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+Project Gutenberg's Celebrated Travels and Travellers, by Jules Verne
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Celebrated Travels and Travellers
+       Part I. The Exploration of the World
+
+Author: Jules Verne
+
+Illustrator: Léon Benett
+             Paul Philippoteaux
+
+Translator: Dora  Leigh
+
+Release Date: March 7, 2008 [EBook #24777]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ron Swanson (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian
+Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS.
+THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.
+
+
+
+
+[Frontispiece: TRANSLATED BY DORA LEIGH]
+
+
+
+
+CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS.
+THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.
+
+BY JULES VERNE
+
+
+
+
+WITH 59 ILLUSTRATIONS BY L. BENETT AND P. PHILIPPOTEAUX,
+AND 50 FAC-SIMILES OF ANCIENT DRAWINGS.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH._]
+
+
+
+
+London:
+SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,
+CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
+1882.
+[_All rights reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+Celebrated Travels and Travellers,
+BY JULES VERNE.
+
+_In Three Vols., demy 8vo, each containing 400 pages and upwards of
+100 Illustrations, price 12s. 6d. each; cloth extra, gilt edges,
+14s._
+
+Part I. The Exploration of the World.
+Part II. The Great Navigators of the Eighteenth Century.
+Part III. The Great Navigators of the Nineteenth Century.
+
+
+
+
+EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+REPRODUCED IN FAC-SIMILE FROM THE ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS,
+GIVING THE SOURCES WHENCE THEY ARE DERIVED.
+
+
+FIRST PART.
+
+Map of the World as known to the Ancients.
+
+Approach to Constantinople. Anselmi Banduri Imperium orientale, tome
+II., p. 448. 2 vols. folio. Parisiis, 1711.
+
+Map of the World according to Marco Polo's ideas. Vol. I., p. 134 of
+the edition of Marco Polo published in London by Colonel Yule, 2
+vols. 8vo.
+
+Plan of Pekin in 1290. Yule's edition. Vol. I., p. 332.
+
+Portrait of Jean de Béthencourt. "The discovery and conquest of the
+Canaries." Page 1, 12mo. Paris, 1630.
+
+Plan of Jerusalem. "Narrative of the journey beyond seas to the Holy
+Sepulchre of Jerusalem," by Antoine Régnant, p. 229, 4to. Lyons,
+1573.
+
+Prince Henry the Navigator. From a miniature engraved in "The
+Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator," by H. Major. 8vo. London,
+1877.
+
+Christopher Columbus. Taken from "Vitæ illustrium virorum," by Paul
+Jove. Folio. Basileæ, Perna.
+
+Imaginary view of Seville. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, pl. I., part
+IV.
+
+Building of a caravel. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part IV.,
+plate XIX.
+
+Christopher Columbus on board his caravel. Th. de Bry. Grands
+Voyages, Americæ, part IV., plate VI.
+
+Embarkation of Christopher Columbus. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages,
+Americæ, part IV., plate VIII.
+
+Map of the Antilles and the Gulf of Mexico. Th. de Bry. Grands
+Voyages, Americæ, part V.
+
+Fishing for Pearl oysters. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part
+IV., plate XII.
+
+Gold-mines in Cuba. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part V.,
+plate I.
+
+Vasco da Gama. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes of the
+Bibl. Nat.
+
+La Mina. "Histoire générale des Voyages," by the Abbé Prévost. Vol.
+III., p. 461, 4to. 20 vols. An X. 1746.
+
+Map of the East Coast of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to the
+Cape del Gado. From the French map of the Eastern Ocean, published
+in 1740 by order of the Comte de Maurepas.
+
+Map of Mozambique. Bibl. Nat. Estampes.
+
+Interview with the Zamorin. "Hist. Gén. des Voyages," by Prévost.
+Vol. I., p. 39. 4to. An X. 20 vols. 1746.
+
+View of Quiloa. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes.
+Topography. (Africa).
+
+Map of the Coasts of Persia, Guzerat, and Malabar. From the French
+Map of the Eastern Ocean, pub. in 1740 by order of the Comte de
+Maurepas.
+
+The Island of Ormuz. "Hist. Gén. des Voyages." Prévost. Vol. II., p.
+98.
+
+
+SECOND PART.
+
+Americus Vespucius. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes of
+the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+
+Indians devoured by dogs. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part
+IV., plate XXII.
+
+Punishment of Indians. Page 17 of Las Casas' "Narratio regionum
+indicarum per Hispanos quosdam devastatarum," 4to. Francofurti,
+sumptibus Th. de Bry, 1698.
+
+Portrait of F. Cortès. From an engraving after Velasquez in the
+Cabinet des Estampes of the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+
+Plan of Mexico. From Clavigero and Bernal Diaz del Castillo.
+Jourdanet's translation, 2nd Edition.
+
+Portrait of Pizarro. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes
+of the Bib. Nat.
+
+Map of Peru. From Garcilasso de la Vega. History of the Incas. 4to.
+Bernard, Amsterdam, 1738.
+
+Atahualpa taken prisoner. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part
+VI., plate VII.
+
+Assassination of Pizarro. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part
+VI., plate XV.
+
+Magellan on board his caravel. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ,
+part IV., plate XV.
+
+Map of the Coast of Brazil. From the map called Henry 2nd's. Bibl.
+Nat., Geographical collections.
+
+The Ladrone Islands. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Occidentalis Indiæ,
+pars VIII., p. 50.
+
+Portrait of Sebastian Cabot. From a miniature engraved in "The
+remarkable Life, adventures, and discoveries of Sebastian Cabot," by
+Nicholls. 8vo. London, 1869.
+
+Fragment of Cabot's map. Bibl. Nat., Geographical collections.
+
+Map of Newfoundland and of the Mouth of the St. Lawrence. Lescarbot,
+"Histoire de la Nouvelle France." 12mo. Perier, Paris, 1617.
+
+Portrait of Jacques Cartier. After Charlevoix. "History and general
+description of New France," translated by John Gilmary Shea, p. III.
+6 vols. 4to. Shea, New York, 1866.
+
+Barentz' ship fixed in the ice. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia
+pars Indiæ Orientales, plate XLIV.
+
+Interior of Barentz' house. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia pars
+Indiæ Orientalis, plate XLVII.
+
+Exterior view of Barentz' house. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia
+pars Indiæ Orientalis, plate XLVIII.
+
+Map of Nova Zembla. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia pars Indiæ
+Orientalis, plate LIX.
+
+A sea-lion hunt. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Occidentalis Indiæ,
+pars VIII., p. 37.
+
+A fight between the Dutch and the Spaniards. Th. de Bry. Grands
+Voyages, "Historiarum novi orbis;" part IX., book II., page 87.
+
+Portrait of Raleigh. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes
+of the Bibl. Nat.
+
+Berreo seized by Raleigh. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Occid. Indiæ,
+part VIII., p. 64.
+
+Portrait of Chardin. "Voyages de M. le Chevalier Chardin en Perse."
+Vol. I. 10 vols. 12mo. Ferrand, Rouen, 1723.
+
+Japanese Archer. From a Japanese print engraved by Yule, vol. II., p.
+206.
+
+Attack upon an Indian Town. "Voyages du Sieur de Champlain," p. 44.
+12mo. Collet, Paris, 1727.
+
+
+
+
+NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL TRAVELLERS
+OF WHOM THE HISTORY AND TRAVELS ARE RELATED IN THIS VOLUME.
+
+
+FIRST PART.
+
+HANNO--HERODOTUS--PYTHEAS--NEARCHUS--EUDOXUS--CÆSAR--STRABO--
+PAUSANIAS--FA-HIAN--COSMOS INDICOPLEUSTES--ARCULPHE--WILLIBALD--
+SOLEYMAN--BENJAMIN OF TUDELA--PLAN DE CARPIN--RUBRUQUIS--MARCO
+POLO--IBN BATUTA--JEAN DE BÉTHENCOURT--CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS--
+COVILHAM AND PAÏVA--VASCO DA GAMA--ALVARÈS CABRAL--JOAO DA NOVA--
+DA CUNHA--ALMEIDA--ALBUQUERQUE.
+
+
+SECOND PART.
+
+HOJEDA--AMERICUS VESPUCIUS--JUAN DE LA COSA--YAÑEZ PINZON--DIAZ DE
+SOLIS--PONCE DE LEON--BALBOA--GRIJALVA--CORTÈS--PIZARRO--ALMAGRO--
+ALVARADO--ORELLANA--MAGELLAN--ERIC THE RED--THE ZENI--THE
+CORTEREALS--THE CABOTS--WILLOUGHBY--CHANCELLOR--VERRAZZANO--JACQUES
+CARTIER--FROBISHER--JOHN DAVIS--BARENTZ AND HEEMSKERKE--DRAKE--
+CAVENDISH--DE NOORT--W. RALEIGH--LEMAIRE AND SCHOUTEN--TASMAN--
+MENDANA--QUIROS AND TORRÈS--PYRARD DE LAVAL--PIETRO DELLA VALLE--
+TAVERNIER--THÉVENOT--BERNIER--ROBERT KNOX--CHARDIN--DE BRUYN--
+KÆMPFER--WILLIAM DAMPIER--HUDSON AND BAFFIN--CHAMPLAIN AND LA SALE.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This narrative will comprehend not only all the explorations made in
+past ages, but also all the new discoveries which have of late years
+so greatly interested the scientific world. In order to give to this
+work--enlarged perforce by the recent labours of modern
+travellers,--all the accuracy possible, I have called in the aid of
+a man whom I with justice regard as one of the most competent
+geographers of the present day: M. Gabriel Marcel, attached to the
+Bibliothèque Nationale.
+
+With the advantage of his acquaintance with several foreign
+languages which are unknown to me, we have been able to go to the
+fountain-head, and to derive all information from absolutely
+original documents. Our readers will, therefore, render to M. Marcel
+the credit due to him for his share in a work which will demonstrate
+what manner of men the great travellers have been, from the time of
+Hanno and Herodotus down to that of Livingstone and Stanley.
+
+JULES VERNE.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+FIRST PART.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA.
+
+HANNO, 505; HERODOTUS, 484; PYTHEAS, 340; NEARCHUS, 326; EUDOXUS,
+146; CÆSAR, 100; STRABO, 50.
+
+                                                                PAGE
+Hanno, the Carthaginian--Herodotus visits Egypt, Lybia, Ethiopia,
+Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylon, Persia, India, Media, Colchis, the
+Caspian Sea, Scythia, Thrace, and Greece--Pytheas explores the
+coasts of Iberia and Gaul, the English Channel, the Isle of
+Albion, the Orkney Islands, and the land of Thule--Nearchus
+visits the Asiatic coast, from the Indus to the Persian Gulf--
+Eudoxus reconnoitres the West Coast of Africa--Cæsar conquers
+Gaul and Great Britain--Strabo travels over the interior of
+Asia, and Egypt, Greece, and Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS FROM THE FIRST TO THE NINTH CENTURY.
+
+PAUSANIAS, 174; FA-HIAN, 399; COSMOS INDICOPLEUSTES, 500; ARCULPHE,
+700; WILLIBALD, 725; SOLEYMAN, 851.
+
+Pliny, Hippalus, Arian, and Ptolemy--Pausanias visits Attica,
+Corinth, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Achaia, Arcadia, Boeotia, and
+Phocis--Fa-Hian explores Kan-tcheou, Tartary, Northern India,
+the Punjaub, Ceylon, and Java--Cosmos Indicopleustes, and the
+Christian Topography of the Universe--Arculphe describes
+Jerusalem, the valley of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives,
+Bethlehem, Jericho, the river Jordan, Libanus, the Dead Sea,
+Capernaum, Nazareth, Mount Tabor, Damascus, Tyre, Alexandria,
+and Constantinople--Willibald and the Holy Land--Soleyman
+travels through Ceylon, and Sumatra, and crosses the Gulf of
+Siam and the China Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BETWEEN THE TENTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, 1159-1173; PLAN DE CARPIN, OR CARPINI,
+1245-1247; RUBRUQUIS, 1253-1254.
+
+The Scandinavians in the North, Iceland and Greenland--Benjamin
+of Tudela visits Marseilles, Rome, Constantinople, the
+Archipelago, Palestine, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Damascus, Baalbec,
+Nineveh, Baghdad, Babylon, Bassorah, Ispahan, Shiraz, Samarcand,
+Thibet, Malabar, Ceylon, the Red Sea, Egypt, Sicily, Italy,
+Germany, and France--Carpini explores Turkestan--Manners and
+customs of the Tartars--Rubruquis and the Sea of Azov, the
+Volga, Karakorum, Astrakhan, and Derbend . . . . . . . . . . . .  26
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+MARCO POLO, 1253-1324.
+
+I.
+
+The interest of the Genoese and Venetian merchants in
+encouraging the exploration of Central Asia--The family of Polo,
+and its position in Venice--Nicholas and Matteo Polo, the two
+brothers--They go from Constantinople to the Court of the
+Emperor of China--Their reception at the Court of Kublaï-Khan--
+The Emperor appoints them his ambassadors to the Pope--Their
+return to Venice--Marco Polo--He leaves his father Nicholas and
+his uncle Matteo for the residence of the King of Tartary--The
+new Pope Gregory X.--The narrative of Marco Polo is written in
+French from his dictation, by Rusticien of Pisa  . . . . . . . .  43
+
+II.
+
+Armenia Minor--Armenia--Mount Ararat--Georgia--Mosul, Baghdad,
+Bussorah, Tauris--Persia--The Province of Kirman--Comadi--
+Ormuz--The Old Man of the Mountain--Cheburgan--Balkh--Cashmir--
+Kashgar--Samarcand--Kotan--The Desert--Tangun--Kara-Korum--
+Signan-fu--The Great Wall--Chang-tou--The residence of
+Kublaï-Khan--Cambaluc, now Pekin--The Emperor's fêtes--His
+hunting--Description of Pekin--Chinese Mint and bank-notes--The
+system of posts in the Empire  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
+
+III.
+
+Tso-cheu--Tai-yen-fou--Pin-yang-fou--The Yellow River--
+Signan-fou--Szu-tchouan--Ching-tu-fou--Thibet--Li-kiang-fou--
+Carajan--Yung-tchang--Mien--Bengal--Annam--Tai-ping--Cintingui--
+Sindifoo--Té-cheu--Tsi-nan-fou--Lin-tsin-choo--Lin-sing--Mangi--
+Yang-tcheu-fou--Towns on the coast--Quin-say or
+Hang-tcheou-foo--Fo-kien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  59
+
+IV.
+
+Japan--Departure of the three Venetians with the Emperor's
+daughter and the Persian ambassadors--Sai-gon--Java--Condor--
+Bintang--Sumatra--The Nicobar Islands--Ceylon--The Coromandel
+coast--The Malabar coast--The Sea of Oman--The island of
+Socotra--Madagascar--Zanzibar and the coast of Africa--
+Abyssinia--Yemen--Hadramaut and Oman--Ormuz--The return to
+Venice--A feast in the household of Polo--Marco Polo a Genoese
+prisoner--Death of Marco Polo about 1323 . . . . . . . . . . . .  67
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+IBN BATUTA, 1328-1353.
+
+Ibn Batuta--The Nile--Gaza, Tyre, Tiberias, Libanus, Baalbec,
+Damascus, Meshid, Bussorah, Baghdad, Tabriz, Mecca and Medina--
+Yemen--Abyssinia--The country of the Berbers--Zanguebar--Ormuz--
+Syria--Anatolia--Asia Minor--Astrakhan--Constantinople--
+Turkestan--Herat--The Indus--Delhi--Malabar--The Maldives--
+Ceylon--The Coromandel coast--Bengal--The Nicobar Islands--
+Sumatra--China--Africa--The Niger--Timbuctoo . . . . . . . . . .  77
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+JEAN DE BÉTHENCOURT, 1339-1425.
+
+I.
+
+The Norman cavalier--His ideas of conquest--What was known of
+the Canary Islands--Cadiz--The Canary Archipelago--Graciosa--
+Lancerota--Fortaventura--Jean de Béthencourt returns to Spain--
+Revolt of Berneval--His interview with King Henry III.--Gadifer
+visits the Canary Archipelago--Canary Island or "Gran Canaria"--
+Ferro Island--Palma Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  84
+
+II.
+
+The return of Jean de Béthencourt--Gadifer's jealousy--
+Béthencourt visits his archipelago--Gadifer goes to conquer Gran
+Canaria--Disagreement of the two commanders--Their return to
+Spain--Gadifer blamed by the King--Return of Béthencourt--The
+natives of Fortaventura are baptized--Béthencourt revisits
+Caux--Returns to Lancerota--Lands on the African coast--Conquest
+of Gran Canaria, Ferro, and Palma Islands--Maciot appointed
+Governor of the archipelago--Béthencourt obtains the Pope's
+consent to the Canary Islands being made an Episcopal See--His
+return to his country and his death  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  92
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, 1436-1506.
+
+I.
+
+Discovery of Madeira, Cape de Verd Islands, the Azores, Congo,
+and Guinea--Bartholomew Diaz--Cabot and Labrador--The
+geographical and commercial tendencies of the middle ages--The
+erroneous idea of the distance between Europe and Asia--Birth of
+Christopher Columbus--His first voyages--His plans rejected--His
+sojourn at the Franciscan convent--His reception by Ferdinand
+and Isabella--Treaty of the 17th of April, 1492--The brothers
+Pinzon--Three armed caravels at the port of Palos--Departure on
+the 3rd of August, 1492  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
+
+II.
+
+First voyage: The Great Canary--Gomera--Magnetic variation--
+Symptoms of revolt--Land, land--San Salvador--Taking
+possession--Conception--Fernandina or Great Exuma--Isabella, or
+Long Island--The Mucaras--Cuba--Description of the island--
+Archipelago of Notre-Dame--Hispaniola or San Domingo--Tortuga
+Island--The cacique on board the _Santa-Maria_--The caravel of
+Columbus goes aground and cannot be floated off--Island of
+Monte-Christi--Return--Tempest--Arrival in Spain--Homage
+rendered to Christopher Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
+
+III.
+
+Second Voyage: Flotilla of seventeen vessels--Island of Ferro--
+Dominica--Marie-Galante--Guadaloupe--The Cannibals--Montserrat--
+Santa-Maria-la-Rodonda--St. Martin and Santa Cruz--Archipelago
+of the Eleven Thousand Virgins--The island of St. John Baptist,
+or Porto Rico--Hispaniola--The first Colonists massacred--
+Foundation of the town of Isabella--Twelve ships laden with
+treasure sent to Spain--Fort St. Thomas built in the Province of
+Cibao--Don Diego, Columbus' brother, named Governor of the
+Island--Jamaica--The Coast of Cuba--The Remora--Return to
+Isabella--The Cacique made prisoner--Revolt of the Natives--
+Famine--Columbus traduced in Spain--Juan Aguado sent as
+Commissary to Isabella--Gold-mines--Departure of Columbus--His
+arrival at Cadiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
+
+IV.
+
+Third Voyage: Madeira--Santiago in the Cape Verd Archipelago--
+Trinidad--First sight of the American Coast in Venezuela, beyond
+the Orinoco, now the Province of Cumana--Gulf of Paria--The
+Gardens--Tobago--Grenada--Margarita--Cubaga--Hispaniola during
+the absence of Columbus--Foundation of the town of San Domingo--
+Arrival of Columbus--Insubordination in the Colony--Complaints
+in Spain--Bovadilla sent by the king to inquire into the conduct
+of Columbus--Columbus sent to Europe in fetters with his two
+brothers--His appearance before Ferdinand and Isabella--Renewal
+of royal favour  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
+
+V.
+
+Fourth Voyage: A Flotilla of four vessels--Canary Islands--
+Martinique--Dominica--Santa-Cruz--Porto-Rico--Hispaniola--
+Jamaica--Cayman Island--Pinos Island--Island of Guanaja--Cape
+Honduras--The American Coast of Truxillo on the Gulf of Darien--
+The Limonare Islands--Huerta--The Coast of Veragua--Auriferous
+Strata--Revolt of the Natives--The Dream of Columbus--
+Porto-Bello--The Mulatas--Putting into port at Jamaica--
+Distress--Revolt of the Spaniards against Columbus--Lunar
+Eclipse--Arrival of Columbus at Hispaniola--Return of Columbus
+to Spain--His death, on the 20th of March, 1506  . . . . . . . . 150
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+THE CONQUEST OF INDIA, AND OF THE SPICE COUNTRIES.
+
+I.
+
+Covilham and Païva--Vasco da Gama--The Cape of Good Hope is
+doubled--Escalès at Sam-Braz--Mozambique, Mombaz, and Melinda--
+Arrival at Calicut--Treason of the Zamorin--Battles--Return to
+Europe--The scurvy--Death of Paul da Gama--Arrival at Lisbon . . 164
+
+II.
+
+Alvarès Cabral--Discovery of Brazil--The coast of Africa--
+Arrival at Calicut, Cochin, Cananore--Joao da Nova--Gama's
+second expedition--The King of Cochin--The early life of
+Albuquerque--The taking of Goa--The siege and capture of
+Malacca--Second expedition against Ormuz--Ceylon--The Moluccas--
+Death of Albuquerque--Fate of the Portuguese empire of the
+Indies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
+
+
+SECOND PART.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+THE CONQUERORS OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+I.
+
+Hojeda--Americus Vespucius--The New World named after him--Juan
+de la Cosa--Vincent Yañez Pinzon--Bastidas--Diego de Lepe--Diaz
+de Solis--Ponce de Leon and Florida--Balboa discovers the
+Pacific Ocean--Grijalva explores the coast of Mexico . . . . . . 207
+
+II.
+
+Ferdinand Cortès--His character--His appointment--Preparations
+for the expedition, and attempts of Velasquez to stop it--
+Landing at Vera-Cruz--Mexico and the Emperor Montezuma--The
+republic of Tlascala--March upon Mexico--The Emperor is made
+prisoner--Narvaez defeated--The _Noche Triste_--Battle of
+Otumba--The second siege and taking of Mexico--Expedition to
+Honduras--Voyage to Spain--Expeditions on the Pacific Ocean--
+Second Voyage of Cortès to Spain--His death  . . . . . . . . . . 224
+
+III.
+
+The triple alliance--Francisco Pizarro and his brothers--Don
+Diego d'Almagro--First attempts--Peru, its extent, people, and
+kings--Capture of Atahualpa, his ransom and death--Pedro
+d'Alvarado--Almagro in Chili--Strife among the conquerors--Trial
+and execution of Almagro--Expeditions of Gonzalo Pizarro and
+Orellana--Assassination of Francisco Pizarro--Rebellion and
+execution of his brother Gonzalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+THE FIRST VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD.
+
+Magellan--His early history--His disappointment--His change of
+nationality--Preparations for the expedition--Rio de Janeiro--
+St. Julian's Bay--Revolt of a part of the squadron--Terrible
+punishment of the guilty--Magellan's Strait--Patagonia--The
+Pacific--The Ladrone Islands--Zebu and the Philippine Islands--
+Death of Magellan--Borneo--The Moluccas and their Productions--
+Separation of the _Trinidad_ and _Victoria_--Return to Europe by
+the Cape of Good Hope--Last misadventures  . . . . . . . . . . . 279
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+THE POLAR EXPEDITIONS AND THE SEARCH FOR THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE.
+
+I.
+
+The Northmen--Eric the Red--The Zenos--John Cabot--Cortereal--
+Sebastian Cabot--Willoughby--Chancellor  . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
+
+II.
+
+John Verrazzano--Jacques Cartier and his three voyages to
+Canada--The town of Hochelaga--Tobacco--The scurvy--Voyage of
+Roberval--Martin Frobisher and his voyages--John Davis--Barentz
+and Heemskerke--Spitzbergen--Winter season at Nova Zembla--
+Return to Europe--Relics of the Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . 334
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+VOYAGES OF ADVENTURE AND PRIVATEERING WARFARE.
+
+Drake--Cavendish--De Noort--Walter Raleigh . . . . . . . . . . . 362
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+MISSIONARIES AND SETTLERS. MERCHANTS AND TOURISTS.
+
+I.
+
+Distinguishing characteristics of the Seventeenth Century--The
+more thorough exploration of regions previously discovered--To
+the thirst for gold succeeds Apostolic zeal--Italian Missionaries
+in Congo--Portuguese Missionaries in Abyssinia--Brue in Senegal
+and Flacourt in Madagascar--The Apostles of India, of Indo-China,
+and of Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
+
+II.
+
+The Dutch in the Spice Islands--Lemaire and Schouten--Tasman--
+Mendana--Queiros and Torrès--Pyrard de Laval--Pietro della
+Valle--Tavernier--Thévenot--Bernier--Robert Knox--Chardin--De
+Bruyn--Kæmpfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+I.
+THE GREAT CORSAIR.
+
+William Dampier; or a Sea-King of the Seventeenth Century  . . . 409
+
+II.
+THE POLE AND AMERICA.
+
+Hudson and Baffin--Champlain and La Sale--The English upon the
+coast of the Atlantic--The Spaniards in South America--Summary
+of the information acquired at the close of the 17th century--
+The measure of the terrestrial degree--Progress of cartography--
+Inauguration of Mathematical Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD. PART I.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA.
+
+HANNO, 505; HERODOTUS, 484; PYTHEAS, 340; NEARCHUS, 326; EUDOXUS,
+146; CÆSAR, 100; STRABO, 50.
+
+Hanno, the Carthaginian--Herodotus visits Egypt, Lybia, Ethiopia,
+Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylon, Persia, India, Media, Colchis, the
+Caspian Sea, Scythia, Thrace, and Greece--Pytheas explores the
+coasts of Iberia and Gaul, the English Channel, the Isle of Albion,
+the Orkney Islands, and the land of Thule--Nearchus visits the
+Asiatic coast, from the Indus to the Persian Gulf--Eudoxus
+reconnoitres the West Coast of Africa--Cæsar conquers Gaul and Great
+Britain--Strabo travels over the interior of Asia, and Egypt, Greece,
+and Italy.
+
+
+The first traveller of whom we have any account in history, is Hanno,
+who was sent by the Carthaginian senate to colonize some parts of
+the Western coast of Africa. The account of this expedition was
+written in the Carthaginian language and afterwards translated into
+Greek. It is known to us now by the name of the "Periplus of Hanno."
+At what period this explorer lived, historians are not agreed, but
+the most probable account assigns the date B.C. 505 to his
+exploration of the African coast.
+
+Hanno left Carthage with a fleet of sixty vessels of fifty oars each,
+carrying 30,000 persons, and provisions for a long voyage. These
+emigrants, for so we may call them, were destined to people the new
+towns that the Carthaginians hoped to found on the west coast of
+Libya, or as we now call it, Africa.
+
+The fleet successfully passed the Pillars of Hercules, the rocks of
+Gibraltar and Ceuta which command the Strait, and ventured on the
+Atlantic, taking a southerly course. Two days after passing the
+Straits, Hanno anchored on the coast, and laid the foundation of the
+town of Thumiaterion.
+
+Then he put to sea again, and doubling the cape of Soloïs, made
+fresh discoveries, and advanced to the mouth of a large African
+river, where he found a tribe of wandering shepherds camping on the
+banks. He only waited to conclude a treaty of alliance with them,
+before continuing his voyage southward. He next reached the Island
+of Cerne, situated in a bay, and measuring five stadia in
+circumference, or as we should say at the present day, nearly 925
+yards. According to Hanno's own account, this island should be
+placed, with regard to the Pillars of Hercules, at an equal distance
+to that which separates these Pillars from Carthage.
+
+They set sail again, and Hanno reached the mouth of the river
+Chretes, which forms a sort of natural harbour, but as they
+endeavoured to explore this river, they were assailed with showers
+of stones from the native negro race, inhabiting the surrounding
+country, and driven back, and after this inhospitable reception they
+returned to Cerne. We must not omit to add that Hanno mentions
+finding large numbers of crocodiles and hippopotami in this river.
+Twelve days after this unsuccessful expedition, the fleet reached a
+mountainous region, where fragrant trees and shrubs abounded, and it
+then entered a vast gulf which terminated in a plain. This region
+appeared quite calm during the day, but after nightfall it was
+illumined by tongues of flame, which might have proceeded from fires
+lighted by the natives, or from the natural ignition of the dry
+grass when the rainy season was over.
+
+In five days, Hanno doubled the Cape, known as the Hespera Keras,
+there, according to his own account, "he heard the sound of fifes,
+cymbals, and tambourines, and the clamour of a multitude of people."
+The soothsayers, who accompanied the party of Carthaginian explorers,
+counselled flight from this land of terrors, and, in obedience to
+their advice, they set sail again, still taking a southerly course.
+They arrived at a cape, which, stretching southwards, formed a gulf,
+called Notu Keras, and, according to M. D'Avezac, this gulf must
+have been the mouth of the river Ouro, which falls into the Atlantic
+almost within the Tropic of Cancer. At the lower end of this gulf,
+they found an island inhabited by a vast number of gorillas, which
+the Carthaginians mistook for hairy savages. They contrived to get
+possession of three female gorillas, but were obliged to kill them
+on account of their great ferocity.
+
+This Notu Keras must have been the extreme limit reached by the
+Carthaginian explorers, and though some historians incline to the
+belief that they only went to Bojador, which is two degrees North of
+the tropics, it is more probable that the former account is the true
+one, and that Hanno, finding himself short of provisions, returned
+northwards to Carthage, where he had the account of his voyage
+engraved in the temple of Baal Moloch.
+
+After Hanno, the most illustrious of ancient travellers, was
+Herodotus, who has been called the "Father of History," and who was
+the nephew of the poet Panyasis, whose poems ranked with those of
+Homer and Hesiod. It will serve our purpose better if we only speak
+of Herodotus as a traveller, not an historian, as we wish to follow
+him so far as possible through the countries that he traversed.
+
+Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus, a town in Asia Minor, in the
+year B.C. 484. His family were rich, and having large commercial
+transactions they were able to encourage the taste for explorations
+which he showed. At this time there were many different opinions as
+to the shape of the earth: the Pythagorean school having even then
+begun to teach that it must be round, but Herodotus took no part in
+this discussion, which was of the deepest interest to learned men of
+that time, and, still young, he left home with a view of exploring
+with great care all the then known world, and especially those parts
+of it of which there were but few and uncertain data.
+
+He left Halicarnassus in 464, being then twenty years of age, and
+probably directed his steps first to Egypt, visiting Memphis,
+Heliopolis, and Thebes. He seems to have specially turned his
+attention to the overflow of the banks of the Nile, and he gives an
+account of the different opinions held as to the source of this
+river, which the Egyptians worshipped as one of their deities. "When
+the Nile overflows its banks," he says, "you can see nothing but the
+towns rising out of the water, and they appear like the islands in
+the Ægean Sea." He tells of the religious ceremonies among the
+Egyptians, their sacrifices, their ardour in celebrating the feasts
+in honour of their goddess Isis, which took place principally at
+Busiris (whose ruins may still be seen near Bushir), and of the
+veneration paid to both wild and tame animals, which were looked
+upon almost as sacred, and to whom they even rendered funeral
+honours at their death. He depicts in the most faithful colours, the
+Nile crocodile, its form, habits, and the way in which it is caught,
+and the hippopotamus, the momot, the phoenix, the ibis, and the
+serpents that were consecrated to the god Jupiter. Nothing can be
+more life-like than his accounts of Egyptian customs, and the
+notices of their habits, their games, and their way of embalming the
+dead, in which the chemists of that period seem to have excelled.
+Then we have the history of the country from Menes, its first king,
+downwards to Herodotus' time, and he describes the building of the
+Pyramids under Cheops, the Labyrinth that was built a little above
+the Lake Moeris (of which the remains were discovered in A.D. 1799),
+Lake Moeris itself, whose origin he ascribes to the hand of man, and
+the two Pyramids which are situated a little above the lake. He
+seems to have admired many of the Egyptian temples, and especially
+that of Minerva at Sais, and of Vulcan and Isis at Memphis, and the
+colossal monolith that was three years in course of transportation
+from Elephantina to Sais, though 2000 men were employed on the
+gigantic work.
+
+After having carefully inspected everything of interest in Egypt,
+Herodotus went into Lybia, little thinking that the continent he was
+exploring, extended thence to the tropic of Cancer. He made special
+inquiries in Lybia as to the number of its inhabitants, who were a
+simple nomadic race principally living near the sea-coast, and he
+speaks of the Ammonians, who possessed the celebrated temple of
+Jupiter Ammon, the remains of which have been discovered on the
+north-east side of the Lybian desert, about 300 miles from Cairo.
+Herodotus furnishes us with some very valuable information on Lybian
+customs; he describes their habits; speaks of the animals that
+infest the country, serpents of a prodigious size, lions, elephants,
+bears, asps, horned asses (probably the rhinoceros of the present
+day), and cynocephali, "animals with no heads, and whose eyes are
+placed on their chest," to use his own expression; foxes, hyenas,
+porcupines, wild zarus, panthers, etc. He winds up his description
+by saying that the only two aboriginal nations that inhabit this
+region are the Lybians and Ethiopians.
+
+According to Herodotus the Ethiopians were at that time to be found
+above Elephantina, but commentators are induced to doubt if this
+learned explorer ever really visited Ethiopia, and if he did not, he
+may easily have learnt from the Egyptians the details that he gives
+of its capital, Meroe, of the worship of Jupiter and Bacchus, and
+the longevity of the natives. There can be no doubt, however, that
+he set sail for Tyre in Phoenicia, and that he was much struck with
+the beauty of the two magnificent temples of Hercules. He next
+visited Tarsus and took advantage of the information gathered on the
+spot, to write a short history of Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine.
+
+We next find that he went southward to Arabia, and he calls it the
+Ethiopia of Asia, for he thought the southern parts of Arabia were
+the limits of human habitation. He tells us of the remarkable way in
+which the Arabs kept any vow that they might have made; that their
+two deities were Uranius and Bacchus, and of the abundant growth of
+myrrh, cinnamon and other spices, and he gives a very interesting
+account of their culture and preparation.
+
+We cannot be quite sure which country he next visited, as he calls
+it both Assyria and Babylonia, but he gives a most minute account of
+the splendid city of Babylon (which was the home of the monarchs of
+that country, after the destruction of Nineveh), and whose ruins are
+now only in scattered heaps on either side of the Euphrates, which
+flowed a broad, deep, rapid river, dividing the city into two parts.
+On one side of the river the fortified palace of the king stood, and
+on the other the temple of Jupiter Belus, which may have been built
+on the site of the Tower of Babel. Herodotus next speaks of the two
+queens, Semiramis and Nitocris, telling us of all the means taken by
+the latter to increase the prosperity and safety of her capital, and
+passing on to speak of the natural products of the country, the
+wheat, barley, millet, sesame, the vine, fig-tree and palm-tree. He
+winds up with a description of the costume of the Babylonians, and
+their customs, especially that of celebrating their marriages by the
+public crier.
+
+[Illustration: The Marriage Ceremony.]
+
+After exploring Babylonia he went to Persia, and as the express
+purpose of his travels was to collect all the information he could
+relating to the lengthy wars that had taken place between the
+Persians and Grecians, he was most anxious to visit the spots where
+the battles had been fought. He sets out by remarking upon the
+custom prevalent in Persia, of not clothing their deities in any
+human form, nor erecting temples nor altars where they might be
+worshipped, but contenting themselves with adoring them on the tops
+of the mountains. He notes their domestic habits, their disdain of
+animal food, their taste for delicacies, their passion for wine, and
+their custom of transacting business of the utmost importance when
+they had been drinking to excess; their curiosity as to the habits
+of other nations, their love of pleasure, their warlike qualities,
+their anxiety for the education of their children, their respect for
+the lives of all their fellow-creatures, even of their slaves, their
+horror both of debt and lying, and their repugnance to the disease
+of leprosy which they thought proved that the sufferer "had sinned
+in some way against the sun." The India of Herodotus, according to M.
+Vivien de St. Martin, only consisted of that part of the country
+that is watered by the five rivers of the Punjaub, adjoining
+Afghanistan, and this was the region where the young traveller
+turned his steps on leaving Persia. He thought that the population
+of India was larger than that of any other country, and he divided
+it into two classes, the first having settled habitations, the
+second leading a nomadic life. Those who lived in the eastern part
+of the country killed their sick and aged people, and ate them,
+while those in the north, who were a finer, braver, and more
+industrious race, employed themselves in collecting the auriferous
+sands. India was then the most easterly extremity of the inhabited
+world, as he thought, and he observes, "that the two extremities of
+the world seem to have shared nature's best gifts, as Greece enjoyed
+the most agreeable temperature possible," and that was his idea of
+the western limits of the world.
+
+Media is the next country visited by this indefatigable traveller,
+and he gives the history of the Medes, the nation which was the
+first to shake off the Assyrian yoke. They founded the great city of
+Ecbatana, and surrounded it with seven concentric walls. They became
+a separate nation in the reign of Deioces. After crossing the
+mountains that separate Media from Colchis, the Greek traveller
+entered the country, made famous by the valour of Jason, and studied
+its manners and customs with the care and attention that were among
+his most striking characteristics.
+
+Herodotus seems to have been well acquainted with the geography of
+the Caspian Sea, for he speaks of it as a Sea "quite by itself" and
+having no communication with any other. He considered that it was
+bounded on the west by the Caucasian Mountains and on the east by a
+great plain inhabited by the Massagetæ, who, both Arian and Diodorus
+Siculus think, may have been Scythians. These Massagetæ worshipped
+the Sun as their only deity, and sacrificed horses in its honour. He
+speaks here of two large rivers, one of which, the Araxes, would be
+the Volga, and the other, that he calls the Ista, must be the Danube.
+The traveller then went into Scythia, and he thought that the
+Scythians were the different tribes inhabiting the country that lay
+between the Danube and the Don, in fact a considerable portion of
+European Russia. He found the barbarous custom of putting out the
+eyes of their prisoners was practised among them, and he notices
+that they only wandered from place to place without caring to
+cultivate their land. Herodotus relates many of the fables that make
+the origin of the Scythian nation so obscure, and in which Hercules
+plays a prominent part. He adds a list of the different tribes that
+composed the Scythian nation, but he does not seem to have visited
+the country lying to the north of the Euxine, or Black Sea. He gives
+a minute description of the habits of these people, and expresses
+his admiration for the Pontus Euxinus. The dimensions that he gives
+of the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, of the Propontis, the Palus Mæotis
+and of the Ægean Sea, are almost exactly the same as those given by
+geographers of the present day. He also names the large rivers that
+flow into these seas. The Ister or Danube, the Borysthenes or
+Dnieper, the Tanais, or Don; and he finishes by relating how the
+alliance, and afterwards the union between the Scythians and Amazons
+took place, which explains the reason why the young women of that
+country are not allowed to marry before they have killed an enemy
+and established their character for valour.
+
+After a short stay in Thrace, during which he was convinced that the
+Getæ were the bravest portion of this race, Herodotus arrived in
+Greece, which was to be the termination of his travels, to the
+country where he hoped to collect the only documents still wanting
+to complete his history, and he visited all the spots that had
+become illustrious by the great battles fought between the Greeks
+and Persians. He gives a minute description of the Pass of
+Thermopylæ, and of his visit to the plain of Marathon, the
+battlefield of Platæa, and his return to Asia Minor, whence he
+passed along the coast on which the Greeks had established several
+colonies. Herodotus can only have been twenty-eight years of age
+when he returned to Halicarnassus in Caria, for it was in B.C. 456
+that he read the history of his travels at the Olympic Games. His
+country was at that time oppressed by Lygdamis, and he was exiled to
+Samos; but though he soon after rose in arms to overthrow the tyrant,
+the ingratitude of his fellow-citizens obliged him to return into
+exile. In 444 he took part in the games at the Pantheon, and there
+he read his completed work, which was received with enthusiasm, and
+towards the end of his life he retired to Thurium in Italy, where he
+died, B.C. 406, leaving behind him the reputation of being the
+greatest traveller and the most celebrated historian of antiquity.
+
+After Herodotus we must pass over a century and a half, and only
+note, in passing, the Physician Ctesias, a contemporary of Xenophon,
+who published the account of a voyage to India that he really never
+made; and we shall come in chronological order to Pytheas, who was
+at once a traveller, geographer, and historian, one of the most
+celebrated men of his time. It was about the year B.C. 340 that
+Pytheas set out from the columns of Hercules with a single vessel,
+but instead of taking a southerly course like his Carthaginian
+predecessors, he went northwards, passing by the coasts of Iberia
+and Gaul to the furthest points which now form the Cape of
+Finisterre, and then he entered the English Channel and came upon
+the English coast--the British Isles--of which he was to be the
+first explorer. He disembarked at various points on the coast and
+made friends with the simple, honest, sober, industrious inhabitants,
+who traded largely in tin.
+
+Pytheas ventured still further north, and went beyond the Orcades
+Islands to the furthest point of Scotland, and he must have reached
+a very high latitude, for during the summer the night only lasted
+two hours. After six days further sailing, he came to lands which he
+calls Thule, probably the Jutland or Norway of the present day,
+beyond which he could not pass, for he says, "there was neither land,
+sea, nor air there." He retraced his course, and changing it
+slightly, he came to the mouth of the Rhine, to the country of the
+Ostians, and, further inland, to Germany. Thence he visited the
+mouth of the Tanais, that is supposed to be the Elbe or the Oder,
+and he retuned to Marseilles, just a year after leaving his native
+town. Pytheas, besides being such a brave sailor, was a remarkably
+scientific man: he was the first to discover the influence that the
+moon exercises on the tides, and to notice that the polar star is
+not situated at the exact spot at which the axis of the globe is
+supposed to be. Some years after the time of Pytheas, about B.C. 326
+a Greek traveller made his name famous. This was Nearchus, a native
+of Crete, one of Alexander's admirals, and he was charged to visit
+all the coast of Asia from the mouth of the Indus to that of the
+Euphrates. When Alexander first resolved that this expedition should
+take place, which had for its object the opening up of a
+communication between India and Egypt, he was at the upper part of
+the Indus. He furnished Nearchus with a fleet of thirty-three
+galleys, of some vessels with two decks, and a great number of
+transport ships, and 2000 men. Nearchus came down the Indus in about
+four months, escorted on either bank of the river by Alexander's
+armies, and after spending seven months in exploring the Delta, he
+set sail and followed the west line of what we call Beloochistan in
+the present day.
+
+He put to sea on the second of October, a month before the winter
+storms had taken a direction that was favourable to his purpose, so
+that the commencement of his voyage was disastrous, and in forty
+days he had scarcely made eighty miles in a westerly direction. He
+touched first at Stura and at Corestis, which do not seem to answer
+to any of the now-existing villages on the coast; then at the Island
+of Crocala, which forms the bay of Caranthia. Beaten back by
+contrary winds, after doubling the cape of Monze, the fleet took
+refuge in a natural harbour that its commander thought that he could
+fortify as a defence against the attacks of the barbarous natives,
+who, even at the present day, keep up their character as pirates.
+
+After spending twenty-four days in this harbour, Nearchus put to sea
+again on the 3rd of November. Severe gales often obliged him to keep
+very near the coast, and when this was the case he was obliged to
+take all possible precautions to defend himself from the attacks of
+the ferocious Beloochees, who are described by eastern historians
+"as a barbarous nation, with long dishevelled hair, and long flowing
+beards, who are more like bears or satyrs than human beings." Up to
+this time, however, no serious disaster had happened to the fleet,
+but on the 10th of November in a heavy gale two galleys and a ship
+sank. Nearchus then anchored at Crocala, and there he was met by a
+ship laden with corn that Alexander had sent out to him, and he was
+able to supply each vessel with provisions for ten days.
+
+After many disasters and a skirmish with some of the natives,
+Nearchus reached the extreme point of the land of the Orites, which
+is marked in modern geography by Cape Morant. Here, he states in his
+narrative that the rays of the sun at mid-day are vertical, and
+therefore there are no shadows of any kind; but this is surely a
+mistake, for at this time in the Southern hemisphere the sun is in
+the Tropic of Capricorn; and, beyond this, his vessels were always
+some degrees distant from the Tropic of Cancer, therefore even in
+the height of summer this phenomenon could not have taken place, and
+we know that his voyage was in winter.
+
+Circumstances seemed now rather more in his favour; for the time of
+the eastern monsoon was over, when he sailed along the coast which
+is inhabited by a tribe called Ichthyophagi, who subsist solely on
+fish, and from the failure of all vegetation are obliged to feed
+even their sheep upon the same food. The fleet was now becoming very
+short of provisions; so after doubling Cape Posmi Nearchus took a
+pilot from those shores on board his own vessel, and with the wind
+in their favour they made rapid progress, finding the country less
+bare as they advanced, a few scattered trees and shrubs being
+visible from the shore. They reached a little town, of the name of
+which we have no record, and as they were almost without food
+Nearchus surprised and took possession of it, the inhabitants making
+but little resistance. Canasida, or Churbar as we call it, was their
+next resting-place, and at the present day the ruins of a town are
+still visible in the bay. But their corn was now entirely exhausted,
+and though they tried successively at Canate, Trois, and Dagasira
+for further supplies, it was all in vain, these miserable little
+towns not being able to furnish more than enough for their own
+consumption. The fleet had neither corn nor meat, and they could not
+make up their minds to feed upon the tortoises that abound in that
+part of the coast.
+
+Just as they entered the Persian Gulf they encountered an immense
+number of whales, and the sailors were so terrified by their size
+and number, that they wished to fly; it was not without much
+difficulty that Nearchus at last prevailed upon them to advance
+boldly, and they soon scattered their formidable enemies.
+
+[Illustration: Nearchus leading on his followers against the
+monsters of the deep.]
+
+Having changed their westerly course for a north-easterly one, they
+soon came upon fertile shores, and their eyes were refreshed by the
+sight of corn-fields and pasture-lands, interspersed with all kinds
+of fruit-trees except the olive. They put into Badis or Jask, and
+after leaving it and passing Maceta or Mussendon, they came in sight
+of the Persian Gulf, to which Nearchus, following the geography of
+the Arabs, gave the misnomer of the Red Sea.
+
+They sailed up the gulf, and after one halt reached Harmozia, which
+has since given its name to the little island of Ormuz. There he
+learnt that Alexander's army was only five days' march from him, and
+he disembarked at once, and hastened to meet it. No news of the
+fleet having reached the army for twenty-one weeks, they had given
+up all hope of seeing it again, and great was Alexander's joy when
+Nearchus appeared before him, though the hardships he had endured
+had altered him almost beyond recognition. Alexander ordered games
+to be celebrated and sacrifices offered up to the gods; then
+Nearchus returned to Harmozia, as he wished to go as far as Susa
+with the fleet, and set sail again, having invoked Jupiter the
+Deliverer.
+
+He touched at some of the neighbouring islands, probably those of
+Arek and Kismis, and soon afterwards the vessels ran aground, but
+the advancing tide floated them again, and after passing Bestion,
+they arrived at the island of Keish, that is sacred to Mercury and
+Venus. This was the boundary-line between Karmania and Persia. As
+they advanced along the Persian coast, they visited different places,
+Gillam, Indarabia, Shevou, &c., and at the last-named was found a
+quantity of wheat which Alexander had sent for the use of the
+explorers.
+
+Some days after this they came to the mouth of the river Araxes,
+that separates Persia from Susiana, and thence they reached a large
+lake situated in the country now called Dorghestan, and finally
+anchored near the village of Degela, at the source of the Euphrates,
+having accomplished their project of visiting all the coast lying
+between the Euphrates and Indus. Nearchus returned a second time to
+Alexander, who rewarded him magnificently, and placed him in command
+of his fleet. Alexander's wish, that the whole of the Arabian coast
+should be explored as far as the Red Sea, was never fulfilled, as he
+died before the expedition was arranged.
+
+It is said that Nearchus became governor of Lysia and Pamphylia, but
+in his leisure time he wrote an account of his travels, which has
+unfortunately perished, though not before Arian had made a complete
+analysis of it in his Historia Indica. It seems probable that
+Nearchus fell in the battle of Ipsu, leaving behind him the
+reputation of being a very able commander; his voyage may be looked
+upon as an event of no small importance in the history of navigation.
+
+We must not omit to mention a most hazardous attempt made in B.C.
+146, by Eudoxus of Cyzicus, a geographer living at the court of
+Euergetes II, to sail round Africa. He had visited Egypt and the
+coast of India, when this far greater project occurred to him, one
+which was only accomplished sixteen hundred years later by Vasco da
+Gama. Eudoxus fitted out a large vessel and two smaller ones, and
+set sail upon the unknown waters of the Atlantic. How far he took
+these vessels we do not know, but after having had communication
+with some natives, whom he thought were Ethiopians, he returned to
+Mauritania. Thence he went to Tiberia, and made preparations for
+another attempt to circumnavigate Africa, but whether he ever set
+out upon this voyage is not known; in fact some learned men are even
+inclined to consider Eudoxus an impostor.
+
+We have still to mention two names of illustrious travellers, living
+before the Christian era; those of Cæsar and Strabo. Cæsar, born B.C.
+100, was pre-eminently a _conqueror_, not an _explorer_, but we must
+remember, that in the year B.C. 58, he undertook the conquest of
+Gaul, and during the ten years that were occupied in this vast
+enterprise, he led his victorious Legions to the shores of Great
+Britain, where the inhabitants were of German extraction.
+
+As to Strabo, who was born in Cappadocia B.C. 50, he distinguished
+himself more as a geographer than a traveller, but he travelled
+through the interior of Asia, and visited Egypt, Greece, and Italy,
+living many years in Rome, and dying there in the latter part of the
+reign of Tiberius. Strabo wrote a Geography in seventeen Books, of
+which the greater part has come down to us, and this work, with that
+of Ptolemy, are the two most valuable legacies of ancient to modern
+Geographers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS FROM THE FIRST TO THE NINTH CENTURY.
+
+PAUSANIAS, 174; FA-HIAN, 399; COSMOS INDICOPLEUSTES, 500; ARCULPHE,
+700; WILLIBALD, 725; SOLEYMAN, 851.
+
+Pliny, Hippalus, Arian, and Ptolemy--Pausanias visits Attica,
+Corinth, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Achaia, Arcadia, Boeotia, and
+Phocis--Fa-Hian explores Kan-tcheou, Tartary, Northern India, the
+Punjaub, Ceylon, and Java--Cosmos Indicopleustes, and the Christian
+Topography of the Universe--Arculphe describes Jerusalem, the valley
+of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives, Bethlehem, Jericho, the river
+Jordan, Libanus, the Dead Sea, Capernaum, Nazareth, Mount Tabor,
+Damascus, Tyre, Alexandria, and Constantinople--Willibald and the
+Holy Land--Soleyman travels through Ceylon, and Sumatra, and crosses
+the Gulf of Siam and the China Sea.
+
+
+In the first two centuries of the Christian era, the study of
+geography received a great stimulus from the advance of other
+branches of science, but travellers, or rather explorers of new
+countries were very few in number. Pliny in the year A.D. 23,
+devoted the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth books of his Natural
+History to geography, and in A.D. 50, Hippalus, a clever navigator,
+discovered the laws governing the monsoon in the Indian Ocean, and
+taught sailors how they might deviate from their usual course, so as
+to make these winds subservient to their being able to go to and
+return from India in one year. Arian, a Greek historian, born A.D.
+105, wrote an account of the navigation of the Euxine or Black Sea,
+and pointed out as nearly as possible, the countries that had been
+discovered by explorers who had lived before his time; and Ptolemy
+the Egyptian, about A.D. 175, making use of the writings of his
+predecessors, published a celebrated geography, in which, for the
+first time, places and cities were marked in their relative latitude
+and longitude on a mathematical plan.
+
+The first traveller of the Christian era, whose name has been handed
+down to us, was Pausanias, a Greek writer, living in Rome in the
+second century, and whose account of his travels bears the date of
+A.D. 175. Pausanias did for ancient Greece what Joanne, the
+industrious and clever Frenchman did for the other countries of
+Europe, in compiling the "Traveller's Guide." His account, a most
+reliable one on all points, and most exact even in details, was one
+upon which travellers of the second century might safely depend in
+their journeys through the different parts of Greece.
+
+Pausanias gives a minute description of Attica, and especially of
+Athens and its monuments, tombs, temples, citadel, academy, columns,
+and of the Areopagus.
+
+From Attica Pausanias went to Corinth, and then explored the Islands
+of Ægina and Methana, Sparta, the Island of Cerigo, Messene, Achaia,
+Arcadia, Boeotia, and Phocis. The roads in the provinces and even
+the streets in the towns, are mentioned in his narrative, as well as
+the general character of the country through which he passed;
+although we can scarcely say that he added any fresh discoveries to
+those already made, he was one of those careful travellers whose
+object was more to obtain exact information, than to make new
+discoveries. His narrative has been of the greatest use to all
+geographers and writers upon Greece and the Peloponnesus, and an
+author of the sixteenth century has truly said that this book is "a
+most ancient and rare specimen of erudition."
+
+[Illustration: World as known to the Ancients.]
+
+It was about a hundred and thirty years after the Greek historian,
+in the fourth century, that a Chinese monk undertook the exploration
+of the countries lying to the west of China. The account of his
+travels is still extant, and we may well agree with M. Charton when
+he says that "this is a most valuable work, carrying us beyond our
+ordinarily narrow view of western civilization."
+
+Fa-Hian, the traveller, was accompanied by several monks; wishing to
+leave China by the west, they crossed more than one chain of
+mountains, and reached the country now called Kan-tcheou, which is
+not far from the great wall. They crossed the river Cha-ho, and a
+desert that Marco Polo was to explore eight hundred years later.
+After seventeen days' march they reached the Lake of Lobnor in
+Turkestan. From this point all the countries that the monks visited
+were alike as to manners and customs, the languages alone differing.
+Being dissatisfied with the reception that they met with in the
+country of the Ourgas, who are not a hospitable people, they took a
+south-easterly course towards a desert country, where they had great
+difficulty in crossing the rivers; and, after a thirty-five days'
+march, the little caravan reached Tartary in the kingdom of Khotan,
+which contained, according to Fa-Hian, "Many times ten thousand holy
+men." Here they met with a cordial welcome, and after a residence of
+three months were allowed to assist at the "Procession of the
+Images," a great feast, in which both Brahmins and Buddhists join,
+when all the idols are placed upon magnificently decorated cars, and
+paraded through streets strewn with flowers, amid clouds of incense.
+
+The feast over, the monks left Khotan for Koukonyar, and after
+resting there fifteen days, we find them further south in the
+Balistan country of the present day, a cold and mountainous district,
+where wheat was the only grain cultivated, and where Fa-Hian found
+in use the curious cylinders on which prayers are written, and which
+are turned by the faithful with the most extraordinary rapidity.
+Thence they went to the eastern part of Afghanistan; it took them
+four weeks to cross the mountains, in the midst of which, and the
+never-melting snow they are said to have found venomous dragons.
+
+On the further side of this rocky chain the travellers found
+themselves in Northern India, where the country is watered by the
+streams which, further on, form the Sinde or Indus. After traversing
+the kingdoms of On-tchang, Su-ho-to, and Kian-tho-wei, they arrived
+at Fo-loo-cha, which must be the town of Peshawur, standing between
+Cabul and the Indus, and twenty-four leagues farther west, they came
+to the town of Hilo, built on the banks of a tributary of the river
+Kabout. In these towns Fa-Hian specially notices the feasts and
+religious ceremonies practised in the worship of Fo or Buddha.
+
+[Illustration: One of Fa-Hian's companions falls.]
+
+When the monks left Kito, they were obliged to cross the
+Hindoo-Koosh mountains, lying between Turkestan and the Gandhara,
+the cold being so intense that one of their party sank under it.
+After enduring great hardships they reached Banoo, a town that is
+still standing, and then, after again crossing the Indus, they
+entered the Punjaub. Thence, descending towards the south-east, with
+a view of crossing the northern part of the Indian Peninsula, they
+reached Mathura, a town in the province of Agra, and crossing the
+great salt desert which lies to the east of the Indus, travelled
+through a country that Fa-Hian calls "a happy kingdom, where the
+inhabitants are good and honest, needing neither laws nor
+magistrates, and indebted to none for their support; without markets
+or wine merchants, and living happily, with plenty of all that they
+required, where the temperature was neither hot nor cold." This
+happy kingdom was India. Fa-Hian followed a south-easterly route,
+and came to Feroukh-abad, where Buddha is said to have alighted as
+he came down from heaven, the Chinese traveller dwelling much upon
+the Buddhist Creed. Thence he visited the town of Kanoji, standing
+on the right bank of the Ganges, that he calls Heng, and this is the
+very centre of Buddhism. Wherever Buddha is supposed to have rested,
+his followers have erected high towers in his honour. The travellers
+visited the temple of Tchihouan, where for twenty-five years Fo
+practised the most severe mortifications, and where he is said to
+have given sight to five hundred blind men. They are said to have
+been much moved by the sight of this temple.
+
+They set out again, passing Kapila and Goruckpoor, on the frontier
+of Nepaul, all made famous by Fo's miracles, and then reached the
+celebrated town of Palian-foo, in the delta of the Ganges, in the
+kingdom of Magadha. This was a fertile tract of country inhabited by
+a civilized, upright people, who loved all philosophic researches.
+After climbing the peak of Vautour, which stands at the source of
+the Dyardanes and Banourah rivers, Fa-Hian descended the Ganges,
+visited the temple of Issi-paten that was frequented by magicians
+and astrologers, reached Benares, "the kingdom of splendours," and a
+little lower down, the town of Tomo-li-ti, situated at the mouth of
+the river, a short distance from the site of Calcutta in the present
+day.
+
+Fa-Hian found a party of merchants just preparing to put to sea with
+the intention of going to Ceylon; he sailed with them, and in
+fourteen days landed on the shores of the ancient Taprobana, of
+which the Greek merchant, Jamboulos, had given a curious account
+some centuries previously. Here the Chinese monk found all the
+traditions and legends regarding the god Fo, and passed two years in
+searching ancient manuscripts. He left Ceylon for Java, where he
+landed after a very rough voyage, in the course of which, when the
+sky was overclouded, he says, "we saw nothing but great waves
+dashing one against another, lightning, crocodiles, tortoises, and
+monsters of the deep."
+
+He spent five months in Java, and then set sail for Canton; but the
+winds were again unfavourable, and after undergoing great hardships
+he landed at the town of Chantoung of the present day; then having
+spent some time at Nankin he returned to Fi-an-foo, his native town,
+after an absence of eighteen months. Such is the account of
+Fa-Hian's travels, which have been well translated by M. Abel de
+Rémusat, and which give very interesting details of Indian and
+Tartar customs, especially those relating to their religious
+ceremonies.
+
+The next traveller to the Chinese monk, in chronological order, is
+an Egyptian called Cosmos Indicopleustes, a name that M. Charton
+renders as "Cosmographic traveller in India." He lived in the sixth
+century, and was a merchant of Alexandria, who, on his return from
+visiting Ethiopia and part of Asia, entered a monastery.
+
+His narrative is called the "Christian Topography of the Universe."
+It gives no details of its author's voyages, but begins with
+cosmographic discussions, to prove that the world is square, and
+enclosed in a great oblong coffer with all the other planets. This
+is followed by some dissertations on the function of the angels, and
+a description of the dress of the Jewish Priests. Cosmos also gives
+the natural history of the animals of India and Ceylon, and notices
+the rhinoceros and buffalo, which can be made of use for domestic
+purposes, the giraffe, the wild ox, the musk that is hunted for its
+"perfumed blood," the unicorn, which he considers a real animal and
+not a myth, the wild boar, the hippopotamus, the phoca, the dolphin,
+and the tortoise. Afterwards, Cosmos describes the pepper-plant, as
+a frail and delicate shrub, like the smallest tendrils of the vine,
+and the cocoa-tree, whose fruit has a fragrance "equal to that of a
+nut."
+
+From the earliest times of the Christian era there has been a great
+love for visiting the Holy Land, the cradle of the new religion.
+These pilgrimages became more and more frequent, and we have many
+names left to us of those who visited Palestine during the first
+centuries of Christianity.
+
+One of these pilgrims, the French Bishop Arculphe, who lived towards
+the end of the seventh century, has left us an account of his
+travels.
+
+He sets out by giving a topographical description of the site of
+Jerusalem, and describes the wall that surrounds the holy city, then
+the circular church built over the Holy Sepulchre, the tomb of our
+Lord Jesus Christ, and the stone that closed it, the church
+dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the church built upon Calvary, and the
+basilica of Constantine on the site of the place where the real
+cross was found. These various churches are united in one building,
+which also encloses the Tomb of Christ, and Calvary, where our Lord
+was crucified.
+
+Arculphe then descended into the Valley of Jehoshaphat, which is
+situated to the east of the city, and contains the church that
+covers the tomb of the Virgin; he also saw that of Absalom, which he
+calls the Tower of Jehoshaphat. He describes the Mount of Olives
+that faces the city beyond the valley, and he prayed in the cave
+where Jesus prayed. He also went to Mount Zion, which stands outside
+the town on the south side; he notices the gigantic fig-tree, on
+which, according to tradition, Judas Iscariot hanged himself, and he
+visited the church of the guest-chamber, now destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: Absalom's Tomb.]
+
+After making the tour of the city by the Valley of Siloam, and
+ascending by the brook Cedron, the bishop returned to the Mount of
+Olives, which was covered with waving wheat and barley, grass and
+wild flowers, and he describes the place where Christ ascended from
+the summit of the mountain. On this spot a large church has been
+built, with three arched porticoes that are not roofed over or
+covered in any way, but are open to the sky. "They have not roofed
+in this church," says the bishop, "because it was the place whence
+our Saviour ascended upon a cloud, and the space open to heaven
+allows the prayers of the faithful to ascend thither. For when they
+paved this church they could not lay the pavement over the place
+where our Lord's feet had rested, as, when the stones were laid upon
+that spot, the earth, as though impatient of anything not divine
+resting upon it, threw them up again before the workmen. Beyond this,
+the dust bears the impress of the divine feet, and though, day by
+day, the faithful who visit the spot efface the marks, they
+immediately reappear and may be seen perpetually."
+
+After having explored the neighbourhood of Bethany in the midst of
+the grove of olives, where the grave of Lazarus is said to be, and
+where the church, standing on the right hand is supposed to mark the
+spot where our Lord usually conversed with His disciples, Arculphe
+went to Bethlehem, which is a short distance from the holy city. He
+describes the birthplace of our Lord, a natural cave, hollowed out
+of the rock at the eastern end of the village, the church, built by
+St. Helena, the tombs of the three shepherds, upon whom the heavenly
+light shone at the birth of our Saviour, the burial-places of the
+patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and that of Rachel, and he
+visited the oak of Mamre, under which Abraham received the visit of
+the angels. Thence, Arculphe went to Jericho, or rather the place
+where the town once stood, whose walls fell at the sound of Joshua's
+trumpets. He explored the place where the children of Israel first
+rested in the land of Canaan after crossing the river Jordan, and he
+speaks of the church of Galgala, where the twelve stones are placed,
+which the children of Israel took from the river when they entered
+the promised land. He followed the course of the Jordan, and found
+near one of the bends of the river on the right bank, and among the
+most beautiful scenery, about an hour's walk from the Dead Sea, the
+place where our Lord was baptized by St. John the Baptist. A cross
+is placed to mark the spot, but when the river is swollen, it is
+covered by the water.
+
+After examining the banks of the Dead Sea and tasting its brackish
+water, he viewed the source of the Jordan, at the foot of Libanus,
+and explored the greater part of the Lake of Tiberias, visiting the
+well where the woman of Samaria gave our Lord the water He so much
+needed, seeing the fountain in the desert of which St. John the
+Baptist drank, and the great plain of Gaza, where our Lord blessed
+the five loaves and two fishes, and fed the multitude. Next he went
+down to Capernaum, of which there are now no remains; then visited
+Nazareth, where our Lord spent His childhood, and ended his journey
+at Mount Tabor in Galilee.
+
+The bishop's narrative contains both geographical and historical
+accounts of other places, beyond those immediately connected with
+our Lord's life on earth. He visited the royal city of Damascus,
+which is watered by four large rivers. Also Tyre, the chief town of
+Phoenicia, which, though once separated from the mainland, was
+joined to it again by the jetty or pier made by the orders of
+Nabuchodonosor. He speaks of Alexandria, once the capital of Egypt,
+which he reached forty days after leaving Jaffa, and lastly, of
+Constantinople, where he often visited the large church in which
+"the wood of the cross is preserved, upon which the Saviour suffered
+for the salvation of the human race."
+
+The account of this journey was written by the Abbé de St. Columban
+at the dictation of the bishop, and not many years afterwards the
+same journey was undertaken by an English pilgrim, and accomplished
+in much the same way. The name of this pilgrim was Willibald, a
+member of a rich family living at Southampton, who, on his recovery
+from a long illness, dedicated him to God's service. All his early
+life was spent in holy exercises in the monastery of Woltheim; when
+he was grown up he had the most intense wish to see St. Peter's at
+Rome, and was so set upon this, that it induced his father, brother,
+and young sister to wish to go there also; they embarked at
+Southampton in the spring of 721, and making their way up the Seine,
+they landed at Rouen. We have but few details of the journey to Rome,
+but Willibald mentions that after passing through Cortona and Lucca,
+at which latter place his father sank under the fatigue of the
+journey and died, he reached Rome in safety with his brother and
+sister, and passed the winter there, but they were all in turn
+attacked with fever. When Willibald regained his health, he
+determined to continue his journey to the Holy Land. He sent his
+brother and sister back to England, while he joined some monks who
+were going in the same direction as himself. They went by Terracina
+and Gaeta to Naples, and set sail for Reggio in Calabria, and
+Catania and Syracuse in Sicily, whence they again embarked, and,
+after touching at Cos and Samos, landed at Ephesus in Asia Minor,
+where they visited the tombs of St. John the Evangelist, of Mary
+Magdalene, and of the seven sleepers of Ephesus, that is, seven
+Christians martyred in the time of the Emperor Decius.
+
+They made some stay at Patara and at Mitylene, and then went to
+Cyprus and Paphos; we next find the party, seven in number, at
+Edessa, visiting the tomb of St. Thomas the Apostle. Here they were
+arrested as spies, and thrown into prison by the Saracens, but the
+king, on the petition of a Spaniard, set them at liberty. As soon as
+they were set free they left the town in great haste, and from that
+time their route is almost the same as that of the Bishop Arculphe;
+they visited Damascus, Nazareth, Cana, where they saw a wonderful
+amphora on Mount Tabor, where our Lord was transfigured, and the
+Lake of Tiberias, where St. Peter walked upon the water; Magdala,
+where Lazarus and his sister dwelt; Capernaum, where our Lord raised
+to life the son of the nobleman; Bethsaida in Galilee, the native
+place of St. Peter and St. Andrew; Chorazin, where our Lord cured
+those possessed with devils; Cæsarea, and the spot where our Lord
+was baptized, as well as Jericho and Jerusalem.
+
+They also went to the Valley of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives,
+and to Bethlehem, the scene of the murder of the Innocents by Herod,
+and Gaza. While they were at Gaza, Willibald tells us that he
+suddenly became blind, while he was in the church of St. Matthias,
+and only recovered his sight two months afterwards, as he entered
+the church of the Holy Cross at Jerusalem. He went through the
+valley of Diospolis or Lydda, ten miles from Jerusalem, and then
+went to Tyre and Sidon, and thence, by Libanus, Damascus, Cæsarea,
+and Emmaus, back to Jerusalem, where the travellers spent the winter.
+
+This was not to be the limit of their exploration, for we hear of
+them at Ptolemais, Emesa, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Samaria, where St.
+John the Baptist is said to have been buried, and at Tyre, where it
+must be confessed that Willibald defrauded the revenue of that time
+by smuggling some balsam that was very celebrated, and on which a
+duty was levied. On quitting Tyre they went to Constantinople and
+lived there for two years before returning by Sicily, Calabria,
+Naples, and Capua. The English pilgrim reached the monastery of
+Monte Cassino, just ten years after his first setting out on his
+travels; but his time of rest had not yet come, as he was appointed
+to a bishopric in Franconia by Pope Gregory III. He was forty-one
+years of age when he was made bishop, and he lived forty years
+afterwards. In 938 he was canonized by Leo VII.
+
+We will conclude the list of celebrated travellers living between
+the first and ninth centuries, by giving a short account of Soleyman,
+a merchant of Bassorah, who, starting from the Persian Gulf, arrived
+eventually on the shores of China. This narrative is in two distinct
+parts, one written in 851, by Soleyman himself, who was the
+traveller, and the other in 878 by a geographer named Abou-Zeyd
+Hassan with the view of completing the first. Renaud, the
+orientalist, is of opinion that this narrative "has thrown quite a
+new light on the commercial transactions that existed in the ninth
+century between Egypt, Arabia, and the countries bordering on the
+Persian Gulf on one side, and the vast provinces of India and China
+on the other."
+
+Soleyman, as we have said, started from the Persian Gulf after
+having taken in a good supply of fresh water at Muscat, and visited
+first, the second sea, or that of Oman. He noticed a fish of
+enormous size, probably a spermaceti whale, which the seamen
+endeavoured to frighten away by ringing a bell, then a shark, in
+whose stomach they found a smaller shark, enclosing in its turn one
+still smaller, "both alive," says the traveller, which is manifestly
+an exaggeration; then, after describing the remora, the dactyloptera,
+and the porpoise, he speaks of the sea near the Maldive Islands in
+which he counted an enormous number of islands, among them he
+mentions Ceylon by its Arabian name, with its pearl fisheries;
+Sumatra, inhabited by cannibals, and rich in gold-mines; Nicobar,
+and the Andaman Islands, where cannibalism still exists even at the
+present day. "This sea," he says, "is subject to fearful
+water-spouts which wreck the ships, and throw on its shores an
+immense number of dead fish and sometimes even large stones. When
+these tempests are at their height the sea seethes and boils."
+Soleyman imagined it to be infested by a sort of monster who preyed
+upon human beings; this is thought to have been a kind of dog-fish.
+
+[Illustration: Soleyman noticed a shark in whose stomach they found
+a smaller shark.]
+
+Arrived at Nicobar, Soleyman traded with the inhabitants, bartering
+some iron for cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane, bananas, &c.; he then crossed
+the sea, and seems to have made for Singapore, and northwards by the
+Gulf of Siam. Soleyman put into a harbour, near Cape Varella, to
+revictual his ships, and thence he went by the China Sea to
+Jehan-fou the port of the present town of Tche-kiang. The remainder
+of the account of Soleyman's travels, written by Abou-Zeyd Hassan,
+contains a detailed account of the manners and customs of the
+Indians and Chinese; but it is not the traveller himself who is
+speaking, and we shall find the same subjects spoken of in a more
+interesting manner by later authors.
+
+We must add, in reviewing the discoveries made by travellers sixteen
+centuries before, and nine centuries after, the Christian era, that
+from Norway to the extreme boundaries of China, taking a line
+through the Atlantic ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the
+Indian Ocean, and the Sea of China, the immense extent of coast
+bordering these seas had been in a great measure visited. Some
+explorations had been attempted in the interior of these countries;
+for instance, in Egypt as far as Ethiopia, in Asia Minor to the
+Caucasus, in India and China; and if these old travellers may not
+have quite understood mathematical precision, as to some of the
+points they visited, at all events the manners and customs of the
+inhabitants, the productions of the different countries, the mode of
+trading with them, and their religious customs, were quite
+sufficiently understood. Ships could sail with more safety when the
+change of winds was no longer a subject of mere speculation, the
+caravans could take a more direct route in the interior of the
+countries, and the great increase of trade which took place in the
+middle ages is surely owing to the facilities afforded by the
+writings of travellers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BETWEEN THE TENTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, 1159-1173; PLAN DE CARPIN, OR CARPINI,
+1245-1247; RUBRUQUIS, 1253-1254.
+
+The Scandinavians in the North, Iceland and Greenland--Benjamin of
+Tudela visits Marseilles, Rome, Constantinople, the Archipelago,
+Palestine, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Damascus, Baalbec, Nineveh, Baghdad,
+Babylon, Bassorah, Ispahan, Shiraz, Samarcand, Thibet, Malabar,
+Ceylon, the Red Sea, Egypt, Sicily, Italy, Germany, and France--
+Carpini explores Turkestan--Manners and customs of the Tartars--
+Rubruquis and the Sea of Azov, the Volga, Karakorum, Astrakhan, and
+Derbend.
+
+
+In the course of the tenth, and at the beginning of the eleventh
+century, a considerable amount of ardour for exploration had arisen
+in Northern Europe. Some Norwegians and adventurous Gauls had
+penetrated to the Northern seas, and, if we may trust to some
+accounts, they had gone as far as the White Sea and visited the
+country of the Samoyedes. Some documents say that Prince Madoc may
+have explored the American continent.
+
+At all events we may be tolerably certain that Iceland was
+discovered about A.D. 861 by some Scandinavian adventurers, and that
+it was soon after colonized by Normans. About this same time a
+Norwegian had taken refuge on a newly discovered land, and surprised
+by its verdure he gave it the name of Greenland.
+
+The communication with this portion of the American continent was
+difficult and uncertain, and one geographer says "it took five years
+for a vessel to go from Norway to Greenland, and to return from
+Greenland to Norway." Sometimes in severe winters the Northern Ocean
+was completely frozen over, and a certain Hollur-Geit, guided by a
+goat, was able to cross on foot from Norway to Greenland. We should
+keep in mind that the period of which we are speaking is the time
+when legends and traditions were very plentiful, and gained ready
+credence.
+
+Let us return to well-authenticated facts, and relate the journey of
+a Spanish Jew, whose truthfulness is beyond question.
+
+This Jew was the son of a rabbi of Tudela, a town in Navarre, and he
+was called Benjamin of Tudela. It seems probable that the object of
+his voyage was to make a census of his brother Jews scattered over
+the surface of the Globe, but whatever may have been his motive, he
+spent thirteen years, from 1160-1173, exploring nearly all the known
+world, and his narrative was considered the great authority on this
+subject up to the sixteenth century.
+
+Benjamin of Tudela left Barcelona, and travelling by Tarragona,
+Gironde, Narbonne, Béziers, Montpellier, Sunel, Pousquiers, St.
+Gilles, and Arles, reached Marseilles. Here he visited the two
+synagogues in the town and the principal Jews, and then set sail for
+Genoa, arriving there in four days. The Genoese were masters of the
+sea at that time, and were at war with the people of Pisa, a brave
+people, who, like the Genoese, says the traveller, "owned neither
+kings nor princes, but only the judges whom they appointed at their
+own pleasure."
+
+After visiting Lucca, Benjamin of Tudela went to Rome. Alexander III.
+was Pope at that time, and according to this traveller, he included
+some Jews among his ministers. Among the monuments of special
+interest in the eternal city, he mentions St. Peter's and St. John
+Lateran, but his descriptions are not interesting. From Rome by
+Capua, and Pozzuoli, then partly inundated, he went to Naples, where
+he seems to have seen nothing but the five hundred Jews living
+there; then by Salerno, Amalfi, Benevento, Ascoli, Trani, St.
+Nicholas of Bari, and Brindisi, he arrived at Otranto, having
+crossed Italy and yet found nothing interesting to relate of this
+splendid country.
+
+The list of the places Benjamin of Tudela visited, is not
+interesting, but we must not omit to mention one of them, for his
+narrative is most precise, and it is useful to follow his route by
+the maps specially prepared for this purpose by Lelewel. From
+Otranto to Zeitun, his halting-places were Corfu, the Gulf of Arta,
+Achelous, an ancient town in Ætolia, Anatolia in Greece, on the Gulf
+of Patras, Patras, Lepanto, Crissa, at the foot of Mount Parnassus,
+Corinth, Thebes, whose two thousand Jewish inhabitants were the best
+makers of silk and purple in Greece, Negropont and Zeitoun. Here,
+according to the Spanish traveller, is the boundary-line of
+Wallachia; he says the Wallachians are as nimble as goats, and come
+down from the mountains to pillage the neighbouring Greek towns.
+
+Benjamin of Tudela went on to Constantinople by way of Gardiki, a
+small township on the Gulf of Volo, Armyros, a port much frequented
+by the Venetians and Genoese, Bissina, a town of which no traces are
+left, Salonica, the ancient Thessalonica, and Abydos. He gives us
+some details of Constantinople; the Emperor Emmanuel Comnenus was
+reigning at that time and lived in a palace that he had built upon
+the sea-shore, containing columns of pure gold and silver, and "the
+golden throne studded with precious stones, above which a golden
+crown is suspended by a chain of the same precious metal, which
+rests upon the monarch's head as he sits upon the throne." In this
+crown are many precious stones, and one of priceless worth: "so
+brilliant are they," says this traveller, "that at night, there is
+no occasion for any further light than that thrown back by these
+jewels." He adds that there is a large population in the city, and
+for the number of merchants from all countries who assemble there,
+it can only be compared to Baghdad. The inhabitants are principally
+dressed in embroidered silk robes enriched with golden fringes, and
+to see them thus attired and mounted upon their horses, one would
+take them for princes, but they are not brave warriors, and they
+keep mercenaries from all nations to fight for them. One regret he
+expresses, and that is, that there are no Jews left in the City, and
+that they have all been transported to Galata, near the entrance of
+the port, where are nearly two thousand five hundred of the sects
+(Rabbinites and Caraites), and among them many rich merchants and
+silk manufacturers, but the Turks have a bitter hatred for them, and
+treat them with great severity. Only one of these rich Jews was
+allowed to ride on horseback, he was the Emperor's physician,
+Solomon, the Egyptian. As to the remarkable buildings of
+Constantinople, he mentions the Mosque of St. Sophia, in which the
+number of altars answers to the number of days in a year, and the
+columns and gold and silver candlesticks, are too numerous to be
+counted; also the Hippodrome, which at the present day is used as a
+horse-market, but was then the scene of combats between "lions,
+bears, tigers, other wild beasts, and even birds."
+
+[Illustration: The approach to Constantinople.]
+
+When Benjamin of Tudela left Constantinople, he visited Gallipoli
+and Kilia, a port on the Eastern coast, and went to the islands in
+the Archipelago, Mitylene, Chios, whence there was much trade in the
+juice of the pistachio-tree, Samos, Rhodes, and Cyprus. As he sailed
+towards the land of Aram, he passed by Messis, by Antioch, where he
+admired the arrangements for supplying the city with water, and by
+Latakia on his way to Tripoli, which he found had been recently
+shaken by an earthquake, that had been felt for miles round. We next
+hear of him at Beyrout, at Sidon, and Tyre, celebrated for its glass
+manufactory, at Acre, at Jaffa near Mount Carmel, at Capernaum, at
+the beautiful town of Cæsarea, at Samaria, which is built in the
+midst of a fertile tract, where are vineyards, gardens, orchards,
+and olive-yards, at Nablous, at Gibeon, and then at Jerusalem.
+
+In the holy city, it was but natural that the Jew could see nothing
+that would have interested a Christian visitor. For him, Jerusalem
+appeared only a small town, defended by three walls and peopled with
+Jews, Syrians, Greeks, Georgians, and Franks of all languages and
+nations. He found four hundred horse-soldiers in the city ready for
+war at any moment, a great temple in which is the tomb of "that
+man," as the Talmud styles our Saviour, and a house in which the
+Jews had the privilege of carrying on the work of dyeing; but they
+were few in number, scarcely two hundred, and they lived under the
+tower of David at one corner of the city. Outside Jerusalem, the
+traveller mentions the tomb of Absalom, the sepulchre of Osias, the
+pool of Siloam, near the brook Cedron, the valley of Jehoshaphat,
+and the Mount of Olives, from whose summit one can see the Dead Sea.
+Two leagues from it stands the pillar of Lot's wife, and the
+traveller adds, "that though the flocks and herds which pass this
+pillar of salt are continually licking it, yet it never diminishes
+in size." From Jerusalem, Benjamin of Tudela went to Bethlehem, and
+inscribed his name on Rachel's tomb, as it was customary for all
+Jews to do who passed by it; and from Bethlehem, after counting
+twelve Jewish dyeing establishments, he went on to Hebron, which is
+now deserted and in ruins.
+
+After visiting, in the plain of Machpelah, the tombs of Abraham,
+Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, and Leah, and passing by Beth-Jairim,
+Scilo, Mount Moriah, Beth-Nubi, Ramah, Joppa, Jabneh, Azotus,
+Ascalon, built by Esdras, Lud, Tiberias, where are some hot springs,
+Gish and Merom, which is still a spot visited by Jewish pilgrims,
+Kedesh and Laish, near the cavern, where the Jordan takes its rise,
+the traveller left the land of Israel, and entered Damascus.
+
+The following is his description of this city, where the Turkish
+rule begins. "It is a very large and beautiful city, walled round,
+and outside the walls for fifteen miles are gardens and orchards,
+and of all the surrounding country, this is the most fertile spot.
+The town stands at the foot of Mount Hermon, whence rise the two
+rivers, Abana and Pharpar; the first passes through the city, and
+its waters are taken into the larger houses by means of aqueducts,
+as well as through the streets and markets. This town trades with
+all the world. The river Pharpar fertilizes the orchards and gardens
+outside the town. There is an Ishmaelitish mosque, called
+Goman-Dammesec, meaning the synagogue of Damascus, and this building
+has not its equal; it is said to have been Benhadad's palace, and it
+contains a glass wall, built apparently by magic. This wall has 365
+holes in it, answering to the days of the year; as the sun rises and
+sets it shines through one or other of these holes, so that the hour
+of the day may thus always be known. Inside the palace or mosque are
+gold and silver houses, large enough to hold two or three persons at
+a time, if they wish to wash or bathe in them."
+
+After going to Galad and Salkah, which are two days' journey from
+Damascus, Benjamin reached Baalbec, the Heliopolis of the Greeks and
+Romans, built by Solomon, in the valley of the Libanus, then to
+Tadmor, which is Palmyra, also built entirely of great stones. Then
+passing by Cariatin, he stopped at Hamah, which was partially
+destroyed by an earthquake in 1157, which overthrew many of the
+Syrian towns.
+
+Now comes in the narrative a list of names, which are of no great
+interest: we may mention among them, Nineveh, whence the traveller
+returned towards the Euphrates; and finally that he reached Baghdad,
+the residence of the Caliph.
+
+Baghdad was of great interest to the Jewish traveller; he says it is
+a large town three miles in circumference, containing a hospital
+both for Jews and sick people of any nation. It is the centre for
+learned men, philosophers, and magicians from all parts of the world.
+It is the residence of the Caliph, who at this time was probably
+Mostaidjed, whose dominion included western Persia and the banks of
+the Tigris. He had a vast palace, standing in a park watered by a
+tributary of the Tigris and filled with wild beasts, he may be taken
+as a model sovereign on some points; he was a good and very truthful
+man, kind and considerate to all with whom he came in contact. He
+lived on the produce of his own toil, and made blankets, which,
+marked with his own seal, were sold in the market by the princes of
+his court, to defray the expense of his living. He only left his
+palace once a year, at the feast of Ramadan, when he went to the
+mosque near the Bassorah gate, and there acting as Iman, he
+explained the law to his people. He returned to his palace by a
+different route which was carefully guarded all the rest of the year,
+so that no other passer by might profane the marks of his footsteps.
+All the brothers of the Caliph inhabit the same palace as he does;
+they are all treated with much respect, and have the government of
+provinces and towns in their hands, the revenues from them enabling
+them to pass a pleasant life; only, as they once rebelled against
+their sovereign, they are now all fettered with chains of iron, and
+have guards mounted before their houses.
