carry out. The educational system of the
+dominating Brahmanic caste, although of a very high order, does not fit
+the people to cope with the commercialism of western civilization.
+
+Five-sevenths of the population are engaged in agricultural labor. Rice,
+wheat, millet, meat, and sugar are the chief food-crops. Of these, rice
+and wheat[78] only are exported; the others are required for home
+consumption.
+
+The articles grown for export are jute, cotton, opium, oil-yielding
+seeds, tea, and opium. No meat is exported, but hides form a large item
+of foreign trade.
+
+The jute is used in the manufacture of rugs and grain-sacks. It is
+cultivated mainly in the delta-lands of the Ganges-Brahmaputra. A
+considerable part of the product is now manufactured in India and in
+China; some is also shipped to California, to be made into wheat-sacks;
+perhaps the larger part is sent to Dundee, Scotland, where it is woven
+into textile fabrics. The choicest product is used to mix with silk
+fibre, or is employed in the manufacture of rugs and coverings.
+
+Cotton cultivation is rapidly taking first rank among the industries of
+India, for which the conditions of soil, climate, and market are
+admirably adapted. India stands second in cotton-growing, and the area
+of production is gradually increasing. Most of the crop is exported to
+Europe for manufacture, although there is an increasing amount sold to
+Japan. Great Britain is the largest purchaser, and the cotton goods
+manufactured at Manchester are reshipped in large quantities to India.
+
+Owing to the low wages paid for labor both in the fields and the mills,
+cotton manufacture is a rapidly growing industry in India. In many cases
+the yarn is manufactured in India and then sent to China to be made into
+coarse cloth. Some of the mills are equipped with machinery made in the
+United States.
+
+Tea has become one of the most important crops of India. It is grown
+mainly in Ceylon and Assam, and is said to have grown wild in the latter
+state. The quality of Indian tea is regarded as superior to the Chinese
+product, and Indian teas have therefore very largely supplanted those of
+China, in British consumption.
+
+Silk cultivation and manufacture have been growing rapidly in the past
+few years; a considerable part of the product is "tussar," or wild silk.
+The silk rugs of India are not equalled anywhere else in the world. Wool
+is a product of the mountain-regions, but is almost wholly used in the
+manufacture of rugs and coverings.
+
+The British occupation of India is commercial rather than political.
+India furnishes a most valuable market for British manufactures; it
+supplies the British people with a large amount of raw material for
+manufacture. The general government is administrative only so far as the
+construction of railways, irrigating canals, and harbors, and the
+organization of financial affairs are concerned.
+
+There are about two hundred and fifty native states included within the
+territory of British India. In addition to the native ruler, a British
+governor or magistrate carries out the administrative features of the
+British Government. For administrative purposes most of the native
+states are grouped into eight provinces, or "presidencies."
+
+=Bengal.=--The states of Bengal, mainly in the valley of the Ganges River,
+produce most of the rice and wheat. _Calcutta_, the capital of the
+empire, is a comparatively young city. The Hugli at this point is
+navigable both for ocean and river craft. The situation of the city is
+much like that of New York, and it is therefore finely adapted for
+commerce. Railways extending from the various food-producing districts
+and from other centres of commerce converge at Calcutta. The city is not
+only the centre of administration, but the chief focus of commerce and
+finance as well.
+
+=Bombay.=--Bombay includes a number of states bordering on the Arabian
+Sea. The city of _Bombay_ is built on an island of the same name. Its
+situation on the west coast makes it the most convenient port for the
+European trade that passes through the Suez Canal. The opening of the
+route gave Bombay a tremendous growth, and it is destined to become a
+great commercial factor in Indian Ocean trade. It is also a great
+manufacturing centre for cotton textiles. _Ahmedabad_, an important
+military station, is also an important centre of cotton manufacture and
+wheat-trade.
+
+=Sind.=--The native state Sind includes the greater part of the basin of
+the Indus. Its importance is military and strategic rather than
+commercial. The ability of Great Britain to hold India depends very
+largely on British control of the Indus Valley and the passes leading
+from it. The Sind-Pishin Railway traverses the Indus Valley from Karachi
+to Peshawur. _Haidarabad_, one of the largest cities of India, is the
+centre of an agricultural district. _Karachi_, the port near the mouth
+of the Indus, next to Khaibar Pass, is the most important strategic
+point of India, and one that the Russians for more than a century have
+been trying to possess.
+
+=Punjab.=--The states of the Punjab are mainly at the upper part of the
+Indus. _Amritsar_ is an important centre for the manufacture of silk
+rugs and carpets. A large number of these are sold in the United States
+at prices varying from two hundred to six thousand dollars. The designs
+for these textiles are often made in New York. _Peshawur_ is important
+chiefly as a military station.
+
+=Burma.=--British Burma includes the basin of the Irawadi River. The
+uplands are wheat-fields; the lowlands produce rice. _Mandalay_ is a
+river-port and commercial centre. _Rangoon_ is the seaport, with a
+considerable ship-building industry that results from the teak forests.
+Although the Irawadi is navigable for light craft, railways along the
+valley have become a necessity; these centre at Rangoon.
+
+The province of Madras is one of the most densely peopled parts of
+India. The chief commercial products are cotton and teak-wood. _Madras_,
+its commercial centre, has a very heavy foreign trade in hides, spices,
+and cotton. The cotton manufactures are extensive. A yarn-dyed cotton
+cloth, now imitated both in Europe and the United States, has made the
+name famous.
+
+=Kashmir.=--The native state Kashmir, situated high on the slopes of the
+Karakorum Mountains, is known chiefly for the "Cashmere" shawls made
+there. The shawls are hand-woven and represent the highest style of the
+weaver's art. The best require many years each in the making; they
+command prices varying from five hundred to five thousand dollars. This
+industry centres at _Srinagar_.
+
+=Other British States.=--The Straits Settlements are so called because
+they face the Straits of Malacca. They include several colonies, chief
+of which are Singapore, Penang, and Malacca. The Straits ports are free
+from export and import duties, a regulation designed to encourage the
+concentration of Malaysian products there--in other words, to encourage
+a transit trade.
+
+The policy has proved a wise one, and the trade at the three
+ports--_Singapore_, _Penang_, and _Malacca_--aggregates about six
+hundred million dollars yearly. About two-thirds of this sum represents
+the business of Singapore. Tin constitutes about half the exports, a
+large share going to the United States. Spices, rubber, gutta-percha,
+tapioca, and rattan constitute the remaining trade. Rice, cotton cloth,
+and opium are the imports.
+
+The Federated Malay States, situated in the Malay peninsula, and the
+northern part of Borneo are also British possessions. Their trade and
+products are similar to the rest of the Malaysian possessions.
+
+=Dutch East India.=--The Dutch possessions include nearly all the islands
+of the Malay Archipelago and the western part of New Guinea. Of these,
+Java and Sumatra are the most important. They are divided into
+"residencies," and the administering officers exercise control over the
+various plantations. In addition, there are numerous private
+plantations. The colonial administration is admirable.
+
+Cane-sugar, coffee, rice, indigo, pepper, tobacco, and tea are the chief
+products. The sugar industry has been somewhat crippled by the
+beet-sugar product of Europe. Java and Sumatra coffees are in demand all
+over Europe and the United States. Sumatra wrappers for cigars find also
+a ready market wherever cigars are manufactured. The cultivation of
+cinchona, or Peruvian bark, has proved successful, and this substance is
+becoming an important export. The islands of Banka and Billiton (with
+Riouw) yield a very large part of the world's supply of tin, much of
+which goes finally to the United States. The mother-country profits by
+the trade of these islands in two ways: the Dutch merchants are
+practically middlemen who create and manage the commerce; the Dutch
+Government receives an import tax of six per cent., and a small export
+tax on nearly all articles except sugar. _Batavia_ is the focal point of
+the commerce.
+
+=Siam.=--This kingdom is chiefly important as a buffer state between
+French and British India, and little by little has been pared by these
+nations until practically nothing but the basin of the Menam River
+remains. The administration of the state is progressive, and much of the
+resources have been developed in the last few years.
+
+Rice and teak are the leading products. The rice is cultivated by
+native laborers--much of it by enforced labor--and is sold to Hongkong,
+British India, and the more northerly states. It is collected by Chinese
+middlemen, and by them sold to British and German exporters. The
+teak-wood business is managed by British firms. The logs are cut by
+natives, hauled to the Menam River, and floated to Bangkok; there they
+are squared and sent to European markets. Pepper and preserved fish are
+also exported. The Menam River is the chief trade-route, and _Bangkok_,
+at its mouth, is the focal point of trade.
+
+=French India.=--The French control the region south of China, called
+French Indo-China, together with various areas in the peninsula of
+Hindustan; of these Pondicheri and Karical are the most important.
+Indo-China includes the basin of Mekong River, and rice is the staple
+product. The most productive rice-fields are the delta-lands of the
+Mekong, formerly known as Cochin-China.
+
+From these lands more than half a million tons of rice are exported, the
+product being sold mainly at Hongkong and Singapore. Pepper is also an
+export of considerable value. France, China, and the Philippine Islands
+are the final destination of the rice export. The imports are mainly
+textiles, machinery, and coal-oil from the United States. The machinery
+pertains chiefly to the manufactures of cotton and silk textiles. On
+account of cheaply mined coal, there is a considerable growth of this
+industry. _Saigon_ is the business centre and port at which the Chinese
+middlemen meet the European merchants and forwarders.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+What have been the chief effects of the British occupation of these
+countries, so far as the natives are concerned?
+
+What is the position of Khaibar Pass with respect to the commerce of
+India?
+
+How has the building of the Sind-Pishin Railway strengthened British
+occupation of India?
+
+Singapore and Batavia are the two great focal points of trade in the
+East India Islands. At the former all trade is absolutely free; at the
+latter there is both an import and an export tax. What are the
+advantages of each policy?
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the trade of the United States with
+these countries.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From a cyclopaedia, preferably the Encyclopaedia Britannica, read the
+following topics:
+
+  Caste
+  Lord Clive
+  Rattan
+  Pepper
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+CHINA AND JAPAN
+
+
+The relative position of China, Russia, and Japan is not unlike that of
+continental Europe and Great Britain, and the struggle for supremacy in
+the Japan and Yellow Seas is about the same as that which in times past
+took place in the North Sea. In the latter case France and Holland were
+the disturbing powers; in the former, it is Russia.
+
+=The Chinese Empire.=--A comparison of the Chinese Empire with the United
+States shows that the two countries have about the same position and
+extent of latitude. There is also about the same proportion of
+highlands, arid lands, and fertile lowlands. The similarity of the two
+countries in geographic conditions is very marked.
+
+The fertile lowland in the east and southeast is one of the most
+productive regions in the world, and forms the chief resource of the
+country; on account of its productivity it is densely peopled. The arid
+and mountain lands are peopled mainly by cattle-herders and nomadic
+tribes.
+
+China is essentially an agricultural country, and the farms are held in
+much the same way as in the United States, but the holdings are so small
+that agricultural machinery is not required for their cultivation.
+
+Wheat, millet, and pease are grown throughout the lowlands wherever they
+can be cultivated. The cultivation of rice is confined mainly to the
+coast lowlands. The amount of food-stuffs produced, however, is scarcely
+sufficient for home consumption; indeed, a considerable amount is
+imported, and the imports year by year are increasing. This is due not
+so much to the density of population as to want of means of
+transportation of the soil products from inland regions. It is often
+much cheaper to import food-stuffs from abroad than to transport them,
+even from an adjoining province.
+
+Tea is extensively cultivated, and China exports nearly one-half of the
+world's product; the total amount produced is considerably more than
+half. Most of this goes to Great Britain and Canada. Raw silk is an
+important product, and the mulberry-tree is extensively grown. Cotton is
+one of the most general crops in the southern part of the empire,
+especially along the lower Yangtze. It is a garden-crop, however, and
+nearly all of it is consumed.