+
+Benjamin of Tudela visited that part of Turkey in Asia which is
+watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, and saw the ruined city of
+Babylon, passing by what is said to be the furnace into which
+Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego were thrown, and the tower of Babel,
+which he describes as follows. "The tower built by the tribes that
+were dispersed is of bricks; its largest ground work must be two
+miles in circumference; its length is two hundred and forty cubits.
+At every ten cubits there is a passage leading to a spiral staircase,
+which goes to the upper part of the building; from the tower there
+is a view of the surrounding country for twenty miles; but the wrath
+of God fell upon it and it is now only a heap of ruins."
+
+[Illustration: The Tower of Babel.]
+
+From Babel the traveller went to the Synagogue of Ezekiel, situated
+on the Euphrates, a real sanctuary where believers congregate to
+read the book written by the prophet. Then traversing Alkotzonath,
+&c., to Sura, once the site of a celebrated Jewish college, and
+Shafjathib, whose synagogue is built with stones from Jerusalem, and
+crossing the desert of Yemen he passed Themar, Tilimar, and Chaibar
+which contained a great number of Jewish inhabitants, to Waseth; and
+thence to Bassorah on the Tigris, nearly at the end of the Persian
+Gulf.
+
+He gives no account of this important town; and thence he seems to
+have gone to Karna, to visit the tomb of the prophet Esdras; then he
+entered Persia and sojourned at Chuzestan, a large town, partly in
+ruins, which the river Tigris divides into two parts, one rich the
+other poor, joined by a bridge, over which hangs the coffin of
+Daniel the prophet. He went to Amaria, which is the boundary of
+Media, where he says the impostor David-el-roi appeared, the worker
+of false miracles, who is none other than our Lord Jesus Christ, but
+called among the Jews of that part by the former name. Then he went
+to Hamadan, where the tombs of Mordecai and Esther are found, and by
+Dabrestan he reached Ispahan, the capital of the kingdom, a city
+measuring twelve miles in circumference. At this point the narrative
+of the traveller becomes somewhat obscure; according to his notes we
+find him at Shiraz, then at Samarcand, then at the foot of the
+mountains in Thibet. This seems to have been his farthest point
+towards the north-east; he must have come back to Nizapur and
+Chuzestan on the banks of the Tigris; thence after a sea voyage of
+two days to El-Cachif, an Arabian town on the Persian Gulf, where
+the pearl fishery is carried on. Then, after another voyage of seven
+days and crossing the Sea of Oman, he seems to have reached Quilon
+on the coast of Malabar.
+
+He was at last in India, the kingdom of the worshippers of the Sun
+and of the descendants of Cush. This country produces pepper, ginger,
+and cinnamon. Twenty days after leaving Quilon he was among the
+fire-worshippers in Ceylon, and thence, perhaps, he went to China.
+He thought this voyage a very perilous one, and says that many
+vessels are lost on it, giving the following singular expedient for
+averting the danger. "You should take on board with you several
+skins of oxen, and, if the wind rises and threatens the vessel with
+danger, all who wish to escape envelope themselves each in a skin,
+sew up this skin so as to make it as far as possible water-tight,
+then throw themselves into the sea, and flocks of the great eagles
+called griffins, thinking that they are really oxen, will descend
+and bear them on their wings to some mountain or valley, there to
+devour their prey. Immediately on reaching land the man will kill
+the eagle with his knife, and leaving the skin, will walk towards
+the nearest habitation; many people," he adds, "have been saved by
+this means."
+
+We find Benjamin of Tudela again at Ceylon, then at the Island of
+Socotra in the Persian Gulf, and after crossing the Red Sea he
+arrives in Abyssinia, which he styles "the India that is on terra
+firma." Thence he goes down the Nile, crosses the country of Assouan,
+reaches the town of Holvan, and by the Sahara, where the sand
+swallows up whole caravans, he goes to Zairlah, Kous, Faiouna and
+Misraim or Cairo.
+
+This last is a large town containing fine squares and shops. It
+never rains there, but this want is supplied by the overflow of the
+Nile once a year, which waters the country and renders it very
+fertile.
+
+[Illustration: Benjamin of Tudela in the Desert of Sahara.]
+
+He passed Gizeh on leaving Misraim but does not mention the pyramids,
+and just names Ain-Schams, Boutig, Zefita, and Damira; he stopped at
+Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, a city of great commerce,
+frequented by merchants from all parts of the world. Its squares and
+streets are thronged with people, and so long that one cannot see
+from one end to another. A dike or causeway runs out a mile into the
+sea, on which a high tower was built by the conqueror, and on the
+top of it a glass mirror was placed, by which all vessels could be
+seen while still fifty days' sail away, coming from Greece or the
+east on their way to make war upon or otherwise harm the town. "This
+tower," if we may credit the writer, "is still of use as a signal to
+vessels coming to Alexandria, for it can be seen night or day, a
+great flaming torch being kept lighted at night, visible 100 miles
+off!" What are our light-houses when even with the electric light
+they are only visible thirty miles away? From Damietta, the
+traveller visited several neighbouring towns, then returning there
+he embarked on board a vessel and twenty days afterwards landed at
+Messina. He wished to continue the census that he was making, so by
+way of Rome and Lucca he went to St. Bernard. He mentions visiting
+several towns both in Germany and France, where Jews had settled,
+and according to Chateaubriand's account, Benjamin of Tudela's
+computation brought the number of Jews to about 768,165.
+
+In conclusion the traveller speaks of Paris, which he seems to have
+visited; he says, "This great town numbers among its inhabitants
+some remarkably learned men, who are unequalled for learning by any
+in the world; they spend all their time studying law, and at the
+same time are very hospitable to all strangers, but especially to
+all their Jewish brethren." Such is the account of Benjamin of
+Tudela's travels; they form an important part of the geographical
+science of the middle of the twelfth century. As we have used the
+modern names, it is easy to follow the short account of his route
+that we have given, on any atlas of the present day.
+
+Next in order of succession we come to the name of Jean du Plan de
+Carpin, or as some authors render it simply, Carpini. He was a
+Franciscan or Grey Friar, born in 1182, at Perugia in Italy. It is
+well known what inroads the Mongolians had made under Gengis-Khan,
+and in 1206 this chieftain had made Karakorum, an ancient Turkish
+town, his capital. This town was a little north of China. His
+successor Ojadaï, extended the Mongolian dominion into the centre of
+China, and, after raising an army of 600,000 men, he even invaded
+Europe. Russia, Georgia, Poland, Moravia, Silesia, and Hungary, all
+became the scenes of sanguinary conflicts which almost always ended
+in favour of the invaders. The Mongols were looked upon as demons
+possessed with superhuman power, and Western Europe was terrified at
+their approach.
+
+Pope Innocent IV. sent an ambassador to the Tartars, but he was
+treated with arrogance; at the same time he sent other ambassadors
+to the Tartars living in North-Eastern Tartary, in the hope of
+stopping the Mongolian invasion, and as chief in this mission, the
+Franciscan Carpini was chosen, being known to be a clever and
+intelligent diplomatist. Carpini was accompanied by Stephen, a
+Bohemian; they set out on the 6th of April, 1245, and went first to
+Bohemia, where the king gave them letters to some relations living
+in Poland, who he hoped might facilitate their entrance into Russia.
+Carpini had no difficulty in reaching the territory of the Archduke
+of Russia, and by his advice they bought beaver and other furs as
+presents for the Tartar chiefs. Thus provided, they took a
+north-easterly route to Kiev, then the chief town of Russia and now
+the seat of Government of that part, but they travelled in fear of
+the Lithuanians, who scoured the country at that time.
+
+The Governor of Kiev advised the Pope's envoys to exchange their own
+for Tartar horses, who were accustomed to seek for their food under
+the snow, and thus mounted they had no difficulty in getting as far
+as Danilisha. There they both were attacked by severe illness; when
+nearly recovered they bought a carriage, and in spite of the intense
+cold set out again. Arrived at Kaniev, on the Dnieper, they found
+themselves in the frontier town of the Mongol empire, and hence they
+were conducted to the Tartar camp by one of the chiefs, whom they
+had made their friend by gifts. In the camp they were badly received
+at first, but being directed to the Duke of Corrensa, who commanded
+an army of 60,000 men forming the advanced guard: this general sent
+them with an escort of three Tartars to Prince Bathy, the next in
+command to the Emperor himself. Relays of horses were prepared for
+them on the road, they travelled night and day, and thus passed
+through the Comans' country lying between the Dnieper, the Tanais,
+the Volga, and the Yaik, frequently having to cross the frozen
+rivers, and finally reaching the court of Prince Bathy on the
+frontiers of the Comans' country. "As we were being conducted to the
+prince," says Carpini, "we were told that we should have to pass
+between two fires, in order to purify us from any infection we might
+carry, and also to do away with any evil designs we might have
+towards the prince, which we agreed to do that we might be freed
+from all suspicion."
+
+The prince was seated on his throne in the midst of his courtiers
+and officers in a magnificent tent made of fine linen. He had the
+reputation of being a just and kind ruler of his people, but very
+cruel in war. Carpini and Stephen were placed on the left of the
+throne, and the papal letters, translated into a language composed
+of Tartar and Arabic, were presented to the prince. He read them
+attentively and then dismissed the envoys to their tents, where
+their only refreshment was a little porringer full of millet.
+
+This interview took place on Good Friday, and the next day Bathy
+sent for the envoys, and told them they must go to the Emperor. They
+set out on Easter-day with two guides; but having lived upon nothing
+but millet, water, and salt, the travellers were but little fit for
+a journey; nevertheless their guides obliged them to travel very
+quickly, changing horses five or six times in a day. They passed
+through almost a desert country, the Tartars having driven away
+nearly all the inhabitants. They came next to the country of the
+Kangites to the east of Comania, where there was a great deficiency
+of water; in this province the people were mostly herdsmen, under
+the hard yoke of the Mongolians.
+
+Carpini was travelling from Easter till Ascension-Day through the
+land of the Kangites, and thence he came into the Biserium country,
+or what we call Turkestan in the present day; on all sides the eye
+rested on towns and villages in ruins. After crossing a chain of
+mountains the envoys entered Kara-Kâty on the 1st of July; here the
+governor received them very hospitably, and made his sons and the
+principal officers of his court dance before them for their
+amusement.
+
+On leaving Kara-Kâty the envoys rode for some days along the banks
+of a lake lying to the north of the town of Zeman, which must be,
+according to M. de Rémusat, the Lake Balkash. There lived Ordu, the
+eldest of the Tartar captains, and here Carpini and Stephen took a
+day's rest before encountering the cold and mountainous country of
+the Maimans, a nomadic people living in tents. After some days the
+travellers reached the country of the Mongols, and on the 22nd of
+July arrived at the place where the Emperor was, or rather he who
+was to be Emperor, the election having not yet taken place.
+
+This future Emperor was named Cunius; he received the envoys in a
+most friendly manner, a letter from Prince Bathy having explained to
+him the object of their visit; not being yet Emperor he could not
+entertain them nor take any part in public affairs, but from the
+time of Ojadaï's death, his widow, the mother of Prince Cunius had
+been Regent; she received the travellers in a purple and white tent
+capable of holding 2000 persons. Carpini gives the following account
+of the interview: "When we arrived we saw a large assembly of dukes
+and princes who had come from all parts with their attendants, who
+were on horseback in the neighbouring fields and on the hills. The
+first day they were all dressed in white and purple, on the second
+when Cunius appeared in the tent, in red, on the third day they wore
+violet, and on the fourth, scarlet, or crimson. Outside the tent, in
+the surrounding palisade were two great gates, by one of which the
+Emperor alone might enter; it was unguarded, but none dared to enter
+or leave by it; while the other, which was the general entrance, was
+guarded by soldiers with swords, and bows and arrows; if any one
+approached within the prescribed limits he was beaten, or else shot
+to death with arrows. We noticed several horsemen there, on whose
+harness cannot have been less than twenty marks' worth of silver."
+
+[Illustration: The Tartars.]
+
+A whole month passed away before Cunius was proclaimed Emperor, and
+the envoys were obliged to wait patiently for this before they could
+be received by him. Carpini turned this leisure time to account by
+studying the habits of the people; he has given much interesting
+information on the subject in his account of his travels.
+
+The country seemed to him to be principally very hilly and the soil
+sandy, with but little vegetation. There is scarce any wood; but all
+classes are content with dung for fuel. Though the country is so
+bare, sheep seem to do well. The climate is very changeable; in
+summer, storms are very frequent, many fall victims to the vivid
+lightning, and the wind is often so strong as even to blow over men
+on horseback: during the winter there is no rain, which all falls in
+the summer, and then scarcely enough to lay the dust, while the
+storms of hail are terrible; during Carpini's residence in the
+country they were so severe that once 140 persons were drowned by
+the melting of the enormous mass of hail-stones that had fallen. It
+is a very extensive country, but miserable beyond expression.
+
+Carpini who seems to have been a man of great discernment took a
+very just idea of the Tartars themselves. He says, "Their eyes are
+set very far apart; they have very high cheek-bones, their noses are
+small and flat; their eyes small, and their eye-lashes and eyebrows
+seem to meet; they are of middle height with slender waists, they
+have small beards, some wear moustaches, and what are now called
+imperials. On the top of the head the hair is shaved off like monks,
+and to the width of three fingers between their ears they also shave
+off the hair, letting what is between the tonsure and the back of
+the head grow to some length; in fact it is as long as a woman's in
+many cases, and plaited and tied in two tails behind the ear. They
+have small feet. He says there is but little difference perceptible
+in the dress of the men and women, all alike wearing long robes
+trimmed with fur, and high buckram caps enlarged towards the upper
+part. Their houses are built like tents of rods and stakes, so that
+they can be easily taken down and packed on the beasts of burden.
+Other larger dwellings are sometimes carried whole as they stand, on
+carts, and thus follow their owner about the country.
+
+"The Tartars believe in God as the Creator of the universe and as
+the Rewarder and Avenger of all, but they also worship the sun, moon,
+fire, earth, and water, and idols made in felt, like human beings.
+They have little toleration, and put Michael of Turnigoo and Féodor
+to death for not worshipping the sun at midday at the command of
+Prince Bathy. They are a superstitious people, believing in
+enchantment and sorcery, and looking upon fire as the purifier of
+all things. When one of their chiefs dies he is buried with a horse
+saddled and bridled, a table, a dish of meat, a cup of mare's milk,
+and a mare and foal.
+
+"The Tartars are most obedient to their chiefs, and are truthful and
+not quarrelsome; murders and deeds of violence are rare, there is
+very little robbery, and articles of value are never guarded. They
+bear great fatigue and hunger without complaint, as well as heat and
+cold, singing and dancing under the most adverse circumstances. They
+are much prone to drink to excess; they are very proud and
+disdainful to strangers, and have no respect for the lives of human
+beings."
+
+Carpini completes his sketch of the Tartar character by adding that
+they eat all kinds of animals, dogs, wolves, foxes, horses, and even
+sometimes their fellow-creatures. Their principal beverage is the
+milk of the mare, sheep, goat, cow, and camel. They have neither
+wine, cervisia, (a beverage composed of grain and herbs,) nor mead,
+but only intoxicating liquors. They are very dirty in their habits,
+scarcely ever washing their porringers, or only doing so in their
+broth; they hardly ever wash their clothes, more especially "when
+there is thunder about;" and they eat rats, mice, &c., if they are
+badly off for other food. The men are not brought up to any manual
+labour, their whole occupation consisting in hunting, shooting with
+bow and arrows, watching the flocks, and riding. The women and girls
+are very athletic and very brave, they prepare furs and make clothes,
+drive carts and camels, and as polygamy is practised among them, and
+a man _buys_ as many wives as he can keep, there are enough women
+for all these employments.
+
+Such is the résumé of Carpini's observations made during his
+residence at Syra-Orda while he was awaiting the Emperor's election.
+Soon he found that the election was about to take place; he noticed
+that the courtiers always sang before Cunius when he came out of his
+tent, and bowed down before him with beautiful little wands in their
+hands, having small pieces of scarlet wool attached to them. On a
+plain about four leagues from Syra-Orda, beside a stream, a tent was
+prepared for the Coronation, carpeted with scarlet, and supported on
+columns covered with gold. On St. Bartholomew's day a large
+concourse of people assembled, each one fell on his knees as he
+arrived, and remained praying towards the sun; but Carpini and his
+companion refused to join in this idolatrous worship of the sun.
+Then Cunius was placed on the imperial throne, and the dukes and all
+the assembled multitudes having done homage to him, he was
+consecrated.
+
+As soon as this ceremony was over, Carpini and Stephen were
+commanded to appear before the Emperor. They were first searched and
+then entered the imperial presence at the same time as other
+Ambassadors, the bearers of rich presents; the poor papal envoys had
+nothing to present; whether this had anything to do with the length
+of time they had to wait before his Imperial Majesty could attend to
+their affairs we do not know; but days passed slowly by, and they
+were nearly dying of hunger and thirst, before they received a
+summons to appear before the Secretary of the Emperor, and letters
+to the Pope were given to them, ending with these words, "we worship
+GOD, and by His help we shall destroy the whole earth from east to
+west."
+
+The envoys had now nothing to wait for, and during the whole of the
+winter they travelled across icy deserts. About May they again
+arrived at the court of Prince Bathy, who gave them free passes, and
+they reached Kiev about the middle of June, 1247. On the 9th of
+October of the same year the Pope made Carpini Bishop of Antivari in
+Dalmatia, and this celebrated traveller died at Rome about the year
+1251.
+
+Carpini's mission was not of much use, and the Tartars remained much
+as they were before, a savage and ferocious tribe; but six years
+after his return another monk of the minor order of Franciscans,
+named William Rubruquis, of Belgian origin, was sent to the
+barbarians who lived in the country between the Volga and the Don.
+The object of this journey was as follows,--
+
+St. Louis was waging war against the Saracens of Syria at this time,
+and while he was engaging the Infidels, Erkalty, a Mongol prince,
+attacked them on the side nearest to Persia, and thus caused a
+diversion that was in favour of the King of France. The report arose
+that Prince Erkalty had become a Christian, and St. Louis, anxious
+to prove the truth of it, charged Rubruquis to go into the prince's
+own country and there make what observations he could upon the
+subject.
+
+In the month of June 1253, Rubruquis and his companions embarked for
+Constantinople. From thence they reached the mouth of the river Don
+on the Sea of Azov where they found a great number of Goths. On
+their arrival among the Tartars, their reception was at first very
+inhospitable, but after presenting the letters with which they were
+furnished, Zagathal, the governor of that province, gave them
+waggons, horses, and oxen for their journey.
+
+Thus equipped they set out and were much surprised next day by
+meeting a moving village; that is to say, all the huts were placed
+on waggons and were being moved away. During the ten days that
+Rubruquis and his companions were passing through this part of the
+country they were very badly treated, and had it not been for their
+own store of biscuits, they must have died of starvation. After
+passing by the end of the Sea of Azov they went in an easterly
+direction and crossed a sandy desert on which neither tree nor stone
+was visible. This was the country of the Comans that Carpini had
+traversed, but in a more northerly part. Rubruquis left the
+mountains inhabited by the Circassians to the south, and after a
+wearisome journey of two months arrived at the camp of Prince
+Sartach on the banks of the Volga.
+
+This was the court of the prince, the son of Baatu-Khan; he had six
+wives, each of whom possessed a palace of her own, some houses, and
+a great number of chariots, some of them very large, being drawn by
+a team of twenty-two oxen harnessed in pairs.
+
+Sartach received the envoys of the King of France very graciously,
+and seeing their poverty, he supplied them with all that they
+required. They were to be presented to the prince in their
+sacerdotal dress, when, bearing on a cushion a splendid Bible, the
+gift of the King of France, a Psalter given by the Queen, a Missal,
+a crucifix and a censer, they entered the royal presence, taking
+good care not to touch the threshold of the door, which would have
+been considered profanation. Once in the royal presence, they sang
+the "Salve Regina." After the prince and those of the princesses who
+were present at the ceremony had examined the books, &c., that the
+monks had brought with them, the envoys were allowed to retire; it
+being impossible for Rubruquis to form any opinion as to Sartach's
+being a Christian, or not; but his work was not yet finished, the
+prince having pressed the envoys to go to his father's court.
+Rubruquis complied with the request, and crossing the country lying
+between the Volga and the Don, they arrived at their destination.
+There the same ceremonies had to be gone through as at the court of
+Prince Sartach. The monks had to prepare their books, &c., and be
+presented to the Khan, who was seated on a large gilded throne, but
+not wishing to treat with the envoys himself, he sent them to
+Karakorum, to the court of Mangu-khan.
+
+They crossed the country of the Bashkirs and visited Kenchat, Talach,
+passed the Axiartes and reached Equius, a town of which the position
+cannot be accurately ascertained in the present day; then by the
+land of Organum, by the Lake of Balkash, and the territory of the
+Uigurs, they arrived at Karakorum, the capital of the Mongolian
+empire, where Carpini had stopped without entering the town.
+
+This town, says Rubruquis, was surrounded with walls of earth, and
+had four gates in the walls. The principal buildings it contained
+were two mosques and a Christian church. While in this city, the
+monk made many interesting observations on the surrounding people,
+especially upon the Tangurs, whose oxen, of a remarkable race, are
+no other than the Yaks, so celebrated in Thibet. In speaking of the
+Thibetans he notices their most extraordinary custom of eating the
+bodies of their fathers and mothers, in order to secure their having
+an honourable sepulture.
+
+When Rubruquis and his companions reached Karakorum, they found that
+the great khan was not in his capital, but in one of his palaces
+which was situated on the further side of the mountains which rise
+in the northern part of the country. They followed him there, and
+the next day after their arrival presented themselves before him
+with bare feet, according to the Franciscan custom, so securing for
+themselves frozen toes. Rubruquis thus describes the interview:
+"Mangu-Khan is a man of middle height with a flat nose; he was lying
+on a couch clad in a robe of bright fur, which was speckled like the
+skin of a sea-calf." He was surrounded with falcons and other birds.
+Several kinds of beverages, arrack punch, fermented mare's milk, and
+ball, a kind of mead, were offered to the envoys; but they refused
+them all. The khan, less prudent than they, soon became intoxicated
+on these drinks, and the audience had to be ended without any result
+being arrived at. Rubruquis remained several days at Mangu-Khan's
+court; he found there a great number of German and French prisoners,
+mostly employed in making different kinds of arms, or in working the
+mines of Bocol. The prisoners were well treated by the Tartars, and
+did not complain of their lot. After several interviews with the
+great khan, Rubruquis gained permission to leave, and he returned to
+Karakorum.
+
+Near this town stood a magnificent palace, belonging to the khan; it
+was like a large church with nave and double aisles, here the
+sovereign sits at the northern end on a raised platform, the
+gentlemen being seated on his right, and the ladies on his left hand.
+It is at this palace that twice every year splendid fêtes are given,
+when all the nobles of the country are assembled round their
+sovereign.
+
+While at Karakorum, Rubruquis collected many interesting documents
+relating to the Chinese, their customs, literature, &c.; then
+leaving the capital of the Mongols, he returned by the same route as
+he had come, as far as Astrakhan; but there he branched to the south
+and went to Syria with a Turkish escort, which was rendered
+necessary by the presence of tribes bent on pillage. He visited
+Derbend, and went thence by Nakshivan, Erzeroum, Sivas, Cæsarea, and
+Iconium, to the port of Kertch, whence he embarked for his own
+country. His route was much the same as that of Carpini, but his
+narrative is less interesting, and the Belgian does not seem to have
+been gifted with the spirit of observation which characterized the
+Italian monk.
+
+With Carpini and Rubruquis closes the list of celebrated travellers
+of the thirteenth century, but we have the brilliant career of Marco
+Polo now before us, whose travels extended over part of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+MARCO POLO, 1253-1324.
+
+I.
+
+The interest of the Genoese and Venetian merchants in encouraging
+the exploration of Central Asia--The family of Polo, and its
+position in Venice--Nicholas and Matteo Polo, the two brothers--They
+go from Constantinople to the Court of the Emperor of China--Their
+reception at the Court of Kublaï-Khan--The Emperor appoints them his
+ambassadors to the Pope--Their return to Venice--Marco Polo--He
+leaves his father Nicholas and his uncle Matteo for the residence of
+the King of Tartary--The new Pope Gregory X.--The narrative of Marco
+Polo is written in French from his dictation, by Rusticien of Pisa.
+
+
+The Genoese and Venetian merchants could not fail to be much
+interested in the explorations of the brave travellers in Central
+Asia, India, and China, for they saw that these countries would give
+them new openings for disposing of their merchandise, and also the
+great benefit to be derived by the West from being supplied with the
+productions of the East. The interests of commerce stimulated fresh
+explorations, and it was this motive that actuated two noble
+Venetians to leave their homes, and brave all the fatigue and danger
+of a perilous journey.
+
+These two Venetians belonged to the family of Polo, which had come
+originally from Dalmatia, and, owing to successful trading, had
+become so opulent as to be reckoned among the patrician families of
+Venice. In 1260 the two brothers, Nicholas and Matteo, who had lived
+for some years in Constantinople, where they had established a
+branch house, went to the Crimea, with a considerable stock of
+precious stones, where their eldest brother, Andrea Polo, had his
+place of business. Thence, taking a north-easterly direction and
+crossing the country of the Comans, they reached the camp of
+Barkaï-Khan on the Volga. This Mongol prince received the two
+merchants very kindly, and bought all the jewels they offered him at
+double their value.
+
+Nicolo and Matteo remained a year in the Mongolian camp, but a war
+breaking out at this time between Barkaï, and Houlagou, the
+conqueror of Persia, the two brothers, not wishing to be in the
+midst of a country where war was being waged, went to Bokhara, and
+there they remained three years. But when Barkaï was vanquished and
+his capital taken, the partisans of Houlagou induced the two
+Venetians to follow them to the residence of the grand Khan of
+Tartary, who was sure to give them a hearty welcome. This
+Kublaï-Khan, the fourth son of Gengis-Khan, was Emperor of China,
+and was then at his summer-palace in Mongolia, on the frontier of
+the Chinese empire.
+
+The Venetian merchants set out, and were a whole year crossing the
+immense extent of country lying between Bokhara and the northern
+limits of China. Kublaï-Khan was much pleased to receive these
+strangers from the distant West. He fêted them, and asked, with much
+eagerness, for any information that they could give him of what was
+happening in Europe, requiring details of the government of the
+various kings and emperors, and their methods of making war; and he
+then conversed at some length about the Pope and the state of the
+Latin Church. Matteo and Nicolo fortunately spoke the Tartar
+language fluently, so they could freely answer all the emperor's
+questions.
+
+[Illustration: Kublaï-Khan's feast on the arrival of the Venetian
+Merchants.]
+
+It had occurred to Kublaï-Khan to send messengers to the Pope; and
+he seized the opportunity to beg the two brothers to act as his
+ambassadors to his Holiness. The merchants thankfully accepted his
+proposal, for they foresaw that this new character would be very
+advantageous to them. The emperor had some charters drawn up in the
+Turkish language, asking the Pope to send a hundred learned men to
+convert his people to Christianity; then he appointed one of his
+barons named Cogatal to accompany them, and he charged them to bring
+him some oil from the sacred lamp, which is perpetually burning
+before the tomb of Christ at Jerusalem.
+
+The two brothers took leave of the khan, having been furnished with
+passports by him, which put both men and horses at their disposal
+throughout the empire, and in 1266 they set out on their journey.
+Soon the baron Cogatal fell ill, and the Venetians were obliged to
+leave him and continue their journey; but in spite of all the aid
+that had been given to them, they were three years in reaching the
+port of Laïas, in Armenia, now known by the name of Issus. Leaving
+this port, they arrived at Acre in 1269, where they heard of the
+death of Pope Clement IV., to whom they were sent, but the legate
+Theobald lived in Acre and received the Venetians; learning what was
+the object of their mission he begged them to wait for the election
+of the new Pope.
+
+The brothers had been absent from their country for fifteen years,
+so they resolved to return to Venice, and at Negropont they embarked
+on board a vessel that was going direct to their native town.
+
+On landing there, Nicolo was met by news of the death of his wife,
+and of the birth of his son, who had been born shortly after his
+departure in 1254; this son was the celebrated Marco Polo. The two
+brothers waited at Venice for the election of the Pope, but at the
+end of two years, as it had not taken place, they thought they could
+no longer defer their return to the Emperor of the Mongols;
+accordingly they started for Acre, taking Marco Polo with them, who
+could not then have been more than seventeen. At Acre they had an
+interview with the legate Theobald, who authorized them to go to
+Jerusalem and there to procure some of the sacred oil. This mission
+accomplished, the Venetians returned to Acre and asked the legate to
+give them letters to Kublaï-Khan, mentioning the death of Pope
+Clement IV.; he complied with their request, and they returned to
+Laïas or Issus. There, to their great joy, they learnt that the
+legate Theobald had just been made Pope with the title of Gregory X.,
+on the 1st of September, 1271. The newly-elected Pope sent at once
+for the Venetian envoys, and the King of Armenia placed a galley at
+their disposal to expedite their return to Acre. The Pope received
+them with much affection, and gave them letters to the Emperor of
+China; he added two preaching friars, Nicholas of Vicenza and
+William of Tripoli, to their party, and gave them his blessing on
+their departure. They went back to Laïas, but had scarcely arrived
+before they were made prisoners by the soldiers of the Mameluke
+Sultan Bibars, who was then ravaging Armenia. The two preaching
+friars were so discouraged at this outset of the expedition that
+they gave up all idea of going to China, and left the two Venetians
+and Marco Polo to prosecute the journey together as best they could.
+
+Here begins what may properly be called Marco Polo's travels. It is
+a question if he really visited all the places that he describes,
+and it seems probable that he did not; in fact, in the narrative
+written at his dictation by Rusticien of Pisa it is stated
+"Marco-Polo, a wise and noble citizen of Venice, saw nearly all
+herein described with his own eyes, and what he did not see he
+learnt from the lips of truthful and credible witnesses;" but we
+must add that the greater part of the kingdoms and towns spoken of
+by Marco Polo he certainly did visit. We will follow the route he
+describes, simply pointing out what the traveller learnt by hearsay,
+during the important missions with which he was charged by
+Kublaï-Khan. During this second journey the travellers did not
+follow exactly the same road as on the first occasion of their visit
+to the Emperor of China. They had lengthened their route by passing
+to the north of the celestial mountains, but now they turned to the
+south of them, and though this route was shorter than the other,
+they were three years and a half in accomplishing their journey,
+being much impeded by the rains and the difficulty of crossing the
+great rivers. Their course may be easily followed with the help of a
+map of Asia, as we have substituted the modern names in place of the
+ancient ones used by Marco Polo in his narrative.
+
+[Illustration: Marco Polo.]
+
+
+II.
+MARCO POLO.
+
+Armenia Minor--Armenia--Mount Ararat--Georgia--Mosul, Baghdad,
+Bussorah, Tauris--Persia--The Province of Kirman--Comadi--Ormuz--The
+Old Man of the Mountain--Cheburgan--Balkh--Cashmir--Kashgar--
+Samarcand--Kotan--The Desert--Tangun--Kara-Korum--Signan-fu--The
+Great Wall--Chang-tou--The residence of Kublaï-Khan--Cambaluc, now
+Pekin--The Emperor's fêtes--His hunting--Description of Pekin--
+Chinese Mint and bank-notes--The system of posts in the Empire.
+
+
+Marco Polo left the town of Issus; he describes Armenia Minor as a
+very unhealthy place, the inhabitants of which, though once valiant,
+are now cowardly and wretched, their only talent seeming to lie in
+their capacity for drinking to excess. From Armenia Minor he went to
+Turcomania, whose inhabitants, though somewhat of savages, are
+clever in cultivating pastures and breeding horses and mules; and
+the townspeople excel in the manufacture of carpets and silk.
+Armenia Proper, that Marco Polo next visited, affords a good
+camping-ground to the Tartar armies during the summer. There the
+traveller saw Mount Ararat, where Noah's Ark rested after the Deluge.
+He noticed that the lands bordering on the Caspian Sea afford large
+supplies of naphtha, which forms an important item in the trade of
+that neighbourhood.
+
+When he left Armenia he took a north-easterly course towards Georgia,
+a kingdom lying on the south side of the Caucasus, whose ancient
+kings, says the legend, "were born with an eagle traced on their
+right shoulders." The Georgians, he describes as good archers and
+men of war, and also as clever in working in gold and manufacturing
+silk. Here is a celebrated defile, four leagues in length, which
+lies between the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea, that the Turks call
+the Iron Door, and Europeans the Pass of Derbend, and here too is
+the miraculous lake, where fish are said to exist only during Lent.
+Hence the travellers descended towards the kingdom of Mosul, and
+arrived at the town of the same name on the right bank of the Tigris,
+thence going to Baghdad, the residence of the Caliph of all the
+Saracens. Marco Polo gives an account of the taking of Baghdad by
+the Tartars in 1255; mentioning a wonderful story in support of the
+Christian idea of Faith, "that can remove mountains;" he points out
+the route from this town to the Persian Gulf, which may be reached
+in eighteen days by the river, passing Bussorah, the country of
+dates.
+
+From this point to Tauris, a Persian town in the province of
+Adzer-baidjan, Marco Polo's route seems to be doubtful. He takes up
+his narrative at Tauris, which he describes as a large flourishing
+town built in the midst of beautiful gardens and carrying on a great
+traffic in precious stones and other valuable merchandise, but its
+Saracen inhabitants are disloyal and treacherous. Here he seems to
+divide Persia geographically into eight provinces. The natives of
+Persia, according to him, are formidable enemies to the merchants,
+who are obliged to travel armed with bows and arrows. The principal
+trade of the country seems to be in horses and asses, which are sent
+to Kis or Ormuz and thence to India. The natural productions of the
+country are wheat, barley, millet, and grapes, which grow in
+abundance.
+
+Marco Polo went next to Yezd, the most easterly town of Persia
+Proper; on leaving it, after a ride of seven days through
+magnificent forests abounding in game, he came to the province of
+Kirman. Here the mines yield large quantities of turquoise, as well
+as iron and antimony; the manufacture of arms and harness as well as
+embroidery and the training of falcons for hunting occupy a great
+number of the inhabitants. On leaving Kirman Marco Polo and his two
+companions set out on a nine days' journey across a rich and
+populous country to the town of Comadi, which is supposed to be the
+Memaun of the present day, and was even then sinking into decay. The
+country was superb; on all sides were to be seen fine fat sheep,
+great oxen, white as snow, with short strong horns, and thousands of
+domestic fowls and other birds; also there were magnificent date,
+orange, and pistachio trees.
+
+After travelling for five days they entered the beautiful and well
+watered plain of Cormos or Ormuz, and after two days' further march
+they reached the shores of the Persian Gulf and the town of Ormuz,
+which forms the sea-port of the kingdom of Kirman. This country they
+found very warm und unhealthy, but rich in date and spice trees, in
+grain, precious stones, silk and golden stuffs, and elephants' tusks,
+wine made from the date and other merchandise being brought into the
+town ready for shipment on board ships with but one mast, which came
+in numbers to the port; but many were lost on the voyage to India,
+as they were only built with wooden pegs, not iron nails, to fasten
+them together.
+
+From Ormuz, Marco Polo, going up again towards the north-east,
+visited Kirman; then he ventured by dangerous roads across a sandy
+desert, where there was only brackish water to be found, the desert
+across which, 1500 years before, Alexander had led his army to meet
+Nearchus. Seven days afterwards he entered the town of Khabis. On
+leaving this town he crossed for eight days the great plains to
+Tonokan, the capital of the province of Kumis, probably Damaghan. At
+this point of his narrative Marco Polo gives an account of the "Old
+Man of the Mountain," the chief of the Mahometan sect called the
+Hashishins, who were noted for their religious fanaticism and
+terrible cruelty. He next visited the Khorassan town of Cheburgan, a
+city celebrated for its sweet melons, and then the noble city of
+Balkh, situated near the source of the Oxus. Next he crossed a
+country infested by lions to Taikan, a great salt-market frequented
+by a large number of merchants, and to Scasem; this town seems to be
+the Kashme spoken of by Marsden, the Kishin or Krishin of
+Hiouen-Tsang, which Sir Henry Rawlinson has identified with the hill
+of Kharesm of Zend-Avesta, that some commentators think must be the
+modern Koundouz. In this part of the country he says porcupines
+abound, and when they are hunted they curl themselves up, darting
+out the prickles on their sides and backs at the dogs that are
+hunting them. We now know how much faith to put in this pretended
+power of defence said to be possessed by the porcupine.
+
+Marco Polo now entered the rocky mountainous kingdom of the Balkhs,
+whose kings claim descent from Alexander the Great; a cold country,
+producing good fast horses, excellent falcons, and all kinds of game.
+Here, too, are prolific ruby-mines worked by the king and which
+yield large quantities, but they are so strictly enclosed that no
+one on pain of death may set foot on the Sighinan mountain
+containing the mines. In other places silver is found, and many
+precious stones, of which he says "they make the finest azure in the
+world," meaning lapis-lazuli; his stay in this part of the country
+must have been a long one to have enabled him to observe so many of
+its characteristics. Ten days' journey from hence he entered a
+province which must be the Peshawur of the present day, whose
+dark-skinned inhabitants were idolaters; then after seven days'
+further march, about mid-day he came to the kingdom of Cashmere,
+where the temperature is cool, and towns and villages are very
+numerous. Had Marco Polo continued his route in the same direction
+he would soon have reached the territory of India, but instead of
+that he took a northerly course, and in twelve days was in Vaccan, a
+land watered by the Upper Oxus, which runs through splendid pastures,
+where feed immense flocks of wild sheep, called mufflons. Thence he
+went through a mountainous country, lying between the Altai and
+Himalayan ranges to Kashgar. Here Marco Polo's route is the same as
+that of his uncle and his father during their first voyage, when
+from Bokhara they were taken to the residence of the great khan.
+From Kashgar, Marco Polo diverged a little to the west, to Samarcand,
+a large town inhabited by Saracens and Christians, then to Yarkand,
+a city frequented by caravans trading between India and Northern
+Asia; passing by Khotan, the capital of the province of that name,
+and by Pein, a town whose situation is uncertain, but in a part of
+the country where chalcedony and jasper abound. He came to the
+kingdom of Kharachar, which extends along the borders of the desert
+of Jobe; then after five days' further travelling over sandy plains,
+where there was no water fit to drink, he rested for eight days in
+the city of Lob, a place now in ruins, while he prepared to cross
+the desert lying to the east, "so great a desert," he says, "that it
+would require a year to traverse its whole length, a haunted
+wilderness, where drums and other instruments are heard, though
+invisible."
+
+After spending a year crossing this desert, Marco Polo reached
+Tcha-tcheou, in the province of Tangaut, a town built on the western
+limits of the Chinese empire. There are but few merchants here, the
+greater part of the population being agricultural. The custom that
+seems to have struck him the most in the province of Tangaut, was
+that of burning their dead only on a day fixed by the astrologers;
+"all the time that the dead remain in their houses, the relations
+stay there with them, preparing a place at each meal as well as
+providing both food and drink for the corpse, as though it were
+still alive."
+
+Marco Polo and his companions made an excursion to the north-east,
+to the city of Amil, going on as far as Ginchintalas, a town
+inhabited by idolaters, Mahometans, and Nestorian Christians, whose
+situation is disputed. From this town Marco Polo returned to
+Tcha-tcheou, and went eastward across Tangaut, by the town of So-ceu,
+over a tract of country particularly favourable to the cultivation
+of rhubarb, and by Kanpiceon, the Khan-tcheou of the Chinese, then
+the capital of the province of Tangaut, an important town, whose
+numerous chiefs are idolaters and polygamists. The three Venetians
+remained a year in this large city; it is easy to understand, from
+their long halts and deviations, why they required three years for
+their journey across Central Asia.
+
+They left Khan-tcheou, and after riding for twelve days they reached
+the borders of a sandy desert, and entered the city of Etzina. This
+was another détour, as it lay directly north of their route, but
+they wished to visit Kara-Korum, the celebrated capital of Tartary,
+where Rubruquis had been in 1254. Marco Polo was certainly an
+explorer by nature; fatigue was nothing to him if he had any
+geographical studies to complete, which is proved by his spending
+forty days crossing an uninhabited desert without vegetation, in
+order to reach the Tartar town.
+
+When he arrived there, he found a city measuring three miles in
+circumference, which had been for a long time the capital of the
+Empire, before it was conquered by Gengis-Khan, the grandfather of
+the reigning emperor. Here Marco Polo makes an historical digression,
+in which he gives an account of the wars of the Tartar chiefs
+against the famous Prester John who held all this part of the
+country under his dominion.
+
+Marco Polo after returning to Khan-tcheou left it again, marching
+five days towards the east, and arriving at the town of Erginul.
+Thence he went a little to the south to visit Sining-foo, across a
+tract of country where grazed great wild oxen and the valuable
+species of goat which is called the "musk-bearer." Returning to
+Erginul, they went eastward to Cialis, where there is the best
+manufactory of cloth made from camels' hair in the world, to Tenduc,
+a town in the province of the same name, where a descendant of
+Prester John reigned, but who had given in his submission to the
+great khan; this was a busy flourishing town: from hence the
+travellers went to Sinda-tchou, and on beyond the great wall of
+China as far as Ciagannor, which must be Tzin-balgassa, a pretty
+town where the emperor lives when he wishes to hawk; for cranes,
+storks, pheasants, and partridges abound in this neighbourhood.
+
+At last Marco Polo, his father, and his uncle, reached Ciandu or
+Tchan-tchou of the present day, called elsewhere in this narrative
+Clemen-foo. Here Kublaï-Khan received the papal envoys, for he was
+occupying his summer palace beyond the great wall, north of Pekin,
+which was then the capital of the empire. The traveller does not
+tell us what reception he met with, but he describes most carefully
+the palace, the grandeur of the building of stone and marble,
+standing in the middle of a park surrounded by walls, enclosing
+menageries and fountains. Also a building made of reeds, so closely
+interlaced as to be impenetrable to water; it was a sort of movable
+kiosk that the great khan inhabited during the fine months of June,
+July, and August. The weather during the emperor's sojourn in this
+summer palace could not but be beautiful, for, according to Marco
+Polo, the astrologers who were attached to the khan's court were
+charged to scatter all rain and fog by their sorcery, and the
+travellers seem to believe in the power of these magicians. "These
+astrologers," he says, "belong to two races, both idolaters; they
+are learned in all magic and enchantments, above any other men, and
+what they do is done by the aid of the devil, but they make others
+believe that they owe their power to the help of God, and their own
+holiness. These people have the following strange custom: when a man
+has been condemned and put to death, they take the body, cook, and
+eat it; but in the case of a natural death they do not eat the body.
+And you must know that these people of whom I am speaking, who know
+so many kinds of enchantments, work the wonder I am about to relate.
+When the great khan is seated at dinner in the principal dining-hall,
+the table of which is eight cubits in length, and the cups are on
+the floor ten paces from the table, filled with wine, milk, and
+other good beverages, these clever magicians, by their arts, make
+these cups rise by themselves, and without any one touching them,
+they are placed before the great khan. This has been done before an
+immense number of people, and is the exact truth; and those skilled
+in necromancy will tell you that it is quite possible to do this."
+
+Marco Polo next gives a history of Kublaï, whom he considers to
+possess more lands and treasures than any man since our first father,
+Adam. He tells how the great khan ascended the throne in the year
+1256, being then eighty-five; he was a man of middle height, rather
+stout, but of a fine figure, with a good complexion and black eyes.
+He was a good commander in war, and his talents were put to the
+proof when his uncle Naïan, having rebelled against him, wished to
+dispute his power at the head of 400,000 cavalry. Kublaï-Khan
+collected (in secret) a force of 300,000 horsemen, and 100,000
+foot-soldiers, and marched against his uncle. The battle was a most
+terrible one, so many men being killed, but the khan was victorious,
+and Naïan, as a prince of the blood royal, was condemned to be sewn
+up tightly in a carpet, and died in great suffering. After his
+victory the khan made a triumphal entry into Cathay, capital of
+Cambaluc, or, as it is now called, Pekin. When Marco Polo arrived at
+this city he made a long stay there, remaining until the emperor
+needed his services to undertake various missions into the interior
+of China. The emperor had a splendid palace at Cambaluc, and the
+traveller gives so graphic an account of the riches and magnificence
+of the Mongol sovereigns, that we give it word for word. "The palace
+is surrounded by a great wall, a mile long each way, four miles in
+length altogether, very thick, ten feet in height, all white and
+battlemented. At each corner of this wall is a palace beautiful and
+rich, in which all the trappings of war belonging to the great khan
+are kept; his bows, quivers, the saddles and bridles of the horses,
+the bow-strings, in fact everything that would be wanted in time of
+war; in the midst of each square is another building, like those at
+the corner, so that there are eight in all, and each building
+contains one particular kind of harness or trapping. In the wall on
+the south side are five doors, the middle or large door only being
+opened when the emperor wishes to go in or out; near this great gate
+on either side is a smaller one through which other people may pass,
+and two others for the same purpose. Inside this wall is another,
+having also eight buildings to be used in the same manner."
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Pekin.]
+
+Thus we see that all these buildings constituted the emperor's
+armoury and harness-store; we shall not be surprised that there was
+so much harness to be kept when we know that the emperor possessed a
+race of horses white as snow, and among them ten thousand mares,
+whose milk was reserved for the sole use of princes of the blood
+royal.
+
+[Illustration: The Emperor's palace at Pekin.]
+
+Marco Polo continues his narrative thus:--"The inner wall has five
+gates on the south side, answering to those in the outer wall, but
+on the other sides the walls have only one gate each. In the centre
+of the enclosure made by these walls, stands the palace, the largest
+in the world. It has no second story, but the ground-floor is raised
+about eight feet above the ground. The roof is very high, the walls
+of the rooms are covered with gold and silver, and on this gold and
+silver are paintings of dragons, birds, horses, and other animals,
+so that nothing can be seen but gilding and pictures. The
+dining-hall is large enough to hold 6000 men, and the number of
+other rooms is marvellous, and all is so well arranged that it could
+not be improved. The ceilings are painted vermillion, green, blue,
+yellow, and all kinds of colours, varnished so as to shine like
+crystal, and the roof is so well built that it will last for many
+years. Between the two walls the land is laid out in fields with
+fine trees in them, containing different species of animals, the
+musk-ox, white deer, roe-buck, fallow-deer, and other animals, who
+fill the space between the walls, except the roads reserved for
+human beings. On the north-western side is a great lake, full of
+fishes of divers kinds, for the great khan has had several species
+placed there, and each time that he desires it to be done, he has
+his will in it. A river rises in this lake and flows out from the
+grounds of the palace, but no fish escape in it, there being iron
+and brass nets to prevent their doing so. On the northern side, near
+an arched doorway, the emperor has had a mound made, a hundred feet
+in height and more than a mile in circumference; it is covered with
+evergreen trees, and the emperor, being very fond of horticulture,
+whenever he hears of a fine tree, sends for it and has it brought by
+his elephants, with the roots and surrounding soil, the size of the
+tree being no impediment, and thus he has the finest collection of
+trees in the world. The hill is called 'green hill,' from its being
+covered with evergreen trees and green turf, and on the top of the
+hill is a house. This hill is altogether so beautiful that it is the
+admiration of every one."
+
+After Marco Polo has concluded his description of this palace, he
+gives one of that of the emperor's son and heir; then he speaks of
+the town of Cambaluc, the old town which is separated from the
+modern town of Taidu by a canal, the same which divides the Chinese
+and Tartar quarters of Pekin. The traveller gives many particulars
+of the emperor's habits, and among other things, he says that
+Kublaï-Khan has a body-guard of 2000 horse-soldiers; but he adds,
+"it is not fear that causes him to keep this guard." His meals are
+real ceremonies, and etiquette is most rigidly enforced. His table
+is raised above the others, and he always sits on the north side
+with his principal wife on his right, and lower down his sons,
+nephews, and relations; he is waited upon by noble barons, who are
+careful to envelope their mouths and noses in fine cloth of gold,
+"so that their breath and their odour may not contaminate the food
+or drink of their lord." When the emperor is about to drink, a band
+of music plays, and when he takes the cup in his hand, all the
+barons and every one present, fall on their knees.
+
+The principal fêtes given by the grand khan were on the anniversary
+of his birth, and on the first day of the year. At the first, 12,000
+barons were accustomed to assemble round the throne, and to them
+were presented annually 150,000 garments made of gold and silk and
+ornamented with pearls, whilst the subjects, idolaters as well as
+Christians, offered up public prayers. At the second of these fêtes,
+on the first day of the year, the whole population, men and women
+alike, appeared dressed in white, following the tradition that white
+brings good fortune, and every one brought gifts to the king of
+great value. One hundred thousand richly-caparisoned horses, five
+thousand elephants covered with handsome cloths and carrying the
+imperial plate, as well as a large number of camels, passed in
+procession before the emperor.
+
+During the three winter months of December, January, and February,
+when the khan is living in his winter palace, all the nobles within
+a radius of sixty days' march are obliged to supply him with boars,
+stags, fallow-deer, roes, and bears. Besides, Kublaï is a great
+huntsman himself, and his hunting-train is superbly mounted and kept
+up. He has leopards, lynxes and fine lions trained to hunt for wild
+animals, eagles strong enough to chase wolves, foxes, fallow and
+roe-deer, and, as Marco Polo says, "often to take them too," and his
+dogs may be counted by thousands. It is about March when the emperor
+begins his principal hunting in the direction of the sea, and he is
+accompanied by no less than 10,000 falconers, 500 gerfalcons, and
+many goshawks, peregrine, and sacred falcons. During the hunting
+excursion, a portable palace, covered outside with lions' skins and
+inside with cloth of gold, and carried on four elephants harnessed
+together, accompanies the emperor everywhere, who seems to enjoy all
+this oriental pomp and display. He goes as far as the camp of
+Chachiri-Mongou, which is situated on a stream, a tributary of the
+river Amoor, and the tent is set up, which is large enough to hold
+ten thousand nobles. This is his reception-saloon where he gives
+audiences; and when he wishes to sleep he goes into a tent which is
+hung all round with ermine and sable furs of almost priceless value.
+The emperor lives thus till about Easter, hunting cranes, swans,
+hares, stags, roebucks, &c., and then returns to his capital,
+Cambaluc.
+
+Marco Polo now completes his description of this fine city and
+enumerates the twelve quarters it contains, in many of which the
+rich merchants have their palatial houses, for commerce flourishes
+in this town, and more valuable merchandise is brought to it than to
+any other in the world. It is the depôt and market for the richest
+productions of India, such as pearls and precious stones, and
+merchants come from long distances round to purchase them. The khan
+has established a mint here for the benefit of trade, and it is an
+inexhaustible source of revenue to him. The bank-notes, sealed with
+the emperor's seal, are made of a kind of card-board manufactured
+from the bark of the mulberry-tree. The card-board thus prepared is
+cut into various thicknesses according to the value of the money it
+is supposed to represent. The currency of this money is enforced,
+none daring to refuse it "on pain of death;" the emperor using it in
+all his payments, and enforcing its circulation throughout his
+dominions. Besides this, several times in the year the possessors of
+precious stones, pearls, gold, or silver, are obliged to bring their
+treasures to the mint and receive in exchange for them these pieces
+of card-board, so that, in fact, the emperor becomes the possessor
+of all the riches in his empire.
+
+According to Marco Polo the system of the Imperial Government was
+wonderfully centralized. "The kingdom is divided into thirty-four
+provinces, and is governed by twelve of the greatest barons living
+in Cambaluc; in the same palace also reside the intendants and
+secretaries, who conduct the business of each province. From this
+central city a great number of roads diverge to the various parts of
+the kingdom, and on these roads are now post-houses stationed at
+intervals of twenty-two miles, where well-mounted messengers are
+always ready to carry the emperor's messages. Besides this, at every
+three miles on the road there is a little hamlet of about fourteen
+houses where the couriers live, who carry messages on foot; these
+men wear a belt round their waists and have a girdle with bells
+attached to it, that are heard at a long distance; they start at a
+gallop, quickly accomplishing the three miles and giving the message
+to the courier who is waiting for it at the next hamlet; thus the
+emperor receives news from places at long distances from the capital
+in a comparatively short time." This mode of communication also
+involved but small expense to Kublaï-Khan, as the only remuneration
+he gave these couriers was their exemption from taxation, and as to
+the horses, they were furnished gratuitously by the provinces.
+
+But if the emperor used his power in this manner to lay heavy
+burdens upon his subjects, he exerted himself actively for their
+good, and was always ready to help them; for instance, when their
+crops were damaged by hail-storms, he not only remitted all taxes,
+but gave them corn from his own stores, and when there was any great
+mortality among the flocks and herds in any particular province, he
+always replaced them at his own expense. He was careful to have a
+large quantity of wheat, barley, millet, and rice, stored up in
+years of abundant harvest, so as to keep the price of grain at a
+uniform rate when the harvest failed. He was particularly careful of
+the poor who lived in Cambaluc. "He had a list made of all the
+poorest houses in the town, where they were usually short of food,
+and supplied them liberally with wheat and other grain according to
+the size of their families, and bread was never refused to any
+applying at the palace for it; it is computed that at least 30,000
+persons avail themselves of this daily throughout the year. His
+kindness to his poor subjects makes them almost worship him." The
+whole affairs of the empire are administered with great care, the
+roads well kept up and planted with fine trees, so that from a
+distance their direction can easily be traced. There is no want of
+wood, and in Cathay they work a number of coal-pits which supply
+abundance of coal.
+
+[Illustration: Map of the world according to Marco Polo's ideas.]
+
+Marco Polo remained a long time at Cambaluc, and his intelligence,
+spirit, and readiness in adapting himself, made him a great
+favourite with the emperor. He was intrusted with various missions,
+not only in China, but also to places on the coast of India, Ceylon,
+the Coromandel and Malabar coasts, and a part of Cochin-China near
+Cambogia, and between the years 1277 and 1280 he was made governor
+of Yang-tcheou, and of twenty-seven other towns which were joined
+with it under the same government. Thanks to the missions on which
+he was sent, he travelled over an immense extent of country, and
+gained a great amount of ethnological and geographical knowledge. We
+can now follow him map in hand through some of these journeys, which
+were of the greatest service to science.
+
+
+III.
+MARCO POLO.
+
+Tso-cheu--Tai-yen-fou--Pin-yang-fou--The Yellow River--Signan-fou--
+Szu-tchouan--Ching-tu-fou--Thibet--Li-kiang-fou--Carajan--
+Yung-tchang--Mien--Bengal--Annam--Tai-ping--Cintingui--Sindifoo--
+Té-cheu--Tsi-nan-fou--Lin-tsin-choo--Lin-sing--Mangi--Yang-tcheu-fou--
+Towns on the coast--Quin-say or Hang-tcheou-foo--Fo-kien.
+
+
+When Marco Polo had been at Cambaluc some time, he was sent on a
+mission that kept him absent from the capital for four months. Ten
+miles southwards from Cambaluc, he crossed the fine river Pe-ho-nor
+(which he calls the Pulisanghi), by a stone bridge of twenty-four
+arches, and 300 feet in length, which was then without parallel in
+the world. Thirty miles further on he came to the town of Tso-cheu,
+where a large trade in sandal-wood is carried on; at ten days'
+journey from hence he came to the modern town of Tai-yen-fou, which
+was once the seat of an independent government. All the province of
+Shan-si seemed rich in vines and mulberry-trees; the principal
+industry in the towns was the making of armour for the emperor's use.
+
+[Illustration: A fine bridge of stone built on twenty-four arches.]
+
+Seven days' journey further on they came to the beautiful commercial
+city of Pianfou, now called Pin-yang-foo, where the manufacture of
+silk was carried on. He soon afterwards came to the banks of the
+Yellow River, which he calls Caramoran or Black River, probably on
+account of its waters being darkened by the aquatic plants growing
+in them; at two days' journey from hence he came to the town of
+Cacianfu, whose position is not now clearly defined. He found
+nothing remarkable in this town, and leaving it he rode across a
+beautiful country, covered with towns, country-houses, and gardens,
+and abounding in game.
+
+In eight days he reached the fine city of Quangianfoo, the ancient
+capital of the Tâng dynasty, now called Signanfoo, and the capital
+of Shensi; here reigned Prince Mangalai, the emperor's son, an
+upright and amiable prince, much loved by his people. He lived in a
+magnificent palace outside the town, built in the midst of a park,
+of which the battlemented wall cannot have been less than five miles
+in circumference.
+
+From Signanfoo, the traveller went towards Thibet, across the modern
+province of Szu-tchouan, a mountainous country intersected by deep
+valleys, where lions, bears, lynxes, &c., abounded, and after
+twenty-eight days' march he found himself on the borders of the
+great plain of Acmelic-mangi. This is a fertile country and produces
+all kinds of vegetation; ginger is especially cultivated; there is
+sufficient to supply all the province of Cathay, and so fertile is
+the soil that according to a French traveller, M. E. Simon, an acre
+is now worth 15,000 francs, or three francs the metre. In the
+thirteenth century this plain was covered with towns and
+country-houses, and the inhabitants lived upon the fruits of the
+ground, and the produce of their flocks and herds, while the large
+quantity of game furnished hunters with abundant occupation.
+
+Marco Polo next visited the town of Sindafou (now Tching-too-foo),
+the capital of the province of Se-tchu-an, whose population at the
+present day exceeds 1,500,000 souls. Sindafu, measuring at that time
+twenty miles round, was divided into three parts, each surrounded
+with its own wall, and each part had a king of its own before
+Kublaï-Khan took possession of the town. The great river Kiang ran
+through the town: it contained large quantities of fish, and from
+its size resembled a sea more than a river; its waters were covered
+by a vast number of vessels. Five days after leaving this busy,
+thriving town Marco Polo reached the province of Thibet, which he
+says "is very desolate, for it has been destroyed by the war."
+
+Thibet abounds in lions, bears, and other savage animals, from which
+the travellers would have much difficulty in defending themselves
+had it not been for the quantity of large thick canes that grow
+there, which are probably bamboos: he says, "the merchants and
+travellers passing through these countries at night collect a
+quantity of these canes and make a large fire of them, for when they
+are burning they make such a noise and crackle so much, that the
+lions, bears, and other wild beasts take flight to a distance, and
+would not approach these fires on any account; thus both men, horses,
+and camels are safe. In another way, too, protection is afforded by
+throwing a number of these canes on a wood fire, and when they
+become heated and split, and the sap hisses, the sound is heard at
+least ten miles off. When any one is not accustomed to this noise,
+it is so terrifying that even the horses will break away from their
+cords and tethers; so their owners often bandage their eyes and tie
+their feet together to prevent their running away." This method of
+burning canes is still used in countries where the bamboo grows, and
+indeed the noise may be compared to the loudest explosion of
+fire-works.
+
+According to Marco Polo, Thibet is a very large province, having its
+own language; and its inhabitants, who are idolaters, are a race of
+bold thieves. A large river, the Khin-cha-kiang, flows over
+auriferous sands through the province; a quantity of coral is found
+in it which is much used for idols, and for the adornment of the
+women. Thibet was at this time under the dominion of the great khan.
+
+The traveller took a westerly direction when he left Sindafou, and
+crossing the kingdom of Gaindu he must have come to Li-kiang-foo,
+the capital of the country that is now called Tsi-mong. In this
+province he visited a beautiful lake which produces pearl-oysters;
+the fishing is the emperor's property; he also found great
+quantities of cinnamon, ginger, cloves, and other spices under
+cultivation.
+
+After leaving the province of Gaindu, and crossing a large river,
+probably the Irrawaddy, Marco Polo took a south-easterly course to
+the province of Carajan, which probably forms the north-western part
+of Yunnan. According to his account all the inhabitants of this
+province, who are mostly great riders, live on the raw flesh of
+fowls, sheep, buffaloes, and oxen; the rich seasoning their raw meat
+with garlic sauce and good spices. This country is infested with
+great adders, and serpents, "hideous to look upon." These reptiles,
+probably alligators, were ten feet long, had two legs armed with
+claws, and with their large heads and great jaws could at one gulp
+swallow a man.
+
+Five days' journey west of Carajan, Marco Polo took a new route to
+the south, and entered the province of Zardandan, whose capital
+Nocian, is the modern town of Yung-chang. All the inhabitants of the
+city had teeth of gold; that is to say, they covered their teeth
+with little plates of gold which they removed before eating. The men
+of this province employed themselves only in hunting, catching birds,
+and making war, the hard work all devolving upon the women and
+slaves. These Zardanians have neither idols nor churches, but they
+each worship their ancestor, the patriarch of the family. Their
+tradesmen carry their goods about on barrows like the bakers in
+France. They have no doctors, but only enchanters, who jump, dance,
+and play musical instruments around the invalid's bed till he either
+dies or recovers.
+
+[Illustration: Marco Polo in the midst of the forests.]
+
+Leaving these people with gilded teeth, Marco Polo took the great
+road which conveys all the traffic between India and Indo-China, and
+passed by Bhamo, where a market is held three times a week, which
+attracts merchants from the most distant countries. After riding for
+fifteen days through forests filled with elephants, unicorns, and
+other wild animals, he came to the great city of Mien; that is to
+say, to that part of Upper Burmah, of which the present capital, of
+recent erection, is called Amarapura. This city of Mien, which may
+be, perhaps, the old town of Ava now in ruins, or the old town of
+Paghan situated on the Irrawaddy, possessed a veritable
+architectural marvel, in two towers, one built of fine stone, and
+entirely covered with a coating of gold about an inch in thickness,
+and the other, also of stone, coated with silver, both intended to
+serve as a tomb for the king of Mien, before his kingdom fell under
+the dominion of the khan. After visiting this province, the
+traveller went to Bangala, the Bengal of the present day, which at
+this time, 1290, did not belong to Kublaï-Khan. The emperor's forces
+were then engaged in trying to conquer this fertile country, rich in
+cotton plants, in sugar-canes, &c., and whose magnificent oxen were
+like elephants in height. From thence, the traveller ventured as far
+as the city of Cancigu, in the province of the same name, probably
+the modern town of Kassaye. The natives here tattooed their bodies,
+and with needles drew pictures of lions, dragons, and birds on their
+faces, necks, bellies, hands, legs, and bodies, and he who had the
+greatest number of these pictures they considered the most beautiful
+of human beings.
+
+Cancigu was the most southerly point visited by Marco Polo, during
+this journey. Leaving this city, he went towards the north-east, and
+by the country of Amu, Anam, and Tonkin, he reached Toloman, now
+called Tai-ping, after fifteen days' march. There he found that fine
+race of men, of dark colour, who have crowned their mountains with
+strong castles, and whose ordinary food is the flesh of animals,
+milk, rice, and spices.
+
+On leaving Toloman, he followed the course of a river for twelve
+days, and found numerous towns on its banks. Here, as M. Charton
+truly observes, the traveller is leaving the country known as India
+beyond the Ganges, and returning towards China. In fact, Marco Polo
+after leaving Toloman visited the province of Guigui with its
+capital of the same name, and what struck him most in this country,
+(and we cannot but think that the bold explorer was also a keen
+hunter) was the great number of lions that were to be seen about its
+mountains and plains. Only, commentators are of opinion that the
+lions he speaks of must have been tigers, for no lions are found in
+China, but we will give his own words: he says, "There are so many
+lions in this country, that it is not safe to sleep out of doors for
+fear of being devoured. And when you are on the river and stop for
+the night, you must be careful to anchor far from land, for
+otherwise the lions come to the vessel, seize upon a man, and devour
+him. The inhabitants of this part of the country are well aware of
+this, and so take measures to guard against it. These lions are very
+large and very dangerous, but there are dogs in this country brave
+enough to attack these lions; it requires two dogs and a man to
+overcome each lion."
+
+From this province Marco Polo returned to Sindifu, the capital of
+the province of Se-chuen, whence he had started on his excursion
+into Thibet; and retracing the route by which he had set out, he
+returned to Kublaï-Khan, after having brought his mission to
+Indo-China to a satisfactory termination. It was probably at this
+time that the traveller was first entrusted by the emperor with
+another mission to the south-east of China. M. Pauthier, in his fine
+work upon the Venetian traveller, speaks of this south-easterly part
+of China as "the richest and most flourishing quarter of this vast
+empire and that also about which, since the 16th century, Europeans
+have had the most information."
+
+As we return to the route that M. Pauthier has traced on his map, we
+find that Marco Polo went southwards to Ciangli, probably the town
+of Ti-choo, and at six days' journey from thence he came to
+Condinfoo, the present city of Tsi-nan, the capital of the province
+of Shan-tung, the birthplace of Confucius. It was at that time a
+fine town and much frequented by silk-merchants, and its beautiful
+gardens produced abundance of excellent fruit. Three days' march
+from hence, the traveller came to the town of Lin-tsing, standing at
+the mouth of the Yu-ho canal, the principal rendezvous for the
+innumerable boats that carry so much merchandise to the provinces of
+Mangi and Cathay. Eight days afterwards he passed by Ligui, which
+seems to correspond to the modern town of Lin-tsin, and the town of
+Piceu, the first city in the province of Tchang-su; then by the town
+of Cingui, he arrived at Caramoran, the Yellow River, which he had
+crossed higher up when he was on his way to Indo-China; here Marco
+Polo was not more than a league from the mouth of this great river.
+After crossing it he was in the province of Mangi, a territory
+included in the Empire of the Soongs.
+
+Before this province of Mangi belonged to Kublaï-Khan it was
+governed by a very pacific king, who shunned war, and was very
+merciful to all his subjects. Marco Polo describes him so well that
+we will quote his own words. "This last emperor of the Soong dynasty
+was most generous, and I will cite but two noble traits to show
+this; every year he had nearly 20,000 infants brought up at the
+royal charge, for it was the custom in these provinces, when a poor
+woman could not bring up a child herself, to cast it away as soon as
+it was born, to die. The king had all these children taken care of,
+and a record kept of the sign and the planet under which each was
+born, and then they were sent to different places to be brought up,
+for there are a quantity of nurses. When a rich man had no sons, he
+came to the king and asked of him some of his wards, who were
+immediately given to him. As the children grew up they intermarried,
+and the king gave them sufficient incomes to live upon. When he went
+through his dominions and saw a small house among several much
+larger ones, he inquired why this house was smaller than those near
+it, and if he found it was on account of the poverty of the owner,
+he immediately had it made as large as the others at his own expense.
+He was always waited upon by a thousand pages and a thousand girls.
+He kept up such rigorous discipline throughout his kingdom that
+there was never any crime; at night, houses and shops remained open,
+and nothing was taken from them, and travelling was as safe by night
+as by day."
+
+Marco Polo came first to the town of Coigangui, now called Hoang-fou,
+on the banks of the Yellow River, where the principal industry is
+the preparation of the salt found in the salt marshes. One day's
+journey from this town he came to Pau-in-chen, famous for its cloth
+of gold, and the town of Caiu, now Kao-yu, whose inhabitants are
+clever fishermen and hunters, then to the city of Tai-cheu, where
+numerous vessels are generally to be found, and at last to the city
+of Yangui.
+
+This town of Yangui, of which Marco Polo was the governor for three
+years, is the modern Yang-tchou; it is a very populous and busy town,
+and cannot be less than two leagues in circumference. It was from
+Yangui that the traveller set out on the various expeditions which
+enabled him to see so much of the inland and sea-coast towns.
+
+First, the traveller went westward to Nan-ghin, which must not be
+confounded with Nan-kin of the present day. Its modern name is
+Ngan-khing, and it stands in the midst of a remarkably fertile
+province. Further on in the same direction he came to Saianfu, which
+is now called Siang-yang, and is built in the northern part of the
+province of Hou-pe. This was the last town in the province of Mangi
+that resisted the dominion of Kublaï-Khan; he besieged it for three
+years, and he owed his taking it at last to the help of the three
+Polos, who constructed some powerful balistas and crushed the
+besieged under a perfect hail-storm of stones, some of which weighed
+as much as three hundred pounds. From Saianfu Marco Polo retraced
+his steps that he might visit some of the towns on the sea-coast. He
+visited Kui-kiang on the river Kiang, which is very broad here, and
+upon which 5000 ships can sail at the same moment; Kain-gui, which
+supplies the Emperor's palace with corn; Ching-kiang where are two
+Nestorian Christian churches; Ginguigui, now Tchang-tcheou, a busy
+thriving city; and Singui, now called Soo-choo, a large town, which,
+according to the very exaggerated account of the Venetian traveller,
+has no less than 6000 bridges.
+
+After spending some time at Vugui, probably Hou-tcheou, and at
+Ciangan, now Kia-hing, Marco Polo reached the fine city of Quinsay,
+after three days' march. This name means the "City of Heaven," but
+it is now called Hang-chow-foo. It is six leagues round; the river
+Tsien-tang-kiang flows through it, and by its constant windings,
+makes Quinsay almost a second Venice. This ancient capital of the
+Soongs is almost as populous as Pekin; its streets are paved with
+stones and bricks, and if we may credit Marco Polo's statement, it
+contained "600,000 houses, 4000 bathing establishments, and 12,000
+stone bridges." In this city dwell the richest merchants in the
+world with their wives, who are "beautiful and angelic creatures."
+It is the residence of a viceroy, who has besides, 140 other cities
+under his dominion. Here was to be seen also the palace of the Mangi
+sovereigns surrounded by beautiful gardens, lakes, and fountains,
+the palace itself containing more than a thousand rooms. Kublaï-Khan
+draws immense revenues from this town and province, and it is by
+tens of thousands of pounds we must reckon the income derived from
+the sugar, salt, spices, and silk, which form the principal
+productions of this country. At one day's journey south from Quinsay,
+Marco Polo visited Chao-hing, Vugui, or Hou-tcheou, Ghengui or
+Kui-tcheou, Cianscian or Yo-tcheou-fou (according to M. Charton),
+and Sonï-tchang-fou (according to M. Pauthier), and Cugui or
+Kiou-tcheou, the last town in the kingdom of Quinsay; thence he
+entered the kingdom of Fugui, whose chief town of the same name is
+now called Fou-tcheou-foo, the capital of the province of Fo-kien.
+According to Marco Polo, the inhabitants of this province are a
+cruel warlike race, never sparing their enemies, of whom, after they
+have killed them, they drink the blood and eat the flesh. After
+passing by Quenlifu, now Kien-ning-foo, and Unguen, the traveller
+entered Fugui, probably the modern town of Kuant-tcheou (called
+Canton amongst us), and the chief town of the province, where a
+large trade in pearls and precious stones was carried on, and in
+five days he reached the port of Zaitem, probably the Chinese town
+of Tsiuen-tcheou, which was the extreme point reached by him in this
+exploration of south-eastern China.
+
+
+IV.
+MARCO POLO.
+
+Japan--Departure of the three Venetians with the Emperor's daughter
+and the Persian ambassadors--Sai-gon--Java--Condor--Bintang--
+Sumatra--The Nicobar Islands--Ceylon--The Coromandel coast--The
+Malabar coast--The Sea of Oman--The island of Socotra--Madagascar--
+Zanzibar and the coast of Africa--Abyssinia--Yemen--Hadramaut and
+Oman--Ormuz--The return to Venice--A feast in the household of
+Polo--Marco Polo a Genoese prisoner--Death of Marco Polo about 1323.
+
+
+Marco Polo returned to the court of Kublaï-Khan when he had finished
+the expedition of which we spoke in the last chapter. He was then
+entrusted with several other missions, in which he found his
+knowledge of the Turkish, Chinese, Mongolian, and Mantchorian
+languages of the greatest use. He seems to have taken part in an
+expedition to the islands in the Indian Ocean, and he brought back a
+detailed account of this hitherto little known sea. There is a want
+of clearness as to dates at this part of his life, which makes it
+difficult to give a correct narrative of these voyages in their
+right order. He gives a circumstantial account of the Island of
+Cipango, a name applying to the group of islands which make up
+Japan; but it does not appear that he actually entered that kingdom.
+This country was famous for its wealth, and about 1264, some years
+before Marco Polo arrived at the Tartar court, Kublaï-Khan had tried
+to conquer it and sent his fleet there with that purpose. They had
+taken possession of a citadel and put all its valiant defenders to
+the edge of the sword, but just at the moment of apparent victory a
+storm arose and dispersed all the enemy's fleet, and thus the
+expedition was useless. Marco Polo gives a long account of this
+attempt, and adds many curious particulars as to Japanese customs.
+
+Marco Polo, with his father and uncle, had now been seventeen years
+in the service of Kublaï-Khan, and even longer absent from their own
+country; they had a great wish to revisit it, but the Emperor had
+become so much attached to them, and valued their services so highly,
+that he could not make up his mind to part with them. He tried in
+every way to shake their resolution, offering them riches and honour
+if only they would remain with him, but they still held to their
+plan of returning to Europe; the Emperor then absolutely refused to
+allow them to go, and Marco Polo could find no means of eluding the
+surveillance of which he was the object, until circumstances arose
+which quite changed Kublaï-Khan's resolution.
+
+A Mongol prince, named Arghun, whose dominions were in Persia, had
+sent an ambassador to the Emperor to ask one of the princesses of
+the blood royal, in marriage. Kublaï-Khan acceded to his request and
+sent off his daughter Cogatra to Prince Arghun, attended by a
+numerous suite; but the countries by which they endeavoured to
+travel were not safe; the caravan was soon stopped by disturbances
+and rebellions, and after some months was obliged to return to the
+Emperor's palace. The Persian ambassadors had heard Marco Polo
+spoken of as a clever navigator who had had some experience of the
+Indian Ocean, and they begged the Emperor to confide the Princess
+Cogatra to his care, that he might conduct her to her future husband,
+thinking that the voyage by sea would probably be attended by less
+danger than a land journey.
+
+After some demur Kublaï-Khan acceded to their request, and equipped
+a fleet of forty four-masted vessels, provisioning them for two
+years. Some of these were very large, having a crew of 250 men, for
+this was an important expedition worthy of the opulent Emperor of
+China. Matteo, Nicolo, and Marco Polo set out with the Chinese
+princess and the Persian ambassadors, and it was during this voyage,
+which lasted eighteen months, that it seems most probable that Marco
+Polo visited the islands of Sunda and other islands in the Indian
+Ocean, as well as Ceylon and the towns on the coast of India. We
+will follow him in his voyage and give his description of the places
+that he visited in this hitherto little known portion of the globe.
+
+[Illustration: Kublaï-Khan equips a fleet.]
+
+It must have been about 1291 or 1292 that the fleet left the port of
+Zaitem, under the command of Marco Polo. He steered first for
+Tchampa, a great country situated at the south of Cochin China, and
+which contains the present province of Saïgon, belonging to France.
+This was not a new country to Marco Polo, as he had visited it about
+1280, when he was on a mission for the Emperor. At this time,
+Tchampa was under the dominion of the grand khan, and paid him an
+annual tribute in elephants; when Marco Polo visited this country
+before its conquest by Kublaï-Khan, he found the reigning king had
+no less than 326 children, of whom 150 were old enough to carry arms.
+
+Leaving the peninsula of Cambodia, the fleet went in the direction
+of Java, the rich island that Kublaï-Khan had never been able to
+subjugate, where abundance of pepper, cloves, nutmegs, &c., grew.
+After putting into port at Condor and Sandur, at the extremity of
+the peninsular of Cochin China, they reached the island of Pentam
+(Bintang), situated near the eastern entrance of the straits of
+Malacca, and the island of Sumatra, called Little Java. "This island
+is so much in the south," he says, "that they never see there the
+polar star," which is true as far as the inhabitants of the southern
+part are concerned. It is very fertile, aloes growing most
+luxuriantly; and here wild elephants and rhinoceroses (called by
+Marco Polo unicorns) are found, and apes, too, in large numbers. The
+fleet was detained five months on these shores by contrary winds,
+and the traveller made the most of his time in visiting the
+principal provinces of the island, such as Samara, Dagraian, and
+Labrin (which boasts a great number of men with tails--evidently
+apes), and the island of Fandur or Panchor, where the sago-tree
+grows, from which a kind of flour is obtained that makes very good
+bread.
+
+At last the wind changed, and enabled the vessels to leave Little
+Java, and after touching at Necaran, which must be one of the
+Nicobar Islands, and at the Andaman group, whose inhabitants are
+still cannibals, as they were in the time of Marco Polo, the fleet
+took a south-westerly course and arrived on the coast of Ceylon.
+"This island," says the traveller in his narrative, "was once much
+larger, for according to the map of the world that the pilots of
+these seas carry, it was once 3600 miles in circumference but the
+north wind blows with such force in these parts that it caused a
+part of the island to be submerged." This tradition is still held by
+the inhabitants of Ceylon. Here are collected in abundance, rubies,
+sapphires, topaz, amethysts, and other precious stones, such as
+garnets, opals, agates, and sardonyx. The king of the country was
+the possessor at this time of a most splendid ruby as long as the
+palm of the hand, as thick as a man's arm, and red as fire, which
+excited the envy of the grand khan, who vainly tried to induce its
+possessor to part with it, offering a whole city in exchange, but
+that could not tempt the King to let him have the jewel.
+
+Sixty miles west of Ceylon the travellers came to Maabar, a great
+province on the coast of India. This must not be mistaken for
+Malabar, which is situated on the west coast of the Indian peninsula.
+This Maabar forms the southern part of the Coromandel coast, and is
+celebrated for its pearl fisheries. Here the magicians are at work,
+and are said to render the monsters of the deep harmless to the
+fishermen; they are astrologers whose race is perpetuated even to
+modern times. Marco Polo gives some interesting details of the
+customs of the natives, one is that when a king dies, the nobles
+throw themselves into the fire in his honour; another strange custom
+is that of the religious purifications twice every day, and their
+blind faith in astrologers and diviners; he also speaks of the
+frequency of religious suicides, and the sacrifice of widows whom
+the funeral pile awaits on the death of their husbands. He also
+notices the skill in physiognomy evinced by the natives.
+
+The next resting-place of the fleet was Muftili, of which the
+capital is now called Masulipatam, the chief city of the kingdom of
+Golconda. This country was well governed by a queen, a widow for
+forty years, who desired to remain faithful to the memory of her
+husband. The country contained many valuable diamond mines, but
+these were unfortunately among mountains where serpents abounded;
+the miners had recourse to a strange device when collecting the
+precious stones, to protect themselves from these reptiles, which we
+may believe or not as we choose. Marco Polo says: "They take several
+pieces of meat, and throw them among the pointed rocks, where no man
+can go, and the meat, falling upon the diamonds, they become
+attached to it. Now, among these mountains live a number of white
+eagles, who hunt the serpents, and when they see the meat at the
+foot of the precipices they swoop down and carry it away. At the
+moment the men who have been following the eagles' movements see
+them alight to eat the meat, they raise fearful cries, the meat is
+dropped and the eagles take to flight, and thus the men have no
+difficulty in taking the diamonds that are attached to the meat.
+Diamonds are often found on the mountains, mingled with the
+excrement of the eagles."
+
+After visiting the small town of St. Thomas, situated some miles to
+the south of Madras, where St. Thomas the apostle is said to be
+buried, the travellers explored the kingdom of Maabar and especially
+the province of Lar, from whence spring all the "_Abrahamites_" of
+the world, probably the Brahmins. These men, he says, live to a
+great age, owing to their abstinence and sobriety; some have been
+known to attain 150 and even 200 years of age; their diet is
+principally rice and milk, and they drink a mixture of sulphur and
+quicksilver. These "Abrahamites" are clever merchants, superstitious,
+however, but remarkably sincere, and never guilty of theft of any
+kind; they never kill any living thing, and they worship the ox,
+which is a sacred animal among them.
+
+The fleet now returned to Ceylon, where in 1284 Kublaï-Khan had sent
+an ambassador who had brought him back some pretended relics of Adam,
+and among other things two of his molar teeth; for, if we can
+believe the Saracen traditions, the tomb of our first father must
+have been on the summit of one of the precipitous mountains, which
+forms the highest ground in the island. After losing sight of Ceylon,
+Marco Polo went to Cail, a port that we do not find marked on any of
+the modern maps, but a place where all the vessels touched coming
+from Ormuz, Kiss, Aden, and the coasts of Arabia. Thence doubling
+Cape Comorin they came to Coilum, now Quilon, which was a very
+thriving city in the thirteenth century. It is there that a great
+quantity of sandal-wood and indigo is found, and merchants come in
+large numbers from the Levant and from the West to trade in both.
+The country of Malabar produces a great quantity of rice, and wild
+animals are found there, such as leopards, which Marco Polo calls
+"black lions," also peacocks of much greater beauty than those of
+Europe, as well as different kinds of parroquets.
+
+The fleet, leaving Coilum, and advancing northwards along the
+Malabar coast, arrived at the shores of the kingdom of Maundallay,
+which derives its name from a mountain situated on the borders of
+Kanara and Malabar; here pepper, ginger, saffron, and other spices
+abound. To the north of this kingdom extended that country which the
+Venetian traveller calls Melibar, and which is situated to the north
+of Malabar proper. The vessels of the Mangalore merchants came here
+to trade with the natives of this part of India for cargoes of
+spices, a fine kind of cloth called buckram and other valuable
+wares; but their vessels were frequently attacked, and too often
+pillaged by the pirates who infested these seas, and who were justly
+regarded as formidable enemies. These pirates principally inhabit
+the peninsula of Gohourat, now called Gujerat, where the fleet was
+on its way after calling at Tana--a country where is collected the
+frankincense--and Canboat, now Kambay, a town where there is a great
+trade in leather. Visiting Sumenath, a city of the peninsula, whose
+inhabitants are cruel, ferocious, and idolaters, and Kesmacoran, the
+modern city of Kedje, the capital of Makran, situated on the Indus
+near the sea, and the last town in India on the northwest, Marco
+Polo went westward across the sea of Oman, instead of going to
+Persia, which was the destination of the princess.
+
+His insatiable love of exploration led him 500 miles away to the
+shores of Arabia, where he stopped at the Male and Female Islands,
+so called from the men usually living on one island, and their wives
+on the other. Thence they sailed to the south towards the island of
+Socotra, at the entrance of the Gulf of Aden, which, Marco Polo
+partially explored. He speaks of the inhabitants of Socotra as
+clever magicians, who, by their enchantments, obtain the fulfilment
+of all their wishes as well as the power of stilling storms and
+tempests. Then, taking a southerly course of 1000 miles, he arrived
+at the shores of Madagascar. This island appeared to him to be one
+of the grandest in the world. Its inhabitants are very much occupied
+with commerce, especially in elephants' tusks. They live principally
+upon camels' flesh, which is better and more wholesome food than any
+other. The merchants on their way from the coast of India are
+usually only twenty days crossing the Sea of Oman; but when they
+return they are often three months on the voyage on account of the
+opposing currents which take them always southwards. Nevertheless,
+they visit Madagascar very constantly, for there are whole forests
+of sandal-wood, and amber is also found there, from which they can
+obtain great profit by bartering it for gold and silk stuffs. Wild
+animals and game are plentiful; according to Marco Polo, leopards,
+bears, lions, wild boars, giraffes, wild asses, roebucks, deer,
+stags, and cattle were to be found in great numbers; but what seemed
+most marvellous of all to him was the fabulous griffin, the roc, of
+which we hear so much in the "Thousand and one Nights," which is not,
+he says, "an animal, half-lion and half-bird, able to raise and
+carry away an elephant in its claws." It was probably the "_epyornis
+maximus_," for some eggs of this bird are still to be found in
+Madagascar.
+
+[Illustration: This wonderful bird was probably the _epyornis
+maximus_.]