+
+The mineral wealth is very great, and with proper management will make
+China one of the most productive and powerful countries in the world.
+Coal is found in every one of the provinces, and the city of Peking is
+supplied with an excellent quality of anthracite from the Fang-shan
+mines, only a few miles distant. It is thought that the coal-fields are
+the most extensive in the world. Iron ore of excellent quality is
+abundant, and in several localities, notably in the province of Shansi,
+the two are near each other.
+
+Foreign capitalists are seeking to develop these resources in several
+localities. The Germans have obtained mining concessions in Shantung
+peninsula, and these involve the iron ore and coal occurring there. The
+Peking syndicate, a London company, has also obtained a coal-mining
+concession in Shansi.
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN CHINA]
+
+For the greater part the manufactures are home industries.[79] Until
+recently most of the cotton cloth was made by means of cottage looms,
+and the beautiful silk brocades which are not surpassed anywhere else in
+the world are still made in this manner. Porcelain-making is one of the
+oldest industries, and to this day the wares sold in Europe and America
+are known as "china." Straw carpet, or matting, and fans for export are
+also important exports.
+
+The mill system of manufacture is rapidly gaining ground, however, and
+foreign companies find it economical to carry the yarn made in India
+from American cotton into China to be made into cloth. In the vicinity
+of Shanghai alone there are nearly three hundred thousand spindles. This
+phase of the industry is due largely to the factor of cheap labor; the
+Chinese skilled laborer is intelligent; he does not object to a
+sixteen-hour working-day at wages varying from five to twenty cents.
+
+There is no great localization of industrial centres, as in the United
+States and Europe. Each centre of population is practically
+self-supporting and independent from an economic stand-point. The
+introduction of western methods, however, is gradually changing this
+feature.
+
+All industries of a general character are hampered for want of good
+means of transportation. The empire is traversed by a network of unpaved
+roads; but although these are always in a wretched condition, an
+enormous traffic is carried over them by means of wheel-barrows,
+pack-animals, and by equally primitive methods.
+
+The numerous rivers form an important means of communication. The
+Yangtze is now available to commerce a distance of 2,000 miles, and the
+opening of the Si Kiang (West River) adds a large area that is
+commercially tributary to Canton and Hongkong. The most important
+water-way is the Grand Canal, extending from Hang Chow to Tientsin. This
+canal is by no means a good one as compared with American and European
+standards. It was built not so much for the necessities of traffic, as
+to avoid the numerous pirate vessels that infest the coasts. Junks,
+row-boats, house-boats, and foreign steam craft are all employed for
+traffic. The internal water-ways aggregate about fifteen thousand miles
+in length.
+
+[Illustration: A TEA-PLANTATION--PICKING THE LEAVES]
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING THE LEAVES FOR ROASTING]
+
+[Illustration: TEA-BALES FOR EXPORT THROUGH RUSSIA]
+
+Of railways there were less than three hundred and fifty miles at the
+close of the century, the most important being the line from Tientsin to
+Peking. About five thousand miles are projected and under construction
+by American and European companies. A branch of the Transsiberian
+railway is under construction to Port Arthur. Telegraph and telephone
+lines have become popular and have been extended to the interior a
+considerable distance. There are upward of twenty thousand miles of wire
+communication, the most important, in many respects, being a direct
+overland line between Peking and European cities. Inasmuch as there are
+no letters in the Chinese language, the difficulties in using the Morse
+code of telegraphy are very great. In some cases the messages are
+translated into a foreign language before they are transmitted; in
+others, a thousand or more words in colloquial and commercial use are
+numbered, and the number is telegraphed instead of the word.
+
+Most of the business between the natives and foreigners is carried on by
+means of middlemen, or "compradors," and these include both the
+commission merchants and the native bankers. They are intelligent,
+thrifty, and trustworthy. They are the most capable merchants in Asia,
+and have few if any superiors among the merchants of western nations. A
+very large part of the retail trade of the Philippine Islands is carried
+on by Chinese merchants.
+
+The Chinese Empire consists of China and the five dependencies, as shown
+in the following table:
+
+  ---------------------+-------------+-------------
+                       |             | CAPITAL OR
+          STATE        | POPULATION  | CHIEF TOWN
+  ---------------------+-------------+-------------
+  China proper         | 380,000,000 | Peking
+  Manchuria            |   7,500,000 | Kirin
+  Tibet                |   6,000,000 | Lassa
+  Mongolia             |   2,000,000 | Urga
+  Jungaria             |     600,000 | Kur-kara-usu
+  Eastern Turkestan    |     600,000 | Yarkand
+  ---------------------+-------------+--------------
+
+The five dependencies are mainly arid, unproductive, and sparsely
+peopled. Their chief importance consists in the fact that they are
+"buffer states" between China proper and European states. They produce
+little except meat, wool, and live-stock.
+
+China proper is divided into provinces, each governed by a viceroy
+appointed by the throne. All business with foreign powers is transacted
+through a Foreign Office, the Wai-wu-pu (formerly the Tsung-li-Yamen).
+The government business is managed by a Grand Council whose members are
+advisers to the throne. The government is controlled mainly by Manchu
+officials.
+
+[Illustration: HONGKONG]
+
+Until within a few years China nominally allowed no foreign traders
+within her borders; recently, however, about forty cities, commonly
+known as "treaty ports," have been opened to the trade of foreign
+countries. Goods going inland any distance are required to pay a "liken"
+or internal tariff at the border of each province.
+
+Several concessions of territory within recent years have been forced
+from China by foreign powers: thus, Great Britain has Hongkong Island
+(with the peninsula of Kaulung) and Weihaiwei; Germany has Kiaochou on
+the bay of the same name; France has Kwang chau wan harbor. These
+concessions carry with them the control of the port and surrounding
+territory. The German concession includes the right to mine coal and
+iron, and to build railways within a territory of much larger extent. At
+the close of the war between Russia and Japan, the latter acquired Port
+Arthur, the gateway to Manchuria.
+
+Whatever may be the political significance of the opening of the treaty
+ports and the granting of the various concessions, the effect has been
+to increase the trade of the United States with China about twenty-fold.
+The imports from the United States consist mainly of cotton and cotton
+cloth, coal-oil, and flour. The chief exports to all countries are tea,
+silk goods, and porcelain ware. Most of those sent to the United States
+are landed at Seattle or San Francisco. Great Britain, through the port
+of Hongkong, has a larger trade than any other nation. Japan and the
+United States have most of the remaining trade.
+
+_Peking_, the capital, is politically, but not commercially, important.
+The part occupied by the foreign legations is modern and well kept.
+_Tientsin_, the port of Peking, is a larger city, with much more
+business. _Canton_, the largest city of the empire, and _Hongkong_, are
+the commercial centres of nearly all the British trade. Most of the
+American and Japanese trade centres at _Shanghai_. _Niuchwang_, on the
+Manchurian frontier, is important mainly as a strategic point. _Macao_,
+a Portuguese possession, is the open door of Portugal into China.
+
+The inland divisions of the Chinese Empire have but little commercial
+importance. Musk, wool, and skins are obtained from Tibet, into whose
+capital, _Lassa_, scarcely half-a-dozen Europeans have penetrated. The
+closed condition is due to the opposition of the Lamas, an order of
+Buddhist priests. Mongolia is a grazing region that supplies the Chinese
+border country with goats, sheep, and horses. It also supplies the
+camels required for the caravan tea-trade to the Russian frontiers.
+Eastern Turkestan is mainly a desert. _Kashgar_, the metropolis of the
+fertile portion, is the exchange market for Chinese and Russian
+products. Most of the mineral known as jade is obtained there. Manchuria
+is a grazing and wheat-growing country, exporting food stuffs and
+ginseng into China. _Harbin_, a Russian trading post, is connected with
+Peking and with European cities by railway.
+
+[Illustration: JAPAN AND KOREA]
+
+=Korea=, formerly a vassal of China, became an independent state after the
+war between China and Japan, this step being forced by Russia. The
+country is a natural market for Japanese manufactures, and in turn
+supplies Japan with a considerable amount of food-stuffs. _Chemulpo_ is
+the chief centre of its commerce.
+
+=Japan.=--Japan is an insular empire, the commercial part of which has
+about the same latitude as the Atlantic coast of the United States; the
+empire extends from Formosa to Kamchatka. It is sometimes called the
+"Great Britain of the East," and the people are also called the "Yankees
+of the East." Structurally, the chain of islands consists of ranges of
+volcanic mountains. The abundant rains, however, have made many fertile
+river-valleys, and have fringed most of the islands with coast-plains.
+
+Since the opening of Japan to foreigners the Japanese have so thoroughly
+adapted themselves to western commercial methods that they have become
+the dominating power in eastern Asia. Their influence has been greatly
+strengthened by a treaty for defensive purposes with Great Britain. A
+most excellent army and a modern navy make the alliance a strong one.
+The Japanese are better adapted to mould the commercial policy of China
+than any other people.
+
+With a population of more than half that of the United States, occupying
+an area not larger than the State of California, every square foot of
+available land must be cultivated. Yet the Japanese not only grow most
+of the food-stuffs they consume, but are able to export rice. There is
+scant facility for growing beef cattle, but fish very largely takes the
+place of beef. The cattle grown are used as draught-animals in farm
+labor. Ordinary dairy products are but little used.
+
+Rice, tea, and silk are the staple crops. Rice is grown on the coast
+lowlands, the west or rainy side[80] producing the larger crop. The
+Japanese crop is so superior that the larger part is exported, while an
+inferior Chinese grain is imported for home consumption. The quality of
+the Japanese rice is due to skilful cultivation.
+
+[Illustration: NATIVE PLOUGHING RICE-FIELDS]
+
+[Illustration: IRRIGATING A RICE-FIELD]
+
+[Illustration: RICE-FIELDS]
+
+Tea has become the staple crop, and is cultivated from Formosa to the
+forty-fifth parallel. Tea-farms occupy nearly every acre of the
+cultivable hill-side areas in some of the islands, and the soil is
+enriched with a fertilizer made from fish and fish refuse, dried and
+broken. Most of the tea product is made into green tea, and on account
+of its quality it commands a high price. Formosa tea is considered the
+best in the market.
+
+Silk culture is confined almost wholly to the island of Hondo. The raw
+silk is of superior quality, and the exported material is used mainly in
+the manufacture of ribbons and brocades. A limited amount of cotton is
+grown, but the staple is short, and its cultivation is not profitable
+except in a few localities.
+
+Among the forestry there is comparatively little timber suitable for
+building purposes, and a considerable amount of timber is purchased from
+the mills of Puget Sound. Bamboo is largely employed for buildings.
+Camphor is the product of a tree (_Camphora officinarum_) allied to the
+cinnamon and the sassafras. It is cultivated in the island of Kiushiu.
+The best gum, however, is now obtained from Formosa, and this island now
+controls the world's supply. The camphor product is a government
+monopoly leased to a British company.
+
+The lacquer-tree (_Rhus vernicifera_) grows mainly in the island of
+Hondo. The sap, after preparation, forms the most durable varnish known.
+Black lacquer is obtained by treating the sap with nutgalls. Lacquered
+wooden-ware is sold all over Europe and the United States. The lacquered
+surface is exceedingly hard and water-proof; it is not affected by
+climate.
+
+Gold, porcelain clay, silver, copper, and petroleum are mined. The gold
+and silver are used both for coinage and in the arts; the clay has made
+Japanese porcelains famous. The copper comes from the most productive
+mines of Asia; a considerable amount is exported, but much is used in
+the manufacture of Japanese bronze goods. Coal is mined, and this has
+given a great impetus to manufacture; iron ore is deficient, and steel
+must be imported. The quantity of petroleum is increasing yearly, and is
+becoming an important factor in the world's product.