+
+From this island Marco Polo went in a north-westerly direction to
+Zanzibar and the coast of Africa. The inhabitants seemed to him
+remarkably stout, but strong and able to carry the burdens of four
+ordinary men, "which is not strange," he says, "for they each eat as
+much as five other men;" these natives were black and wore no
+clothing, they had large mouths and turned-up noses, thick lips, and
+large eyes, a description that agrees exactly with that of the
+natives of that part of Africa now. They live upon rice, meat, milk,
+and dates, and make a kind of wine of rice, sugar, and spices. They
+are brave warriors and fearless of death; they are usually in war
+mounted on camels and elephants, and armed with a leathern shield, a
+sword, and a lance; they give their animals an intoxicating drink to
+excite them on going into action.
+
+In Marco Polo's time, says M. Charton, the countries comprised under
+the title of India were divided into three parts; Greater India or
+Hindostan, that is, the country lying between the Indus and the
+Ganges; Lesser India, that is, all the country lying beyond the
+Ganges, between the western coast of the peninsula and the coast of
+Cochin China; lastly, Middle India, that is, Abyssinia and the
+Arabian coast to the Persian Gulf. After leaving Zanzibar it was
+Middle India whose coast Marco Polo explored, sailing towards the
+north, and first Abassy or Abyssinia, a fertile country where the
+manufacture of fine cotton cloths and buckram is largely carried on.
+Then the fleet went to Zaila, almost at the entrance of the straits
+of Bab-el-Mandeb, and at last by the coast of Yemen and Hadramaut
+they came to Aden, the port frequented by all the ships trading with
+India and China; then to Escier, whence a great quantity of fine
+horses are exported; Dafar, which produces incense of the finest
+quality, and Galatu, now Kalajate, on the coast of Oman; then to
+Ormuz, that Marco Polo had visited once before when he was on his
+way from Venice to the court of Kublaï-Khan. This was the furthest
+point that the fleet had to reach, as the princess was now on the
+borders of Persia, after a voyage of eighteen months. But on their
+arrival they were met by the sad news of the death of Prince Arghun,
+the fiancé of the princess, and they found the country involved in
+civil war. The poor princess was put under the care of Prince Ghazan,
+the son of Prince Arghun, who did not ascend the throne until 1295,
+when his uncle, the usurper, was strangled. What became of the
+princess we do not hear, but on parting with Nicolo, Matteo, and
+Marco Polo, she bestowed on them great marks of favour. It was
+probably during Marco Polo's residence in Persia that he collected
+some curious documents upon Turkey in Asia; they are disconnected
+pieces, which he gives at the close of his narrative, and they form
+a genuine history of the Mongol Khans of Persia. His travels for
+exploration were at an end, and after taking leave of the Tartar
+princess, the three Venetians well escorted, and with all expenses
+paid, set out on their way home. They went to Trebizond, then to
+Constantinople, and thence to Negropont, where they embarked for
+Venice.
+
+It was in the year 1295, twenty-four years after leaving it, that
+Marco Polo and his companions returned to their native town. They
+were bronzed by exposure to the air and sun, coarsely clad in Tartar
+costume, and both in manners and language were so much more
+Mongolian than Venetian, that even their nearest relatives failed to
+recognize them. Beyond this, a report had been widely spread that
+they were dead, and it had gained so much credence that their
+friends never expected to see them again. They went to their own
+house in the part of Venice called St. John Chrysostom, and found it
+occupied by different members of the Polo family, who received the
+travellers with every mark of distrust, which their pitiable
+appearance did not tend to lessen, and placed no faith in the
+somewhat marvellous stories related to them by Marco Polo. After
+some persuasion, however, they gained admittance into their own
+house. When they had been a few days in Venice, the three travellers
+gave a magnificent banquet, followed by a splendid fête, to do away
+with any remaining doubts as to their identity. They invited the
+nobility of Venice and all the members of their own family, and when
+all the guests were assembled the three hosts appeared dressed in
+crimson satin robes; the guests then entered the dining-room, and
+the feast began. After the first course was over the three
+travellers retired for a few moments and then reappeared, clad in
+robes of splendid silk damask, which they proceeded to tear, and to
+present each of their guests with a piece. After the second course
+they dressed themselves in even more splendid robes of crimson
+velvet, which they wore until the feast was over, when they appeared
+in simple Venetian costume. The astonished guests marvelled at the
+magnificence of these garments, and wondered what their hosts would
+next show them; then the coarse rough clothes that they had worn on
+the voyage were brought in, and when the linings and seams were
+undone, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, diamonds, and carbuncles of
+great value were poured forth from them; great riches had been
+hidden in these rags. This unexpected sight cleared away all doubt;
+the three travellers were recognized at once as Marco, Nicolo, and
+Matteo Polo, and congratulations upon their return were showered
+upon them.
+
+So celebrated a man as Marco Polo could not escape civic honours. He
+was made first magistrate in Venice, and as he was continually
+speaking of the "millions" of the Grand Khan, who commanded
+"millions" of subjects, he gained the soubriquet of Signor Million.
+
+It was about 1296 that a war broke out between Venice and Genoa. A
+Genoese fleet under the command of Lamba Doria crossed the Adriatic,
+and threatened the sea coast. The Venetian Admiral Andrea Dandolo
+immediately manned a larger fleet and entrusted the command of a
+galley to Marco Polo who was justly considered an able commander.
+The Venetians were beaten in a naval battle on the 8th of September,
+1296, and Marco Polo, badly wounded, fell into the hands of the
+Genoese, who, knowing and appreciating the value of their prisoner,
+treated him with great kindness. He was taken to Genoa, and there
+met with a hearty welcome from the most distinguished people, who
+were anxious to hear the account of his travels. It was during his
+captivity, in 1298, that he made acquaintance with Pisano Rusticien,
+and, tired of repeating his story again and again, dictated his
+narrative to him.
+
+About 1299 Marco Polo was set at liberty; he returned to Venice, and
+there married. From this time we hear no more of the incidents of
+his life, and only know from his will that he left three daughters;
+he is thought to have died about the 9th of January, 1323, at the
+age of seventy.
+
+Such is the life of this celebrated traveller, whose narrative had a
+marked influence on the progress of geographical science. He was
+gifted with great power of observation, and could see and describe
+equally well; and all later explorers have confirmed the truth of
+his statements. Until the middle of the eighteenth century, the
+documents founded on this narrative formed the basis of geographical
+books, and were used as a guide in commercial expeditions to China,
+India, and Central Asia. Posterity will concur in the suitability of
+the title that the first copyists gave to Marco Polo's work, that of
+"The Book of the Wonders of the World."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+IBN BATUTA, 1328-1353.
+
+Ibn Batuta--The Nile--Gaza, Tyre, Tiberias, Libanus, Baalbec,
+Damascus, Meshid, Bussorah, Baghdad, Tabriz, Mecca and Medina--
+Yemen--Abyssinia--The country of the Berbers--Zanguebar--Ormuz--
+Syria--Anatolia--Asia Minor--Astrakhan--Constantinople--
+Turkestan--Herat--The Indus--Delhi--Malabar--The Maldives--
+Ceylon--The Coromandel coast--Bengal--The Nicobar Islands--
+Sumatra--China--Africa--The Niger--Timbuctoo.
+
+
+Marco Polo had returned to his native land now nearly twenty-five
+years, when a Franciscan monk traversed the whole of Asia, from the
+Black Sea to the extreme limits of China, passing by Trebizond,
+Mount Ararat, Babel, and the island of Java; but he was so credulous
+of all that was told him, and his narrative is so confused, that but
+little reliance can be placed upon it. It is the same with the
+fabulous travels of Jean de Mandeville. Cooley says of them, "They
+are so utterly untrue, that they have not their parallel in any
+language."
+
+But we find a worthy successor to the Venetian traveller in an
+Arabian theologian, named Abdallah El Lawati, better known by the
+name of Ibn Batuta. He did for Egypt, Arabia, Anatolia, Tartary,
+India, China, Bengal, and Soudan, what Marco Polo had done for
+Central Asia, and he is worthy to be placed in the foremost rank as
+a brave traveller and bold explorer. In the year 1324, the 725th
+year of the Hegira, he resolved to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, and
+starting from Tangier, his native town, he went first to Alexandria,
+and thence to Cairo. During his stay in Egypt he turned his
+attention to the Nile, and especially to the Delta; then he tried to
+sail up the river, but being stopped by disturbances on the Nubian
+frontier, he was obliged to return to the mouth of the river, and
+then set sail for Asia Minor.
+
+[Illustration: Ibn Batuta in Egypt.]
+
+After visiting Gaza, the tombs of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, Tyre,
+then strongly fortified and unassailable on three sides, and
+Tiberias, which was in ruins, and whose celebrated baths were
+completely destroyed, Ibn Batuta was attracted by the wonders of
+Lebanon, the centre for all the hermits of that day, who had
+judiciously chosen one of the most lovely spots in the whole world
+wherein to end their days. Then passing Baalbec, and going on to
+Damascus, he found the city (in the year 1345) decimated by the
+plague. This fearful scourge devoured "24,000 persons daily," if we
+may believe his report, and Damascus would have been depopulated,
+had not the prayers of all the people offered up in the mosque
+containing the stone with the print of Moses' foot upon it, been
+heard and answered. On leaving Damascus, Ibn Batuta went to Mesjid,
+where he visited the tomb of Ali, which attracts a large number of
+paralytic pilgrims who need only to spend one night in prayer beside
+it, to be completely cured. Batuta does not seem to doubt the
+authenticity of this miracle, well known in the East under the title
+of "the Night of Cure."
+
+From Mesjid, the traveller went to Bussorah, and entered the kingdom
+of Ispahan, and then the province of Shiraz, where he wished to
+converse with the celebrated worker of miracles, Magd Oddin. From
+Shiraz he went to Baghdad, to Tabriz, then to Medina, where he
+prayed beside the tomb of the Prophet, and finally to Mecca, where
+he remained three years. It is well known that from Mecca, caravans
+are continually starting for the surrounding country, and it was in
+company with some of these bold merchants that Ibn Batuta was able
+to visit the towns of Yemen. He went as far as Aden, at the mouth of
+the Red Sea, and embarked for Zaila, one of the Abyssinian ports. He
+was now once more on African ground, and advanced into the country
+of the Berbers, that he might study the manners and customs of those
+dirty and repulsive tribes; he found their diet consisted wholly of
+fish and camels' flesh. But in the town of Makdasbu, there was an
+attempt at comfort and civilization, presenting a most agreeable
+contrast with the surrounding squalor. The inhabitants were very fat,
+each of them, to use Ibn's own expression, "eating enough to feed a
+convent;" they were very fond of delicacies, such as plantains
+boiled in milk, preserved citrons, pods of fresh pepper, and green
+ginger.
+
+After seeing all he wished of the country of the Berbers, chiefly on
+the coast, he resolved to go to Zanguebar, and then, crossing the
+Red Sea and following the coast of Arabia, he came to Zafar, a town
+situated upon the Indian Ocean. The vegetation of this country is
+most luxuriant, the betel, cocoa-nut, and incense-trees forming
+there great forests; still the traveller pushed on, and came to
+Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, and passed through several provinces of
+Persia. We find him a second time at Mecca in the year 1332, three
+years after he had left it.
+
+But this was only to be a short rest for the traveller, for now,
+leaving Asia for Africa, he went to Upper Egypt, a region but little
+known, and thence to Cairo. He next visited Syria, making a short
+stay at Jerusalem and Tripoli, and thence he visited the Turkomans
+of Anatolia, where the "confraternity of young men" gave him a most
+hearty welcome.
+
+After Anatolia, the Arabian narrative speaks of Asia Minor. Ibn
+Batuta advanced as far as Erzeroum, where he was shown an aerolite
+weighing 620 pounds. Then, crossing the Black Sea, he visited the
+Crimea, Kaffa, and Bulgar, a town of sufficiently high latitude for
+the unequal length of day and night to be very marked; and at last
+he reached Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga, where the Khan of
+Tartary lived during the winter months.
+
+The Princess Bailun, the wife of the khan, and daughter of the
+Emperor of Constantinople, was wishing to visit her father, and it
+was an opportunity not to be lost by Ibn Batuta for exploring Turkey
+in Europe; he gained permission to accompany the princess, who set
+out attended by 5000 men, and followed by a portable mosque, which
+was set up at every place where they stayed. The princess's
+reception at Constantinople was very magnificent, the bells being
+rung with such spirit that he says, "even the horizon seemed full of
+the vibration."
+
+The welcome given to the theologian by the princes of the country
+was worthy of his fame; he remained in the city thirty-six days, so
+that he was able to study it in all its details.
+
+This was a time when communication between the different countries
+was both dangerous and difficult, and Ibn Batuta was considered a
+very bold traveller. Egypt, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, the Caucasian
+provinces had all in turn been explored by him. After such hard work
+he might well have taken rest and been satisfied with the laurels
+that he had gained, for he was without doubt the most celebrated
+traveller of the fourteenth century; but his insatiable passion for
+travelling remained, and the circle of his explorations was still to
+widen considerably.
+
+On leaving Constantinople, Ibn Batuta went again to Astrakhan,
+thence crossing the sandy wastes of the present Turkestan, he
+arrived at Khovarezen, a large populous town, then at Bokhara, half
+destroyed by the armies of Gengis-Khan. Some time after we hear of
+him at Samarcand, a religious town which greatly pleased the learned
+traveller, and then at Balkh which he could not reach without
+crossing the desert of Khorassan. This town was all in ruins and
+desolate, for the armies of the barbarians had been there, and Ibn
+Batuta could not remain in it, but wished to go westward to the
+frontier of Afghanistan. The mountainous country, near the Hindoo
+Koosh range, confronted him, but this was no barrier to him, and
+after great fatigue, which he bore with equal patience and
+good-humour, he reached the important town of Herat. This was the
+most westerly point reached by the traveller; he now resolved to
+change his course for an easterly one, and in going to the extreme
+limits of Asia, to reach the shores of the Pacific: if he could
+succeed in this he would pass the bounds of the explorations of the
+celebrated Marco Polo.
+
+He set out, and following the course of the river Kabul and the
+frontiers of Afghanistan, he came to the Sindhu, the modern Indus,
+and descended it to its mouth. From the town of Lahore, he went to
+Delhi, which great and beautiful city had been deserted by its
+inhabitants, who had fled from the Emperor Mohammed.
+
+This tyrant, who was occasionally both generous and magnificent,
+received the Arabian traveller very well, made him a judge in Delhi,
+and gave him a grant of land with some pecuniary advantages that
+were attached to the post, but these honours were not to be of any
+long duration, for Ibn Batuta being implicated in a pretended
+conspiracy, thought it best to give up his place, and make himself a
+fakir to escape the Emperor's displeasure. Mohammed, however,
+pardoned him, and made him his ambassador to China.
+
+Fortune again smiled upon the courageous traveller, and he had now
+the prospect of seeing these distant lands under exceptionally good
+and safe circumstances. He was charged with presents for the Emperor
+of China, and 2000 horse-soldiers were given him as an escort.
+
+But Ibn Batuta had not thought of the insurgents who occupied the
+surrounding countries; a skirmish took place between the escort and
+the Hindoos, and the traveller, being separated from his companions,
+was taken prisoner, robbed, garotted, and carried off he knew not
+whither; but his courage and hopefulness did not forsake him, and he
+contrived to escape from the hands of these robbers. After wandering
+about for seven days, he was received into his house by a negro, who
+at length led him back to the emperor's palace at Delhi.
+
+Mohammed fitted out another expedition, and again appointed the
+Arabian traveller as his ambassador. This time they passed through
+the enemy's country without molestation, and by way of Kanoje, Mersa,
+Gwalior, and Barun, they reached Malabar. Some time after, they
+arrived at the great port of Calicut, an important place which
+became afterwards the chief town of Malabar; here they were detained
+by contrary winds for three months, and made use of this time to
+study the Chinese mercantile marine which frequented this port. Ibn
+speaks with great admiration of these junks which are like floating
+gardens, where ginger and herbs are grown on deck; they are each
+like a separate village, and some merchants were the possessors of a
+great number of these junks.
+
+At last the wind changed; Ibn Batuta chose a small junk well fitted
+up, to take him to China, and had all his property put on board.
+Thirteen other junks were to receive the presents sent by the King
+of Delhi to the Emperor of China, but during the night a violent
+storm arose, and all the vessels sank. Fortunately for Ibn he had
+remained on shore to attend the service at the mosque, and thus his
+piety saved his life, but he had lost everything except "the carpet
+which he used at his devotions." After this second misfortune he
+could not make up his mind to appear before the King of Delhi. This
+catastrophe was enough to weary the patience of a more
+long-suffering emperor than Mohammed.
+
+Ibn soon made up his mind what to do. Leaving the service of the
+emperor, and the advantages attaching to the post of ambassador, he
+embarked for the Maldive Islands, which were governed by a woman,
+and where a large trade in cocoa was carried on. Here he was again
+made a judge, but this was only of short duration, for the vizier
+became jealous of his success, and, after marrying three wives, Ibn
+was obliged to take refuge in flight. He hoped to reach the
+Coromandel coast, but contrary winds drove his vessel towards Ceylon,
+where he was very well received, and gained the king's permission to
+climb the sacred mountain of Serendid, or Adam's Peak. His object
+was to see the wonderful impression of a foot at the summit, which
+the Hindoos call "Buddha's," and the Mahometans "Adam's, foot." He
+pretends, in his narrative, that this impression measures eleven
+hands in length, a very different account from that of an historian
+of the ninth century, who declared it to be seventy-nine cubits
+long! This historian also adds that while one of the feet of our
+forefather rested on the mountain, the other was in the Indian ocean.
+
+Ibn Batuta speaks also of large bearded apes, forming a considerable
+item in the population of the island, and said to be under a king of
+their own, crowned with leaves. We can give what credit we like to
+such fables as these, which were propagated by the credulity of the
+Hindoos.
+
+From Ceylon, the traveller made his way to the Coromandel coast, but
+not without experiencing some severe storms. He crossed to the other
+side of the Indian peninsula, and again embarked.
+
+[Illustration: Ibn Batuta's vessel was seized by pirates.]
+
+But his vessel was seized by pirates, and Ibn Batuta arrived at
+Calicut almost without clothes, robbed, and worn out with fatigue.
+No misfortune could damp his ardour, his was one of those great
+spirits which seem only invigorated by trouble and disasters. As
+soon as he was enabled by the kindness of some Delhi merchants to
+resume his travels, he embarked for the Maldive Islands, went on to
+Bengal, there set sail for Sumatra, and disembarked at one of the
+Nicobar Islands after a very bad passage which had lasted fifty days.
+Fifteen days afterwards he arrived at Sumatra, where the king gave
+him a hearty welcome and furnished him with means to continue his
+journey to China.
+
+A junk took him in seventy-one days to the port Kailuka, capital of
+a country somewhat problematical, of which the brave and handsome
+inhabitants excelled in making arms. From Kailuka, Ibn passed into
+the Chinese provinces, and went first to the splendid town of Zaitem,
+probably the present Tsieun-tcheou of the Chinese, a little to the
+north of Nankin. He passed through various cities of this great
+empire, studying the customs of the people and admiring everywhere
+the riches, industry, and civilization that he found, but he did not
+get as far as the Great Wall, which he calls "The obstacle of Gog
+and Magog." It was while he was exploring this immense tract of
+country that he made a short stay in the city of Tchensi, which is
+composed of six fortified towns standing together. It happened that
+during his wanderings he was able to be present at the funeral of a
+khan, who was buried with four slaves, six of his favourites, and
+four horses.
+
+In the meanwhile, disturbances had occurred at Zaitem, which obliged
+Ibn to leave this town, so he set sail for Sumatra, and then after
+touching at Calicut and Ormuz, he returned to Mecca in 1348, having
+made the tour of Persia and Syria.
+
+But the time of rest had not yet come for this indefatigable
+explorer; the following year he revisited his native place Tangier,
+and then after travelling in the southern countries of Europe he
+returned to Morocco, went to Soudan and the countries watered by the
+Niger, crossed the Great Desert and entered Timbuctoo, thus making a
+journey which would have rendered illustrious a less ambitious
+traveller.
+
+This was to be his last expedition. In 1353, twenty-nine years after
+leaving Tangier for the first time, he returned to Morocco, and
+settled at Fez. He has earned the reputation of being the most
+intrepid explorer of the fourteenth century, and well merits to be
+ranked next after Marco Polo, the illustrious Venetian.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+JEAN DE BÉTHENCOURT, 1339-1425.
+
+I.
+
+The Norman cavalier--His ideas of conquest--What was known of
+the Canary Islands--Cadiz--The Canary Archipelago--Graciosa--
+Lancerota--Fortaventura--Jean de Béthencourt returns to Spain--
+Revolt of Berneval--His interview with King Henry III.--Gadifer
+visits the Canary Archipelago--Canary Island or "Gran Canaria"--
+Ferro Island--Palma Island.
+
+
+Jean de Béthencourt was born about the year 1339, at Eu in Normandy.
+He was of good family, and Baron of St. Martin-le-Gaillard, and had
+distinguished himself both as a navigator and warrior; he was made
+chamberlain to Charles VI. But his tastes were more for travelling
+than a life at court; he resolved to make himself a still more
+illustrious name by further conquests, and soon an opportunity
+offered for him to carry out his plans.
+
+[Illustration: Jean de Béthencourt.]
+
+On the coast of Africa there is a group of islands called the
+Canaries, which were once known as the Fortunate Islands. Juba, a
+son of one of the Numidian kings, is said to have been their first
+explorer, about the year of Rome 776. In the middle ages, according
+to some accounts, Arabs, Genoese, Portuguese, Spaniards, and
+Biscayans, had partially visited this interesting group of islands.
+In 1393, a Spanish gentleman named Almonaster, who was commanding an
+expedition, succeeded in landing on Lancerota, one of these islands,
+and brought back, with several prisoners, some produce which was a
+sufficient guarantee of the fertility of this archipelago.
+
+The Norman cavalier now found the opening that he sought, and he
+determined to conquer the Canary Islands and try to convert the
+inhabitants to the Catholic faith. He was as intelligent, brave, and
+full of resources as he was energetic; and leaving his house of
+Grainville-la-Teinturière at Caux, he went to La Rochelle, where he
+met the Chevalier Gadifer de la Salle, and having explained his
+project to him, they decided to go to the Canary Islands together.
+Jean de Béthencourt having collected an army and made his
+preparations, and had vessels fitted out and manned, Gadifer and he
+set sail; after experiencing adverse winds on the way to the Ile de
+Ré, and being much harassed by the constant dissensions on board,
+they arrived at Vivero, and then at Corunna. Here they remained
+eight days, then set sail again, and doubling Cape Finisterre,
+followed the Portuguese coast to Cape St. Vincent, and arrived at
+Cadiz, where they made a longer stay. Here Béthencourt had a dispute
+with some Genoese merchants, who accused him of having taken their
+vessel, and he had to go to Seville, where King Henry III. heard his
+complaint and acquitted him from all blame. On his return to Cadiz
+he found part of his crew in open mutiny, and some of his sailors so
+frightened that they refused to continue the voyage, so the
+chevalier sent back the cowardly sailors, and set sail with those
+who were more courageous.
+
+The vessel in which Jean de Béthencourt sailed was becalmed for
+three days, then, the weather improving, he reached the island of
+Graziosa, one of the smaller of the Canary group, in five days, and
+then the larger island of Lancerota, which is nearly the same size
+as the island of Rhodes. Lancerota has excellent pasturage, and
+arable land, which is particularly good for the cultivation of
+barley; its numerous fountains and cisterns are well supplied with
+excellent water. The orchilla, which is so much used in dyeing,
+grows abundantly here. The inhabitants of this island, who as a rule
+wear scarce any clothing, are tall and well-made, and the women, who
+wear leathern great-coats reaching to the ground, are very
+good-looking and honest.
+
+The traveller, prior to disclosing his plans of conquest, wished to
+possess himself of some of the natives, but his ignorance of the
+country made this a difficult matter, so, anchoring under the
+shelter of a small island in the archipelago, he called a meeting of
+his companions to decide upon a plan of action. They all agreed that
+the only thing to be done was to take some of the natives by fair
+means or foul. Guardafia, the king of the island, treated
+Béthencourt more as a friend than a subject. A castle or rather fort
+was built at the south-western extremity of the island, and some men
+left there under the command of Berthin de Berneval, while
+Béthencourt set out with the rest of his followers for the island of
+Erbania or Fortaventura. Gadifer counselled a debarcation by night,
+which was done, and then he took the command of a small body of men
+and scoured the island with them for eight days without meeting one
+native, they having all fled to the mountains. Provisions failing,
+Gadifer was forced to return, and he went to the island of Lobos
+between Lancerota and Fortaventura; but there his chief sailor
+mutinied and it was not without difficulty that Gadifer and
+Béthencourt reached the fort on Lancerota.
+
+Béthencourt resolved to return to Spain to get provisions and a new
+contingent of soldiers, for his crew he could not depend upon; so he
+left Gadifer in command and set sail for Spain in one of Gadifer's
+ships.
+
+It will be remembered that Berthin de Berneval had been left in
+command of the fort on Lancerota Island. Unfortunately he was
+Gadifer's bitter enemy, and no sooner had Béthencourt set out than
+he tried to poison the minds of Gadifer's men against him; he
+succeeded in inducing some, especially the Gascons, to revolt
+against the governor, who, quite innocent of Berneval's base designs,
+was spending his time hunting sea-wolves on the island of Lobos with
+Remonnet de Levéden and several others. Remonnet having been sent to
+Lancerota for provisions, found no Berneval there, he having
+deserted the island with his accomplices for a port on Graziosa,
+where a coxswain, deceived by his promises, had placed his vessel at
+his disposal. From Graziosa, the traitor Berneval returned to
+Lancerota, and put the finishing stroke to his villany by pretending
+to make an alliance with the king of the island. The king, thinking
+that no officer of Béthencourt's, in whom he had implicit confidence,
+could deceive him, came with twenty-four of his subjects to see
+Berneval, who seized them when asleep, had them bound, and then
+carried them off to Graziosa. The king managed to break his bonds,
+set three of his men free, and succeeded in escaping, but the
+remainder of his unfortunate companions were still prisoners, and
+Berneval gave them up to some Spanish thieves, who took them away to
+sell in a foreign land.
+
+Berneval's evil deeds did not stop here. By his order the vessel
+that Gadifer had sent to the fort at Lancerota was seized; Remonnet
+tried resistance, but his numbers were too small, and his
+supplications were useless to prevent Berneval's men, and even
+Berneval himself, from destroying all the arms, furniture, and goods,
+which Béthencourt had placed in the fort at Lancerota. Insults were
+showered upon the governor, and Berneval cried, "I should like
+Gadifer de la Salle to know that if he were as young as I, I would
+kill him, but as he is not, I will spare him. If he is put above me
+I shall have him drowned, and then he can fish for sea-wolves."
+
+Meanwhile, Gadifer and his ten companions were in danger of
+perishing on the island of Lobos for want of food and fresh water,
+but happily the two chaplains of the fort of Lancerota had gone to
+Graziosa, and met the coxswain, who had been the victim of
+Berneval's treason, and he sent one of his men named Ximenes with
+them back to Lancerota. There they found a small boat which they
+filled with provisions, and embarking with four men who were
+faithful to Gadifer, they succeeded in reaching Lobos, four leagues
+off, after a most dangerous passage.
+
+Gadifer and his companions were suffering fearfully from hunger and
+thirst, when Ximenes arrived just in time to save them from
+perishing, and the governor learning Berneval's treachery embarked
+in the boat for Lancerota, as soon as he was a little restored to
+health. He was grieved at Berneval's conduct towards the poor
+islanders whom Béthencourt and he had sworn to protect. No! he never
+could have expected such wickedness in one who was looked upon as
+the most able of the whole band.
+
+But what was Berneval doing meanwhile? After having betrayed his
+master, he did the same to the companions who had aided him in his
+evil deeds; he had twelve of them killed and then he set out for
+Spain to rejoin Béthencourt and make his own case good by
+representing all that had happened in his own way. It was to his
+interest to get rid of inconvenient witnesses, and therefore he
+abandoned his companions. These unfortunate men at first meditated
+imploring the pardon of the governor; they confessed all to the
+chaplains, but then, fearing the consequences of their deeds, they
+seized a boat and fled towards Morocco. The boat reached the coast
+of Barbary, where ten of the crew were drowned and the two others
+taken for slaves.
+
+While all this was happening at Lancerota, Béthencourt arrived at
+Cadiz, where he took strong measures against his mutinous crew, and
+had the ringleaders imprisoned. Then he sent his vessel to Seville,
+where King Henry III. was at that time; but the ship sank in the
+Guadalquiver, a great loss to Gadifer, her owner.
+
+Béthencourt having arrived at Seville, met a certain Francisque
+Calve who had lately come from the Canaries, and who offered to
+return thither with all the things needed by the governor, but
+Béthencourt could not agree to this proposal before he had seen the
+king.
+
+Just at this time, Berneval arrived with some of his accomplices,
+and some islanders whom he intended to sell as slaves. He hoped to
+be able to deceive Béthencourt, but he had not reckoned upon a
+certain Courtille who was with him, who lost no time in denouncing
+the villany of Berneval, and on whose word the traitors were all
+imprisoned at Cadiz. Courtille also told of the treatment that the
+poor islanders had received; as Béthencourt could not leave Seville
+till he had had an audience with the king, he gave orders that they
+should receive every kindness, but while these preliminaries were
+being concluded, the vessel that contained them was taken to Aragon,
+and they were sold for slaves.
+
+Béthencourt obtained the audience that he sought with the king of
+Castille, and after telling him the result of his expedition he said,
+"Sire, I come to ask your assistance and your leave to conquer the
+Canary Islands for the Catholic faith, and as you are king and lord
+of all the surrounding country, and the nearest Christian king to
+these islands, I beg you to receive the homage of your humble
+servant." The king was very gracious to him and gave him dominion
+over these islands, and beyond this, a fifth of all the merchandise
+that should be brought from them to Spain. He gave him 20,000
+maravédis, about 600_l._, to buy all that he needed, and also the
+right to coin money in the Canary Islands. Most unfortunately these
+20,000 maravédis were confided to the care of a dishonest man, who
+fled to France, carrying the money with him.
+
+However, Henry III. gave Béthencourt a well-rigged vessel manned by
+eighty men, and stocked with provisions, arms, &c. He was most
+grateful for this fresh bounty, and sent Gadifer an account of all
+that had happened, and his extreme disappointment and disgust at
+Berneval's conduct, in whom he had so much confidence, announcing at
+the same time the speedy departure of the vessel given by the King
+of Castille.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Jerusalem.]
+
+But meanwhile very serious troubles had arisen on Lancerota. King
+Guardafia was so hurt at Berneval's conduct that he had revolted,
+and some of Gadifer's companions had been killed by the islanders.
+Gadifer insisted upon these subjects being punished, when one of the
+king's relations named Ache, came to him proposing to dethrone the
+king, and put himself in his place. This Ache was a villain, who
+after having betrayed his king, proposed to betray the Normans, and
+to chase them from the country. Gadifer had no suspicion of his
+motives; wishing to avenge the death of his men, he accepted Ache's
+proposal, and a short time afterwards, on the vigil of St.
+Catherine's day, the king was seized, and conveyed to the fort in
+chains.
+
+Some days afterwards, Ache, the new king of the island attacked
+Gadifer's companions, mortally wounding several of them, but the
+following night Guardafia having made his escape from the fort
+seized Ache, had him stoned to death, and his body burnt. The
+governor (Gadifer) was so grieved by these scenes of violence, which
+were renewed daily, that he resolved to kill all the men on the
+island, and save only the women and children, whom he hoped to have
+baptized. But just at this time, the vessel that Béthencourt had
+freighted for the governor arrived, and brought besides the eighty
+men, provisions, &c., a letter which told him among other things
+that Béthencourt had done homage to the King of Castille for the
+Canary Islands. The governor was not well pleased at this news, for
+he thought that he ought to have had his share in the islands; but
+he concealed his displeasure, and gave the new comers a hearty
+welcome.
+
+The arms were at once disembarked, and then Gadifer went on board
+the vessel to explore the neighbouring islands. Remonnet and several
+others joined him in this expedition, and they took two of the
+islanders with them to serve as guides.
+
+They arrived safely at Fortaventura island; a few days after landing
+on the island, Gadifer set out with thirty-five men to explore the
+country; but soon the greater part of his followers deserted him,
+only thirteen men, including two archers, remaining with him. But he
+did not give up his project; after wading through a large stream, he
+found himself in a lovely valley shaded by numberless palm-trees;
+here having rested and refreshed himself, he set out again and
+climbed a hill. At the summit he found about fifty natives, who
+surrounded the small party and threatened to murder them. Gadifer
+and his companions showed no signs of fear, and succeeded in putting
+their enemies to flight; by the evening they were able to regain
+their vessel, carrying away four of the native women as prisoners.
+
+[Illustration: Gadifer found himself in a lovely valley.]
+
+The next day Gadifer left the island and went to the Gran Canaria
+island anchoring in a large harbour lying between Telde and Argonney.
+Five hundred of the natives confronted them, but apparently with no
+hostile intentions; they gave them some fish-hooks and old iron in
+exchange for some of the natural productions of the island, such as
+figs, and dragon's blood, a resinous substance taken from the
+dragon-tree, which has a very pleasant balsamic odour. The natives
+were very much on their guard with the strangers, for twenty years
+before this some of Captain Lopez' men had invaded the island; so
+they would not allow Gadifer to land.
+
+The governor was obliged to weigh anchor without exploring the
+island; he went to Ferro Island, and coasting along it arrived next
+at Gomera; it was night, and the sailors were attracted by the fires
+that the natives had lighted on the shore. When day broke Gadifer
+and his companions wished to land; but the islanders would not allow
+them to proceed when they reached the shore, and drove them back to
+their vessel. Much disappointed by his reception, Gadifer determined
+to make another attempt at Ferro Island; there he found that he
+could land without opposition, and he remained on the island
+twenty-two days. The interior of the island was very beautiful.
+Pine-trees grew in abundance, and clear streams of water added to
+its fertility. Quails were found in large numbers, as well as pigs,
+goats, and sheep.
+
+From this fertile island the party of explorers went to Palma, and
+anchored in a harbour situated to the right of a large river. This
+is the furthest island of the Canary group; it is covered with pine
+and dragon-trees; from the abundance of fresh water the pasturage is
+excellent and the land might be cultivated with much profit. Its
+inhabitants are a tall, robust race, well made, with good features
+and very white skin. Gadifer remained a short time on this island;
+on leaving it he spent two days and two nights sailing round the
+other islands, and then returned to the fort on Lancerota. They had
+been absent three months. In the meantime, those of the party who
+had been left in the fort had waged a petty war with the natives,
+and had made a great number of prisoners. The Canarians, demoralized,
+now came daily to cast themselves on their mercy, and to pray for
+the consecration of baptism. Gadifer was so pleased to hear of this,
+that he sent one of his companions to Spain to inform Béthencourt of
+the state of the colony.
+
+
+II.
+JEAN DE BÉTHENCOURT.
+
+The return of Jean de Béthencourt--Gadifer's jealousy--Béthencourt
+visits his archipelago--Gadifer goes to conquer Gran Canaria--
+Disagreement of the two commanders--Their return to Spain--Gadifer
+blamed by the King--Return of Béthencourt--The natives of
+Fortaventura are baptized--Béthencourt revisits Caux--Returns to
+Lancerota--Lands on the African coast--Conquest of Gran Canaria,
+Ferro, and Palma Islands--Maciot appointed Governor of the
+archipelago--Béthencourt obtains the Pope's consent to the Canary
+Islands being made an Episcopal See--His return to his country and
+his death.
+
+
+The envoy had not reached Cadiz when Béthencourt landed at the fort
+on Lancerota. Gadifer gave him a hearty welcome, and so did the
+Canary islanders who had been baptized. A few days afterwards, King
+Guardafia came and threw himself on their mercy. He was baptized on
+the 20th of February, 1404, with all his followers. Béthencourt's
+chaplains drew up a very simple form of instruction for their use,
+embracing the principal elements of Christianity, the creation, Adam
+and Eve's fall, the history of Noah, the lives of the patriarchs,
+the life of our Saviour and His crucifixion by the Jews, finishing
+with an exhortation to believe the ten commandments, the Holy
+Sacrament of the Altar, Easter, confession, and some other points.
+
+Béthencourt was an ambitious man. Not content with having explored,
+and so to speak, gained possession of the Canary Islands, he desired
+to conquer the African countries bordering on the ocean. This was
+his secret wish in returning to Lancerota, and meanwhile, he had
+full occupation in establishing his authority in these islands, of
+which he was only the nominal sovereign. He gave himself wholly to
+the task, and first visited the islands which Gadifer had explored.
+
+But before he set out, a conversation took place between Gadifer and
+himself, which we must not omit to notice. Gadifer began boasting of
+all he had done, and asked for the gift of Fortaventura, Teneriffe,
+and Gomera Islands, as a recompense.
+
+"My friend," replied Béthencourt, "the islands that you ask me to
+give you are not yet conquered, but I do not intend you to be at any
+loss for your trouble, nor that you should be unrequited; but let us
+accomplish our project, and meanwhile remain the friends we have
+always been."
+
+"That is all very well," replied Gadifer, "but there is one point on
+which I do not feel at all satisfied, and that is that you have done
+homage to the King of Castille for these islands, and so you call
+yourself absolute master over them."
+
+"With regard to that," said Béthencourt, "I certainly have done
+homage for them, and so I am their rightful master, but if you will
+only patiently wait the end of our affair, I will give you what I
+feel sure will quite content you."
+
+"I shall not remain here," replied Gadifer, "I am going back to
+France, and have no wish to be here any longer."
+
+Upon this they separated, but Gadifer gradually cooled down and
+agreed to accompany Béthencourt in his exploration of the islands.
+
+They set out for Fortaventura well armed and with plenty of
+provisions. They remained there three months, and began by seizing a
+number of the natives, and sending them to Lancerota. This was such
+a usual mode of proceeding at that time that we are less surprised
+at it than we should be at the present day. The whole island was
+explored and a fort named Richeroque built on the slope of a high
+mountain; traces of it may still be found in a hamlet there.
+
+Just at this time, and when he had scarcely had time to forget his
+grievances and ill-humour, Gadifer accepted the command of a small
+band of men who were to conquer Gran Canaria.
+
+He set out on the 25th July, 1404, but this expedition was not fated
+to meet with any good results, winds and waves were against it. At
+last they reached the port of Telde, but as it was nearly dark and a
+strong wind blowing they dared not land, and they went on to the
+little town of Aginmez, where they remained eleven days at anchor;
+the natives, encouraged by their king, laid an ambush for Gadifer
+and his followers; there was a skirmish, blood was shed, and the
+Castilians, feeling themselves outnumbered, went to Telde for two
+days, and thence to Lancerota.
+
+Gadifer was much disappointed at his want of success, and began to
+be discontented with everything around him. Above all, his jealousy
+of Béthencourt increased daily, and he gave way to violent
+recriminations, saying openly that the chief had not done everything
+himself, and that things would not have been in so advanced a stage
+as they were if others had not aided him. This reached Béthencourt's
+ears; he was much incensed, and reproached Gadifer. High words
+followed, Gadifer insisted upon leaving the country, and as
+Béthencourt had just made arrangements for returning to Spain, he
+proposed to Gadifer to accompany him, that their cause of
+disagreement might be inquired into. This proposal being accepted,
+they set sail, but each in his own ship. When they reached Seville,
+Gadifer laid his complaints before the king, but as the king gave
+judgment against him, fully approving of Béthencourt's conduct, he
+left Spain, and returning to France, never revisited the Canary
+Islands which he had so fondly hoped to conquer for himself.
+
+Béthencourt took leave of the king almost at the same time, for the
+new colony demanded his immediate presence there; but before he left,
+the inhabitants of Seville, with whom he was a great favourite,
+showed him much kindness; what he valued more highly than anything
+else was the supply of arms, gold, silver, and provisions that they
+gave him. He went to Fortaventura, where his companions were
+delighted to see him. Gadifer had left his son Hannibal in his place,
+but Béthencourt treated him with much cordiality.
+
+The first days of the installation of Béthencourt were far from
+peaceful; skirmishes were of constant occurrence, the natives even
+destroying the fortress of Richeroque, after burning and pillaging a
+chapel. Béthencourt was determined to overcome them, and in the end
+succeeded. He sent for several of his men from Lancerota, and gave
+orders that the fortress should be rebuilt.
+
+In spite of all this the combats began again, and many of the
+islanders fell, among others a giant of nine feet high, whom
+Béthencourt would have liked to have made prisoner. The governor
+could not trust Gadifer's son nor the men who followed him, for
+Hannibal seemed to have inherited his father's jealousy, but as
+Béthencourt needed his help, he concealed his distrust. Happily,
+Béthencourt's men outnumbered those who were faithful to Gadifer,
+but Hannibal's taunts became so unbearable that Jean de Courtois was
+sent to remind him of his oath of obedience and to advise him to
+keep it.
+
+Courtois was very badly received, he having a crow to pick with
+Hannibal with regard to some native prisoners whom Gadifer's
+followers had kept and would not give up. Hannibal was obliged to
+obey the orders, but Courtois represented his conduct to Béthencourt
+on his return in the very worst light, and tried to excite his
+master's anger against him. "No, sir," answered the upright
+Béthencourt, "I do not wish him to be wronged, we must never carry
+our power to its utmost limits, we should always endeavour to
+control ourselves and preserve our honour rather than seek for
+profit."
+
+In spite of these intestine discords, the war continued between the
+natives and the conquerors, but the latter being well-armed always
+came off victorious. The kings of Fortaventura sent a native to
+Béthencourt saying that they wished to make peace with him, and to
+become Christians. This news delighted the conqueror, and he sent
+word that they would be well received if they would come to him.
+Almost immediately on receiving this reply, King Maxorata, who
+governed the north-westerly part of the island, set out, and with
+his suite of twenty-two persons, was baptized on the 18th of January,
+1405. Three days afterwards twenty-two other natives received the
+sacrament of baptism. On the 25th of January the king who governed
+the peninsula of Handia, the south-eastern part of the island, came
+with twenty-six of his subjects, and was baptized. In a short time
+all the inhabitants of Fortaventura had embraced the Christian
+religion.
+
+[Illustration: The King of Maxorata arrived with his suite.]
+
+Béthencourt was so elated with these happy results, that he arranged
+to revisit his own country, leaving Courtois as governor during his
+absence. He set out on the last day of January amid the prayers and
+blessings of his people, taking with him three native men and one
+woman, to whom he wished to show something of France. He reached
+Harfleur in twenty-one days, and two days later was at his own house,
+where he only intended making a short stay, and then returning to
+the Canary Islands. He met with a very warm reception from everybody.
+One of his chief motives in returning to France was the hope of
+finding people of all classes ready to return with him, on the
+promise of grants of land in the island. He succeeded in finding a
+certain number of emigrants, amongst whom were twenty-eight soldiers,
+of whom twenty-three took their wives. Two vessels were prepared to
+transport the party, and the 6th of May was the day named for them
+to set out. On the 9th of May they set sail, and landed on Lancerota
+just four mouths and a half after Béthencourt had quitted it.
+
+He was received with trumpets, clarionets, tambourines, harps, and
+other musical instruments. Thunder could scarcely have been heard
+above the sound of this music. The natives celebrated his return by
+dancing and singing, and crying out, "Here comes our king." Jean de
+Courtois hastened to welcome his master, who asked him how
+everything was going on; he replied, "Sir, all is going on as well
+as possible."
+
+Béthencourt's companions stayed with him at the fort of Lancerota;
+they appeared much pleased with the country, enjoying the dates and
+other fruits on the island, "and nothing seemed to harm them." After
+they had been a short time at Lancerota, Béthencourt went with them
+to see Fortaventura, and here his reception was as warm as it had
+been at Lancerota, especially from the islanders and their two kings.
+The kings supped with them at the fortress of Richeroque, which
+Courtois had rebuilt.
+
+Béthencourt announced his intention of conquering Gran Canaria
+Island, as he had done Lancerota and Fortaventura; his hope was that
+his nephew Maciot, whom he had brought with him from France, would
+succeed him in the government of these islands, so that the name of
+Béthencourt might be perpetuated there. He imparted his project to
+Courtois, who highly approved of it, and added, "Sir, when you
+return to France, I will go with you. I am a bad husband. It is five
+years since I saw my wife, and, by my troth, she did not much care
+about it."
+
+The 6th of October, 1405, was the day fixed for starting for Gran
+Canaria, but contrary winds carried the ships towards the African
+coast, and they passed by Cape Bojador, where Béthencourt landed. He
+made an expedition twenty-four miles inland, and seized some natives
+and a great number of camels that he took to his vessels. They put
+as many of the camels as possible on board, wishing to acclimatize
+them in the Canary Islands, and the baron set sail again, leaving
+Cape Bojador, which he had the honour of seeing thirty years before
+the Portuguese navigators.
+
+During this voyage from the coast of Africa to Gran Canaria, the
+three vessels were separated in stormy weather, one going to Palma,
+and another to Fortaventura, but finally they all reached Gran
+Canaria. This island is sixty miles long and thirty-six miles broad;
+at the northern end it is flat, but very hilly towards the south.
+Firs, dragon-trees, olive, fig, and date-trees form large forests,
+and sheep, goats, and wild dogs are found here in large numbers. The
+soil is very fertile, and produces two crops of corn every year, and
+that without any means of improving it. Its inhabitants form a large
+body of people, and consider themselves all on an equality.
+
+When Béthencourt had landed he set to work at once to conquer the
+island. Unfortunately his Norman soldiers were so proud of their
+success on the coast of Africa, that they thought they could conquer
+this island with its ten thousand natives, with a mere handful of
+men. Béthencourt seeing that they were so confident of success,
+recommended them to be prudent, but they took no heed of this and
+bitterly they rued their confidence. After a skirmish, in which they
+seemed to have got the better of the islanders, they had left their
+ranks, when the natives surprised them, massacring twenty-two of
+them, including Jean de Courtois and Hannibal, Gadifer's son.
+
+After this sad affair Béthencourt left Gran Canaria and went to try
+to subdue Palma. The natives of this island were very clever in
+slinging stones, rarely missing their aim, and in the encounters
+with these islanders many fell on both sides, but more natives than
+Normans, whose loss, however, amounted to one hundred.
+
+After six weeks of skirmishing, Béthencourt left Palma, and went to
+Ferro for three months, a large island twenty-one miles long and
+fifteen broad. It is a flat table-land, and large woods of pine and
+laurel-trees shade it in many places. The mists, which are frequent,
+moisten the soil and make it especially favourable for the
+cultivation of corn and the vine. Game is abundant; pigs, goats, and
+sheep run wild about the country; there are also great lizards in
+shape like the iguana of America. The inhabitants both men and women
+are a very fine race, healthy, lively, agile and particularly well
+made, in fact Ferro is one of the pleasantest islands of the group.
+
+Béthencourt returned to Fortaventura with his ships after conquering
+Ferro and Palma. This island is fifty-one miles in length by
+twenty-four in breadth, and has high mountains as well as large
+plains, but its surface is less undulating than that of the other
+islands. Large streams of fresh water run through the island; the
+euphorbia, a deadly poison, grows largely here, and date and
+olive-trees are abundant, as well as a plant that is invaluable for
+dyeing and whose cultivation would be most remunerative. The coast
+of Fortaventura has no good harbours for large vessels, but small
+ones can anchor there quite safely. It was in this island that
+Béthencourt began to make a partition of land to the colonists, and
+he succeeded in doing it so evenly that every one was satisfied with
+his portion. Those colonists whom he had brought with him were to be
+exempted from taxes for nine years.
+
+The question of religion, and religious administration could not
+fail to be of the deepest interest to so pious a man as Béthencourt,
+so he resolved to go to Rome and try to obtain a bishop for this
+country, who "would order and adorn the Roman Catholic faith."
+Before setting out he appointed his nephew Maciot as lieutenant and
+governor of the islands. Under his orders two sergeants were to act,
+and enforce justice; he desired that twice a year news of the colony
+should be sent to him in Normandy, and the revenue from Lancerota
+and Fortaventura was to be devoted to building two churches. He said
+to his nephew Maciot, "I give you full authority in everything to do
+whatever you think best, and I believe you will do all for my honour
+and to my advantage. Follow as nearly as possible Norman and French
+customs, especially in the administration of justice. Above all
+things, try and keep peace and unity among yourselves, and care for
+each other as brothers, and specially try that there shall be no
+rivalry among the gentlemen; I have given to each one his share and
+the country is quite large enough for each to have his own sphere. I
+can tell you nothing further beyond again impressing the importance
+of your all living as good friends together, and then all will be
+well."
+
+Béthencourt remained three months in Fortaventura and the other
+islands. He rode about among the people on his mule, and found many
+of the natives beginning to speak Norman-French. Maciot and the
+other gentlemen accompanied him, he pointing out what was best to be
+done and the most honest way of doing it. Then he gave notice that
+he would set out for Rome on the ensuing 15th of December. Returning
+to Lancerota, he remained there till his departure, and ordered all
+the gentlemen he had brought with him, the workmen, and the three
+kings to appear before him two days before his departure, to tell
+them what he wished done, and to commend himself and them to God's
+protection.
+
+None failed to appear at this meeting; they were all received at the
+fort on Lancerota, and sumptuously entertained. When the repast was
+over, he spoke to them, especially impressing the duty of obedience
+to his nephew Maciot upon them, the retention of the fifth of
+everything for himself, and also the exercise of all Christian
+virtues and of fervent love to God. This done, he chose those who
+were to accompany him to Rome, and prepared to set out.
+
+His vessel had scarcely set sail when cries and groans were heard on
+all sides, both Europeans and natives alike regretting this just
+master, who they feared would never return to them. A great number
+waded into the water, and tried to stop the vessel that carried him
+away from them, but the sails were set and Béthencourt was really
+gone. "May God keep him safe from all harm," was the utterance of
+many that day. In a week he was at Seville, from thence he went to
+Valladolid, where the king received him very graciously. He related
+the narrative of his conquests to the king, and requested from him
+letters recommending him to the Pope, that he might have a bishop
+appointed for the islands. The king gave him the letters, and loaded
+him with gifts, and then Béthencourt set out for Rome with a
+numerous retinue.
+
+He remained three weeks in the eternal city, and was admitted to
+kiss Pope Innocent VII.'s foot, who complimented him on his having
+made so many proselytes to the Christian faith, and on his bravery
+in having ventured so far from his native country. When the bulls
+were prepared as Béthencourt had requested, and Albert des Maisons
+was appointed Bishop of the Canary Islands, the Norman took leave of
+the Pope after receiving his blessing.
+
+The new prelate took leave of Béthencourt, and set out at once for
+his diocese. He went by way of Spain, taking with him some letters
+from Béthencourt to the king. Then he set sail for Fortaventura and
+arrived there without any obstacle. Maciot gave him a cordial
+reception, and the bishop at once began to organize his diocese,
+governing with gentleness and courtesy, preaching now in one island,
+now in another, and offering up public prayers for Béthencourt's
+safety. Maciot was universally beloved, but especially by the
+natives. This happy, peaceful time only lasted for five years, for
+later on, Maciot began to abuse his unlimited power, and levied such
+heavy exactions that he was obliged to fly the country to save his
+life.
+
+Béthencourt after leaving Rome went to Florence and to Paris, and
+then to his own chateau, where a great number of people came to pay
+their respects to the king of the Canary Islands, and if on his
+return the first time he was much thought of, his reception this
+second time far exceeded it. Béthencourt established himself at
+Grainville; although he was an old man, his wife was still young. He
+had frequent accounts from Maciot of his beloved islands, and he
+hoped one day to return to his kingdom, but God willed otherwise.
+One day in the year 1425 he was seized with what proved to be fatal
+illness; he was aware that the end was near; and after making his
+will and receiving the last sacraments of the church he passed away.
+"May God keep him and pardon his sins," says the narrative of his
+life; "he is buried in the church of Grainville la Teinturière, in
+front of the high altar."
+
+[Illustration: Jean de Béthencourt makes his will.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, 1436-1506.
+
+I.
+
+Discovery of Madeira, Cape de Verd Islands, the Azores, Congo, and
+Guinea--Bartholomew Diaz--Cabot and Labrador--The geographical and
+commercial tendencies of the middle ages--The erroneous idea of the
+distance between Europe and Asia--Birth of Christopher Columbus--His
+first voyages--His plans rejected--His sojourn at the Franciscan
+convent--His reception by Ferdinand and Isabella--Treaty of the 17th
+of April, 1492--The brothers Pinzon--Three armed caravels at the
+port of Palos--Departure on the 3rd of August, 1492.
+
+
+The year 1492 is an era in geographical annals. It is the date of
+the discovery of America. The genius of one man was fated to
+complete the terrestrial globe, and to show the truth of Gagliuffi's
+saying,--
+
+    Unus erat mundus; duo sint, ait iste; fuere.
+
+The old world was to be entrusted with the moral and political
+education of the new. Was it equal to the task, with its ideas still
+limited, its tendencies still semi-barbarous, and its bitter
+religious animosities? We must leave the answer to these questions
+to the facts that follow.
+
+Between the year 1405, when Béthencourt had just accomplished the
+colonization of the Canary Islands, and the year 1492, what had
+taken place? We will give a short sketch of the geographical
+enterprise of the intervening years. A considerable impetus had been
+given to science by the Arabs (who were soon to be expelled from
+Spain), and had spread throughout the peninsula. In all the ports,
+but more especially in those of Portugal, there was much talk of the
+continent of Africa, and the rich and wonderful countries beyond the
+sea. "A thousand anecdotes," says Michelet, "stimulated curiosity,
+valour and avarice, every one wishing to see these mysterious
+countries where monsters abounded and gold was scattered over the
+surface of the land." A young prince, Don Henry, duke of Viseu,
+third son of John I., who was very fond of the study of astronomy
+and geography, exercised a considerable influence over his
+contemporaries; it is to him that Portugal owes her colonial power
+and wealth and the expeditions so repeatedly made, which were
+vividly described, and their results spoken of as so wonderful, that
+they may have aided in awakening Columbus' love of adventure. Don
+Henry had an observatory built in the southern part of the province
+of Algarve, at Sagres, commanding a most splendid view over the sea,
+and seeming as though it must have been placed there to seek for
+some unknown land; he also established a naval college, where
+learned geographers traced correct maps and taught the use of the
+mariner's compass. The young prince surrounded himself with learned
+men, and especially gathered all the information he could as to the
+possibility of circumnavigating Africa, and thus reaching India.
+Though he had never taken part in any maritime expedition, his
+encouragement and care for seamen gave him the soubriquet of "the
+Navigator," by which name he is known in history. Two gentlemen
+belonging to Don Henry's court, Juan Gonzales Zarco, and Tristram
+Vaz Teixeira had passed Cape Nun, the terror of ancient navigators,
+when they were carried out to sea and passed near an island to which
+they gave the name of Porto-Santo. Sometime afterwards, as they were
+sailing towards a black point that remained on the horizon, they
+came to a large island covered with splendid forests; this was
+Madeira.
+
+[Illustration: Prince Henry of Portugal--"The Navigator."]
+
+In 1433, Cape Bojador, which had for long been such a difficulty to
+navigators, was first doubled by the two Portuguese sailors,
+Gillianès and Gonzalès Baldaya, who passed more than forty leagues
+beyond it.
+
+Encouraged by their example, Antonio Gonzalès, and Nuño Tristram, in
+1441, sailed as far as Cape Blanco, "a feat," says Faria y Souza
+"that is generally looked upon as being little short of the labours
+of Hercules," and they brought back with them to Lisbon some
+gold-dust taken from the Rio del Ouro. In a second voyage Tristram
+noticed some of the Cape de Verd Islands, and went as far south as
+Sierra Leone. In the course of this expedition, he bought from some
+Moors off the coast of Guinea, ten negroes, whom he took back with
+him to Lisbon and parted with for a very high price, they having
+excited great curiosity. This was the origin of the slave-trade in
+Europe, which for the next 400 years robbed Africa of so many of her
+people, and was a disgrace to humanity.
+
+In 1441, Cada Mosto doubled Cape Verd, and explored a part of the
+coast below it. About 1446, the Portuguese, advancing further into
+the open sea than their predecessors, came upon the group of the
+Azores. From this time all fear vanished, for the formidable line
+had been passed, beyond which the air was said to scorch like fire;
+expeditions succeeded each other without intermission, and each
+brought home accounts of newly-discovered regions. It seemed as if
+the African continent was really endless, for the further they
+advanced towards the south, the further the cape they sought
+appeared to recede. Some little time before this King John II. had
+added the title of Seigneur of Guinea to his other titles, and to
+the discovery of Congo had been added that of some stars in the
+southern hemisphere hitherto unknown, when Diogo Cam, in three
+successive voyages, went further south than any preceding navigator,
+and bore away from Diaz the honour of being the discoverer of the
+southern point of the African continent. This cape is called Cape
+Cross, and here he raised a monument called a padrao or padron in
+memory of his discovery, which is still standing. On his way back,
+he visited the King of Congo in his capital, and took back with him
+an ambassador and numerous suite of natives, who were all baptized,
+and taught the elements of the Christian religion, which they were
+to propagate on their return to Congo.
+
+A short time after Diogo Cam's return in the month of August, 1487,
+three caravels left the Tagus under the command of Bartholomew Diaz,
+a gentleman attached to the king's household, and an old sailor on
+the Guinea seas. He had an experienced mariner under him, and the
+smallest of the three vessels freighted with provisions, was
+commanded by his brother Pedro Diaz. We have no record of the
+earlier part of this expedition; we only know, from Joao de Barros,
+to whom we owe nearly all we learn of Portuguese navigation, that
+beyond Congo he followed the coast for some distance, and came to an
+anchorage that he named "Das Voltas" on account of the manner in
+which he had to tack to reach it, and there he left the smallest of
+the caravels under the care of nine sailors. After having been
+detained here five days by stress of weather, Diaz stood out to sea,
+and took a southerly course, but for thirteen days his vessels were
+tossed hither and thither by the tempest.
+
+As he went further south the temperature fell and the air became
+very cold; at last the fury of the elements abated, and Diaz took an
+easterly course hoping to sight the land, but after several days had
+passed, and being in about 42 degrees south latitude, he anchored in
+the bay "dos Vaquieros," so named from the numbers of horned animals
+and shepherds, who fled inland at the sight of the two vessels.
+
+At this time Diaz was about 120 miles east of the Cape of Good Hope,
+which he had doubled without seeing it. They then went to Sam Braz
+(now Mossel) bay, and coasted as far as Algoa bay and to an island
+called Da Cruz where they set up a padrao. But here the crews being
+much discouraged by the dangers they had passed through, and feeling
+much the scarcity and bad quality of the provisions, refused to go
+any farther. "Besides," they said, "as the land is now on our left,
+let us go back and see the Cape, which we have doubled without
+knowing it."
+
+Diaz called a council, and decided that they should go forwards in a
+north-easterly direction for two or three days longer. We owe it to
+his firmness of purpose that he was able to reach a river, 75 miles
+from Da Cruz that he called Rio Infante, but then the crew refusing
+to go farther, Diaz was obliged to return to Europe. Barros says,
+"When Diaz left the pillar that he had erected, it was with such
+sorrow and so much bitterness, that it seemed almost as though he
+were leaving an exiled son, and especially when he thought of all
+the dangers that he and his companions had passed through, and the
+long distance which they had come with only this memorial as a
+remembrance: it was indeed painful to break off when the task was
+but half completed." At last they saw the Cape of Good Hope, or as
+Diaz and his followers called it then, the "Cape of Torments," in
+remembrance of all the storms and tempests they had passed through
+before they could double it. With the foresight which so often
+accompanies genius, John II. substituted for the "Cape of Torments,"
+the name of the "Cape of Good Hope," for he saw that now the route
+to India was open at last, and his vast plans for the extension of
+the commerce and influence of his country were about to be realized.
+
+On the 24th of August, 1488, Diaz returned to Angra das Voltas,
+where he had left his smallest caravel. He found six of his nine men
+dead, and the seventh was so overcome with joy at seeing his
+companions again that he died also. No particular incident marked
+the voyage home; they reached Lisbon in December, 1488, after
+staying at Benin, where they traded, and at La Mina to receive the
+money gained by the commerce of the colony.
+
+It is strange but true, that Diaz not only received no reward of any
+kind for this voyage which had been so successful, but he seemed to
+be treated rather as though he had disgraced himself, for he was not
+employed again for ten years. More than this the command of the
+expedition that was sent to double the cape which Diaz had
+discovered, was given to Vasco da Gama, and Diaz was only to
+accompany it to La Mina holding a subordinate position. He was to
+hear of the marvellous campaign of his successful rival in India,
+and to see what an effect such an event would have upon the destiny
+of his country.
+
+He took part in Cabral's expedition which discovered Brazil, but he
+had not the pleasure of seeing the shores to which he had been the
+pioneer, for the fleet had only just left the American shore, when a
+fearful storm arose; four vessels sank, and among them the one that
+Diaz commanded. It is in allusion to his sad fate that Camoens puts
+the following prediction into the mouth of Adamastor, the spirit of
+the Cape of Tempests. "I will make a terrible example of the first
+fleet that shall pass near these rocks, and I will wreak my
+vengeance on him who first comes to brave me in my dwelling."
+
+In fact it was only in 1497, maybe five years after the discovery of
+America, that the southern point of Africa was passed by Vasco da
+Gama, and it may be affirmed that if this latter had preceded
+Columbus, the discovery of the new continent might have been delayed
+for several centuries. The navigators of this period were very
+timorous, and did not dare to sail out into mid-ocean; not liking to
+venture upon seas that were but little known, they always followed
+the coast-line of Africa, rather than go further from land. If the
+Cape of Tempests had been doubled, the sailors would have gone by
+this route to India, and none would have thought of going to the
+"Land of Spices," that is to say Asia, by venturing across the
+Atlantic. Who, in fact, would have thought of seeking for the east
+by the route to the west? But in truth this _was_ the great idea of
+that day, for Cooley says, "The principal object of Portuguese
+maritime enterprise in the fifteenth century was to search for a
+passage to India by the Ocean." The most learned men had not gone so
+far as to imagine the existence of another continent to complete the
+equilibrium and balance of the terrestrial globe. Some parts of the
+American continent had been already discovered, for an Italian
+navigator Sebastian Cabot had landed on Labrador in 1487, and the
+Scandinavians had certainly disembarked on this unknown land. The
+colonists of Greenland, too had explored Winland, but so little
+disposition was there at this time to believe in the existence of a
+new world, that Greenland, Winland, and Labrador were all thought to
+be a continuation of the European continent.
+
+The main question before the navigators of the fifteenth century was
+the opening up of an easier communication with the shores of Asia.
+The route to India, China, and Japan (countries already known
+through the wonderful narrative of Marco Polo), viâ, Asia Minor,
+Persia, and Tartary, was long and dangerous. The transport of goods
+was too difficult and costly for these "ways terrestrial" ever to
+become roads for commerce. A more practicable means of communication
+must be found. Thus all the dwellers on the coasts, from England to
+Spain, as well as the people living on the shores of the
+Mediterranean, seeing the great Atlantic ocean open to their vessels,
+began to inquire, whether indeed this new route might not conduct
+them to the shores of Asia.
+
+The sphericity of the Globe being established, this reasoning was
+correct, for going always westward, the traveller must necessarily
+at last reach the east, and as to the route across the ocean, it
+would certainly be open. Who could, indeed, have suspected the
+existence of an obstacle 9750 miles in length, lying between Europe
+and Asia, and called America?
+
+We must observe also that the scientific men of the Middle Ages
+believed that the shores of Asia were not more than 6000 miles
+distant from those of Europe. Aristotle supposed the terrestrial
+globe to be smaller than it really is. Seneca said "How far is it
+from the shores of Spain to India? _A very few days' sail_, should
+the wind be favourable." This was also the opinion of Strabo. So it
+seemed that the route between Europe and Asia _must_ be short, and
+there being such places for ships to touch at as the Azores and
+Antilles, of which the existence was known in the fifteenth century,
+the transoceanic communication promised not to be difficult. This
+popular error as to distance had the happy effect of inducing
+navigators to try to cross the Atlantic, a feat which, had they been
+aware of the 15,000 miles of ocean separating Europe from Asia, they
+would scarcely have dared to attempt.
+
+We must in justice allow that certain facts gave, or seemed to give,
+reason to the partisans of Aristotle and Strabo for their belief in
+the proximity of the eastern shores. Thus, a pilot in the service of
+the King of Portugal, while sailing at 1350 miles' distance from
+Cape St. Vincent, the south-western point of the Portuguese province
+of Algarve, met with a piece of wood ornamented with ancient
+sculptures, which he considered must have come from a continent not
+far off. Again, some fishermen had found near the island of Madeira,
+a sculptured post and some bamboos, which in shape resembled those
+found in India. The inhabitants of the Azores also, often picked up
+gigantic pine-trees, of an unknown species, and one day two human
+bodies were cast upon their shores, "corpses with broad faces," says
+the chronicler Herrera, "and not resembling Christians."
+
+These various facts tended to inflame imagination. As in the
+fifteenth century men had no knowledge of that great Gulf-stream,
+which, in nearing the European coasts, brings with it waifs and
+strays from America, so they could only imagine that these various
+débris must come from Asia. Therefore, they argued, Asia could not
+be far off, and the communication between these two extremes of the
+old continent must be easy. One point must be clearly borne in mind,
+no geographer of this period had any notion of the existence of a
+new world; it was not even a desire of adding to geographical
+knowledge which led to the exploration of the western route. It was
+the men of commerce who were the leaders in this movement, and who
+first undertook to cross the Atlantic. Their only thought was of
+traffic, and of carrying it on by the shortest road.
+
+The mariner's compass, invented, according to the generally received
+opinion, about 1302, by one Flavio Gioja of Amalfi, enabled vessels
+to sail at a distance from the coasts, and to guide themselves when
+out of sight of land. Martin Béhaim, with two physicians in the
+service of Prince Henry of Portugal, had also added to nautical
+science by discovering the way of directing the voyager's course
+according to the position of the sun in the heavens, and by applying
+the astrolabe to the purposes of navigation. These improvements
+being adopted, the commercial question of the western route
+increased daily in importance in Spain, Portugal, and Italy,
+countries in which three-quarters of the science is made up of
+imagination. There was discussion, there were writings. The excited
+world of commerce disputed with the world of science. Facts, systems,
+doctrines, were grouped together. The time was come when there was
+needed one single intelligence to collect together and assimilate
+the various floating ideas. This intelligence was found. At length
+all the scattered notions were gathered together in the mind of one
+man, who possessed in a remarkable degree genius, perseverance, and
+boldness.
+
+[Illustration: Christopher Columbus.]
+
+This man was no other than Christopher Columbus, born, probably near
+Genoa, about the year 1436. We say "probably," for the towns of
+Cogoreo and Nervi dispute with Savona and Genoa, the honour of
+having given him birth. The date of his birth varies, with different
+biographers, from 1430 to 1445, but the year 1436 would appear to be
+the correct one, according to the most reliable documents. The
+family of Columbus was of humble origin; his father, Domenic
+Columbus, a manufacturer of woollen stuffs, seems, however, to have
+been in sufficiently easy circumstances to enable him to give his
+children a more than ordinarily good education. The young
+Christopher, the eldest of the family, was sent to the University of
+Pavia, there to study Grammar, Latin, Geography, Astronomy, and
+Navigation.
+
+At fourteen years of age Christopher left school and went to sea;
+from this time until 1487, very little is known of his career. It is
+interesting to give the remark of Humboldt on this subject, as
+reported by M. Charton; he said, "that he regretted the more this
+uncertainty about the early life of Columbus when he remembered all
+that the chroniclers have so minutely preserved for us upon the life
+of the dog Becerillo, or the elephant Aboulababat, which
+Haroun-al-Raschid sent to Charlemagne!" The most probable account to
+be gathered from contemporary documents and from the writings of
+Columbus himself, is that the young sailor visited the Levant, the
+west, the north, England several times, Portugal, the coast of
+Guinea, and the islands of Africa, perhaps even Greenland, for, by
+the age of forty "he had sailed to every part that had ever been
+sailed to before." He was looked upon as a thoroughly competent
+mariner, and his reputation led to his being chosen for the command
+of the Genoese galleys, in the war which that Republic was waging
+against Venice. He afterwards made an expedition, in the service of
+René, king of Anjou, to the coasts of Barbary, and in 1477, he went
+to explore the countries beyond Iceland.
+
+This voyage being successfully terminated, Christopher Columbus
+returned to his home at Lisbon. He there married the daughter of an
+Italian gentleman, Bartolomeo Munez Perestrello, a sailor like
+himself and deeply interested in the geographical ideas of the day.
+The wife of Columbus, Dona Filippa, was without fortune, and
+Columbus, having none himself, felt he must work for the support of
+himself and his family. The future discoverer, therefore, set to
+work to make picture-books, terrestrial globes, maps, and nautical
+charts, and continued in this employment until 1481, but without at
+the same time abandoning his scientific and literary pursuits. It
+seems probable even, that during this period he studied deeply, and
+attained to knowledge far beyond that possessed by most of the
+sailors of his time. Can it have been that at this time "the Great
+Idea" first arose in his mind? It may well have been so. He was
+following assiduously the discussions relative to the western routes,
+and the facility of communication by the west, between Europe and
+Asia. His correspondence proves that he shared the opinion of
+Aristotle as to the relatively short distance separating the extreme
+shores of the old Continent. He wrote frequently to the most
+distinguished savants of his time. Martin Béhaim, of whom we have
+already spoken, was amongst his correspondents, and also the
+celebrated Florentine astronomer, Toscanelli, whose opinions in some
+degree influenced those of Columbus.
+
+[Illustration: A Spanish Port.]
+
+At this time Columbus, according to the portrait of him given by his
+biographer Washington Irving, was a tall man, of robust and noble
+presence. His face was long, he had an aquiline nose, high cheek
+bones, eyes clear and full of fire; he had a bright complexion, and
+his face was much covered with freckles. He was a truly Christian
+man, and it was with the liveliest faith that he fulfilled all the
+duties of the Catholic religion.
+
+At the time when Christopher Columbus was in correspondence with the
+astronomer Toscanelli, he learnt that the latter, at the request of
+Alphonso V., King of Portugal, had sent to the king a learned Memoir
+upon the possibility of reaching the Indies by the western route.
+Columbus was consulted, and supported the ideas of Toscanelli with
+all his influence; but without result, for the King of Portugal, who
+was engaged at the time in war with Spain, died, without having been
+able to give any attention to maritime discoveries. His successor,
+John II., adopted the plans of Columbus and Toscanelli with
+enthusiasm. At the same time, with most reprehensible cunning, he
+tried to deprive these two savants of the benefit of their
+proposition; without telling them, he sent out a caravel to attempt
+this great enterprise, and to reach China by crossing the Atlantic.
+But he had not reckoned upon the inexperience of his pilots, nor
+upon the violence of the storms which they might encounter; the
+result was, that some days after their departure, a hurricane
+brought back to Lisbon the sailors of the Portuguese king. Columbus
+was justly wounded by this unworthy action, and felt that he could
+not reckon upon a king who had so deceived him. His wife being dead,
+he left Spain with his son Diego, towards the end of the year 1484.
+It is thought that he went to Genoa and to Venice, where his
+projects of transoceanic navigation were but badly received.
+
+[Illustration: Columbus knocks at a convent door.]
+
+However it may have been, in 1485 we find him again in Spain. This
+great man was poor, without resources. He travelled on foot,
+carrying Diego his little son of ten years old, in his arms. From
+this period of his life, history follows him step by step; she no
+more loses sight of him, and she has preserved to posterity the
+smallest incidents of this grand existence. We find Columbus arrived
+in Andalusia, only half a league from the port of Palos. Destitute,
+and dying of hunger, he knocked at the door of a Franciscan convent,
+dedicated to Santa Maria de Rabida, and asked for a little bread and
+water for his poor child and for himself. The superior of the
+convent, Juan Perez de Marchena, gave hospitality to the unfortunate
+traveller. He questioned him, and was surprised by the nobleness of
+his language, but still more astonished was he, by the boldness of
+the ideas of Columbus, who made the good Father the confidant of his
+aspirations. For several months the wandering sailor remained in
+this hospitable convent; some of the monks were learned men, and
+interested themselves about him and his projects; they studied his
+plans; they mentioned him to some of the well-known navigators of
+the time; and we must give them the credit of having been the first
+to believe in the genius of Christopher Columbus. Juan Perez showed
+still greater kindness; he offered to take upon himself the charge
+of the education of Diego, and he gave to Columbus a letter of
+recommendation addressed to the confessor of the Queen of Castille.
+
+This confessor, prior of the monastery of Prado, was deep in the
+confidence of Ferdinand and Isabella; but he did not approve of the
+projects of the Genoese navigator, and he rendered him no service
+whatever with his royal penitent. Columbus must still resign himself
+to wait. He went to live at Cordova, where the court was soon to
+come, and for livelihood he resumed his trade of picture-seller. Is
+it possible to quote from the lives of illustrious men an instance
+of a more trying existence than this of the great navigator? Could
+ill-fortune have assailed any man with more cruel blows? But this
+indomitable, indefatigable man of genius, rising up again after each
+trial, did not despair. He felt within him the sacred fire of genius,
+he worked on unceasingly, he visited influential persons, spreading
+his ideas and defending them, and combating all objections with the
+most heroic energy. At length he obtained the protection of the
+great cardinal-archbishop of Toledo, Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, and
+thanks to him, was admitted into the presence of the King and Queen
+of Spain.
+
+Christopher Columbus must have imagined himself now at the end of
+all his troubles. Ferdinand and Isabella received his project
+favourably, and caused it to be submitted for examination to a
+council of learned men, consisting of bishops and monks who were
+gathered together _ad hoc_ in a Dominican convent at Salamanca. But
+the unfortunate pleader was not yet at the end of his vicissitudes.
+In this meeting at Salamanca all his judges were against him. The
+truth was, that his ideas interfered with the intolerant religious
+notions of the fifteenth century. The Fathers of the Church had
+denied the sphericity of the earth, and since the earth was not
+round they declared that a voyage of circumnavigation was absolutely
+contrary to the Bible, and could not therefore, on any logical
+theory, be undertaken. "Besides," said these theologians, "if any
+one should ever succeed in descending into the other hemisphere, how
+could he ever mount up again into this one?" This manner of arguing
+was a very formidable one at this period; for Christopher Columbus
+saw himself, in consequence, almost accused of heresy, the most
+unpardonable crime which could be committed in these intolerant
+countries. He escaped any evil consequences from the hostile
+disposition of the Council, but the execution of his project was
+again adjourned.
+
+[Illustration: Building a caravel.]
+
+Long years passed away. The unfortunate man of genius, despairing of
+success in Spain, sent his brother to England to make an offer of
+his services to the king, Henry VII. But it is probable that the
+king gave no answer. Then Christopher Columbus turned again with
+unabated perseverance to Ferdinand, but Ferdinand was at this time
+engaged in a war of extermination against the Moors, and it was not
+until 1492, when he had chased the Moors from Spain, that he was
+able again to listen to the solicitations of the Genoese sailor.
+
+This time the affair was thoroughly considered, and the king
+consented to the enterprise. But Columbus, as is the manner of proud
+natures, wished to impose his own conditions. They bargained over
+that which should enrich Spain! Columbus, in disgust, was without
+doubt ready to quit, and for ever, this ungrateful country, but
+Isabella, touched by the thought of the unbelievers of Asia, whom
+she hoped to convert to the Catholic faith, ordered Columbus to be
+recalled, and then acceded to all his demands.
+
+Columbus was in the fifty-sixth year of his age when he signed a
+treaty with the King of Spain at Santa-Feta on the 17th of April,
+1492, being eighteen years after he had first conceived his project,
+and seven years from the time of his quitting the monastery of Palos.
+By this solemn convention, the dignity of high admiral was to belong
+to Columbus in all the lands which he might discover, and this
+dignity was to descend in perpetuity to his heirs and successors. He
+was named viceroy and governor of the new possessions which he hoped
+to conquer in the rich countries of Asia, and one-tenth part of the
+pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, provisions, and
+merchandise of whatever kind, which might be acquired in any manner
+whatsoever, within the limits of his jurisdiction, was of right to
+belong to him.
+
+All was arranged, and at length Columbus was to put his cherished
+projects in execution. But let us repeat, he had no thought of
+meeting with the New World, of the existence of which he had not the
+faintest suspicion. His aim was "to explore the East by the West,
+and to pass by the way of the West to the Land whence come the
+spices." One may even aver that Columbus died in the belief that he
+had arrived at the shores of Asia, and never knew himself that he
+had made the discovery of America. But this in no way lessens his
+glory; the meeting with the new Continent was but an accident. The
+real cause of the immortal renown of Columbus was that audacity of
+genius which induced him to brave the dangers of an unknown ocean,
+to separate himself afar from those familiar shores, which, until
+now, navigators had never ventured to quit, to adventure himself
+upon the waves of the Atlantic Ocean in the frail ships of the
+period, which the first tempest might engulf, to launch himself, in
+a word, upon the deep darkness of an unknown sea.
+
+The preparations began, Columbus entering into an arrangement with
+some rich navigators of Palos, the three brothers Pinzon, who made
+the necessary advances for defraying the expenses of fitting out the
+ships. Three caravels, named the _Gallega_, the _Nina_, and the
+_Pinta_, were equipped in the port of Palos. The _Gallega_ was
+destined to carry the admiral, who changed her name to the
+_Santa-Maria_. The _Pinta_ was commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon,
+and the _Nina_ by his two brothers, Francis Martin, and Vincent
+Yanez Pinzon. It was difficult to man the ships, sailors generally
+being frightened at the enterprise, but at last the captains
+succeeded in getting together one hundred and twenty men, and on
+Friday, August 3rd, 1492, the admiral crossing at eight o'clock in
+the morning the bar of Saltez, off the town of Huelva, in Andalusia,
+adventured himself with his three half-decked caravels upon the
+Atlantic waves.
+
+
+II.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
+
+First voyage: The Great Canary--Gomera--Magnetic variation--Symptoms
+of revolt--Land, land--San Salvador--Taking possession--Conception--
+Fernandina or Great Exuma--Isabella, or Long Island--The Mucaras--
+Cuba--Description of the island--Archipelago of Notre-Dame--
+Hispaniola or San Domingo--Tortuga Island--The cacique on board the
+_Santa-Maria_--The caravel of Columbus goes aground and cannot be
+floated off--Island of Monte-Christi--Return--Tempest--Arrival in
+Spain--Homage rendered to Christopher Columbus.
+
+
+During the first day's voyage, the admiral--the title by which he is
+usually known in the various accounts of his exploits--bearing
+directly southwards, sailed forty-five miles before sunset; turning
+then to the south-east, he steered for the Canaries, in order to
+repair the _Pinta_, which had unshipped her rudder, an accident
+caused perhaps by the ill-will of the steersman, who dreaded the
+voyage. Ten days later Columbus cast anchor before the Great Canary
+Island, where the rudder of the caravel was repaired. Nineteen days
+afterwards he arrived before Gomera, where the inhabitants assured
+him of the existence of an unknown land in the west of the
+Archipelago. He did not leave Gomera until the 6th of September. He
+had received warning that three Portuguese ships awaited him in the
+open sea, with the intention of barring his passage; however,
+without taking any heed of this news, he put to sea, cleverly
+avoided meeting his enemies, and steering directly westward, he lost
+all sight of land. During the voyage the admiral took care to
+conceal from his companions the true distance traversed each day; he
+made it appear less than it really was in the daily abstracts of his
+observations, that he might not add to the fear already felt by the
+sailors, by letting them know the real distance which separated them
+from Europe. Each day he watched the compasses with attention, and
+it is to him we owe the discovery of the magnetic variation, of
+which he took account in his calculations. The pilots, however, were
+much disturbed on seeing the compasses all "north-westers," as they
+expressed it.
+
+[Illustration: Christopher Columbus on board his caravel.]
+
+On the 14th of September the sailors saw a swallow and some
+tropic-birds. The sight of these birds was an evidence of land being
+near, for they do not usually fly more than about seventy miles out
+to sea. The temperature was very mild, the weather magnificent; the
+wind blew from the east and wafted the caravels in the desired
+direction. But it was exactly this continuance of east wind which
+frightened the greater part of the sailors, who saw in this
+persistence, so favourable for the outward voyage, the promise of a
+formidable obstacle to their return home. On the 16th of September
+some tufts of seaweed, still fresh, were seen floating on the waves.
+But no land was to be seen, and this seaweed might possibly indicate
+the presence of submarine rocks, and not of the shores of a
+continent. On the 17th, thirty-five days after the departure of the
+expedition, floating weeds were frequently seen, and upon one mass
+of weed was found a live cray-fish, a sure sign this of the
+proximity of land.
+
+During the following days a large number of birds, such as gannets,
+sea-swallows, and tropic-birds, flew around the caravels. Columbus
+turned their presence to account as a means of reassuring his
+companions, who were beginning to be terribly frightened at not
+meeting with land after six weeks of sailing. His own confidence
+never abated, but putting firm trust in God, he often addressed
+energetic words of comfort to those around him, and made them each
+evening chant the _Salve Regina_, or some other hymn to the Virgin.
+At the words of this heroic man, so noble, so sure of himself, so
+superior to all human weaknesses, the courage of the sailors revived,
+and they again went onwards.
+
+We can well imagine how anxiously both officers and men scanned the
+western horizon towards which they were steering. Each one had a
+pecuniary motive for wishing to be the first to descry the New
+Continent, King Ferdinand having promised a reward of 10,000
+maravédis, or 400 pounds sterling, to the first discoverer. The
+latter days of the month of September were enlivened by the presence
+of numerous large birds, petrels, man-of-war birds, and damiers,
+flying in couples, a sign that they were not far away from home. So
+Columbus retained his unshaken conviction that land could not be far
+off.
+
+On the 1st of October, the admiral announced to his companions that
+they had made 1272 miles to the west since leaving Ferro; in reality,
+the distance traversed exceeded 2100 miles, and of this Columbus was
+quite aware, but persisted in his policy of disguising the truth in
+this particular. On the 7th of October, the crews were excited by
+hearing discharges of musketry from the _Nina_, the commanders of
+which, the two brothers Pinzon, thought they had descried the land;
+they soon found, however, that they had been mistaken. Still, on
+their representing that they had seen some parroquets flying in a
+south-westerly direction, the admiral consented to change his route
+so far as to steer some points to the south, a change which had
+happy consequences in the future, for had they continued to run
+directly westward, the caravels would have been aground upon the
+great Bahama Bank, and would probably have been altogether destroyed.
+
+Still the ardently desired land did not appear. Each evening the sun
+as it went down dipped behind an interminable horizon of water. The
+crews who had several times been the victims of an optical illusion,
+now began to murmur against Columbus, "the Genoese, the foreigner,"
+who had enticed them so far away from their country. Some symptoms
+of mutiny had already shown themselves on board the vessels, when,
+on the 10th of October, the sailors openly declared that they would
+go no further. In treating of this part of the voyage, the
+historians would seem to have drawn somewhat upon their imagination;
+they narrate scenes of serious import which took place upon the
+admiral's caravel, the sailors going so far as even to threaten his
+life. They say also, that the recriminations ended by a kind of
+arrangement, granting a respite of three days to Columbus, at the
+end of which time, should land not have been then discovered, the
+fleet was to set out on its return to Europe. All these statements
+we may look upon as pure fiction; there is nothing in the accounts
+given by Columbus himself which lends them the smallest credibility.