+
+Manufacturing industries are giving shape to the industrial future of
+the country. The cotton-mills alone employ seventy thousand people and
+keep more than one million spindles busy. More than one million
+operatives are engaged in textile manufactures. Much of the cloth, both
+cotton and silk, is still woven on cottage looms. The cotton cloth is
+sold mainly in China and Korea; the surplus silk textiles find a ready
+market in the United States. The best straw matting used as a
+floor-covering is now made in Japan and constitutes a very important
+export.
+
+Three thousand miles of railway aid the internal industries of the
+country; several steamship lines to Hongkong and Shanghai, and one or
+more each to Vladivostok, Bombay, San Francisco, Seattle, Honolulu,
+Australia, and Vancouver (B.C.) carry the tea, raw silk, and
+manufactured products to Europe and America. Much, if not most, of the
+steamship interests are owned by the Japanese, and the lines are
+encouraged by government subsidies. France and the United States buy
+most of the raw silk. The latter country purchases most of the tea,
+sending coal-oil, cotton, leather, and lumber in return. Great Britain
+and Germany sell to the Japanese a large part of the textiles and the
+machinery they use. The exports to the United States are consigned
+mainly to San Francisco, New York and Seattle.
+
+_Tokio_ is the capital; _Yokohama_ is the chief port for American
+traffic, and the market for most of the foreign trade. Most of the trade
+between China and Japan centres at _Nagasaki_, which is the Japanese
+naval station. _Osaka_ and _Kioto_ are the chief centres of cotton and
+textile manufactures.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+How has the policy of seclusion affected the commercial development of
+China?
+
+What has been its effect on the social life of the people?
+
+How did the cultivation of opium in India become a factor in the opening
+of China to foreign trade?
+
+What is meant by "treaty ports"? Make a list of those shown on the map
+of eastern China.
+
+Name two Chinese statesmen who have been factors in the relations
+between China and the United States.
+
+Compare the position of Japan with that of the British Isles with
+reference to commerce.
+
+What advantages has Japan with reference to latitude?--what
+disadvantages with reference to cultivable lands?
+
+From the Statesman's Year-Book find the leading exports and imports and
+the volume of trade of these states.
+
+From the Abstract of Statistics find the leading articles of trade
+between these states and the United States.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From a cyclopaedia read the following topics: The opium war, Commodore
+Perry's expedition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+AFRICA
+
+
+Africa is in a state of commercial transition. During the last quarter
+of the nineteenth century the partition of its area among European
+nations left but few of the names that formerly were familiar. At the
+beginning of the twentieth century the British, French, and Germans
+controlled the greater part of the continent, although the Portuguese,
+Belgians, Italians, and Spanish have various possessions.
+
+The partition of Africa was designed for the expansion of European
+markets. The population of Africa is about one hundred and seventy
+million, and the continent is practically without manufacturing
+enterprises. The people, therefore, must be supplied with clothing and
+other commodities. In 1900 the total trade of Africa with the rest of
+the world was about one and one-third billion dollars, of which the
+United States had a little more than two per cent., mainly cotton cloth
+and coal-oil.
+
+=Egypt.=--The Egypt of the maps is a region of indefinite extent so far as
+its western and southern boundaries are concerned; the Egypt of history
+is the flood plain of the Nile. From the Mediterranean Sea to Cairo the
+cultivable area is not far from one hundred miles in width; from Cairo
+to Khartum it varies from three to seven or eight miles wide.
+
+[Illustration: AFRICA]
+
+The food-producing power of Egypt depends on the Nile. In lower Egypt a
+considerable area is made productive at the ordinary stage of water by
+means of irrigating canals, but in upper Egypt the crops must depend
+upon the annual flood of the river, which occurs from June until
+September. During this period the river varies from twenty-five to forty
+feet above the low-water mark. In the irrigated regions three crops a
+year may be produced; in the flooded lands only one is grown.
+
+In order to add to the cultivable area two great engineering works have
+been constructed. A barrage and lock control the flow of water at
+Assiut; a huge dam at Assuan impounds the surplus of the flood season.
+These structures, it is thought, will increase the productive power of
+the country about one-fourth. Rice, maize (an Egyptian variety), sugar,
+wheat, and beans are the staple crops.
+
+Rice is the food of the native people, but the crop is insufficient, and
+the deficit must be imported. The wheat, maize, and beans are grown for
+export to Europe, the last named being extensively used for
+horse-fodder. The sugar-growing industry is protected by the heavy yield
+and the cheap fellahin labor. The raw sugar is sent to the refineries
+along the Mediterranean. Onions are exported to the United States.
+
+The cotton-crop is an important factor, and in spite of its own crop the
+United States is a heavy purchaser of the long-staple Egyptian cotton,
+which is used in the manufacture of thread and hosiery. The cultivation
+of tobacco is forbidden by law, but Egyptian cigarettes are an item of
+considerable importance. They are made of imported Turkish tobacco by
+foreign workmen. There is a heavy export duty on native tobacco
+exported, and the ban on the inferior native-grown article is intended
+to prevent its admixture with the high-grade product from Turkey, and
+thereby to keep up the standard of the cigarettes.
+
+Egypt is nominally a vassal of Turkey, paying to the Sultan a yearly
+tribute of $3,600,000. Great Britain's is the real controlling hand,
+because the Suez Canal is Great Britain's gateway to India. By a
+purchase of the stock held by a former Khedive, Great Britain secured
+financial control of the canal, a necessary step from the fact that more
+than half the trade carried through the canal is British commerce.
+
+The country is deficient in the resources that make most nations
+powerful. There is neither coal, iron, nor timber available, and these
+must be imported. Great Britain supplies the first, and Norway the last.
+Some traffic is carried on the Nile, but railways have been built
+through the crop-lands. One of these threads the Nile Valley and will
+become a part of the "Cape to Cairo" route.
+
+_Alexandria_ is the port at which most of the Egyptian commerce lands.
+_Cairo_, the largest city of Africa, derives its importance from its
+position at the head of the Nile delta. It is a favorite winter-resort.
+_Port Said_ and _Suez_ are the terminal ports of the Suez Canal; their
+commerce is mainly the transit trade of the canal.
+
+=Other Independent States.=--Most of the independent states of Africa are
+in a condition of barbarism and have but little importance to the rest
+of the world. Abyssinia has the natural advantages of gold, iron,
+pasture-lands, and forestry, and the possibilities of cotton
+cultivation. Valuable mining concessions have been granted to foreign
+companies. Ivory, coffee, and gold are shipped to India in exchange for
+textiles. A railway from the coast is under construction, but all the
+traffic is carried by mule-trains, mainly to _Harrar_.
+
+Morocco has an admirable strategic position at the entrance of the
+Strait of Gibraltar, and is most likely, in time, to become a possession
+of Spain. There are exported, mainly to Great Britain, beans, almonds,
+goat-skins, and wool. The goat-skins are sumac-tanned and are still
+used in making the best book-binding leather. Only a small part of the
+so-called Morocco leather of commerce is genuine. There are no railways;
+caravan routes from the Sahara cross the country. _Tangier_ and one or
+two other ports are open to foreign trade. Coal-oil is the only import
+from the United States.
+
+The state of Liberia was established for the benefit of freed slaves
+from the United States. The products are those of tropical Africa,
+including caoutchouc. Coffee cultivation is extensively carried on, and
+coffee is the leading export. _Monrovia_ is the chief centre of trade.
+
+=North African Possessions.=--French influence is paramount in northern
+Africa. Algeria and Tunis are both French colonies, and the caravan
+trade of the Sahara is generally tributary to French trade. The region
+known as the Tell, a strip between the coast and the Atlas Mountains, is
+the chief agricultural region, and the products are similar to those on
+the other side of the Mediterranean Sea. The ordinary grains are grown
+for home consumption, but the macaroni wheat crop is manufactured into
+macaroni paste for export. The fruit-crop, especially the olive, date,
+and grape, and their products, is exported.
+
+Esparto grass, for making paper, was formerly an important export, but
+the increasing use of wood-pulp for this purpose has had the effect of
+increasing the grazing area, and therefore the wool-crop. Date-palms
+grow in great profusion, and the excess forms an important export, going
+to nearly every part of Europe and the United States. A large part of
+the crop, however, is consumed by the Arabs. Sumac-tanned goat-skins,
+for book-binding leather, are also exported.
+
+The colonies must import coal. Manufactures are therefore restricted to
+the preparation of the fruit and food products. Sponges are an
+important product. Railways provide the necessary transportation for the
+crops. _Algiers_, the metropolis, is a finely built city and a favorite
+winter-resort. _Oran_ is the shipping-port for grain and esparto grass.
+_Biskra_ is the market for dates.
+
+The caravan trade of northern Africa is considerable, and the greater
+part converges at _Tripoli_, to which not far from ten thousand
+camel-loads of merchandise are brought annually. This trade is carried
+on mainly by the Arabs, who cover the region from _Timbuctu_ to Lake
+Chad. They bring ivory, ostrich feathers, gold, goat-skins, and slaves.
+In return they carry cloth, fire-arms, ammunition, and various
+commodities to the negro villages of the Sudan. The district is a
+possession of Turkey. Its chief exports are esparto grass, sponges, and
+dye-stuffs.
+
+=Central Africa.=--Central Africa is divided among the chief European
+powers. Great Britain and Germany divide the lake-region and the
+Zanzibar coast. On the Guinea coast the French are an additional factor.
+The trade of these regions consists of an exchange of tropical
+products--palm-oil, rubber, ebony, camwood, ivory, and hides--for cloth,
+tobacco, fire-arms, beads and trinkets, and preserved foods. Most of
+this trade is carried on by companies holding royal charters.
+
+The Kongo State is a semi-official corporation of this character, the
+King of the Belgians being its chief executive officer. The active
+administration is carried on by agents of the company. The chief of each
+tribe or village is required, under penalty, to furnish a certain quota
+of crude rubber and other products; and between the agent and the Arab
+slave-driver the natives have little to choose.
+
+The Kongo River is the outlet of the state, and to facilitate the
+transportation of the products, railways have been built, or are under
+construction, around the rapids. This region is about the only
+remaining source of elephant ivory, but most of the supply consists of
+the tusks of animals long since dead. A fleet of steamboats carries the
+commercial products to the coast. _Stanley Pool_, at the head of the
+rapids, is the chief depot for collection. Ocean steamships ascend the
+river to a point above _Boma_, the place of administration.
+
+Nigeria and Ashanti are British possessions on the Guinea coast,[81]
+having a trading company organization. Sierra Leone is an organized
+colony, a product of which is the kola-nut. British East Africa is
+important for strategic purposes, inasmuch as it includes the upper Nile
+basin, a territory sometimes known as the Egyptian Sudan. _Akra_ is the
+trading port of Nigeria, and _Khartum_ of the upper Nile Valley.
+_Zanzibar_ is the metropolis of the east coast.
+
+The French possessions include a large territory at the mouth of the
+Kongo, the western part of the Sahara, and the islands of Madagascar and
+Reunion. In German East Africa the commercial development has been
+substantial, and large plantations for the cultivation of tropical
+products are in operation. A railway from the coast to the lake-district
+is under construction. _Mombasa_ is its commercial outlet.
+
+The Italians have nominal possession of a territory facing the Strait of
+Bab-el-Mandeb, and also of the peninsula of Guardafui. Their actual
+possession, however, is restricted to the island and trading-post of
+_Massawa_. Their attempts to conquer Abyssinia have been unsuccessful.