+But it has been needful to touch upon them, for nothing must be
+omitted relating to the great Genoese Navigator, and some amount of
+legend mixed up with history does not ill beseem the grand figure of
+Christopher Columbus. Still, it is an undoubted fact that there was
+much murmuring on board the caravels, but it would seem that the
+crews, cheered by the words of the admiral, and by his brave
+attitude in the midst of uncertainty, did not refuse to do their
+duty in working the ships.
+
+On the 11th of October, the admiral noticed alongside of his vessel,
+a reed still green, floating upon the top of a large wave: at the
+same time the crew of the _Pinta_ hoisted on board another reed, a
+small board, and a little stick, which appeared to have been cut
+with an instrument of iron; it was evident that human hands had been
+employed upon these things. Almost at the same moment, the men of
+the _Nina_ perceived a branch of some thorny tree covered with
+blossoms. At all this every one rejoiced exceedingly; there could be
+no doubt now of the proximity of the coast. Night fell over the sea.
+The _Pinta_, the best sailor of the three vessels, was leading.
+Already, Columbus himself, and one Rodrigo Sanchez, comptroller of
+the expedition, had thought they had seen a light moving amidst the
+shadows of the horizon, when a sailor named Rodrigo, on board the
+_Pinta_, cried out, "Land, land."
+
+[Illustration: What must have been the feelings in the breast of
+Columbus at that moment?]
+
+What must have been the feelings in the breast of Columbus at that
+moment? Never had any man, since the first creation of the human
+race experienced a similar emotion to that now felt by the great
+navigator. Perhaps even it is allowable to think that the eye which
+first saw this New Continent, was indeed that of the admiral himself.
+But what matters it? The glory of Columbus consisted not in the
+having arrived, his glory was in the having set out. It was at two
+o'clock in the morning that the land was first seen, when the
+caravels were not two hours' sail away from it. At once all the
+crews deeply moved, joined in singing together the _Salve Regina_.
+With the first rays of the sun they saw a little island, six miles
+to windward of them. It was one of the Bahama group; Columbus named
+it San Salvador, and immediately falling on his knees, he began to
+repeat the hymn of Saint Ambrose and Saint Augustine: "Te Deum
+laudamus, Te Deum confitemur."
+
+At this moment, some naked savages appeared upon the newly
+discovered coast. Columbus had his long boat lowered, and got into
+it with Alonzo and Yanez Pinzon, the comptroller Rodrigo, the
+secretary Descovedo, and some others. He landed upon the shore,
+carrying in his hand the royal banner, whilst the two captains bore
+between them the green banner of the Cross, upon which were
+interlaced, the initials of Ferdinand and Isabella. Then the admiral
+solemnly took possession of the island in the name of the King and
+Queen of Spain, and caused a record of the act to be drawn up.
+During this ceremony the natives came round Columbus and his
+companions. M. Charton gives the account of the scene in the very
+words of Columbus: "Desiring to inspire them (the natives) with
+friendship for us, and being persuaded, on seeing them, that they
+would confide the more readily in us, and be the better disposed
+towards embracing our Holy Faith, if we used mildness in persuading
+them, rather than if we had recourse to force, I caused to be given
+to several amongst them, coloured caps, and also glass beads, which
+they put around their necks. I added various other articles of small
+value; they testified great joy, and showed so much gratitude that
+we marvelled greatly at it. When we were re-embarking, they swam
+towards us, to offer us parroquets, balls of cotton thread, zagayes
+(or long darts), and many other things; in exchange we gave them
+some small glass beads, little bells, and other objects. They gave
+us all they had, but they appeared to me to be very poor. The men
+and women both were as naked as when they were born. Amongst those
+whom we saw, one woman was rather young, and none of the men
+appeared to be more than thirty years of age. They were well made,
+their figures handsome, and their faces agreeable. Their hair,
+coarse as that of a horse's tail, hung down in front as low as their
+eyebrows, behind it formed a long mass, which they never cut. There
+are some who paint themselves with a blackish pigment; their natural
+colour being neither black nor white, but similar to that of the
+inhabitants of the Canary islands; some paint themselves with white,
+some with red, or any other colour, either covering the whole body
+with it, or the whole face, or perhaps only the eyes, or the nose.
+They do not carry arms like our people, and do not even know what
+they are. When I showed them some swords, they laid hold of them by
+the blades, and cut their fingers. They have no iron; their zagayes
+are sticks, the tip is not of iron, but sometimes made of a fish
+tooth, or of some other hard substance. They have much grace in
+their movements. I remarked that several had scars upon their bodies,
+and I asked them by means of signs, how they had been wounded. They
+answered in the same manner, that the inhabitants of the
+neighbouring islands had come to attack them, and make them
+prisoners, and that they had defended themselves. I thought then and
+I still think that they must have come from the mainland to make
+them prisoners for slaves; they would be faithful and gentle
+servants. They seem to have the power of repeating quickly what they
+hear. I am persuaded that they might be converted to Christianity
+without difficulty, for I believe that they belong to no sect."
+
+When Columbus returned on board, several of the savages swam after
+his boat; the next day, the 13th, they came in crowds around the
+ships, on board of enormous canoes shaped out of the trunks of
+trees; they were guided by means of a kind of baker's shovel, and
+some of the canoes were capable of holding forty men. Several
+natives wore little plates of gold hanging from their nostrils; they
+appeared much surprised at the arrival of the strangers, and quite
+believed that these white men must have fallen from the skies. It
+was with a mixture of respect and curiosity that they touched the
+garments of the Spaniards, considering them doubtless, a kind of
+natural plumage. The scarlet coat of the admiral excited their
+admiration above everything, and it was evident they looked upon
+Columbus as a parroquet of a superior species; at once they seemed
+to recognize him as the chief amongst the strangers.
+
+So Columbus and his followers visited this new island of San
+Salvador. They were never tired of admiring the beauty of its
+situation, its magnificent groves, its running streams, and verdant
+meadows. The fauna of the island offered little variety; parroquets
+of radiant plumage abounded amongst the trees, but they appeared to
+be the only species of birds upon the island. San Salvador presented
+an almost flat plateau of which no mountain broke the uniformity; a
+small lake occupied the centre of the island. The explorers imagined
+that San Salvador must contain great mineral riches, since the
+inhabitants were adorned with ornaments of gold. But was this
+precious metal derived from the island itself? Upon this point the
+admiral questioned one of the natives, and succeeded in learning
+from him by means of signs, that in turning the island and sailing
+towards the south, the admiral would find a country of which the
+king possessed great vessels of gold and immense riches. The next
+morning, at daybreak, Columbus gave orders to have the ships
+prepared for sea; he set sail, and steered towards the continent of
+which the natives had spoken, which, as he imagined, could be none
+other than Cipango.
+
+Here an important observation must be made, showing the state of
+geographical knowledge at this period: viz. that Columbus now
+believed himself to have arrived at Asia, Cipango being the name
+given by Marco Polo to Japan. This error of the admiral, shared in
+by all his companions, was not rectified for many years afterwards,
+and thus, as we have already remarked, the great navigator after
+four successive voyages to the islands, died, without knowing that
+he had discovered a new world. It is beyond doubt that the sailors
+of Columbus, and Columbus himself, imagined that they had arrived,
+during that night of the 12th October, 1492, either at Japan, or
+China, or the Indies. This is the reason why America so long bore
+the name of the "Western Indies," and why the aborigines of this
+continent, in Brazil and in Mexico, as well as in the United States,
+are still classed under the general appellation of "Indians."
+
+So Columbus dreamt only of reaching the shores of Japan. He coasted
+along San Salvador, exploring its western side. The natives, running
+down to the shore, offered him water and cassava bread, made from
+the root of a plant called the "Yucca." Several times the admiral
+landed upon the coast at different points, and with a sad want of
+humanity, he carried away some of the natives, that he might take
+them with him to Spain. Poor men! already the strangers began to
+tear them from their country; it would not be long before they began
+to sell them! At last the caravels lost sight of San Salvador, and
+were again upon the wide ocean.
+
+Fortune had favoured Columbus in thus guiding him into the centre of
+one of the most beautiful archipelagos which the world contains.
+These new lands which he discovered were as a casket of precious
+stones, which needed only to be opened, and the hands of the
+discoverer were full of treasures. On the 15th October, at sunset,
+the flotilla came to anchor near the western point of a second
+island, at a distance of only fifteen miles from San Salvador; this
+island was named Conception; on the morrow the admiral landed upon
+the shore, having his men well armed for fear of surprise; the
+natives, however, proved to be of the same race as those of San
+Salvador, and gave a kind welcome to the Spaniards. A south-easterly
+wind having arisen, Columbus soon put to sea again, and twenty-seven
+miles further westward, he discovered a third island, which he
+called Fernandina, but which now goes by the name of the Great Exuma.
+All night they lay-to, and next day, the 17th October, large native
+canoes came off to the vessels. The relations with the natives were
+excellent, the savages peacefully exchanging fruit, and small balls
+of cotton for glass beads, tambourines, needles, which took their
+fancy greatly, and some molasses, of which they appeared very fond.
+These natives of Fernandina wore some clothing, and appeared
+altogether more civilized than those of San Salvador; they inhabited
+houses made in the shape of tents and having high chimneys; the
+interiors of these dwellings were remarkably clean and well kept.
+The western side of the island, with its deeply indented shore,
+formed a grand natural harbour, capable of containing a hundred
+vessels.
+
+But Fernandina did not afford the riches so much coveted by the
+Spaniards as spoils to take back to Europe; there were no gold-mines
+here; the natives who were on board the flotilla always spoke,
+however, of a larger island, situated to the south and called
+Saometo, in which the precious metal was found. Columbus steered in
+the direction indicated, and during the night of Friday, the 19th of
+October, he cast anchor near this Saometo, calling it Isabella; in
+modern maps it goes by the name of Long Island. According to the
+natives of San Salvador, there was a powerful king in this island,
+but the admiral for several days awaited in vain the advent of this
+great personage; he did not show himself. The island of Isabella was
+beautiful of aspect, with its clear lakes, and thick forests; the
+Spaniards were never tired of admiring the new type of nature
+presented to their view, and of which the intense verdure was
+wonderful to European eyes. Parroquets in innumerable flocks were
+flying amongst the thick trees, and great lizards, doubtless iguanas,
+glided with rapid movements in the high grass. The inhabitants of
+the island fled at first at the sight of the foreigners, but soon
+becoming bolder, they trafficked with the Spaniards in the
+productions of their country.
+
+Still Columbus held firmly to the notion of reaching the shores of
+Japan. The natives had mentioned to him a large island a little to
+the west which they called Cuba, and this the admiral supposed must
+form part of the kingdom of Cipango; he felt little doubt but that
+he would soon arrive at the town of Quinsay, or Hang-tchoo-foo,
+formerly the capital of China. With this object, as soon as the
+winds permitted, the fleet weighed anchor. On Thursday, the 25th of
+October, seven or eight islands lying in a straight line were
+sighted, these were probably the Mucaras. Columbus did not stop to
+visit them, and on the Sunday he came in sight of Cuba. The caravels
+were moored in a river, to which the Spaniards gave the name of San
+Salvador; after a short stay, they sailed again towards the west,
+and entered a harbour situated at the mouth of a large river which
+was afterwards called the harbour of Las Nuevitas del Principe.
+
+Numerous palm-trees were growing upon the shores of the island,
+having leaves so broad that only one was required for roofing a
+native hut. The natives had fled at the approach of the Spaniards,
+who found upon the shore idols of female form, tame birds, bones of
+animals, also dumb dogs, and some fishing instruments. The Cuban
+savages, however, were ready to be enticed like the others, and they
+consented to barter their goods with the Spaniards. Columbus
+believed himself to be now on the mainland, and only a few leagues
+from Hang-tchoo-foo; this idea being so rooted in his mind, that he
+even busied himself in despatching some presents to the great Khan
+of China. On the 2nd of November he desired one of the officers of
+his ship, and a Jew who could speak Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, to
+set out to seek this native monarch. The ambassadors, carrying with
+them strings of beads, and having six days given to them for the
+fulfilment of their mission, started, taking a route leading towards
+the interior of this so-called continent.
+
+In the meantime, Columbus explored for nearly six miles a splendid
+river which flowed beneath the shade of woods of odoriferous trees.
+The inhabitants freely bartered their goods with the Spaniards, and
+frequently mentioned to them a place named Bohio, where gold and
+pearls might be obtained in abundance. They added that men lived
+there who had dogs' heads, and who fed upon human flesh.
+
+The admiral's envoys returned to the port on the 6th of November,
+after a four days' absence. Two days had sufficed to bring them to a
+village composed of about fifty huts, where they were received with
+every mark of respect; the natives kissing their feet and hands, and
+taking them for deities descended from the skies. Among other
+details of native customs, they reported that both men and women
+smoked tobacco by means of a forked pipe, drawing up the smoke
+through their nostrils. These savages were acquainted with the
+secret of obtaining fire by rubbing briskly two pieces of wood
+against each other. Cotton was found in large quantities in the
+houses, made up into the form of tents, one of these containing as
+much as 11,000 pounds of the material. As to the grand khan they saw
+no vestige of him.
+
+Another consequence of the error of Columbus must be noticed here,
+one which, according to Irving, changed the whole series of his
+discoveries. He believed himself to be on the coast of Asia, and
+therefore looked upon Cuba as a portion of that continent. In
+consequence, he never thought of making the tour of Cuba, but
+decided on returning towards the east. Now, had he not been deceived
+on this occasion, and had he continued to follow the same direction
+as at first, the results of his enterprise would have been greatly
+modified. He might then have drifted towards Florida at the
+south-eastern point of North America, or he might have run direct to
+Mexico. In this latter case, instead of ignorant and savage natives,
+what would he have found? The inhabitants of the great Aztec Empire,
+of the half-civilized kingdom of Montezuma. There he would have seen
+towns, armies, enormous wealth, and his rôle would no doubt have
+been the same as that afterwards played by Fernando Cortès. But it
+was not to be thus, and the admiral, persevering in his mistake,
+directed his flotilla towards the east, weighing anchor on the 12th
+of November, 1492.
+
+Columbus tacked in and out along the Cuban coast; he saw the two
+mountains--Cristal and Moa; he explored a harbour to which he gave
+the name of Puerto del Principe, and an archipelago which he called
+the Sea of Nuestra Señora. Each night the fishermen's fires were
+seen upon the numerous islands, the inhabitants of which lived upon
+spiders and huge worms. Several times the Spaniards landed upon
+different points of the coast, and there planted the cross as a sign
+of taking possession of the country. The natives often spoke to the
+admiral about a certain island of Babeque, where gold abounded, and
+thither Columbus resolved to go, but Martin-Alonzo Pinzon, the
+captain of the _Pinta_, the best sailer of the three ships, was
+beforehand with him, and at day-break on the 21st of November, he
+had completely disappeared from sight. The admiral was very angry at
+this separation, his feelings on the subject appearing plainly in
+his narrative, where he says, "Pinzon has said and done to me many
+like things." Continuing his exploration of the coast of Cuba,
+Columbus discovered the Bay of Moa, the Point of Mangle, Point Vaez,
+and the harbour of Barracoa, but nowhere did he meet with cannibals,
+although the huts of the natives were often to be seen adorned with
+human skulls, a sight which appeared to give great satisfaction to
+the islanders on board the fleet. On the following days, they saw
+the Boma River, and the caravels, doubling the point of Los Azules,
+found themselves upon the eastern part of the island, whose coast
+they had now reconnoitred for a distance of 375 miles. But Columbus
+instead of continuing his route to the south turned off to the east,
+and on the 5th of December perceived a large island, called by the
+natives Bohio. This was Hayti, or San Domingo.
+
+In the evening, the _Nina_ by the admiral's orders, entered a
+harbour which was named Port Mary; it is situated at the
+north-western extremity of the island, and, with the cape near which
+it lies, is now called St. Nicholas. The next day the Spaniards
+discovered a number of headlands, and an islet, called Tortuga
+Island. Everywhere on the appearance of the ships, the Indian canoes
+took to flight. The island, along which they were now coasting,
+appeared very large and very high, from which latter peculiarity it
+gained, later on, its name of Hayti, which signifies High Land. The
+coast was explored by the Spaniards as far as Mosquito Bay; its
+natural features, its plains and hills, its plants and the birds
+which fluttered amongst the beautiful trees of the island, all
+recalled to the memory the landscapes of Castille, and for this
+reason Columbus named it Hispaniola, or Spanish Island. The
+inhabitants were extremely timid and distrustful; they fled away
+into the interior and no communication could be held with them. Some
+sailors, however, succeeded in capturing a young woman, whom they
+carried on board with them. She was young and rather pretty. The
+admiral gave her, besides rings and beads, some clothing, of which
+she had great need, and after most generous treatment, he sent her
+back to shore.
+
+This good conduct had the result of taming the natives, and the next
+day, when nine of the sailors, well armed, ventured as far as
+sixteen miles inland, they were received with respect, the savages
+running to them in crowds, and offering them everything which their
+country produced. The sailors returned to the ships enchanted with
+their excursion. The interior of the island they had found rich in
+cotton plants, mastic-trees and aloes, while a fine river, named
+afterwards the Three Rivers, flowed gently along its limpid course.
+On December 15th, Columbus again set sail, and was carried by the
+wind towards Tortuga Island, upon which he saw a navigable stream of
+water, and a valley so beautiful that he called it the Vale of
+Paradise. The day following, having tacked into a deep gulf, an
+Indian was seen who, notwithstanding the violence of the wind, was
+skilfully manoeuvring a light canoe. This Indian was invited to come
+on board, was loaded with presents by the admiral, and then put on
+shore again, at one of the harbours of Hispaniola, now called the
+Puerto de Paz. This kindness tended to attach the natives to the
+admiral, and from that day they came in numbers round the caravels;
+their king came with them, a strong, vigorous, and somewhat stout
+young man of twenty years of age; he was naked, like his subjects of
+both sexes, who showed him much respect, but with no appearance of
+servility. Columbus ordered royal honours to be rendered to him, and
+in return, the king, or rather cacique, informed the admiral that
+the provinces to the east abounded in gold.
+
+[Illustration: Columbus named it the Vale of Paradise.]
+
+Next day another cacique arrived, offering to place all the
+treasures of his country at the service of the Spaniards. He was
+present at a fête in honour of the Virgin Mary, that Columbus caused
+to be celebrated with great pomp on board his vessel, which was
+gaily dressed with flags on the occasion. The cacique dined at the
+admiral's table, apparently enjoying the repast; after he had
+himself tasted of the different viands and beverages, he sent the
+dishes and goblets to the members of his suite; he had good manners,
+spoke little, but showed great politeness. After the feast, he gave
+the admiral some thin leaves of gold, while Columbus, on his side,
+presented him with some coins, upon which were engraved the
+portraits of Ferdinand and Isabella, and after explaining to him by
+signs that these were the representations of the most powerful
+sovereigns in the world, he caused the royal banners of Castille to
+be displayed before the savage prince. When night fell, the cacique
+retired, highly delighted with his visit; and on his departure he
+was saluted with a salvo of artillery. On the day following, the
+crews before quitting this hospitable coast, set up a large cross in
+the middle of the little town. In issuing from the gulf formed by
+Tortuga Island and Hispaniola, they discovered several harbours,
+capes, bays, and rivers; at the point of Limbé, a small island which
+Columbus named St. Thomas, and finally, an enormous harbour safe and
+sheltered, hidden between the island and the Bay of Acul, and to
+which access was given by a canal surrounded by high mountains
+covered with trees.
+
+The admiral often disembarked upon this coast, the natives receiving
+him as an ambassador from heaven, and imploring him to remain among
+them. Columbus gave them quantities of little bells, brass rings,
+glass beads, and other toys, which they eagerly accepted. A cacique
+named Guacanagari, reigning over the province of Marien, sent to the
+admiral a belt adorned with the figure of an animal with large ears,
+of which the nose and tongue were made of beaten gold. Gold appeared
+to be abundant in the island, and the natives soon brought a
+considerable quantity of it to the strangers. The inhabitants of
+this part of Hispaniola seemed to be superior in intelligence and
+appearance to those of that portion of the island which had been
+first visited; in the opinion of Columbus, the paint, red, black, or
+white, with which the natives covered their bodies, served to
+protect them from sunstroke. The huts of these savages were pretty
+and well built. Upon Columbus questioning them as to the country
+which produced gold, they always indicated one towards the east, a
+country which they called Cibao, and which the admiral continued to
+identify with Cipango or Japan.
+
+On Christmas Day a serious accident occurred to the admiral's
+caravel, the first damage sustained in this hitherto prosperous
+voyage. An inexperienced steersman was at the helm of the
+_Santa-Maria_ during an excursion outside the Gulf of St. Thomas;
+night came on, and he allowed the vessel to be caught in some
+currents which threw her upon the rocks; the caravel grounded and
+her rudder stuck fast. The admiral, awakened by the shock, ran upon
+deck; he ordered an anchor to be fastened forward, by which the ship
+might warp herself off and so float again. The master and some of
+the sailors charged with the execution of this order, jumped into
+the long boat, but seized with a sudden panic, they rowed away in
+haste to the _Nina_. Meantime the tide fell, and the _Santa-Maria_
+ran further aground; it became necessary to cut away the masts to
+lighten her, and soon it was evident that everything on board must
+be removed to the other ship. The cacique Guacanagari, quite
+understanding the dangerous situation of the caravel, came with his
+brothers and other relations, accompanied by a great number of the
+Indians, and helped in unlading the ship. Thanks to this prince, not
+a single article of the cargo was stolen, and during the whole night
+armed natives kept watch around the stores of provisions.
+
+The next day Guacanagari went on board the _Nina_, to console the
+admiral, and to place all his own possessions at his disposal, at
+the same time offering him a repast of bread, doe's flesh, fish,
+roots, and fruit. Columbus, much moved by these tokens of friendship,
+formed the design of founding an establishment on this island. With
+this purpose in view, he addressed himself to gain the hearts of the
+Indians by presents and kindness, and wishing also to give them an
+adequate notion of his power, he ordered the discharge of an
+arquebuse and a small cannon, of which the reports frightened the
+poor savages terribly. On December 26th, the Spaniards commenced the
+construction of a fort upon this part of the coast, the intention of
+the admiral being to leave there a certain number of men, with a
+year's provision of bread, wine, and seed, and to give them the long
+boat belonging to the _Santa-Maria_. The works at the fort were
+pushed forward with rapidity. It was also on the 26th that they
+received news of the _Pinta_, which had been separated from the
+flotilla since November 21st. The natives announced that she was at
+anchor in a river at the extreme point of the island, but a canoe
+despatched by Guacanagari returned without having found her. Then
+Columbus, not wishing to continue his explorations under the present
+conditions, since the loss of the _Santa-Maria_, which could not be
+floated again, left him but one caravel, decided to return to Spain,
+and preparations for the departure began.
+
+On the 2nd of January Columbus caused his soldiers to act a mimic
+battle, greatly to the admiration of the cacique and his subjects.
+Afterwards the admiral chose out thirty-nine men to form the
+garrison of the fortress during his absence, naming Rodrigo de
+Escovedo as their commander. The greater part of the cargo of the
+_Santa-Maria_ was to be left behind with them, for their year's
+provision. Amongst these first colonists of the New World were
+included a writer, an alguazil, a cooper, a doctor, and a tailor.
+These Spaniards were charged with the mission of seeking for
+gold-mines, and of choosing a suitable site for the building of a
+town. On the 3rd of January, after solemn leave-takings of the
+cacique and the new colonists, the _Nina_ weighed anchor and sailed
+out of the harbour. An island was soon discovered, having upon it a
+very high mountain; to this was given the name of Monte-Christi.
+Columbus had already sailed for two days along the coast, when he
+was aware of the approach of the _Pinta_, and very soon her captain,
+Martin Alonzo Pinzon, came on board the _Nina_, endeavouring to
+excuse his conduct. The real truth was that Pinzon had taken the
+lead with the view of being the first to reach the pretended island
+of Babeque, of which the riches had been described in glowing
+colours by the natives. The admiral was very ready to accept the bad
+reasons given him by Captain Pinzon, and learnt from him that the
+_Pinta_ had done nothing but coast along the shores of Hispaniola,
+without discovering any new island.
+
+On the 7th of January the ships lay to, to stop a leak which had
+sprung in the hold of the _Nina_. Columbus profited by this delay to
+explore a wide river, situated about three miles from Monte-Christi,
+and which carried so much gold-dust along with it, that he gave it
+the name of the Golden River. The admiral would have desired to
+visit this part of Hispaniola with greater care, but the crews were
+in haste to return home, and under the influence of the brothers
+Pinzon, began to murmur against his authority.
+
+On the 9th of January the caravels set sail and steered towards the
+east-south-east, skirting the coast, and distinguishing by names
+even its smallest sinuosities; of such were point Isabella, the cape
+of La Roca, French Cape, Cape Cabron, and the Bay of Samana,
+situated at the eastern extremity of the island, where was a port,
+in which the fleet, being becalmed, came to anchor. At first the
+relations between the foreigners and the natives were excellent, but
+a change was suddenly perceived, the savages ceasing to barter, and
+making some hostile demonstrations, which left no doubt of the bad
+intentions entertained by them. On the 13th of January the savages
+made a sudden and unexpected attack upon the Spaniards, who, however,
+put a bold face on the matter, and by the aid of their weapons, put
+their enemies to flight after a few minutes' combat. Thus, for the
+first time, the blood of the Indian flowed beneath the hand of the
+European.
+
+On the morrow Columbus again set sail, having on board four young
+natives, whom, notwithstanding their objections, he persisted in
+carrying off with him. His crews, embittered and fatigued, caused
+him great uneasiness, and in his narrative of the voyage, this great
+man, superior though he were to all human weaknesses, and a being
+whom adverse fate could not humble, bemoans himself bitterly over
+this trial. It was on the 16th of January that the homeward voyage
+commenced in good earnest, and Cape Samana, the extreme point of
+Hispaniola, disappeared below the horizon. The passage proved a
+quick one, and no incident is recorded until the 12th of February,
+when the vessels encountered a fearful storm lasting three days,
+with furious wind, enormous waves, and much lightning from the
+north-north-east. Three times did the terrified sailors make a vow
+of pilgrimage to St. Mary of Guadalupe, to our Lady of Loretto, and
+to St. Clara of Moguer, and at length, in extremity of fear, the
+whole crew swore to go and pray in their shirts and with naked feet
+in some church dedicated to the Virgin. But in spite of all, the
+storm raged with redoubled fury, and even the admiral feared for the
+result. In case of a catastrophe, he thought it well hastily to
+write upon a parchment an abstract of his discoveries, with a
+request that who ever should find the document would forward it to
+the King of Spain; wrapping the parchment in oil-cloth, he enclosed
+it in a wooden barrel, which was thrown into the sea.
+
+At sunrise on the 15th of February the hurricane abated, the two
+caravels which had been separated by the storm again joined company,
+and after three days they cast anchor at the island of St. Mary, one
+of the Azores; as soon as they arrived there, the admiral sought to
+further the accomplishment of the vows made during the storm, and
+with this object, sent half of his people on shore; but these were
+unhappily made prisoners by the Portuguese, who did not restore them
+to liberty for five days, notwithstanding the urgent remonstrances
+made by Columbus. The admiral put to sea again on the 23rd of
+February; again the winds were contrary, and again, amidst a violent
+tempest, he took fresh vows in company with all his crew, promising
+to fast on the first Saturday which should follow their arrival in
+Spain. At last, on the 4th of March, the pilots sighted the mouth of
+the Tagus, in which the _Nina_ took refuge, whilst the _Pinta_,
+caught by the wind, was carried away into the Bay of Biscay.
+
+The Portuguese welcomed the admiral kindly, the king even admitting
+him to an audience. Columbus was in haste to return to Spain; as
+soon as the weather permitted, the _Nina_ again set sail, and at
+mid-day on the 15th of March, she cast anchor in the port of Palos,
+after seven months and a half of navigation, during which Columbus
+had discovered the islands of San Salvador, Conception, Great Exuma,
+Long Island, the Mucaras, Cuba, and San Domingo.
+
+The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was then at Barcelona, whither
+the admiral was summoned. He set out immediately, taking with him
+the Indians whom he had brought from the New World. The enthusiasm
+he excited was extreme; from all parts the people ran to look at him
+as he passed, rendering him royal honours. His entry into Barcelona
+was magnificent. The king and queen, with the grandees of Spain,
+received him with great pomp at the palace of the Deputation. He
+there gave an account of his wonderful voyage, and presented the
+specimens of gold which he had brought with him; then all the
+assembly knelt down and chanted the Te Deum. Christopher Columbus
+was afterwards ennobled by letters patent, and the king granted him
+a coat of arms bearing this device: "To Castille and Leon, Columbus
+gives a New World." The fame of the Genoese navigator rang through
+the whole of Europe; the Indians whom he had brought with him were
+baptized in presence of the whole court; and thus, the man of genius,
+so long poor and unknown, had now risen to the highest point of
+celebrity.
+
+
+III.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
+
+Second Voyage: Flotilla of seventeen vessels--Island of Ferro--
+Dominica--Marie-Galante--Guadaloupe--The Cannibals--Montserrat--
+Santa-Maria-la-Rodonda--St. Martin and Santa Cruz--Archipelago of
+the Eleven Thousand Virgins--The island of St. John Baptist, or
+Porto Rico--Hispaniola--The first Colonists massacred--Foundation of
+the town of Isabella--Twelve ships laden with treasure sent to
+Spain--Fort St. Thomas built in the Province of Cibao--Don Diego,
+Columbus' brother, named Governor of the Island--Jamaica--The Coast
+of Cuba--The Remora--Return to Isabella--The Cacique made prisoner--
+Revolt of the Natives--Famine--Columbus traduced in Spain--Juan
+Aguado sent as Commissary to Isabella--Gold-mines--Departure of
+Columbus--His arrival at Cadiz.
+
+
+The narrative of the adventures of the great Genoese navigator had
+over-excited the minds of the hearers. Imagination already caught
+glimpses of golden continents situated beyond the seas. All the
+passions which are engendered by cupidity were seething in the
+people's hearts. The admiral, under pressure of public opinion, must
+set forth again with the most brief delay. He was himself also,
+eager to return to the theatre of his conquests, and to yet enrich
+the maps of the day with more new discoveries. He declared himself,
+therefore, ready to start.
+
+The king and queen placed at his disposal a flotilla composed of
+three large ships and fourteen caravels. Twelve hundred men were to
+sail in them. Several Castilian nobles, with firm faith in the lucky
+star of Columbus, decided to try their fortune with him beyond seas.
+In the holds of the vessels were horses, cattle, instruments of all
+kinds for collecting and purifying gold, grain of various kinds; in
+a word, everything that might be needful in the establishing an
+important colony. Of the ten natives brought to Europe, five
+returned to their country, three, who were ill, remained behind in
+Europe, the other two were dead. Columbus was named captain-general
+of the squadron, with unlimited powers.
+
+On the 25th of September, 1493, the seventeen ships left Cadiz, with
+all sails set, amidst the acclamations of an immense crowd of people
+and on the 1st of October, they cast anchor at the island of Ferro,
+the most westerly of the Canary group. On sailing again, the fleet
+was favoured by wind and sea, and after twenty-three days of
+navigation came in sight of new land. At sunrise on the 3rd of
+November, being the Sunday in the octave of All Saints, the pilot of
+the flag-ship, the _Marie-Galante_, cried out, "Good news, there is
+land." This land proved to be an island covered with trees; the
+admiral, thinking it uninhabited, did not stop; but, after passing
+several scattered islets, he arrived before a second island. The
+first he named Dominica, the second Marie-Galante, names which they
+retain to the present day. The next day a still larger island was in
+sight, and, says the narrative of this voyage given by Peter Martyr,
+the contemporary of Columbus, "When they were arrived, they saw it
+was the island of the infamous cannibals, or Caribbees, of whom they
+had only heard a rumour during the first voyage."
+
+The Spaniards, well armed, landed upon the shore, where they found
+about thirty circular houses built of wood and covered with palm
+leaves. In the interior of the huts were suspended hammocks made of
+cotton. In the centre of the village were placed two trees or posts
+around which were entwined the dead bodies of two serpents. At the
+approach of the strangers the natives fled in haste, leaving behind
+them several prisoners whom they were preparing to devour. The
+sailors searched the houses, and found both leg and arm bones, heads
+so newly cut off that the blood was still moist, and other human
+remains, which left no doubt as to the food consumed by these
+Caribbees. This island, which, with its principal rivers, the
+admiral caused to be partially explored, was named Guadaloupe, on
+account of the resemblance it bore to one of the Spanish provinces.
+Some Indian women were carried off by the sailors, but, after having
+been kindly treated on board the admiral's ship, they were sent back
+to land, Columbus hoping that this conduct towards the females would
+induce the men of the place to come on board, but in this he was
+disappointed.
+
+[Illustration: The sailors find some recently-severed heads.]
+
+On the 8th of November the signal for departure was given, and the
+whole fleet sailed for Hispaniola, the present San Domingo, and the
+island upon which Columbus had left thirty-nine of the companions of
+his first voyage. In turning again towards the north, a large island
+was discovered, to which the natives who had been kept on board
+after having been saved from the jaws of the Caribbees, gave the
+name of Mandanino. They declared that it was inhabited only by women,
+and as Marco Polo had mentioned an Asiatic country which possessed
+an exclusively feminine population, Columbus was confirmed in the
+idea that he was sailing upon the coast of Asia. He felt a great
+desire to explore this island, but the contrary winds completely
+prevented his doing so. Thirty miles from thence an island was seen
+surrounded by high mountains; it received the name of Montserrat; on
+the next day another, which was called Santa-Maria la Rodonda; and
+on the day following two more islands, St. Martin and Santa Cruz.
+
+The squadron anchored before Santa Cruz, to take in water. There
+occurred a scene of grave import, reported by Peter Martyr in such
+expressive words, that we cannot do better than quote them: "The
+admiral," he says, "ordered thirty men from his ship to go ashore
+and explore the island; and these men, being landed on the coast,
+were aware of four dogs and as many young men and women coming
+towards them, extending their arms in supplication, and praying for
+help and deliverance from the cruel people. The cannibals on seeing
+this fled, as in the island of Guadaloupe, and all retired into the
+forests. And our people remained two days on the island to visit it.
+
+"During that time, those who had remained with the boat saw a canoe
+coming towards them from a distance, containing eight men and as
+many women; to these our people made signs; but they on approaching,
+began to transpierce ours with their arrows, before they had time to
+cover themselves with their bucklers, so that one Spaniard was
+killed by a shaft aimed by a woman, who also transfixed another with
+a second arrow. These savages had poisoned arrows, the poison being
+contained in the tip; amongst them was a woman whom all the others
+obeyed, bowing before her. And this was, as they conjectured, a
+queen, having a son of cruel appearance, robust, and with the face
+of a lion, who followed her.
+
+"Ours then, considering that it was better to fight hand to hand,
+than to wait for greater evils in thus fighting at a distance,
+advanced their boat by rowing, and by so great violence did they
+make it move forward, that the stern of the said boat came with such
+velocity, it caused the enemies' canoe to founder.
+
+"But these Indians, being very good swimmers, without moving
+themselves either more slowly or more rapidly, did not cease, both
+men and women, to shoot arrows with all their might, at our people.
+And they succeeded in reaching, by swimming, a rock covered with the
+water, upon which they mounted, and still fought manfully.
+Nevertheless, they were finally taken, and one of them slain, and
+the son of the queen, pierced in two places; when they were taken to
+the admiral's ship they showed no less ferociousness and atrocity of
+mien, than if they had been lions of Libya who felt themselves taken
+in the net. And such were they that no man could have even looked
+upon them without his heart trembling with horror, so greatly was
+their look hideous, terrible, and infernal."
+
+From all this it is clear that the strife between the Indians and
+the Europeans was beginning to be serious. Columbus sailed again
+towards the north, going in the midst of islands "pleasant and
+innumerable," covered with forests overshadowed by mountains of
+various hues. This collection of islands was called the Archipelago
+of the Eleven Thousand Virgins. Soon appeared the island of St. John
+Baptist (now Porto Rico), a place infested by Caribbees, but
+cultivated with care, and appearing truly superb from its immense
+woods. Some sailors landed upon the shore, but only found there a
+dozen uninhabited huts. The admiral put to sea again, and sailed
+along the southern coast of Porto Rico for about one hundred and
+fifty miles.
+
+On Friday, the 12th of November, Columbus at last reached the island
+of Hispaniola. With what emotions must he not have been agitated in
+revisiting the theatre of his first success, in seeking to behold
+that fortress in which he had left his companions! What might not
+have happened in the course of a year to those Europeans left alone
+in this barbarous land? Soon a great canoe, bringing the brother of
+the Cacique Guacanagari, came alongside of the _Marie-Galante_, and
+the Indian prince springing on board, offered two images of gold to
+the admiral. Still Columbus sought for his fortress, but, although
+he had anchored opposite its site, there was no trace whatever to be
+seen of it. With feelings of the deepest anxiety as to the fate of
+his companions, he went on shore. What was his dismay, when he found
+nothing left of the fortress but a few ashes! What could have become
+of his compatriots? Had their lives been the forfeit of this first
+attempt at colonization? The admiral ordered the simultaneous
+discharge of the cannon from all the ships to announce his arrival
+at Hispaniola. But none of his companions appeared. Columbus, in
+despair, immediately despatched messengers to the Cacique
+Guacanagari; who, on their return brought sad news. If Guacanagari
+might be believed, some other caciques, irritated by the presence of
+the foreigners in their island, had attacked the unfortunate
+colonists, and had massacred them to the last man. Guacanagari
+himself had received a wound in endeavouring to defend them, and to
+corroborate his story he showed his leg enveloped in a cotton
+bandage.
+
+Columbus did not believe in this intervention of the cacique, but,
+resolving to dissimulate, he welcomed Guacanagari kindly when he
+came on board the next day; the cacique accepted an image of the
+Virgin, suspending it on his bosom. He appeared astonished at the
+sight of the horses which they showed him, these animals having been
+hitherto quite unknown to himself and his companions. When his visit
+was over, he returned to the shore, regained the region of mountains,
+and was seen no more.
+
+The admiral then despatched one of his captains with three hundred
+men under his orders, to scour the country and carry off the cacique.
+This captain penetrated far into the interior, but found no traces
+of the cacique, nor of the unfortunate colonists. During this
+excursion, a great river was discovered, and also a fine sheltered
+harbour, which was named Port Royal. However, in spite of the bad
+success of his first attempt, Columbus had resolved to found a new
+colony upon this island, which appeared to be rich both in gold and
+silver. The natives constantly spoke of mines situated in the
+province of Cibao, and in the month of January two gentlemen, Alonzo
+de Hojeda and Corvalan, set out accompanied by a numerous escort to
+verify these assertions. They discovered four rivers having
+auriferous sands, and brought back with them a nugget which weighed
+nine ounces. The admiral on seeing these riches was confirmed in his
+idea that Hispaniola was the famous Ophir, spoken of in the Book of
+Kings. After looking for a site upon which to build a town, he laid
+the foundation of Isabella in a spot at the mouth of a river which
+formed a harbour, and at a distance of thirty miles east from Monte
+Christi. On the Feast of the Epiphany, thirteen priests officiated
+in the church in presence of an immense crowd of natives.
+
+Columbus was now anxious to send news of the colony to the King and
+Queen of Spain. Twelve ships laden with gold collected in the island,
+and with various specimens of the produce of the soil, were prepared
+to return to Europe under the command of Captain Torrès. This
+flotilla set sail on the 2nd of February, 1494, and a short time
+afterwards Columbus sent back one more of the five ships which
+remained to him, with the Lieutenant Bernard of Pisa, against whom
+he had cause of complaint.
+
+As soon as order was established in the colony of Isabella, the
+admiral, leaving his brother behind as governor, set out,
+accompanied by five hundred men, to visit the mines of Cibao. The
+country they traversed seemed to be splendidly fertile; vegetables
+came to perfection in thirteen days; corn sown in February was in
+full ear in April, and each year yielded two abundant harvests. They
+crossed successively mountains and valleys, where often the pick-axe
+had to be used to clear a way over these still virgin lands; at last
+the Spaniards arrived at Cibao. There the admiral caused a fort to
+be constructed of wood and stone on a hill near the brink of a large
+river; it was surrounded with a deep ditch, and Columbus bestowed
+upon it the name of St. Thomas, in derision of some of his officers
+who were incredulous upon the subject of the gold-mines. It ill
+became them to doubt, for from all parts the natives brought nuggets
+and gold dust, which they were eager to exchange for beads, and
+above all for the hawks' bells, of which the silvery sound excited
+them to dance. This country was not only a land of gold, it was also
+a country rich in spices and aromatic gums, the trees which bore
+them forming quite large forests. The Spaniards considered the
+conquest of this wealthy island a cause of unmixed congratulation.
+
+Columbus left fifty-six men to guard the Fort of St. Thomas, under
+the command of Don Pedro de Margarita, while he returned to Isabella,
+towards the beginning of April, being much hindered on the road by
+excessive rain. On his arrival he found the infant colony in great
+disorder; famine was threatening from the want of flour, which could
+not be obtained, for there were no mills; both soldiers and workmen
+were exhausted with fatigue. Columbus sought to oblige the gentlemen
+to aid them; but these proud Hidalgos, anxious as they were to
+conquer fortune, would not stoop to pick it up, and refused to
+perform any manual labour. The priests upholding them in this
+conduct, Columbus, who was forced to act with vigour, was obliged to
+place the churches under an interdict. He could not spare time to
+remain any longer at Isabella, but was in haste to make further
+discoveries; therefore, having formed a council, composed of three
+gentlemen and the chief of the missionaries, under the presidency of
+Don Diego, to govern the colony, he set out on the 24th of April
+with three vessels, to complete the cycle of his discoveries.
+
+The flotilla sailing towards the south, a new island was soon
+discovered, which was called by the natives Jamaica. The highest
+point of the island was a mountain of which the sides sloped gently
+down. The inhabitants appeared clever, and much given to the
+mechanical arts, but they were far from pacific in character, and
+several times opposed the landing of the Spaniards, who, however,
+repulsed them, and at length the savages were induced to conclude a
+treaty of alliance with the admiral. From Jamaica Columbus pushed
+his researches more towards the west. He imagined himself to be
+arrived at the point where the old geographers placed the golden
+region of the west, Chersonesus. Strong currents carried him towards
+Cuba, along whose coast he sailed for a distance of six hundred and
+sixty-six miles. During this dangerous navigation amongst shallows
+and narrow passages, he named more than seven hundred islands,
+discovered a great number of harbours, and often entered into
+communication with the natives.
+
+[Illustration: Fishermen on the coast of Cuba.]
+
+In the month of May, the look-out-men on board the ships descried a
+large number of grassy islands, fertile and inhabited. Columbus, on
+approaching the shore, entered a river, of which the water was so
+warm that the hand could not remain in it, a fact evidently of
+exaggeration, and one which later researches have not authenticated.
+The fishermen of this coast employed a certain fish called the
+Remora or sucking-fish, "which fulfilled for them the same office as
+the dog does for the hunter. This fish was of an unknown species,
+having a body like a great eel, and upon the back of his head a very
+tenacious skin, in fashion like a purse, wherewith to take the
+fishes. They keep this fish fastened by a cord to the boat, always
+in the water, for it cannot bear the _look_ of the air. And when
+they see a fish or a turtle, which there are larger than great
+bucklers, then they loose the fish by slackening the rope. And when
+he feels himself at liberty, suddenly, and more rapidly than the
+flight of an arrow, he (the remora) assails the said fish or turtle,
+throws over him his skin in the manner of a purse, and holds his
+prey so firmly, be it fish or turtle, by the part visible beyond the
+shell, that none can wrest it from him, if he be not drawn to the
+surface of the water; the cord is therefore pulled up, and gathered
+in little by little; and no sooner does he see the splendour of the
+air, than incontinent he lets go of his prey. And the fishermen
+descend as far as is necessary to take the prey, and they put it on
+board the boat, and fasten the fish-hunter with as much of rope as
+is necessary for him to regain his old position and place; then, by
+means of another rope, they give him for reward a small piece of the
+flesh of his prey."
+
+The exploration of the coasts continued towards the west. The
+admiral visited several countries, in which abounded goslings, ducks,
+herons, and those dumb dogs which the natives eat, as we should kids,
+and which were probably either almigui or racoons. As the ships
+advanced, the sandy channels became narrower and narrower, and
+navigation more and more difficult, but the admiral adhered to his
+resolution of continuing the exploration of these coasts. One day,
+he imagined he saw upon a point of land some men dressed in white,
+whom he took for brothers of the order of Santa Maria de la Merced;
+he sent some sailors to open communication with them, when it proved
+to be simply an optical illusion; these so-called monks turning out
+to be great tropical herons, to whom distance had lent the
+appearance of human beings.
+
+During the first days of June, Columbus was obliged to stop to
+repair the ships, of which the keels were much damaged by the
+shallow water on the coast. On the seventh day of the month he
+caused a solemn mass to be celebrated on the shore: during the
+service an old cacique arrived, who, the ceremony being over,
+offered the admiral some fruits, and then this native sovereign
+pronounced some words which the interpreters thus translated:--
+
+"It hath been told us after what manner thou hast invested and
+enveloped with thy power these lands, which were to you unknown, and
+how thy presence has caused great terror to the people and the
+inhabitants. But I hold it my duty to exhort and to warn thee that
+two roads present themselves before the souls, when they are
+separated from the bodies: the one, filled with shadows and sadness
+destined for those who are harmful and hurtful to the human species;
+the other, pleasant and delightful, reserved for those who in their
+life-time have loved peace and the repose of the people. Therefore,
+if thou rememberest that thou art mortal, and that the future
+retribution will be meted out according to the works of the present
+life, thou wilt take care to do harm to nobody." What philosopher of
+ancient or modern time could have spoken better or in sounder
+language! All the human side of Christianity is expressed in these
+magnificent words, and they came from the mouth of a savage!
+Columbus and the cacique separated, charmed with one another, and
+the more astonished of the two was not, perhaps, the old native. The
+rest of his tribe appeared to live in the practice of the excellent
+precepts indicated by their chief. Land was common property amongst
+the natives, as much so as sun, air, and water. The Meum and Tuum,
+cause of all strife, did not exist amongst them, and they lived
+content with little. "They enjoy the Golden Age," says the narrative,
+"they protect not their possessions with ditches and hedges, they
+leave their gardens open; without laws, without books, without
+judges, they by nature follow what is right, and hold as bad and
+unjust whatever sins against, or causes harm to another."
+
+Leaving Cuba, Columbus returned towards Jamaica, and sailed along
+the whole of the southern coast as far as the eastern extremity of
+the island. His intention was to attack the islands of the Caribbees,
+and destroy that mischievous brood. But the admiral was at this time
+seized with an illness, brought on by watching and fatigue, which
+obliged him to suspend his projects. He was forced to return to
+Isabella, where, under the influence of good air and repose, and the
+care of his brother and his friends, he recovered his health. The
+colony greatly needed his presence. The governor of St. Thomas had
+aroused the indignation of the natives by his cruel exactions, and
+had refused to listen to the remonstrances upon the subject
+addressed to him by Don Diego, the brother of Columbus; he had
+returned to Isabella from St. Thomas during the absence of the
+admiral and he embarked for Spain upon one of the ships which had
+just brought Don Bartolomeo, the second brother of Columbus, to
+Hispaniola. When the admiral regained his health he resolved to
+punish the cacique who had revolted against the governor of St.
+Thomas, feeling that it would be unwise to allow his authority, in
+the person of his delegates, to be set at nought. In the first place
+he sent nine men well armed to take prisoner a bold cacique named
+Caonabo. The leader Hojeda, with an intrepidity of which we shall
+have further instances in the future, carried off the cacique from
+the midst of his own people, and brought him prisoner to Isabella.
+Columbus afterwards sent Caonabo to Europe, but the ship in which he
+sailed was wrecked during the voyage, and he was never heard of more.
+
+In the meantime, Antonio de Torrès, sent by the King and Queen of
+Spain to compliment Columbus in their names, arrived at San Domingo
+with four vessels. Ferdinand declared himself highly content with
+the successes of the admiral, and informed him that he was about to
+establish a monthly service of transport between Spain and
+Hispaniola.
+
+The carrying off of Caonabo had excited a general revolt amongst the
+natives, who burned to revenge the chief, so deeply insulted and
+unjustly carried away. The Cacique Guacanagari, notwithstanding the
+share he had had in the murder of the first colonists, alone
+remained faithful to the Spaniards. Columbus, accompanied by his
+brother Bartolomeo and the cacique, marched against the rebels and
+soon met with an army of natives, the numbers of which, with
+manifest exaggeration, he places at 100,000 men. However numerous it
+may have been, this army was quickly routed by a small detachment,
+composed of 200 infantry, twenty-five cavalry, and twenty-five dogs.
+This victory to all appearance re-established the admiral's
+authority. The Indians were condemned to pay tribute to the
+Spaniards, those living near the mines were ordered to furnish every
+three months a small quantity of gold, while the others, more
+distant, were to contribute twenty-five pounds of cotton. But
+rebellion had been only curbed, not extinguished. At the voice of a
+woman, Anacaona, widow of Caonabo, the natives rose a second time;
+and even succeeded in drawing over the hitherto faithful Guacanagari
+to their side; the rebels destroyed all the fields of maize, and
+everything else which had been planted, and then retired into the
+mountains. The Spaniards, seeing themselves thus reduced to all the
+horrors of famine, indulged their anger by terrible reprisals
+against the natives; it is calculated that one-third of the island
+population perished from hunger, sickness, and the weapons of the
+companions of Columbus. These unfortunate Indians paid dearly indeed
+for their intercourse with the conquering Europeans.
+
+The good fortune of Columbus was by this time on the wane. While his
+authority in Hispaniola was continually more and more compromised,
+his reputation and his character were the objects of violent attack
+in Europe. The officers whom he had sent back to the mother country,
+loudly accused him of injustice and cruelty; they even insinuated
+that he sought to render himself independent of the king; and
+against all these attacks, Columbus, being absent, could not defend
+himself. Ferdinand, influenced by this unworthy discourse, chose a
+commissioner, whom he ordered to proceed to the West Indies and to
+examine into the truth of the accusations. This gentleman was named
+Juan d'Aguado, and the choice of such a man to fulfil such a mission,
+possessing as he did a mind both prejudiced and partial, was not a
+happy one. Aguado arrived at Isabella in the month of October, at
+the time when the admiral was absent on an exploring expedition, and
+began at once to treat the brother of Columbus with extreme
+haughtiness, while Diego on his side, relying upon his title of
+governor-general, refused to submit to the commands of the royal
+commissioner. Aguado soon considered himself ready to return to
+Spain, although the examination he had made was a most incomplete
+one, when a fearful hurricane occurred, which sank the vessels which
+had brought him over in the harbour. There now remained only two
+caravels at Hispaniola, but Columbus, who had returned to the colony,
+acting with a greatness of soul which cannot be too much admired,
+placed one of these ships at the disposal of the commissioner, with
+the proviso that he himself would embark in the other, to plead his
+cause in person before the king.
+
+So matters stood, when the news arriving of the discovery of fresh
+gold-mines in Hispaniola, caused the admiral to put off his
+departure. Covetousness was a power strong enough to cut short all
+discussions; there was no longer any mention of the King of Spain,
+nor of the inquiry which he had ordered; officers were sent off to
+the new auriferous ground, finding there nuggets of which some
+weighed as much as twenty ounces, and a lump of amber of the weight
+of 300 pounds. Columbus ordered two fortresses to be erected for the
+protection of the miners, one on the boundary of the province of
+Cibao, the other upon the banks of the River Hayna. Having taken
+this precaution, he set out for Europe, full of eagerness to justify
+himself. The two caravels sailed from the harbour of St. Isabella on
+the 10th of March, 1496. On board of the admiral's ship were 225
+persons and thirty Indians. On the 9th of April he touched at
+Marie-Galante, and on the 10th at Guadaloupe, to take in water; here
+there occurred a sharp skirmish with the natives. On the 20th he
+left this inhospitable island, and for a whole month he had to
+contend with contrary winds. On the 11th of June land was sighted in
+Europe, and on the next day the caravels entered the harbour of
+Cadiz.
+
+This second return of the great navigator was not welcomed, as the
+first had been, by the acclamations of the populace. To enthusiasm
+had succeeded coldness and envy; the companions even of the admiral
+took part against him. Discouraged as they were, with illusions
+destroyed, and not bringing back that wealth, for the acquisition of
+which they had encountered so many dangers, and submitted to so much
+fatigue, they became unjust, and forgot that it was not the fault of
+Columbus if the mines hitherto worked had been a source of expense
+rather than of profit.
+
+However, the admiral was received at court with a certain measure of
+favour, the narrative of his second voyage doing much to reinstate
+him in public opinion. And who could deny that during that
+expedition he had discovered the islands of Dominica, Marie-Galante,
+Guadaloupe, Montserrat, Santa-Maria, Santa Cruz, Porto Rico,
+Jamaica? Had he not also carried out a new survey of Cuba and San
+Domingo? Columbus fought bravely against his adversaries, even
+employing against them the weapon of irony. To those who denied the
+merit of his discoveries, he proposed the experiment of making an
+egg remain upright while resting upon one end, and when they could
+not succeed in doing this, the admiral, breaking the top of the
+shell, made the egg stand upon the broken part. "You had not thought
+of that," said he; "but behold! it is done."
+
+
+IV.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
+
+Third Voyage: Madeira--Santiago in the Cape Verd Archipelago--
+Trinidad--First sight of the American Coast in Venezuela, beyond the
+Orinoco, now the Province of Cumana--Gulf of Paria--The Gardens--
+Tobago--Grenada--Margarita--Cubaga--Hispaniola during the absence of
+Columbus--Foundation of the town of San Domingo--Arrival of
+Columbus--Insubordination in the Colony--Complaints in Spain--
+Bovadilla sent by the king to inquire into the conduct of Columbus--
+Columbus sent to Europe in fetters with his two brothers--His
+appearance before Ferdinand and Isabella--Renewal of royal favour.
+
+
+Columbus had not yet given up the hope of pursuing his conquests on
+the further side of the Atlantic Ocean. No fatigue, no injustice
+from his fellow-men could stop him. After having triumphed, although
+not without difficulty, over the malice of his enemies, he succeeded
+in organizing a third expedition under the auspices of the Spanish
+government. The king granted him eight vessels, forty cavalry
+soldiers, and one hundred infantry, sixty sailors, twenty miners,
+fifty labourers, twenty workmen of various trades, thirty women,
+some doctors, and even some musicians. The admiral obtained the
+concession besides, that all the punishments in use in Spain should
+be changed into transportation to the islands. He was thus the
+precursor of the English in the intelligent idea of peopling new
+colonies with convicts, whom labour was to reform.
+
+[Illustration: Embarkation of Christopher Columbus.]
+
+Columbus put to sea on the 30th of May, 1498, although he was still
+suffering from gout, and from the various mental trials which he had
+experienced since his return. Before starting, he learnt that a
+French fleet was lying in wait off Cape St. Vincent, with the
+purpose of hindering the expedition. To avoid it, Columbus made for
+Madeira, and anchored there; from that island he dispatched all his
+vessels, except three, to Hispaniola under the command of the
+Captains Pedro de Arana, Alonzo Sanchez of Carabajal, and Juan
+Antonio Columbus, one of his own relations, while he, with a large
+ship and two caravels bore down to the south with the intention of
+crossing the equator, and seeking for more southern countries, which,
+according to the general opinion, must be even richer in all kinds
+of productions. On the 27th of June the small flotilla touched at
+the islands of Sel and of Santiago, which form part of the Cape Verd
+group. It sailed again on the 4th of July, and made 360 miles to the
+south-west, experiencing long calms and intense heat; on arriving
+abreast of Sierra Leone, it steered due west, and at mid-day on the
+31st of July, one of the sailors raised the cry of "land." It was an
+island situated at the north-eastern extremity of South America, and
+very near the coast. The admiral gave it the name of Trinidad, and
+all the crews chanted the _Salve Regina_ in sign of thankfulness. On
+the morrow, the 1st of August, at fifteen miles from the part of the
+land which had been first seen, the three vessels were moored near
+to the Point of Alcatraz, and the admiral sent some of his sailors
+ashore to obtain water and wood. The coast appeared to be
+uninhabited, but numerous footprints of animals were observed, made,
+as was thought, by goats.
+
+On the 2nd of August a long canoe, manned by twenty-four natives,
+came towards the ships. These Indians, tall of stature, and paler in
+colour than those of Hispaniola, wore upon the head a turban formed
+of a cotton scarf of brilliant colours, and a small skirt of the
+same material around the body. The Spaniards endeavoured to entice
+them on board, by showing them mirrors and glass trinkets; the
+sailors even executing lively dances, in the hope of inspiring them
+with confidence; but the savages, taking fright at the sound of a
+tambourine, which seemed to them a sign of hostility, discharged a
+flight of arrows, and directed their canoe towards one of the
+caravels, whose pilot endeavoured to reassure them by steering
+towards them; but in vain, the canoe soon made off, and was seen no
+more.
+
+Columbus again set sail, and discovered a new island which he called
+Gracia; but what he imagined to be an island, was, in reality, a
+portion of the American coast, and that part of the shore of
+Venezuela, which, being intersected by the numerous branches of the
+Orinoco, forms the Delta of that river. On this day the Continent of
+America, although unknown to him, was really discovered by
+Christopher Columbus, in that part of Venezuela which goes by the
+name of the Province of Cumana. Between this coast and the Island of
+Trinidad there is a dangerous gulf, the Gulf of Paria, in which a
+ship can with difficulty resist the currents which flow towards the
+west with great rapidity. The admiral, who believed himself to be in
+the open sea, was exposed to great peril in this gulf, where the
+rivers, falling into the sea from the continent, and being swollen
+at that time by an accidental flood, poured great masses of water
+upon the ships. Columbus, in writing to the king and queen,
+describes this incident in the following terms:--
+
+"Being up on deck, at an advanced hour of the night, I heard a kind
+of terrible roaring; I tried to see through the darkness, and all at
+once I beheld a sea like a hill, as high as the ship, advancing
+slowly from the south towards my vessels. Opposing this great wave
+was a current, which met it with a frightful noise. I had no doubt
+then that we should be engulfed, and even now the remembrance causes
+me a feeling of horror. By good fortune, however, the current and
+the wave passed us, going towards the mouth of the canal, where,
+after long strife, they gradually sank to rest."
+
+[Illustration: GULF OF MEXICO AND THE ANTILLES. After the Map of
+Théodore de Bry.]
+
+Notwithstanding the difficulties of the navigation, Columbus
+continued to explore this sea, of which the waters became gradually
+calmer as he sailed northwards; he discovered various headlands, one
+of them was to the east of the Island of Trinidad, and called the
+Cape of Pera Blanca. Another was on the west of the promontory of
+Paria, and named Cape Lapa. Several harbours were also noticed,
+amongst others one situated at the mouth of the Orinoco, to which
+was given the name of the Port of Monkeys. Columbus landed on the
+shore, west of Point Cumana, and received a kindly welcome from the
+numerous inhabitants. Towards the west, beyond the point of Alcatraz,
+the country was magnificent, and there according to the natives,
+much gold and pearls were to be obtained. Here the admiral would
+gladly have remained for some time if he could have found a safe
+anchorage. But as this was impossible, he felt it best to make for
+Port Isabella, especially as his crews were worn down by fatigue,
+and his own health much affected, besides the sufferings he
+experienced from the bad state of his eyesight. So he sailed onwards
+along the Venezuelan coast, making friends as far as possible with
+the natives. These Indians were agreeable in feature, and of
+magnificent physique; their dwellings displayed a certain amount of
+taste, their houses being built with façades in front, and
+containing articles of furniture ingeniously made. The natives wore
+plates of gold as ornaments upon their necks. As to the country, it
+was superb; the rivers, the mountains, the immense forests made it a
+real land of delight. So the admiral gave this beautiful country the
+name of Gracia, and by many arguments he tried to prove that in this
+spot was situated that terrestrial Paradise once inhabited by Adam
+and Eve, being the cradle of the whole human race. To explain to a
+certain degree this idea of the great navigator, we must not forget
+that he imagined himself all this time to be on the shores of Asia.
+This spot which delighted him so much, he called "the Gardens."
+
+On the 23rd of August, after having at the expense of much danger
+and fatigue, overcome the perils of this bay, Columbus issued from
+the Gulf of Paria by the narrow strait to which he gave the name,
+retained to this day, of the Dragon's Mouth. Arrived in the open sea,
+the Spaniards discovered the Island of Tobago situated to the
+north-east of Trinidad, and then, more to the north, the Island of
+Conception, now known as Grenada. They next steered to the
+south-west and returned towards the American coast; after sailing
+along which for 120 miles, they discovered, on the 25th of August,
+the populous Island of Margarita, and afterwards the Island of
+Cubaga, situated very close to the mainland. At this place the
+natives had established a pearl-fishery, and busied themselves in
+collecting this valuable product. Columbus sent a boat on shore,
+when a very profitable traffic was carried on, the natives giving in
+exchange for broken pottery or hawks' bells, pounds' weight of
+pearls, some of which were very large, and of the finest water.
+
+[Illustration: Pearl-fishers.]
+
+The admiral stopped at this point of his discoveries; the temptation
+was strong to explore this country, but both officers and crews were
+exhausted. Orders were therefore given to start for San Domingo,
+where matters of the gravest moment demanded the presence of
+Columbus. Before his departure from Hispaniola he had authorized his
+brother to lay the foundations of a new town. With this end Don
+Bartolomeo had explored the different portions of the island, and
+having discovered at the distance of 150 miles from Isabella a
+magnificent harbour at the mouth of a fine river, he there marked
+out the first streets of a town which became later on the city of
+San Domingo. Here Don Bartolomeo fixed his residence, while Don
+Diego remained as Governor of Isabella. By this arrangement
+Columbus' two brothers had the whole administration of the colony in
+their hands. But there were many malcontents who were ready to
+revolt against their authority, and it was while this bad spirit was
+abroad that the admiral arrived at San Domingo. He approved of all
+that his brothers had done, their administration having been in fact,
+marked by great wisdom, and he published a proclamation recalling to
+their obedience the Spaniards who had revolted. On the 18th of
+October he despatched five ships to Spain, and with them an officer
+commissioned to inform the king of the new discoveries, and of the
+state of the colony, endangered by the fomenters of disorder.
+
+Meanwhile, the affairs of Columbus had taken a bad turn in Europe.
+Since his departure calumnies against himself and his brothers had
+been ever on the increase. Some rebels who had been expelled the
+colony, denounced the encroaching dynasty of the Columbus family,
+thus exciting the jealousy of a vain and ungrateful monarch. Even
+the queen, until now the constant patroness of the Genoese navigator,
+was indignant at the arrival on board the vessels of three hundred
+Indians who had been torn from their country, and who were treated
+as slaves. Isabella did not know that this abuse of power had been
+carried out unknown to Columbus and during his absence; he was held
+responsible for it, and to inquire into his conduct, the Court sent
+to Hispaniola a commander of the order of Calatrava, named Francis
+de Bovadilla, to whom were given the titles of Governor-general, and
+Intendant of Justice. He was in reality meant to supersede Columbus.
+Bovadilla, invested with discretionary powers, set out with two
+caravels towards the end of June, 1500. On the 23rd of August, the
+colonists sighted the two ships, which were then endeavouring to
+enter the harbour of San Domingo.
+
+At this time Christopher Columbus and his brother Bartolomeo were
+absent, engaged in superintending the erection of a fort in the
+province of Xaragua; Don Diego was commanding in their absence.
+Bovadilla landed and went to hear mass, displaying during the
+ceremony a very significant ostentation; then, having summoned Don
+Diego before him, he ordered him to resign his office into his hands.
+The admiral, warned by a messenger of what was occurring, arrived in
+great haste. He examined the letters patent brought by Bovadilla,
+and having read them, he declared his willingness to recognize him
+as intendant of justice, but not as governor-general of the colony.
+
+Then Bovadilla gave him a letter from the king and queen, couched in
+the following terms:--
+
+"Don Christopher Columbus, our Admiral in the ocean,
+
+"We have ordered Commander Don Francis Bovadilla to explain to you
+our intentions. We command you to give credit to, and to execute,
+whatever he shall order on our part.
+
+                                "I, THE KING, I, THE QUEEN."
+
+In this letter, the title of Viceroy appertaining to Columbus by the
+solemn conventions signed by Ferdinand and Isabella, was not even
+mentioned. Columbus, suppressing his just indignation, quietly
+submitted. Then arose against the fallen admiral a whole host of
+false friends. All those who owed their fortune to Columbus turned
+against him; accusing him of having desired to render himself
+independent. Foolish calumnies! How could this idea have occurred to
+the mind of a foreigner, a Genoese, alone in the midst of a Spanish
+colony!
+
+Bovadilla found the moment propitious for harsh measures. Don Diego
+was already imprisoned, and the governor soon ordered Don Bartolomeo
+and Christopher Columbus himself to be put in fetters. The admiral,
+accused of high treason, was placed with his two brothers on board a
+vessel bound for Spain, under the command of Alphonso de Villejo.
+That officer, a man of feeling, and ashamed of the treatment to
+which Columbus was exposed, wished to strike off his chains; but
+Columbus refused. He, the conqueror of a new world, would arrive
+loaded with chains in that kingdom of Spain, which he had so greatly
+enriched!
+
+[Illustration: Columbus bound like a felon.]
+
+The admiral judged rightly in thus acting, for public opinion was
+revolted by the sight of him in this depth of humiliation, bound
+like a felon, and treated as a criminal. Gratitude towards the man
+of genius asserted itself against the bad passions which had been so
+unjustly excited, and there arose a cry of indignation against
+Bovadilla. The king and queen, swayed by the feelings of the people,
+loudly blamed the conduct of the commander, and addressed an
+affectionate letter to Columbus, inviting him to present himself at
+court.
+
+Thus a bright day again dawned for Columbus. He appeared before
+Ferdinand, not as the accused, but as himself the accuser; then, his
+fortitude giving way under the remembrance of the unworthy treatment
+he had experienced, this unfortunate great man wept, and caused
+those around to weep with him. He pointed proudly to the story of
+his life. He showed himself to be almost without resources, he whom
+they accused of ambition, and of enriching himself out of the
+government of the colony! Verily, the man who had made the discovery
+of a world, did not possess a roof to shelter his own head!
+
+Isabella, ever good and compassionate, wept in company with the old
+sailor, and for sometime could not make him any answer, so choked
+was she with her tears. At length she was able to utter some
+affectionate words; in assuring Columbus of her protection, she
+promised to avenge him of his enemies; she excused the bad choice
+they had made in sending this Bovadilla to the islands, and she
+declared he should expiate his guilt by an exemplary punishment. In
+addition, she desired the admiral to allow some time to elapse
+before returning to his government, in order that the minds
+prejudiced against him might return to sentiments of honour and
+justice.
+
+The mind of Christopher Columbus was calmed by the gracious words of
+the queen; he showed himself content with his reception, and
+admitted the necessity of the delay enjoined upon him by Isabella.
+The chief wish of his heart was again to serve his adopted country
+and its sovereigns, and he sketched out grand designs of what still
+remained to be attempted in the way of discovery. His third voyage,
+in spite of its short duration, had not been without fruit, but had
+enriched the map with such new names as Trinidad, the Gulf of Paria,
+the coast of Cumana, the Islands of Tobago, of Grenada, of Margarita,
+and of Cubaga.
+
+
+V.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
+
+Fourth Voyage: A Flotilla of four vessels--Canary Islands--
+Martinique--Dominica--Santa-Cruz--Porto-Rico--Hispaniola--Jamaica--
+Cayman Island--Pinos Island--Island of Guanaja--Cape Honduras--The
+American Coast of Truxillo on the Gulf of Darien--The Limonare
+Islands--Huerta--The Coast of Veragua--Auriferous Strata--Revolt of
+the Natives--The Dream of Columbus--Porto-Bello--The Mulatas--
+Putting into port at Jamaica--Distress--Revolt of the Spaniards
+against Columbus--Lunar Eclipse--Arrival of Columbus at Hispaniola--
+Return of Columbus to Spain--His death, on the 20th of March, 1506.
+
+
+Christopher Columbus saw himself now reinstated in favour, as he
+deserved to be, at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. Perhaps the
+king may have still evinced a certain degree of coldness towards him,
+but the queen was his avowed and enthusiastic protectress. His
+official title as viceroy had not, however, been restored to him,
+but the admiral, with his usual magnanimity, did not demand it. He
+had the satisfaction of seeing Bovadilla deposed, partly for his
+abuse of power, and partly because his conduct towards the Indians
+had become atrocious; his inhuman proceedings towards them being
+pushed to such a length, that under his administration the native
+population of Hispaniola, sensibly decreased.
+
+During this time the island began to fulfil the hopes of Columbus,
+who had prophesied that in three years the crown would derive from
+it a revenue of sixty millions. Gold was obtained in abundance from
+the best worked mines; a slave had dug up on the banks of the Hayna,
+a mass, equal in weight to 3600 golden crowns; it was easy to
+foresee that the new colonies would yield incalculable riches.
+
+The admiral, who could not bear to remain inactive, earnestly
+demanded to be sent on a fourth voyage, although he was by this time
+sixty-six years of age. In support of his request he adduced some
+very plausible reasons. One year before the return of Columbus, the
+Portuguese navigator, Vasco da Gama, had returned from the Indies,
+after having doubled the Cape of Good Hope. Columbus felt certain
+that by sailing to India by the much safer and shorter western route,
+the Spaniards might enter into profitable competition with the
+Portuguese traders. He constantly maintained, believing as he did
+that he had been alongside the Asiatic territory, that the islands
+and continents discovered by him were only separated by a strait
+from the Moluccas. He therefore wished, without even returning to
+Hispaniola and the colonies already settled, to direct his course at
+once to the Indies. It is evident that the ex-Viceroy had again
+become the hardy navigator of his earlier years. The king agreed to
+the admiral's request, and placed him in command of a flotilla
+composed of four vessels, the _Santiago_, _Gallego_, _Vizcaino_, and
+a caravel, as admiral's galley. These ships were of small tonnage,
+the largest being only of seventy tons, and the smallest of fifty;
+they were in fact, little better than coasting-vessels.
+
+Columbus left Cadiz on the 9th of May, 1502, with crews numbering in
+all 150 men. He took with him his brother Bartolomeo, and his son
+Fernando, the child of his second marriage, and at this time
+scarcely thirteen years old. On the 20th of May, the vessels stopped
+at Gran Canaria, and on the 15th of June arrived at Martinique, one
+of the Windward Islands; afterwards they touched at Dominica,
+Santa-Cruz, and Porto-Rico, and at length, after a prosperous voyage,
+reached Hispaniola, on the 29th of June. The intention of Columbus,
+acting on the queen's advice, was not to land upon the island whence
+he had been so unworthily expelled; but his badly-constructed ship
+was scarcely sea-worthy, and repairs to the keel were greatly needed.
+Therefore the admiral demanded permission of the governor to enter
+the harbour.
+
+The new governor, successor to Bovadilla, was a just and moderate
+man, a knight of the order of Alcantara, named Nicholas Ovando. His
+excessive caution, however, made him fear that the presence of
+Columbus in the colony might be a cause of disorder; he therefore
+thought it right to refuse the request. The admiral concealed the
+indignation which such treatment could not but cause him, and
+returned good for evil, by offering wise counsel to the governor in
+the following instance. The fleet which was to take Bovadilla back
+to Europe, and to bear with it, besides the enormous lump of gold
+already mentioned, other treasures of great value, was ready to put
+to sea. But the weather was very threatening, and Columbus, with a
+sailor's penetration, having observed the signs of an approaching
+storm, implored the governor not to expose the ships and passengers
+to such danger. Ovando would not listen to the advice, and the ships
+put to sea; scarcely had they reached the eastern point of the
+island before a terrible hurricane arose, causing twenty-one of the
+ships to founder with all on board. Bovadilla was drowned, and with
+him the greater part of the enemies of Columbus, but by an exception
+which may be called providential, the ship which carried the poor
+remains of the admiral's fortune, escaped destruction. In this storm
+ten millions' worth of gold and precious stones was engulfed by the
+ocean.
+
+Meanwhile, the four caravels of Columbus, denied access to the
+harbour, had been driven before the storm. They were separated one
+from the other, and disabled, but they succeeded in meeting together
+again, and by the 14th of July, the squall had carried them within
+sight of Jamaica. Arrived there, strong currents bore them towards
+the islands called the Queen's Garden, and then in the direction of
+east-south-east. The little flotilla contended for sixty days
+against the wind without making more than 210 miles, and at length
+was driven towards the coast of Cuba, which led to the discovery of
+Cayman and Pinos Islands.
+
+Columbus then steered to the south-west, sailing upon seas hitherto
+unvisited by any European ship, and throwing himself once more into
+the course of discovery with all the passionate ardour of a
+navigator. Chance conducted him towards the southern coast of
+America; he discovered the island of Guanaja, on the 30th of July,
+and on the 14th of August he touched at Cape Honduras, that narrow
+strip of land, which, prolonged by the Isthmus of Panama, unites the
+two continents of America. Thus, for the second time Columbus,
+without being aware of it, approached the real soil of America. For
+more than nine months he followed the windings of these shores, in
+the face of all kinds of perils and difficulties, and succeeded in
+laying down the chart of the coast from the part since named
+Truxillo, as far as the Gulf of Darien. Each night he cast anchor,
+that he might not be driven far from the shore, and at length
+reached that eastern extremity of the coast where it ends abruptly
+in the Cape Gracias a Dios.
+
+This cape was doubled on the 14th of September, but the ships
+encountered contrary winds so violent, that even the admiral,
+himself the oldest sailor of the crews, had never before experienced
+the like. He relates this terrible episode in his letter to the king
+of Spain in the following terms: "During eighty-four days the waves
+continued their assaults, nor did my eyes perceive sun, nor stars,
+nor any planet; the seams of my vessels gaped, my sails were torn;
+tackle, boats, rigging, all were lost; my sailors, ill and
+frightened, devoted themselves to the pious duties of religion; no
+one failed to promise pilgrimages, and all confessed to each other,
+thinking that each moment might prove their last. I have seen many
+tempests, but never have I experienced any of such duration and
+violence. Many of my men who passed for intrepid sailors, lost
+courage; but that which broke my heart, was the pain of my son,
+whose tender age added to my despair, and whom I saw the prey of
+greater suffering, greater torments, than fell to the lot of any one
+amongst us; but it was doubtless no other than God, who bestowed
+upon him such energy, that it was He alone who animated the courage,
+and reawakened the patience of the sailors under their severe toil;
+in a word, looking upon him, one might have fancied him a sailor who
+had grown old in contending with storms, an astonishing fact, almost
+incredible, but one which awakened some gleam of joy amidst the
+sorrows which overwhelmed me. I was ill, and several times I thought
+my last hour was near.... To complete my misery comes the thought
+that twenty years of service, of fatigues and perils, have brought
+me no profit, and I find myself to-day unpossessed of even a roof to
+shelter me in Spain, and forced to betake myself to an inn when I
+would obtain repose or food; and when there I often find myself
+unable to pay my reckoning." Do not these lines indicate clearly the
+intensity of sorrow which overwhelmed the soul of Columbus? In the
+midst of such dangers and anxieties, how could he preserve the
+energy needful to command an expedition?
+
+Throughout the duration of the storm, the ships had been following
+the line of coast which successively bears the names of Honduras,
+Mosquito, Nicaragua, Costa-Rica, Veragua, and Panama, the twelve
+Limonare Islands being also discovered at this time, and at last, on
+the 25th of September, Columbus cast anchor between the small island
+of Huerta and the continent. On the 5th of October he again set sail,
+and after having taken the bearings of the Bay of Almirante, he
+anchored opposite to the village of Cariaz. There he remained until
+the 15th of October, the repairs of the vessels meanwhile going
+actively forward.
+
+Columbus now believed himself to be arrived near the mouth of the
+Ganges, and from the natives speaking of a certain province of
+Ciguare, which was surrounded by the sea, he felt himself confirmed
+in this opinion. They declared that it was a country containing rich
+gold-mines, of which the most important was situated seventy-five
+miles to the south. When the admiral again set sail, he followed the
+wooded coast of Veragua, where the Indians appeared to be very wild.
+On the 26th of November, the flotilla entered the harbour of El
+Retrete, which is now the port of Escribanos. The ships battered by
+the winds, were now in a most miserable plight; it was absolutely
+necessary to repair the damage they had sustained, and for this
+purpose to prolong the stay at El Retrete. Upon quitting this
+harbour Columbus was met by a storm even more dreadful than those
+which had preceded it: "During nine days," he says, "I remained
+without hope of being saved. Never did any man see a more violent or
+terrible sea; it was covered with foam, the wind permitted no ships
+to advance, nor to steer towards any cape; I was kept in that sea,
+of which the waves seemed to be of blood, and the surges boiled as
+though heated by fire. Never have I seen so appalling an aspect of
+the heavens: on fire during one whole day and night like a furnace,
+they sent forth thunder and flame incessantly, and I feared each
+moment that the masts and sails would be carried away. The growling
+of the thunder was so horrible that it appeared sufficient to crush
+our vessels; and during the whole time the rain fell with such
+violence that one could scarcely call it rain, but rather a second
+Deluge. My sailors, overcome by so much trouble and suffering,
+prayed for death as putting a term to their miseries; my ships
+opened in all directions, and boats, anchors, ropes, and sails were
+once again lost."
+
+During this long and painful navigation, the admiral had sailed one
+thousand and fifty miles. His crews were by this time quite
+exhausted; he was therefore obliged to turn back and to regain the
+river of Veragua, but not being able to find safe shelter there for
+his ships, he went a short distance off to the mouth of Bethlehem
+river, now called the Yebra, in which he cast anchor on the feast of
+the Epiphany in the year 1503. On the morrow the tempest was again
+renewed, and on the 24th of January, a sudden increase of water in
+the river caused the cables which held the ships to snap, and the
+vessels were only saved with great trouble.
+
+In spite of all this, the admiral, who never forgot the principal
+object of his mission in these new countries, had succeeded in
+establishing regular intercourse with the natives. The cacique of
+Bethlehem showed a friendly disposition, and pointed out a country
+fifteen miles inland, where he said the gold-mines were very rich.
+On the 6th of February, Columbus despatched a force of seventy men
+to the spot indicated, under the command of his brother Bartolomeo.
+After travelling through a very undulating country, watered by
+rivers so winding that one of them had to be crossed thirty-nine
+times, the Spaniards arrived at the auriferous tracts. They were
+immense, and extended quite out of sight. Gold was so abundant that
+one man alone could collect enough of it in ten days to fill a
+measure. In four hours, Bartolomeo and his men had picked up gold to
+an enormous amount. They returned to the admiral, who, when he heard
+their narrative, resolved to settle upon this coast, and to have
+some wooden barracks constructed.
+
+[Illustration: Gold-mines in Cuba. _From an old print_.]
+
+The mines of this region were indeed of incomparable richness; they
+appeared to be inexhaustible, and quite made Columbus forget Cuba
+and San Domingo. His letter to King Ferdinand evinces his enthusiasm
+on the subject; one may feel some astonishment at reading the
+following sentiment from the pen of this great man, one indeed which
+is neither that of a philosopher nor of a Christian. "Gold! gold!
+excellent thing! It is from gold that spring riches! it is by means
+of gold that everything in the world is done, and its power suffices
+often to place souls in Paradise."
+
+The Spaniards set to work with ardour to store up this gold in their
+ships. Hitherto the relations with the natives had been peaceable,
+although these people were of fierce disposition. But after a time
+the cacique, irritated by the usurpation of the foreigners, resolved
+to murder them and burn their dwellings. One day the natives
+suddenly attacked the Spaniards in considerable force, and a very
+severe battle ensued, ending in the repulse of the Indians. The
+cacique had been taken prisoner with all his family, but he
+succeeded with his children in escaping from custody, and took
+refuge in the mountains in company with a great number of his
+followers. In the month of April, a considerable troop of the
+natives again attacked the Spaniards, who exterminated a large
+proportion of them.
+
+Meanwhile, the health of Columbus became more and more enfeebled;
+the wind failed him for quitting the harbour, and he was in despair.
+One day, exhausted by fatigue, he fell asleep, and heard a pitying
+voice which addressed him as follows:--words which shall be given
+verbatim, for they bear the imprint of that kind of ecstatic
+religious fervour which gives a finishing touch to the picture of
+the great navigator.
+
+"'O foolish man! why such unwillingness to believe in and to serve
+thy God, the God of the Universe? What did He more for Moses His
+servant, and for David? Since thy birth, has He not had for thee the
+most tender solicitude; and when he saw thee of an age in which His
+designs for thee could be matured, has He not made thy name resound
+gloriously through the world? Has He not bestowed upon thee the
+Indies, the richest part of the earth? Has He not set thee free to
+make an offering of them to Him according to thine own will? Who but
+He has lent thee the means of executing His designs? Bounds were
+placed at the entrance of the ocean; they were formed of chains
+which could not be broken through. To thee were given the keys. Thy
+power was recognized in distant lands, and thy glory was proclaimed
+by all Christians. Did God even show Himself more favourable to the
+people of Israel, when He rescued them from Egypt? Did He favour
+David more, when from a shepherd boy He made him king of Judah? Turn
+to Him, confessing thy fault, for His compassion is infinite. Thine
+old age will prove no obstacle in the great actions which await
+thee: He holds in His hands a heritage the most brilliant. Was not
+Abraham a hundred years old, and had not Sarah already passed the
+flower of her youth when Isaac was born? Thou seekest an uncertain
+help. Answer me: who has exposed thee so often to so many dangers?
+Is it God, or the world? God never withholds the blessings promised
+to His servants. It is not His manner after receiving a service to
+pretend that His intentions have not been carried out, and to give a
+new interpretation to His desires; it is not He who seeks to give to
+arbitrary acts a favourable colour. His words are to be taken
+literally; all that He promises He gives with usury. Thus does He
+ever. I have told thee all that the Creator has done for thee; at
+this very moment He is showing thee the prize and the reward of the
+perils and sufferings to which thou hast been exposed in the service
+of thy fellow-men.' And I listened to this voice, overcome though I
+were with suffering; but I could not muster strength to reply to
+these assured promises; I contented myself by deploring my fault
+with tears. The voice concluded with these words:--'Take confidence,
+hope on; the record of thy labours will, with justice, be engraved
+on marble.'"
+
+Columbus, as soon as he recovered, was anxious to leave this coast.
+He had desired to found a colony here, but his crews were not
+sufficiently numerous to justify the risk of leaving a part of them
+on land. The four caravels were full of worm-holes, and one of them
+had to be left behind at Bethlehem. On Easter day the admiral put to
+sea, but scarcely had he gone ninety miles before a leak was
+discovered in one of the ships; it was necessary to steer for the
+coast with all speed, and happily Porto-Bello was reached in safety,
+where the ship was abandoned, her injuries being irreparable. The
+flotilla consisted now of but two caravels, without boats, almost
+without provisions, and with 7000 miles of ocean to traverse. It
+sailed along the coast, passed the port of El Retrete, discovered
+the group of islands called the Mulatas, and at length entered the
+Gulf of Darien. This was the farthest point east reached by Columbus.
+
+On the 1st of May the admiral steered for Hispaniola; by the 10th he
+was in sight of the Cayman Islands, but he found it impossible to
+make head against the winds which drove him to the north-west nearly
+as far as Cuba. There, while in shallow water, he encountered a
+storm, during which anchors and sails were carried away, and the two
+ships came into collision during the night. The hurricane then drove
+them southwards, and the admiral at length reached Jamaica with his
+shattered vessels, casting anchor on the 23rd of June in the harbour
+of San-Gloria, now called the bay of Don Christopher. Columbus
+wished to have gone to Hispaniola, where he would have found the
+stores needful for revictualling the ships, resources which were
+absolutely wanting in Jamaica; but his two caravels, full of
+worm-holes, "like to bee-hives," could not without danger attempt
+the ninety miles' voyage; the question now arose, how to send a
+message to Ovando, the governor of Hispaniola.
+
+[Illustration: The Admiral is obliged to run the caravels aground.]
+
+The caravels let in water in every direction, and the admiral was
+obliged to run them aground; he then tried to organize a life in
+common upon shore. The Indians at first gave him assistance, and
+furnished the crews with the provisions of which they were in need,
+but the miserable and much tried sailors showed resentment against
+the admiral; they were ready for revolt, while the unfortunate
+Columbus, exhausted by illness, was confined to a bed of pain. It
+was in these trying circumstances that two brave officers, Mendez
+and Fieschi, proposed to the admiral to attempt to cross from
+Jamaica to Hispaniola in Indian canoes. This was in reality a voyage
+of six hundred miles, for it was necessary to row along the coast as
+far as the port where the colony was established. But these
+courageous officers were ready to face every peril, when it was a
+question of saving their companions. Columbus, appreciating the
+boldness of a proposal, which under other circumstances he would
+himself have been the first to make, gave the required permission to
+Mendez and Fieschi, who set out, while he, without ships, almost
+without provisions, remained with his crew upon this uncultivated
+island.
+
+[Illustration: Indian Boats. _From an old print_.]
+
+Soon the misery of the shipwrecked people--for so we may fairly call
+them--became so great that a revolt ensued. The admiral's companions,
+blinded by their sufferings, imagined that their chief dared not
+return to the harbour in Hispaniola, to which Ovando had already
+denied him entrance. They thought this proscription applied to them
+equally with the admiral, and said among themselves that the
+governor, in excluding the flotilla from the harbours of the colony,
+must have acted under orders from the king. These absurd reasonings
+irritated minds already badly disposed, and at length on the 2nd of
+January, 1504, two brothers named Porras, one the captain of one of
+the caravels and the other the military treasurer, placed themselves
+at the head of the malcontents. Their wish was to return to Europe,
+and they rushed towards the admiral's tent, crying, "Castille!
+Castille!" Columbus was ill and in bed. His brother and his son
+threw themselves between him and the mutineers to defend him. At the
+sight of the aged admiral, the rebels stopped, and their violence
+abated; but they would not listen to the admiral's remonstrances and
+counsels; they did not understand that nothing could save them but
+general concord, and each, in unselfish forgetfulness, working for
+the public good. No! their decision was taken to quit the island, no
+matter by what means. Porras and his followers ran down to the shore,
+took possession of the canoes of the natives, and steered for the
+eastern extremity of the island. Arrived there, with no respect left
+for anything, and drunk with fury, they pillaged the Indians'
+dwellings--thus rendering the admiral responsible for their deeds of
+violence--and they dragged some unfortunate natives on board of the
+canoes which they had stolen. Porras and his companions continued
+their navigation; but when several leagues from shore, they were
+struck by a gust of wind which placed them in peril: with the object
+of lightening the canoes, they threw their prisoners overboard.
+After this barbarous execution, the canoes endeavoured, following
+the example of Mendez and Fieschi, to gain the island of Hispaniola,
+but in vain, they were continually thrown back upon the coasts of
+Jamaica.
+
+Meanwhile the admiral, left alone with his friends and the sick,
+succeeded in establishing order in his little world. But the
+distress increased, and famine threatened. The natives wearied of
+providing food for these foreigners, whose sojourn upon their island
+was so prolonged; besides, they had seen the Spaniards fighting
+amongst themselves, a sight which had much destroyed their prestige,
+and convinced the Indians that these Europeans were nothing more
+than ordinary mortals; thus, they no longer respected nor feared
+them. The authority of Columbus over the native population was
+diminishing day by day, and an accidental circumstance was needed,
+of which the admiral cleverly took advantage, to bring back a renown
+which was necessary for the safety of his companions.
+
+A lunar eclipse, foreseen and calculated by Columbus, was due on a
+certain day. On the morning of this day, the admiral sent to request
+an interview with the caciques of the island. They accepted the
+invitation, and when they were assembled in the tent of Columbus,
+the latter announced to them that God, desirous of punishing them
+for their inhospitable conduct, and their bad feeling towards the
+Spaniards, would that evening refuse them the light of the moon. All
+came to pass as the admiral had foretold; the shadow of the earth
+began to conceal the moon, whose disc had the appearance of being
+eaten away by some formidable monster. The savages in terror cast
+themselves at the feet of Columbus, praying him to intercede with
+Heaven on their behalf, and promising to place all they had at his
+disposal. Columbus, after some well feigned hesitation, pretended to
+yield to the prayers of the natives. Under pretext of supplicating
+the Deity, he remained in his tent during the whole time of the
+eclipse, only reappearing at the moment when the phenomenon was
+nearly over. Then he told the caciques that God had heard his prayer,
+and extending his arm he commanded the moon to reappear. Soon the
+disc was seen to issue from the cone of the shadow, and the queen of
+night shone forth in all her splendour. From that day forward, the
+grateful and submissive Indians accepted the admiral's authority as
+one manifestly delegated to him by the celestial powers.
+
+While these events were passing at Jamaica, Mendez and Fieschi had
+long ago arrived at their destination. These brave officers had
+reached Hispaniola after a voyage of four days, little short of
+miraculous, accomplished as it was in a frail canoe. They
+immediately made the governor acquainted with the desperate
+condition of Columbus and his companions. Ovando, in a spirit of
+malice and injustice, detained these officers, and after a delay of
+eight months, under pretext of ascertaining the real condition of
+affairs, he despatched to Jamaica one of his own followers, a man
+named Diego Escobar, who was an especial enemy to Columbus. Escobar,
+on his arrival at Jamaica, would not communicate with Columbus; he
+did not even land, but contented himself with putting on shore, for
+the use of the distressed crews, "a side of pork and a barrel of
+wine;" then he again set sail without having allowed a single person
+to come on board. This infamous behaviour is but too real, although
+humanity almost refuses to believe in it.
+
+The admiral was indignant over this cruel mockery; but he showed no
+violence, used no recrimination. The arrival of Escobar somewhat
+reassured the shipwrecked men, for at least it proved that their
+situation was known. Deliverance was therefore only a matter of time,
+and the _morale_ of the Spaniards gradually improved.
+
+The admiral was desirous of bringing about a reconciliation with
+Porras and the rebels, who, since their separation, had incessantly
+ravaged the island, and been guilty of odious cruelties towards the
+unfortunate natives. Columbus proposed to restore them to favour,
+but these foolish people only answered his generous overtures by
+advancing to attack him in his retreat. Those Spaniards who had
+remained faithful to the cause of order, were obliged to take up
+arms, and they valiantly defended the admiral, losing but one man in
+this sad affair. They took both the brothers Porras prisoners, and
+remained masters of the field of battle: then the rebels threw
+themselves on their knees before Columbus, who, in compassion for
+their sufferings, granted them pardon.
+
+At length, just one year after the departure of Mendez and Fieschi,
+a ship appeared, equipped by them at the expense of Columbus, which
+was destined to restore the shipwrecked company to their homes. On
+the 24th of June, 1504, every one went on board, and quitting
+Jamaica, the theatre of accumulated miseries, both moral and
+physical, they set sail for Hispaniola. Arrived in harbour, after a
+prosperous voyage, Columbus, to his no small surprise, found himself
+at first received with much respect, the governor Ovando, as a
+shrewd man not willing to go against public opinion, doing him
+honour. But this happy temper did not last. Soon the quarrels
+recommenced, and then Columbus, unable as well as unwilling to hear
+more, humiliated, and even maltreated, freighted two ships, of which
+he shared the command with his brother Bartolomeo, and on the 12th
+of September, 1504, he for the last time set out for Europe.
+
+His fourth voyage had increased geographical knowledge by the
+discovery of the Cayman Islands, Martinique, Guanaja, the Limonare
+Islands, with the coasts of Honduras, Mosquito, Nicaragua, Veragua,
+Costa-Rica, Porto-Bello, and Panama, the Mulatas Islands, and the
+Gulf of Darien.
+
+During this, his last voyage across the ocean, Columbus was destined
+to be again tried by storms. His own vessel was disabled, and he and
+his crew were obliged to go on board his brother's ship. On the 19th
+of October, another fearful hurricane broke the mast of this vessel,
+which had then to make more than two thousand miles with incomplete
+sails. At last, on the 7th of November, the admiral entered the
+harbour of San-Lucar. Here a sad piece of news was awaiting him.
+Isabella, his generous protectress, was dead. Who was there now to
+take an interest in the old Genoese?
+
+The admiral was coldly received by the ungrateful and jealous king
+Ferdinand, who did not even disdain to use subterfuges and delays,
+hoping thus to evade the solemn treaties given under his sign
+manual; he ended by proposing to Columbus the acceptance of a small
+Castilian town, Camon de los Condes, in exchange for his titles and
+dignities. This ingratitude and faithlessness overwhelmed the aged
+man; his health, already so much impaired, did not improve, and
+grief carried him to the grave. On the 20th of May, at Valladolid,
+at the age of seventy, he rendered up his soul to God with these
+words: "O Lord, into Thy hands I resign my soul and body."
+
+The remains of Columbus were at first laid in the monastery of St.
+Francis; in 1513, they were removed to the Carthusian monastery of
+Seville. But it seemed as if, even after death, repose were to be
+denied to the great navigator, for in 1536 his body was transported
+to the cathedral of San Domingo. Local tradition affirms that when,
+after the Treaty of Basle in 1795, the Spanish government, before
+giving up to France the eastern portion of the island of San Domingo,
+ordered the removal of the ashes of the great sailor to Havana, a
+canon substituted some other remains for those of Christopher
+Columbus, and that the latter were deposited in the choir of the
+cathedral, to the left of the altar. Thanks to this manoeuvre of the
+canon, whether dictated by a sentiment of local patriotism or by
+respect to the last wishes of Columbus who had indicated San Domingo
+as his chosen place of sepulture, it is not the dust of the
+illustrious navigator which Spain possesses at Havana, but probably
+that of his brother Diego. The discovery so lately made in the
+cathedral of San Domingo, on the 10th of September, 1877, of a
+leaden chest containing human bones, and bearing an inscription
+stating that it encloses the remains of the _Discoverer of America_,
+seems to confirm in every particular the tradition which has been
+just mentioned.
+
+But after all, it matters little whether the body of Columbus be at
+San Domingo or at Havana; his name and his glory are everywhere.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+THE CONQUEST OF INDIA AND OF THE SPICE COUNTRIES.
+
+I.
+
+Covilham and Païva--Vasco da Gama--The Cape of Good Hope is
+doubled--Escalès at Sam-Braz--Mozambique, Mombaz, and Melinda--
+Arrival at Calicut--Treason of the Zamorin--Battles--Return to
+Europe--The scurvy--Death of Paul da Gama--Arrival at Lisbon.
+
+
+At the same time that the King of Portugal, John II., despatched
+Diaz to seek in the south of Africa the route to the Indies, he
+ordered two gentlemen of his court to find out if it would not be
+possible to attain the same end by an easier, safer, and more rapid
+means; by way of the isthmus of Suez, the Red Sea, and the Indian
+Ocean.
+
+For carrying out such a mission there was needed a clever,
+enterprising man, well acquainted with the difficulties of a journey
+in those regions, and possessing a knowledge of the Oriental
+languages, or at the very least, of Arabic. This agent must be of a
+versatile disposition, and able to dissemble; capable, in a word, of
+concealing the real meaning of projects which aimed at nothing less
+than withdrawing all the commerce of Asia from the hands of the
+Mussulmans and Arabs, and through them from the Venetians, in order
+to enrich Portugal with it.
+
+There was living at this time an experienced navigator, Pedro de
+Covilham, who had served with distinction under Alonzo V. in the war
+with Castille, and who had made a long stay in Africa. It was upon
+him that John II. cast his eye, and Alonzo de Païva was given him as
+a colleague. They left Lisbon in the month of May, 1487, furnished
+with detailed instructions, and with a chart drawn according to
+Bishop Calsadilla's map of the World, by the help of which the tour
+of Africa might be made.
+
+The two travellers reached Alexandria and Cairo, where they were
+much gratified at meeting with some Moorish traders from Fez and
+Tlemcen, who conducted them to Tor--the ancient Ezion-geber--at the
+foot of Sinai, where they were able to procure some valuable
+information upon the trade of Calicut. Covilham resolved to take
+advantage of this fortunate circumstance to visit a country which,
+for more than a century, had been regarded by Portugal with covetous
+longing, while Païva set out to penetrate into those regions then so
+vaguely designated as Ethiopia, in quest of the famous Prester John,
+who, according to old travellers, reigned over a marvellously rich
+and fertile country in Africa. Païva doubtless perished in his
+adventurous enterprise, being never again heard of.
+
+As for Covilham, he travelled to Aden, whence he embarked for the
+Malabar coast. He visited in succession Cananore, Calicut, and Goa,
+and collected accurate information upon the commerce and productions
+of the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean, without arousing the
+fears of the Hindoos, who could not suspect that the kind and
+friendly welcome they accorded to the traveller would bring about in
+the future the enthralment and ruin of their country. Covilham, not
+considering that he had yet done enough for his country, quitted
+India, and went to the eastern coast of Africa, where he visited
+Mozambique, Sofala--long famous for its gold-mines, of which the
+reputation, by means of the Arabs, had even reached Europe--and
+Zeila, the _Avalites portus_ of the ancients, and the principal town
+of the Adel coast, upon the Gulf of Oman, at the entrance of the
+Arabian Sea. After a somewhat long stay in that country, he returned
+by Aden, then the principal entrepôt of the commerce of the east,
+went as far as Ormuz, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and then
+again passing up the Red Sea, he arrived at Cairo.
+
+John II. had sent to Cairo two learned Jews to await the arrival of
+Covilham, and to one of these, the Rabbi Abraham Beja, the traveller
+gave his notes, the itinerary of his journey, and a map of Africa
+given to him by a Mussulman, charging Beja to carry them all to
+Lisbon with the least possible delay. For himself, not content with
+all that he had done hitherto, and wishing to execute the mission
+which death had prevented Païva from accomplishing, he went into
+Abyssinia, where the "negus" or king, known by the name of Prester
+John, flattered by seeing his alliance sought by one of the most
+powerful sovereigns of Europe, received him with the greatest
+kindness, and gave him a high position at his court, but to make
+sure of retaining his services, he constantly refused him permission
+to leave the country. Although he had married there and had some
+children, Covilham still longed for his native country, and when, in
+1525, a Portuguese embassy, of which Alvarès was a member, came into
+Abyssinia, he witnessed the departure of his countrymen with the
+deepest regret, and the chaplain of the expedition has naïvely
+re-echoed his complaints and his grief.
+
+M. Ferdinand Denis says, "By furnishing precise information upon the
+possibility of circumnavigating Africa, by indicating the route to
+the Indies, by giving more positive and extended ideas upon the
+commerce of these countries, and above all, by describing the
+gold-mines of Sofala, and so exciting the cupidity of the Portuguese,
+Covilham contributed greatly to accelerate the expedition of Gama."
+
+[Illustration: Vasco da Gama. _From an old print_.]
+
+If one may believe an old tradition, but one which is unsupported by
+any authentic document, Gama was descended by an illegitimate line
+from Alphonso III., King of Portugal. His father, Estevam Eanez da
+Gama, grand alcalde of Sinès and of Silvès, in the kingdom of
+Algarve, and commander of Seizal, occupied a high position at the
+court of John II. He enjoyed great reputation as a sailor, so much
+so, that just at the moment when his own unexpected death occurred,
+King John was thinking of giving Gama the command of the fleet which
+he was desirous of sending to the Indies. By his marriage with Dona
+Isabella Sodré, daughter of Juan de Resende, proveditore of the
+fortifications of Santarem, he had several children, and amongst
+them Vasco, who first reached India by doubling the Cape of Good
+Hope, and Paul, who accompanied him in that memorable expedition. It
+is known that Vasco was born at Sinès, but the date of his birth is
+uncertain; the year 1469 is that generally given, but besides the
+fact that if this be the correct date, Gama would have been very
+young--not more than eight and twenty--when the important command of
+the expedition to the Indies was confided to him, there was
+discovered twenty years ago, amongst the Spanish archives, a
+safe-conduct to Tangier granted in 1478 to two persons, Vasco da
+Gama and Lemos. It is scarcely probable that such a passport would
+have been given to a child of nine years of age, so that this
+discovery would appear to carry back the birth of the celebrated
+voyager to an earlier date.
+
+It seems that from an early period of his life, Vasco da Gama was
+destined to follow the career of a sailor, in which his father had
+distinguished himself. The first historian of the Indies, Lopez de
+Castañeda, delights in recalling the fact that he had signalized
+himself upon the African seas. At one time he was ordered to seize
+all the French ships lying in the Portuguese ports, in revenge for
+the capture by French pirates during a time of peace of a rich
+Portuguese galleon returning from Mina. Such a mission would only
+have been confided to an active, energetic and well-tried captain, a
+clear proof that Gama's valour and cleverness were highly
+appreciated by the king.
+
+About this time he married Dona Caterina de Ataïde, one of the
+highest ladies about the court, and by her he had several children,
+amongst others Estevam da Gama, who became governor of the Indies,
+and Dom Christovam, who, says Gaucher, by his struggle with Ahmed
+Guerad in Abyssinia, and by his romantic death, deserves to be
+reckoned amongst the famous adventurers of the sixteenth century.
+
+All doubt as to the precise date of Gama's first voyage is now at an
+end, thanks to the document in the public library at Oporto, a paper
+with which Castañeda must have been acquainted, and of which M.
+Ferdinand Denis has published a translation in the _Ancient and
+Modern Travellers_ of M. E. Charton. The date may be fixed with
+certainty for Saturday, the 8th of July, 1497.
+
+This expedition had been long ago determined upon, and all its
+details were minutely arranged. It was to be composed of four
+vessels of medium size, "in order," says Pacheco, "that they may
+enter everywhere and again issue forth rapidly." They were solidly
+constructed, and provided with a triple supply of sails and hawsers;
+all the barrels destined to contain water, oil, or wine had been
+strengthened with iron hoops; large provisions of all kinds had been
+made, such as flour, wine, vegetables, drugs, and artillery; the
+personnel of the expedition consisted of the best sailors, the
+cleverest pilots, and the most experienced captains.
+
+Gama, who had received the title of _Capitam mõr_, hoisted his flag
+upon the _Sam-Gabriel_ of 120 tons. His brother Paul da Gama was on
+board the _Sam-Raphael_ of 100 tons. A caravel of 50 tons, the
+_Berrio_, so named in memory of the pilot Berrio, who had sold her
+to Emmanuel I., was commanded by an experienced sailor, Nicolo
+Coelho, while Pedro Nuñes was the captain of a large barque, laden
+with provisions and merchandise, destined for exchange with the
+natives of the countries which should be visited. Pero de Alemquer,
+who had been pilot to Bartholomew Diaz, was to regulate the course
+of the vessels. The crews, including ten criminals who were put on
+board to be employed on any dangerous service, amounted to one
+hundred and sixty persons. What feeble means these, what almost
+absurd resources, compared with the grandeur of the mission which
+these men were to accomplish!
+
+On the 8th of July, at sunrise, Gama advanced towards the vessels,
+followed by his officers through an immense crowd of people. Around
+him were a number of monks and religious persons, who chanted sacred
+hymns, and besought Heaven's protection for the voyagers. This
+departure from Rastello must have been a singularly moving scene;
+all, whether actors or spectators, mingling their chants, their
+cries, their adieux and their tears, while the sails, filled by a
+favourable breeze, bore away Gama and the fortune of Portugal
+towards the open sea. A large caravel and a smaller barque, which
+were bound for Mina under the command of Bartholomew Diaz, sailed in
+company with Gama's fleet. On the following Saturday, the ships were
+in sight of the Canaries, and passed the night windward of Lancerota.
+When they arrived parallel with the Rio de Ouro, a thick fog
+separated Paul da Gama, Coelho, and Diaz from the rest of the fleet,
+but they joined again near the Cape de Verd Islands, which were soon
+reached. At Santiago fresh stores of meat, water, and wood were
+taken on board, and the ships were again put into good sailing order.
+
+[Illustration: La Mina. _From an old print_.]
+
+They quitted the shore of Santa Maria on the 3rd of August. The
+voyage was accomplished without any remarkable incidents, and on the
+4th of November, anchors were dropped upon the African Coast in a
+bay which received the name of _Santa-Ellena_. Eight days were spent
+there in shipping wood, and in putting everything in order on board
+the vessels. It was there that they saw for the first time the
+Bushmen, a miserable and degraded race of people who fed upon the
+flesh of sea-wolves and whales, as well as upon roots. The
+Portuguese carried off some of these natives, and treated them with
+kindness. The savages knew nothing of the value of the merchandize
+which was offered to them, they saw the objects for the first time
+and were ignorant of their use. Copper was the only thing which they
+appeared to prize, wearing in their ears small chains of that metal.
+They understood well the use of the zagayes--a kind of javelin, of
+which the point is hardened in the fire--of which three or four of
+the sailors and even Gama himself had unpleasant experience, while
+endeavouring to rescue from their hands a certain Velloso, a man who
+had imprudently ventured into the interior of the country. This
+incident has furnished Camoens with one of the most charming
+episodes of the "Lusiad."
+
+On leaving Santa-Ellena, Pero de Alemquer, formerly pilot to Diaz,
+declared his belief that they were then ninety miles from the Cape,
+but in the uncertainty the fleet stood off to sea; on the 18th of
+November the Cape of Good Hope was seen, and the next day it was
+doubled by the fleet sailing before the wind. On the 25th the
+vessels were moored in the Bay of Sam-Braz, where they remained
+thirteen days, during which time the boat which carried the stores
+was demolished, and her cargo divided amongst the three other
+vessels. During their stay the Portuguese gave the Bushmen some
+hawks' bells and other objects, which, to their surprise, were
+accepted, for in the time of Diaz the negroes had shown themselves
+timid and even hostile, and had thrown stones to prevent the crews
+from procuring water. Now they brought oxen and sheep, and to show
+their pleasure at the visit of the Portuguese, "they began," says
+Nicolas Velho, "to play upon four or five flutes, some set high,
+some low, a wonderful harmony for negroes, from whom one scarcely
+looks for music. They danced also, as dance the blacks, and the
+Capitam mõr commanded the trumpets to sound, and we in our boats
+danced too, the Capitam mõr himself dancing, as soon as he had
+returned amongst us."
+
+What shall we say to this little fête and this mutual serenade
+between the Portuguese and the negroes? Would any one have expected
+to behold Gama, a grave man, as his portraits represent him,
+initiating the negroes into the charms of the pavane. Unhappily
+these favourable dispositions were transient, and it was found
+necessary to have recourse to some hostile demonstrations by means
+of repeated discharges of artillery.
+
+In this Bay of Sam-Braz Gama erected a padrao, which was thrown down
+as soon as he was gone. The fleet soon passed the Rio Infante, the
+furthest point reached by Diaz. Here the ships experienced the
+effects of a strong current, but of which the violence was
+neutralized thanks to a favourable wind. On the 25th of December,
+Christmas Day, the country of Natal was discovered.
+
+The ships had sustained some damage, and fresh water was needed; it
+was therefore urgent for them to find some harbour, which they
+succeeded in doing on the 10th of January, 1498. The blacks whom the
+Portuguese saw here upon landing were people of greater stature than
+those whom they had hitherto met with. Their arms were a large bow
+with long arrows, and a zagaye tipped with iron. They were Caffres,
+a race very superior to the Bushmen. Such happy relations were
+quickly established with them that Gama gave the country the name of
+the Land of Good People (_Terra da bon Gente_).
+
+[Illustration: Map of the East Coast of Africa, from the Cape of
+Good Hope to the Cape del Gado.]
+
+A little further on, while still sailing up the coast, two Mussulman
+traders, one wearing a turban, the other a hood of green satin, came
+to visit the Portuguese, with a young man who, "from what could be
+understood from their signs, belonged to a very distant country, and
+who said he had already seen ships as large as ours." Vasco da Gama,
+took this as a proof that he was now approaching those Indian lands,
+which had been so long and so eagerly sought. For this reason he
+named the river which flowed into the sea at this place _Rio dos
+Bonis Signaes_ (River of good tokens). Unhappily the first symptoms
+of scurvy appeared at this time amongst the crews, and soon there
+were many sailors upon the sick list.
+
+On the 10th of March the expedition cast anchor before the Island of
+Mozambique, where, as Gama learnt through his Arab interpreters,
+there were several merchants of Mahometan extraction, who carried on
+trade with India. Gold and silver, cloth and spices, pearls and
+rubies, formed the staple of their commerce. Gama at the same time
+was assured that in pursuing the line of the coast, he would find
+numerous cities; "Whereat we were so joyful," says Velho in his
+naïve and valuable narrative, "that we wept for pleasure, praying
+God to grant us health that we might see all that which we had so
+much desired."
+
+[Illustration: Mozambique Channel.]
+
+The Viceroy Colyytam, who imagined he was dealing with Mussulmen,
+came on board several times and was magnificently entertained; he
+returned the civility by sending presents, and even furnished Gama
+with two skilful pilots, but when some Moorish merchants who had
+traded in Europe told him that these foreigners, far from being
+Turks, were in reality the worst enemies of the Mahometans, the
+viceroy, disgusted at his mistake, made preparations for seizing the
+Portuguese by treachery, and killing them. Gama was obliged to point
+his artillery at the town and threaten to reduce it to ashes before
+he could obtain the water needed for the prosecution of his voyage.
+Blood flowed, and Paul da Gama captured two barques, whose rich
+cargo was divided amongst the sailors. The ships quitted this
+inhospitable town, on the 29th of March, and the voyage continued, a
+close surveillance being kept over the Arab pilots, whom Gama was
+obliged to cause to be flogged.
+
+On the 4th of April the coast was seen, and on the 8th Mombasa or
+Mombaz was reached, a town, according to the pilots, inhabited by
+Christians and Mussulmen. The fleet dropped anchor outside the
+harbour, and did not enter it, notwithstanding the enthusiastic
+reception given to them. Already the Portuguese were reckoning upon
+meeting at mass the next day with the Christians of the Island, when
+during the night, the flag-ship was approached by a _zacra_, having
+on board a hundred armed men, who endeavoured to enter the ships in
+a body, which was refused them. The king of Mombaz was informed of
+all that had occurred at Mozambique, but pretending ignorance, he
+sent presents to Gama, proposing to him to establish a factory in
+his capital, and assuring him that so soon as he should have entered
+the port, he might take on board a cargo of spices and aromatics.
+The Capitam mõr, suspecting nothing, immediately sent two men to
+announce his entry for the morrow; already they were weighing anchor
+when the flag-ship refusing to tack, the anchor was let fall again.
+In graceful and poetic fiction, Camoens affirms that it was the
+Nereids led by Venus, the protectress of the Portuguese, who stayed
+their ships when on the point of entering the port. At this moment
+all the Moors on board the fleet quitted it simultaneously, whilst
+the Mozambique pilots threw themselves into the sea.
+
+Two Moors who were put to the question with a drop of hot oil,
+confessed that the intention was to take all the Portuguese
+prisoners as soon as they should be inside the harbour. During the
+night the Moors endeavoured several times to climb on board and to
+cut the cables in order to run the ships aground, but each time they
+were discovered. Under these circumstances no prolonged stay was
+possible at Mombaz, but it had been long enough for all those ill of
+scurvy to recover their health.
+
+At the distance of four-and-twenty miles from land, the fleet
+captured a barque richly laden with gold, silver, and provisions.
+The next day Gama arrived at Melinda, a rich and flourishing city,
+whose gilded minarets, sparkling in the sunshine, and whose mosques
+of dazzling whiteness, stood out against a sky of the most intense
+blue. The reception of the Portuguese at Melinda was at first very
+cold, the capture of the barque the evening before being already
+known there, but as soon as explanations had been given, the people
+became cordial. The king's son came to visit the admiral,
+accompanied by a train of courtiers splendidly dressed, and a choir
+of musicians, who played upon various instruments. The greatest
+astonishment was shown at the artillery practice, for the invention
+of gunpowder was not yet known on the east coast of Africa. A solemn
+treaty was made, ratified by oaths upon the Gospel and the Koran,
+and cemented by an interchange of presents. From this moment the
+ill-will, the treachery, the difficulties of all kinds which had
+hitherto beset the expedition, ceased as if by magic: this must be
+attributed to the generosity of the King of Melinda, and to the aid
+which he furnished to the Portuguese.
+
+Faithful to the promise which he had made to Vasco da Gama, the king
+sent him a Gujerat pilot named Malemo Cana, a man well instructed in
+navigation, understanding the use of charts, of the compass and the
+quadrant, and who rendered the most important service to the
+expedition. After a stay of nine days the fleet weighed anchor for
+Calicut. The coasting plan hitherto pursued was now to be abandoned,
+and the time was come when, in reliance upon the blessing of God,
+the Portuguese must venture out upon the wide ocean, without other
+guide than an unknown pilot furnished by a king whose kind welcome
+had not sufficed to lull to sleep the suspicions of the foreigners.
+And yet, thanks to the ability and loyalty of this pilot, thanks
+also to the clemency of the sea, and to the wind being constantly in
+its favour, the fleet, after a twenty-three days' voyage, reached
+the land on the 17th May, and the next day anchored at the distance
+of six miles below Calicut. The enthusiasm on board was great. At
+last they had arrived in those rich and wonderful countries.
+Fatigues, dangers, sickness, all were forgotten. The object of their
+long labours was attained! Or rather, it seemed to be so, for there
+was still needed the possession of the treasures and rich
+productions of India.
+
+Scarcely were the anchors dropped when four boats came off from the
+shore, performing evolutions around the fleet, and apparently
+inviting the sailors to disembark. But Gama, rendered cautious by
+the occurrences at Mozambique and Mombaz, sent on shore one of the
+criminals who were on board, to act as a scout; ordering him to walk
+through the town and endeavour to ascertain the temper of its
+inhabitants. Surrounded by an inquisitive crowd, assailed by
+questions to which he could not reply, this man was conducted to the
+house of a Moor named Mouçaïda, who spoke Spanish, and to whom he
+gave a short account of the voyage of the fleet. Mouçaïda returned
+with him on board, and his first words on setting foot on the ship
+were "Good luck! good luck! quantities of rubies, quantities of
+emeralds!" Whereupon, Mouçaïda was at once engaged as interpreter.
+
+The King of Calicut was at this time at a distance of forty-five
+miles from his capital, so the Capitam mõr despatched two men to
+announce the arrival of an ambassador from the King of Portugal,
+being the bearer of letters to him from his sovereign. The king at
+once sent a pilot, with orders to take the Portuguese ships into the
+safer roadstead of Pandarany, and promised to return himself on the
+morrow to Calicut; this he did, and ordered his Intendant or Catoual
+to invite Gama to land and open negotiations. In spite of the
+supplications of his brother, Paul da Gama, who represented to him
+the dangers which he might incur, and those to which his death would
+expose the expedition, the Capitam mõr set out for the shore, upon
+which an enormous crowd of people were awaiting him.
+
+The idea that they were in the midst of a Christian population was
+so rooted in the minds of all the members of the expedition, that
+Gama, on passing by a pagoda on the way, entered it to perform his
+devotions. One of his companions, however, Juan de Saa, noticing the
+hideous pictures upon the walls, was less credulous, and whilst
+throwing himself upon his knees, said aloud, "If that be a devil, I
+intend nevertheless to adore only the true God!" A mental
+reservation which caused amusement to the admiral.
+
+Near the gates of the town the crowd was even more closely packed.
+Gama and his companions, under the guidance of the Catoual, had some
+difficulty in reaching the palace, where the king, who in the
+narrative is called the "Zamorin," was awaiting them with extreme
+impatience. Ushered into halls splendidly decorated with silken
+stuffs and carpets, and in which burned the most exquisite perfumes,
+the Portuguese found themselves in the presence of the Zamorin. He
+was magnificently attired, and loaded with jewels, the pearls and
+diamonds which he wore being of extraordinary size. The king ordered
+refreshments to be served to the strangers, and permitted them to be
+seated, a peculiar mark of favour in a country where the sovereign
+is usually only addressed with the most lowly prostrations. The
+Zamorin afterwards passed into another apartment, to hear with his
+own ears, as was proudly demanded by Gama, the reasons for the
+embassy and the desire felt by the King of Portugal to conclude a
+treaty of commerce and alliance with the King of Calicut. The
+Zamorin listened to Gama's discourse, and replied that he should be
+happy to consider himself the friend and brother of King Emmanuel,
+and that he would, by the aid of Gama, send ambassadors to Portugal.
+
+[Illustration: Gama's interview with the Zamorin. _From an old
+print_.]
+
+There are certain proverbs of which the force is not affected by
+change of latitude, and the truth of that one which says, "The days
+succeed each other and have no similarity," was proved the next day
+at Calicut. The enthusiasm which had been aroused in the mind of the
+Zamorin by the ingenious discourse of Gama, and the hope it had
+awakened of the establishment of a profitable trade with Portugal,
+vanished at the sight of the presents which were to be given him.
+"Twelve pieces of striped cloth, twelve cloaks with scarlet hoods,
+six hats, and four branches of coral, accompanied by a box
+containing six large basons, a chest of sugar, and four kegs, two
+filled with oil, and two with honey," certainly did not constitute a
+very magnificent offering. At sight of it, the prime minister
+laughed, declaring that the poorest merchant from Mecca brought
+richer presents, and that the king would never accept of such
+ridiculous trifles. After this affront Gama again visited the
+Zamorin, but it was only after long waiting in the midst of a
+mocking crowd, that he was admitted to the presence of the king. The
+latter reproached him in a contemptuous manner for having nothing to
+offer him, while pretending to be the subject of a rich and powerful
+king. Gama replied with boldness, and produced the letters of
+Emmanuel, which were couched in flattering terms, and contained a
+formal promise to send merchandise to Calicut. The Zamorin, pleased
+at this prospect, then inquired with interest about the productions
+and resources of Portugal, and gave permission to Gama to disembark
+and sell his goods.
+
+But this abrupt change in the humour of the Zamorin was not at all
+agreeable to the Moorish and Arab traders, whose dealings made the
+prosperity of Calicut. They could not look on quietly whilst
+foreigners were endeavouring for their own advantage to turn aside
+the commerce which had been hitherto entirely in their hands; they
+resolved, therefore, to leave no stone unturned to drive away once
+for all these formidable rivals from the shores of India. Their
+first care was to gain the ear of the Catoual; then they painted in
+the blackest colours these insatiable adventurers, these bold
+robbers, whose only object was to spy out the strength and resources
+of the town, that they might return in force to pillage it, and to
+massacre those who should venture to oppose their designs.
+
+Upon arriving at the roadstead of Pandarany, Gama found no boat to
+take him off to the ships, and was forced to sleep on shore. The
+Catoual never left him, continually seeking to prove to him the
+necessity of bringing the ships nearer to the land; and when the
+admiral positively refused to consent to this, he declared him to be
+his prisoner. He had very little idea as yet of the firmness of
+Gama's character. Some armed boats were sent to surprise the ships,
+but the Portuguese, having received secret intelligence from the
+admiral of all that had happened, were on their guard, and their
+enemies dared not use open force. Gama, still a prisoner, threatened
+the Catoual with the anger of the Zamorin, whom he imagined could
+never thus have violated the duties of hospitality, but seeing that
+his menaces produced no effect, he tried bribery, presenting the
+minister with several pieces of stuff, who, thereupon at once
+altered his demeanour. "If the Portuguese," said he, "had but kept
+the promise they had made to the king, of disembarking their
+merchandise, the admiral would long ago have returned on board his
+ships." Gama at once sent an order to bring the goods to land,
+opened a shop for their sale, of which the superintendence was given
+to Diego Diaz, brother to the discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope,
+and was then allowed to go back to his ships.
+
+The Mussulmen placed obstacles in the way of the sale of the
+merchandise by depreciating its value; Gama sent his agent Diaz to
+the Zamorin to complain of the perfidy of the Moors and of the bad
+treatment to which he had been subjected, requesting at the same
+time permission to move his place of sale to Calicut, where he hoped
+that the goods would be more easily disposed of. This request was
+favourably received, and friendly relations were maintained, in
+spite of the Moorish intrigues, until the 10th of August, 1498. On
+that day Diaz went to announce Gama's impending departure to the
+king, reminding him of his promise to send an embassy to Portugal,
+and asking him to allow Gama a specimen of each of the productions
+of the country. These were to be paid for on the first sale of goods
+which should take place after the departure of the fleet, it being
+intended that the employés of the factory should remain at Calicut
+during Gama's absence. The Zamorin, instigated by the Arab traders,
+not only refused to execute his promise, but demanded the payment of
+600 _seraphins_ as customs' duty, ordering at the same time the
+seizure of the merchandise, and making prisoners of the men employed
+in the factory.
+
+Such an outrage, such contempt for the rights of nations, called for
+prompt vengeance, but Gama understood the art of dissimulation;
+however, on receiving a visit on board from some rich merchants, he
+detained them, and sent to the Zamorin to demand an exchange of
+prisoners. The king's reply not being sent within the time specified
+by the admiral, the latter set sail and anchored at the distance of
+sixteen miles from Calicut. After another fruitless attack by the
+Hindoos, the two agents returned on board, and a portion of the
+hostages whom Gama had secured were given up. Diaz brought back with
+him a curious letter from the Zamorin to the King of Portugal. It
+was written upon a palm leaf, and shall be quoted in all its strange
+laconicism, so different from the usual grandiloquence of the
+oriental style:--
+
+"Vasco da Gama, a noble of thy palace, is come into my country which
+I have permitted. In my kingdom there is much cinnamon, cloves, and
+pepper, with many precious stones, and what I desire from thy
+country is gold, silver, coral, and scarlet. Adieu."
+
+On the morrow, Mouçaïda the Moor of Tunis who had served as
+interpreter to the Portuguese, and had been a great assistance to
+them in their negotiations with the Zamorin, came to seek an asylum
+on board the ships. The merchandise had not been brought back on the
+appointed day, and the Capitam mõr now resolved to carry away with
+him the men whom he had kept as hostages, but the fleet was becalmed
+at several miles distance from Calicut, and was attacked by twenty
+armed boats, which were with difficulty kept at a distance by the
+artillery, until they were forced by a violent storm to take shelter
+under the coast.
+
+The admiral was sailing along the coast of the Deccan, and had
+permitted some of the sailors to go on shore to gather fruit and
+collect cinnamon bark, when he perceived eight boats, which appeared
+to be coming towards him. Gama recalled the men, and sailed forward
+to meet the Hindoos, who made the greatest haste to flee from him,
+but not without leaving a boat laden with cocoa, and provisions, in
+the hands of the Portuguese. On arriving at the Laccadive
+Archipelago, Gama had the _Berrio_ recalked, and his own ship drawn
+up on shore for repairs. The sailors were busy over this work when
+they were again attacked, but without more success than heretofore.
+The next day witnessed the arrival of an individual forty years of
+age, dressed in Hindoo style, who began to speak to the Portuguese
+in excellent Italian, telling them that he was a native of Venice,
+and had been torn from his country while still young, that he was a
+Christian, but without the possibility of practising his religion.
+He was in a high position at the court of the king of the country,
+who had sent him to them, to place at their disposal all that the
+country contained which could minister to their comfort. These
+offers of service, so different from the welcome accorded to them
+hitherto, excited the suspicions of the Portuguese, and they were
+not long in discovering that this adventurer was in command of the
+boats which had attacked them the day before. Upon this they had him
+scourged until he confessed that he had come to discover whether it
+were possible to attack the fleet with advantage, and he ended by
+affirming that all the inhabitants of the sea-shore were in league
+to destroy the Portuguese. He was retained on board, the work upon
+the ships was hurried forward, and as soon as water and provisions
+had been taken in, sail was made for a return to Europe.
+
+In consequence of dead calms and contrary winds, the expedition was
+three months, all but three days, in reaching the African coast.
+During this long voyage the crews suffered terribly from scurvy, and
+thirty sailors perished. In each ship, only seven or eight men were
+in a condition to work the vessel, and very often the officers
+themselves were forced to lend a hand. "Whence I can affirm," says
+Velho, "that if the time in which we sailed across those seas had
+been prolonged a fortnight, nobody from hence would have navigated
+them after us.... And the captains having held a council upon the
+matter, it was resolved that in case of similar winds catching us
+again, to return towards India, there to take refuge." On the 2nd of
+February, 1499, the Portuguese found themselves at last abreast of a
+great town on the coast of Ajan, called Magadoxo, distant 300 miles
+from Melinda.
+
+Gama, dreading another reception like the one given to him at
+Mozambique, would not stop here, but while passing within sight of
+the town, ordered a general discharge of the guns. A few days
+afterwards the rich and salubrious plains of Melinda came in sight,
+and here they cast anchor. The king hastened to send off fresh
+provisions and oranges for the invalids on board. The reception
+given by him to the Portuguese was in every particular most
+affectionate, and the friendship which had arisen during Gama's
+first visit to Melinda was greatly strengthened. The Sheik of
+Melinda sent for the King of Portugal a horn made of ivory and a
+number of other presents, entreating Gama at the same time to
+receive a young Moor on board his ship, that through him the king
+might learn how earnestly he desired his friendship.
+
+The five days' rest at Melinda was of the greatest benefit to the
+Portuguese, at its expiration they again set sail. Soon after
+passing Mombaz they were obliged to burn the _Sam-Raphael_, the
+crews being too much reduced to be able to work three ships. They
+discovered the Island of Zanzibar, anchored in the Bay of Sam-Braz,
+and on the 20th February, a favourable wind enabled them to double
+the Cape of Good Hope, when they again found themselves upon the
+Atlantic Ocean. The breeze remaining favourable, helped forward the
+return of the mariners, and at the end of twenty-seven days, they
+had arrived in the neighbourhood of the Island of Santiago. On the
+25th of April Nicholas Coelho, captain of the _Berrio_, eager to be
+the first to carry to Emmanuel the news of the discovery of the
+Indies, separated himself from his chief, and without touching, as
+had been arranged, at the Cape de Verd Islands, made sail direct for
+Portugal, arriving there on the 10th of July.
+
+During this time the unfortunate Gama was plunged in the most
+profound sorrow, for his brother, Paul da Gama, who had shared his
+fatigues and sufferings, and who was to be a partaker of his glory,
+seemed to be slowly dying. At Santiago, Vasco da Gama, now returned
+to well known and much frequented seas, gave up the command of his
+ships to Joao da Saa, and chartered a fast-sailing caravel, to
+hasten as much as possible his beloved invalid's return to his
+native country. But all hope was vain, and the caravel only arrived
+at Terceira in time to inter there the body of the brave and
+sympathizing Paul da Gama.
+
+Upon his arrival in Portugal, which must have taken place during the
+early part of September, the admiral was received with stately
+festivals. Of the 160 Portuguese whom he had taken with him,
+fifty-five only returned with him. The loss was great certainly, but
+what was it compared with the great advantages to be hoped for? The
+public realized this, and gave the most enthusiastic reception to
+Gama. The King, Emmanuel II., added to his own titles that of Lord
+of the conquests and of the navigation of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia,
+and the Indies; but he allowed two years to pass before rewarding
+Gama. He then bestowed upon him the title of Admiral of the Indies,
+and authorized him to use the prefix of _Dom_ before his name, a
+privilege then rarely granted. Also, doubtless to make Vasco da Gama
+forget the tardiness with which his services had been rewarded, the
+king gave him 1000 crowns, a considerable sum for that period, and
+also conceded to him certain privileges in connexion with the
+commerce of the Indies, which were likely speedily to make his
+fortune.
+
+
+II.
+THE CONQUEST OF INDIA, AND OF THE SPICE COUNTRIES.
+
+Alvarès Cabral--Discovery of Brazil--The coast of Africa--Arrival at
+Calicut, Cochin, Cananore--Joao da Nova--Gama's second expedition--
+The King of Cochin--The early life of Albuquerque--The taking of
+Goa--The siege and capture of Malacca--Second expedition against
+Ormuz--Ceylon--The Moluccas--Death of Albuquerque--Fate of the
+Portuguese empire of the Indies.
+
+
+On the 9th of March, 1500, a fleet of thirteen vessels left Rastello,
+under the command of Pedro Alvarès Cabral; on board, as a volunteer,
+was Luiz de Camoens, who in his poem the "Lusiad," was to render
+illustrious the valour and adventurous spirit of his countrymen. But
+little is known of Cabral, and nothing of the reason which had
+gained him the command of this important expedition. Cabral belonged
+to one of the most illustrious families in Portugal, and his father,
+Fernando Cabral, lord of Zurara da Beira, was Alcalde mõr of
+Belmonte. Pedro Alvarès Cabral had married Isabel de Castro, first
+lady in waiting to the Infanta Dona Maria, daughter of John III. If
+it be asked whether Cabral had made himself famous by some important
+maritime discovery, we answer there is no reason to think so, for in
+that case the historians would have recorded it. But it is difficult
+to believe that he owed to court favour alone the command of an
+expedition in which such men as Bartholomew Diaz, Nicholas Coelho
+the companion of Gama, and Sancho de Thovar sailed under his orders.
+Why had not this mission been confided to Gama, who had been at home
+for six months, and whose knowledge of the countries to be visited
+and of the manners of their inhabitants, seemed to point him out as
+the fittest man for the service? Had he not yet recovered from the
+fatigues of his first voyage? Or had his grief for the loss of a
+brother who had died almost within sight of the coasts of Portugal
+so deeply affected him, that he desired to remain in retirement? May
+it not rather have been that King Emmanuel was jealous of the fame
+of Gama, and did not wish to give him the opportunity of increasing
+his renown? These are problems which perhaps history may be for ever
+unable to solve.
+
+It is easy to believe in the realization of those things which we
+ardently desire. Emmanuel imagined that the Zamorin of Calicut would
+not object to the establishment of Portuguese shops and factories in
+his country, and Cabral, the bearer of presents of such magnificence
+as to obliterate the memory of the shabbiness of those offered by
+Gama, received orders to obtain from the Zamorin an interdict,
+forbidding any Moor to carry on trade in his capital. The new
+Capitam mõr was in the first place to visit Melinda, to offer rich
+presents to its king, and to restore to him the Moor who had come to
+Portugal with Gama. Sixteen friars were sent out on board the fleet,
+charged to carry the knowledge of the Gospel to the distant
+countries of Asia.
+
+The fleet had sailed for thirteen days and had passed the Cape de
+Verd Islands, when it was discovered that one of the ships, under
+the command of Vasco d'Ataïde, was no longer in company. The rest of
+the ships lay to for some time to await her, but in vain, and the
+twelve vessels then continued their navigation upon the open sea,
+and not, as had been the manner hitherto, steering simply from cape
+to cape along the shores of Africa. Cabral hoped by this means to
+avoid the calms in the Gulf of Guinea, which had proved so great a
+cause of delay to the preceding expeditions. Perhaps even the
+Capitam mõr, who must, in common with the rest of his countrymen,
+have been acquainted with the discoveries of Christopher Columbus,
+may have had the secret hope, by keeping to the west, of arriving at
+some region unvisited by the great navigator.
+
+The fact remains, whether it is to be accounted for by a storm or by
+some secret design, that the fleet was out of the right way for
+doubling the Cape of Good Hope when, on the 22nd of April, a high
+mountain was seen, and soon afterwards a long stretch of coast,
+which received the name of Vera Cruz, changed afterwards to that of
+Santa Cruz. This was Brazil, and the point where now stands Porto
+Seguro. On the 28th, after a skilful reconnaissance of the coasts
+had been made by Coelho, the Portuguese sailors landed upon the
+American shores, and became aware of a delicious mildness of
+temperature, with a luxuriance of vegetation greatly exceeding
+anything which they had seen on the coasts of Africa or of Malabar.
+The natives formed themselves in groups around the sailors, without
+showing the least sign of fear. They were almost naked, and bore
+upon the wrist a tame parroquet, after the fashion in which the
+gentlemen of Europe carry their hawks or their gerfalcons.
+
+On Easter Sunday, the 26th of April, a solemn mass was celebrated on
+the shore in sight of the Indians, whose silence and attitude of
+respect excited the admiration of the Portuguese. On the 1st of May
+a large cross and a padrao were erected on the shore, and Cabral
+formally took possession of the country in the name of the King of
+Portugal. His first care after this formality was accomplished was
+to despatch Gaspard de Lemos to Lisbon, to announce the discovery of
+this rich and fertile country. Lemos took with him the narrative of
+the expedition written by Pedro Vaz de Caminha, and an important
+astronomical document, the work of Master Joao, in which was
+doubtless stated the exact situation of the new conquest. Before
+setting out for Asia, Cabral put on land two criminals, whom he
+ordered to ascertain the resources and riches of the country, as
+well as the manners and customs of the inhabitants. These wise and
+far-sighted measures speak much for Cabral's prudence and sagacity.
+
+[Illustration: Cabral takes formal possession of Brazil.]
+
+It was the 2nd of May when the fleet lost sight of Brazil. All on
+board, rejoicing over this happy commencement of the voyage,
+believed in the prospect of an easy and rapid success, when the
+appearance of a brilliant comet on eight consecutive days struck the
+ignorant and simple minds of the sailors with terror; they
+considered it must be a bad omen, and for this once events appeared
+to justify superstition. A fearful storm arose, waves mountains high
+broke over the ships, whilst the wind blew furiously and rain fell
+without ceasing. When the sun at length succeeded in piercing the
+thick curtain of clouds which almost entirely intercepted his rays,
+a horrible scene was disclosed. The water looked thick and black,
+large patches of a livid white colour flecked the foaming, crested
+waves, while during the night phosphorescent lights, streaking the
+immense plain of water, marked out the course of the ships with a
+train of fire. For two-and-twenty days, without truce or mercy, the
+Portuguese ships were battered by the furious elements. The
+terrified sailors were utterly prostrate; they vainly exhausted
+their prayers and vows, and obeyed the orders of their officers only
+from the force of habit; from the first day they had given up any
+hope of their lives being spared, and only awaited the moment when
+they should all be submerged. When light at length returned and the
+billows became calm, each crew, thinking themselves to be perhaps
+the sole survivors, looked eagerly over the sea in search of their
+companions. Three ships met together again with a joy which the sad
+reality soon abated. Eight vessels were missing; four had been
+engulfed by a gigantic water-spout during the last days of the storm.
+One of these had been commanded by Bartholomew Diaz, the discoverer
+of the Cape of Good Hope: he had been drowned by these murderous
+waves, the defenders, according to Camoens, of the empire of the
+east against the nations of the west, who had for so many centuries
+coveted her marvellous riches.
+
+During this long series of storms the Cape had been doubled and the
+fleet was approaching the coast of Africa. On the 20th of July
+Mozambique was signalled. The Moors of this place showed a more
+agreeable disposition than they had done when Gama was there, and
+furnished the Portuguese with two pilots, who conducted them to
+Quiloa, an island famed for the trade in gold-dust which was carried
+on with Sofala. There Cabral found two of the missing ships, which
+had been driven to this island by the wind. A plot was on foot in
+Quiloa for a wholesale massacre of the Europeans, but this was
+frustrated by a prompt departure from the island, and the ships
+arrived at Melinda without any untoward incident. The stay of the
+fleet in this port was the occasion of fêtes and rejoicings without
+number, and soon, revictualled, repaired, and furnished with
+excellent pilots, the Portuguese vessels sailed for Calicut, where
+they arrived on the 13th of December, 1500.
+
+[Illustration: View of Quiloa. _From an old print_.]
+
+This time, thanks to the power of their arms as well as to the
+richness of the presents offered to the Zamorin, the reception was
+different, and the versatile prince agreed to all the demands of
+Cabral: namely, a monopoly of the trade in aromatics and spicery,
+and the right of seizure upon all vessels which should infringe this
+privilege. For some time the Moors dissembled their resentment, but
+when they had succeeded in thoroughly exasperating the population
+against the foreigners, they rushed at a given signal into the
+factory which was under the direction of Ayrès Correa, and massacred
+fifty of the Portuguese, whom they surprised in it. Vengeance for
+this outrage was not slow; ten boats moored in the port were taken,
+pillaged, and burnt before the eyes of the Hindoos, who were
+powerless to render opposition; afterwards the town was bombarded,
+and was half-buried under its ruins.
+
+When this affair was concluded, Cabral, continuing the exploration
+of the Malabar coast, arrived at Cochin, where the Rajah, a vassal
+of the Zamorin, hastened to conclude an alliance with the Portuguese,
+eagerly seizing this opportunity to declare himself independent.
+Although by this time his fleet was richly laden, Cabral made a
+visit to Cananore, where he entered into a treaty with the Rajah of
+the country; then, being impatient to return home, he set sail for
+Europe. While coasting along that shore of Africa, which is washed
+by the Indian Ocean, he discovered Sofala, a place which had escaped
+the observation of Gama. On the 13th of July, 1501, Cabral arrived
+at Lisbon, where he had the joy of finding the two remaining ships
+which he had imagined to be lost.
+
+It is pleasant to believe that he received the welcome merited by
+the important results obtained in this memorable expedition.
+Although contemporary historians are silent upon the incidents of
+his life after his return, recent research has been rewarded by the
+discovery of his tomb at Santarem, and M. Ferdinand Denis has
+happily proved that, like Vasco da Gama, he received the title of
+_Dom_ as a reward for his glorious deeds.
+
+Whilst he was returning to Europe Alvarès Cabral might have
+encountered a fleet of four caravels under the command of Joao da
+Nova, which King Emmanuel had despatched to give fresh vigour to the
+commercial relations which Cabral had been charged to establish in
+the Indies. This new expedition doubled the Cape of Good Hope
+without misadventure, discovered between Mozambique and Quiloa an
+unknown island, which was named after the commander of the fleet,
+and arrived at Melinda, where Da Nova was informed of the events
+which had taken place at Calicut. He felt that he had not forces at
+his disposal sufficient to justify him in going to punish the
+Zamorin, and not wishing to endanger the prestige of Portuguese arms
+by the risk of a reverse, he steered for Cochin and Cananore, of
+which the kings, although tributaries of the Zamorin, had entered
+into alliance with Alvarès Cabral. Da Nova had already taken on
+board 1000 hundredweights of pepper, 50 of ginger, and 450 of
+cinnamon, when he received warning that a considerable fleet, coming
+apparently from Calicut, was advancing with hostile intentions. If
+he had hitherto been more concerned with trade than with war, he did
+not the less in these critical circumstances display a bold and
+courageous spirit worthy of his predecessors. He accepted the combat,
+notwithstanding the apparent superiority of the Hindoos, and partly
+by the skilful arrangements which he made, partly by the power of
+his guns, he managed to disperse, to take, or to sink the hostile
+vessels. Perhaps Da Nova ought to have profited by the terror which
+his victory had spread along the coast, and the temporary exhaustion
+of the Moorish resources, to strike a great blow by the taking of
+Calicut. But we are too far removed in time from the events, and
+know too little of their details, to appreciate with impartiality
+the reasons which induced the admiral to return immediately to
+Europe.
+
+It was during this latter part of his voyage that Nova discovered
+the small island of Saint Helena in the midst of the Atlantic. A
+curious story attaches to this discovery. A certain Fernando Lopez
+had followed Gama to the Indies; this man, wishing to marry a Hindoo,
+was forced for this purpose to renounce Christianity and become a
+Mahometan. Upon Nova's visit, having had enough either of his wife
+or of her religion, he begged to be taken back to his country, and
+returned to his old creed. Upon arriving at Saint Helena, Lopez, in
+obedience to a sudden idea, which he regarded as an inspiration from
+on high, requested to be landed there, in order, as he said, to
+expiate his detestable apostasy and to atone for it by his devotion
+to humanity. His will appeared so fixed that Da Nova was forced to
+consent, and he left him there, having given him at his request
+various seeds of fruits and vegetables. It must be added that this
+singular hermit worked for four years at the clearing and planting
+of the island with such success, that ships were soon able to call
+there to revictual during their long passage from Europe to the Cape
+of Good Hope.
+
+The successive expeditious of Gama, Cabral, and Da Nova had
+conclusively proved that an uninterrupted commerce must not be
+reckoned upon, nor a continued exchange of merchandise, with the
+population of the Malabar Coast, who, while their own independence
+and liberty were respected had each time leagued together against
+the Portuguese. That trade with Europeans which they so persistently
+refused, must be forced upon them, and for that purpose permanent
+military establishments must be formed, capable of overawing the
+malcontents, and even in case of necessity of taking possession of
+the country. But to whom should such an important mission be
+entrusted? The choice could scarcely be doubtful, and Vasco da Gama
+was unanimously chosen to take the command of the powerful armament
+which was in preparation.
+
+Vasco had ten ships under his own immediate command, while his
+second brother Stephen da Gama, and his cousin Vincent Sodrez, had
+each five ships under his orders, but they were both to recognise
+Vasco da Gama as their chief. The ceremonies which preceded the
+departure of the fleet from Lisbon were of a particularly grave and
+solemn character. King Emmanuel, followed by the whole court,
+repaired to the cathedral in the midst of an enormous crowd, and
+there called down blessings from heaven upon this expedition, partly
+religious, partly military, while the Archbishop blessed the banner
+which was entrusted to Gama.
+
+The admiral's first care was to visit Sofala and Mozambique, towns
+of which he had had reason to complain in the course of his first
+voyage. Being anxious to establish harbours for refuge, and
+revictualling of ships, he established there merchants' offices, and
+laid the foundations of forts. He also levied a heavy tribute upon
+the Sheik of Quiloa, and then sailed for the coast of Hindostan.
+When Gama had arrived off Calicut, he perceived on the 3rd of
+October a vessel of large tonnage, which appeared to him to be
+richly laden. It was the _Merii_ bringing back from Mecca a great
+number of pilgrims belonging to all the countries of Asia. Gama
+attacked the ship without provocation, captured her and put to death
+more than three hundred men who were on board. Twenty children alone
+were saved and taken to Lisbon, where they were baptized, and
+entered the army of Portugal. This frightful massacre, besides being
+quite in accordance with the ideas of the period, was calculated
+according to Gama, to strike terror into the Hindoo mind: it did
+nothing of the sort. This hateful and useless cruelty has left a
+stain of blood upon the hitherto pure fame of the admiral.
+
+[Illustration: Map of the Coasts of Persia, Guzerat, and Malabar.]
+
+As soon as he arrived at Cananore, Gama obtained an audience of the
+Rajah, who authorized him to establish a counting-house, and to
+build a fort. At the same time a treaty of alliance, offensive and
+defensive was concluded. After setting the labourers to work, and
+installing his agent, the admiral set sail for Calicut, where he
+intended to summon the Zamorin to a reckoning for his disloyalty, as
+well as for the murder of the Portuguese who had been surprised in
+the factory. Although the Rajah of Calicut had been informed of the
+arrival in the Indies of his formidable enemies, he had taken no
+military precautions, and thus, when Gama presented himself before
+the town, he was able to seize some vessels anchored in the port and
+to make a hundred prisoners, without encountering any resistance;
+afterwards he granted the Zamorin a respite of four days, in which
+to make atonement to the Portuguese for the murder of Correa, and to
+refund the value of the merchandise which had been stolen on that
+occasion.
+
+The time specified had scarcely elapsed when the bodies of fifty of
+the prisoners were strung up at the yard-arms of the vessels, where
+they remained exposed to the view of the town during the whole day.
+In the evening the feet and hands of these expiatory victims were
+cut off and taken on shore, with a letter from the admiral,
+declaring that his vengeance would not be limited to this execution.
+Accordingly, under cover of the night, the broadsides of the vessels
+were brought to bear upon the town, which was bombarded for the
+space of three days. It will never be known what was the exact
+number of the slain, but it must have been considerable. Without
+reckoning those killed by the fire of the cannon and the muskets, a
+great number of Hindoos were buried beneath the ruins of the
+buildings, or perished in the conflagration, which destroyed a
+portion of the town of Calicut. The Rajah had been one of the first
+to take flight, and fortunate was it for him that he had done so,
+for his palace was amongst the buildings which were demolished. At
+length, satisfied with having transformed this heretofore rich and
+populous city into a heap of ruins, and considering his vengeance
+satiated, and that the lesson so taught would be profitable, Gama
+set sail for Cochin, leaving behind him Vincent Sodrez, with several
+ships, to continue the blockade.
+
+Triumpara, the sovereign of Cochin, informed the admiral that he had
+been eagerly solicited by the Zamorin to take advantage of the
+confidence reposed in him by the Portuguese, to surprise and seize
+them, in consequence of which intelligence, and to reward the
+integrity of the king whose loyalty had exposed him to the enmity of
+the Rajah of Calicut, Gama, when starting for Lisbon with a valuable
+cargo, left with Triumpara ships sufficient to enable him to await
+in safety the arrival of another squadron. During Gama's return
+voyage the only noteworthy incident that occurred was the defeat of
+another Malabar fleet. The admiral arrived in Europe on the 20th of
+December, 1503.
+
+Once more the eminent services rendered by this great man went
+unrecognised, or rather they were not appreciated as they deserved.
+Gama, who had just laid the foundations of the colonial empire of
+Portugal in India, remained for one and twenty years without
+employment, and it was only through the intercession of the Duke of
+Braganza, that he obtained the title of Count de Vidigueyra. A too
+common instance this of ingratitude, but one which it is never _mal
+à propos_ to stigmatize as it deserves.
+
+Scarcely had Gama set out for Europe, before the Zamorin at the
+instigation of the Musselmen, who saw their commercial supremacy
+more and more compromised, assembled his allies at Pani with the
+object of attacking the King of Cochin and of punishing him for the
+counsel and assistance which he had given to the Portuguese. The
+unfortunate Rajah's fidelity was now put to a hard proof. Besieged
+in his capital by a large force, he saw himself all at once deprived
+of the aid of those for whose advantage he had incurred so great a
+risk. Sodrez and several of his captains had deserted the post,
+where both honour and gratitude required them to remain, and if need
+were, to die in the discharge of their duty; they forsook Triumpara
+to go and cruise in the neighbourhood of Ormuz, and at the entrance
+to the Red Sea, where they calculated that the annual pilgrimage to
+Mecca was likely to ensure them some rich booty. The Portuguese
+agent vainly represented to them the unworthiness of their conduct,
+they set out in haste, to escape from these inconvenient reproaches.
+
+The King of Cochin, betrayed by some of the Nairs (military nobles)
+of his palace, who had been gained over by the Zamorin, soon saw his
+capital carried by assault, and was obliged to seek refuge upon an
+inaccessible rock in the little Island of Viopia, with those
+Portuguese who had remained faithful to him. When he was reduced to
+the last extremity, an emissary was sent to him by the Zamorin, to
+promise him pardon and oblivion of his offences if he would give up
+to him the Portuguese. But Triumpara, whose fidelity cannot be
+sufficiently commended, answered, "that the Zamorin might use his
+rights of victory; that he was not ignorant of the perils by which
+he was menaced, but that it was not in the power of any man to make
+him a traitor and a perjurer." No one could have made a nobler
+return than this for the desertion and cowardice of Sodrez.
+
+Vincent Sodrez had arrived at the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, when a
+fearful tempest occurred, in which his ship split upon the rocks,
+and he and his brother perished. The survivors regarded this event
+as a judgment of Providence for their bad conduct, and they made
+haste, with all sails set to return to Cochin. They were detained by
+contrary winds at the Laccadive Islands, and were there joined by
+another Portuguese squadron under the command of Francisco
+d'Albuquerque, who had sailed from Lisbon almost at the same time as
+his cousin Alfonzo d'Albuquerque the most distinguished captain of
+the period, who with the title of Capitam mõr had started from Belem
+at the beginning of April, 1503.
+
+The arrival of Francisco d'Albuquerque placed the Portuguese affairs,
+which had been so gravely compromised by the criminal conduct of
+Sodrez, upon a better footing, and at the same time effected the
+rescue of Triumpara, their sole and faithful ally. The besiegers
+fled at the sight of the Portuguese squadron, without even a show of
+resistance, and the Europeans in conjunction with the troops of the
+King of Cochin ravaged the Malabar Coast. As a consequence of these
+events, Triumpara allowed his allies to construct a second fortress
+in his dominions, and authorised an augmentation of the number and
+importance of their mercantile houses. This was the moment that
+witnessed the arrival of Alfonzo d'Albuquerque, the man destined to
+be the real creator of the Portuguese Empire in the Indies. Diaz,
+Cabral, and Gama, had prepared the way, but Albuquerque was the
+leader of large views who was needed to determine which were the
+principal towns that must be seized in order to place the Portuguese
+dominion upon a solid and lasting basis. Thus every particular of
+the history of this man who showed so great a genius for
+colonisation, is of the deepest interest, and it is well worth while
+to record some particulars of his family, his education, and his
+early exploits.
+
+Alfonzo d'Alboquerque or d'Albuquerque, was born in 1453 at Alhandra,
+eighteen miles from Lisbon. Through his father Gonzalo d'Albuquerque,
+the Lord of Villaverde, he was descended, but illegitimately, from
+King Diniz; and through his mother from the Menezez, the great
+explorers. Brought up at the court of Alphonzo V., he there received
+as liberal and thorough an education as was possible at the period.
+He made an especial study of the great writers of antiquity, whose
+influence may be traced in the majesty and accuracy of his own style,
+and of mathematics of which he knew as much as could be learnt at
+that time. After staying for some years at Arzila, an African town
+which was under the dominion of Alphonzo V., he returned to Portugal,
+and was appointed Master of the Horse to John II., a prince whose
+chief anxiety was to extend the name and power of Portugal beyond
+the seas. It is evident that it was to the constant attendance upon
+the king imposed upon him by the duties of his office, that
+Albuquerque owed the inclination of his mind towards geographical
+studies, and his anxious desire to find the means of giving to his
+country the Empire of the Indies. He had already taken part in an
+expedition sent to the succour of the King of Naples against an
+incursion of the Turks, and in 1489, had been charged with the
+commission of revictualling and defending the fortress of Graciosa,
+upon the coast of Larache.
+
+We must now return from this digression and take up the history of
+Albuquerque, from the time of his arrival in India in 1503. It took
+him but a few days to become thoroughly aware of the position of
+affairs; he perceived that the commerce of Portugal must depend upon
+conquest for its power of development. But his first enterprise was
+proportioned to the feebleness of his resources; he laid siege to
+Raphelim, which he wished to make a military station for his
+countrymen, and then with two ships he undertook a reconnaissance of
+the coast of Hindostan. Being attacked quite unexpectedly both by
+land and sea, he was on the point of yielding when the fortunate
+arrival of his cousin Francisco turned the combat, and put the
+Zamorin's troops to flight. The importance of this victory was
+considerable; the conquerors remained masters of an immense booty
+and quantities of precious stones, which had the result of
+stimulating the Portuguese spirit of covetousness; at the same time
+it confirmed Albuquerque in his designs, for the execution of which
+the consent of the king was needful, and also more considerable
+resources. He therefore set out on his return to Lisbon, where he
+arrived in July, 1504.
+
+This same year, King Emmanuel wishing to organize a regular
+government in the Indies, had made Tristan da Cunha his viceroy, but
+Da Cunha having become temporarily blind was obliged to resign his
+power before he had exercised it. The king's choice next fell upon
+Francisco d'Almeida, who set out with his son in 1505. It will be
+soon seen what were the means which he considered should be employed
+to assure the triumph of his countrymen.
+
+On the 6th of March, 1506, sixteen vessels left Lisbon under the
+command of Tristan da Cunha, who had by that time regained his
+health. With him went Alfonzo Albuquerque, carrying with him, but
+unknown to himself, his patent of Viceroy of India. He was ordered
+not to open the sealed packet until three years should have expired,
+when Almeida would have completed the term of his mission.
+
+This numerous fleet, after having stopped at the Cape de Verd
+Islands and discovered Cape St. Augustine in Brazil, steered
+directly for the unexplored parts of the South Atlantic, and went so
+far south that the old chroniclers assert that several sailors being
+too lightly clad died from cold, while the others were scarcely able
+to work the ships. In 37 degrees 8 minutes south latitude, and 14
+degrees 21 minutes west longitude, Da Cunha discovered three small
+uninhabited islands, of which the largest still bears his name. A
+storm prevented a landing there, and so completely dispersed the
+fleet that the admiral could not get his vessels together again
+before he arrived at Mozambique. In sailing along this African coast
+he explored the island of Madagascar or Sam-Lorenzo, which had just
+been discovered by Soarez, who was in command of eight vessels which
+Almeida was sending back to Europe; it was not thought advisable to
+make a settlement upon the island.
+
+After having wintered at Mozambique, Da Cunha landed three
+ambassadors at Melinda, who were to reach Abyssinia by travelling
+overland, then he anchored at Brava, which Coutinho, one of his
+lieutenants had been unable to subjugate. The Portuguese now laid
+siege to this town, which resisted bravely but which yielded in the
+end, thanks to the courage of the enemy and the perfection of their
+arms. The population was massacred without mercy, and the town
+pillaged and burnt. Upon Magadoxo, another town on the African Coast,
+Cunha tried but in vain, to impose his authority. The strength of
+the town and the stubborn resolution shown by the numerous
+population as well as the approach of winter forced him to raise the
+siege. He then turned his arms against Socotra, at the entrance of
+the Gulf of Aden, where he carried the fortress. The whole of the
+garrison were put to the sword, the only man spared being an old
+blind soldier, who was discovered hidden in a well. When asked how
+he had been able to get down there, he answered,--"The blind only
+see the road which leads to liberty." At Socotra, the two Portuguese
+chiefs constructed the fort of Çoco, intended by Albuquerque to
+command the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, by the Strait of
+Bab-el-Mandeb, thus cutting one of the lines of communication with
+the Indies, which was the most used by the Venetians.
+
+Here Da Cunha and Albuquerque separated, the former going to India
+to obtain a cargo of spices, the latter officially invested with the
+title of Capitam mõr, and bent on the realization of his vast
+schemes, setting out on the 10th of August, 1507, for Ormuz, having
+left his nephew Alfonzo da Noronha in charge of the new fortress. He
+took in succession, and as if to get his hand in for the work,
+Calayati, where were found immense stores, Curiaty and Mascati,
+which he gave up to pillage, fire, and destruction, in order to
+avenge a series of acts of treachery easily understood by those who
+know the duplicity of these eastern people. The success which he had
+just gained at Mascati, important as it was, did not content
+Albuquerque. He dreamed of other and grander projects, of which the
+execution was, however, much compromised by the jealousy of the
+captains under his orders, and notably of Joao da Nova, who
+contemplated abandoning his chief, and whom Albuquerque was obliged
+to place under arrest on board his own ship. After having suppressed
+these beginnings of disobedience and rebellion, the Capitam mõr
+reached Orfacati, which was taken after a vigorous resistance.
+
+It is a curious fact that Albuquerque had long heard Ormuz spoken of,
+but that as yet he was ignorant of its position. He knew that this
+town served as an entrepôt for all the merchandise passing from Asia
+into Europe. Its riches and power, the number of its inhabitants and
+the beauty of its monuments were at that time celebrated throughout
+the East, so much so that there was a common saying, "If the world
+be a ring, Ormuz is the precious stone set in it." Albuquerque had
+resolved to take this town, not only because in itself it was a
+prize worth having, but also because it commanded the whole of the
+Persian Gulf, which was the second of the great commercial roads
+between the East and West. Without saying anything to the captains
+of his fleet, who, without doubt, would have rebelled at the idea of
+attacking so strong a town, and the capital of a powerful empire,
+Albuquerque gave orders to double Cape Mussendom, and the fleet soon
+entered the Strait of Ormuz, the door of the Persian Gulf, from
+whence was seen rising in all its magnificence a busy town built
+upon a rocky island, provided with formidable artillery, and
+protected by an army amounting to not less than from fifteen to
+twenty thousand men, while its harbour enclosed a fleet more
+numerous than could have been suspected at first sight. At this
+sight the captains made urgent representations upon the danger that
+Albuquerque would run in attacking so well-prepared a town, and made
+the most of the plea how very bad an influence a reverse would
+exercise. To this discourse Albuquerque answered, that indeed "it
+was a very great affair, but that it was too late to draw back, and
+that he had greater need of determination than of good advice."
+
+[Illustration: Albuquerque before Ormuz.]
+
+Scarcely was the anchor dropped before Albuquerque declared his
+ultimatum. Although the forces under his orders were very
+disproportionate in numbers, the Capitam mõr imperiously demanded
+that Ormuz should recognize the suzerainty of the King of Portugal
+and submit to his envoy, if it did not wish to share the same fate
+as Mascati. The King, Seif-Ed-din, who was then reigning over Ormuz,
+was still a child, and his Prime Minister, Kodja-Atar, a skilful and
+cunning diplomatist, governed in the king's name. Without denying in
+principle the pretensions of Albuquerque, the Prime Minister wished
+to gain time, to allow contingents to arrive for the help of the
+capital; but the admiral, who guessed his object, did not hesitate,
+after waiting three days, to attack the formidable fleet at anchor
+under the guns of Ormuz, with his five vessels and the _Flor de la
+Mar_, the finest and largest ship of that time. The combat was
+bloody and long undecided, but when they saw fortune was against
+them the Moors, abandoning their vessels, endeavoured to swim on
+shore. The Portuguese upon this jumped into their boats, pursuing
+the Moors vigorously, and causing horrible carnage. Albuquerque next
+directed his efforts against a large wooden jetty defended by
+numerous guns and by archers, whose well-aimed arrows wounded a
+number of the Portuguese and the general himself, who, however, was
+not hindered thereby from landing and proceeding to burn the suburbs
+of the town. Convinced that resistance would soon be impossible, and
+that their capital was in danger of being destroyed, the Moors
+hoisted a flag of truce, and signed a treaty, by which Seif-Ed-din
+declared himself the vassal of King Emmanuel, promised to pay him an
+annual tribute of 15,000 seraphins or xarafins, and gave to the
+conquerors a site for a fortress, which, in spite of the repugnance
+and reproaches of the Portuguese captains, was soon put into a
+condition of resistance. Unfortunately some deserters quickly
+brought these unworthy dissensions to the knowledge of Kodja-Atar,
+who profited by them to avoid, under various pretexts, fulfilling
+the execution of the articles of the new treaty. Some days
+afterwards Joao da Nova and two other captains, jealous of the
+successes of Albuquerque, and trampling in the dust every sentiment
+of honour, discipline, and patriotism, left him to go to the Indies;
+while Albuquerque was obliged by this cowardly desertion to withdraw
+without being able even to guard the fortress which he had been at
+so much pains to construct. He went to Socotra, where the garrison
+was in need of help, and then returned to cruise before Ormuz, but
+thinking himself too weak to undertake anything, he retired for a
+time to Goa, arriving there at the end of the year 1508.
+
+What had been occurring on the Malabar coast during this long and
+adventurous campaign? The answer may be summed up in a few lines. It
+will be remembered that Almeida had set out from Belem in 1505 with
+a fleet of twenty-two sail, carrying soldiers to the number of 1500
+men. First he seized Quiloa and then Mombaz, of which the "cavaliers,
+as the inhabitants loved to repeat, did not yield as easily as the
+chicken hearts of Quiloa." Out of the enormous booty, which by the
+fall of this town fell into the hands of the Portuguese, Almeida
+only took one arrow as his share of the spoil, thus giving a rare
+example of disinterestedness. After having stopped at Melinda he
+went on to Cochin, where he delivered to the Rajah the golden crown
+sent to him by Emmanuel, whilst he himself, with the presumptuous
+vanity of which he gave so many proofs, assumed the title of viceroy.
+Then, after commencing a fortress at Sofala, destined to overawe the
+Mussulmen of that coast, Almeida and his son, Lorenzo, scoured the
+Indian Seas, destroying the Malabar fleets, capturing some trading
+vessels, and causing great injury to the enemy, whose accustomed
+commercial roads were thus intercepted. But for this cruising
+warfare a numerous fleet of light vessels was needed, for there was
+scarcely any other harbour of refuge except Cochin upon the Asiatic
+coast. How preferable was Albuquerque's system of establishing
+himself in the country in a permanent manner, by constructing
+fortresses in all directions, by seizing upon the most powerful
+cities, whence it was easy to branch off into the interior of the
+country, by rendering himself master of the keys of the straits, and
+thus ensuring with much less risk, and more solidity, the monopoly
+of the Indian commerce.
+
+Meantime the victories of Almeida, and the conquests of Albuquerque
+had much disquieted the Sultan of Egypt. The abandonment of the
+Alexandrian route caused a great diminution in the amount of imposts
+and dues of customs, anchorage, and transit, which were laid upon
+the merchandise of Asia as it passed through his states. Therefore,
+with the help of the Venetians, who furnished him with the wood for
+ship-building as well as with skilful sailors, he fitted out a
+squadron of twelve large ships, which came as far as Cochin, seeking
+the fleet of Lorenzo d'Almeida, and defeating it in a bloody combat
+in which Lorenzo was killed. If the sorrow of the viceroy were great
+at this sad news, at least he did not let it appear outwardly, but
+set to work to make all preparations for taking prompt vengeance
+upon the Roumis,--an appellation which shows the lasting terror
+attaching to the name of the Romans, and commonly used at this time
+upon the Malabar coast, for all Mussulman soldiers coming from
+Byzantium. With nineteen sail Almeida appeared before the fort where
+his son had been killed, and gained a great victory, but one sullied,
+it must be confessed, by most frightful cruelties, so much so that
+it soon became a common saying: "May the anger of the Franks fall
+upon thee as it fell upon Daboul." Not content with this first
+success, Almeida, some weeks later, annihilated the combined forces
+of the Sultan of Egypt, and the Rajah of Calicut, before Diu. This
+victory made a profound impression in India, and put an end to the
+power of the _Mahumetists_ of Egypt.
+
+Joao da Nova and the other captains, who had abandoned Albuquerque
+before Ormuz, had decided to rejoin Almeida; they had excused their
+disobedience by calumnies, in consequence of which a judicial
+process was about to be instituted against Albuquerque, when the
+viceroy received the news of his being replaced in his office by
+Albuquerque. At first Almeida declared that obedience must be
+rendered to this sovereign decree, but afterwards influenced by the
+traitors, who feared that they would be severely punished when the
+power had passed into the hands of Albuquerque, he repaired to
+Cochin in the month of March, 1509, with the fixed determination not
+to give up the command to his successor. There were disagreeable and
+painful disputes between these two great men, in which all the wrong
+done was on the side of Almeida. Albuquerque was about to be sent to
+Lisbon with chains on his feet, when a fleet of fifteen sail entered
+the harbour, under the command of the grand Marshal of Portugal,
+Ferdinand Coutinho. The latter took the part of the prisoner, whom
+he immediately released, notifying again to Almeida the powers held
+by Albuquerque from the king, and threatening him with the great
+anger of Emmanuel if he refused to obey. Almeida could do nothing
+but yield, and he then did it nobly. As for Joao da Nova, the author
+of these sad misunderstandings, he died some time afterwards,
+forsaken by everybody, and had scarcely any one to follow him to the
+grave except the new viceroy, who thus generously forgot the
+injuries done to Alfonzo Albuquerque.
+
+Immediately after the departure of Almeida, the grand Marshal
+Coutinho declared that, having come to India with the intention of
+destroying Calicut, he intended to turn to account the absence of
+the Zamorin from his capital. In vain the new viceroy endeavoured to
+modify his zeal and induce him to take the wise measures recommended
+by experience. Coutinho would listen to nothing, and Albuquerque was
+obliged to follow him. Calicut, taken by surprise, was easily set on
+fire; but the Portuguese, having lingered to pillage the Zamorin's
+palace, were fiercely attacked in rear by the Nairs, who had
+succeeded in rallying their troops. Coutinho, whose impetuous valour
+led him into the greatest danger, was killed, and it required all
+the skill and coolness of the viceroy to effect a re-embarkation of
+the troops under the enemy's fire, and to preserve the soldiers of
+the King of Portugal from total destruction.
+
+On his return to Cintagara, a sea-port which was a dependency of the
+King of Narsingue, with whom the Portuguese had been able to form an
+alliance, Albuquerque learnt that Goa, the capital of a powerful
+kingdom, was a prey to political and religious anarchy. Several
+chiefs were contending there for power. One of them, Melek Çufergugi,
+was just on the point of seizing the throne, and it was important to
+profit by the circumstances of the moment, and attack the town
+before he should have been able to gather a force capable of
+resisting the Portuguese. The viceroy perceived all the importance
+of this counsel. The situation of Goa, giving access as it did to
+the kingdom of Narsingue and to the Deccan, had already struck him
+forcibly. He did not delay, and soon the Portuguese reckoned one
+conquest more. Goa the Golden, a cosmopolitan town, where were
+mingled with all the various sects of Islam Parsees, the worshippers
+of Fire, and even some Christians, submitted to Albuquerque, and
+soon became, under a wise and strict government which understood how
+to conciliate the sympathies of opposing sects, the capital, the
+chief fortress, and the principal seat of trade of the Portuguese
+empire of the Indies.
+
+By degrees and with the course of years the knowledge of these rich
+countries had increased. Much information had been gathered together
+by all those who had ploughed these sunny seas in their gallant
+vessels, and it was now known what was the centre of production of
+those spices which people went so far to seek, and for whose
+acquisition they encountered so many perils. It was already several
+years since Almeida had founded the first Portuguese factories in
+Ceylon, the ancient Taprobane. The Islands of Sunda, and the
+Peninsula of Malacca, were now exciting the desires of King Emmanuel,
+who had already been surnamed "the fortunate." He resolved to send a
+fleet to explore them, for Albuquerque had enough to do in India to
+restrain the trembling Rajahs, and the Mussulmen--Moors as they were
+then called--who were always ready to shake off the yoke. This new
+expedition was under the command of Diego Lopez Sequeira, and
+according to the traditional policy of the Moors, was at first
+amicably received at Malacca; but when the suspicions of Lopez
+Sequeira had been lulled to sleep by reiterated protestations of
+alliance, the whole population suddenly rose against him, and he was
+forced to return on board, but not without leaving thirty of his
+companions in the hands of the Malays. These events had already
+happened some time when the news of the taking of Goa arrived at
+Malacca. The _bendarra_, or Minister of Justice, who exercised regal
+power in the name of his nephew who was still a child, fearing the
+vengeance which the Portuguese would doubtless exact for his
+treachery, resolved to pacify them. He went to visit his prisoners,
+excused himself to them by swearing that all had been done unknown
+to him and against his will, for he desired nothing so much as to
+see the Portuguese establish themselves in Malacca; also he was
+about to order the authors of the treason to be sought out and
+punished. The prisoners naturally gave no credence to these lying
+declarations, but profiting by the comparative liberty which was
+henceforth granted to them, they cleverly succeeded in conveying to
+Albuquerque some valuable information upon the position and strength
+of the town.