+
+=Cape of Good Hope and the South African Colonies.=--Up to the time of the
+Suez Canal, Cape of Good Hope was a sort of half-way house between
+British ports and India, and this position made it commercially
+important. Even at the present time more than fifteen hundred vessels,
+many of them in the Indian Ocean trade, call at the chief port of the
+colony every year.
+
+Agriculture is the chief industry of these colonies, though not the one
+yielding the greatest returns. Enough wheat, maize (or "mealies"), and
+fruit are grown for home consumption, but the climate is too arid for
+any excess of bread-stuffs. The aridity is a resource, however, in the
+matter of wool, the superior quality of which is due largely to the
+deficient rainfall. As a matter of fact the whole country is a great
+grazing veldt; wool, a very fine quality of Angora mohair, hides, and
+cattle products are exports.
+
+From December to March the fruits ripen, and these, especially the
+grapes, are carried in cold-storage vessels to British and other
+European ports. The wine is likewise of excellent quality and is
+becoming an export of great value. Both the fruit and the wine are
+similar to those of Australia and California.
+
+The business of ostrich farming is in the hands of several large
+companies, and, next to the wool-crop, ostrich plumes are the leading
+product. There are about a quarter of a million birds, and each produces
+about one pound of feathers. The ordinary quality of plumes varies from
+five to ten dollars a pound; very choice plumes command as much as two
+hundred dollars a pound. London is the chief market for them, but most
+of them sooner or later find their way to the milliners of the great
+cities.
+
+The diamond-mines of Griqualand West furnish practically the whole of
+the world's supply. The mines are operated on a most thorough business
+system, and the output of rough stones is carefully regulated to meet
+the demand. All wholesale dealers know the output from year to year, and
+no more stones are put upon the market than the number required to meet
+the demand. All the Kimberley mines are now consolidated under one
+company. The yearly output does not vary much from twenty million
+dollars' worth of stones. The stones are marketed from Kimberley, but
+London dealers buy most of them.
+
+The mines that for several years produced more gold than any others in
+existence are in the Transvaal.[82] Other undeveloped mines in the
+territory of Rhodesia are known to be extremely rich in precious metals;
+indeed, there is much evidence that the famous mines of Ophir were in
+this region. Copper ore is an important export.
+
+The industries of Natal colony do not differ materially from those of
+Cape of Good Hope. The rainfall is sufficient for the growing of
+sugar-cane, and sugar is an important export to the mother-country. The
+colony has productive coal-mines, and these are destined to become an
+important resource.
+
+The home government has encouraged railway building, and a trunk line
+through Rhodesia affords an outlet to the ports of the south coast. It
+is the policy of the mother-country to extend this road along the
+lake-region and the Nile Valley (known as the "Great Rift") to the
+Mediterranean Sea. This plan when carried out will give Great Britain a
+practical control of the trade of eastern Africa. The imports are mainly
+textiles, machinery, and steel wares.
+
+_Cape Town_ is the most important centre of trade in South Africa. A
+considerable trade, however, is carried on at _Port Elizabeth_ and at
+_Durban_, the port of Natal. _Kimberley_ is the seat of the
+diamond-mining interests, and _Johannesberg_ of the gold-mines.
+
+Germany and Portugal divide the southwest coast. _Walfisch Bay_ is the
+outlet of the former. Portuguese East Africa is an outlet for the trade
+of the Transvaal region, with which it is connected by rail. The port
+_Lourenco Marquez_ has a fine harbor.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+Has the partition of Africa been an advantage or a disadvantage to the
+native races of the continent?
+
+What advantages will accrue to Great Britain from the Cape to Cairo
+railway?
+
+Compare the basin of the Kongo with that of the Amazon with respect to
+climate, products, and civilization.
+
+From Commercial Africa prepare a list of the exports and imports between
+the United States and the various African countries.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+Statesman's Year-Book.
+
+Commercial Africa--pp. 3679 and following.
+
+From a cyclopaedia read the following topics: Ivory, Suez Canal,
+Gibraltar, Livingstone, Diamonds, Canary Islands.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+OCEANIA
+
+
+Oceania, the island division of the world, includes Australasia and the
+great groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. Some of the larger islands
+are regions of great productivity; others are important as
+coaling-stations; still others have positions of great strategic value.
+
+When it is considered that more than half the people in the world live
+on the slopes of the Pacific Ocean, and that they depend on the
+metal-working and manufacturing people of the Atlantic slopes for
+clothing and commodities, it is apparent that the commerce of the
+Pacific Ocean must reach enormous proportions.
+
+For this reason the various island groups of Oceania have been acquired
+by Europeans, and from the moment of their occupation their commercial
+development began. The great majority of these groups are within the
+limits of the sago-palm, bread-fruit, cocoanut, and banana, and these
+yield not only the food-stuffs of the native people, but the export
+products as well. Copra, or dried cocoanut meat, is the general export.
+It is marketed in Marseille, London, and San Francisco. Sago is prepared
+from the pith of a species of palm. Considerable quantities are also
+exported, and it is used as a table delicacy. The banana is the
+food-stuff upon which many millions of people must depend. In spite of
+their small aggregate area, the food-producing power of these islands is
+very great.[83]
+
+On account of its central position, Honolulu, the capital and chief
+port of Hawaii, is the most important mid-ocean station of the Pacific.
+It is almost in the direct line of traffic between the Pacific ports of
+the United States and Canada on the one hand, and those of Australia,
+Japan and China on the other. It is also in the route of vessels that
+may hereafter use the American isthmian canal in going between European
+and Asian ports.
+
+In the cultivation of export products native Malay labor is almost
+always employed, inasmuch as Europeans cannot bear out-of-door labor in
+the tropics. The natives are generally known as "Kanakas," and there is
+not a little illicit traffic in their labor. Chinese and Japanese
+coolies are also employed as laborers.
+
+=The Commonwealth of Australia.=--The commonwealth of Australia consists
+of the various states of Australia together with Tasmania. Their
+position corresponds very closely to that of Mexico and Central America,
+and the climate and products are not unlike. A considerable part of
+Australia is a desert, and a large area is too arid for the production
+of bread-stuffs; the eastern coast, however, receives abundant rains.
+
+Australia produces nearly one-third of the wool-clip of the world. On
+account of the climate, the quality of the wool, much of it merino, is
+excellent. More than half the clip comes from New South Wales.
+Two-thirds of the wool goes to Great Britain to be manufactured; nearly
+all the rest is purchased by France, Germany, and Belgium. Less than two
+per cent. is sold to the United States.
+
+Since the introduction of cold-storage plants in steamships, Australia
+has become a heavy exporter of meat. Areas long unproductive are now
+cattle-ranges; mutton constitutes the heaviest shipment. Inasmuch as the
+transportation is almost wholly by water, the cost is very light, and
+the mutton can be sold to London dealers at less than four cents per
+pound.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMERCE OF THE PACIFIC]
+
+[Illustration: AUSTRALIA]
+
+Wheat is grown mainly for home consumption. Grapes for wine and for
+raisins are good-paying crops in Victoria and New South Wales. Both
+products find a ready market in Great Britain. Australian claret is a
+strong competitor of California claret for public favor, and the two are
+similar in character. Cane-sugar is grown in the moist regions of
+Queensland; it is the chief supply of the commonwealth and the
+neighboring islands. The forests produce an abundance of hard woods, but
+practically no building-timber. Jarrah wood paving-blocks are an
+important export. British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon supply much
+of the building-timber.
+
+Gold has been the chief mineral product since the settlement of the
+country. The mints convert the metal into coin. As a rule the value of
+the exports exceeds that of the imports, and the excess swells the
+amount of metal exported. The most productive mines are in the district
+of Ballarat. Coal is abundant on the east coast, and a considerable part
+is sold to California, and more to Asian ports. Tin is extensively mined
+in Tasmania.
+
+More than fifteen thousand miles of railway have been built to carry the
+traffic of the country. Most of them were built by private corporations,
+but on account of financial difficulties and poor service they were
+acquired by the government. The policy proved a wise one.
+
+Great Britain encourages the trade of her colonies, and gets about
+three-fourths of the traffic of the commonwealth, the imports being
+manufactured goods. Of the foreign trade the United States has about
+half, nearly all of which is landed at San Francisco and Puget
+Sound. Wool, cattle products, and coal are exported to the United
+States, and the latter sends to Australia structural steel--mainly
+rails--printing-paper, and coal-oil.
+
+_Melbourne_ is the largest city. _Sydney_ is the port at which most of
+the ocean trade is landed. _Brisbane_, mainly a coal and a wool market,
+is connected with British Columbia by an ocean cable. Steamships by way
+of the Suez Canal generally call at _Perth_ and _Adelaide_. _Hobart_ and
+_Launcestown_ are the markets of Tasmania.
+
+=New Zealand.=--This colony is one of the most prosperous and best
+administered states in existence. The cultivable lands produce enough
+wheat for home use, and an excess for export. Cattle and sheep are the
+chief resource, however, and pretty nearly everything--meat, hides,
+wool, horn, and bones--is exported. Dairy products are not forgotten,
+and under the management of an association, these are of the best
+quality.
+
+New Zealand flax (_Phormium tenax_), a kind of marsh hemp, yields a
+fibre used in making cordage. The kauri pine furnishes the chief supply
+of lumber. A fossil kauri gum is collected for export; it makes a
+varnish almost equal to Japanese lacquer. Gold is mined, and there being
+no mint, all the bullion is exported. The only manufactures are those
+which are connected with the meat export and the dairy industry. The
+exports noted more than pay for the manufactured goods. Most of the
+trade is carried on with Great Britain. _Wellington_, the capital, and
+_Auckland_ are the centres of trade.
+
+=New Guinea.=--This island, one of the largest in the world, is somewhat
+larger than the State of Texas, or about one-third larger than Germany
+or France. The gold-mines first led to the exploration and settlement of
+the island, but it was soon apparent that the agricultural resources
+were even more valuable, and it was divided among the British, Germans,
+and Dutch.
+
+The western part of the island is distinctly Asian in character; the
+eastern and southern parts resemble Australia. Coffee, rice, and tobacco
+plantations have been established in the former; grazing is the chief
+industry in the latter. Ebony and bamboo are among the forest products.
+
+=British Possessions.=--The Fiji Islands are among the most important
+British possessions. They number about eighty habitable and twice as
+many small islands. Sugar is the chief export product, and it goes
+mainly to Australia and New Zealand. Cocoanuts are also a large item of
+export trade. _Suva_ is the chief trading-port.
+
+The Tonga Islands are nominally independent, but are practically a
+British protectorate. Among other British possessions are Cook, Gilbert,
+and Ellice archipelagoes, and Pitcairn Island.
+
+=German Possessions.=--The Samoa Islands are perhaps the most important
+German possession, and German planters have made them highly productive.
+They were formerly held under a community-of-interest plan by Great
+Britain, Germany, and the United States. A joint commission awarded the
+greater part of the territory to Germany. In addition to the ordinary
+products, pineapples and limes are exported. Most of the trade is
+carried on by way of Australia. _Apia_ is the trading-port.
+
+Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon, Marshall, and Caroline groups
+have also been acquired by Germany. The last named was purchased from
+Spain at the close of the Spanish-American War.
+
+=French Possessions.=--New Caledonia, together with Loyalty Islands,
+Fortuna, and the New Hebrides group, have great wealth in the matter of
+resources. New Caledonia, a penal colony, has productive mines of chrome
+iron ore and copper. It is the source of a considerable supply of nickel
+and cobalt. A railway to the coast has been built for the carriage of
+these products.
+
+Tahiti is the principal island of the Society group, and under the
+missions long established there, the natives have become civilized. In
+addition to the usual trade, sugar and mother-of-pearl are important
+exports.
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
+
+How will the commerce of the Pacific be changed by the construction of
+an isthmian canal?
+
+What has been the effect of the Australian wool-clip on the cloth-making
+industry of England and Germany?
+
+How will the acquisition of Hawaii and the Philippine Islands affect the
+commerce of the United States?
+
+From Commercial Australia find the trade of the United States with the
+Commonwealth.
+
+
+FOR COLLATERAL READING AND REFERENCE
+
+From a cyclopaedia read the history of Australia as a convict colony.
+
+Commercial Australia.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+TRADE OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD AT THE BEGINNING OF THE
+TWENTIETH CENTURY
+
+
+                                            Sells        Buys
+  Country      Imports       Exports       to U.S.     from U.S.
+  Argentina  $110,000,000  $161,850,000  $10,000,000  $11,000,000
+  Australia   201,000,000   224,000,000    5,263,000   28,164,000
+  Austria-
+    Hungary   335,486,000   383,748,000   10,000,000    6,844,000
+  Belgium     428,651,000   352,850,000   14,920,000   51,444,000
+  Bolivia       5,845,000    15,618,000           22      120,000
+  Brazil       97,330,000   165,461,000   64,914,000   11,517,000
+  Canada      181,238,000   177,443,000   42,482,000  105,790,000
+  Chile        46,916,000    61,201,000    7,474,000    4,507,000
+  China       203,421,000   124,528,000   18,126,000   18,176,000
+  Colombia     10,695,000    18,487,000    4,811,000    2,924,000
+  Cuba         66,584,000    63,278,000   46,664,000   27,007,000
+  Denmark     111,542,000    75,549,000      797,000   15,500,000
+  Ecuador       6,541,000     7,509,000    1,578,000    1,590,000
+  Egypt        75,366,000    77,754,000    8,867,000    1,321,000
+  France      843,255,000   774,497,000   81,315,000   78,406,000
+  Germany   1,290,254,000 1,054,685,000   99,970,000  184,679,000
+  Greece       26,782,000    18,100,000    1,447,000      286,000
+  India,
+    British   264,318,000   392,025,000   47,172,000    5,647,000
+  India,
+    Dutch      67,755,000   100,632,000   32,309,000    1,653,000
+  India,
+    French     36,576,000    30,513,000      ...          118,000
+  Italy       331,668,000   265,270,000   27,631,000   34,046,000
+  Japan       127,397,000   124,209,000   36,855,000   21,163,000
+  Mexico       64,036,000    77,583,000   17,273,000   83,722,000
+  Netherlands 815,442,000   695,763,000   17,273,000   83,722,000
+  Norway       83,255,000    43,616,000      ...          ...
+  Peru         11,276,000    21,890,000    2,911,000    2,312,000
+  Philippine
+    Islands    30,279,000    23,215,000    4,421,000    4,027,000
+  Portugal     62,497,000    30,546,000    3,642,000    4,454,000
+  Roumania     41,878,000    54,041,000      101,000       31,000
+  Russia      269,493,000   375,276,000    7,236,000    6,506,000
+  Spain       161,867,000   129,399,000    7,041,000   16,786,000
+  Sweden      143,363,000   104,878,000    4,370,000   11,521,000
+  Switzerland 202,651,000   161,458,000   16,035,000      233,000
+  Turkey      103,110,000    64,876,000    2,437,000      184,000
+  United
+    Kingdom 2,540,265,000  1,362,729,000 155,292,000  598,767,000
+  United
+    States    903,321,000  1,355,482,000     ...          ...
+  Uruguay      24,497,000     28,674,000   1,975,000    1,481,000
+  Venezuela     8,457,000     17,962,000   6,610,000    2,737,000
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acapulco, 269
+
+Acre, 281
+
+Activities classified, 4
+
+Adams, 220
+
+Aden, 354
+
+Adjustment to environment, 86
+
+Afghanistan, 355
+
+Alaska, 254
+
+Alberta, 265
+
+Alexandria, 384
+
+Alfa, 124
+
+Algeria, 385
+
+Alpaca, 111, 115
+
+Altitude, effects of, 32
+
+Aluminium, 179
+
+Amazon River, 53
+
+Amber, 146
+
+Ambergris, 204
+
+American Indians, 86
+
+Amritsar, 362
+
+Amsterdam, 318
+
+Anaconda, 250
+
+Anchovy, 207
+
+Angora wool, 115
+
+Anthracite coal, 224
+
+Appalachian region, 222
+
+Arabia, 354
+
+Argentina, 291
+
+Arid region of U.S., 240
+
+Arkwright, 108
+
+Asian Rivers, navigation of, 53
+
+Asphalt, 157
+
+Assiniboia, 265
+
+Astrakhan, 347
+
+Athens, 341
+
+Atlanta, 239
+
+Atlantic coast-plain, 213, 221
+
+Attar-of-roses, 338
+
+Australia, 392
+
+Austria-Hungary, 335
+
+Bagdad, 354
+
+Baku, 347, 348
+
+Baltimore, 217
+
+Baluchistan, 357
+
+Banca, 181, 364
+
+Barbados, 273
+
+Barley, 101
+
+Barmen-Elberfeld, 308
+
+Batavia, 364
+
+Bauxite, 179
+
+Beef, exports of U.S., 244
+
+Beet sugar, 186, 303, 321
+
+Beginnings of cities, 82
+
+Belgium, 313
+
+Belgrade, 341
+
+Bengal, 361
+
+Benzine, 156
+
+Bergen, 312
+
+Berlin, 308
+
+Bermuda, 273
+
+Bessemer-steel boilers, 63
+
+Big tree, 198
+
+Billiton, 364
+
+Birmingham, Ala., 165, 225
+
+Birmingham, Eng., 302
+
+Bismarck Archipelago, 397
+
+Black walnut, 199
+
+Blende, 182
+
+Bluefish, 206
+
+Boers, 86
+
+Bogota, 277
+
+Bohemian glass, 336
+
+Boise City, 250
+
+Bokhara, 347
+
+Bolivia, 280
+
+Bombay, 362
+
+Bosnia, 337
+
+Boston, 215
+
+Boxwood, 200
+
+Brass, 178
+
+Brazil, 288
+  nuts, 289
+
+Breakfast, travels of a, 1
+
+Bremen, 308
+
+Brenner Pass, 66
+
+Brick tea, 134
+
+Bridgeport, 221
+
+British Columbia, 265
+  India, 358
+
+Bronze Age, 181
+
+Brussels, 316
+
+Budapest, 337
+
+Buenos Aires, 293
+
+Buffalo, 225
+
+Bulgaria, 338
+
+Burlington, 237
+
+Burma, British, 362
+
+Burr clover, 34
+
+Butte, 250
+
+
+Cacao, 134
+
+Cairo, 384
+
+Calcutta, 123
+
+California fruits, 251
+
+Callao, 279
+
+Camel's hair, 116
+
+Camphor, 378
+
+Canada, 261
+
+Canadian Pacific Railway, 263
+
+Canal, Chesapeake & Ohio, 56
+  Chicago ship, 56
+  Erie, 55
+  Grand, 370
+  Kaiser Wilhelm, 57
+  Ludwig, 337
+  Manchester, 57
+  Nicaragua, 59, 270
+  Nord Holland, 57, 318
+  Panama, 58
+  Rideau, 54
+  St. Mary's Falls, 228, 263
+  Suez, 57
+  Welland, 54, 263
+
+Canyons, effects of, 18
+
+Canton, 374
+
+Caoutchouc, 141
+
+Capacity of locomotives, 63, 64
+
+Cape Nome, 254
+
+Cape of Good Hope, 387
+
+Cape Town, 389
+
+Caravan tea, 134
+
+Carpet wools, 112
+
+Cashmere shawls, 363
+
+Cattle-growing, 240
+
+Cavite, 258
+
+Cereals, 88
+
+Charleston, 218
+
+Cheviot, 112
+
+Cheyenne, 244
+
+Chicago, 84, 228, 230, 234
+
+Chicago River, 228
+
+Chicory, 131
+
+Chile, 281
+
+Chinook winds, 261
+
+Chocolate, 136
+
+Cigars, manufacture of, 137
+
+Cincinnati, 236
+
+Cities, growth of, 83
+
+Clearing-houses, 215
+
+Cleveland, 225, 230
+
+Climate, 29
+
+Clipper ship, 44
+
+Cloth, antiquity of, 105
+
+Coal, 148, 257, 258, 264, 265, 268, 298, 323, 333, 344, 365, 368, 379
+  areas of the world, 147
+  prices of, in U.S., 149
+  tar products, 153
+
+Coast commerce of U.S., 222
+
+Coastplains, 22
+
+Coca, 278
+
+Cocoa, 134
+
+Cocoon silk, 119
+
+Cod fisheries, 204
+
+Coffee, 127, 271, 277, 290
+
+Coke, 151
+
+Colombia, 275
+
+Columbus, voyages of, 11
+
+Commerce in Western Europe, 13
+
+Communal life, 81, 344
+
+Competition and pools, 67
+
+Constantinople, 340
+
+Copal, 146
+
+Copenhagen, 313
+
+Copper, 159, 162, 177, 248, 266, 279, 344, 379
+
+Cordage, 122
+
+Corn, 98, 232
+
+Corn, oil of, 100
+
+Cotton, 106, 238, 269, 289, 302, 306, 326
+
+Cotton, Egyptian, 109, 383
+  gin, 109
+  Indian, 360
+  Peruvian, 108, 278
+  sea island, 108
+
+Cotton crop, distribution of, 239
+
+Creosote, 145
+
+Cripple Creek, 248
+
+Crompton, 108
+
+Crusades, wars of, 8
+
+Cuba, 271
+  bast, 124
+
+Currant grapes, 341
+
+
+Da Gama, voyage of, 11
+
+Dammar, 146
+
+Davenport, 237
+
+Deadwood, 250
+
+Demerara, 286
+
+Denmark, 312
+
+Denver, 250
+
+Detroit, 230
+
+Diamonds, 388
+
+Dias, voyage of, 11
+
+Differentials, 71, 73
+
+Divi-divi, 285
+
+Division of industries, 41
+
+Dubuque, 237
+
+Dutch East Indies, 364
+  standards, 188
+
+
+Eastern Turkestan, 376
+
+Ebony, 200
+
+Economic regions of U.S., 213
+
+Ecuador, 279
+
+Egypt, 381
+
+Electric railways, 76
+
+Eminent domain, 76
+
+Esparto grass, 124, 385
+
+Exchange of products, 5
+
+
+Fairs, 346
+
+Fall line, 53, 221
+
+Fall River, 220
+
+Felt hats, 209
+
+Fertility of irrigated regions, 33
+
+Feudalism, 7
+
+Fiji Islands, 396
+
+Fisheries, 266
+
+Fish hatcheries, 207
+
+Flax, 120, 300, 314, 343
+  New Zealand, 124
+
+Forced draught, 63
+
+Forest areas, 193, 261, 288, 299, 310
+
+Fort Dearborn, 228
+
+France, 320
+
+Freight rates, 63, 69
+
+French India, 365
+
+
+Galveston, 238
+
+Gasoline, 156
+
+Geneva, 334
+
+German Empire, 303
+
+Ghent, 314, 316
+
+Glucose, 100, 191
+
+Gold, 166, 172, 248, 264, 268, 286, 344, 379, 395
+
+Grain elevators, 94
+
+Grape industry in New York, 36
+
+Graphite, 153
+
+Grasses, 88
+
+Great Britain, 295
+
+Great Central Plain, 22
+
+Great Lakes, 227
+
+Great Salt Lake, 247
+
+Greece, 340
+
+Griqualand West, 388
+
+Guam, 258
+
+Guatemala, 270