+
+Albuquerque with much trouble collected a fleet of nineteen men of
+war, carrying fourteen hundred men, amongst whom there were only
+eight hundred Portuguese. This being the case, ought he to venture
+in obedience to the wish of King Emmanuel to steer for Aden, the key
+of the Red Sea, which it was important to master in preparation for
+opposing the passage of a new squadron, which the Sultan of Egypt
+was intending to send to India? Albuquerque hesitated, when a change
+in the trade-winds occurred which put an end to his irresolution. In
+fact, it was impossible to reach Aden in the teeth of the prevailing
+wind, while it was favourable for a descent upon Malacca. This town,
+at that time in its full splendour, did not contain less than
+100,000 inhabitants. If many of the houses were built of wood, and
+roofed with the leaves of the palm-tree, yet they were equalled in
+number by the more important buildings, such as mosques and towers
+built of stone, which stretched out in a long panorama for the
+distance of three miles. The ships of India, China, and of the Malay
+kingdoms of the Sunda Islands, met in its harbour, where numerous
+vessels coming from the Malabar coast, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea,
+and the coast of Africa traded in merchandise of all kinds and of
+every country.
+
+When the Rajah of Malacca saw the Portuguese fleet arrive in his
+waters, he felt that it was necessary to appear to give satisfaction
+to the foreigners by sacrificing the minister who had excited their
+anger and caused their arrival. His ambassador therefore came to the
+viceroy to announce the death of the _bendarra_, and to find out
+what were the intentions of the Portuguese. Albuquerque answered by
+demanding the prisoners who had remained in the hands of the Rajah,
+but the latter, desirous of gaining time to allow for the expected
+change in the trade-wind,--a change which would force the Portuguese
+to regain the Malabar coast, or else would oblige them to remain at
+Malacca, where he hoped to be able to exterminate them,--invented a
+thousand pretexts for delay, and in the meantime according to the
+old narratives, he prepared a battery of 8000 cannon, and collected
+troops to the number of 20,000. At length Albuquerque lost his
+patience, and ordered some houses and several Gujerat vessels to be
+set on fire, a beginning of execution which speedily brought about
+the restoration of the prisoners; he then claimed 20,000 crusades as
+indemnity for the damage caused to the fleet of Lopez Sequeira, and
+finally he demanded to be allowed to build a fortress within the
+town itself, which should also serve as a counting-house for the
+merchants. This demand could not be complied with as Albuquerque
+well knew; but upon the refusal he resolved to seize the town,
+fixing upon St. James' day for the attack. The town was taken
+quarter by quarter, house by house, after a truly heroic struggle
+and a most vigorous defence, which lasted for nine whole days,
+notwithstanding the employment of extraordinary devices, such as
+elephants of war, poisoned sabres and arrows, barricades, and
+skilfully concealed troops. An enormous booty was divided amongst
+the soldiers, Albuquerque only reserving to himself six lions, of
+gold according to some accounts, of iron according to others, which
+he intended for the adornment of his tomb, to perpetuate the memory
+of his victory.
+
+The door which gave access to Oceania, and to Upper Asia, was
+henceforth open. Many nations unknown till this time would now have
+intercourse with Europeans. The strange manners and fabulous history
+of many people were about to be disclosed to the astonished West. A
+new era had commenced, and these great results were due to the
+unbridled audacity, and indomitable courage of a nation whose
+country was scarcely discernible upon the map of the world!
+
+It was in part owing to the religious toleration which Albuquerque
+displayed, a toleration which contrasts strangely with the cruel
+fanaticism of the Spaniards, and in part to the skilful measures
+which he took, that the prosperity of Malacca resisted the rude
+shock which it had received. In the course of a few months no trace
+remained of the trials which the town had experienced, except the
+sight of the Portuguese banner floating proudly over this great city,
+which had now become the head and vanguard of the colonial empire of
+this people, small in numbers, but rendered great by their courage
+and their spirit of enterprise.
+
+Great and wonderful as this new conquest might be, it had not made
+Albuquerque forget his former projects. If he had appeared to have
+renounced them, it was only because circumstances had not hitherto
+seemed favourable for their execution. With that tenacity of
+determination which formed the basis of his character, while still
+at the southern extremity of the empire which he was founding, his
+thoughts were fixed upon the northern part of it, upon Ormuz, which
+the jealousy and treachery of his subordinates had obliged him to
+abandon at the beginning of his career, at the very moment when
+success was about to crown his persevering efforts; it was Ormuz
+which tempted him still.
+
+[Illustration: The Island of Ormuz.]
+
+The fame of his exploits and the terror inspired by his name had
+decided Kodja-Atar to make some advances to Albuquerque, to ask for
+a treaty, and to send the arrears of the tribute which had been
+formerly imposed. Although the viceroy placed no belief on these
+repeated declarations of friendship--on that Moorish faith which
+deserves to be as notorious as Punic faith,--he nevertheless
+welcomed them, whilst waiting for the power to establish his
+dominion after a permanent manner in these countries. In 1513 or
+1514--the exact date is not ascertained--when his fleet and soldiers
+were set at liberty by the conquest of Malacca and the tranquillity
+of his other possessions, Albuquerque set sail for the Persian Gulf.
+Immediately upon his arrival, although a series of revolutions had
+changed the government of Ormuz and the power was then in the hands
+of a usurper named Rais-Nordim or Noureddin, Albuquerque demanded
+that the fortress, which had been formerly begun, should be
+immediately placed in his hands. After having had it repaired and
+finished, he took part against the pretender Rais Named, in the
+quarrel which was then dividing the town of Ormuz and preparing it
+to fall under the dominion of Persia. He seized upon the town and
+bestowed it upon the aspirant who had accepted his conditions
+beforehand, and who appeared to Albuquerque to present the most
+solid guarantees of submission and fidelity. Besides, it would not
+be difficult in the future to make this certain, for Albuquerque
+left in the new fortress a garrison perfectly able to bring
+Rais-Nordim to repentance for the slightest attempt at revolt, or
+the least desire of independence.
+
+A well-known anecdote is related of this expedition to Ormuz, but
+one which, even from its notoriety, we should be blamed for omitting.
+When the King of Persia sent to Noureddin to demand the tribute
+which the sovereigns of Ormuz had been in the habit of paying to him,
+Albuquerque gave orders that a quantity of bullets, cannon-balls and
+shells, should be brought from his ships, and showing them to the
+ambassadors he told them that such was the coin in which the King of
+Portugal was accustomed to pay tribute. It does not appear that the
+Persian ambassadors repeated their demand.
+
+[Illustration: Albuquerque had a quantity of bullets brought from
+his vessels.]
+
+With his usual wisdom, the viceroy did not wound the feelings of the
+inhabitants, who speedily returned to the town. Far from squeezing
+all he could from them, as his successors were destined soon to do,
+he established an upright system of government which caused the
+Portuguese name to be loved and respected.
+
+At the same time that he was himself accomplishing these marvellous
+labours, Albuquerque had desired some of his lieutenants to explore
+the unknown regions to which access had been given by the taking of
+Malacca. For this purpose he gave to Antonio and Francisco d'Abreu
+the command of a small squadron carrying 220 men, with which they
+explored the whole of the Sunda Archipelago, Sumatra, Java, Anjoam,
+Simbala, Jolor, Galam, &c.; then being not far from the coast of
+Australia they sailed back again to the north and arrived at the
+Islands of Buro and Amboyna, which form part of the Molucca group.
+After having made a voyage of more than 1500 miles amongst dangerous
+archipelagos strewn with rocks and coral reefs, and amidst
+populations often hostile, and after loading their ships there with
+cloves, nutmegs, sandal-wood, mace, and pearls, they set sail for
+Malacca in 1512. This time the veritable land of spices had been
+reached, it now only remained to found establishments there and to
+take possession of it definitely, which was not likely to be long
+postponed.
+
+It has been often remarked that the Tarpeian rock is not far from
+the Capitol; of this Albuquerque was destined to make experience,
+and his last days were to be saddened by unmerited disgrace, the
+result of calumnies and lies, and of a skilfully woven plot, which,
+although it succeeded in temporarily clouding his reputation with
+King Emmanuel, has not availed to obscure the glory of this great
+man in the eyes of posterity. Already there had been an effort made
+to persuade the king that the taking possession of Goa had been a
+grave error; its unhealthy climate must, it was said, decimate the
+European population in a short time, but the king, with perfect
+confidence in the experience and prudence of his lieutenant, had
+refused to listen to his enemies, for which Albuquerque had publicly
+thanked him, saying,--"I think more is owing to King Emmanuel for
+having defended Goa against the Portuguese, than to myself for
+having twice conquered it." But in 1514 Albuquerque had asked the
+king to bestow upon him as a reward for his services the title of
+Duke of Goa, and it was this imprudent step which gave an advantage
+to his adversaries.
+
+Soarez d'Albergavia and Diogo Mendez, whom Albuquerque had sent as
+prisoners to Portugal after they had publicly declared themselves
+his enemies, had succeeded not only in clearing themselves from the
+accusation brought against them by the viceroy, but in persuading
+Emmanuel that he wished to constitute an independent duchy of which
+Goa should be the capital, and they ended by obtaining his disgrace.
+The news of the appointment of Albergavia to the post of
+Captain-General of Cochin, reached Albuquerque as he was issuing
+from the Strait of Ormuz on his return to the Malabar coast, and at
+a time when he was suffering much from disease. "He raised his hands
+towards heaven," says M. F. Denis, in his excellent History of
+Portugal, "and pronounced these few words: Behold I am in disgrace
+with the king on account of my love to men, and with men on account
+of my love to the king. Turn thee, old man, to the Church, and
+prepare to die, for it behoves thine honour that thou shouldest die,
+and never hast thou neglected to do aught which thine honour
+demands." Whereupon, being arrived in the roadstead of Goa, Alfonzo
+Albuquerque set in order the affairs of his conscience with the
+Church, caused himself to be clad in the dress of the Order of St.
+Iago of which he was a commander, and then "on Sunday the 16th of
+December, an hour before daybreak, he rendered up his soul to God.
+Thus ended all his labours, without their having ever brought him
+any satisfaction."
+
+Albuquerque was buried with great pomp. The soldiers who had been
+the faithful companions of his wonderful adventures, and the
+witnesses of his manifold tribulations, disputed amidst their tears
+for the honour of carrying his remains to their last resting-place,
+which their commander had himself chosen. The Hindoos in their grief
+refused to believe that he was dead, declaring that he was gone to
+command the armies of the sky. A letter of King Emmanuel has been
+comparatively lately discovered which proves that, although he were
+deceived for a time by the false reports of the enemies of
+Albuquerque, he soon discovered his mistake, and rendered him full
+and entire justice. Unfortunately this letter of reparation never
+reached the unfortunate second Viceroy of the Indies; it would have
+sweetened his last moments, whereas he had the pain of dying in the
+belief that the sovereign for whose glory and the increase of whose
+power he had consecrated his life, had in the end proved ungrateful
+towards him. "With Albuquerque," says Michelet, "all humanity and
+all justice disappeared from amongst the conquerors. Long years
+after his death the Indians would repair to the tomb of the great
+Albuquerque, to demand justice of him against the oppressions of his
+successors."
+
+Many causes may be adduced as bringing about the rapid decay and
+dismemberment of that great colonial empire with which Albuquerque
+had enriched his country, and which even amidst its ruins has left
+ineffaceable traces upon India. With Michelet we may cite the
+distance and dispersion of the various factories, the smallness of
+the population of Portugal, but little suited to the wide extension
+of her establishments, the love of brigandage, and the exactions of
+a bad government, but beyond all, that indomitable national pride
+which forbade any mingling of the victors with the vanquished.
+
+The fall of the colonial empire was hindered for a time by the
+influence of two heroic men, the first was Juan de Castro, who after
+having had the control of untold riches, remained so poor that he
+had not even the wherewithal to buy a fowl in his last illness; and
+the second, Ataïde, who once again gave the corrupt eastern
+populations an example of the most manly virtues, and of the most
+upright administration. But after their time the empire began to
+drop to pieces, and fell by degrees into the hands of the Spaniards
+and the Dutch, who in their turn were unable to preserve it intact.
+All passes away, all is changed. What can be said but to repeat the
+Spanish saw, in applying it to the case of empires, "Life is but a
+dream"?
+
+
+END OF THE FIRST PART.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+THE CONQUERORS OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+I.
+
+Hojeda--Americus Vespucius--The New World named after him--Juan de
+la Cosa--Vincent Yañez Pinzon--Bastidas--Diego de Lepe--Diaz de
+Solis--Ponce de Leon and Florida--Balboa discovers the Pacific
+Ocean--Grijalva explores the coast of Mexico.
+
+
+The letters and narratives of Columbus and his companions,
+especially those dwelling upon the large quantity of gold and pearls
+found in the recently discovered countries, had inflamed the
+imagination of eager traders, and of numbers of gentlemen who loved
+adventure. On the 10th of April, 1495, the Spanish government had
+issued an order allowing any one who might wish to do so, to go and
+discover new countries; but this privilege was so much abused, and
+Columbus complained so bitterly of its trenching upon established
+rights, that the permission was withdrawn on the 2nd of June, 1497,
+and four years later it became necessary to repeat the prohibition
+with more severe penalties attached to its infringement. The effect
+of the royal decree was at once to produce a kind of general rush to
+the Indies, and this was favoured by Bishop Fonseca of Badajoz,
+through whose hands passed all business connected with the Indies,
+and of whom Columbus had had so much reason to complain.
+
+The admiral had but just left San-Lucar on his third voyage, when
+four expeditions of discovery were fitted out almost at the same
+moment, at the cost of some rich ship-owners, foremost among whom we
+find the Pinzons and Americus Vespucius. The first of these
+expeditions, which left the port of Santa-Maria on the 20th of May,
+1499, consisted of four vessels, and was commanded by Alonzo Hojeda.
+Juan de la Cosa sailed with him as pilot; Americus Vespucius was
+also on board, without any very clearly defined duties, but he would
+seem to have been astronomer to the fleet.
+
+[Illustration: Americus Vespucius. _Fac-simile of an old print_.]
+
+Before entering on a brief account of this voyage, we will glance
+for a few moments at the three men whom we have just named; the last
+of the three especially, plays a most important part in the
+discovery of the New World, which received its name from him.
+
+Hojeda, born at Cuença about 1465, and brought up in the household
+of the Duke of Medina-Celi, had gained his first experience in arms
+in the wars against the Moors. Columbus enrolled him amongst the
+adventurers whom he recruited for his second voyage, when Hojeda
+distinguished himself alike by his cool courage and his readiness in
+surmounting all difficulties. What caused his complete rupture with
+Columbus remains a mystery; it appears still more inexplicable when
+we think of the distinguished services that Hojeda had rendered,
+especially in 1495, at the battle of La Vega, when the Caribbean
+Confederation was annihilated. All we know is, that on Hojeda's
+return to Spain he found shelter and protection with Bishop Fonseca.
+It is said even that the Indian minister supplied him with the
+journal of the admiral's last voyage, and the map of the countries
+which Columbus had discovered.
+
+The first pilot employed by Hojeda was Juan de la Cosa, born
+probably at Santona, in the Biscayan country. He had often sailed
+along the coast of Africa before accompanying Columbus on his first
+voyage, while in the second expedition he filled the post of
+hydrographer (_maestro de hacer cartas_).
+
+As specimens of La Cosa's talent in drawing maps may be mentioned
+two very curious ones still extant; one showing all the territory
+that had been acquired in Africa in 1500, the other on vellum, and
+enriched with colour like the first, giving the discoveries made by
+Columbus and his successors. The second pilot was Bartholomew Roldan,
+who had likewise sailed with Columbus on his voyage to Paria.
+
+As to Americus Vespucius, his duties were not, as we have said, very
+clearly defined, he was there to aid in making discoveries (_per
+ajutare a discoprire_, says the Italian text of his letter to
+Soderini). Born at Florence on the 9th of March, 1451, Amerigo
+Vespucci belonged to a family of distinction and wealth. He had made
+mathematics, natural philosophy, and astrology (as it was then
+called) his special studies. His knowledge of history and literature,
+judging from his letters, appears to have been somewhat vague and
+ill-digested. He left Florence in 1492 without any special aim in
+view, and went to Spain, where he occupied himself at first in
+commercial pursuits. We hear of him in Seville acting as factor in
+the powerful trading house of his fellow countryman, Juanoto Berardi.
+As this house had advanced money to Columbus for his second voyage,
+it is not unlikely that Vespucius had become acquainted with the
+admiral at this period of his career. On Juanoto's death in 1495,
+Vespucius was placed by his heirs at the head of the financial
+department of the house. Whether he may have been tired of a
+situation that he thought below his powers, or been seized in his
+turn with the fever for making new discoveries, or whether he hoped
+to make his fortune rapidly in the new countries reputed to be so
+rich; whatever in short may have been the motive that actuated him,
+at least this we know, that he joined Hojeda's expedition in 1499,
+this fact being so stated in Hojeda's deposition in the law-suit
+instituted by the Treasury with the heirs of Columbus.
+
+The flotilla, consisting of four vessels, set sail on the 20th of
+May from Santa-Maria, taking a south-westerly course, and in
+twenty-seven days the American continent was sighted at the place
+which was named Venezuela, because the houses being built upon piles
+reminded the beholders of Venice. Hojeda, after some ineffectual
+attempts to hold intercourse with the natives, with whom he had
+several skirmishes, next saw the Island of Margarita; after sailing
+about 250 miles to the east of the river Orinoco he reached the Gulf
+of Paria, and entered a bay called the Bay of _Las Perlas_, from the
+natives of that part being employed in the pearl fisheries.
+
+Guided by the maps of Columbus, Hojeda passed by the Dragon's-Mouth,
+which separates Trinidad from the continent, and returned westward
+to Cape _La Vela_. Then, after touching at the Caribbee Islands,
+where he made a number of prisoners, whom he hoped to sell for
+slaves in Spain, he was obliged to cast anchor at Yaquimo, in
+Hispaniola, on the 5th of September, 1499.
+
+Columbus, knowing Hojeda's courage and his restless spirit only too
+well, feared that he would introduce a new element of discord into
+the colony. He therefore despatched Francesco Roldan with two
+caravels to inquire into his motives in coming to the island, and if
+necessary to prevent his landing. The admiral's fears were but too
+well grounded; Hojeda had scarcely landed before he had an interview
+with some of the malcontents, inciting them to a rising at Xaragua,
+and to a determination to expel Columbus. After some skirmishes,
+which had not ended to Hojeda's advantage, a meeting was arranged
+for him with Roldan, Diego d'Escobar, and Juan de la Cosa, when they
+prevailed upon him to leave the island. "He took with him," says Las
+Casas, "a prodigious cargo of slaves, whom he sold in the market at
+Cadiz for enormous sums of money." He returned to Spain in February,
+1500, where he had been preceded by Americus Vespucius and B. Roldan
+on the 18th of October, 1499.
+
+The most southerly point that Hojeda had reached in this voyage was
+4 degrees north latitude, and he had only spent fourteen weeks on
+the voyage of discovery, properly so called. If we appear to have
+dwelt at some length upon this voyage, it is because it was the
+first one made by Vespucius. Some authors, Varnhagen for instance,
+and quite recently, Mr. H. Major, in his history of Prince Henry the
+Navigator, assert that Vespucius' first voyage was in 1497, and
+consequently that he must have seen the American continent before
+Columbus, but we prefer to follow Humboldt, who spent so many years
+in studying the history of the discovery of America, in his opinion
+that 1499 was the right date, also M. Ed. Charton and M. Jules
+Codine, the latter of whom discussed this question in the Report of
+the Geographical Society for 1873, _apropos_ of Mr. Major's book.
+
+"If it were true," says Voltaire, "that Vespucius had discovered the
+American Continent, yet the glory would not be his; it belongs
+undoubtedly to the man who had the genius and courage to undertake
+the first voyage, to Columbus." As Newton says in his argument with
+Leibnitz, "the glory is due only to the inventor." But we agree with
+M. Codine when he says, "How can we allow that there was an
+expedition in 1497 which resulted in the discovery of above 2500
+miles of the coast-line of the mainland, when there is no trace of
+it left either among the great historians of that time, or in the
+legal depositions in connexion with the claims made by the heir of
+Columbus against the Spanish Government, in which the priority of
+the discoveries of each leader of an expedition is carefully
+mentioned, with the part of the coast explored by each?" Finally,
+the authentic documents extracted from the archives of the _Casa de
+contratacion_ make it evident that Vespucius was entrusted with the
+preparation of the vessels destined for the third voyage of Columbus
+at Seville and at San Lucar from the middle of August, 1497, till
+the departure of Columbus on the 30th of May, 1498. The narratives
+of the voyages of Vespucius are very diffuse and wanting in
+precision and order; the information they give upon the places he
+visited is so vague, that it might apply to one part of the coast as
+well as to another; as to the localities treated of, as well as of
+the companions of Vespucius, there are no indications given of a
+nature to aid the historian. Not a single name is given of any
+well-known person, and the dates are contradictory in those famous
+letters which have given endless work to commentators. Humboldt says
+of them "There is an element of discord in the most authentic
+documents relating to the Florentine navigator." We have given an
+account of Hojeda's first voyage, which coincides with that of
+Vespucius according to Humboldt, who has compared the principal
+incidents of the two narratives. Varnhagen asserts that Vespucius,
+having started on the 10th of May, 1497, entered the Gulf of
+Honduras on the 10th of June, coasted by Yucatan and Mexico, sailed
+up the Mississippi, and at the end of February, 1498, doubled the
+Cape of Florida. After anchoring for thirty-seven days at the mouth
+of the St. Lawrence, he returned to Cadiz in October, 1498.
+
+If Vespucius had really made this marvellous voyage, he would have
+far outstripped all the navigators of his time, and would have fully
+deserved that his name should be given to the newly-discovered
+continent, whose coast-line he had explored for so great a distance.
+But nothing is less certain, and Humboldt's opinion has hitherto
+appeared to the best writers to offer the largest amount of
+probability.
+
+Americus Vespucius made three other voyages. Humboldt identifies the
+first with that of Vincent Yañez Pinzon, and M. d'Avezac with that
+of Diego de Lepe (1499-1500). At the close of this latter year,
+Giuliano Bartholomeo di Giocondo induced Vespucius to enter the
+service of Emmanuel, King of Portugal, and he accomplished two more
+voyages at the expense of his new master. On the first of these two
+voyages, he was no higher in command than he had been in his earlier
+ones, and only accompanied the expedition as one whose intimate
+acquaintance with all nautical matters might prove of service under
+certain circumstances. During this voyage the ships coasted along
+the American shores from Cape St. Augustine to 52 degrees of south
+latitude. The fourth voyage of Vespucius was marked by the wreck of
+the flag-ship off the Island of Fernando de Noronha, which prevented
+the other vessels from continuing their voyage towards Malacca by
+way of the Cape of Good Hope, and obliged the crews to land at All
+Saints' Bay, in Brazil.
+
+This fourth voyage was unquestionably made with Gonzalo Coelho, but
+we are quite ignorant as to who was in command on the third voyage.
+These various expeditions had not tended to enrich Vespucius, while
+his position at the Portuguese court was so far from satisfactory
+that he determined to re-enter the service of the King of Spain. By
+him he was made _Piloto Mayor_ on the 22nd of March, 1508. There
+were some valuable emoluments attached for his advantage to this
+appointment, which enabled him to end his days, if not as a rich man,
+at least as one far removed from want. He died at Seville on the
+22nd of February, 1512, with the same conviction as Columbus, that
+he had reached the shores of Asia. Americus Vespucius is especially
+famous from the New World having been named after him, instead of
+being called Columbia, as in all justice it should have been, but
+with this Vespucius had nothing to do. He was for a long time
+charged, though most unjustly, with impudence, falsehood, and deceit,
+it being alleged that he wished to veil the glory of Columbus and to
+arrogate to himself the honour of a discovery which did not belong
+to him. This was an utterly unfounded accusation, for Vespucius was
+both loved and esteemed by Columbus and his contemporaries, and
+there is nothing in his writings to justify this calumnious
+assertion. Seven printed documents exist which are attributed to
+Vespucius; they are--the abridged accounts of his four voyages, two
+narratives of his third and fourth voyages, in the form of letters,
+addressed to Lorenzo de Pier Francesco de Medici, and a letter
+addressed to the same nobleman, relative to the Portuguese
+discoveries in the Indies. These documents, printed and bound up as
+small thin volumes, were soon translated into various languages and
+distributed throughout Europe.
+
+It was in the year 1507 that a certain Hylacolymus, whose real name
+was Martin Waldtzemuller, first proposed to give the name of America
+to the new part of the world. He did so in a book printed at Saint
+Dié and called _Cosmographia introductio_. In 1509 a small
+geographical treatise appeared at Strasburg adopting the proposal of
+Hylacolymus; and in 1520 an edition of Pomponius Mela was printed at
+Basle, giving a map of the New World with the name of America. From
+this time the number of works employing the denomination proposed by
+Waldtzemuller increased perpetually.
+
+Some years later, when Waldtzemuller was better informed as to the
+real discoverer of America and of the value to be placed upon the
+voyages of Vespucius, he eliminated from his book all that related
+to the latter, and substituted everywhere the name of Columbus for
+that of Vespucius, but it was too late, the same error has prevailed
+ever since.
+
+As to Vespucius himself, it seems very unlikely that he was at all
+aware of the excitement which prevailed in Europe, nor of what was
+passing at St. Dié. The testimony that has been unanimously borne to
+his honourable and upright conduct should surely clear him from the
+unmerited accusations which have for too long a time clouded his
+memory.
+
+Three other expeditions left Spain almost at the same time as that
+of Hojeda. The first of these, consisting of but one vessel, sailed
+from Barra Saltez in June 1499. Pier Alonzo Nino, who had served
+under Columbus in his two last voyages, was its commander, and he
+was accompanied by Christoval Guerra, a merchant of Seville, who
+probably defrayed the expenses of the expedition. This voyage to the
+coast of Paria seems to have been dictated more by the hope of
+lucrative commerce than by the interests of science. No new
+discoveries were made, but the two voyagers returned to Spain in
+April, 1500, bringing with them so large a quantity of valuable
+pearls as to excite the cupidity of their countrymen, who became
+anxious to try their own fortunes in the same direction.
+
+The second expedition was commanded by Vincent Yañez Pinzon, the
+younger brother of Alonzo Pinzon who had been captain of the _Pinta_
+and had shown so much jealousy of Columbus, even adopting the
+following mendacious device:--
+
+   _A Castilla, y a Leon
+    Nuevo Mundo dio Pinzon_.
+
+Yañez Pinzon, whose devotion to the admiral equalled his brother's
+jealousy, had advanced an eighth part of the funds required for the
+expedition of 1492, and had on that occasion been in command of the
+_Nina_.
+
+He set out in December, 1499, with four vessels, of which only two
+returned to Palos at the end of September, 1500. He touched the
+coast of the newly discovered continent at a point near the shore
+visited by Hojeda some months before, and explored the coast for
+some 2400 miles, discovering Cape St. Augustine at 8 degrees 20
+minutes south latitude, following the coast-line in a north-westerly
+direction to _Rio Grande_, which he named _Santa-Maria de la Mar
+dulce_, and continuing in the same direction as far as Cape St.
+Vincent. Diego de Lepe explored the same coasts with two caravels
+from January to June, 1500; there is nothing particular to record of
+this voyage beyond the very important observation that was made on
+the direction of the coast-line of the continent starting from Cape
+St. Augustine. Lepe had but just returned to Spain when two vessels
+left Cadiz, equipped by Rodrigo M. Bastidas, a wealthy and highly
+respectable man, with the view of making some fresh discoveries, but
+above all with the object of collecting as large a quantity of gold
+and pearls as possible, for which were to be bartered glass beads
+and other worthless trifles. Juan de la Cosa, whose talents as a
+navigator were proverbial, and who knew these coasts well from
+having explored them, was really at the head of this expedition. The
+sailors went on shore and saw the Rio Sinu, the Gulf of Urabia, and
+reached the _Puerto del Retrete_ or _de los Escribanos_, in the
+Isthmus of Panama. This harbour was not visited by Columbus till the
+26th of November, 1502; it is situated about seventeen miles from
+the once celebrated, but now destroyed town of _Nombre de Dios_. In
+fact this expedition, which had been organized by a merchant, became,
+thanks to Juan de la Cosa, one of the voyages the most fertile in
+discoveries; but alas! it came to a sad termination; the vessels
+were lost in the Gulf of Xaragua, and Bastidas and La Cosa were
+obliged to make their way by land to St. Domingo. When they arrived
+there, Bovadilla, the upright man and model governor, whose infamous
+conduct to Columbus we have already mentioned, had them arrested, on
+the plea that they had bought some gold from the Indians of Xaragua;
+he sent them off to Spain, which was only reached after a fearfully
+stormy voyage, some of the vessels being lost on the way.
+
+After this expedition, so fruitful in results, voyages of discovery
+became rather less frequent for some years; the Spaniards being
+occupied in asserting their supremacy in the countries in which they
+had already founded colonies.
+
+[Illustration: Indians devoured by Dogs. _From an old print_.]
+
+The colonization of Hispaniola had commenced in 1493, when the town
+of Isabella was built. Two years afterwards Christopher Columbus had
+travelled over the island and had subjugated the poor savages, by
+means of those terrible dogs which had been trained to hunt Indians,
+and unaccustomed as the natives were to any hard work, he had forced
+them to toil in the mines. Both Bovadilla and Ovando treating the
+Indians as a herd of cattle, had divided them among the colonists as
+slaves. The cruelty with which this unfortunate people was treated
+became more and more unbearable. By means of a despicable ambush,
+Ovando seized the Queen of Xaragua and 300 of her principal subjects,
+and at a given signal they were all put to the sword without there
+being any crime adduced against them. "For some years," says
+Robertson, "the gold brought into the royal treasury of Spain
+amounted to about 460,000 _pesos_ (2,400,000 livres of the currency
+of Tours) an enormous sum if we take into consideration the great
+increase in the value of money since the beginning of the sixteenth
+century." In 1511 Diego Velasquez conquered Cuba with 300 men, and
+here again were enacted the terrible scenes of bloodshed and pillage
+which have rendered the Spanish name so sadly notorious. They cut
+off the thumbs of the natives, put out their eyes, and poured
+boiling oil or melted lead into their wounds, even when they did not
+torture them by burning them over a slow fire to extract from them
+the secret of the treasures of which they were believed to be the
+possessors. It was only natural under these circumstances that the
+population rapidly decreased, and the day was not far off when it
+would be wholly exterminated. To understand fully the sufferings of
+this race thus odiously persecuted, the touching and horrible
+narrative of Las Casas must be read, himself the indefatigable
+defender of the Indians.
+
+[Illustration: Indians burnt alive. _From an old print_.]
+
+In Cuba, the Cacique Hattuey was made prisoner and condemned to be
+burnt. When he was tied to the stake, a Franciscan monk tried to
+convert him, promising him that if he would only embrace the
+Christian faith, he would be at once admitted to all the joys of
+Paradise. "Are there any Spaniards in that land of happiness and joy
+of which you speak?" asked Hattuey. "Yes," replied the monk, "but
+only those who have been just and good in their lives." "The very
+best among them can have neither justice nor mercy!" said the poor
+cacique, "I do not wish to go to any place where I should meet a
+single man of that accursed race."
+
+Does not this fact suffice to paint the degree of exasperation to
+which these unfortunate people had been driven? And these horrors
+were repeated wherever the Spaniards set foot! We will throw a veil
+over these atrocities practised by men who thought themselves
+civilized, and who pretended that they wished to convert to
+Christianity, the religion pre-eminently of love and mercy, a race
+who were in reality less savage than themselves.
+
+In 1504 and 1505 four vessels explored the Gulf of Urabia. This was
+the first voyage in which Juan de la Cosa had the supreme command.
+This seems, too, to have been about the date of Hojeda's third
+voyage, when he went to the territory of Coquibacoa, a voyage that
+certainly was made, as Humboldt says, but of which we have no clear
+account.
+
+In 1509 Juan Diaz de Solis, in concert with Vincent Yañez Pinzon,
+discovered a vast province, since known by the name of Yucatan.
+
+"Though this expedition was not a very remarkable one in itself,"
+says Robertson, "it deserves to be noticed as it led to discoveries
+of the utmost importance." For the same reason we must mention the
+voyage of Diego d'Ocampo, who being charged to sail round Cuba, was
+the first to ascertain the fact that it was a large island, Columbus
+having always regarded it as part of the continent. Two years later
+Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Pinzon sailing southwards towards the
+equinoctial line, advanced as far as the 40 degrees of south
+latitude, and found, to their surprise, that the continent extended
+on their right hand even to this immense distance. They landed
+several times, and took formal possession of the country, but could
+not found any colonies there, on account of the small resources they
+had at their command. The principal result of this voyage was the
+more exact knowledge which it gave of the extent of this part of the
+globe.
+
+Alonzo de Hojeda, whose adventures we have narrated above, was the
+first to think of founding a colony on the mainland; although he had
+no means of his own, his courage and enterprising spirit soon gained
+him associates, who furnished him with the funds needed for carrying
+out his plans.
+
+With the same object Diego de Nicuessa, a rich colonist of
+Hispaniola, organized an expedition in 1509.
+
+King Ferdinand, who was always lavish of encouragements which cost
+little, gave both Hojeda and Nicuessa honourable titles and patents
+of nobility, but not a single maravédis (a Spanish coin). He also
+divided the newly-discovered continent into two governments, of
+which one was to extend from Cape _La Vela_ to the Gulf of Darien,
+and the other from the Gulf of Darien to Cape _Gracias a Dios_. The
+first was given to Hojeda, the second to Nicuessa. These two
+"conquistadores" had to deal with a population far less easy to
+manage than that of the Antilles. Determined to resist to the utmost
+the invasion of their country, they adopted means of resistance
+hitherto unknown to the Spaniards. Thus the strife became deadly. In
+a single engagement seventy of Hojeda's companions fell under the
+arrows of the savages, fearful weapons steeped in "curare," so fatal
+a poison that the slightest wound was followed by death. Nicuessa on
+his side, had much difficulty in defending himself, and in spite of
+two considerable reinforcements from Cuba, the greater number of his
+followers perished during the year from wounds, fatigue, privations,
+or sickness. The survivors founded the small colony of Santa-Maria
+el Antigua upon the Gulf of Darien, and placed it under the command
+of Balboa.
+
+Before we speak of Balboa's wonderful expedition, we must notice the
+discovery of a country that forms the most northerly side of that
+arc, cut so deeply into the continent, and which bears the name of
+the Gulf of Mexico. In 1502 Juan Ponce de Leon, a member of one of
+the oldest families in Spain, had arrived in Hispaniola with Ovando.
+He had assisted in its subjugation, and in 1508 had conquered the
+island of San Juan de Porto Rico. Having learnt from the Indians
+that there existed a fountain in the island of Bimini which
+possessed the miraculous power of restoring youth to all who drank
+of its waters, Ponce de Leon resolved to go in search of it.
+Infirmities must have been already creeping on him at fifty years of
+age, or he would scarcely have felt the need of trying this fountain.
+Ponce de Leon equipped three vessels at his own expense, and set out
+from St. Germain in Porto Rico on the 1st of March, 1512. He went
+first to the Lucayan Islands, which he searched in vain, and then to
+the Bahamas. If he did not succeed in finding the fountain of youth
+which he sought so credulously, at least he had the satisfaction of
+discovering an apparently fertile tract of country, which he named
+Florida, either from his landing there on Palm Sunday,
+(Pâques-Fleuries), or perhaps from its delightful aspect. Such a
+discovery would have contented many a traveller, but Ponce de Leon
+went from one island to another, tasting the water of every stream
+that he met with, without the satisfaction of seeing his white hair
+again becoming black or his wrinkles disappearing. After spending
+six months in this fruitless search, he was tired of playing the
+dupe, so giving up the business he returned to Porto Rico on the 5th
+of October, leaving Perez de Ortubia and the pilot Antonio de
+Alaminos to continue the search. Père Charlevoix says, "He was the
+object of great ridicule when he returned in much suffering, and
+looking older than when he set out."
+
+This voyage, so absurd in its motive but so fertile in its results,
+might well be considered to be simply imaginary, were it not vouched
+for by historians of such high repute as Peter Martyr, Oviedo,
+Herrera, and Garcilasso de la Vega.
+
+Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who was fifteen years younger than Ponce de
+Leon, had come to America with Bastidas and had settled in
+Hispaniola. He was only anxious for a safe refuge from his numerous
+creditors, being, as were so many of his fellow-countrymen, deeply
+in debt, in spite of the _repartimiento_ of Indians which had been
+allotted to him. Unfortunately for Balboa a law had been passed
+forbidding any vessels bound for the mainland taking insolvent
+debtors on board, but his ingenuity was equal to this emergency, for
+he had himself rolled in an empty barrel to the vessel which was to
+carry Encisco to Darien. The chief of the expedition had no choice
+but to receive the brave adventurer who had joined him in this
+singular manner, and who never fled except from duns, as he soon
+proved on landing. The Spaniards, accustomed to find but little
+resistance from the natives of the Antilles, could not subjugate the
+fierce inhabitants of the mainland. On account of the dissensions
+that had arisen among themselves, they were obliged to take refuge
+at Santa-Maria el Antigua, a settlement which Balboa, now elected
+commandant in place of Encisco, founded in Darien.
+
+If the personal bravery of Balboa, or the ferocity of Leoncillo his
+blood-hound--who was more dreaded than twenty armed men and received
+the same pay as a soldier,--could have awed the Indians, Balboa
+would have also won their respect by his justice and comparative
+moderation, for he allowed no unnecessary cruelty. In the course of
+some years he collected a great mass of most useful information with
+regard to that El Dorado, that land of gold, which he was destined
+never to reach himself, but the acquisition of which he did much to
+facilitate for his successors.
+
+It was in this way that he learnt the existence six suns away (six
+days' journey), of another sea, the Pacific Ocean, which washed the
+shores of Peru, a country where gold was found in large quantities.
+Balboa's character, which was as grand as those of Cortès and
+Pizarro, but who had not, as they, the time or opportunity to show
+the extraordinary qualities which he possessed, felt convinced that
+this information was most valuable, and that if he could carry out
+such a discovery, it would shed great lustre on his name.
+
+He assembled a body of 190 volunteers, all valiant soldiers, and
+like himself, accustomed to all the chances of war, as well as
+acclimatised to the unhealthy effluvia of a marshy country, where
+fever, dysentery, and complaints of the liver were constantly
+present.
+
+Though the Isthmus of Darien is only sixty miles in width, it is
+divided into two parts by a chain of high mountains; at the foot of
+these the alluvial soil is marvellously fertile, and the vegetation
+far more luxuriant than any European can imagine. It consists of an
+inextricable mass of tropical plants, creepers, and ferns, among
+trees of gigantic size which completely hide the sun, a truly virgin
+forest, interspersed here and there with patches of stagnant water,
+where live multitudes of birds, insects, and animals, never
+disturbed by the foot of man. A warm, moist atmosphere exists here
+which exhausts the strength and speedily saps the energy of any man,
+even the most robust.
+
+With all these obstacles which Nature seemed to have rejoiced in
+placing in Balboa's path, there was yet another no less formidable,
+and this was the resistance which the savage inhabitants of this
+inhospitable shore would offer to his progress. Balboa set out
+without caring for the risk he ran in the event of the guides and
+native auxiliaries proving faithless; he was escorted by a thousand
+Indians as porters, and accompanied by a troop of those terrible
+bloodhounds which had acquired the taste for human flesh in
+Hispaniola.
+
+Of the tribes that he met with on his route, some fled into the
+mountains carrying their provisions with them, and others, taking
+advantage of the difficulties the land presented, tried to fight.
+Balboa marching in the midst of his men, never sparing himself,
+sharing in their privations and rousing their courage, which would
+have failed more than once, was able to inspire them with so much
+enthusiasm for the object that was before them, that after
+twenty-five days of marching and fighting, they could see from the
+top of a mountain that vast Pacific Ocean, of which, four days later,
+Balboa, his drawn sword in one hand and the banner of Castille in
+the other, took possession in the name of the King of Spain. The
+part of the Pacific Ocean which he had reached is situated to the
+east of Panama, and still bears the name of the Gulf of San Miguel,
+given to it by Balboa. The information he obtained from the
+neighbouring caciques, whom he subjugated by force of arms, and from
+whom he obtained a considerable booty, agreed in every particular
+with what he had heard before he set out.
+
+A vast empire lay to the south, they said, "so rich in gold, that
+even the commonest instruments were made of it," where the domestic
+animals were llamas that had been tamed and trained to carry heavy
+burdens, and whose appearance in the native drawings resembled that
+of the camel. These interesting details, and the great quantity of
+pearls offered to Balboa, confirmed him in his idea, that he must
+have reached the Asiatic countries described by Marco Polo, and that
+he could not be far from the empire of Cipango or Japan, of which
+the Venetian traveller had described the marvellous riches which
+were perpetually dazzling the eyes of these avaricious adventurers.
+
+[Illustration: Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean.]
+
+Balboa several times crossed the Isthmus of Darien, and always in
+some fresh direction. Humboldt might well say that this country was
+better known in the beginning of the sixteenth century than in his
+own day. Beyond this Balboa had launched some vessels built under
+his orders on the newly-discovered ocean, and he was preparing a
+formidable armament, with which he hoped to conquer Peru, when he
+was odiously and judicially murdered by the orders of Pedrarias
+Davila, the governor of Darien, who was jealous of the reputation
+Balboa had already gained, and of the glory which would doubtless
+recompense his bravery if he carried out the expedition which he had
+arranged. Thus the conquest of Peru was retarded by at least
+twenty-five years, owing to the culpable jealousy of a man whose
+name has acquired, by Balboa's assassination, almost as wretched a
+celebrity as that of Erostratus.
+
+If we owe to Balboa the first authentic documents regarding Peru,
+another explorer was destined to furnish some not less important
+touching that vast Mexican Empire, which had extended its sway over
+almost the whole of Central America. In 1518, Juan de Grijalva had
+been placed in command of a flotilla, consisting of four vessels,
+armed by Diego Velasquez, the conqueror of Cuba, which were destined
+to collect information upon Yucatan, sighted the year before by
+Hernandez de Cordova. Grijalva, accompanied by the pilot Alaminos,
+who had made the voyage to Florida with Ponce de Leon, had two
+hundred men under his command; amongst the volunteers was Bernal
+Diaz del Castillo, the clever author of a very interesting history
+of the conquest of Mexico, from which we shall borrow freely.
+
+After thirteen days' sailing, Grijalva reached the Island of Cozumel
+on the coast of Yucatan, doubled the Cape of Cotoche, and entered
+the Bay of Campeachy. He disembarked on the 10th of May at Potonchan,
+of which the inhabitants defended the town and citadel vigorously,
+in spite of their astonishment at the vessels, which they took for
+some kind of marine monsters, and their fear of the pale-faced men
+who hurled thunderbolts. Fifty-seven Spaniards were killed in the
+engagement, and many were wounded. This warm reception did not
+encourage Grijalva to make any long stay amongst this warlike people.
+He set sail again after anchoring for four days, took a westerly
+course along the coast of Mexico, and on the 19th of May entered a
+river named by the natives the Tabasco, where he soon found himself
+surrounded by a fleet of fifty native boats filled with warriors
+ready for the conflict, but thanks to Grijalva's prudence and the
+amicable demonstrations which he made, peace was not disturbed.
+
+"We made them understand," writes Bernal Diaz, "that we were the
+subjects of a powerful emperor called Don Carlos, and that it would
+be greatly to their advantage if they also would acknowledge him as
+their master. They replied that they had a sovereign already, and
+were at a loss to understand why we, who had only just arrived, and
+who knew so little of them, should offer them another king." This
+reply was scarcely that of a savage!
+
+In exchange for some worthless European trinkets, the Spaniards
+obtained some Yucca bread, copal gum, pieces of gold worked into the
+shape of fishes or birds, and garments made of cotton, which had
+been woven in the country. As the natives who had been taken on
+board at Cape Cotoche did not perfectly understand the language
+spoken by the inhabitants of Tabasco, the stay here was but of short
+duration, and the ships again put to sea. They passed the mouth of
+the Rio Guatzacoalco, the snowy peaks of the San Martin mountains
+being seen in the distance, and they anchored at the mouth of a
+river which was called _Rio de las Banderas_, from the number of
+white banners displayed by the natives to show their friendly
+feeling towards the new comers.
+
+When Grijalva landed, he was received with the same honour as the
+Indians paid to their gods; they burnt copal incense before him, and
+laid at his feet more than 1500 piastres' worth of small gold jewels,
+as well as green pearls and copper hatchets. After taking formal
+possession of the country, the Spaniards landed on an island called
+_Los Sacrificios_ Island, from a sort of altar which they found
+there placed at the top of several steps, upon which lay the bodies
+of five Indians sacrificed since the preceding evening; their bodies
+were cut open, their hearts torn out, and both legs and arms cut off.
+Leaving this revolting spectacle, they went to another small island,
+which received the name of San Juan, being discovered on St. John's
+Day; to this they added the word _Culua_, which they heard used by
+the natives of these shores. But Culua was the ancient name for
+Mexico, and this Island of San-Juan de Culua is now known as St.
+John d'Ulloa.
+
+Grijalva put all the gold which he had collected on board one of the
+ships and despatched it to Cuba, while he continued his exploration
+of the coast, discovered the Sierras of Tusta and Tuspa, and
+collected a large amount of useful information regarding this
+populous country; on arriving at the _Rio Panuco_, he was attacked
+by a flotilla of native vessels, and had much difficulty in
+defending himself against their attacks.
+
+This expedition was nearly over, for provisions were running short,
+and the vessels were in a very bad state, the volunteers were many
+of them sick and wounded, and even had they been in good health
+their numbers were too small to make it safe to leave them among
+these warlike people, even under the shelter of fortifications.
+Besides, the leaders of the expedition no longer acted in concert,
+so after repairing the largest of the vessels in the Rio Tonala,
+where Bernal Diaz boasts of having sown the first orange-pips which
+were ever brought to Mexico, the Spaniards set out for Santiago in
+Cuba, where they arrived on the 15th of November, after a cruise of
+seven months, not forty-five days, as M. Ferdinand Denis asserts in
+the Biographie Didot, and as M. Ed. Charton repeats in his
+_Voyageurs Anciens et Modernes_.
+
+The results obtained from this voyage were considerable. For the
+first time the long line of coast which forms the peninsula of
+Yucatan, the Bay of Campeachy, and the base of the Gulf of Mexico,
+had been explored continuously from cape to cape. Not only had it
+been proved beyond doubt that Yucatan was not an island as they had
+believed, but much and reliable information had been collected with
+regard to the existence of the rich and powerful empire of Mexico.
+The explorers had been much struck with the marks of a more advanced
+civilization than that existing in the Antilles, with the
+superiority of the architecture, the skilful cultivation of the land,
+the fine texture of the cotton garments, and the delicacy of finish
+of the golden ornaments worn by the Indians. All this combined to
+increase the thirst for riches among the Spaniards of Cuba, and to
+urge them on like modern Argonauts to the conquest of this new
+golden fleece. Grijalva was not destined to reap the fruits of his
+perilous and at the same time intelligent voyage, which threw so new
+a light on Indian civilization. The _sic vos, non vobis_ of the poet
+was once again to find an exemplification in this circumstance.
+
+
+II.
+THE CONQUERORS OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+Ferdinand Cortès--His character--His appointment--Preparations for
+the expedition, and attempts of Velasquez to stop it--Landing at
+Vera-Cruz--Mexico and the Emperor Montezuma--The republic of
+Tlascala--March upon Mexico--The Emperor is made prisoner--Narvaez
+defeated--The _Noche Triste_--Battle of Otumba--The second siege and
+taking of Mexico--Expedition to Honduras--Voyage to Spain--
+Expeditions on the Pacific Ocean--Second Voyage of Cortès to Spain--
+His death.
+
+
+Velasquez had not waited for Grijalva's return before sending off to
+Spain the rich products of the countries discovered by the latter,
+and at the same time soliciting from the council of the Indies, as
+well as from the Bishop of Burgos, an addition to his authority,
+that he might attempt the conquest of these countries. At the same
+time he fitted out a new armament proportioned to the dangers and
+importance of the undertaking that he proposed. But though it was
+comparatively easy for Velasquez to collect the necessary material
+and men, it was far more difficult for him--whom an old writer
+describes as niggardly, credulous, and suspicious in disposition--to
+choose a fit leader. He wished indeed, to find one who should
+combine qualities nearly always incompatible, high courage and great
+talent, without which there was no chance of success, with at the
+same time sufficient docility and submissiveness, to do nothing
+without orders, and to leave to him who incurred no risk, any glory
+and success which might attend the enterprise. Some who were brave
+and enterprising would not be treated as mere machines; others who
+were more docile or more cunning lacked the qualities required to
+insure the success of so vast an enterprise; among the former were
+some of Grijalva's companions who wished that he should be made
+commander, while the latter preferred Augustin Bermudez or
+Bernardino Velasquez. While this was pending, the governor's
+secretary, Andrès de Duero, and Amador de Larez, the Controller of
+Cuba, both favourites of Velasquez, made an arrangement with a
+Spanish nobleman named Ferdinand Cortès, that if they could obtain
+the appointment for him, they should be allowed a share in his gains.
+
+Bernal Diaz says, "They praised Cortès so highly, and pointed him
+out in such flattering terms as the very man fitted to fill the
+vacant post, adding that he was brave and certainly very faithful to
+Velasquez (to whom he was son-in-law), that he allowed himself to be
+persuaded, and Cortès was nominated captain-general. As Andrès de
+Duero was the governor's secretary, he hastened to formulate the
+powers in a deed, making them very ample, as Cortès desired, and
+brought it to him duly signed." Had Velasquez been gifted with the
+power of looking into the future, Cortès was certainly not the man
+he would have chosen.
+
+[Illustration: Ferdinand Cortès. _From an old print_.]
+
+Cortès was born at Medellin in Estramadura in 1485, of an ancient,
+but slenderly-endowed family; after studying at Salamanca for some
+time, he returned to his native town, but the quiet monotonous life
+there was little suited to his restless and capricious temper, and
+he soon started for America, reckoning upon the protection of his
+relation Ovando, the Governor of Hispaniola.
+
+His expectations were fully realized, and he held several honourable
+and lucrative posts, without counting that between times he joined
+in several expeditions against the natives. If he became in this
+manner initiated into the Indian system of tactics, so also,
+unfortunately, did he grow familiar with those acts of cruelty which
+have too often stained the Castilian name. He accompanied Diego de
+Velasquez in his Cuban expedition in 1511, and here he distinguished
+himself so highly, that notwithstanding certain disagreements with
+his chief, a large grant of land as well as of Indians was made to
+him as a recognition of his services.
+
+Cortès amassed the sum of 3000 castellanos in the course of a few
+years by his industry and frugality, a large sum for one in his
+position, but his chief recommendations in the eyes of Andrès de
+Duero and Amador de Sarès his two patrons, were his activity, his
+well-known prudence, his decision of character, and the power of
+gaining the confidence of all with whom he was brought into contact.
+In addition to all this, he was of imposing stature and appearance,
+very athletic, and possessed powers of endurance, remarkable even
+among the hardy adventurers who were accustomed to brave all kinds
+of hardships.
+
+As soon as Cortès had received his commission, which he did with
+every mark of respectful gratitude, he set up a banner at the door
+of his house, made of black velvet embroidered in gold, bearing the
+device of a red cross in the midst of blue and white flames, and
+below, this motto in Latin, "Friends, let us follow the Cross, and
+if we have faith, we shall overcome by this sign." He concentrated
+the whole force of his powerful mind upon the means to make the
+enterprise a success; even his most intimate friends were astonished
+at his enthusiasm in preparing for it. He not only gave the whole of
+the money which he possessed towards arming the fleet, but he
+charged part on his estate, and borrowed considerable sums from his
+friends to purchase vessels, provisions, munitions of war, and
+horses. In a few days 300 volunteers had enrolled themselves,
+attracted by the fame of the general, the daring nature of the
+enterprise, and the profit that would probably accrue from it.
+Velasquez, always suspicious, and doubtless instigated by some who
+were jealous of Cortès, tried to put a stop to the expedition at its
+outset. Cortès being warned by his two patrons that Velasquez would
+probably try to take the command from him, acted with his customary
+decision; he collected his men and, in spite of the vessels not
+being completed and of an insufficient armament, he weighed anchor
+and sailed during the night. When Velasquez discovered that his
+plans had been check-mated he concealed his indignation, but at the
+same time, he made every arrangement to stop the man who could thus
+throw off all dependence upon him with such consummate coolness.
+Cortès anchored at Macaca, to complete his stores, and found many of
+those who had accompanied Grijalva now hasten to serve under his
+banner: Pedro de Alvarado and his brothers, Christoval de Olid,
+Alonzo de Avila, Hernandez de Puerto-Carrero, Gonzalo de Sandoval,
+and Bernal Diaz del Castillo, who was to write a valuable account of
+these events "_quorum pars magna fuit_." Trinity Harbour, on the
+south coast of Cuba was the next resting-place, and here a further
+supply of provisions was taken on board, but while Cortès lay at
+anchor for this purpose, Verdugo the governor, received letters from
+Velasquez, desiring him to arrest the captain-general, the command
+of the fleet having been just taken from him. This bold step would
+have endangered the safety of the town, so Verdugo refrained from
+executing the order. Cortès sailed away to Havana in order to enlist
+some new adherents, while his lieutenant Alvarado went over land to
+the port where the last preparations were made. Although Velasquez
+was unsuccessful in his first attempt, he again sent an order to
+arrest Cortès, but Pedro Barba the governor, felt the impossibility
+of executing the order in the midst of soldiers who, as Bernal Diaz
+says, "would willingly have given their lives to save Cortès."
+
+At length, having recalled the volunteers by beat of drum, and taken
+on board all that appeared necessary, Cortès set sail on the 18th
+February, 1519, with eleven ships (the largest being of 100 tons),
+110 sailors, 553 soldiers,--13 of whom were arquebusiers,--200
+Indians from the island, and some women for domestic work. The real
+strength of the armament lay in the ten pieces of artillery, the
+four falconets provided with an ample supply of ammunition, and the
+sixteen horses which had been obtained at great expense. It was with
+these almost miserable means, which, however, had given Cortès much
+trouble to collect, that he prepared to wage war with a sovereign
+whose dominions were of greater extent than those appertaining to
+the King of Spain--an enterprise from which he would have turned
+back if he had foreseen half its difficulties. But long ago a poet
+said, "Fortune smiles on those who dare."
+
+After encountering a very severe storm, the fleet touched at the
+island of Cozumel, where they found that the inhabitants had
+embraced Christianity, either from fear of the Spaniards, or from
+finding the inability of their gods to help them. Just as the fleet
+was about to leave the island, Cortès had the good fortune to meet
+with a Spaniard named Jeronimo d'Aguilar, who had been kept a
+prisoner by the Indians for eight years. During that time he had
+learnt the Indian language perfectly; he was as prudent as he was
+clever, and when he joined the expedition he was of the greatest use
+as an interpreter.
+
+After doubling Cape Catoche, Cortès sailed down the Bay of Campeachy,
+passed Potonchan, and entered the Rio Tabasco, hoping to meet with
+as friendly a reception there as Grijalva had done, and also to
+collect an equally large quantity of gold; but he found a great
+change had taken place in the feelings of the natives, and he was
+obliged to employ force. In spite of the bravery and numerical
+superiority of the Indians, the Spaniards overcame them in several
+engagements, thanks to the terror caused by the reports of their
+fire-arms and the sight of the cavalry, whom the Indians took for
+supernatural beings. The Indians lost a large number of men in these
+engagements, while among the Spaniards two were killed, and fourteen
+men and several horses wounded; the wounds of the latter were
+dressed with fat taken from the dead bodies of the Indians. At last
+peace was made, and the natives gave Cortès provisions, some cotton
+clothing, a small quantity of gold, and twenty female slaves, among
+whom was the celebrated Marina, who rendered such signal services to
+the Spaniards as an interpreter, and who is mentioned by all the
+historians of the conquest of the New World.
+
+[Illustration: Cortès receives provisions, clothing, a little gold,
+and twenty female slaves.]
+
+Cortès continued on a westerly course, seeking a suitable place for
+landing, but he could find none until he reached St. John d'Ulloa.
+The fleet had scarcely cast anchor before a canoe made its way
+fearlessly to the admiral's vessel, and here Marina (who was of
+Aztec origin) was of the greatest use, in telling Cortès that the
+Indians of this part of the country were the subjects of a great
+empire, and that their province was one recently added to it by
+conquest. Their monarch, named Moctheuzoma, better known under the
+name of Montezuma, lived in Tenochtitlan, or Mexico, nearly 210
+miles away in the interior. Cortès offered the Indians some presents,
+assuring them of his pacific intentions, and then disembarked upon
+the torrid and unhealthy shore of Vera-Cruz. Provisions flowed in
+immediately, but the day after the landing, Teutile, governor of the
+province, and ambassador of Montezuma to the Spaniards, had much
+difficulty in answering Cortès when he asked him to conduct him to
+his master without delay, knowing as he did all the anxiety and
+fears which had haunted the mind of the Emperor since the arrival of
+the Spaniards. However, he caused some cotton stuffs, feather cloaks,
+and some articles made of gold to be laid at the feet of the general,
+a sight which simply excited the cupidity of the Europeans. To give
+these poor Indians an adequate idea of his power, Cortès called out
+his soldiers, and put them through their drill, he also ordered the
+discharge of some pieces of artillery, the noise of which froze the
+hearts of the savages with terror. During the whole time of the
+interview, some painters had been employed in sketching upon pieces
+of white cotton, the ships, the troops, and everything which had
+struck their fancy. These drawings very cleverly executed, were to
+be sent to Montezuma.
+
+Before beginning the history of the heroic struggles which shortly
+commenced, it will be useful to give some details as to that Mexican
+empire which, powerful as it appeared, nevertheless contained within
+itself numerous elements of decay and dissolution, which fact
+explains the cause of its conquest by a mere handful of adventurers.
+That part of America which was under the dominion of Montezuma was
+called Anahuac and lay between 14 degrees and 20 degrees north
+latitude. This region presents great varieties of climate on account
+of its difference of altitude; towards the centre, and rather nearer
+to the Pacific than to the Atlantic, there is a huge basin at an
+elevation of 7500 feet above the sea, and about 200 miles in
+circumference, in the hollow of which there were at that time
+several lakes; this depression is called the valley of Mexico,
+taking its name from the capital of the empire. As may be easily
+supposed, we possess very few authentic details about a people whose
+written annals were burnt by the ignorant "conquistadores" and by
+fanatical monks, who jealously suppressed everything which might
+remind the conquered race of their ancient religious and political
+traditions.
+
+Arriving from the north in the seventh century the Toltecs had
+overspread the plateau of Anahuac. They were an intelligent race of
+people, addicted to agriculture and the mechanical arts,
+understanding the working in metals, and to whom is due the
+construction of the greater part of the sumptuous and gigantic
+edifices of which the ruins are found in every direction in New
+Spain. After four centuries of power, the Toltecs disappeared from
+the country as mysteriously as they had come. A century later they
+were replaced by a savage tribe from the north-west, who were soon
+followed by more civilized races, speaking apparently the Toltec
+language. The most celebrated of these tribes were the Aztecs, and
+the Alcolhuès or Tezcucans, who assimilated themselves easily with
+the tincture of civilization which remained in the country with the
+last of the Toltecs. The Aztecs, after a series of migrations and
+wars, settled themselves in 1326 in the valley of Mexico, where they
+built their capital Tenochtitlan. A treaty of alliance both
+offensive and defensive was entered into between the states of
+Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tlacopan, and was rigorously observed for a
+whole century; in consequence of this the Aztec civilization, which
+had been at first bounded by the extent of the valley, spread on all
+sides, and soon was limited only by the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
+In a short time these people had reached a higher degree of
+civilization than any other tribe in the New World. The rights of
+property were recognized in Mexico, commerce flourished there, and
+three kinds of coin in circulation provided the ordinary mechanism
+of exchange. There was a well-organized police, and a system of
+relays which worked with perfect regularity, and enabled the
+sovereign to transmit his orders with rapidity from one end of the
+empire to the other. The number and beauty of the towns, the great
+size of the palaces, temples, and fortresses indicated an advanced
+civilization, which presented a singular contrast to the ferocious
+manners of the Aztecs. Their polytheistic religion was in the
+highest degree barbarous and sanguinary; the priests formed a very
+numerous body, and exercised great influence even over political
+affairs. Side by side with rites similar to those of Christians,
+such as baptism and confession, the religion presented a tissue of
+the most absurd and bloody superstitions. The offering up of human
+sacrifices, adopted at the beginning of the 14th century, and used
+at first very sparingly, had soon become so frequent, that the
+number of victims immolated each year, and drawn chiefly from the
+conquered nations, amounted to 20,000, while under certain
+circumstances the number was much larger. Thus in 1486, at the
+inauguration of the temple of Huitzilopchit, 70,000 captives
+perished in a single day.
+
+The Government of Mexico was monarchical; at first the imperial
+power had been carefully limited, but it had increased with the
+various conquests, and had become despotic. The sovereign was always
+chosen out of the same family, and his accession was marked by the
+offering up of numerous human sacrifices. The Emperor Montezuma
+belonged to the sacerdotal caste, and in consequence his power
+received some unwonted development. The result of his numerous wars
+had been the extension of his frontiers, and the subjugation of
+various nations; these latter welcomed the Spaniards with eagerness,
+thinking that their dominion must surely be less oppressive and less
+cruel than that of the Aztecs.
+
+It is certain that if Montezuma, with the large force which he had
+at his disposal, had fallen upon the Spaniards when they were
+occupying the hot and unhealthy shore of Vera-Cruz, they would have
+been unable, in spite of the superiority of their arms and
+discipline, to resist such a shock; they must all have perished, or
+been obliged to re-embark, and the fate of the New World would have
+been completely changed. But the decision which formed the most
+salient point in the character of Cortès, was completely wanting in
+that of Montezuma, a prince who never could at any time adopt a
+resolute policy.
+
+Fresh ambassadors from the emperor had arrived at the Spanish camp,
+bringing to Cortès an order to quit the country, and upon his
+refusal all intercourse between the natives and the invaders had
+immediately ceased. The situation was becoming critical, and this
+Cortès felt. After having overcome some hesitation which had been
+shown by the troops, he laid the foundations of Vera-Cruz, a
+fortress designed to serve as a basis of operations, and a shelter
+in case of a possible re-embarkation. He next organized a kind of
+civil government, a _junta_, as it would be called in the present
+day, to which he resigned the commission which had been revoked by
+Velasquez, and then he made the junta give him one with new
+provisions and more extended powers. After this he received the
+envoys from the town of Zempoalla, who were come to solicit his
+alliance, and his protection against Montezuma, whose dominion they
+bore with impatience. Cortès was indeed fortunate in meeting with
+such allies so soon after landing, and not wishing to allow so
+golden an opportunity to slip, he welcomed the Totonacs kindly, went
+with them to their capital, and after having caused a fortress to be
+constructed at Quiabislan on the sea-shore, he persuaded his new
+friends to refuse the payment of tribute to Montezuma. He took
+advantage of his stay at Zempoalla to exhort these people to embrace
+Christianity, and he threw down their idols, as he had already done
+at Cozumel, to prove to them the powerlessness of their gods.
+
+Meanwhile a plot had been forming in his own camp, and Cortès,
+feeling convinced that as long as there remained any way of
+returning to Cuba, there would be constant lukewarmness and
+discontent among his soldiers, caused all his ships to be run
+aground, under the pretext of their being in too shattered a
+condition to be of any further use. This was an unheard-of act of
+audacity, and one which forced his companions either to conquer or
+to die. Having no longer anything to fear from the want of
+discipline of his troops, Cortès set out for Zempoalla on the 16th
+of August, with five hundred soldiers, fifteen horses, and six field
+cannon, and also two hundred Indian porters, who were intended to
+perform all menial offices. The little army soon reached the
+frontiers of the small republic of Tlascala, of which the fierce
+inhabitants, impatient of servitude, had long been engaged in strife
+with Montezuma. Cortès flattered himself that his oft-proclaimed
+intention of delivering the Indians from the Mexican yoke would
+induce the Tlascalans to become his allies and at once to make
+common cause with him. He therefore asked for leave to cross their
+territory on his way to Mexico; but his ambassadors were detained,
+and as he advanced into the interior of the country, he was harassed
+for fourteen consecutive days and nights by continual attacks from
+several bodies of Tlascalans, amounting in all to 30,000 men, who
+displayed a bravery and determination such as the Spaniards had
+never yet seen equalled in the New World. But the arms possessed by
+these brave men were very primitive. What could they effect with
+only arrows and lances tipped with obsidian or fish-bones, stakes
+hardened in the fire, wooden swords, and above all with an inferior
+system of tactics? When they found that each encounter cost them the
+lives of many of their bravest warriors, while not a single Spaniard
+had been killed, they imagined that these strangers must be of a
+superior order of beings, while they could not tell what opinion to
+form of men who sent back to them the spies taken in their camp,
+with their hands cut off, and who yet after each victory not only
+did not devour their prisoners, as the Aztecs would have done, but
+released them, loading them with presents and proposing peace.
+
+Upon this the Tlascalans declared themselves vassals of the Spanish
+crown, and swore to assist Cortès in all his expeditions, while he
+on his side promised to protect them against their enemies. It was
+time that peace should be made, for many of the Spaniards were
+wounded or ill, and all were worn out with fatigue, but the entry in
+triumph into Tlascala, where they were welcomed as supernatural
+beings, quickly made them forget their sufferings.
+
+After twenty days of repose in this town, Cortès resumed his march
+towards Mexico, having with him an auxiliary army of six thousand
+Tlascalans. He went first to Cholula, a town regarded as sacred by
+the Indians, and as the sanctuary and favoured residence of their
+deities. Montezuma felt much satisfaction in the advance of the
+Spaniards to this town, either from the hope that the gods would
+themselves avenge the desecration of their temples, or that he
+thought a rising, and massacre of the Spaniards might be more easily
+organized in this populous and fanatical town. Cortès had been
+warned by the Tlascalans that he must place no trust in the
+protestations of friendship and devotion made by the Cholulans.
+However, he took up his quarters in the town, considering that he
+would lose his prestige if he showed any signs of fear, but upon
+being informed by the Tlascalans that the women and children were
+being sent away, and by Marina that a considerable body of troops
+was massed at the gates of the city, that pitfalls and trenches were
+dug in the streets, whilst the roofs of the houses were loaded with
+stones and missiles, Cortès anticipated the designs of his enemies,
+gave orders to make prisoners of all the principal men of the town,
+and then organized a general massacre of the population, thus taken
+by surprise and deprived of their leaders. For two whole days the
+unhappy Cholulans were subject to all the horrors which could be
+invented by the rage of the Spaniards, and the vengeance of their
+allies the Tlascalans. A terrible example was made, six thousand
+people being put to the sword, temples burned to the ground, and the
+town half destroyed, a work of destruction well calculated to strike
+terror into the hearts of Montezuma and his subjects.
+
+[Illustration: Lake of Mexico.]
+
+Sixty miles now separated Cortès from the capital, and everywhere as
+he passed along he was received as a liberator. There was not a
+cacique who had not some cause of complaint against the imperial
+despotism, and Cortès felt confirmed in the hope that so divided an
+empire would prove an easy prey. As the Spaniards descended from the
+mountains of Chalco, they beheld with astonishment the valley of
+Mexico, with its enormous lake, deeply sunk and surrounded by large
+towns, the capital city built upon piles, and the well-cultivated
+fields of this fertile region.
+
+Cortès did not trouble himself about the continued tergiversations
+of Montezuma, who could not make up his mind to the last moment
+whether he would receive the Spaniards as friends or enemies. The
+Spanish general advanced along the causeway which leads to Mexico
+across the lake, and was already within a mile of the town, when
+some Indians, who, from their magnificent costume were evidently of
+high rank, came to greet him and to announce to him the approach of
+the emperor. Montezuma soon appeared, borne upon the shoulders of
+his favourites in a kind of litter adorned with gold and feathers,
+while a magnificent canopy protected him from the rays of the sun.
+As he advanced the Indians prostrated themselves before him, with
+their heads downwards, as though unworthy even to look at their
+monarch. This first interview was cordial, and Montezuma himself
+conducted his guests to the abode which he had prepared for them. It
+was a vast palace, surrounded by a stone wall, and defended by high
+towers. Cortès immediately took measures of defence, and ordered the
+cannon to be pointed upon the roads leading to the palace. At the
+second interview, magnificent presents were offered both to the
+general and soldiers. Montezuma related that according to an old
+tradition, the ancestors of the Aztecs had arrived in the country
+under the leadership of a man of white complexion, and bearded like
+the Spaniards. After laying the foundations of their power, he had
+embarked upon the ocean, promising them that one day his descendants
+would come to visit them and to reform their laws--and if, as
+Montezuma said, he now received the Spaniards rather as fathers than
+as foreigners, it was because he felt convinced that in them he
+beheld the descendants of his people's ancient chief, and he begged
+them to regard themselves as the masters of his country.
+
+The following days were employed in visiting the town, which
+appeared to the Spaniards as larger, more populous, and more
+beautiful than any city which they had hitherto seen in America. Its
+distinguishing peculiarity consisted in the causeways which formed a
+means of communication with the land, and which were cut through in
+various places to allow a free passage to vessels sailing on the
+waters of the lake. Across these openings were thrown bridges which
+could be easily destroyed. On the eastern side of the town there was
+no causeway and no means of communication with the land except by
+canoes. This arrangement of the town of Mexico caused some anxiety
+to Cortès, who saw that he might be at any moment blockaded in the
+town, without being able to find means of egress. He determined,
+therefore, to prevent any seditious attempt by securing the person
+of the emperor, and using him as a hostage. The following news which
+he had just received furnished him with an excellent pretext:
+Qualpopoca, a Mexican general, had attacked the provinces which had
+submitted to the Spaniards, and Escalante and seven of his soldiers
+had been mortally wounded; besides this, a prisoner had been
+beheaded and the head carried from town to town, thus proving that
+the invaders could be conquered, and were nothing more than ordinary
+mortals.
+
+Cortès profited by these events to accuse the emperor of perfidy. He
+declared that although Montezuma appeared friendly to him and to his
+soldiers, it was only that he might wait for some favourable
+opportunity to treat them in the same manner as Escalante, a
+proceeding quite unworthy of a monarch, and very different from the
+confidence which Cortès had shown in coming, as he had done, to
+visit him. He went on to say that if the suspicions of the Spaniards
+were not justified, the emperor could easily exonerate himself by
+having Qualpopoca punished, and finally, to prevent the recurrence
+of aggressions which could but destroy the existing harmony, and to
+prove to the Mexicans that he harboured no ill-design against the
+Spaniards, Montezuma could not do otherwise than come to reside
+amongst them. It may be easily imagined that the emperor was not
+very ready to decide upon this course, but was at last obliged to
+give in to the violence and threats of the Spaniards. Upon
+announcing his resolution to his subjects, he was made to assure
+them several times over that he put himself into the hands of the
+Spaniards of his own free will; these words were needed to calm the
+Mexicans, who threatened to make an attack upon the foreigners.
+
+The success of Cortès in this bold scheme was quite beyond his
+expectations. Qualpopoca, with his son and five of the chief
+ringleaders in the revolt, were seized by the Mexicans, and brought
+before a Spanish tribunal, which was at the same time judge and
+prosecutor; the Indians were condemned and burnt alive. Not content
+with having punished men who had committed no crime but that of
+executing the orders of their emperor, and of opposing an armed
+resistance to the invasion of their country, Cortès imposed a new
+humiliation upon Montezuma, in placing fetters upon his feet, under
+the pretext that the culprits in their last moments had made
+accusations against him. For six months the "Conquistador" exercised
+the supreme government in the name of the emperor, now reduced to a
+puppet-show of authority. Cortès changed the governors who
+displeased him, collected the taxes, presided over all the details
+of the administration, and sent Spaniards into the various provinces
+of the empire with orders to examine their productions, and to take
+particular notice of the mining districts and the processes in use
+for collecting gold.
+
+Cortès also turned to account the curiosity evinced by Montezuma to
+see European ships, to have rigging and other appurtenances brought
+from Vera-Cruz, and to order the construction of two brigantines
+destined to ensure his communications with terra-firma by the waters
+of the lake.
+
+Emboldened by receiving so many proofs of submission and humility,
+Cortès took another step in advance, and required that Montezuma
+should declare himself the vassal and tributary of Spain. The act of
+fidelity and homage was accompanied, as may be easily imagined, with
+presents both rich and numerous, as well as by a heavy tax which was
+levied without much difficulty. The opportunity was now taken to
+gather together everything in gold and silver, which had been
+extorted from the Indians, and to melt them down, except certain
+pieces which were kept as they were, on account of the beauty of the
+workmanship. The whole did not amount to more than 600,000 pesos, or
+100,000_l._ Thus, although the Spaniards had made use of all their
+power, and Montezuma had exhausted his treasures to satisfy them,
+the whole product amounted to an absurdly small sum, very little in
+accordance with the idea which the conquerors had formed of the
+riches of the country. After reserving one-fifth of the treasure for
+the king, and one-fifth for Cortès and subtracting enough to
+reimburse the sums which had been advanced for the expenses of the
+expedition, the share of each soldier did not amount to 100 _pesos_,
+and they considered that it would have been more worth their while
+to have remained in Hispaniola, than to have experienced such
+fatigues, encountered such great dangers, and suffered so many
+privations, all for the reward of 100 _pesos_! If the promises of
+Cortès ended in this beggarly result, and if the partition had been
+made with fairness, of which they did not feel certain, they argued
+that it was absurd to remain longer in so poor a country, while
+under a chief less prodigal in promises, but more generous, they
+might go to countries rich in gold and precious stones, where brave
+warriors would find an adequate compensation for their toils. So
+murmured these greedy adventurers; some accepting what fell to their
+share while fuming over its small amount, others disdainfully
+refusing it.
+
+Cortès had succeeded in persuading Montezuma to conform to his will
+in everything which concerned politics, but it was otherwise in
+regard to religion. He could not persuade him to change his creed,
+and when Cortès wished to throw down the idols, as he had done at
+Zempoalla, a tumult arose which would have become very serious, had
+he not immediately abandoned his project. From that time the
+Mexicans, who had offered scarcely any resistance to the subjugation
+and imprisonment of their monarch, resolved to avenge their outraged
+deities, and they prepared a simultaneous rising against the
+invaders. It was at this juncture, when the affairs in the interior
+seemed to be taking a less favourable turn, that Cortès received
+news from Vera-Cruz, that several ships were cruising off the
+harbour. At first he thought this must be a fleet sent to his aid by
+Charles V., in answer to a letter which he had sent to him on the
+16th of July, 1519, by Puerto Carrero and Montejo. But he was soon
+undeceived, and learnt that this expedition was organized by Diego
+Velasquez, who knew by experience how lightly his lieutenant could
+shake off all dependence upon him; he had sent this armament with
+the object of deposing Cortès from his command, of making him a
+prisoner, and of carrying him off to Cuba, where he would be
+speedily placed upon his trial. The fleet thus sent was under the
+command of Pamphilo de Narvaez; it consisted of eighteen vessels,
+and carried eighty horse-soldiers, and 100 infantry (of whom eighty
+were musketeers), 120 cross-bowmen, and twelve cannons.
+
+Narvaez disembarked without opposition, near to the fort of San Juan
+d'Ulloa, but upon summoning the Governor of Vera-Cruz, Sandoval, to
+give up the town to him, Sandoval seized the men who were charged
+with the insolent message, and sent them off to Mexico, where Cortès
+at once released them, and then gained from them circumstantial
+information as to the forces, and the projects of Narvaez. The
+personal danger of Cortès at this moment was great; the troops sent
+by Velasquez were more numerous and better furnished with arms and
+ammunition than were his own, but his deepest cause of anxiety was
+not the possibility of his own condemnation and death, it was the
+fear lest all fruit of his efforts might be lost, and the knowledge
+of the hurtfulness of these dissensions to his country's cause. The
+situation was a critical one, but after mature reflection and the
+careful weighing of arguments for and against the course he
+meditated, Cortès determined to fight, even at a disadvantage,
+rather than to sacrifice his conquests and the interests of Spain.
+Before proceeding to this last extremity, he sent his chaplain
+Olmedo to Narvaez, but he was very ill-received, and saw all his
+proposals for an accommodation disdainfully rejected. Olmedo met
+with more success amongst the soldiers, who most of them knew him,
+and to whom he distributed a number of chains, gold rings, and other
+jewels, which were well calculated to give them a high idea of the
+riches of the conqueror. But when Narvaez heard of what was going on,
+he determined not to leave his troops any longer exposed to
+temptation; he set a price upon the heads of Cortès and his
+principal officers, and advanced to the encounter.
+
+Cortès, however, was too skilful to be enticed into giving battle
+under unfavourable circumstances. He temporized and succeeded in
+tiring out Narvaez and his troops, who retired to Zempoalla. Then
+Cortès, having taken his measures with consummate prudence, and the
+surprise and terror of a nocturnal attack which he organized
+compensating for the inferiority of his troops, he made prisoners of
+his enemy and all his soldiers, his own loss amounting to but two
+men. The conqueror treated the vanquished well, and gave them the
+choice between returning to Cuba, or remaining to share his fortune.
+This latter proposal, backed up as it was by gifts and promises,
+appeared so seductive to the new arrivals, that Cortès found himself
+at the head of 1000 soldiers, the day after he had been in danger of
+falling into the hands of Narvaez. This rapid change of fortune was
+turned to the greatest advantage by the skilful diplomacy of Cortès,
+who hastened to return to Mexico. The troops whom he had left there
+under the command of Alvarado, to guard the emperor and the treasure,
+were reduced to the last extremity by the natives, who had killed or
+wounded a great number of soldiers, and who kept the rest in a state
+of close blockade, while threatening them constantly with a general
+assault. It must be confessed that the imprudent and criminal
+conduct of the Spaniards, and notably the massacre of the most
+distinguished citizens of the empire during a fête, had brought
+about the rising which they dreaded, and which they had hoped to
+prevent. After having been joined by 2000 Tlascalans, Cortès pressed
+forward by forced marches towards the capital, where he arrived in
+safety, and found that the Indians had not destroyed the bridges
+belonging to the causeways and dikes which joined Mexico to the land.
+In spite of the arrival of this reinforcement, the situation did not
+improve. Each day it was necessary to engage in new combats, and to
+make sorties to clear the avenues leading to the palace occupied by
+the Spaniards.
+
+Cortès now saw but too plainly the mistake which he had made in
+shutting himself up in a town where his position might be stormed at
+any moment, and from which it was so difficult to extricate himself.
+In this difficulty he had recourse to Montezuma, who, by virtue of
+his authority and of the prestige which still clung to him, could
+appease the tumult, give the Spaniards some respite, and enable them
+to prepare for their retreat. But when the unfortunate emperor, now
+become a mere toy in the hands of the Spaniards, appeared upon the
+walls decked out with regal ornaments, and implored his subjects to
+cease from hostilities, murmurs of discontent arose, and threats
+were freely uttered. Hostilities began afresh, and before the
+soldiers had time to protect him with their shields, Montezuma was
+pierced with arrows, and hit upon the head by a stone which knocked
+him down. At this sight the Indians, horrified at the crime which
+they had just committed, at once ceased fighting, and fled in all
+directions, while the emperor, understanding but too late all the
+baseness of the part which Cortès had forced him to play, tore off
+the bandages which had been applied to his wounds, and refusing all
+nourishment, he died cursing the Spaniards.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Montezuma.]
+
+After so fatal an event, there was no more room to hope for peace
+with the Mexicans, and it became necessary to retire in haste, and
+at whatever cost, from a town in which the Spaniards were threatened
+with blockade and starvation. For this retreat Cortès was preparing
+in secret. He saw his troops each day more and more closely hemmed
+in, whilst several times he was forced himself to take his sword in
+his hand and to fight like a common soldier. Solis even relates, but
+upon what authority is not known, that during an assault which was
+made upon one of the edifices commanding the Spanish quarter, two
+young Mexicans, recognizing Cortès, who was cheering on his soldiers,
+resolved to sacrifice themselves in the hope of killing the man who
+had been the author of their country's calamities. They approached
+him in a suppliant attitude, as though they would ask for quarter,
+then seizing him round the waist they dragged him towards the
+battlements, over which they threw themselves, hoping to drag him
+over with them. But thanks to his exceptional strength and agility
+Cortès managed to escape from their embrace, and these two brave
+Mexicans perished in their generous but vain attempt to save their
+country.
+
+The retreat being determined upon, it was necessary to decide upon
+whether it should be carried out by night or by day. If in the
+daytime the enemy would be more easily resisted, any ambuscades
+which might be prepared would be more easily avoided, while they
+could better take precautions to repair any bridges broken by the
+Mexicans. On the other hand, it was known that the Indians will
+seldom attack an enemy after sunset, but what really decided Cortès
+in favour of a nocturnal retreat was, that a soldier who dabbled in
+astrology had declared to his comrades that success was certain if
+they acted in the night.
+
+They therefore began their march at midnight. Besides the Spanish
+troops, Cortès had under his orders detachments from Tlascala,
+Zempoalla, and Cholula, which, notwithstanding the serious losses
+which had been sustained, still numbered 7000 men. Sandoval
+commanded the vanguard, and Cortès the centre, where were the cannon,
+baggage, and prisoners, amongst whom were a son and two daughters of
+Montezuma; Alvarado and Velasquez de Léon led the rearguard. With
+the army was carried a flying bridge, which had been constructed to
+throw over any gaps there might be in the causeway. Scarcely had the
+Spaniards debouched upon the dike leading to Tacuba, which was the
+shortest of all, when they were attacked in front, flank, and rear
+by solid masses of the enemy, whilst from a fleet of numberless
+canoes, a perfect hailstorm of stones and missiles fell upon them.
+Blinded and amazed, the allies knew not against whom to defend
+themselves first. The wooden bridge sank under the weight of the
+artillery and fighting men. Crowded together upon a narrow causeway
+where they could not use their fire-arms, deprived of their cavalry
+who had not room to act, mingled with the Indians in a hand-to-hand
+combat, not having strength to kill, and surrounded on all sides,
+the Spaniards and their allies gave way under the ever renewed
+numbers of the assailants. Officers and soldiers, infantry and
+cavalry, Spaniards and Tlascalans were confounded together, each
+defended himself to the best of his ability, without caring about
+discipline or the common safety.
+
+All seemed lost, when Cortès with one hundred men succeeded in
+crossing the breach in the dike upon the mass of corpses which
+filled it up. He drew up his soldiers in order as they arrived, and
+putting himself at the head of those least severely wounded, plunged
+wedge-fashion into the mêlée, and succeeded in disengaging from it a
+portion of his men. Before day dawned all those who had succeeded in
+escaping from the massacre of the _noche triste_, as this terrible
+night was called, found themselves reunited at Tacuba. It was with
+eyes full of tears that Cortès passed in review his remaining
+soldiers, all covered with wounds, and took account of the losses
+which he had sustained; 4000 Indians, Tlascalans, and Cholulans, and
+nearly all the horses were killed, all the artillery and ammunition,
+as well as the greatest part of the baggage, were lost, and amongst
+the dead were several officers of distinction--Velasquez de Léon,
+Salcedo, Morla, Larès, and many others; one of those most
+dangerously hurt was Alvarado, but not one man, whether officer or
+soldier, was without a wound.
+
+The fugitives did not delay at Tacuba, and by accident they took the
+road to Tlascala, where they did not know what reception might await
+them. Ever harassed by the Mexicans, the Spaniards were again
+obliged to give battle upon the plains of Otumba to a number of
+warriors, whom some historians reckon at two hundred thousand.