+
+Guayaquil, 280
+
+Guiana, 286
+
+Gulf coast, 237
+
+Gums, 141
+
+Gutta-percha, 144
+
+
+Halibut, 256
+
+Halifax, 264
+
+Hamburg, 308
+
+Hamilton, 265
+
+Hanse League, 13
+
+Harbors, 26, 47, 84
+
+Hargreaves, 109
+
+Hartford, 221
+
+Havana, 272
+  cigars, 137
+
+Hawaiian Islands, 255
+
+Helena, 250
+
+Hematite, 163
+
+Hemp, 121, 257
+
+Henequen, 122
+
+Herodotus quoted, 106
+
+Herring fisheries, 205
+
+Herzegovina, 337
+
+Hickory, 199
+
+Hilo, 256
+
+Hodeida, 130
+
+Holland, 316
+
+Hongkong, 365, 374
+
+Honolulu, 256, 392
+
+Houston, 238
+
+Hudson's Bay Company, 208, 262
+
+
+Iloilo, 258
+
+Inclination of axis, 36
+
+Indianapolis, 237
+
+Inland waters, 50
+
+Intermontane valleys, 18
+
+Interstate Commerce Commission, 76
+
+Iodine, 282
+
+Iquique, 283
+
+Iran plateau, 349
+
+Ireland, 265
+
+Irkutsk, 347
+
+Iron, 162, 236, 300, 323
+  galvanized, 182
+  ore, 163, 166, 300, 306, 311, 315, 323
+
+Iron Gate, 338
+
+Italy, 325
+
+
+Jade, 159
+
+Japan, 375
+
+Jarrah, 200, 394
+
+Java, 364
+
+Joint tariff associations, 72
+
+Jute, 122, 360
+
+
+Kabue, 356
+
+Kansas City, 236
+
+Kashmir, 363
+
+Kauri, 146, 396
+
+Kerosene, 154, 157
+
+Key West cigars, 137
+
+Khaibar Pass, 356
+
+Khiva, 347
+
+Kiakhta, 347
+
+Kiel, 309
+
+Kimberley, 389, 390
+
+Klondike mines, 254
+
+Kongo River, navigation of, 54
+
+Kongo State, 386
+
+Korea, 376
+
+Kristiania, 311, 312
+
+
+Lac, 145
+
+Lacquer, 378
+
+La Guaira, 286
+
+Lanolin, 114
+
+Lassa, 374
+
+Las Vegas, 250
+
+Laudanum, 139
+
+Lawrence, 220
+
+Lead, 180
+
+Lead pencils, 153
+
+Leadville, 250
+
+Leather goods, 221
+
+Liechtenstein, 337
+
+Lignum vitae, 200
+
+Lithographic stone, 305
+
+Liverpool, 302
+
+Llama, 115
+
+Lobster fisheries, 207
+
+Locomotive, Central-Atlantic type, 64
+
+Logwood, 201
+
+London, 302
+
+Los Angeles, 157, 252
+
+Louisville, 237
+
+Lourenco Marquez, 390
+
+Lowell, 220
+
+Lynn, 221
+
+
+Macao, 374
+
+Mackerel, 206
+
+Mackintosh, 143
+
+Madagascar, 387
+
+Madras, 363
+
+Magnetite, 163
+
+Maguey sugar, 187
+
+Mahogany, 199
+
+Malay States, Federated, 363
+
+Manchester, Eng., 382
+
+Manchester, N.H., 220
+
+Manchuria, 376
+
+Mandalay, 362
+
+Manganese, 182
+
+Manila, 258
+  hemp, 121
+
+Manitoba, 265
+
+Maple, 199
+  sugar, 186
+
+Marco Polo, 9
+
+Martinique, 273
+
+Mate, 136
+
+Maverick, 240
+
+Melbourne, 395
+
+Memphis, 238
+
+Merino wool, 111, 112
+
+Metals, influence of, in cities, 85
+
+Mexico, 267
+  city of, 269
+
+Milan, 328
+
+Mileage books, 72
+
+Millet, 359
+
+Milwaukee, 230
+
+Mingo Junction, 224
+
+Mining, 248
+
+Minneapolis, 230, 236
+
+Miquelon, 266
+
+Mississippi River, 52
+  valley, 232
+
+Mobile, 240
+
+Mocha coffee, 130
+
+Mohair, 115
+
+Mohawk valley, 220
+
+Molasses, 191
+
+Moline, 237
+
+Mongolia, 376
+
+Mont Cenis tunnel, 66
+
+Montenegro, 341
+
+Montreal, 264
+
+Morocco, 384
+
+Mountains, contents of, 17
+
+Moscow, 347
+
+Mulberry, 116
+
+
+Nagasaki, 380
+
+Nankeen cotton, 108
+
+Naphtha, 154, 156
+
+Nashua, 220
+
+Natural gas, 157
+
+Naval stores, 145
+
+Nearchus, 107
+
+New Brunswick, 264
+
+New Caledonia, 397
+
+New England Plateau, 219
+
+New Guinea, 396
+
+New Haven, 221
+
+New Orleans, 238
+
+New York City, 84, 214, 215, 230, 238, 250
+
+New Zealand, 395
+
+New Zealand flax, 123, 396
+
+Newfoundland, 266
+
+Nicaragua, 270
+
+Nickel, 182
+
+Nieuwchwang, 374
+
+Nigeria, 387
+
+Nile River, barrage of, 383
+  floods of, 33
+  navigation of, 54
+
+Nitrate, 282
+
+Norfolk, 218
+
+Northern Securities Company, 227
+
+Norway, 310
+
+Nova Scotia, 264
+
+Novgorod, 209
+
+
+Oak, 198
+
+Oats, 101
+
+Ocean steamships, 45
+
+Odessa, 134, 347
+
+Ogden, 250
+
+Ohio River, 52
+
+Oil of theobroma, 135
+
+Old Government Java, 129
+
+Oleo-resins, 141
+
+Omaha, 236
+
+Ontario, 265
+
+Opium, 139, 360
+
+Oregon pine, 252
+
+Ottawa, 265
+
+Oyster fisheries, 207
+
+
+Pacific Coast lowlands, 250
+
+Paddy, 103
+
+Pago Pago Harbor, 258
+
+Panama, 277
+  hats, 133, 279
+
+Para, 291
+
+Paraffine, 157
+
+Paraguay, 293
+  tea, 136
+
+Paris, 324
+
+Passes, 19
+
+Pearl Harbor, 256
+
+Peking, 374
+
+Penang, 363
+
+Pepper, 365
+
+Persia, 354
+
+Persian lamb, 208
+
+Peru, 278
+
+Peshawur, 356, 362
+
+Petroleum, 154, 225, 344, 379
+  jelly, 157
+
+Philadelphia, 216
+
+Philippine Islands, 256
+
+Pine, 197
+
+Piraeus, The, 341
+
+Pitch, 145
+
+Pittsburg, 106, 224
+
+Plains, 21
+
+Plaiting straw, 124
+
+Plateaus, 21, 247
+
+Ponce, 255
+
+Pools, 68
+
+Population, distribution of, 81
+
+Pork, 234
+
+Port Arthur, 347
+
+Port Huron, 230
+
+Port Said, 384
+
+Port wine, 330
+
+Portland, Me., 217
+
+Portland, Ore., 252
+
+Porto Rico, 254
+
+Portugal, 328
+
+Pribilof Islands, 208, 254
+
+Prince Edward Island, 264
+
+Providence, 221
+
+Puget Sound, 228, 252
+
+Punjab, 362
+
+Pyrites, 164
+
+
+Quebec, 264
+  city of, 265
+
+Quicksilver, 180
+
+
+Rabbit skins, 209
+
+Railway, Canadian Pacific, 263
+  Chesapeake & Ohio, 71
+  Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, 68
+  New York Central, 65, 67
+  Northern Pacific, 227
+  Sind-Pishin, 356
+  Southern, 71
+  Tehuantepec, 269
+  Transportation, 62
+  Transsiberian, 345, 372
+  Union Pacific, 66
+
+Rainfall, effects of, 33
+  deficiency of, 33
+
+Ramie, 123
+
+Rangoon, 362
+
+Raw silk, 118
+
+Rebates, 71
+
+Redwood, 198, 252
+
+Resins, 141
+
+Rhodesia, 389
+
+Rice, 102, 359
+
+Richmond, 221
+
+Riga, 347
+
+Rio Janeiro, 290
+
+River navigation in Europe, 53
+  valleys, 21
+
+Roads, macadamized, 78
+
+Rock Island, 237
+
+Rome, 327
+
+Rotterdam, 318
+
+Roumania, 338
+
+Rubber, 141, 275, 278, 281, 288
+
+Rug wools, 114
+
+Rugs, oriental, 351, 355
+
+Ruhr iron fields, 306
+
+Russia, 343
+
+Rye, 101, 344
+
+
+Sacramento, 252
+
+Sahara, 385
+
+Saigon, 365
+
+Sailing vessels, 47
+
+St. Gotthard tunnel, 66
+
+St. Louis, 234
+
+St. Paul, 230, 236
+
+St. Petersburg, 346
+
+St. Pierre, 266
+
+St. Thomas, 273
+
+Salmon, 205
+
+Salonica, 340
+
+Samoa Islands, 396
+
+San Antonio, 239
+
+San Francisco, 252
+
+San Joaquin valley, 250
+
+San Juan, P.R., 255
+
+San Pedro, 252
+
+Sandarach, 146
+
+Santa Fe, 250
+
+Santiago, 283
+
+Santos, 290
+
+Saskatchewan, 265
+
+Savannah, 238
+
+Schooners, 44, 47
+
+Scranton, 224
+
+Seal fisheries, 208
+
+Seasonal rains, 34
+
+Seattle, 84, 252
+
+Servia, 341
+
+Shad, 256
+
+Shanghai, 374
+
+Sheep-growing, 242
+
+Shell-lac, 145
+
+Shoe manufacture, 221
+
+Siam, 364
+
+Siberia, 347
+
+Silk, 116, 323, 326, 368, 378
+
+Silver, 162, 176, 248, 268, 278, 304, 340
+
+Sind, 362
+
+Singapore, 363, 365
+
+Sioux City, 236
+
+Sisal hemp, 122, 267
+
+Skagway, 254
+
+Smyrna, 139, 353
+
+Sorghum, 187
+
+Sound Valley, 250
+
+South Bethlehem, 224
+
+South Chicago, 225
+
+Southampton, 302
+
+Spain, 328
+
+Spermaceti, 204
+
+Spokane, 250
+
+Sponge, 208
+
+Steel, Bessemer, 160, 169, 170, 222, 300, 304, 345
+
+Stephenson, 63
+
+Stockholm, 312
+
+Stockton, 252
+
+Sugar, 185, 289, 303, 314, 318, 364
+
+Swash channel, 50
+
+Sweden, 310
+
+Switzerland, 331
+
+Sydney, 395
+
+
+Tacoma, 252
+
+Tar, 145
+
+Tea, 131, 360, 368, 378
+
+Teak, 200, 365
+
+Temperate zone, activities of, 32
+
+Textiles, 105
+
+Three-mile fishing limit, 262
+
+Thrown silk, 118
+
+Tientsin, 134, 374
+
+Tin, 181, 364
+
+Tobacco, 136, 237, 240, 364, 383
+
+Tokio, 380
+
+Toledo, 225
+
+Topography and trade routes, 24
+
+Toronto, 265
+
+Torrid zone, temperature of, 30
+
+Tortilla, Mexican, 100
+
+Trade routes, ancient, 8
+
+Transcaucasia, 348
+
+Transvaal, 389
+
+Treaty ports, 373
+
+Trebizond, 351
+
+Triple-expansion principle, 45
+
+Tripoli, 386
+
+Tunis, 385
+
+Turf grass, 34
+
+Turkey-in-Europe, 339
+
+Turks invade Europe, 9
+
+Turpentine, 144
+
+Tussar silk, 119
+
+Tutuila, 258
+
+Tweed, 112
+
+
+Uruguay, 294
+
+
+Valparaiso, 283
+
+Vancouver, 266
+
+Vanderbilt locomotive fire-box, 64
+
+Vanilla, 268
+
+Vaseline, 157
+
+Venezuela, 285
+
+Vicksburg, 238
+
+Vienna, 337
+
+Virginia City, 250
+
+Vladivostok, 347
+
+Vuelta Abajo, 137
+
+Vulcanized rubber, 142
+
+
+Wai-wu-pu, 373
+
+Walla Walla, 250
+
+Warsaw, 347
+
+Water-power, 84
+
+Waterproof cloth, 143
+
+Welland Canal, 263
+
+Wellington, 396
+
+Whale fisheries, 203
+
+Wheat, 88, 96, 244, 344, 359, 367
+
+White Pass, 254
+
+Willamette Valley, 250
+
+Winnipeg, 265
+
+Wood-pulp, 124
+
+Wool, 110,115, 117, 244, 251, 292, 297, 323
+
+
+Yafa, 354
+
+Yokohama, 380
+
+Youngstown, 166
+
+Yucatan, 267
+
+
+Zinc, 182
+
+Zinfandel, 251
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] If the edition for free distribution is exhausted, these may be
+purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Public Printer,
+Washington, D.C.
+
+[2] The greatness of Palmyra was due to the trade along this route, and
+its decay began when the route was abandoned. The present town of Tadmor
+is near the ruins of the former city.
+
+[3] Cosmas Indicopleustes--in early life a merchant, in later years a
+monk--visited India and Ceylon during the first part of the sixth
+century. His writings contain much valuable knowledge, but in the main
+they are theological arguments intended to disprove the Geography
+written by Ptolemy.
+
+[4] The date is variously given as 1169, 1200, and 1241.
+
+[5] To Waldemar III. of Denmark it dictated terms that made its power in
+Scandinavia supreme.
+
+[6] For a complete list of books for reference, see p. xii.
+
+[7] The record time on this route was made by the Lucania in five days,
+seven hours, and twenty-three minutes, from Daunts Rock, Queenstown, to
+Sandy Hook light. The fastest day's run yet recorded was made by the
+Deutschland--601 nautical miles, a speed of 24.19 knots.
+
+[8] In Congress the River and Harbor Bill always receives a generous
+appropriation.
+
+[9] In many instances goods designed for the spring trade in the Western
+States are started via the canal in October, reaching their destination
+at Chicago some time in April, the cargo having been frozen up in one or
+another of the canal basins during the winter. The rate paid for this
+slow transit is considerably less than the amount which otherwise would
+have been paid for storage; moreover, it is nearly all clear profit to
+the canal boatmen.
+
+[10] The minimum depth of the canal is 22 feet; its width at the bottom
+is 160 feet. It was begun September, 1892, and completed January 2,
+1902, at a cost of thirty-four million dollars. More than forty million
+cubic yards of earth and rock were excavated. All the bridges crossing
+it are movable.
+
+[11] This is on the supposition that night travel will be too dangerous
+a risk. With a continuous travel the time would be about thirty-three
+hours.
+
+[12] On one great trunk system the average ton-mile rate in 1870 was one
+and one-seventh cents; in 1900 it was just one-half that sum.
+
+[13] The modern steam-making boiler has from thirty to one hundred or
+more tubes passing through it from end to end. The heat from the
+fire-box as a rule passes under the boiler and through the tubular
+flues; it thus increases the heating surface very greatly. The forced
+draught is made by allowing the exhaust steam to escape into the
+smokestack, thereby increasing the draught through the fire-box.
+
+[14] A single locomotive of the New York Central has hauled 4,000 tons
+of freight at a speed of twenty-five miles an hour. A "camel-back" of
+the Philadelphia & Reading hauled 4,800 tons of coal from the mines to
+tide-water without a helper.
+
+[15] The Vanderbilt boiler with cylindrical corrugated fire-box invented
+by Cornelius Vanderbilt, great-grandson of the founder of the New York
+Central, marks an important step in locomotive building. The cylindrical
+form largely obviates the necessity of an array of stay-bolts to prevent
+warping; the corrugated surface gives greater heating power.
+
+[16] The Central-Atlantic type of locomotive illustrates a modern
+improvement. The driving-wheels are placed a little forward of their
+usual position, while the fire-box, formerly set between the wheels, now
+overhangs each side of a pair of low trailing-wheels. By this means the
+heating surface of the fire-box is increased nearly one-half. A lever
+controlled by the engineer enables the latter to transfer 5,000 pounds
+weight from the trucks to the driving-wheels when a grade is to be
+surmounted. The daily run of such a locomotive is greatly increased.
+(_See cut, p. 61._)
+
+[17] A line from Vienna to Triest was opened about 1854; Germany was
+joined to Italy across Brenner Pass in 1868; France was connected with
+Italy through a tunnel near Mont Cenis in 1871; in 1882 the traffic of
+Germany was opened to Mediterranean ports by a tunnel under St.
+Gotthard. In this manner trunk systems have gradually developed.
+
+[18] The building of the West Shore Railroad is an illustration. After
+both roads had suffered tremendous losses the New York Central settled
+the matter by purchasing the West Shore. This was one of a great number
+of similar cases both in the United States and Europe.
+
+[19] In Great Britain the ton-rate is about $2.30 per hundred miles; in
+Germany, $1.75; in Russia, $1.30; in the United States, $0.70. The
+difference is due as much to the length of distance hauled as to
+economical management.
+
+[20] Thus, A, B, and C are roads whose chief terminal points are Chicago
+and New York City. The road C is the shortest of the three lines, but
+its grades are very heavy. B is, say, one hundred miles longer, but has
+no heavy grades. A is a very indirect route, and its New York traffic
+must be trans-shipped at Boston, or perhaps at New London, and sent a
+part of the way by water. If now an absolute ton-mile rate is fixed for
+either road, it is evident that neither of the others can carry through
+freight without altering rates. If C fixes a rate, then A and B must
+either charge higher rates between Chicago and Montreal, or Chicago and
+Albany, than between their terminals. And although this is illegal in
+most States, the laws are evaded by "rebate," or repayment of a certain
+sum to the shipper. Of the three roads B, on account of easy grades, is
+in the best position to fix rates. It therefore makes, not the lowest
+rate, but the one that will yield the best returns. C conforms to this,
+and A takes what it can get, hauling at a very small profit. But if A
+happens to be outside of the limits of the United States, it may openly
+cut rates, because pretty nearly all the through freight it gets is
+clear profit, and inasmuch as none of the laws of a State apply to the
+Canadian portion of the road, it may do what the others cannot. And
+while B is struggling with A, the three roads X, Y, and Z are perhaps
+endeavoring to have some of the freight sent from Buffalo eastward over
+their own lines. In instances similar to the foregoing it is customary
+for B and C to divide the through business and to allow a "differential"
+to A--that is, on account of its slower delivery of through freight, to
+carry it at a slightly lower rate. B then adjusts its traffic with X, Y,
+and Z in a similar manner; and on the whole this is the fairest way to
+all concerned.
+
+The following, one of many instances, shows the difficulties in fixing
+rates that will not be unjust to either party: Danville and Lynchburg
+compete for a certain trade. The Southern Railway passes through both
+cities, but the Chesapeake & Ohio makes Lynchburg by another route;
+Danville, therefore, is not a competing point, while Lynchburg is. As a
+result, the Southern Railway charged $1.08 for a certain traffic from
+Chicago to Danville and only 72 cents to Lynchburg, some distance
+beyond, this being the rate over the other road. The matter finally
+reached the Court of Appeals, and the latter sustained the Southern
+Railway. The rate to Danville was shown to be not excessive, but if the
+railway were required to maintain a rate to Lynchburg higher than 72
+cents, it would lose all its traffic to that point, amounting to
+$433,000 yearly. In a case of this kind there can be no help except by a
+consolidation of the two roads; by virtue of the consolidation all the
+Lynchburg freight will then go over the line having the easiest haul.
+
+[21] That is, the Government pledged its credit for the money borrowed,
+and in addition gave the companies alternate sections of public land on
+both sides of the proposed line, the land-grants being designed partly
+to encourage immigration and partly to increase the building funds of
+the various companies. In several instances both the land-grants and the
+money subsidies were scandalously used. At least one road used its
+earnings to build a competing line and, after disposing of the
+land-grant and pocketing the proceeds, allowed the Government to
+foreclose the mortgage and sell the original road.
+
+[22] From the Latin "castra," a camp.
+
+[23] In 1897 the world's crop was 2,226,750,000 bushels, and as a
+result, the countries in which the crop was short suffered from high
+prices. Had it not been for the prompt carrying service of railways and
+steamships famine would have resulted.
+
+[24] In order to yield a crop of twenty-five bushels per acre the soil
+must supply 110 lbs. of nitrogen, 45 lbs. of phosphoric acid, 30.5 lbs.
+of lime, 14.5 lbs. of magnesia, and 142 lbs. of potash; these are
+approximately the mineral elements taken out of the soil with each crop,
+and it is needless to say that they must be replaced or the grain will
+starve for want of nutrient substances.
+
+[25] In the United States there are about seven wheat-districts, each
+characterized by particular varieties that grow best in the given
+locality. In the New England and most of the middle Atlantic division
+Early Genesee Giant, Jones Winter Fife, and Fultz are chiefly grown. In
+the Southern States Fultz, Fulcaster, Purple Straw, and May are
+foremost. In the north central group of States Early Red Clawson, Poole,
+Dawson's Golden Chaff, Buda Pest, and Fultz are common. In the Dakotas
+and Minnesota Scotch Fife and Velvet Blue Stem (both spring wheats) are
+generally planted. In Kansas and Texas and the adjacent locality the
+principal varieties are Turkey, Fulcaster, and Mediterranean (all winter
+wheats). In California and the southern plateau region Sonora,
+California Club, and Defiance are the principal kinds (all winter
+wheats). In Washington and Oregon Little Club, Red Chaff, and Blue Stem
+(which are either winter or spring) are the main varieties.
+
+[26] Sometimes the owner sends it to the nearest elevator at tide-water
+where the grain is stored, not in bulk, but in the original packages,
+subject to his demand. In the course of a month or six weeks it absorbs
+so much moisture that the gain in weight more than pays the storage
+charges.
+
+[27] The elevators are equipped with "legs" or long spouts, within which
+belts with metal scoops transfer the grain from car to vessel or _vice
+versa_. The elevators at Buffalo will fill a canal-boat in an hour's
+time, or load six grain-cars in five minutes. A large whaleback
+steamship may be relieved of its 200,000 bushels in about three hours.
+Most of the east-bound wheat of the Middle West is transferred to the
+seaboard by rail, but that of the northwest, which forms the chief part
+of the crop, is shipped from Duluth through the St. Marys Falls Canal to
+Buffalo, where it is transferred to cars or to canal-boats. New York is
+the leading export market, but Boston, New Orleans, Galveston,
+Baltimore, and Philadelphia are also important shipping ports.
+
+[28] The following is approximately the yield of the chief wheat-growing
+countries in bushels per acre:
+
+  Denmark                42
+  England                29
+  New Zealand            26
+  Germany                23.2
+  Holland & Belgium      21.5
+  Hungary                18.5
+  France                 19.5
+  Austria                16.3
+  Canada                 15.5
+  United States          12.3
+  Argentina              12.2
+  Italy                  12.1
+  Australia              10
+  India                   9.2
+  Russia                  8.6
+  Algeria                 7.5
+
+The low average in Australia, India, and Algeria is due mainly to lack
+of rainfall; in the United States and Russia, mainly to unskilful
+cultivation.
+
+[29] It seems to have been introduced into Turkey from India about the
+latter part of the fifteenth century, after which it was occasionally
+heard of in Europe as "Turkey corn."