+Thanks to the presence of some cavalry soldiers who still remained
+to him, Cortès was able to overthrow all who were in front of him,
+and to reach a troop of persons whose high rank was easily discerned
+by their gilded plumes and luxurious costumes, amongst whom was the
+general bearing the standard. Accompanied by some horsemen, Cortès
+threw himself upon this group and was fortunate enough, or skilful
+enough, to overturn by a lance-thrust the Mexican general, who was
+then despatched by the sword by a soldier named Juan de Salamanca.
+From the moment when the standard disappeared the battle was gained,
+and the Mexicans, panic-stricken, fled hastily from the field of
+battle. "Never had the Spaniards incurred greater danger," says
+Prescott, "and had it not been for the lucky star of Cortès, not one
+would have survived to transmit to posterity the history of the
+sanguinary battle of Otumba." The booty was considerable, and
+sufficed in part, to indemnify the Spaniards for the loss they had
+sustained in leaving Mexico, for this army which they had just
+defeated was composed of the principal warriors of the nation, who,
+having been quite confident of success, had adorned themselves with
+their richest ornaments.
+
+[Illustration: Cortès at the Battle of Otumba.]
+
+The day after the battle the Spaniards entered the territory of
+Tlascala. Bernal Diaz says, "I shall now call the attention of
+curious readers to the fact that when we returned to Mexico to the
+relief of Alvarado, we were in all 1300 men, including in that
+number ninety-seven horsemen, eighty cross-bowmen, and the same
+number armed with carbines; besides, we had more than 2000
+Tlascalans, and much artillery. Our second entry into Mexico took
+place on St. John's Day, 1520; our flight from the city was on the
+10th day of the month of July following, and we fought the memorable
+battle of Otumba on the 14th day of this same month of July. And now
+I would draw attention to the number of men who were killed at
+Mexico during the passage of the causeways and bridges, in the
+battle of Otumba, and in the other encounters upon the route. I
+declare that in the space of five days 860 of our men were massacred,
+including ten of our soldiers and five Castilian women, who were
+killed in the village of Rustepèque; we lost besides 1200 Tlascalans
+during the same time. It is to be noticed also that if the number of
+dead in the troop of Narvaez were greater than in the troop of
+Cortès, it was because the former soldiers set out on the march
+laden with a quantity of gold, the weight of which hindered them
+from swimming, and from getting out of the trenches."
+
+The troops with Cortès were reduced to four hundred and forty men,
+with twenty horses, twelve cross-bowmen, and seven carabineers; they
+had not a single charge of gunpowder, they were all wounded, lame,
+or maimed in the arms. It was the same number of men that had
+followed Cortès when he first entered Mexico, but how great a
+difference was there between that conquering troop, and the
+vanquished soldiers who now quitted the capital.
+
+As they entered the Tlascalan territory Cortès recommended his men,
+and especially those of Narvaez, not to do anything which could vex
+the natives, the common safety depending upon not irritating the
+only allies which remained to them. Happily the fears which had
+arisen as to the fidelity of the Tlascalans proved groundless. They
+gave the Spaniards a most sympathizing welcome, and their thoughts
+seemed to be wholly bent upon avenging the death of their brothers
+massacred by the Mexicans. While in their capital Cortès heard of
+the loss of two more detachments, but these reverses, grave as they
+were, did not discourage him; he had under his orders troops inured
+to war and faithful allies, Vera-Cruz was intact, he might once more
+reckon upon his good fortune. But before undertaking a new campaign
+or entering upon another siege, help must be sought and preparations
+made, and with these objects in view the general set to work. He
+sent four ships to Hispaniola to enrol volunteers and purchase
+powder and ammunition, and meanwhile he caused trees to be cut down
+in the mountains of Tlascala, and with the wood thus obtained twelve
+brigantines were constructed, which were to be carried in pieces to
+the Lake of Mexico, to be launched there at the moment when needed.
+
+After suppressing some attempts at mutiny amongst the soldiers, in
+which those who had come with Narvaez were the most to blame, Cortès
+again marched forwards, and, with the help of the Tlascalans, first
+attacked the people of Tepeaca and of other neighbouring provinces,
+a measure which had the advantage of exercising anew his own troops
+in war, and of training his allies. While this was going on, two
+brigantines bringing ammunition and reinforcements fell into the
+hands of Cortès; these ships had been sent to Narvaez by Velasquez,
+in ignorance of his misadventures; at this time also some Spaniards
+sent by Francis de Garay, governor of Jamaica, joined the army. In
+consequence of these reinforcements the troops with Cortès, after he
+had rid himself of several partisans of Narvaez with whom he was
+dissatisfied, amounted to five hundred infantry, of whom eighty
+carried muskets, and forty horse-soldiers. With this small army, and
+with one thousand Tlascalans, Cortès set out once more for Mexico on
+the 28th of December, 1520, six months after he had been forced to
+abandon the city. This campaign had for its theatre countries
+already described, and must therefore be passed over somewhat
+rapidly here, notwithstanding the interest attaching to it; to enter
+fully into the history of the conquest of Mexico would not be in
+accordance with the primary object of this work.
+
+After the death of Montezuma his brother Quetlavaca was raised to
+the throne, and he adopted all the measures of precaution compatible
+with Aztec strategic science. But he died of the smallpox, the sad
+gift of the Spaniards to the New World, at the very moment when his
+brilliant qualities of foresight and bravery were the most needed by
+his country. His successor was Guatimozin, the nephew of Montezuma,
+a man distinguished by his talents and courage.
+
+Cortès had no sooner entered the Mexican territory than fighting
+began. He speedily captured the town of Tezcuco, which was situated
+at twenty miles' distance, upon the edge of the great central lake,
+that lake upon whose waters the Spaniards were to see an imposing
+flotilla floating three months later. At this time a fresh
+conspiracy, which had for its object the assassination of Cortès and
+his principal officers, was discovered, and the chief culprit
+executed. At this moment fate seemed in every way to smile upon
+Cortès; he had just received the news of the arrival of fresh
+reinforcements at Vera-Cruz, and the greater part of the towns under
+the dominion of Guatimozin had submitted to the force of his arms.
+The actual siege of Mexico began in the month of May, 1521, and
+continued with alternate success and reverse until the day when the
+brigantines were launched upon the water of the lake. The Mexicans
+did not hesitate to attack them; from four to five thousand canoes,
+each bearing two men, covered the lake and advanced to the assault
+of the Spanish vessels, which carried in all nearly three hundred
+men. These nine brigantines were provided with cannon, and soon
+dispersed or sunk the enemy's fleet, who thenceforth left them in
+undisputed possession of the water. But this success and certain
+other advantages gained by Cortès had no very marked consequences,
+and the siege dragged slowly on, until the general made up his mind
+to capture the town by force. Unfortunately the officer who was
+charged with protecting the line of retreat by the causeways while
+the Spaniards were making their way into the town, abandoned his
+post, thinking it unworthy of his valour, and went to join in the
+combat. Guatimozin was informed of the fault which had been
+committed, and at once took advantage of it. His troops attacked the
+Spaniards on all sides with such fury that numbers of them were
+killed in a short time, while sixty-two of the soldiers fell alive
+into the hands of the Mexicans, a fate which Cortès, who was
+severely wounded in the thigh, narrowly escaped sharing. During the
+night following, the great temple of the war-god was illuminated in
+sign of triumph, and the Spaniards listened in profound sadness to
+the beating of the great drum. From the position they occupied they
+could witness the end of the prisoners, their unfortunate countrymen,
+whose breasts were opened and their hearts torn out, and whose dead
+bodies were hurled down the steps; they were then torn in pieces by
+the Aztecs, who quarrelled over the pieces with the object of using
+them for a horrible festival.
+
+This terrible defeat caused the siege to go on slowly, until the day
+came when three parts of the city having been taken or destroyed,
+Guatimozin was obliged by his councillors to quit Mexico and to set
+out for the mainland, where he reckoned upon organizing his
+resistance, but the boat which carried him being seized he was made
+prisoner. In his captivity he was destined to display much greater
+dignity and strength of character than his uncle Montezuma had done.
+From this time all resistance ceased, and Cortès might take
+possession of the half-destroyed capital. After a heroic resistance,
+in which 120,000 Mexicans according to some accounts, but 240,000
+according to others, had perished, after a siege which had lasted
+not less than seventy days, Mexico, and with the city all the rest
+of the empire, succumbed, less indeed to the blows dealt against it
+by the Spaniards than to the long-standing hatred and the revolts of
+the subjugated people, and to the jealousy of the neighbouring
+states, fated soon to regret the yoke which they had so deliberately
+shaken off.
+
+Contempt and rage soon succeeded amongst the Spaniards to the
+intoxication of success; the immense riches upon which they had
+reckoned either had no existence, or they had been thrown into the
+lake. Cortès found it impossible to calm the malcontents, and was
+obliged to allow the emperor and his principal minister to be put to
+the torture. Some historians, and notably Gomara, report that whilst
+the Spaniards were stirring the fire which burnt below the gridiron
+upon which the two victims were extended, the minister turned his
+head towards his master and apparently begged him to speak, in order
+to put an end to their tortures; but that Guatimozin reproved this
+single moment of weakness by these words, "And I, am I assisting at
+some pleasure, or am I in the bath?" an answer which has been
+poetically changed into, "And I, do I lie upon roses?"
+
+[Illustration: The Spaniards stir the fire burning below the
+gridiron.]
+
+The historians of the conquest of Mexico have usually stopped short
+at the taking of Mexico, but it remains for us to speak of some
+other expeditions undertaken by Cortès with different aims, but
+which resulted in casting quite a new light upon some portions of
+Central America; besides we could not leave this hero, who played so
+large a part in the history of the New World and in the development
+of its civilization, without giving some details of the end of his
+life.
+
+With the fall of the capital was involved, properly speaking, that
+of the Mexican empire; if there were still some resistance, as
+notably there was in the province of Oaxaca, it was of an isolated
+character, and a few detachments of troops sufficed to reduce to
+submission the last remaining opponents of the Spaniards, terrified
+as the Mexicans were by the punishments which had been dealt out to
+the people of Panuco, who had revolted. At the same time ambassadors
+were sent by the people of the distant countries of the empire, to
+convince themselves of the reality of that wonderful event, the
+taking of Mexico, to behold the ruins of the abhorred town, and to
+tender their submission to the conquerors.
+
+Cortès was at length confirmed in the position he held after
+incidents which would take too long to relate, and which caused him
+to say, "It has been harder for me to fight against my countrymen
+than against the Aztecs." It now remained to him to organize the
+conquered country, and he began by establishing the seat of
+government at Mexico, which he rebuilt. He attracted Spaniards to
+the city by granting them concessions of lands, and the Indians, by
+allowing them at first to remain under the authority of their native
+chiefs, although he speedily reduced them all, except the Tlascalans,
+to the condition of slaves, by the vicious system of _repartimientos_,
+in vogue in the Spanish colonies. But if it is justifiable to reproach
+Cortès with having held cheaply the political rights of the Indians,
+it must be conceded that he manifested the most laudable solicitude
+for their spiritual well-being. To further this object he brought over
+some Franciscans, who by their zeal and charity in a short time gained
+the veneration of the natives, and in a space of twenty years brought
+about the conversion of the whole population.
+
+At the same time Cortès sent some troops into the state of Mechoacan,
+who penetrated as far as the Pacific Ocean, and as they returned
+visited some of the rich provinces situated in the north. Cortès
+founded settlements in all the parts of the country which appeared
+to him advantageous: at Zacatula upon the shores of the Pacific, at
+Coliman in Mechoacan, at Santesteban near Tampico, at Medellin near
+Vera-Cruz, &c.
+
+Immediately after the pacification of the country, Cortès entrusted
+Christoval de Olid with the command of a considerable force, in
+order to establish a colony in Honduras, and at the same time Olid
+was to explore the southern coast of that province, and to seek for
+a strait which should form a communication between the Atlantic and
+Pacific Oceans. But, carried away by the pride of command, Olid had
+no sooner reached his destination than he declared himself
+independent, whereupon Cortès immediately despatched one of his
+relations to arrest the culprit, and set out himself, accompanied by
+Guatimozin, at the head of one hundred horsemen and fifty
+foot-soldiers, on the 12th of October, 1524. After crossing the
+provinces of Goatzacoalco, Tabasco, and Yucatan, and enduring all
+kinds of privations in the course of a most trying march over marshy
+and shifting ground, and across a perfect ocean of undulating
+forests, the detachment was approaching the province of Aculan, when
+Cortès was told of the existence of a plot, formed, as was said, by
+Guatimozin and the principal Indian chiefs. Its aim was to seize the
+first opportunity to massacre both officers and soldiers, after
+which the march to Honduras was to be continued, the settlements
+were to be destroyed, and then there was to be a return to Mexico,
+where during a general rising there would doubtless be small
+difficulty experienced in getting rid of the invaders. Guatimozin in
+vain protested his innocence, in which there is every reason to
+believe; he was hung, as well as several of the Aztec nobles, upon
+the branches of a _Ceyba_ tree, which shaded the road. Bernal Diaz
+del Castillo says, "The execution of Guatimozin was very unjust, and
+we were all agreed in condemning it." But Prescott says, "If Cortès
+had consulted but his own interest and his renown, he should have
+spared him, for he was the living trophy of his victory, as a man
+keeps gold in the lining of his coat."
+
+At length the Spaniards reached Aculan, a flourishing town, where
+they refreshed themselves after their journey in excellent quarters;
+when they set out again, it was in the direction of the Lake of
+Peten, a part of the country where the population was easily
+converted to Christianity. We shall not dwell upon the sufferings
+and misery which tried the expedition in these sparsely-peopled
+countries, until it arrived at San Gil de Buena-Vista, upon the
+Golfo Dolce, where Cortès, after receiving the news of the execution
+of Olid and the re-establishment of the central authority, embarked
+upon his return to Mexico. At this time he entrusted to Alvarado the
+command of three hundred infantry, one hundred and sixty cavalry,
+and four cannon, with a body of Indian auxiliaries, with which he
+set out for the south of Mexico, to conquer Guatemala. He reduced to
+submission the provinces of Zacatulan, Tehuantepec, Soconusco,
+Utlatlan, and laid the foundations of the town of Guatemala la
+Vieja; when, some time afterwards he made a voyage to Spain, he was
+named by Charles V. governor of the countries which he had conquered.
+
+Three years had not expired after the conquest, before a territory
+1200 miles in length upon the sea-board of the Atlantic, and 1500
+miles upon that of the Pacific, had submitted to the Castilian crown,
+and with but few exceptions, was in a state of perfect tranquillity.
+
+The return of Cortès to Mexico from the useless expedition to
+Honduras--which had wasted so much time and caused almost as great
+sufferings to the Spaniards as the conquest of Mexico--had taken
+place but a few days, when he received the news that he was
+temporarily replaced by another commander, and was invited to repair
+to Spain to exculpate himself from certain charges. He was not in
+any haste to comply with this order, hoping that it might be revoked,
+but his indefatigable calumniators and his implacable enemies, both
+in Spain and Mexico, preferred accusations against him after such a
+manner, that he found himself obliged to go and make his defence, to
+state his wrongs, and boldly to claim the approval of his conduct.
+Cortès therefore started accompanied by his friend Sandoval, as well
+as by Tapia und several Aztec chiefs, amongst whom was a son of
+Montezuma. He disembarked at Palos, in May, 1528, at the same place
+where Columbus had landed thirty-five years before, and he was
+welcomed with the same enthusiasm and rejoicings as the discoverer
+of America had been; here Cortès met with Pizarro, then at the
+outset of his career, who was come to solicit the support of the
+Spanish government. Cortès afterwards set out for Toledo, where the
+court then was. The mere announcement of his return had produced a
+complete change in public opinion. His unexpected arrival at once
+contradicted the idea that he harboured any projects of revolt and
+independence. Charles V. saw that public feeling would be outraged
+at the thought of punishing a man who had added its greatest gem to
+the crown of Castille, and so the journey of Cortès became one
+continual triumph in the midst of crowds of people greater than had
+been ever known before. "The houses and streets of the large towns
+and of the villages," says Prescott, "were filled with spectators
+impatient to contemplate the hero whose single arm might be said, in
+some sort, to have conquered an empire for Spain, and who, to borrow
+the language of an old historian, marched in all the pomp and glory,
+not of a great vassal, but of an independent monarch."
+
+Charles V., after having granted several audiences to Cortès, and
+bestowed upon him those particular marks of favour which are termed
+important by courtiers, deigned to accept from him the empire which
+he had conquered for him, and the magnificent presents which he
+brought. But he considered that he had fully recompensed him when he
+had given Cortès the title of Marquis della Valle de Oajaca, and the
+post of captain-general of New Spain, without, however, restoring to
+him the civil government, a power which had been formerly delegated
+to him by the junta of Vera-Cruz. Cortès, after his marriage with
+the niece of the Duke de Béjar, who belonged to one of the first
+families in Spain, accompanied the emperor, who was on his way to
+Italy, to the port of embarkation; but the general, soon becoming
+tired of the frivolities of a court, so little in accordance with
+the active habits of his past life, set out again for Mexico in 1530,
+and landed at Villa-Rica. After his arrival he underwent some
+annoyance caused by the Audienza, which had exercised the power in
+his absence, and which had instituted law-suits against him, and he
+also found himself in conflict with the new civil junta on the
+subject of military affairs. The Marquis della Valle withdrew
+himself to Cuernavaca, where he had immense estates, and busied
+himself with agriculture. He was the means of introducing the
+sugar-cane and the mulberry into Mexico, he also encouraged the
+cultivation of hemp and flax, and the breeding, on a large scale, of
+merino sheep.
+
+But this peaceable life without adventures could not long satisfy
+the enterprising spirit of Cortès. In 1532 and 1533, he equipped two
+squadrons destined to make voyages of discovery in the north-west of
+the Pacific. The latter expedition reached the southern extremity of
+the peninsula of California without attaining the object sought,
+namely the discovery of a strait uniting the Pacific with the
+Atlantic. Cortès himself met with no better success in 1536 in the
+Vermilion Sea (Gulf of California). Three years later a concluding
+expedition, of which Cortès gave the command to Ulloa, penetrated to
+the farthest extremity of the gulf, and then, sailing along the
+exterior side of the peninsula, reached the 29 degrees of north
+latitude. From thence the chief of the expedition sent back one of
+his ships to Cortès, while the rest proceeded northwards, but from
+that time nothing more is heard of them. Such was the unhappy result
+of the expeditions of Cortès, which, while they did not bring him in
+a single ducat, cost him not less than 300,000 gold castellanos. But
+they at least had the result of making known the coast of the
+Pacific Ocean, from the Bay of Panama as far as Colorado. The tour
+of the Californian Peninsula was made, and it was thus discovered
+that what had been imagined to be an island, was in reality a part
+of the continent. The whole of the Vermilion Sea, or Sea of Cortès,
+as the Spaniards justly named it, was carefully explored, and it was
+ascertained that, instead of having an outlet as was supposed to the
+north, it was in reality only a gulf deeply hollowed into the
+continent.
+
+Cortès had not been able to fit out these expeditions without coming
+into antagonism with the viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza, whom the
+emperor had sent to Mexico, an appointment which had wounded the
+feelings of the Marquis della Valle. Wearied with these continual,
+annoyances, and indignant at finding his prerogative as
+captain-general, if not absolutely ignored, at least perpetually
+questioned, Cortès left Mexico, and once more set out for Spain. But
+this journey was not destined at all to resemble the first. Grown
+old, disgusted with life, and betrayed by fortune, the
+"conquistador" had no longer anything to expect from government. He
+had not to wait long before receiving proof of this; one day he
+pressed through the crowd which surrounded the emperor's coach, and
+mounted upon the step of the door. Charles V. pretended not to
+recognize him, and asked who this man was. Cortès answered proudly,
+"It is the man who has given you more States than your father left
+you Towns." By this time public interest was diverted from Mexico,
+which had not yielded as much as had been expected from it, and was
+centred upon the marvellous riches of Peru. Cortès was, however,
+received with honour by the supreme council of the Indies, and
+permitted to state his complaints before it, but the debates upon
+the subject were endlessly drawn out, and he could obtain no redress.
+In 1541, during the disastrous expedition of Charles V. against
+Algiers, Cortès, who was serving in it as a volunteer, but whose
+counsels had not been listened to, had the misfortune to lose three
+great carved emeralds, jewels which would have sufficed for the
+ransom of an empire. Upon his return he renewed his solicitations,
+but with the same want of success. His grief over this injustice and
+these repeated disappointments was so deep, that his health suffered
+severely; he died far from the scene of his exploits, on the 10th of
+November, 1547, at Castilleja de la Cuesta, at the very moment when
+he was making preparations to return to America.
+
+"He was a true knight errant," says Prescott; "of all that glorious
+troop of adventurers which the Spain of the sixteenth century sent
+forth to a career of discovery and conquest, there was not one more
+deeply imbued with the spirit of romantic enterprise than Fernando
+Cortès. Strife was his delight, and he loved to attempt an
+enterprise by its most difficult side."...
+
+This passion for the romantic might have reduced the conqueror of
+Mexico to the part of a common adventurer, but Cortès was certainly
+a profound politician and a great captain, if one is justified in
+giving this name to a man who accomplished great actions by his own
+unassisted genius. There is no other example in history of so great
+an enterprise having been carried to a successful end with such
+inadequate means. It may be said with truth that Cortès conquered
+Mexico with his own resources alone. His influence over the minds of
+his soldiers was the natural result of their confidence in his
+ability, but it must be attributed also to his popular manners,
+which rendered him eminently fit to lead a band of adventurers. When
+he had attained to a higher rank, if Cortès displayed more of pomp,
+his veterans at least continued on the same terms of intimacy with
+him as before. In finishing this portrait of the "conquistador," we
+shall quote the upright and veracious Bernal Diaz, with whose
+sentiments we fully agree. "He preferred his name of Cortès to all
+the titles by which he might be addressed, and he had good reasons
+for it, for the name of Cortès is as famous in our days as that of
+Cesar amongst the Romans, or Hannibal amongst the Carthaginians."
+The old chronicler ends by a touch which vividly depicts the
+religious spirit of the sixteenth century: "Perhaps he was destined
+to receive his reward only in a better world, and I fully believe it
+to be so; for he was an honest knight, very sincere in his devotions
+to the Virgin, to the Apostle St. Peter, and to all the saints."
+
+
+III.
+THE CONQUERORS OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+The triple alliance--Francisco Pizarro and his brothers--Don Diego
+d'Almagro--First attempts--Peru, its extent, people, and kings--
+Capture of Atahualpa, his ransom and death--Pedro d'Alvarado--
+Almagro in Chili--Strife among the conquerors--Trial and execution
+of Almagro--Expeditions of Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana--
+Assassination of Francisco Pizarro--Rebellion and execution of his
+brother Gonzalo.
+
+
+The information which had been gained by Balboa as to the riches of
+the countries situated to the south of Panama had scarcely become
+known to the Spaniards before several expeditions were organized to
+attempt the conquest of them. But all had failed, either from the
+means used being insufficient, or from the commanders not being
+equal to the greatness of the undertaking. It must be confessed also
+that the localities explored by these first adventurers--these
+pioneers, as they would be called now-a-days--did not at all come up
+to what Spanish greed had expected from them, and for this reason,
+that all the attempts had been hitherto made upon what was then
+called "Terra Firma," a country pre-eminently unhealthy, mountainous,
+marshy, and covered with forests; the inhabitants were few, but of
+so warlike a disposition that they had added another obstacle to all
+those which nature had strewn with so prodigal a hand in the path of
+the invaders. Little by little, therefore, the enthusiasm had cooled,
+and the wonderful narratives of Balboa were mentioned only to be
+turned into ridicule.
+
+[Illustration: Francisco Pizarro. _From an old print_.]
+
+There lived, however, in Panama a man well able to weigh the truth
+of the reports which had been circulated concerning the richness of
+the countries bathed by the Pacific; this man was Francisco Pizarro,
+who had accompanied Muñez de Balboa to the southern sea, and who now
+associated with himself two other adventurers, Diego de Almagro and
+Ferdinand de Luque. A few words must be said about the chiefs of the
+enterprise. Francisco Pizarro, born near Truxillo between the years
+1471 and 1478, was the natural son of a certain Captain Gonzalo
+Pizarro, who had taught the boy nothing but to take care of pigs; he
+was soon tired of this occupation, and took advantage of his having
+allowed one of the animals who were in his charge to stray, not to
+return to the paternal roof, where he was accustomed to be cruelly
+beaten for the smallest peccadillo. The young Pizarro enlisted, and
+after passing some years amidst the Italian wars, he followed
+Christopher Columbus to Hispaniola in 1510. He served there with
+distinction, and also in Cuba; afterwards he accompanied Hojeda to
+Darien, discovered, as has been already mentioned, the Pacific, with
+Balboa, and after the execution of the latter, he assisted Pedrarias
+Davila, whose favourite he had become, in the conquest of all the
+country known as Castille d'Or.
+
+While Pizarro was an illegitimate child, Diego de Almagro was a
+foundling, picked up according to some in 1475 at Aldea del Rey, but
+according to others at Almagro, from which circumstance, as they
+maintain, he derived his name. He was educated in the midst of
+soldiers, and while still young went to America, where he had
+succeeded in amassing a small fortune.
+
+Ferdinand de Luque was a rich ecclesiastic of Tobago, who exercised
+the calling of a schoolmaster at Panama. The youngest of these
+adventurers was by this time more than fifty years of age, and
+Garcilasso de la Vega relates that upon their project being known,
+they became the objects of general derision; Ferdinand de Luque was
+the most laughed at, and was called by no other name than _Hernando
+el Loco_, Ferdinand the Fool. The terms of partnership were soon
+agreed upon between these three men, of whom two at least were
+without fear, if they were not all three without reproach. Luque
+furnished money needed for the armament of the vessels and the pay
+of the soldiers, and Almagro bore an equal part in the expense, but
+Pizarro, who possessed nothing but his sword, was to pay his
+contribution in another manner. It was he who took the command of
+the first attempt, upon which we shall dwell in some detail, because
+it was then that the perseverance and inflexible obstinacy of the
+"conquistador" first came fully into sight.
+
+One of the historians of the conquest of Peru, Augustin de Zarate,
+relates as follows:--"Having then asked and obtained the permission
+of Pedro Arias d'Avila, Francisco Pizarro after much trouble
+equipped a vessel upon which he embarked with 140 men. At the
+distance of 150 miles from Panama he discovered a small and poor
+province named Peru, which caused the same name to be henceforward
+improperly bestowed upon all the country which was discovered along
+that coast for the space of more than 3600 miles in length. Passing
+onwards he discovered another country, which the Spaniards called
+_the burnt people_. The Indians slew so many of his men that he was
+constrained to retire in great disorder to the country of Chinchama,
+which is not far distant from the place whence he had started.
+Almagro, however, who had remained at Panama, fitted out a ship
+there, upon which he embarked with seventy Spaniards, and descended
+the coast as far as the River San Juan, 300 miles from Panama. Not
+having met with Pizarro, he went back northwards as far as _the
+burnt people_, where, having ascertained by certain indications that
+Pizarro had been there, he landed his men. But the Indians, puffed
+up by the victory which they had gained over Pizarro, resisted
+bravely, forced the entrenchments with which Almagro had covered his
+position, and obliged him to re-embark. He returned therefore, still
+following the coast-line until he arrived at Chinchama, where he
+found Francisco Pizarro. They were much rejoiced at meeting again,
+and having added to their followers some fresh soldiers whom they
+had levied, they found their troops amounted to 200 Spaniards, and
+once more they descended the coast. They suffered so much from
+scarcity of provisions and from the attacks of the Indians, that Don
+Diego returned to Panama to collect more recruits and to obtain
+provisions. He took back with him eighty men, with whom and with
+those who remained to them, they went as far as the country called
+Catamez, a country moderately peopled and where they found abundance
+of provisions. They noticed that the Indians of these parts who
+attacked them and made war against them, had their faces studded
+with nails of gold inserted in holes which they had made expressly
+for receiving these ornaments. Diego de Almagro returned once again
+to Panama, whilst his companion waited for him and for the
+reinforcements which he was to bring with him, in a small island
+called Cock Island, where he suffered much from the scarcity of all
+the necessaries of life."
+
+[Illustration: The Indians kill many of the Spaniards.]
+
+Upon his arrival in Panama, Almagro could not obtain permission from
+Los Rios, the successor of Avila, to make new levies, for he had no
+right, Los Rios said, to allow a greater number of people to go and
+perish uselessly in a rash enterprise; he even sent a boat to Cock
+Island to bring away Pizarro and his companions. But such a decision
+could not be pleasing to Almagro and De Luque. It meant expense
+thrown away; and it meant the annihilation of the hopes which the
+sight of the ornaments of gold and silver of the inhabitants of
+Catamez had caused them to entertain. They sent therefore a trusty
+person to Pizarro, to recommend him to persevere in his resolution,
+and to refuse to obey the orders of the Governor of Panama. But
+Pizarro in vain held out the most seductive promises; the
+remembrance of the fatigues which had been endured was too recent,
+and all his companions except twelve abandoned him.
+
+With these intrepid men, whose names have been preserved, and
+amongst whom was Garcia de Xerès, one of the historians of the
+expedition, Pizarro retired to an uninhabited island at a greater
+distance from the coast, to which he gave the name of Gorgona. There
+the Spaniards lived miserably on mangles, fish, and shell-fish, and
+awaited for five months the succour that Almagro and De Luque were
+to send them. At length, vanquished by the unanimous protestations
+of the whole colony,--who were indignant that people whose only
+crime was that they had not despaired of success, should be left to
+perish miserably and as though they were malefactors,--Los Rios sent
+to Pizarro a small vessel to bring him back. With the object of
+presenting no temptation to Pizarro to make use of this ship to
+renew his expedition, not a single soldier was placed on board of
+her. At the sight of the help which had arrived, and oblivious of
+all their privations, the thirteen adventurers thought of nothing
+but persuading the sailors who came to seek them to participate in
+their own hopes. Whereupon, instead of starting again on the route
+to Panama, they sailed all together, towards the south-east, in
+spite of contrary winds and currents, until, after having discovered
+the Island of St. Clara, they arrived at the port of Tumbez,
+situated beyond the 3 degrees of south latitude, where they saw a
+magnificent temple and a palace belonging to the Incas, the
+sovereigns of the country.
+
+The country was populous and fairly well-cultivated, but what proved
+beyond all else seductive to the Spaniards, and made them think that
+they had reached the marvellous countries of which so much had been
+said, was the sight of so great an abundance of gold and silver,
+that these metals were employed not only as finery and ornament by
+the inhabitants, but also for making vases and common utensils.
+
+Pizarro caused the interior of the country to be explored by Pietro
+de Candia and Alonzo de Molina, who brought back an enthusiastic
+description of it, and he caused some gold vases to be given up to
+him, as well as some llamas, a quadruped domesticated by the
+Peruvians. He took two natives on board his vessel, to whom he
+proposed to teach the Spanish language, and to use them as
+interpreters when he should return to the country. He anchored
+successively at Payta, Saugarata, and in the Bay of Santa-Cruz, of
+which the sovereign, Capillana, received the strangers with such
+friendly demonstrations, that several of them were unwilling to
+re-embark. After having sailed down the coast as far as Porto Santo,
+Pizarro set out on his return to Panama, where he arrived after
+three whole years spent in dangerous explorations, which had
+completely ruined De Luque and Almagro.
+
+[Illustration: Pizarro received by Charles V.]
+
+Pizarro resolved to apply to Charles V. before undertaking the
+conquest of the country which he had discovered, for he could not
+obtain leave from Los Rios to engage fresh adventurers; so he
+borrowed the sum required for the voyage, and in 1528 he went to
+Spain to inform the emperor of the work which he had undertaken. He
+painted the picture of the countries that were to be conquered in
+the most pleasing light, and as a reward for his labours the titles
+of governor, captain-general, and alguazil-major of Peru were
+bestowed upon him and his heirs in perpetuity. At the same time he
+was ennobled, and a pension of 1000 crowns was bestowed upon him.
+His jurisdiction, independent of the governor of Panama, was to
+extend over a tract of 600 miles along the coast to the south of the
+Santiago river; it was to be called New Castille, and he was to be
+the governor; concessions that cost nothing to Spain, for Pizarro
+had yet to conquer the country. On his side he undertook to raise a
+body of 250 men, and to provide himself with the necessary ships,
+arms, and ammunition. Pizarro then repaired to Truxillo, where he
+persuaded his three brothers Ferdinand, Juan, and Gonzalo to
+accompany him, as well as one of his half-brothers Martin
+d'Alcantara. He took advantage of his stay in his native town, and
+at Caceres, to try to raise recruits, both there and throughout
+Estramadura; they did not, however, come forward in large numbers,
+in spite of the title of _Caballeros de la Espado dorada_ which he
+promised to bestow upon all who would serve under him. Then he
+returned to Panama, where affairs were not going so smoothly as he
+had hoped. He had succeeded in getting De Luque named Bishop
+_protector de los Indios_; but for Almagro, whose talents he knew,
+and whose ambition he feared, he had only asked that he should be
+ennobled and a gratuity of 500 ducats bestowed upon him, with the
+government of a fortress which was to be built at Tumbez. Almagro
+refused to take part in this new expedition; he was not pleased with
+the meagre portion given to him after spending all his money on the
+earlier expeditions; he wished now to organize one on his own
+account. It required all Pizarro's address, aided by the promise to
+give up to Almagro the office of _adelantado_, to appease him and
+make him consent to renew the old partnership.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Peru.]
+
+The resources of the three partners were so limited at this time,
+that they could only get together three small ships and 124 soldiers,
+of whom thirty-six were horse-soldiers; the expedition set out in
+February, 1531, under the command of Pizarro and his four brothers,
+whilst Almagro remained at Panama to organize an expedition of
+supplies. At the end of thirteen days' sailing, and after having
+been carried by a storm 300 miles more to the south than he had
+intended, Pizarro was forced to disembark both men and horses on the
+shores of the Bay of San Mateo, and to follow the line of the coast
+on land. This march was a difficult one in a very mountainous
+country, thinly-peopled, and intersected by rivers which had to be
+crossed at their mouths. At last a place called Coaqui was reached,
+where was found a great booty, which decided Pizarro to send back
+two of his ships. They carried to Panama and Nicaragua spoils to the
+amount of 30,000 _castellanos_, as well as a great number of
+emeralds, a rich booty, which would, according to Pizarro, determine
+many adventurers to come and join him.
+
+Then the conqueror continued his march southwards as far as
+Porto-Viejo, where he was joined by Sebastian Benalcazar and Juan
+Fernandez, who brought him twelve horsemen and thirty foot-soldiers.
+The effect which had been produced in Mexico by the sight of the
+horses and the reports of the fire-arms was repeated in Peru, and
+Pizarro was able to reach the Island of Puna in the Gulf of
+Guayaquil without encountering any resistance. But the islanders
+were more numerous and more warlike than their brothers of the
+mainland, and for six months they valiantly resisted all the attacks
+of the Spaniards. Although Pizarro had received some aid from
+Nicaragua, brought by Ferdinand de Soto, and although he had
+beheaded the cacique Tonalla and sixteen of the principal chiefs, he
+could not overcome their resistance. He was, therefore, obliged to
+regain the continent, where the maladies peculiar to the country
+tried his companions so cruelly, that he was forced to stay three
+months at Tumbez, exposed to the perpetual attacks of the natives.
+From Tumbez he went next to the Rio Puira, discovered the harbour of
+Payta, the best on this coast, and founded the colony of San-Miguel,
+at the mouth of the Chilo, in order that vessels coming from Panama
+might find a safe shelter. It was here that Pizarro received some
+envoys from Huascar, who informed him of the revolt of Atahualpa,
+the brother of Huascar, and asked his aid.
+
+At the period when the Spaniards landed to conquer Peru, it extended
+along the shore of the Pacific Ocean for 1500 miles, and stretched
+into the interior as far as the imposing chain of the Andes.
+Originally the population was divided into savage and barbarous
+tribes, having no idea of civilization, and living in a perpetual
+state of warfare with one another. For many centuries affairs had
+continued in the same state, and there appeared no presage of the
+coming of a better era, when, on the shores of Lake Titicaca, there
+appeared to the Indians a man and woman, who pretended that they
+were the Children of the Sun. They called themselves Manco-Capac and
+Mama-Oello, and were of majestic appearance; according to Garcilasso
+de la Vega, towards the middle of the twelfth century they united
+together a number of wandering tribes, and laid the foundations of
+the town of Cuzco. Manco-Capac had taught the men agriculture and
+mechanical arts, whilst Mama-Oello instructed the women in spinning
+and weaving. When Manco-Capac had satisfied these first needs of all
+societies, he framed laws for his subjects, and constituted a
+regular political state. It was thus that the dominion of the Incas
+or Lords of Peru was established. At first their empire was limited
+to the neighbourhood of Cuzco, but under their successors it rapidly
+increased, and extended from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Pearl
+Islands, a length of thirty degrees. The power of the incas was as
+absolute as that of the ancient Asiatic sovereigns. "Also," says
+Zarate, "there was perhaps no other country in the world where the
+obedience and submission of the subjects was carried further. The
+incas were to them quasi-divinities; they had but to place a thread
+drawn from the royal head-fillet in the hands of any one, and the
+man so distinguished, was certain to be everywhere respected and
+obeyed, and to find such absolute deference paid to the king's order
+which he carried, that he could alone exterminate a whole province
+without any assistance from soldiers, and cause to be put to death
+all the inhabitants, both male and female, because at the mere sight
+of this thread, taken from the royal crown, the people voluntarily
+and without any resistance, offered themselves up to die." However,
+the old chroniclers all agree in saying that this unlimited power
+was always used by the incas for the well-being of their subjects.
+Out of a series of twelve kings, who in succession sat on the throne
+of Peru, there was not one who did not leave behind him the memory
+of a just prince adored by his subjects. Should we not search in
+vain through the annals of any other country in the world for facts
+analogous to these? Must it not be regretted that the Spaniards
+should have brought war with all its attendant horrors, and the
+maladies and vices of a different climate, along with what they in
+their pride called civilization, amongst a rich and happy people,
+whose descendants, impoverished and debased as they are, have not
+even the recollection of their ancient prosperity to console them in
+their irremediable decay?
+
+"The Peruvians," says Michelet in his admirable _Précis d'Histoire
+Moderne_, "handed down the principal facts to posterity by knots,
+which they made in ropes. They had obelisks and exact gnomons to
+mark the equinoxes and solstices. Their year consisted of 365 days.
+They had erected prodigies of architecture, and they carved statues
+with amazing art. They formed the most polished and industrious
+nation of the New World."
+
+The inca Huayna-Capac, father of Atahualpa, under whom this vast
+empire was destroyed, had done much to increase and embellish it.
+This inca, who conquered all the country of Quito, had made, by the
+hands of his soldiers and of the vanquished people, a great road
+1500 miles in length from Cuzco to Quito, across precipices which
+had been filled up and mountains which had been levelled. Relays of
+men, stationed at intervals of a mile and a half from each other,
+carried the emperor's orders throughout the empire. Such was their
+police, and if we wish to judge of Peruvian magnificence, we need
+only instance the fact that the king when he travelled was carried
+on a throne of gold which weighed 25,000 ducats, and the golden
+litter upon which the throne rested was borne by the highest
+personages of the realm.
+
+In 1526, when the Spaniards appeared on the coast for the first time,
+the twelfth inca had lately married--in defiance of the ancient law
+of the kingdom--the daughter of the vanquished king of Quito, and
+had had a son of this marriage named Atahualpa, to whom he left this
+kingdom on his death, which happened about 1529. His eldest son
+Huascar, whose mother was descended from the incas, had the
+remainder of his states. But this partition, so contrary to the
+customs established from time immemorial, caused such great
+discontent at Cuzco, that Huascar, encouraged by his subjects,
+determined to march against his brother, who would not acknowledge
+him for his lord and master. Atahualpa, in his turn, had too lately
+tasted power to be willing to abandon it. He managed by bribes to
+attach to himself the greater part of the warriors who had
+accompanied his father during the conquest of Quito, and when the
+two armies met, fortune favoured the usurper.
+
+Is it not curious to remark how both in Peru and Mexico the
+Spaniards were aided by entirely exceptional circumstances? In
+Mexico some of the people who had recently submitted to the Aztec
+race, being mercilessly trampled upon by their conquerors, welcome
+the Spaniards as deliverers; in Peru the strife between two brothers,
+furious against each other, hinders the Indians from turning all
+their forces against the invaders whom they might easily have
+crushed.
+
+Pizarro upon receiving the envoys sent by Huascar, to ask his aid
+against his brother Atahualpa, whom he represented as a rebel and
+usurper, saw at once all the advantages that might accrue to him
+from these circumstances. He saw that by espousing the cause of one
+of the brothers, he could more easily crush them both, therefore he
+advanced at once into the interior of the country, at the head of a
+very inconsiderable force, consisting of sixty-two cavalry and one
+hundred and twenty foot-soldiers, of whom only twenty were armed
+with arquebuses and muskets; he was obliged to leave part of his
+troops to guard San-Miguel, in which Pizarro reckoned upon finding a
+refuge in case of his being unsuccessful, and where in any case all
+supplies which might arrive could be landed.
+
+Pizarro first made for Caxamalca, a small town situated at about
+twenty days' march from the coast. To reach it he had to cross a
+desert of burning sand, without vegetation and without water, which
+extended for sixty miles in length as far as the province of Motupé,
+and where the slightest attack of the enemy, joined to the
+sufferings endured by the little army, would have been sufficient to
+crush the whole expedition at one blow. Next the troops plunged into
+the mountains and became entangled in narrow defiles where a small
+force might have annihilated them. During this march Pizarro
+received an envoy from Atahualpa bringing him some painted shoes and
+gold bracelets, which he was requested to wear at his approaching
+interview with the inca. Naturally Pizarro was lavish in his
+promises of friendship and devotion, and assured the Indian
+ambassador that he should be only following the orders given him by
+the king his master in respecting the lives and property of the
+inhabitants. From the moment of his arrival at Caxamalca Pizarro
+prudently lodged his soldiers in a temple and a palace belonging to
+the inca, where they were sheltered from any surprise. Then he sent
+one of his brothers with De Soto and twenty horse-soldiers to the
+camp of Atahualpa, which was distant only three miles, to announce
+to him his arrival. The envoys of the governor were received with
+magnificence, and were astonished at the multiplicity of the
+ornaments and vases made of gold and silver which they saw
+throughout the Indian camp. They returned, bringing a promise from
+Atahualpa that he would come on the next day to visit Pizarro, to
+bid him welcome to his kingdom. At the same time the envoys gave an
+account of the wonderful riches they had seen, which confirmed
+Pizarro in the project which he had formed of seizing the
+unfortunate Atahualpa and his treasures by treachery.
+
+Several Spanish authors, and notably Zarate, disguise these facts,
+which no doubt appeared to them too odious, and altogether deny the
+treachery towards Atahualpa. But at the present day there are extant
+many documents which force the historian to believe, with Robertson
+and Prescott, in the perfidy of Pizarro. It was very important for
+him to have the inca in his own hands, and to employ him as a tool,
+just as Cortès had done with Montezuma. He therefore took advantage
+of the honesty and simplicity of Atahualpa, who placed entire
+confidence in Pizarro's protestations of friendship and so was
+thrown off his guard, to arrange an ambuscade into which Atahualpa
+was certain to fall. There was not a scruple in the disloyal soul of
+the conqueror; he was as cool as though he were about to offer
+battle to enemies who had been forewarned of his approach; this
+infamous treason must be an eternal dishonour to his memory. Pizarro
+divided his cavalry into three small squadrons, left all his
+infantry in one body, hid his arquebusiers on the road by which the
+inca must pass, and kept twenty of his most determined companions
+near himself. Atahualpa, wishing to give the Spaniards a great idea
+of his power, advanced with the whole of his army. He himself was
+borne upon a kind of bed, decorated with feathers, covered with
+plates of gold and silver, and ornamented with precious stones. He
+was accompanied by his principal nobles, carried like himself on the
+shoulders of their servants, and he was surrounded by dancers and
+jesters. Such a march was more that of a procession than of an army.
+
+As soon as the inca had nearly reached the Spanish quarters
+(according to Robertson), Father Vincent Valverde, the chaplain of
+the expedition, who was afterwards made a bishop as a reward for his
+conduct, advanced with the crucifix in one hand and his breviary in
+the other. In an interminable discourse he set forth to the monarch
+the doctrine of the creation, the fall of the first man, the
+Incarnation, Passion, and Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, the
+choice made by God of St. Peter to be His vicar upon earth, the
+power transmitted through him to the Popes, and the gift made by
+Pope Alexander to the King of Castille of all the regions of the New
+World. When he had expounded all these doctrines, he called upon
+Atahualpa to embrace the Christian religion, to recognize the
+supreme authority of the Pope, and to submit to the King of Castille
+as his legitimate sovereign. If he submitted immediately, Valverde
+undertook to promise that the king his master would take Peru under
+his protection, and allow him to continue to reign there; but he
+declared war against him and threatened him with fearful vengeance
+if he refused to obey, and persevered in his impiety.
+
+To say the least of it, this was a singular scene and a very strange
+harangue, alluding to facts which were utterly unknown to the
+Peruvians, and of the truth of which a more skilful orator than
+Valverde would not have succeeded in persuading them. If we add that
+the interpreter knew so little of the Spanish language that it was
+almost an impossibility for him to translate what he scarcely
+understood himself, and that the Peruvian language lacked words to
+express ideas so foreign to its genius, we shall not be much
+surprised to learn that Atahualpa understood almost nothing of the
+Spanish monk's discourse. Some sentences, however, which attacked
+his own power, filled him with surprise and indignation. But he was
+none the less moderate in his reply. He said that, as master of his
+own kingdom by right of succession, he could not see how any one had
+the power to dispose of it without his consent; he added that he was
+not at all willing to renounce the religion of his fathers to adopt
+one of which he had only heard that day for the first time; with
+regard to the other points touched upon in the discourse he
+understood nothing, it was a thing entirely new to him, and he would
+much like to know where Valverde had learnt so many wonderful things.
+"In this book," replied Valverde, handing him his breviary.
+Atahualpa received it with eagerness and turned over some of the
+leaves with much curiosity, then, putting it to his ear, he
+exclaimed, "What you show me there does not speak to me, and tells
+me nothing." With this he flung the book upon the ground.
+
+This served as a signal for the combat, or rather for the massacre.
+Cannon and muskets came into play, the cavalry sprang forward, and
+the infantry fell sword in hand upon the stupefied Peruvians. In a
+few moments the confusion was at its height. The Indians fled on all
+sides, without attempting to defend themselves. As to Atahualpa,
+although his principal officers tried to make a rampart of their own
+bodies, while they carried him off, Pizarro sprang upon him,
+dispersed or overthrew his guards, and seizing him by his long hair,
+threw him down from the litter in which he was carried. Only the
+darkness could arrest the carnage. Four thousand Indians were killed,
+a greater number wounded, and 3000 were taken prisoners. An
+incontestable proof that there was no real battle is, that of all
+the Spaniards Pizarro alone was hit, and he received his wound from
+one of his own soldiers who was too precipitately endeavouring to
+seize upon the inca.
+
+[Illustration: Atahualpa is made prisoner. _From an old print_.]
+
+The booty collected in the camp and from the dead exceeded anything
+the Spaniards could have imagined, and their enthusiasm was
+proportioned to the conquest of such riches.
+
+At first Atahualpa bore his captivity with resignation, which may
+have been partly due to Pizarro's doing all he could to soothe him,
+at least by words. But the inca, soon understanding the unbridled
+covetousness of his jailors, made a proposal to Pizarro to pay him
+ransom, and to have a room of twenty-two feet in length by sixteen
+in width filled as high as the hand could reach with vases, utensils,
+and ornaments of gold. Pizarro eagerly agreed to this, and the
+captive inca despatched the necessary orders at once to all the
+provinces; these were carried out promptly and unmurmuringly. Beyond
+this, the Indian troops were disbanded, and Pizarro was able to send
+Soto and five Spaniards to Cuzco, a town situated more than 600
+miles from Caxamalca, while he himself subjugated all the country
+within a circuit of 300 miles.
+
+In the meantime Almagro landed with 200 soldiers. There had been set
+aside for him and his men--with what regrets may easily be
+imagined--100,000 pesos (a Spanish coin); a fifth was reserved for
+the king, and this left 1,528,500 pesos to be divided between
+Pizarro and his companions. This product of pillage and massacre was
+solemnly divided between those entitled to it on the Festival of St.
+James, the patron saint of Spain, after fervent prayer to God. A
+deplorable mixture this of religion and profanity, too common
+unfortunately, in these times of mingled superstition and avarice.
+
+Each horse-soldier received 8000 pesos as his share, and each
+foot-soldier 4000, which would be equivalent to about 1600_l._ and
+800_l._ sterling. This was enough to satisfy the most exacting
+soldier, after a campaign which had been neither long nor difficult.
+Many of the adventurers wished to enjoy this unexpected good fortune
+in a peaceable manner in their own country, and eagerly asked for
+their dismissal. This Pizarro granted without hesitation, for he
+felt sure that the news of their rapidly-acquired wealth would soon
+bring him new recruits. With his brother Ferdinand, who went to
+Spain to give the emperor an account of Pizarro's triumph and some
+splendid presents, went sixty Spaniards, laden heavily indeed with
+money, but lightly with remorse.
+
+As soon as Atahualpa's ransom was paid, he claimed his freedom; but
+Pizarro, who had only saved his life that he might make all the
+treasures of Peru his own, and shelter himself under the prestige
+and authority which the inca still exercised over his subjects, was
+soon wearied by his entreaties. He suspected him also of having for
+some time secretly given orders to levy troops in the distant
+provinces of the empire. Besides, Atahualpa having soon discovered
+that Pizarro was no better educated than one of the lowest of his
+soldiers, felt in consequence a contempt for the governor which,
+unfortunately, he could not conceal. Such were the reasons, all
+trivial as they were, which determined Pizarro to prepare for the
+trial of the inca.
+
+Nothing could have been more hateful than this trial, in which
+Almagro and Pizarro were at the same time both suitors and judges.
+The heads of the accusation were so ridiculous and absurd, that one
+is in doubt whether to be most surprised by the effrontery or the
+wickedness of Pizarro, in subjecting the head of a powerful empire,
+over which he had no jurisdiction, to such an inquiry. Atahualpa,
+being found guilty, was condemned to be burnt alive; but as he had
+at length asked to be baptized, that he might rid himself of the
+importunities of Valverde, his enemies contented themselves with
+strangling him. A worthy counterpart this, of Guatimozin's
+execution! These were amongst the most atrocious and odious deeds
+committed by the Spaniards in America, where, however, they have
+sullied themselves with every imaginable crime.
+
+Among this herd of adventurers there were still some men who had
+retained sentiments of honour and self-respect. They protested
+loudly against this perversion of justice, but their generous
+pleadings were stifled by the selfish declamations of Pizarro and
+his worthy assistants.
+
+The governor now raised one of Atahualpa's sons to the throne, under
+the name of Paul Inca; but the civil war between the two brothers,
+and the events which had occurred since the arrival of the Spaniards,
+had done much to loosen the ties which bound the Peruvians to their
+kings, and this young man, destined soon to die an ignominious death,
+had scarcely more authority than Manco-Capac, the son of Huascar,
+who was acknowledged by the inhabitants of Cuzco. Soon after this,
+some of the principal people in the country even tried to carve for
+themselves kingdoms out of the empire of Peru. Such was Ruminagui,
+the commandant of Quito, who caused the brother and the children of
+Atahualpa to be massacred, and declared himself independent. Discord
+reigned in the Peruvian camp, and the Spaniards resolved to take
+advantage of it. Pizarro advanced rapidly upon Cuzco, the small
+number of his forces having been the only reason which had prevented
+him from doing so sooner. Now that a crowd of adventurers, attracted
+by the treasures which had been brought back to Panama, vied with
+each other in hastening to Peru, now that he could assemble 500
+men--after leaving an important garrison at San-Miguel under
+Benalcazar's command,--Pizarro had no further reason for delay. On
+the way some skirmishes took place with large bodies of troops, but
+they ended as always, with severe loss to the natives, and a very
+insignificant one to the Spaniards. When they entered Cuzco, and
+took possession of the town, the invaders showed surprise at the
+small quantity of gold and precious stones which they found there,
+although it far exceeded Atahualpa's ransom. Was this because they
+were becoming accustomed to the riches of the country, or because
+there was a larger number to share in them?
+
+Meanwhile, Benalcazar, being weary of inaction, took advantage of
+the arrival of a reinforcement from Nicaragua and Panama, to set out
+for Quito, where according to the Peruvians, Atahualpa had left the
+greater part of his treasure. He placed himself at the head of
+eighty horse-soldiers and 120 infantry, defeated on several
+occasions Ruminagui, who disputed his passage, and thanks to his
+prudence and cleverness, he entered Quito victorious; but he did not
+find there what he sought, that is to say, the treasures of
+Atahualpa.
+
+At the same time, Peter d'Alvarado, who had so signally
+distinguished himself under Cortès, and who had been made governor
+of Guatemala, as a reward for his services, pretended to believe
+that the province of Quito was not included in Pizarro's command,
+and organized an expedition consisting of 500 men, 200 of whom were
+cavalry. Landing at Porto-Viejo, he wished to reach Quito without a
+guide, by going up the Guayaquil River and crossing the Andes. This
+road has always been one of the worst and most trying that it is
+possible to choose. Before they had reached the plain of Quito,
+after horrible sufferings from hunger and thirst, without speaking
+of the burning cinders hurled from the crater of Chimborazo, a
+volcano near Quito, and the snow-storms which assailed them, the
+fifth part of the band of adventurers, and half the horses, had
+perished; the remainder were completely discouraged and quite unfit
+for fighting. It was therefore with the greatest surprise, and some
+uneasiness, that they found themselves face to face, not with a body
+of Indians as they had expected, but with a party of Spaniards,
+under the command of Almagro. The latter were preparing to charge,
+when some of the more moderate among the officers caused an
+arrangement to be entered into, by virtue of which Alvarado was to
+withdraw to his own province after receiving 100,000 pesos to defray
+the expenses of the armament.
+
+Ferdinand Pizarro had set sail for Spain, while these events were
+happening in Peru, feeling sure that the immense quantity of gold,
+silver, and precious stones which he took with him, would secure him
+a warm welcome. He obtained for his brother Francisco the
+confirmation of his appointment as governor, with more extended
+powers; he himself was made a knight of the order of St. Iago; as
+for Almagro, he was confirmed in his title of _adelantado_, and his
+jurisdiction was extended 600 miles, without, however, its limits
+being very strictly defined, which left the door open for many
+contests and all kinds of arbitrary interpretations.
+
+Ferdinand Pizarro had not reached Peru again, when Almagro, having
+learnt that a special government had been assigned to him, pretended
+that Cuzco formed part of it, and made preparations for its conquest.
+But Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro had no intention of allowing themselves
+to be robbed, and the parties were on the point of coming to blows
+when Francisco Pizarro, who is often called _the Marquis_ or _the
+great Marquis_, arrived at the capital.
+
+Almagro had never forgiven Francisco Pizarro the duplicity which he
+had displayed in his negotiations with Charles V., nor the coolness
+with which he had claimed for himself, at the expense of his two
+friends, the principal share of authority, and the most extended
+government. But as Almagro met with great opposition to his designs,
+and as he was not the stronger, he concealed his vexation, put a
+good face on the matter, and seemed delighted at a reconciliation.
+"They renewed their partnership, therefore," says Zarate, "on
+condition that Don Diego d'Almagro should go and discover the
+country on the south side, and if he found any that was really good,
+they should ask his Majesty to make him the governor of it; but that
+if he found nothing to suit him, they should share Don Francisco's
+government between them." This arrangement was made very solemnly,
+and they took their oath upon the consecrated wafer, that for the
+future they would undertake nothing against one another. Some say
+that Almagro swore that he would never encroach either upon Cuzco or
+on the surrounding country within 390 miles, even if his Majesty
+should give him the government of it. They add that turning towards
+the holy sacrament, he pronounced these words, "Lord, if I violate
+the oath that I now take, I pray that Thou wilt confound me, and
+punish me both in my body and my soul!"
+
+[Illustration: Pizarro and Almagro take an oath upon the Host.]
+
+After this solemn agreement, which was destined to be observed with
+as little fidelity as the first, Almagro made his preparations for
+departure. Thanks to his well-known liberality, as much as to his
+reputation for courage, he gathered together 570 men, of about equal
+numbers of cavalry and infantry, with which he set out by land for
+Chili. The journey was an extremely trying one, and the adventurers
+suffered severely from intense cold whilst crossing the Andes; they
+had also to deal with very warlike tribes, unsoftened by any
+civilization, who assailed them with a _furia_ of which nothing they
+had seen in Peru had given them any idea. Almagro could make no
+settlement, for he had scarcely been two months in the country when
+he heard that the Indians in Peru had revolted, and massacred the
+greater part of the Spaniards, whereupon he immediately retraced his
+steps.
+
+After the new partnership had been signed between the conquerors
+(1534), Pizarro had returned to the provinces bordering on the sea,
+in which he could establish a regular government, there being no
+longer anything to dread from resistance. For a man who had never
+studied legislation, he had drawn up some very wise rules for the
+administration of justice, for the collection of taxes, the
+apportionment of the Indians, and the working of the mines. Some
+parts of the "conquistador's" character were doubtless very open to
+criticism, but it is only just to recognize that he was not wanting
+in enlarged ideas, and that he was conscientious in playing his part
+as the founder of a great empire. This it was which made him
+hesitate long before choosing the future capital of the Spanish
+possessions. Cuzco had the recommendation of having been the
+residence of the incas; but this town, situated more than 400 miles
+from the sea, was very distant from Quito, of which the importance
+seemed to Pizarro to be extreme. Before long he was struck with the
+beauty and fertility of a great valley, watered by a stream called
+the Rimac, and there in 1536, he established the seat of his
+dominion. Soon, the City of Kings (de Los Reyes), or Lima, as it is
+called by a corruption of the name of the river which flows at its
+feet, assumed the aspect of a great city, owing to the magnificent
+palace and the sumptuous residences for officers, which Pizarro
+caused to be built there. While these cares kept Pizarro far from
+his capital, small bodies of troops, sent in different directions,
+penetrated into the most distant provinces of the empire, with the
+object of extinguishing the last smouldering embers of resistance;
+so many of the soldiers were employed in this way, that there
+remained in Cuzco itself but a very small body of troops. The inca,
+who had remained in the hands of the Spaniards, thought this an
+opportune moment for fomenting a general rising, in which he
+earnestly hoped that the foreign government might be overthrown.
+Although closely guarded, he contrived to take his measures with so
+much skill that he did not arouse the suspicions of his oppressors.
+He obtained permission even to be present at a grand fête, which was
+to be held at several miles' distance from Cuzco, and for which the
+most distinguished persons in the empire had met together. As soon
+as the inca appeared, the standard of revolt was raised. The country
+was soon in arms from the confines of the province of Quito as far
+as Chili, and a number of small detachments of Spaniards were
+surprised and destroyed. Cuzco, defended by the three brothers
+Pizarro with but 170 Spaniards, was exposed for eight consecutive
+months to the incessant attacks of the Peruvians, who had now become
+expert in the use of the arms which they had taken from their
+enemies. The conquerors made a most valiant resistance, but
+experienced some severe losses, especially that of Juan Pizarro.
+Almagro left Chili in the greatest haste, crossed the stony and
+sandy desert of Atacama, where he suffered as severely from heat and
+drought as he had done in the Andes from cold and snow, penetrated
+into the Peruvian territory, defeated Manco-Capac in a great battle,
+and succeeded in approaching the town of Cuzco, after having driven
+away the Indians. He then tried to get the town given up to him, on
+the pretext that it was not included in Pizarro's government, and
+violating a truce, during which the followers of the marquis were
+taking a short rest, he entered Cuzco, seized both Ferdinand and
+Gonzalo Pizarro, and had himself acknowledged as governor.
+
+While this was going on, a considerable body of Indians invested
+Lima, intercepted all communications, and annihilated the various
+small bodies of troops which Pizarro sent at intervals to the aid of
+the Spaniards at Cuzco. At this time he sent away all his vessels to
+Panama to compel his companions to make a desperate resistance; he
+recalled from Truxillo the forces under the command of Alonzo
+d'Alvarado, and entrusted to the latter a column of 500 men, which
+advanced to within several miles of the capital without having the
+slightest suspicion that the town was now in the hands of
+fellow-countrymen, who were fully determined to bar their passage.
+But Almagro desired much rather to attract these new adversaries to
+himself than to destroy them; he arranged therefore, to surprise
+them and make them prisoners. He had now a fine opportunity in his
+hands of ending the war, and making himself master of the two
+governments by a single blow. Several of his officers had observed
+this to him, and especially Orgoños, who proposed that the two
+brothers of the "conquistador" should be put to death, and that
+Almagro should advance by forced marches with his victorious troops
+against Lima, where Pizarro, taken by surprise, would not be able to
+resist him. But as a Latin poet says, "Jupiter makes dotards of
+those whom he means to ruin." Almagro, who in so many other
+instances had thrown aside all scruples, did not wish to put himself
+in the wrong by invading Pizarro's dominions as a rebel, and he
+quietly took the road back to Cuzco.
+
+Looking at it only from the side of Almagro's own interests, he
+evidently committed in this a gross blunder, of which he was soon to
+repent; but if we consider, what we should never lose sight of, the
+interest of the country, he had already committed a capital crime in
+the acts of aggression of which he had been guilty, and in kindling
+civil war in face of an enemy quite ready to take advantage of it.
+His adversaries did not delay to remind him of it. Whereas prompt
+decision would have been necessary for Almagro to make him master of
+the situation, Pizarro had everything to expect from time and
+opportunity. While waiting for the promised reinforcements from
+Darien, he commenced negotiations with his adversary, lasting for
+several months, during which time one of his brothers, as well as
+Alvarado, found means to escape with more than seventy men. Although
+Almagro had been so often duped, he consented again to receive the
+licentiate Espinosa, who was ordered to represent to him, that if
+the emperor knew what was taking place between the two competitors,
+and learnt the condition to which their contests had reduced affairs,
+no doubt he would recall them both, and put some one else in their
+place. At last, after the death of Espinosa, it was decided by the
+friar Francisco de Bovadilla, to whom Pizarro and Almagro had
+referred their differences, that Ferdinand Pizarro should be
+immediately set free, that Cuzco should be given back to the marquis,
+and that they should send several officers on both sides to Spain,
+charged with representing the respective rights of the two parties
+and submitting them to the emperor's decision.
+
+Scarcely had the last of his brothers been set at liberty than
+Pizarro, rejecting all idea of peace and amicable arrangement,
+declared that arms alone should decide whether he or Almagro was to
+be lord of Peru. In a short time he had assembled a body of 700 men,
+of which he entrusted the command to his two brothers. Finding it
+impossible to cross the mountains which would have been the most
+direct road to Cuzco, they followed the line of the sea-coast as far
+as Nasca, and then penetrated into a branch of the Andes, by which
+they could reach the capital in a short time. Possibly Almagro ought
+to have defended the mountain defiles, but he had only 500 men, and
+he reckoned much on his splendid cavalry, whom he could not deploy
+in a confined space; he therefore waited for the enemy in the plain
+of Cuzco. The two parties encountered each other on the 26th of
+April, 1538, with equal animosity; but the victory was decided by
+two companies of musketeers which the emperor had sent to Pizarro
+when he heard of the revolt of the Indians. One hundred and forty
+soldiers perished in this engagement, which received the name of
+_las salinas_. Orgoños and several officers of distinction were
+killed in cold blood after the battle, and Almagro himself, aged and
+ill, could not escape from Pizarro.
+
+The Indians who, assembled in arms on the surrounding mountains, had
+reckoned upon falling on the conqueror, had need instead to fly in
+all haste. "Nothing," says Robertson, "more entirely proves the
+ascendancy gained by the Spaniards over the Americans, than seeing
+that the latter, witnesses of the defeat and dispersion of one of
+the parties, had not the courage to attack the other, even weakened
+and fatigued as they were by their victory, and dared not fall upon
+their oppressors when fortune offered them so favourable an
+opportunity for attacking them with advantage."
+
+At this period a victory not followed by pillage was incomplete, so
+the town of Cuzco was sacked, and all the riches that Pizarro's
+companions found there did not suffice to content them. They had
+such exalted ideas of their merits and of the services which they
+had rendered, that each would have desired an appointment as
+governor. Ferdinand Pizarro therefore dispersed them, and sent them
+to conquer fresh territories with some of the partisans of Almagro
+who had rallied, and whom it was important to send to a distance.
+
+As for Almagro himself, Ferdinand Pizarro, feeling convinced that
+his name constituted a focus of permanent agitation, resolved to get
+rid of him. He caused him therefore to be put upon his trial, which
+ended, as it was easy to foresee, in a sentence of death. When
+Almagro received this news, after giving way for a few moments to a
+very natural grief, pleading his great age and the different way in
+which he had behaved with regard to Ferdinand and Gonzalo Pizarro
+when they were his prisoners, he recovered his calmness and awaited
+his death with a soldier's courage. He was strangled in his prison,
+and afterwards publicly beheaded (1538).
+
+After several successful expeditions, Ferdinand Pizarro set out for
+Spain, to give the Emperor an account of what had taken place. He
+found most minds there strangely prejudiced against him and his
+brothers. Their cruelty, their violence, and their disregard of the
+most sacred engagements had been laid bare without reserve, by some
+friends of Almagro's. Ferdinand Pizarro needed the utmost cleverness
+to win the Emperor round. Charles V. had no means of judging fairly
+on which side the justice of the case lay, for he had only heard of
+it from the interested parties; he could only discern the deplorable
+consequences to his own government of the civil war. He decided,
+therefore, to send a commissioner to the country, to whom he gave
+most extensive powers, and who, after having inquired into all that
+had taken place, should establish whatever form of government he
+thought most advisable. This delicate mission was confided to
+Christoval de Vaca, a judge of _audience_ at Valladolid, who proved
+not unequal to his task. One fact is worthy of notice; he was
+recommended to show the greatest respect towards Francisco Pizarro,
+at the very time when his brother Ferdinand was arrested and thrown
+into a prison, where he was destined to remain forgotten for twenty
+years.
+
+While these events were taking place in Spain, the Marquis portioned
+out the conquered country, keeping for himself and his trustworthy
+friends the most fertile and best situated districts, and giving to
+Almagro's companions, the men of Chili as they were called, only the
+more sterile and distant territories. Next he confided to Pedro de
+Valdivia, one of his aides-de-camp the execution of the project
+which Almagro had only been able to sketch out, the conquest of
+Chili. Valdivia set out on the 28th of January, 1540, with 150
+Spaniards, amongst whom Pedro Gomez, Pedro de Miranda, and Alonzo de
+Monroy were destined especially to distinguish themselves; he
+crossed first the desert of Atacama, which even at the present day
+is considered a most troublesome enterprise, and reached Copiapo,
+standing in the midst of a beautiful valley. Received at first with
+great cordiality, he had to sustain, as soon as harvest was over,
+several combats with the Araucanians, a race of brave, indefatigable
+warriors, very different from the Indians of Peru. In spite of this,
+he laid the foundations of the town of Santiago on the 12th of
+February, 1541. Valdivia spent eight years in Chili, presiding over
+the conquest and organization of the country. Less greedy than the
+other "conquistadores" his contemporaries, he only sought for the
+mineral riches of the country that he might ensure the development
+of the prosperity of his colony, in which he had taken care first of
+all to encourage agriculture. "The best mine that I know of, is one
+of corn and wine with nourishment for livestock. Who has this, has
+money. As for mines, we do not depend upon them for subsistence. And
+often that which looks well outwardly is not really worth much."
+These wise words of Lescarbot, in his _Histoire de la Nouvelle
+France_, might have been used by Valdivia, so exactly do they
+correspond with and express his sentiments. His valour, prudence,
+and humanity, more especially the latter quality, which shines forth
+strangely in contrast with the cruelty of Pizarro, ensures for him a
+distinction all his own among the "conquistadores" of the sixteenth
+century.
+
+[Illustration: The shores of Rio Napo.]
+
+At the time that Valdivia set out for Chili, Gonzalo Pizarro crossed
+the Andes at the head of 340 Spaniards, half of whom were mounted,
+and 4000 Indians, of whom the greater part of the Indians perished
+from cold; then he penetrated eastwards into the interior, seeking
+for a country where spices and cinnamon were said to abound. In
+these vast Savannahs, intersected by marshes and virgin forests, the
+Spaniards encountered torrents of rain, which lasted quite two
+months; they found only a scattered population, who were not
+industrious and also hostile; in consequence, the invaders often
+suffered from hunger in a country where there were then neither
+horses nor oxen, where the largest quadrupeds were tapirs and llamas,
+and even the latter were seldom met with on this slope of the Andes.
+In spite of these difficulties, which would have discouraged any
+less energetic explorers than the _descubridores_ of the sixteenth
+century, they persevered in their attempt and descended the Rio Napo
+or Coca, an affluent on the left of the Marañon, as far as its
+confluence. There, with great difficulty they built a brigantine,
+which was manned by fifty soldiers under the command of Francisco
+Orellana. But either the strength of the current carried him away,
+or else being no longer under the eyes of his chief, he wished in
+his turn to be the leader of an expedition of discovery; he did not
+wait for Gonzalo Pizarro at the appointed rendezvous, but continued
+to descend the river until he reached the ocean. Such a voyage is
+simply marvellous, through nearly 6000 miles of an unknown region,
+without guide, without compass, without provisions, with a crew who
+murmured more than once against the foolish attempt of their leader,
+and in the midst of populations almost invariably hostile. From the
+mouth of the river, which he had just descended in his badly built
+and dilapidated vessel, Orellana succeeded in reaching the Island of
+Cubagua, whence he set sail for Spain. If the proverb "He who comes
+from a distance tells many lies" were not of much earlier date, one
+might have thought it had been coined for Orellana. He invented the
+most preposterous fables as to the wealth of the countries he had
+traversed; the inhabitants were so rich that the roofs of the
+temples were formed of plates of gold; an assertion which gave rise
+to the legend of _El Dorado_. Orellana had heard of the existence of
+a Republic of female warriors who had founded a vast empire, which
+caused the river Marañon to be called the _River of the Amazons_. If,
+however, we strip this narrative of all that is ridiculous and
+grotesque, and calculated to please the imaginations of his
+contemporaries, it remains certain that Orellana's expedition is one
+of the most remarkable of this epoch, so fertile in gigantic
+enterprises; and it furnishes the first information upon the immense
+zone of country lying between the Andes and the Atlantic.
+
+But we must return to Gonzalo Pizarro. His embarrassment and
+consternation had been great, when on arriving at the confluence of
+the Napo and Marañon, he had not found Orellana, who was to have
+been awaiting him. Fearing that some accident might have befallen
+his lieutenant, he had descended the course of the river for 150
+miles, until he met with an unfortunate officer, who had been left
+behind for having addressed some remonstrances to his chief upon his
+perfidy. The bravest among Pizarro's men were discouraged at the
+news of the cowardly way in which they had been abandoned, and at
+the destitute condition in which they were left. Pizarro was obliged
+to yield to their entreaties and to return to Quito, from which they
+were more than 1200 miles away. To give an idea of their sufferings
+on this return journey, it suffices to say that, after having eaten
+horses, dogs, and reptiles, roots, and wild beasts, and after having
+devoured every article made of leather in their accoutrements, the
+unfortunate survivors who reached Quito, lacerated by brambles,
+emaciated and utterly impoverished, numbered only twenty-four. Four
+thousand Indians and two hundred and ten Spaniards had perished in
+this expedition, which had lasted less than two years.
+
+While Gonzalo Pizarro was conducting the unfortunate expedition just
+related, the old partisans of Almagro, who had never frankly joined
+Pizarro, gathered round the son of their old leader, and formed a
+plot for murdering the Marquis. In vain was Francisco Pizarro
+several times warned of what was threatening him, he would pay no
+heed to the report. He said "Keep quiet, I shall be safe as long as
+there is no one in Peru who does not know that I can in a moment
+take the life of any one who should dare to form the project of
+attempting mine."
+
+On Sunday, the 26th of June, 1541, at the hour of siesta, Juan de
+Herrada and eighteen conspirators left the house of Almagro's son
+with drawn swords in their hands and armed from top to toe. They ran
+towards the house of Pizarro, crying out, "Death to the tyrant!
+death to the infamous wretch!" They entered the palace, killed
+Francisco de Chaves, who had appeared in haste on hearing the noise,
+and gained the hall, where was Francisco Pizarro, with his brother
+Francisco-Martin, the doctor Juan Velasquez, and a dozen servants.
+These jumped out of the windows, with the exception of Martin
+Pizarro, two other gentlemen, and two tall pages, who were killed
+while defending the door of the governor's apartment. He himself had
+not had time to put on his cuirass, but he seized his sword and
+buckler and defended himself valiantly, killing four of his
+adversaries and wounding several others. One of his assailants, in a
+spirit of self-devotion, attracted to himself the blows of Pizarro.
+Meanwhile the other conspirators made their way in and attacked him
+with such fury that he could not parry all the blows, being so
+exhausted that he could scarcely wield his sword. "Thus," says
+Zarate, "they made an end, and succeeded in killing him by a thrust
+in the throat. Falling to the ground, he asked in a loud voice that
+he might be allowed to confess, and then not being able any longer
+to speak, he made the sign of the cross on the ground, which he
+kissed, and then yielded up his soul to God." Some negroes carried
+his body to the church, where Juan Barbazan, his old servant, alone
+ventured to come and claim it. This faithful servant secretly
+rendered to it funeral honours, for the conspirators had pillaged
+the house of Pizarro, not leaving enough even to pay for wax tapers.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Pizarro. _From an old print_.]
+
+Thus did Francisco Pizarro come to his end, assassinated even in the
+capital of the vast empire which Spain owed to his valour and
+indefatigable perseverance, but which he bestowed upon his country,
+it must be admitted, ravaged, decimated, and drowned in a deluge of
+blood. Pizarro is often compared with Cortès; the one had as much
+ambition, courage, and military capacity as the other; but the
+cruelty and avarice of the Marquis della Valle were carried to an
+extreme in Pizarro, and united in him to perfidy and duplicity. If
+we are inclined to excuse certain parts of Cortès' character which
+are not estimable, by the times in which he lived, we are at least
+charmed by that grace and nobility of manners, and by that way of a
+gentleman above prejudices, which made him so much beloved by the
+soldier. In Pizarro, on the contrary, we find roughness, and a harsh,
+unsympathizing way of feeling, while his chivalrous qualities
+disappear entirely behind the rapacity and perfidy which are the
+salient features of his character.
+
+If Cortès found brave and resolute adversaries among the Mexicans,
+who opposed almost insurmountable difficulties to his progress,
+Pizarro had no trouble in vanquishing the Peruvians, who were timid
+and enervated, and who never made any serious resistance to his arms.
+Of the conquests of Peru and Mexico, the less difficult produced the
+greater metallurgic advantage to Spain, and thus it was the more
+appreciated.
+
+The civil war was on the point of breaking out again after Pizarro's
+death when the governor arrived, who was delegated by the
+metropolitan government. As soon as he had collected the needful
+troops, he marched towards Cuzco. He seized young Almagro without
+trouble, had him beheaded with forty of his confederates and
+governed the country with firmness, until the viceroy Blasco Nuñez
+Vela, arrived. It is not our intention to enter into the detail of
+the disputes which took place between the latter and Gonzalo Pizarro,
+who, profiting by the general discontent, caused by the new
+regulations as to the "repartimientos," revolted against the
+Emperor's representative. After many changes of fortune, for which
+we have not space, the struggle ended by the defeat and execution of
+Gonzalo Pizarro, which took place in 1548. His body was taken to
+Cuzco and buried fully dressed; "No one," says Garcilasso de la Vega,
+"being willing to give even a winding-sheet for it." Thus ended the
+judicial assassin of Almagro. Is not the text appropriate in this
+case: "They that take the sword shall perish with the sword"?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+THE FIRST VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD.
+
+Magellan--His early history--His disappointment--His change of
+nationality--Preparations for the expedition--Rio de Janeiro--St.
+Julian's Bay--Revolt of a part of the squadron--Terrible punishment
+of the guilty--Magellan's Strait--Patagonia--The Pacific--The
+Ladrone Islands--Zebu and the Philippine Islands--Death of
+Magellan--Borneo--The Moluccas and their Productions--Separation of
+the _Trinidad_ and _Victoria_--Return to Europe by the Cape of Good
+Hope--Last misadventures.
+
+
+No one as yet was aware of the immense size of the continent
+discovered by Christopher Columbus. Still was sought perseveringly
+on the coast of America--which was thought to be a collection of
+several islands--the famous strait which should lead at once to the
+Pacific Ocean and to those Spice Islands the possession of which
+would have made the fortune of Spain. While Cortereal and Cabot were
+seeking for it in the Atlantic Ocean, and Cortès in the furthest
+part of the Gulf of California, while Pizarro was coasting along
+Peru, and Valdivia was conquering Chili, the solution of this
+problem was found by a Portuguese in the service of Spain, Ferdinand
+de Magellan.
+
+The son of a gentleman of _Cota e Armas_, Ferdinand de Magellan was
+born either at Oporto, at Lisbon, at Villa de Sabrossa, or at Villa
+de Figueiro, it is not actually known which; the date of his birth
+is unknown, but it took place towards the end of the fifteenth
+century. He had been brought up in the house of King John II., where
+he received as complete an education as could then be given him.
+After having made mathematics and navigation his special study--for
+at this time in Portugal there was an irresistible current which
+drew the whole country towards maritime expeditions and
+discoveries--Magellan early embraced a maritime career, and embarked
+in 1505 with Almeida, who was on his way to the Indies. He took part
+in the sacking of Quiloa, and in all the events of that campaign.
+The following year he accompanied Vaz Pereira to Sofala; then, on
+returning to the Malabar coast, we find him assisting Albuquerque at
+the taking of Malacca, and bearing himself on that occasion with
+equal prudence and bravery. He took part in the expedition sent by
+Albuquerque about 1510, to seek for the famous Spice Islands, under
+the command of Antonio de Abreu and of Francisco Serrão, which
+discovered Banda, Amboyna, Ternate, and Tidor. During this time
+Magellan had landed at the Malaysian Islands, distant 1800 miles
+from Malacca, and in the Archipelago of the Moluccas he had obtained
+the circumstantial information which gave birth in his mind to the
+idea of the voyage which he was destined to accomplish later on.
+
+[Illustration: Magellan on board his caravel. _From an old print_.]
+
+On his return to Portugal, Magellan obtained leave, though not
+without difficulty, to search through the royal archives. He soon
+became certain that the Moluccas were situated in the hemisphere
+which the bull of demarcation adopted at Tordesillas by the kings of
+Spain and Portugal, and confirmed in 1494 by Pope Alexander VI., had
+given to Spain.
+
+In virtue of this line of demarcation, which was destined to give
+rise to so many impassioned debates, all the countries situated at
+360 miles west of the meridian of the Cape de Verd Islands were to
+belong to Spain, and all those lying to the east of the same
+meridian to Portugal. Magellan was of too active a nature to remain
+long without again taking service; he went next to fight in Africa
+at Azamor, a town in Morocco, where he received a slight wound in
+his knee, but one which by injuring a nerve made him lame for the
+remainder of his life, and obliged him to return to Portugal.
+Conscious of the superiority which his theoretical and practical
+knowledge and his services had earned for him above the herd of
+courtiers, Magellan naturally felt more keenly than another would
+have done the unjust treatment he received from Emmanuel with regard
+to certain complaints laid by the people of Azamor against the
+Portuguese officers. King Emmanuel's prejudices soon changed to a
+real dislike. It showed itself by the outrageous imputation that
+Magellan was pretending to suffer from a wound which was really of
+no consequence and was completely cured, that he might escape from
+accusations which he could not refute. Such an assertion was a
+serious matter for the honour of Magellan, so susceptible and
+suspicious; he thereupon came to a desperate determination which
+corresponded moreover with the greatness of the insult which he had
+received. That no one might be ignorant of it, he caused it to be
+legally set forth that he renounced his rights as a Portuguese
+citizen, and changed his nationality, and he then took out letters
+of naturalization in Spain. This was to proclaim, as solemnly as
+could possibly be done, that he intended to be looked upon as a
+subject of the crown of Castille, to which henceforward he would
+consecrate his services and his whole life. This was a serious
+determination, as we can see, which no one blamed, and which even
+the most severe historians, such as Barros and Faria y Sousa, have
+excused.
+
+At the same time as Magellan, the licentiate Rey Faleiro left Lisbon
+with his brother Francisco and a merchant named Christovam de Haro;
+the former was a man deeply versed in cosmographical knowledge, and
+had equally with Magellan fallen under Emmanuel's displeasure.
+Faleiro had entered into a treaty of partnership with Magellan to
+reach the Moluccas by a new way, but one which was not otherwise
+specified, and which remained Magellan's secret. As soon as they
+arrived in Spain, (1517), the two partners submitted their project
+to Charles V., who accepted it in principle; but there remained the
+always delicate question touching the means for putting it into
+execution. Happily, Magellan found in Juan de Aranda, the factor of
+the Chamber of Commerce, an enthusiastic partisan of his theories,
+and one who promised to exert all his influence to make the
+enterprise a success. He had an interview accordingly with the high
+Chancellor, the Cardinal and Bishop of Burgos, Fonseca. He set forth
+with such skill the great advantage that Spain would derive from the
+discovery of a route leading to the very centre of the spice
+production, and the great prejudice which it would cause to the
+trade of Portugal, that an agreement was signed on the 22nd of March,
+1518. The Emperor undertook to pay all the expenses of the
+expedition on condition that the greater part of the profits should
+belong to him.
+
+But Magellan had still many obstacles to surmount before taking to
+the sea. In the first place there were the remonstrances of the
+Portuguese ambassador, Alvaro de Costa, who, seeing that his
+endeavours were in vain, even tried to compass the assassination of
+Magellan, so says Faria y Sousa. Then he encountered the ill-will of
+the employés of the _Casa de contratacion_ at Seville, who were
+jealous of a stranger being entrusted with the command of such an
+important expedition, and envious of the least token of favour which
+had been accorded to Magellan and Rey Faleiro, who had been named
+commanders of the order of St. James. But Charles V. had given his
+consent by a public act, which seemed to be irrevocable. They tried,
+however, to make the Emperor alter his decision by organizing, on
+the 22nd of October, 1518, a disturbance paid for with Portuguese
+gold. It broke out on the pretext that Magellan, who had just had
+one of his ships drawn on shore for repairs and painting, had
+decorated it with the Portuguese arms. This last attempt failed
+miserably, and three statutes of the 30th of March, and 6th and 30th
+of April, fixed the composition of the crews and named the staff;
+while a final official document dated from Barcelona the 26th of
+July, 1519, confided the sole command of the expedition to Magellan.
+
+What had meanwhile been happening to Rey Faleiro? We cannot exactly
+say. But this man, who had up to this time been treated on the same
+footing as Magellan, and who had perhaps first conceived the project,
+now found himself quite excluded from the command of the expedition,
+after some dissensions of which the cause is unknown. His health,
+already shaken, received a last shock from this affront, and poor
+Rey Faleiro, who had become almost childish, having returned to
+Portugal to see his family, was arrested there, and only released
+upon the intercession of Charles V. At last, after having sworn
+fidelity and homage to the crown of Castille, Magellan received in
+his turn the oath of his officers and sailors, and left the port of
+San Lucar de Barrameda on the morning of the 10th of August, 1519.