+
+[30] The "tortilla," the national bread of the Mexican, consists of a
+thick corn-meal paste pressed into thin wafers between the hands, and
+baked on hot slabs of stone. The corn-meal "mush" of the American, the
+"polenta" of the Italian, and the "mamaliga" of the Rumanian are all
+practically corn-meal boiled to a thick paste in water.
+
+[31] The gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, enabled one man to do by
+machinery about the same amount of work as previously had required one
+hundred laborers. For want of the laws necessary to protect his
+invention, Whitney was defrauded of the profits arising from it. Neither
+Congress nor the courts gave him any relief from the numerous
+infringements, and he died a poor man.
+
+[32] The commercial distinction is a sensible one: hair is hard, crisp,
+straight, and does not felt; wool is soft, curly, and felts readily.
+
+[33] An ounce of eggs produces about forty thousand worms, and these,
+during the grub stage, require about fifteen hundred pounds of leaves,
+about one-half of which is actually consumed.
+
+[34] Charles II. of England also forbade its use (1675) and attempted to
+close the coffee-houses that had sprung up in London, but in spite of
+the ban and the prohibitive tax laid upon it, the use of coffee became
+general. Similar efforts to close the coffee-houses in Constantinople
+failed.
+
+[35] The full-grown leaf attains a length of from four to nine inches;
+those picked rarely exceed one-and-a-half inches in length.
+
+[36] Brick tea consists of leaves moulded into bricks under heavy
+pressure. Refuse and stems are also thus prepared for the cheaper
+grades.
+
+[37] The following are the chief rubber-producing trees: _Siphonia
+elastica_, or _Hevea brasiliensis_, Amazon forests, yields Para rubber;
+_Manihot Glaziovii_, also a tapioca-producing shrub, Ceara province,
+Brazil, furnishes Ceara rubber; _Castilloa elastica_, Central American
+States, Nicaragua rubber; _Ficus elastica_, British India, and _Urceola
+elastica_, Borneo, Indian rubber. There are rubber-producing trees in
+Florida, but they have little commercial value at the present time.
+African rubber is taken from a variety of plants.
+
+[38] The process of vulcanizing was made practicable during the ten
+years ending in 1850. It was invented and perfected by Goodyear in the
+United States and by Hancock in England; for ordinary purposes, where
+both strength and elasticity are required, about five per cent. of
+sulphur is added. The addition of about fifty per cent. changes the
+rubber to a hard black substance known as "ebonite," or "hard rubber."
+
+[39] In 1823 a Scotchman, Mackintosh, applied the discovery, that rubber
+gum was soluble in benzine, to the water-proofing of the cloth that
+bears his name. This invention was about the first extensive commercial
+use to which rubber had been put.
+
+[40] From the fact that most of the dwellings in the United States are
+built of wood, the United States is a very heavy consumer of turpentine.
+
+[41] A slender strip of metallic lead was used instead of graphite in
+the first pencils made. The use of graphite did not become general until
+about 1850. The hardness of a pencil is regulated by mixing clay with
+the powdered graphite.
+
+[42] These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.
+
+[43] These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.
+
+[44] These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.
+
+[45] These percentages are on the supposition that the ores are
+chemically pure; the percentage of metal actually obtained is somewhat
+less.
+
+[46] The limestone has no essential part in the smelting of the ore
+except to produce an easily-flowing, liquid slag; hence it is called a
+_flux_. Some ores smelt and flow so easily that a flux is not required.
+
+[47] Under ordinary circumstances about two tons of coal, or
+three-quarters of a ton of coke, are required to produce a ton of
+pig-iron.
+
+[48] Terne plate is sheet-iron coated with an alloy of lead and tin.
+
+[49] Heredity is likewise a factor. The seeds of knotty, scraggly trees
+are very apt to produce trees of their own kind and _vice versa_.
+
+[50] This sum represents more than ten times the amount of gold coin now
+in existence. Less than five per cent. of the business of the great
+industrial centres is a cash business. Even if the money existed, the
+transfer of such immense sums would greatly retard commerce. In order to
+effect a speedy settlement of payments, clearing-houses are established.
+At the clearing-house the representatives of the various banks meet
+daily and liquidate the checks drawn against one another; and although
+the total yearly volume of payment aggregates the sum mentioned above,
+the _balances_ for a year are but little more than two billion dollars.
+Even this does not always represent cash payment, for a bank that is a
+debtor to another at the close of one day may be a creditor for an equal
+sum on the next.
+
+[51] These roads are financed by the Northern Securities Company and
+form a link in the Hill-Morgan lines. Their intercontinental traffic is
+large.
+
+[52] Their dividing line is the centre of a street.
+
+[53] The brand consisted of any specific device, such as an initial, a
+monogram, or a conventional form that might be easily recognized. The
+device was registered and imprinted with a red-hot iron on the flank of
+the animal. Ear-marks, such as notches or similar devices, also
+indicated ownership.
+
+[54] In many cases Government land, not owned by the rancher, has been
+fenced in. No objection was made, however, until the sheep-grazier came.
+He demanded the removal of the fences, claiming that he had an equal
+right to graze his herds on public lands. But inasmuch as a range once
+grazed by sheep is ruined for cattle-growing, the quarrel between the
+grazier and the rustler has become one in which both the grazier and the
+rustler turned upon the sheep-owner.
+
+[55] It is one-third of their capital stock plus the bonded
+indebtedness.
+
+[56] The high latitude of the wheat-region, which in most cases is too
+cold for the growing of food-stuffs, in this region is tempered by
+occasional warm winds known as "Chinook winds." These winds are the
+saving feature of wheat-growing. They prevail also in British Columbia,
+Washington, and Oregon.
+
+[57] Freight rates from Coatzacoalcos to San Francisco are already fixed
+at $6.50 per ton; by the transcontinental railways they vary from $12 to
+$15 per ton.
+
+[58] The entire Cuban crop is comparatively small, being but little more
+than one-eighth that of the United States.
+
+[59] Vegetable ivory is the seed or nut of a species of palm
+(_Phytelephas macrocarpa_). The kernel of the nut gradually acquires the
+hardness and appearance of the best ivory, for which it is employed as a
+substitute.
+
+[60] The leaves of this shrub (_Erythroxylon coca_) contain a stimulant
+substance that in its effects is much like the active principle of
+coffee. They are much used by the native laborers to ward off the
+feeling of lassitude that comes with severe labor in a tropical climate.
+A native porter will carry a load of one hundred pounds a distance of
+sixty miles with no food or rest, but merely chewing a few coca-leaves.
+The plant yields the substance _cocaine_, now in demand all over the
+world as an anaesthetic in eye and throat surgery.
+
+[61] More than a score of species of the tree from which this bark is
+obtained grow in the higher eastern slopes of the Andes, but a very
+large part is obtained from the tree, _Cinchona calisaya_. The medicinal
+substance, quinine, is extracted from the bark, and in the past
+half-century it has become the specific for malarial fevers. So great is
+the demand for it, that the cinchona-tree is now cultivated in India,
+Java, and Mexico.
+
+[62] Only a very small proportion of the Panama hats in the market are
+genuine. Many of the imitations, selling at retail for ten dollars or
+more, are serviceable hats; most of them, however, have but little
+worth.
+
+[63] Nitre, or "nitrate," is a native nitrate of potash, or nitrate of
+soda. The latter, commonly called cubic nitre or Chile saltpetre, is the
+kind occurring in Chile. Inasmuch as it is very soluble, a plentiful
+rainfall would soon leach it from the ground and carry it to the sea.
+The nitrate is thought to be of vegetable origin.
+
+[64] The pod of a shrub (_Caesalpina coriaria_); it contains a
+considerable proportion of tannin and is used for tanning leather.
+
+[65] The pericarp or pod contains about twenty-four prismatic-shaped
+nuts.
+
+[66] The cattle for Cuba and Brazil must be shipped in open pens in
+crossing the tropics. With the exports for Europe the case is different.
+If it is summer at the one port it is winter at the other, but it is
+always summer in the tropics, and cattle-ships fit for one zone are not
+fit for the other--hence the great difficulties in shipment of live
+animals to Europe.
+
+[67] For this reason Great Britain is practically a free-trade country.
+A protective tariff on imported food-stuffs and materials to be
+manufactured would hurt rather than protect British industries.
+
+[68] This is equivalent to the imposition of a tax on all the sugar
+consumed at home.
+
+[69] Most of the lithographic stone is obtained at Solnhofen.
+
+[70] This is a little greater than the average ton-mile rate on the New
+York Central Railroad between New York and Chicago.
+
+[71] The name Zuider, or Zuyder, means "south"; it was so named to
+distinguish it from the North Sea.
+
+[72] Some years ago many of the most valuable vineyards were destroyed
+by an insect pest known as the _phylloxera_, introduced from California.
+The trouble was overcome by replanting with American vines, the roots of
+which were immune to the pest. On these roots were grafted the choice
+French vines, the leaves and twigs of which were immune. In this manner
+the vineyards were restored with vines that are proof against attack,
+and the wine output has reached its normal amount.
+
+[73] It is cultivated as an ornamental tree in the Southern States and
+in California.
+
+[74] A small vein of coal occurs near Freiburg.
+
+[75] The St. Gotthard tunnel is almost nine and one-half miles long; the
+Arlberg tunnel is six and one-half miles in length. The tunnel now
+nearing completion under the Simplon Pass is more than twelve miles
+long. Five railways cross the northern frontier into Germany, and German
+commerce profits most by them.
+
+[76] Persian rugs are the finest. As a rule the designs are floral and
+many of them contain legendary history worked in fantastic but beautiful
+patterns. Among those of especial merit are the Kermanshah tree-of-life
+fabrics, now somewhat rare. The rugs of Tabriz and Shiraz are also of
+high value. In general, Persian fabrics are characterized by very fine
+weaving, a short pile, and elaborate designs. Turkoman rugs are usually
+a rich brown or maroon in color, and are apt to contain slightly
+elongated octagonal figures. The Bokhara and Khiva-Bokhara, or Afghan
+rugs, are the best examples. The Baluchistan rugs are usually very dark
+in color, with bright red designs and striped ends of cotton warp.
+Turkish rugs are made almost wholly in Asia Minor or Anatolia. Large
+carpets of American and European designs are made at Ushak and Smyrna.
+"Smyrna" rugs are made in Philadelphia.
+
+[77] The most valuable Kermanshah rug, now no longer made there, is the
+tree-of-life prayer-rug, an illustration of which is shown on p. 350.
+The design is emblematic of the story of the Garden of Eden.
+
+[78] In 1900 the aggregate value of the wheat exported to Great Britain
+was only L2,200.
+
+[79] Since the treaty of 1901, which forbids the importation of
+fire-arms, a number of large plants for the manufacture of fire-arms,
+smokeless powder, and fixed ammunition have been established on the
+lower Yangtze.
+
+[80] The islands are mainly in the belt of prevailing westerly winds.
+More rain, therefore, falls on the west than on the east coasts.
+
+[81] This region is also known us the Gold Coast. Formerly it furnished
+the chief British supply of gold, and the gold coin known as the
+"guinea" received its name from this circumstance.
+
+[82] This region was formerly comprised in the Boer republics, Orange
+Free State and South African Republic. In 1899 they declared war against
+Great Britain, with the result that they were defeated and annexed to
+that country--the former as Orange Colony, the latter as Transvaal
+Colony.
+
+[83] It is estimated that twenty-two acres of land are necessary to
+sustain one adult on fresh meat. The same area of wheat would feed
+forty-two people; of oats about eighty-five people; of maize, potatoes,
+and rice, one hundred and seventy people. But twenty-two acres planted
+with bread-fruit or bananas will support about six thousand.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY***
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