+
+But before entering on the narrative of this memorable campaign, we
+must give a few particulars of the man who has left us the most
+complete account of it, Francesco Antonio Pigafetta or Jerome
+Pigaphète as he is often called in France. Born at Venice about 1491,
+of a noble family, Pigafetta formed part of the suite of the
+Ambassador Francesco Chiericalco, sent by Leo X. to Charles V., who
+was then at Barcelona. His attention was no doubt aroused by the
+noise which the preparations for the expedition made at that time in
+Spain, and he obtained permission to take part in the voyage. This
+volunteer proved an excellent recruit, for he showed himself in
+every respect as faithful and intelligent an observer as he was a
+brave and courageous companion. He was wounded at the battle of Zebu,
+fighting beside Magellan, which prevented him from being present at
+the banquet during which so many of his companions were destined to
+lose their lives. As to his narrative, with the exception of some
+exaggerations of detail according to the taste of that time, it is
+exact, and the greater part of the descriptions which we owe to him
+have been verified by modern travellers and learned men, especially
+by M. Alcide d'Orbigny.
+
+Upon his return to San Lucar on the 6th of September, 1522, after
+having fulfilled the vow which he had made to go bare-foot to return
+thanks to _Nuesta Señora de la Victoria_, the Lombard (as they
+called him on board the _Victoria_,) presented to Charles V., then
+at Valladolid, a complete journal of the voyage. When he returned to
+Italy, by means of the original as well as of some supplementary
+notes, he wrote a longer narrative of the expedition, at the request
+of Pope Clement VII. and of Villiers de l'Isle Adam, grand-master of
+the Knights of Malta. He sent copies of this work to several
+distinguished personages, and notably to Louisa of Savoy, mother of
+Francis I. But she not understanding, so thinks Harrisse, the very
+learned author of the _Bibliotheca Americana Vetustissima_, the kind
+of patois used by Pigafetta, and which resembles a mixture of
+Italian, Venetian, and Spanish, employed a certain Jacques Antoine
+Fabre to translate it into French. Instead of giving a faithful
+translation, Fabre made a kind of abridgment of it. Some critics,
+however, suppose that this narrative must have been written
+originally in French; they found their opinion upon the existence of
+three French manuscripts of the sixteenth century, which give very
+different readings, and of which two are deposited in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris.
+
+Pigafetta died at Venice about 1534, in a house in the Rue de la
+Lune, which in 1800 was still to be seen, and which bore the
+well-known device, "No rose without a thorn."
+
+At the same time, not wishing to confine ourselves to Pigafetta's
+narrative entirely, we have compared and completed it with that of
+Maximilian Transylvain, secretary to Charles V., of which there is
+an Italian translation in Ramusio's valuable collection.
+
+The fleet of Magellan consisted of the _Trinidad_, of 120 tons'
+burden, which carried the flag of the commander of the expedition;
+the _Sant'-Antonio_, also of 120 tons, commanded by Juan de
+Carthagena, the second in rank, the _person joined with_ Magellan,
+says the official document; the _Concepcion_, of 90 tons, commanded
+by Gaspar de Quesada; the famous _Victoria_, of 85 tons, commanded
+by Luis de Mendoza; and lastly the _Santiago_, of 75 tons, commanded
+by Joao Serrâo, called by the Spaniards Serrano.
+
+Four of these captains and nearly all the pilots were Portuguese.
+Barbosa and Gomez on board the _Trinidad_, Luis Alfonso de Goez and
+Vasco Gallego on the _Victoria_, Serrâo, Joao Lopez de Carvalho on
+the _Concepcion_, Joao Rodriguez de Moefrapil on the _Sant'-Antonio_,
+and Joao Serrâo on the _Santiago_, with 25 sailors, formed a total
+of 33 Portuguese out of the whole body of 237 individuals whose
+names have all been handed down to us, and amongst whom are found a
+considerable number of Frenchmen.
+
+Of the officers whose names have been mentioned, it is to be
+remembered that Duarte Barbosa was brother-in-law to Magellan and
+that Estavam Gomez, who, by returning to Seville on the 6th of May,
+1521, did not participate in the conclusion of this memorable voyage,
+was afterwards sent by Charles V. to seek for the north-west passage,
+and in 1524 sailed along the coast of America from Florida to Rhode
+Island, and perhaps as far as Cape Cod.
+
+Nothing could have been better arranged than this expedition, for
+the equipment of which the whole resources of the nautical science
+of that epoch had been taxed. At the moment of departure Magellan
+gave his last orders to his pilots and captains, and the code of
+signals which were to ensure unanimity in manoeuvres, and prevent a
+possible separation.
+
+On Monday morning, the 10th of August, 1519, the fleet weighed
+anchor and sailed down the Guadalquiver as far as San Lucar de
+Barrameda, which forms the port of Seville, where the victualling of
+the ships was completed, and it was the 20th of September before
+they were really off. Six days afterwards the fleet anchored at
+Teneriffe in the Canary Archipelago, where both wood and water were
+taken on board. It was on leaving this island that the first
+symptoms appeared of the misunderstanding between Magellan and Juan
+de Carthagena which was to prove so fatal to the expedition. The
+latter claimed to be informed by the commander-in-chief of the route
+which he intended to take, a claim which was at once rejected by
+Magellan, who declared that he was not called upon to give any
+explanation to his subordinate.
+
+After having passed between the Cape de Verd Islands and Africa, the
+ships reached the shores of Sierra Leone, where contrary winds and
+dead calms detained the fleet for twenty days.
+
+[Illustration: Juan de Carthagena placed in the stocks.]
+
+A painful incident now occurred. During a council which was held on
+board the flag-ship, a sharp dispute arose, and Juan de Carthagena,
+who affected to treat the Captain-general with contempt, having
+answered him with pride and insolence, Magellan felt obliged to
+arrest him with his own hand, and to have him put in the stocks, an
+instrument made of two pieces of wood placed one upon the other and
+pierced with holes, in which were placed the legs of the sailor who
+was to be punished. The other captains remonstrated loudly with
+Magellan against a punishment which was too degrading for a superior
+officer, and Carthagena in consequence was simply put under arrest,
+and guarded by one of the captains. To the calms now succeeded rain,
+tempests, and heavy squalls, which obliged the vessels to lie-to.
+During these storms the navigators several times witnessed an
+electric phenomenon of which the cause was not then known, but which
+they considered an undoubted sign of the protection of heaven, and
+which even at the present day is known by the name of St. Elmo's
+fire. Once past the equinoctial line--a passage which does not at
+that time seem to have been celebrated by the grotesque ceremony of
+baptism which is in vogue at the present day--they steered for
+Brazil, where, on the 13th of December, 1519, the fleet cast anchor
+in the magnificent port of Santa Lucia, now known under the name of
+Rio Janeiro. This was not, however, the first time that this bay had
+been seen by Europeans, as was long believed. Since the year 1511 it
+had been known under the name of _Bahia do Cabo Frio_. It had been
+visited also, four years before Magellan's arrival, by Pero Lopez,
+and seems to have been frequented since the commencement of the
+sixteenth century by mariners from Dieppe who, inheritors of the
+passion for adventurous navigation of their ancestors the North-men,
+roamed over the world, and founded small establishments or factories
+in all directions. Here the Spanish expedition procured cheaply, in
+exchange for looking-glasses, pieces of ribbon, scissors, hawks'
+bells or fish-hooks, a quantity of provisions, amongst which
+Pigafetta mentions pine-apples, sugar-canes, sweet potatoes, fowls,
+and the flesh of the _Anta_, which is thought to be the tapir.
+
+The account given in the same narrative of the manners of the
+inhabitants is sufficiently curious to be repeated. "The Brazilians
+are not Christians," he says, "but no more are they idolaters, for
+they worship nothing; natural instinct is their only law." This is
+an interesting fact, and a singular avowal for an Italian of the
+sixteenth century, deeply imbued with superstition; it offers one
+more proof that the idea of the Divinity is not innate, as some
+theologians have imagined. "These natives live to a great age, they
+go entirely naked, and sleep in cotton nets called hammocks,
+suspended by the two ends to beams. As to their boats, called canoes,
+each is hollowed out of the single trunk of a tree and can hold as
+many as forty men. They are anthropophagi (cannibals), but only on
+special occasions, and scarcely ever eat any but their enemies taken
+in battle. Their dress of ceremony is a kind of vest made of
+paroquets' feathers, woven together, and so arranged that the large
+wing and tail-feathers form a sort of girdle round their loins,
+which gives them a whimsical and ridiculous appearance."
+
+We have already said that the feather cloak was in use on the shores
+of the Pacific, among the Peruvians; it is curious to ascertain that
+it was worn equally by the Brazilians. Some specimens of this
+singular garment may be seen at the exhibition of the Ethnographical
+Museum. This was not however the only ornament of these savages;
+they suspended little stone cylinders from three holes pierced in
+the lower lip, a custom which is common among many of the Oceanic
+people, and which may be compared with our fashion of ear-rings.
+These people were extremely credulous and of good disposition and
+thus, as Pigafetta says, they could easily have been converted to
+Christianity, for they assisted in silence, and with gravity, at the
+mass which was said on shore, a remark that Alvarez Cabral had
+already made.
+
+[Illustration: The Coast of Brazil.]
+
+After remaining thirteen days in this place, the squadron continued
+its route to the south, coasting along the shore, and arrived at 34
+degrees 40 minutes of south latitude in a country where flowed a
+large river of fresh water. It was the La Plata. The natives, called
+Charruas, were so frightened at the sight of the vessels that they
+hastily took refuge in the interior of the country, carrying with
+them all their valuables, and it was impossible to overtake any of
+them. It was in this country that four years previously, Juan Diaz
+de Solis had been massacred by a tribe of Charruas, armed with that
+terrible engine which is still in use at the present day among the
+_gauchos_ of the Argentine Republic, the _bolas_, which are metal
+balls fastened to the two ends of a long leather thong, called a
+_lasso_.
+
+A little below the estuary of the La Plata, once thought to be an
+arm of the sea opening into the Pacific, the flotilla anchored at
+Port Desire. Here they obtained an ample supply of penguins for the
+crews of the five vessels--a bird which did not make a very
+delicious meal. Then they anchored in 49 degrees 30 minutes in a
+beautiful harbour, where Magellan resolved to winter, and which
+received the name of St. Julian's Bay. The Spaniards had been two
+months there, when one day they perceived a man who seemed to them
+to be of gigantic stature. At sight of them he began dancing and
+singing and throwing dust upon his head. This was a Patagonian, who
+allowed himself without resistance to be taken on board the vessels.
+He showed the greatest surprise at all he saw around him, but
+nothing astonished him so much as a large steel mirror which was
+presented to him. "The giant, who had not the least idea of the use
+of this piece of furniture, and who, no doubt, now saw his own face
+for the first time, drew back in such terror, that he threw to the
+ground four of our people who were behind him." He was taken back on
+shore loaded with presents, and the kind welcome which he had
+received induced eighteen of his companions, thirteen women and five
+men, to come on board. They were tall, and had broad faces, painted
+red except the eyes, which were encircled with yellow; their hair
+was whitened with lime, they were wrapped in enormous fur cloaks,
+and wore those large leather boots from which was given to them the
+name of Large-feet or Patagonians. Their stature was not, however,
+so gigantic as it appeared to our simple narrator, for it varies
+from 5ft. 10in. to 5ft. 8in., being somewhat above the middle height
+among Europeans. For arms they had a short massive bow, and arrows
+made of reed, of which the point was formed of a sharp pebble.
+
+The captain, to retain two of these savages whom he wished to take
+to Europe, used a stratagem, which we should characterize as hateful
+in the present day, but which had nothing revolting about it for the
+sixteenth century, when Indians and negroes were universally
+considered to be a kind of brute beasts. Magellan loaded these
+Indians with presents, and when he saw them embarrassed with the
+quantity, he offered to each of them one of those iron rings used
+for chaining captives. They would have desired to carry them away,
+for they valued iron above everything, but their hands were full. It
+was then proposed to fasten the rings to their legs, to which they
+agreed without suspicion. The sailors then closed the rings, so that
+the savages found themselves in fetters. Nothing can give an idea of
+their fury when they discovered this stratagem, worthy rather of
+savages than of civilized men. The capture of others was attempted,
+but in vain, and in the chase one of the Spaniards was wounded by a
+poisoned arrow, which caused his death almost instantaneously.
+Intrepid hunters, these people wander about perpetually in pursuit
+of guanaquis and other game; they are endowed with such wonderful
+voracity "that what would suffice for the nourishment of twenty
+sailors, can scarcely satisfy seven or eight of them." Magellan,
+foreseeing that the stay here was likely to be prolonged, and
+perceiving that the country only presented meagre resources, gave
+orders to economize the provisions, and to put the men on fixed
+rations, that they might not experience too great privations before
+the spring, when they might reach a country where there was more
+game. But the Spaniards, discontented at the sterility of the place,
+and at the length and rigour of the winter, began to murmur. This
+land seemed to stretch southwards as far as the Antarctic pole, they
+said; there did not seem to be any strait; already several had died
+from the privations they had endured; lastly it was time to return
+to Spain, if the commander did not wish to see all his men perish in
+this place.
+
+Magellan, fully resolved to die, or else to bring the enterprise he
+commanded to a successful issue, replied that the Emperor had
+assigned him the course which the voyage was to take, and he neither
+could nor would depart from it under any pretext, and that in
+consequence, he should go straight forward to the end of this land,
+or until he met with some strait. As to provisions, if they found
+them insufficient, his men might add to their rations the produce of
+their fishing or hunting. Magellan thought that so firm a
+declaration would impose silence on the malcontents, and that he
+would hear no more of privations, from which he suffered equally
+with his crews. He deceived himself completely. Certain of the
+captains, and Juan de Carthagena in particular, were interested in
+causing a revolt to break out. These rebels therefore began by
+reminding the Spaniards of their old animosity against the
+Portuguese. The captain-general being one of the latter nation, had
+never, according to them, tendered a whole-hearted allegiance to the
+Spanish flag. In order to be able to return to his own country and
+to gain pardon for what he had done wrong, he wished to commit some
+heinous crime, and nothing could be more advantageous to Portugal
+than the destruction of this fine fleet. Instead of leading them to
+the Archipelago of the Moluccas, of the riches of which he had
+boasted to them, he wished to take them into frozen regions, the
+dwelling-place of eternal snow, where he could easily manage that
+they should all perish; then with the help of the Portuguese on
+board the squadron, he would take back to his own country the
+vessels which he had seized.
+
+Such were the reports and accusations that the partisans of Juan de
+Carthagena, Luis de Mendoza, and Gaspar de Quesada had disseminated
+among the sailors, when on Palm Sunday, the 1st of April, 1520,
+Magellan summoned the captains, officers, and pilots, to hear mass
+on board his vessel and to dine with him afterwards. Alvaro de la
+Mesquita, a cousin of the captain-general, accepted this invitation
+with Antonio de Coca and his officers, but neither Mendoza nor
+Quesada, nor Juan de Carthagena, who was Quesada's prisoner,
+appeared. The next night the malcontents boarded the _Sant'-Antonio_
+with thirty of the men of the _Concepcion_, and desired to have La
+Mesquita given up to them. The pilot, Juan de Eliorraga, while
+defending his captain, received four stabs from a poniard in the arm.
+Quesada cried out at the same time, "You will see that this fool
+will make our business fail." The three vessels, the _Concepcion_,
+_Sant'-Antonio_, and _Santiago_, fell without difficulty into the
+hands of the rebels, who reckoned more than one accomplice among the
+crews. In spite of this success, the three captains did not dare
+openly to attack the commander-in-chief, and sent to him some
+proposals for a reconciliation. Magellan ordered them to come on
+board the _Trinidad_ to confer with him; but this they stoutly
+refused to do, whereupon Magellan, having no further need of caution,
+had the boat seized which had brought him this answer, and choosing
+six strong and brave men from amongst his crew, he sent them on
+board the _Victoria_ under the command of the _alguazil_ Espinosa.
+He carried a letter from Magellan to Mendoza enjoining him to come
+on board the _Trinidad_, and when Mendoza smiled in a scornful
+manner, Espinosa stabbed him in the throat with a poniard, while a
+sailor struck him on the head with a cutlass. While these events
+were taking place, another boat, laden with fifteen armed men, came
+alongside the _Victoria_, and took possession of her without any
+resistance from the sailors, surprised by the rapidity of the action.
+On the next day, the 3rd of April, the two other rebel vessels were
+taken, not however without bloodshed. Mendoza's body was divided
+into quarters, while a clerk read in a loud voice the sentence that
+blasted his memory. Three days afterwards, Quesada was beheaded and
+cut in pieces by his own servant, who undertook this sad task to
+save his own life. As to Carthagena, the high rank which the royal
+edict had conferred upon him in the expedition saved him from death,
+but with Gomez de la Reina, the chaplain, he was left behind on the
+shore, where some months afterwards he was found by Estevam Gomez.
+Forty sailors convicted of rebellion were pardoned because their
+services were considered indispensable. After this severe lesson
+Magellan might well hope that the mutinous spirit was really subdued.
+
+When the temperature became milder the anchors were weighed; the
+squadron put to sea on the 24th of August, following the coast, and
+carefully exploring all the gulfs to find that strait which had been
+so persistently sought. At the level of Cape St. Croix, one of the
+vessels, the _Santiago_, was lost on the rocks during a violent gale
+from the east. Happily both the men and merchandise on board were
+saved, and they succeeded also in taking from the wrecked vessel the
+rigging and appurtenances of the ship, which they divided among the
+four remaining vessels.
+
+At last on the 21st of October, according to Pigafetta, the 27th of
+November according to Maximilian Transylvain, the flotilla
+penetrated by a narrow entrance into a gulf, at the bottom of which
+a strait opened, which as they soon saw passed into the sea to the
+south. First they called this the Strait of the _Eleven Thousand
+Virgins_, because this was the day dedicated to them. On each side
+of the strait rose high land covered with snow, on which they saw
+numerous fires, especially to the left, but they were unable to
+obtain any communication with the natives. The details which
+Pigafetta and Martin Transylvain have given with regard to the
+topographical and hydrographical dispositions of this strait are
+rather vague, and as we shall have to mention it again when we speak
+of De Bougainville's expedition, we shall not dilate upon it now.
+After sailing for twenty-two days across this succession of narrow
+inlets and arms of the sea, in some places three miles wide, in some
+twelve, which extends for a distance of 440 miles and has received
+the name of Magellan's Strait, the flotilla emerged upon a sea of
+immense extent and great depth.
+
+The rejoicings were general when at last the sailors found
+themselves at the long-wished-for end of their efforts. Henceforward
+the route was open and Magellan's clever conjectures were realized.
+
+Nothing is more extraordinary than the navigation of Magellan upon
+this ocean, which he called Pacific, because for four months no
+storm assailed him upon it. The privations endured by the crews
+during this long space of time were excessive. The biscuit was
+nothing more than dust mixed with worms, while the water had become
+bad and gave out an unbearable smell. The sailors were obliged to
+eat mice and sawdust to prevent themselves from dying of hunger, and
+to gnaw all the leather that it was possible to find. As it was easy
+to foresee under these circumstances, the crews were decimated by
+scurvy. Nineteen men died, and thirty were seized with violent pains
+in their arms and legs, which caused prolonged sufferings. At last,
+after having sailed over more than 12,000 miles without meeting with
+a single island, in a sea where so many and such populous
+archipelagos were destined to be discovered, the fleet came upon two
+desert and sterile islands, called for that reason the Unfortunate
+Islands, but of which the position is indicated in much too
+contradictory a manner, for it to be possible to recognize them.
+
+In 12 degrees north latitude and 146 degrees longitude, on Wednesday
+the 6th of March, the navigators discovered successively three
+islands, at which they greatly desired to stop to recruit, and take
+in fresh provisions; but the islanders who came on board stole so
+many things, without the possibility of preventing them, that the
+sailors were obliged to give up the idea of remaining there. The
+natives contrived even to carry off a long boat. Magellan, indignant
+at such daring, made a descent with forty armed men, burned some
+houses and boats, and killed seven men. These islanders had neither
+chief, king, nor religion. Their heads were covered with palm-leaf
+hats, they wore beards, and their hair descended to their waists.
+Generally of an olive tint, they thought they embellished themselves
+by colouring their teeth black and red, while their bodies were
+anointed with cocoa-nut oil, no doubt in order to protect themselves
+from the heat of the sun. Their canoes of curious construction,
+carried a very large matting sail, which might have easily capsized
+the boat if the precaution had not been taken of giving a more
+stable trim by means of a long piece of wood kept at a certain
+distance by two poles; this is what is called the "balance." These
+islanders were very industrious, but had a singular aptitude for
+stealing, which has gained for their country the name of the
+_Islands of Thieves_ (Ladrone Islands).
+
+[Illustration: The Ladrone Islands. _From an old print_.]
+
+On the 16th of March was seen, at about 900 miles from the Ladrones,
+some high ground; this was soon discovered to be an island which now
+goes by the name of Samar Island. There Magellan, resolving to give
+his exhausted crews some rest, caused two tents to be pitched on
+land for the use of the sick. The natives quickly brought bananas,
+palm wine, cocoa-nuts, and fish; for which mirrors, combs, bells,
+and other similar trifles were offered in exchange. The cocoa-nut, a
+tree which is valuable beyond all others, supplied these natives
+with their bread, wine, oil, and vinegar, and besides they obtained
+from it their clothing and the necessary wood for building and
+roofing in their huts.
+
+The natives soon became familiar with the Spaniards, and told them
+that their archipelago produced cloves, cinnamon, pepper, nutmegs,
+ginger, maize or Indian-corn, and that even gold was found there.
+Magellan gave this archipelago the name of the St. Lazarus Islands,
+afterwards changed to that of the Philippines from the name of
+Philip of Austria, son of Charles V.
+
+This archipelago is formed of a great number of islands which extend
+in Malaysia, between 5 degrees 32 minutes and 19 degrees 38 minutes
+north latitude, and 114 degrees 56 minutes and 123 degrees 43
+minutes longitude east of the meridian of Paris. The most important
+are Luzon, Mindoro, Leyte, the Ceylon of Pigafetta, Samar, Panay,
+Negros, Zebu, Bohol, Palawan, and Mindanao.
+
+When they were a little restored, the Spaniards put to sea again, in
+order to explore the archipelago. They saw in succession the islands
+of Cenalo, Huinaugan, Ibusson, and Abarien, as well as another
+island called Massava, of which the king Colambu could make himself
+understood by a slave a native of Sumatra, whom Magellan had taken
+to Europe from India, and who by his knowledge of Malay rendered
+signal service in several instances. The king came on board with six
+or eight of his principal subjects. He brought with him presents for
+the captain-general, and in exchange he received a vest of red and
+yellow cloth, made in Turkish fashion, and a cap of fine scarlet,
+while mirrors and knives were given to the members of his suite. The
+Spaniards showed him all their fire-arms and fired some shots from
+the cannon in his presence, at which he was much terrified. "Then
+Magellan caused one of our number to be fully armed," says Pigafetta,
+"and ordered three men to give him blows with the sword and stiletto,
+to show the king that nothing could wound a man armed in this manner,
+which surprised him greatly, and turning to the interpreter he said
+to the captain through him, 'that a man thus armed, could fight
+against a hundred.' 'Yes,' replied the interpreter, in the name of
+the commandant, 'and each of the three vessels carries 200 men armed
+in this manner.'" The king, astonished by all that he had seen, took
+leave of the captain, begging him to send two of his men with him,
+to let them see something of the island. Pigafetta was chosen, and
+was much satisfied with the welcome that he received. The king told
+him "that in this island they found pieces of gold as large as nuts,
+and even eggs, mixed with the earth which they passed through a
+sieve to find them; all his vessels and even some of the ornaments
+of his house were of this metal. He was very neatly dressed,
+according to the custom of the country, and was the finest man that
+I have seen among these people. His black hair fell upon his
+shoulders; a silk veil covered his head, and he wore two rings in
+his ears. From his waist to his knees, he was covered with a cotten
+cloth embroidered in silk. On each of his teeth there were three
+spots of gold, arranged in such a manner that one would have said
+all his teeth were fastened together with this metal. He was
+perfumed with storax and benzoin. His skin was painted, but its
+natural tint was olive."
+
+On Easter Day, the Europeans went on shore to celebrate mass in a
+kind of little church which they had constructed on the sea-shore
+with sails and branches of trees. An altar had been set up, and
+during the whole time that the religious ceremony lasted, the king
+with a large concourse of people, listened in silence and imitated
+all the motions of the Spaniards. Then a cross having been planted
+on a hill with great solemnity, they weighed anchor and made for the
+port of Zebu, as being the best for revictualling the vessels and
+trading. They arrived there on Sunday, the 7th of April. Magellan
+sent one of his officers on shore at once with the interpreter, as
+ambassador to the king of Zebu. The envoy explained that the chief
+of the squadron was under the orders of the greatest king in the
+world. The object of the voyage, he added, was the wish to pay him a
+visit, and at the same time to take in some fresh provisions in
+exchange for merchandise, and then to go to the Molucca Islands.
+Such were the motives which caused them to tarry in a country where
+they came as friends.
+
+"They are welcome," replied the king; "but if they intend to trade
+they should pay a duty to which all vessels are subject that enter
+my port, as did, not four days since, a junk from Siam, which came
+to seek for slaves and gold, to which a Moorish merchant who has
+remained in this country can testify."
+
+The Spaniard replied that his master was too great a king to submit
+to such an unreasonable demand. They had come with pacific
+intentions; but if war were declared, it would be seen with whom
+they had to deal.
+
+The king of Zebu, warned by the Moorish merchant, of the power of
+those who stood before him, and whom he took for Portuguese, at
+length consented to forego his claims. Moreover the king of Massava,
+who had continued to serve as pilot to the Spaniards, so altered the
+inclinations of his brother sovereign, that the Spaniards obtained
+the exclusive privilege of trading in the island, and a loyal
+friendship was sealed between the king of Zebu and Magellan by an
+exchange of blood which each drew from his right arm.
+
+From this moment, provisions were brought and cordial relations
+established. The nephew of the king came with a numerous suite to
+visit Magellan on board his ship, and the latter took this
+opportunity to relate to his visitors the wonderful history of the
+creation of the world, and of the redemption of the human race, and
+to invite him and his people to become converts to Christianity.
+They showed no repugnance to being baptized, and on the 14th of
+April the kings of Zebu and Massava, and the Moorish merchant, with
+500 men and as many women received baptism. But what was only a
+fashion at first, for it cannot be said that the natives knew the
+religion which they embraced or were persuaded of its truth, became
+a real frenzy, after a wonderful cure had been effected by Magellan.
+Having learnt that the father of the king had been ill for two years
+and was on the point of death, the captain-general promised, that if
+he consented to be baptized and the natives would burn their idols,
+he would find himself cured. "He added that he was so convinced of
+what he said," relates Pigafetta--for it is as well to quote the
+author verbatim in such a matter--"that he agreed to lose his head
+if what he promised did not happen immediately. We then made a
+procession, with all possible pomp, from the place where we were to
+the sick man's house, whom we found really in a very sad state in
+that he could neither speak nor move. We baptized him with two of
+his wives and ten daughters. The captain asked him directly after
+his baptism how he found himself, and he suddenly replied that
+thanks to our Lord he was well. We were all witnesses of this
+miracle. The captain above all rendered thanks to God for it. He
+gave the prince a refreshing drink, and continued to send him some
+of it every day till he was quite restored. On the fifth day the
+invalid found himself quite cured and got up. His first care was to
+have burned, in the presence of the king and all the people, an idol
+for which he had great veneration, and which some old women guarded
+carefully in his house. He also caused some temples which stood on
+the sea-shore, and in which the people assembled to eat the meat
+consecrated to their old divinities, to be thrown down. All the
+inhabitants applauded these acts, and proposed themselves to go and
+destroy all the idols, even those which were in use in the king's
+house, crying at the same time '_Vive la Castille!_' in honour of
+the king of Spain."
+
+Near to the Island of Zebu is another island called Matan which had
+two chiefs, one of whom had recognized the authority of Spain, while
+the other having energetically resisted it, Magellan resolved to
+impose it upon him by force. On Friday, the 26th of April, three
+long boats left for the Island of Matan containing sixty men wearing
+cuirasses and helmets, and armed with muskets; and thirty
+_balangais_ bearing the king of Zebu, his son-in-law, and a number
+of warriors.
+
+The Spaniards waited for day and then to the number of forty-nine
+leapt into the water, for the boats could not approach the land on
+account of the rocks and shallow water. More than 1500 natives
+awaited them, and at once threw themselves upon them, and attacked
+them in three troops, both in front and flank. The musketeers and
+the crossbow-men fired on the multitude of warriors from a distance,
+without doing them much harm, they being protected by their bucklers.
+The Spaniards, assailed by stones, arrows, javelins, and lances, and
+overwhelmed by numbers, set fire to some huts to disperse and
+intimidate the natives. But these, made more furious by the sight of
+the fire, redoubled their efforts, and pressed the Spaniards on all
+sides, who had the greatest difficulty in resisting them, when a sad
+event took place which compromised the issue of the combat. The
+natives were not slow in remarking that all the blows which they
+directed towards those parts of their enemies' bodies which were
+protected by armour, caused no wounds; they set themselves therefore
+to hurl their arrows and javelins against the lower part of the body,
+which was undefended. Magellan, wounded in the leg by a poisoned
+arrow, gave the order for retreat, which, begun in good order, soon
+changed into such a flight, that seven or eight Spaniards alone
+remained at his side. With much difficulty they kept moving
+backwards, fighting as they went, in order to reach the boats. They
+were already knee-deep in the water when several islanders rushed
+all together upon Magellan, who, wounded in the arm, was unable to
+draw his sword; they gave him such a sabre-cut upon his leg that he
+immediately fell down in the water, where he was speedily despatched.
+His remaining companions, and among them Pigafetta, every one of
+whom had been hit, hastily regained the boats. Thus perished the
+illustrious Magellan on the 27th of April, 1521. "He was adorned
+with every virtue," says Pigafetta, "and ever exhibited an unshaken
+constancy in the midst of the greatest adversity. At sea he always
+condemned himself to greater privations than the rest of his crew.
+Better versed than any one else in the knowledge of nautical charts,
+he was perfect in the art of navigation, as he proved by making the
+tour of the world, which none before him had ventured to do."
+Pigafetta's funeral eulogy, though a little hyperbolical, is not
+untrue in the main. Magellan had need of singular constancy and
+perseverance to penetrate, despite the fears of his companions, into
+regions peopled by the superstitious spirit of the time with
+fantastic dangers. Peculiar nautical science was also necessary to
+achieve the discovery at the extremity of that long coast of the
+strait which so justly bears his name. He was obliged to give
+unceasing attention to avoid all untoward accidents while exploring
+those unknown parts without any exact instruments. That one of the
+vessels was lost must be imputed to pride and a spirit of revolt in
+her own captain, more than to any incapacity or want of caution in
+the captain-general. Let us add with our enthusiastic narrator, "The
+glory of Magellan will survive his death."
+
+[Illustration: Death of Magellan.]
+
+Duarte Barbosa, Magellan's brother-in-law, and Juan Serrano were
+elected commanders by the Spaniards, who were destined to meet with
+further catastrophes. The slave who had acted as interpreter up to
+this time had been slightly wounded during the battle. From the time
+of his master's death he had kept aloof, not rendering any further
+service to the Spaniards, and remaining extended upon his mat. After
+some rather sharp reproofs from Barbosa, who told him that his
+master's death did not make him a free man, he disappeared all at
+once. He was gone to the newly-baptized king, to whom he declared
+that if he could allure the Spaniards into some trap and then kill
+them, he would make himself master of all their provisions and
+merchandise. Serrano, Barbosa, and twenty-seven Spaniards were
+accordingly invited to a solemn assembly to receive the presents
+destined by the king of Zebu for the Emperor; during the banquet
+they were attacked unexpectedly, and were all massacred except
+Serrano, who was led bound to the sea-shore, where he besought his
+companions to ransom him, for if they did not he would be murdered.
+But Juan de Carvalho and the others, fearing that the insurrection
+would become general, and that they might be attacked during the
+negotiations by a numerous fleet which they would not be able to
+resist, turned a deaf ear to the unfortunate Serrano's supplications.
+The ships set sail and reached the Island of Bohol, which was not
+far distant.
+
+When there, thinking that their numbers were too much reduced to
+navigate three vessels, they burnt the _Concepcion_, after having
+transshipped all that was most precious on board the other vessels.
+Then, after having coasted along the Island of Panilongon they
+stopped at Butuan, which forms part of Mindanao, a magnificent
+island, with numerous ports, and rivers abounding in fish, to the
+north-west of which lies the Island of Luzon, the most considerable
+of the Archipelago. The ships touched also at Paloan, where they
+found pigs, goats, fowls, different kinds of bananas, cocoa-nuts,
+sugar-canes, and rice, with which they provisioned the ships. This
+was for them, as Pigafetta expresses it, "a promised land." Among
+the things which he thought worthy of notice, the Italian traveller
+mentions the cocks kept by the natives for fighting; a passion which
+after so many years is still deeply-rooted amongst the population of
+the whole Philippine Archipelago. From Paloan, the Spaniards next
+went to the Island of Borneo, the centre of Malay civilization. From
+that time they had no longer to deal with poverty-stricken people,
+but with a rich population, who received them with magnificence.
+Their reception by the rajah is sufficiently curious to warrant a
+few words being devoted to it. At the landing-place they found two
+elephants with silk trappings, who bore the strangers to the house
+of the governor of the town, while twelve men carried the presents
+which were to be offered to the rajah. From the governor's house
+where they slept, to the palace of the king, the streets were kept
+by armed men. Upon descending from their elephants the Spaniards
+were admitted to a room filled with courtiers. At the end of this
+room opened another smaller room, hung with cloth of gold, in which
+were 300 men of the king's guard armed with poniards. Through a door
+they could then see the rajah, sitting by a table with a little
+child, chewing betel-nut. Behind him there were only some women.
+
+Etiquette required that the petition to be made must pass in
+succession through the mouths of three nobles, each of higher rank
+than the last, before being transmitted, by means of a hollow cane
+placed in a hole in the wall, to one of the principal officers, who
+submitted it to the king. Then there was an exchange of presents,
+after which the Spanish Ambassadors were conducted back to their
+vessels with the same ceremony as on their arrival. The capital is
+built on piles in the sea; so that when the tide rises, the women
+who sell provisions go about the town in boats. On the 29th of July
+more than 100 canoes surrounded the two vessels, whilst at the same
+time some junks weighed anchor to approach them more nearly. The
+Spaniards, fearing to be treacherously attacked, took the initiative
+and fired off their artillery, which killed a number of people in
+the canoes, upon which the king excused himself, saying that his
+fleet had not been directed against them, but against the Gentiles
+with whom the Mussulmen had daily combats. This island produces
+arrack (the alcohol of rice), camphor, cinnamon, ginger, oranges,
+citrons, sugar-canes, melons, radishes, onions, &c. The articles of
+exchange are copper, quicksilver, cinnabar, glass, woollen cloths,
+and canvas, and above all iron and spectacles, without mentioning
+porcelain, and diamonds, some of which were of extraordinary size
+and value. The _fauna_ comprises elephants, horses, buffaloes, pigs,
+goats, and domestic poultry. The money in use is of bronze, it is
+called _sapèque_ and consists of small coins which are perforated
+with holes, that they may be strung together.
+
+On leaving Borneo the travellers sought for a suitable spot in which
+to repair their vessels, which were in such great need of it that
+the men were not less than forty-two days over the work. "The oddest
+things which I have found in this island," says Pigafetta, "are the
+trees of which all the leaves are animated. These leaves resemble
+those of the mulberry, but are not so long; the stalk is short and
+pointed, and near the stalk on both sides there are two feet. If you
+touch the leaves, they escape; but when crushed no blood comes from
+them. I have kept one of them in a box for nine days; when I opened
+the box, the leaf was walking about in it; I believe they must live
+upon air." These very curious animals are well known at the present
+day, and are commonly called leaf-flies (_mouches-feuille_); they
+are of a grey-brown, which makes them more easily mistaken for dead
+leaves, which they exactly resemble in appearance.
+
+It was while in these parts that the Spanish expedition, which,
+during Magellan's life had preserved its scientific character, began
+perceptibly to become piratical. Thus, on several occasions, junks
+were seized upon, and their crews forced by their Spanish captors to
+pay large ransoms.
+
+The ships next passed by the Archipelago of the Sooloo Islands, the
+haunt of Malay pirates, who have even now only lately submitted to
+the Spanish arms; then by Mindanao, which had been already visited,
+for it was known that the eagerly sought-for Moluccas must be in its
+neighbourhood, whether more or less remote. At last, after having
+seen a number of islands, of which the names would not convey much
+idea to us, on Wednesday, the 6th of November the Spaniards
+discovered the Archipelago, about which the Portuguese had related
+such terrifying fables, and two days later they landed at Tidor.
+Thus the object of the voyage was attained.
+
+The king came to meet the Spaniards, and invited them to go on board
+his canoe. "He was seated under a silk parasol which covered him
+entirely. In front of him were placed one of his sons who carried
+the royal sceptre, two men who had each a golden vase full of water
+for washing the king's hands, and two others holding small gilt
+boxes filled with betel." Then the Spaniards made the king come on
+board the vessels, where they showed him much respect, at the same
+time loading him and those who accompanied him with presents, which
+seemed to them very precious. "This king is a Moor, that is to say,
+an Arab," Pigafetta affirms; "he is nearly forty-five years of age,
+tolerably well made, and with a fine physiognomy. His clothing
+consisted of a very fine shirt, the cuffs of which were embroidered
+in gold; drapery descended from his waist to his feet; a silk veil
+(no doubt a turban) covered his head, and upon this veil there was a
+garland of flowers. His name is Rajah-sultan Manzor."
+
+The next day, in a long interview which he had with the Spaniards,
+Manzor declared his intention of placing himself with the Islands of
+Ternate and Tidor under the protection of the king of Spain.
+
+[Illustration: The Sultan Manzor.]
+
+This is the place to give some details about the Archipelago of the
+Moluccas, drawn from Pigafetta's narrative, which we are following
+step by step in the version that M. Ed. Charton has given, and to
+which he has added such valuable notes.
+
+This Archipelago properly speaking, comprises the Islands of Gilolo,
+Ternate, Tidor, Mornay, Batchian, and Misal; but the Banda and
+Amboyna groups are also often comprehended under the general name of
+Molucca. Formerly convulsed by repeated volcanic commotions, this
+Archipelago contains a great number of craters almost all extinct,
+or in repose during a long succession of years. The air there is
+burning, and would be almost unfit to breathe, if frequent rains did
+not fall and refresh the atmosphere. The natural productions are
+extremely valuable. In the first rank must be placed the sago-tree,
+of which the pith called sago takes, with yams, the place of cereals
+throughout Malacca. As soon as the tree is cut down, the pith is
+extracted, which is then grated, passed through a sieve, and
+afterwards cut up in the form of small rolls, which are dried in the
+shade. There are also the mulberry, the clove, the nutmeg, the
+camphor, and pepper-trees; in fact all the spice-trees and all the
+tropical fruits. The forests contain some valuable kinds of wood,
+ebony, iron-wood, teak, famous for its strength and employed from
+the most ancient times in costly buildings, and the Calilaban laurel,
+which yields an aromatic essential oil that is highly prized. At
+this period domestic animals were not numerous in the Moluccas, but
+among the wild animals the most curious were the _babiroussa_, an
+enormous wild boar with long tusks bent backwards; the opossum, a
+kind of didelphis a little larger than our squirrel; the phalanger,
+a marsupial which lives in thick, dark forests, where it feeds upon
+leaves and fruit; and the tarsier, a kind of jerboa, a very harmless,
+inoffensive little animal with reddish-coloured hair, about the size
+of a rat, but whose body bears some resemblance to that of an ape.
+Among the birds, the most remarkable were the parroquets and
+cockatoos, the birds of Paradise of which so many fabulous accounts
+were given, and which until then had been believed to be without
+legs, the king-fishers, and the cassowaries, great wading-birds
+almost as large as ostriches.
+
+A Portuguese named Lorosa had been long settled in the Moluccas, and
+to him the Spaniards forwarded a letter, in the hope that he would
+betray his country and attach himself to Spain. They obtained the
+most curious information from him with regard to the expeditions
+which the king of Portugal had despatched to the Cape of Good Hope,
+to the Rio de la Plata and to the Moluccas; but from various
+circumstances these latter expeditions had not been able to take
+place. He himself had been sixteen years in this Archipelago; the
+Portuguese had been installed there for ten years, but upon this
+fact they preserved the most complete silence. When Lorosa saw the
+Spaniards making their preparations for departure, he came on board
+with his wife and his goods to return to Europe. On the 12th of
+November all the merchandise destined for barter was landed, it
+being chiefly derived from the four junks which had been seized in
+Borneo. Certainly the Spaniards traded to great advantage, but
+nevertheless not to so great an extent as they might have done, for
+they were in haste to return to Spain. Some vessels from Gilolo and
+Batchian came also to trade with them, and a few days later they
+received a considerable stock of cloves from the king of Tidor. This
+king invited them to a great banquet which he said it was his custom
+to give when a vessel or junk was loaded with the first cloves. But
+the Spaniards, remembering what had happened to them in the
+Philippines, refused the invitation while presenting compliments and
+excuses to the king. When their cargo was completed, they set sail.
+Scarcely had the _Trinidad_ put to sea before it was perceived that
+she had a serious leak, and the return to Tidor as fast as possible
+was unavoidable. The skilful divers whom the king placed at the
+disposal of the Spaniards, were unable to discover the hole, and it
+became necessary to partly unload the ship to make the necessary
+repairs. The sailors who were on board the _Victoria_ would not wait
+for their companions, and the ship's officers seeing clearly that
+the _Trinidad_ would not be fit for the voyage to Spain, decided
+that she should go to Darien, where her valuable cargo would be
+discharged and transported across the Isthmus to the Atlantic, where
+a vessel would be sent to fetch it. But neither the unfortunate
+vessel nor her crew was destined ever to return to Spain.
+
+The _Trinidad_, commanded by the alguazil Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosa,
+who had Juan de Carvalho as pilot, was in so bad a state that after
+leaving Tidor, she was obliged to anchor at Ternate, in the port of
+Talangomi, where her crew consisting of seventeen men was
+immediately imprisoned by the Portuguese. The only reply given to
+Espinosa's remonstrances was a threat to hang him to the yard of a
+vessel; and the unfortunate alguazil, after having been transferred
+to Cochin, was sent to Lisbon, where for seven months he remained
+shut up in the prison of the Limoeiro with two Spaniards, the sole
+survivors of the crew of the _Trinidad_.
+
+As to the _Victoria_, she left Tidor richly laden under the command
+of Juan Sebastian del Cano, who, after having been simply a pilot on
+board one of Magellan's ships, had taken the command of the
+_Concepcion_ on the 27th of April, 1521, and who succeeded to Juan
+Lopez de Carvalho, when the latter was superseded in his command for
+incapacity. The crew of the _Victoria_ was composed of only
+fifty-three Europeans and thirteen Indians. Fifty-four Europeans
+remained at Tidor on board the _Trinidad_.
+
+After passing amidst the islands of Caioan, Laigoma, Sico, Giofi,
+Cafi, Laboan, Toliman, Batchian, Mata, and Batu, the _Victoria_ left
+this latter island to the west, and steering west-south-west,
+stopped during the night at the island of Xulla or Zulla. At thirty
+miles from thence the Spaniards anchored at Booro, (the Boero of
+Bougainville), where the ship was revictualled. They stopped 105
+miles further on, at Banda, where mace and nutmegs are found, then
+at Solor, where a great trade in white sandal-wood is carried on.
+They spent a fortnight there to repair their ship, which had
+suffered much, and there they laid in an ample provision of wax and
+pepper; then they anchored at Timor, where they could only obtain
+provisions by retaining by stratagem the chief of the village and
+his son, who had come on board the ship. This island was frequented
+by junks from Luzon, and by the "praos," from Malacca and Java,
+which traded largely there in sandal-wood and pepper. A little
+further on the Spaniards touched at Java, where, as it appears,
+_suttee_ was practised at this time, as it has been in India until
+quite recently.
+
+Among the stories which Pigafetta relates, without entirely
+believing them, is one which is most curious. It concerns a gigantic
+bird the Epyornis, of which the bones and the enormous eggs were
+discovered in Madagascar about the year 1850. It is an instance
+proving the caution needed before rejecting as fictitious many
+apparently fabulous legends, but which on examination may prove to
+possess a substratum of truth. "To the north of Greater Java," says
+Pigafetta, "in the gulf of China, there is a very large tree called
+_campanganghi_ inhabited by certain birds called _garula_, which are
+so large and strong that they can bear away a buffalo and even an
+elephant, and carry it as they fly to the place where the tree
+_puzathaer_ is." This legend has been current ever since the ninth
+century, among the Persians and Arabs, and this bird plays a
+wonderful part in Arabian tales under the name of the _roc_. It is
+not surprising, therefore, that Pigafetta found an analogous
+tradition among the Malays.
+
+After leaving greater Java, the _Victoria_ rounded the peninsula of
+Malacca, which had been subjugated to Portugal by the great
+Albuquerque ten years before. In the immediate neighbourhood are
+Siam and Cambodia, and Tchiampa, where rhubarb grows. This substance
+is discovered in the following manner. "A company of from twenty to
+five-and-twenty men go into the wood, where they pass the night in
+the trees, to protect themselves from lions (note here, that there
+are no lions in this country), and other ferocious beasts, and also
+that they may better perceive the odour of the rhubarb, which the
+wind wafts towards them. In the morning they go towards the place
+whence came the odour, and search there for the rhubarb until they
+find it. Rhubarb is the putrefied wood of a great tree, and acquires
+its odour even from its putrefaction, the best part of the tree is
+the root, nevertheless the trunk, which they call _calama_, has the
+same medicinal virtue."
+
+Decidedly it is not from Pigafetta that we should seek to acquire
+botanical knowledge; we should run a great risk of deceiving
+ourselves if we took in earnest the nonsense that the Moor told him
+from whom he drew his information. The Lombard traveller gives us
+also fantastic details about China with the greatest seriousness,
+and falls into the grave errors, which his contemporary Duarte
+Barbosa had avoided. It is to the latter we owe the information that
+the trade in _anfiam_ or opium has existed from this period. When
+once the _Victoria_ had left the shores of Malacca, Sebastian del
+Cano took great care to avoid the coast of Zanguebar, where the
+Portuguese had been established since the beginning of the century.
+He kept to the open sea as far as 42 degrees south latitude, and for
+nine weeks he was obliged to keep the sails furled, on account of
+the constant west and north-west winds, which ended in a fearful
+storm. To keep to this course required great perseverance on the
+part of the captain, with a settled desire on his part to carry his
+enterprise to a successful issue. The vessel had several leaks, and
+a number of the sailors demanded an anchorage at Mozambique, for the
+provisions which were not salted having become bad, the crew had
+only rice and water for food and drink. At last on the 6th of May,
+the Cape of Tempests was doubled and a favourable issue to the
+voyage might be hoped for. Nevertheless, many vexatious accidents
+still awaited the navigator. In two months, twenty-one men,
+Europeans and Indians, died from privations, and if on the 9th July
+they had not landed at Santiago, one of the Cape de Verd Islands,
+the whole crew would have died of hunger. As this archipelago
+belonged to Portugal, the sailors took care to say that they came
+from America, and carefully concealed the route which they had
+discovered. But one of the sailors having had the imprudence to say
+that the _Victoria_ was the only vessel of Magellan's squadron which
+had returned to Europe, the Portuguese immediately seized the crew
+of a long-boat, and prepared to attack the Spanish vessel. However,
+Del Cano on board his vessel was watching all the movements of the
+Portuguese, and suspecting, by the preparations which he saw, that
+there was an intention of seizing the _Victoria_, he set sail,
+leaving thirteen men of his crew in the hands of the Portuguese.
+Maximilian Transylvain assigns a different motive from the one given
+by Pigafetta, for the anchorage at the Cape de Verd Islands. He
+asserts that the fatigued state of the crew, who were reduced by
+privations, and who in spite of everything had not ceased to work
+the pumps, had decided the captain to stop and buy some slaves to
+aid them in this work. Having no money the Spaniards would have paid
+with some of their spices, which would have opened the eyes of the
+Portuguese.
+
+"To see if our journals were correctly kept," says Pigafetta, "we
+inquired on shore what day of the week it was. They replied that it
+was Thursday, which surprised us, because according to our journals
+it was as yet only Wednesday. We could not be persuaded that we had
+made the mistake of a day; I was more astonished myself than the
+others were, because having always been sufficiently well to keep my
+journal, I had uninterruptedly marked the days of the week, and the
+course of the months. We learnt afterwards, that there was no error
+in our calculation, for having always travelled towards the west,
+following the course of the sun, and having returned to the same
+point, we must have gained twenty-four hours upon those who had
+remained stationary; one has only need of reflection to be convinced
+of this fact."
+
+Sebastian del Cano rapidly made the coast of Africa, and on the 6th
+of September entered the Bay of San Lucar de Barrameda, with a crew
+of seventeen men, almost all of whom were ill. Two days later he
+anchored before the mole at Seville, after having accomplished a
+complete circuit of the world.
+
+As soon as he arrived, Sebastian del Cano went to Valladolid, where
+the court was, and received from Charles V. the welcome which was
+merited after so many difficulties had been courageously overcome.
+The bold mariner received permission to take as his armorial
+bearings, a globe with this motto, _Primus circumdedisti me_, and he
+also received a pension of 500 ducats.
+
+The rich freight of the _Victoria_, decided the Emperor to send a
+second fleet to the Moluccas. The supreme command of it was not,
+however, given to Sebastian del Cano; it was reserved for the
+commander Garcia de Loaisa, whose only claim to it was his grand
+name. However, after the death of the chief of the expedition, which
+happened as soon as the fleet had passed the Strait of Magellan, Del
+Cano found himself invested with the command, but he did not hold it
+long, for he died six days afterwards. As for the ship _Victoria_,
+she was long preserved in the port of Seville, but in spite of all
+the care that was taken of her, she at length fell to pieces from
+old age.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+THE POLAR EXPEDITIONS AND THE SEARCH FOR THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE.
+
+I.
+
+The Northmen--Eric the Red--The Zenos--John Cabot--Cortereal--
+Sebastian Cabot--Willoughby--Chancellor.
+
+
+Pytheas had opened up the road to the north to the Scandinavians by
+discovering Iceland (the famous Thule) and the _Cronian_ Ocean, of
+which the mud, the shallow-water, and the ice render the navigation
+dangerous, and where the nights are as light as twilight. The
+traditions of the voyages undertaken by the ancients to the Orkneys,
+the Faröe Islands, and even to Iceland, were treasured up among the
+Irish monks, who were learned men, and themselves bold mariners, as
+their successive establishments in these archipelagos clearly prove.
+They were also the pilots of the Northmen, a name given generally to
+the Scandinavian pirates, both Danish and Norwegian, who rendered
+themselves so formidable to the whole of Europe during the Middle
+Ages. But if all the information that we owe to the ancients, both
+Greeks and Romans, with regard to these hyperborean countries be
+extremely vague and so to speak fabulous, it is not so with that
+which concerns the adventurous enterprises of the "Men of the
+North." The Sagas, as the Icelandic and Danish songs are called, are
+extremely precise, and the numerous data which we owe to them are
+daily confirmed by the archæological discoveries made in America,
+Greenland, Iceland, Norway, and Denmark. This is a source of
+valuable information which was long unknown and unexplored, and of
+which we owe the revelation to the learned Dane, C. C. Rafn, who has
+furnished us with authentic facts of the greatest interest bearing
+on the pre-Columbian discovery of America.
+
+Norway was poor and encumbered with population. Hence arose the
+necessity for a permanent emigration, which should allow a
+considerable portion of the inhabitants to seek in more favoured
+regions the nourishment which a frozen soil denied them. When they
+had found some country rich enough to yield them an abundant spoil,
+they then returned to their own land, and set out the following
+spring accompanied by all those who could be enticed either by the
+love of lucre, the desire for an easy life, or by the thirst for
+strife. Intrepid hunters and fishermen, accustomed to a dangerous
+navigation between the continent and the mass of islands which
+border it and appear to defend it against the assaults of the ocean,
+and across the narrow, deep _fiords_, which seem as though they were
+cut into the soil itself by some gigantic sword, they set out in
+those oak vessels, the sight of which made the people tremble who
+lived on the shores of the North Sea and British Channel. Sometimes
+decked, these vessels, long or short, large or small, were usually
+terminated in front by a spur of enormous size, above which the prow
+sometimes rose to a great height, taking the form of an _S_. The
+_hällristningar_, for so they call the graphic representations so
+often met with on the rocks of Sweden and Norway, enable us to
+picture to ourselves these swift vessels, which could carry a
+considerable crew. Such was the _Long-serpent_ of Olaf Tryggvason,
+which had thirty-two benches of rowers and held ninety men, Canute's
+vessel, which carried sixty, and the two vessels of Olaf the Saint,
+which carried sometimes 200 men. The Sea-kings, as they often called
+these adventurers, lived on the ocean, never settling on shore,
+passing from the pillage of a castle to the burning of an abbey,
+devastating the coasts of France, ascending rivers, especially the
+Seine, as far as Paris, sailing over the Mediterranean as far as
+Constantinople, establishing themselves later in Sicily, and leaving
+traces of their incursions or their sojourn in all the regions of
+the known world.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Ships.]
+
+Piracy, far from being, as at the present day, an act falling under
+the ban of the law, was not only encouraged in that barbarous or
+half-civilized society, but was celebrated in the songs of the
+_Skalds_, who reserved their most enthusiastic eulogies for
+celebrating chivalrous struggles, adventurous privateering, and all
+exhibitions of strength. From the eighth century, these formidable
+sea-rovers frequented the groups of the Orkney, the Hebrides, the
+Shetland, and Faröe Islands, where they met with the Irish monks,
+who had settled themselves there nearly a century earlier, to
+instruct the idolatrous population.
+
+In 861 a Norwegian pirate, named Naddod, was carried by a storm
+towards an island covered with snow, which he named Snoland (land of
+snow), a name changed later to that of Iceland (land of ice). There
+again the Northmen found the Irish monks under the name of Papis, in
+the cantons of Papeya and Papili.
+
+Ingolf installed himself some years afterwards in the country, and
+founded Reijkiavik. In 885 the triumph of Harold Haarfager, who had
+just subjugated the whole of Norway by force of arms, brought a
+considerable number of malcontents to Iceland. They established
+there the republican form of government, which had just been
+overthrown in their own country, and which subsisted till 1261, the
+epoch when Iceland passed under the dominion of the kings of Norway.
+
+When established in Iceland, these bold fellows, lovers of adventure
+and of long hunts in pursuit of seals and walrus, retained their
+wandering habits and pursued their bold plans in the west, where
+only three years after the arrival of Ingolf, Guunbjorn discovered
+the snowy peaks of the mountains of Greenland. Five years later,
+Eric the Red, banished from Iceland for murder, rediscovered the
+land in latitude 64 degrees north, of which Guunbjorn had caught a
+glimpse. The sterility of this ice-bound coast made him decide to
+seek a milder climate with a more open country, and one producing
+more game, in the south. So he rounded Cape Farewell at the
+extremity of Greenland, established himself on the west coast, and
+built some vast dwellings for himself and his companions, of which M.
+Jorgensen has discovered the ruins. This country was worthy at that
+period of the name of Green-Land (Groenland) which the Northmen gave
+to it, but the annual and great increase of the glaciers, has
+rendered it since that epoch a land of desolation.
+
+Eric returned to Iceland to seek his friends, and in the same year
+that he returned to Brattahalida (for so he called his settlement),
+fourteen vessels laden with emigrants came to join him. It was a
+veritable exodus. These events took place in the year 1000. As
+quickly as the resources of the country allowed of it, the
+population of Greenland increased, and in 1121, Gardar, the capital
+of the country, became the seat of a bishopric, which existed until
+after the discovery of the Antilles by Christopher Columbus.
+
+In 986 Bjarn Heriulfson, who had come from Norway to Iceland to
+spend the winter with his father, learnt that the latter had joined
+Eric the Red in Greenland. Without hesitation, the young man again
+put to sea, seeking at haphazard for a country of which he did not
+even know the exact situation, and was cast by currents on coasts
+which we think must have been those of New Scotland, Newfoundland,
+and Maine. He ended, however, by reaching Greenland, where Eric, the
+powerful Norwegian _jarl_, reproached him for not having examined
+with more care countries of which he owed his knowledge to a happy
+accident of the sea.
+
+Eric had sent his son Leif to the Norwegian court, so close at this
+time was the connexion between the metropolis and the colonies. The
+king, who had been converted to Christianity, had just despatched a
+mission to Iceland charged to overthrow the worship of Odin. He
+committed to Leif's care some priests who were to instruct the
+Greenlanders; but scarcely had the young adventurer returned to his
+own country, when he left the holy men to work out the
+accomplishment of their difficult task and hearing of the discovery
+made by Bjarn, he fitted out his vessels and went to seek for the
+lands which had been only imperfectly seen. He landed first on a
+desolate and stony plain, to which he gave the name of _Helluland_,
+and which we have no hesitation in recognizing as Newfoundland, and
+afterwards on a flat sandy shore behind which rose an immense screen
+of dark forests, cheered by the songs of innumerable birds. A third
+time he put to sea and steering towards the south he arrived at the
+Bay of Rhode Island, where the mild climate and the river teeming
+with salmon induced him to settle, and where he constructed vast
+buildings of planks, which he called _Leifsbudir_ (Leif's house).
+Then he sent some of his companions to explore the country, and they
+returned with the good news that the wild vine grows in the country,
+to which it owes the name of _Vinland_. In the spring of the year
+1001, Leif, having laded his ship with skins, grapes, wood, and
+other productions of the country, set out for Greenland; he had made
+the valuable observation that the shortest day in _Vinland_ lasted
+nine hours, which places the site of Leifsbudir at 41 degrees 24
+minutes 10 seconds. This fortunate voyage and the salvage of a
+Norwegian vessel carrying fifteen men, gained for Leif the surname
+of the Fortunate.
+
+This expedition made a great stir, and the account of the wonders of
+the country in which Leif had settled, induced his brother Thorvald,
+to set out with thirty men. After passing the winter at Leifsbudir,
+Thorvald explored the coasts to the south, returning in the autumn
+to Vinland, and in the following year 1004, he sailed along the
+coast to the north of Leifsbudir. During this return voyage, the
+Northmen met with the Esquimaux for the first time, and without any
+provocation, slaughtered them without mercy. The following night
+they found themselves all at once surrounded by a numerous flotilla
+of _Kayacs_, from which came a cloud of arrows. Thorvald alone, the
+chief of the expedition, was mortally wounded; he was buried by his
+companions on a promontory, to which they gave the name of the
+promontory of the Cross.
+
+Now, in the Gulf of Boston in the eighteenth century, a tomb of
+masonry was discovered, in which, with the bones, was found a
+sword-hilt of iron. The Indians not being acquainted with this metal,
+it could not be one of their skeletons; it was not either, the
+remains of one of the Europeans who had landed after the fifteenth
+century, for their swords had not this very characteristic form.
+This tomb has been thought to be that of a Scandinavian, and we
+venture to say, that of Thorvald, son of Eric the Red.
+
+In the spring of 1007, three vessels carrying 160 men and some
+cattle, left Eriksfjord; the object in view was the foundation of a
+permanent colony. The emigrants after sighting Helluland, Markland,
+and Vinland, landed in an island, upon which they constructed some
+barracks and began the work of cultivation. But they must either
+have laid their plans badly, or have been wanting in foresight, for
+the winter found them without provisions, and they suffered cruelly
+from hunger. They had, however, the good sense to regain the
+continent, where in comparative ease, they could await the end of
+the winter.
+
+At the beginning of 1008, they set out to seek for Leifsbudir, and
+settled themselves at Mount-Hope Bay, on the opposite shore to the
+old settlement of Leif. There, for the first time, some intercourse
+was held with the natives, called _Skrellings_ in the sagas, and
+whom, from the manner in which they are portrayed, it is easy to
+recognize as Esquimaux. The first meeting was peaceable, and barter
+was carried on with them until the day when the desire of the
+Esquimaux to acquire iron hatchets, always prudently refused them by
+the Northmen, drove them to acts of aggression, which decided the
+new-comers, after three years of residence, to return to their own
+country, which they did without leaving behind them any lasting
+trace of their stay in the country.
+
+It will be easily understood that we cannot give any detailed
+account of all the expeditions, which set out from Greenland, and
+succeeded each other on the coasts of Labrador and the United States.
+Those of our readers who wish for circumstantial details, should
+refer to M. Gabriel Gravier's interesting publication, the most
+complete work on the subject, and from which we have borrowed all
+that relates to the Norman expeditions.
+
+The same year as Erik the Red landed in Greenland (983), a certain
+Hari Marson, being driven out of the ordinary course by storms, was
+cast upon the shores of a country known by the name of "White man's
+land," which extended according to Rafn from Chesapeake Bay to
+Florida.
+
+What is the meaning of this name "White man's land"? Had some
+compatriots of Marson's already settled there? There is some reason
+to suppose so even from the words used in the chronicle. We can
+understand how interesting it would be, to be able to determine the
+nationality of these first colonists. However, the Sagas have not as
+yet revealed all their secrets. There are probably, some of them
+still unknown, and as those which have been successively discovered,
+have confirmed facts already admitted, there is every reason to hope
+that our knowledge of Icelandic navigation may become more precise.
+
+Another legend, of which great part is mere romance, but which
+nevertheless, contains a foundation of truth, relates that a certain
+Bjorn, who was obliged to quit Iceland in consequence of an
+unfortunate passion, took refuge in the countries beyond Vinland,
+where in 1027, he was found by some of his countrymen.
+
+In 1051, during another expedition, an Icelandic woman was killed by
+some _Skrellings_, and in 1867, a tomb was exhumed, bearing a
+_runic_ inscription, and containing bones, and some articles of the
+toilet, which are now preserved in the museum at Washington. This
+discovery was made at the exact spot indicated in the Saga which
+related these events, and which was not itself discovered until 1863.
+
+But the Northmen, established in Iceland and Greenland, were not the
+only people who frequented the coast of America about the year 1000,
+which is proved by the name of "Great Ireland," which was given to
+White man's land. As the history of Madoc-op-Owen proves, the Irish
+and Welsh founded colonies there, regarding which we have but little
+information, but vague and uncertain as it is, MM. d'Avezac and
+Gaffarel agree in recognizing its probability.
+
+Having now said a few words upon the travels and settlements of the
+Northmen in Labrador, Vinland, and the more southern countries, we
+must return to the north. The colonies first founded in the
+neighbourhood of Cape Farewell, had not been slow in stretching
+along the western coast, which at this period was infinitely less
+desolate than it is at the present day, as far as northern latitudes,
+which were not again reached until our own day. Thus at this time
+they caught seals, walrus, and whales in the bay of Disco; there
+were 190 towns counted then in Westerbygd and eighty-six in
+Esterbygd, while at the present day, there are far fewer Danish
+settlements on these icy shores. These towns were probably only
+inconsiderable groups of those houses in stone and wood, of which so
+many ruins have been found from Cape Farewell, as far as Upernavik
+in about 72 degrees 50 minutes. At the same time numerous runic
+inscriptions, which have now been deciphered, have given a degree of
+absolute certainty to facts so long unknown. But how many of these
+vestiges of the past still remain to be discovered! how many of
+these valuable evidences of the bravery and spirit of enterprise of
+the Scandinavian race are for ever buried under the glaciers!
+
+[Illustration: The Glaciers of Greenland.]
+
+We have also obtained evidence that Christianity had been brought
+into America, and especially into Greenland. To this country,
+according to the instructions of Pope Gregory IV., there were
+pastoral visits made to strengthen the newly-converted Northmen in
+the faith, and to evangelize the Esquimaux and the Indian tribes.
+Besides this, M. Riant in 1865, has proved incontrovertibly that the
+Crusades were preached in Greenland in the bishopric of Gardar, as
+well as in the _islands and neighbouring lands_, and that up to 1418,
+Greenland paid to the Holy See tithes and St. Peter's pence, which
+for that year consisted of 2600 lbs. of walrus tusks.
+
+The Norwegian colonies owe their downfall and ruin to various
+causes: to the very rapid extension of the glaciers,--Hayes has
+proved that the glacier of Friar John moves at the rate of about
+thirty-three yards annually;--to the bad policy of the mother
+country, which prevented the recruiting of the colonies; to the
+black plague, which decimated the population of Greenland from 1347
+to 1351; lastly, to the depredations of the pirates, who ravaged
+these already enfeebled countries in 1418, and in whom some have
+thought they recognized certain inhabitants of the Orkney and Faröe
+Islands, of which we are now about to speak.
+
+One of the companions of William the Conqueror, named Saint-Clair or
+Sinclair, not thinking that the portion of the conquered country
+allotted to him was proportioned to his merits, went to try his luck
+in Scotland, where he was not long in rising to fortune and honours.
+In the latter half of the fourteenth century, the Orkney Islands
+passed into the hands of his descendants.
+
+About 1390, a certain Nicolo Zeno, a member of one of the most
+ancient and noble Venetian families, who had fitted out a vessel at
+his own expense, to visit England and Flanders as a matter of
+curiosity, was wrecked in the archipelago of the Orkneys whither he
+had been driven by a storm. He was about to be massacred by the
+inhabitants, when the Earl, Henry Sinclair took him under his
+protection. The history of this wreck, and the adventures and
+discoveries which followed it, published in the collection of
+Ramusio had been written by Antonio Zeno, says Clements Markham, the
+learned geographer, in his "Threshold of the Unknown Region."
+Unfortunately one of his descendants named Nicolo Zeno, born in 1515,
+when a boy, not knowing the value of these papers, tore them up,
+"but some of the letters surviving, he was able from them
+subsequently to compile the narrative as we now have it, and which
+was printed in Venice in 1558. There was also found in the palace an
+old map, rotten with age, illustrative of his voyages. Of this he
+made a copy, unluckily supplying from his own reading of the
+narrative what he thought was requisite for its illustration. By
+doing this in a blundering way, unaided by the geographical
+knowledge which enables us to see where he goes astray, he threw the
+whole of the geography which he derived from the narrative into the
+most lamentable confusion, while those parts of the map which are
+not thus sophisticated, and which are consequently original, present
+an accuracy far in advance by many generations of the geography even
+of Nicolo Zeno's time, and confirm in a notable manner the site of
+the old Greenland colony. In these facts we have not only the
+solution of all the discussions which have arisen on the subject,
+but the most indisputable proof of the authenticity of the
+narrative; for it is clear that Nicolo Zeno, junior, could not
+himself have been the ingenious concocter of a story the
+straightforward truth of which he could thus ignorantly distort upon
+the face of the map."
+
+The name of Zichmni, in which writers of the present day, and chief
+among them Mr. H. Major, who has rescued these facts from the domain
+of fable, recognize the name of Sinclair--appears to be in fact only
+applicable to this earl of the Orkneys.
+
+At this time the seas of the north of Europe were infected by
+Scandinavian pirates. Sinclair, who had recognized in Zeno a clever
+mariner, attached him to himself, and with him conquered the country
+of Frisland, the haunt of pirates, who ravaged all the north of
+Scotland. In the maps at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of
+the sixteenth century this name is applied to the archipelago of the
+Faröe Islands, a reasonable indication, for Buache has recognized in
+the present names of the harbours and islands of this archipelago a
+considerable number of those given by Zeno; finally the facts which
+we owe to the Venetian navigator about the waters,--abounding in
+fish and dangerous from shallows,--which divide this archipelago,
+are still true at the present day.
+
+Satisfied with his position, Zeno wrote to his brother Antonio to
+come and join him. While Sinclair was conquering the Faröe Islands,
+the Norwegian pirates desolated the Shetland Islands, then called
+Eastland. Nicolo set sail to give them battle, but was himself
+obliged to fly before their fleet, much more numerous than his own,
+and to take refuge on a small island on the coast of Iceland.
+
+After wintering in this place Zeno must have landed the following
+year on the eastern coast of Greenland at 69 degrees north latitude,
+in a place "where was a monastery of the order of preaching friars,
+and a church dedicated to St. Thomas. The cells were warmed by a
+natural spring of hot water, which the monks used to prepare their
+food and to bake their bread. The monks had also gardens covered
+over in the winter season, and warmed by the same means, so that
+they were able to produce flowers, fruits, and herbs as well as if
+they had lived in a mild climate." There would seem to be some
+confirmation of these narratives in the fact that between the years
+1828-1830 a captain of the Danish navy met with a population of 600
+individuals at 69 degrees north latitude, of a purely European type.
+
+But these adventurous travels in countries of which the climate was
+so different from that of Venice, proved fatal to Zeno, who died a
+short time after his return to Frisland.
+
+An old sailor, who had returned with the Venetian, and who said he
+had been for many long years a prisoner in the countries of the
+extreme west, gave to Sinclair such precise and tempting details of
+the fertility and extent of these regions, that the latter resolved
+to attempt their conquest with Antonio Zeno who had rejoined his
+brother. But the inhabitants showed themselves everywhere so hostile,
+and opposed such resistance to the strangers landing, that Sinclair
+after a long and dangerous voyage was obliged to return to Frisland.
+
+These are all the details that have been left to us, and they make
+us deeply regret the loss of those that Antonio should have
+furnished in his letters to his father Carlo, on the subject of the
+countries which Forster and Malto-Brun have thought may be
+identified with Newfoundland.
+
+Who knows, if in his voyage to England and during his wanderings as
+far as Thule, Christopher Columbus may not have heard mentioned the
+ancient expeditions of the Northmen and the Zeni, and if this
+information may not have appeared to him a strange confirmation of
+the theories which he held, and of the ideas for whose realization
+he came to claim the protection of the King of England?
+
+From the collection of facts which have been here briefly given, it
+follows that America was known to Europeans and had been colonized
+before the time of Columbus. But in consequence of various
+circumstances, and foremost among these must be placed the rarity of
+communication between the people in the north of Europe and those in
+the south, the discoveries made by the Northmen were only vaguely
+known in Spain and Portugal. Judging by appearances, we of the
+present day know much more on this subject than did the
+fellow-countrymen and contemporaries of Columbus. If the Genoese
+mariner had been informed of the existence of some rumours, he
+classed them with the information he had collected in the Cape de
+Verd Islands and with his classical recollections of the famous
+Island of Antilia and the Atlantides of Plato. From this information,
+which came from so many different sides, the certainty awoke within
+him that the east could be reached by the western route. However it
+may be, his glory remains whole and entire; he is really the
+discoverer of America, and not those who were carried thither in
+spite of themselves by chances of wind and storm, without their
+having any intention of reaching the shores of Asia, which
+Christopher Columbus would have done, had not the way been barred by
+America.
+
+The information that we are about to give on the family of Cortereal,
+although it may be much more complete than that which can be met
+with in biographical Dictionaries, is still extremely vague.
+Nevertheless we must content ourselves with it, for up to this time
+history has not collected further details concerning this race of
+intrepid navigators.
+
+Joao Vaz Cortereal was the natural son of a gentleman named Vasco
+Annes da Costa, who had received the soubriquet of Cortereal from
+the King of Portugal, on account of the magnificence of his house
+and followers. Devoted like so many other gentlemen of this period
+to sea-faring adventure, Joao Vaz had carried off in Gallicia a
+young girl named Maria de Abarca, who became his wife. After having
+been gentleman-usher to the Infante don Fernando, he was sent by the
+king to the North Atlantic, with Alvaro Martins Homem. The two
+navigators saw an island known from this time by the name of _Terra
+dos Bacalhaos_--the land of cod-fish--which must really have been
+Newfoundland. The date of this discovery is approximately fixed by
+the fact that on their return, they landed at Terceira and finding
+the captainship vacant by the death of Jacome de Bruges, they went
+to ask for it from the Infanta Doña Brites, the widow of the Infante
+Don Fernando; she bestowed it upon them on condition that they would
+divide it between them, a fact which is confirmed by a deed of gift
+dated from Evora the 2nd of April, 1464. Though one cannot guarantee
+the authenticity of this discovery of America, it is nevertheless an
+ascertained fact that Cortereal's voyage must have been signalized
+by some extraordinary event; donations of such importance as this
+were only made to those who had rendered some great service to the
+crown.
+
+When Vaz Cortereal was settled at Terceira from 1490 to 1497, he
+caused a fine palace to be built in the town of Angra, where he
+lived with his three children. His third son, Gaspard, after having
+been in the service of King Emmanuel, when the latter was only Duke
+de Beja had felt himself attracted while still young to the
+enterprises of discovery which had rendered his father illustrious.
+By an act dated from Cintra the 12th of March, 1500, King Emmanuel
+made a gift to Gaspard Cortereal of any islands or _terra firma_
+which he might discover, and the king added this valuable
+information, that "already and at other times he had sought for them
+on his own account and at his own expense."
+
+For Gaspard Cortereal this was not his first essay. Probably, his
+researches may have been directed to the parts where his father had
+discovered the Island of Cod. At his own expense, although with the
+assistance of the king, Gaspard Cortereal fitted out two vessels at
+the commencement of the summer of 1500, and after having touched at
+Terceira, he sailed towards the north-west. His first discovery was
+of a land of which the fertile and verdant aspect seems to have
+charmed him. This was Canada. He saw there a great river bearing ice
+along with it on its course--the St. Lawrence--which some of his
+companions mistook for an arm of the sea, and to which he gave the
+name of _Rio Nevado_. "Its volume is so considerable that it is not
+probable that this country is an island, besides, it must be
+completely covered with a very thick coating of snow to produce such
+a stream of water."
+
+The houses in this country were of wood and covered with skins and
+furs. The inhabitants were unacquainted with iron, but used swords
+made of sharpened stones, and their arrows were tipped with
+fish-bones or stones. Tall and well-made, their faces and bodies
+were painted in different colours according to taste, they wore
+golden and copper bracelets, and dressed themselves in garments of
+fur. Cortereal pursued his voyage and arrived at the Cape of
+_Bacalhaos_, "fishes which are found in such great quantities upon
+this coast that they hinder the advance of the caravels." Then he
+followed the shore for a stretch of 600 miles, from 56 degrees to 60
+degrees, or even more, naming the islands, the rivers, and the gulfs
+that he met with, as is proved by _Terra do Labrador, Bahia de
+Conceiçao_, &c., and landing and holding intercourse with the
+natives. Severe cold, and a veritable river of gigantic blocks of
+ice prevented the expedition from going farther north, and it
+returned to Portugal bringing back with it fifty-seven natives. The
+very year of his return, on the 15th of May, 1501, Gaspard Cortereal,
+in pursuance of an order of the 15th of April, received provisions,
+and left Lisbon in the hope of extending the field of his
+discoveries. But from this time he is never again mentioned. Michael
+Cortereal, his brother, who was the first gentleman-usher to the
+king, then requested and obtained permission to go and seek his
+brother, and to pursue his enterprise. By an act of the 15th of
+January, 1502, a deed of gift conveyed to him the half of the terra
+firma and islands which his brother might have discovered. Setting
+out on the 10th of May of this year with three vessels, Michael
+Cortereal reached Newfoundland, where he divided his little squadron,
+so that each of the vessels might explore the coasts separately,
+while he fixed the place of rendezvous. But at the time fixed, he
+did not reappear, and the two other vessels, after waiting for him
+till the 20th of August, set out on their return to Portugal.
+
+In 1503, the king sent two caravels to try to obtain news of the two
+brothers, but the search was in vain, and they returned without
+having acquired any information. When Vasco Annes, the last of the
+brothers Cortereal, who was captain and governor of the Islands of
+St. George and Terceira, and alcaide mõr of the town of Tavilla,
+became acquainted with these sad events, he resolved to fit out a
+vessel at his own cost, and to go and search for his brothers. The
+king, however, would not allow him to go, fearing to lose the last
+of this race of good servants.
+
+Upon the maps of this period, Canada is often indicated by the name
+of Terra dos Cortereales, a name which is sometimes extended much
+further south, embracing a great part of North America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+All that concerns John and Sebastian Cabot has been until recently
+shrouded by a mist which is not even now completely dissipated,
+notwithstanding the conscientious labours of Biddle the American in
+1831, and of our compatriot M. d'Avezac; as also those of Mr.
+Nicholls the Englishman, who taking advantage of the discoveries
+made among the English, Spanish, and Venetian archives, has built up
+an imposing monument, of which some parts, however, are open to
+discussion. It is from the two last-named works that we shall draw
+the materials for this rapid sketch, but principally from Mr.
+Nicholls' book, which has this advantage over the smaller volume of
+M. d'Avezac, that it relates the whole life of Sebastian Cabot.
+
+[Illustration: Sebastian Cabot. _From an old print_.]
+
+It has been found impossible to determine with certainty either the
+name or the nationality of John Cabot, and still less to settle the
+period of his birth. John Cabota, Caboto or Cabot must have been
+born, if not in Genoa itself, as M. d'Avezac asserts, at least in
+the neighbourhood of that town, possibly at Castiglione, about the
+first quarter of the fifteenth century. Some historians have
+considered that he was an Englishman, and perhaps Mr. Nicholls from
+national considerations is inclined to adopt this opinion; at least
+this seems to be the meaning of the expressions used by him. What we
+do know without room for doubt, is that John Cabot came to London to
+occupy himself with commerce, and that he soon settled at Bristol,
+then the second town in the kingdom, in one of the suburbs which had
+received the name of Cathay, probably from the number of Venetians
+who resided there, and the trade carried on by them with the
+countries of the extreme East. It was at Bristol that Cabot's two
+youngest children were born, Sebastian and Sancho, if we may rely
+upon the following account given by the old chronicler Eden.
+"Sebastian Cabot told me that he was born at Bristol, and that at
+four years of age he went with his father to Venice, returning with
+him to England some years later; this made people imagine that he
+was born at Venice." In 1476, John Cabot was at Venice, and there on
+the 29th of March, he received letters of naturalization, which
+prove that he was not a native of this city, and that he must have
+merited the honour by some service rendered to the Republic. M.
+d'Avezac is inclined to think that he devoted himself to the study
+of cosmography and navigation, perhaps even in company with the
+celebrated Florentine, Paul Toscanelli, with whose theories upon the
+distribution of land and sea on the surface of the globe, he would
+certainly be acquainted at this time. He may also have heard mention
+made of the islands situated in the Atlantic, and known by the names
+of Antilia, the Land of the Seven Cities, or Brazil. What seems more
+certain is, that his business affairs took him to the Levant, and,
+it is said, to Mecca, and that while there he would learn from what
+country came the spices, which then constituted the most important
+branch of Venetian commerce.
+
+Whatever value we may attach to these speculative theories, it is at
+least certain that John Cabot founded an important mercantile house
+at Bristol. His son Sebastian, who in these first voyages had
+acquired an inclination for the sea, studied navigation, as far as
+it was then known, and made some excursions on the sea, to render
+himself as familiar with the practice of this art, as he already was
+with its theory. "For seven years past," says the Spanish Ambassador
+in a despatch of the 25th of July, 1498, speaking of an expedition
+commanded by Cabot, "the people of Bristol have fitted out two,
+three, or four caravels every year, to go in search of the Island of
+Brazil, and of the Seven Cities, according to the ideas of the
+Genoese." At this time the whole of Europe resounded with the fame
+of the discoveries of Columbus. "It awoke in me," says Sebastian
+Cabot, in a narrative preserved by Ramusio, "a great desire and a
+kind of ardour in my heart to do myself also something famous, and
+knowing by examining the globe, that if I sailed by the west wind I
+should reach India more rapidly, I at once made my project known to
+His Majesty, who was much satisfied with it." The king to whom Cabot
+addressed himself was the same Henry VII. who some years before had
+refused all support to Christopher Columbus. It is evident that he
+received with favour the project which John and Sebastian Cabot had
+just submitted to him; and though Sebastian, in the fragment which
+we have just quoted, attributes to himself alone all the honour of
+the project, it is not less true that his father was the promoter of
+the enterprise, as the following charter shows, which we translate
+in an abridged form.
+
+"We Henry ... permit our well-beloved Jehan Cabot, citizen of Venice,
+and Louis, Sebastian, and Sancho, his sons, under our flag and with
+five vessels of the tonnage and crew which they shall judge suitable,
+to discover at their own expense and charge ... we grant to them as
+well as to their heirs and assigns, licence to occupy, possess ...
+at the charge of, by them, upon the profits, benefits, and
+advantages, accruing from this navigation, to pay us in merchandise
+or in money the fifth part of the profit thus obtained, for each of
+their voyages, every time that they shall return to the port of
+Bristol (at which port they shall be compelled to land).... We
+promise and guarantee to them, their heirs and assigns, that they
+shall be exempt from all custom-house duties on the merchandise
+which they shall bring from the countries thus discovered.... We
+command and direct all our subjects, as well on land as on the sea,
+to render assistance to the said Jehan, and to his sons.... Given
+at ... the 5th day of March, 1495."
+
+Such was the charter that was granted to John Cabot and his sons
+upon their return from the American continent, and not as certain
+authors have pretended, anterior to this voyage. From the time that
+the news of the discovery made by Columbus had reached England, that
+is to say, probably in 1493, John and Sebastian Cabot prepared the
+expedition at their own expense, and set out at the beginning of the
+year 1494, with the idea of reaching Cathay, and finally the Indies.
+There can be no doubt upon this point, for in the Bibliothèque
+Nationale in Paris is preserved an unique copy of the map engraved
+in 1544, that is to say, in the lifetime of Sebastian Cabot, which
+mentions this voyage, and the precise and exact date of the
+discovery of Cape Breton.
+
+It is probable that we must attribute to the intrigues of the
+Spanish Ambassador, the delay which occurred in Cabot's expedition,
+for the whole of the year 1496 passed without the voyage being
+accomplished.
+
+The following year he set out at the beginning of summer. After
+having again sighted the _Terra Bona-vista_, he followed the coast,
+and was not long in perceiving to his great disappointment that it
+trended towards the north. "Then, sailing along it to make sure if I
+could not find some passage, I could not perceive any, and having
+advanced as far as 56 degrees, and seeing that at this point the
+land turned towards the east, I despaired of finding any passage,
+and I put about to examine the coast in this direction towards the
+equinoctial line, always with the same object of finding a passage
+to the Indies, and in the end, I reached the country now called
+Florida, where as provisions were beginning to run short, I resolved
+to return to England." This narrative, of which we have given the
+commencement above, was related by Cabot to Fracastor, forty or
+fifty years after the event. Also, is it not astonishing that Cabot
+mixes up in it two perfectly distinct voyages, that of 1494, and
+that of 1497? Let us add some reflections on this narrative. The
+first land seen was, without doubt, the North Cape, the northern
+extremity of the island of Cape Breton, and the island which is
+opposite to it is that of Prince Edward, long known by the name of
+St. John's Island. Cabot, probably penetrated into the estuary of
+the St. Lawrence, which he took for an arm of the sea, near to the
+place where Quebec now stands, and coasted along the northern shore
+of the gulf, so that he did not see the coast of Labrador stretching
+away in the east. He took Newfoundland for an archipelago, and
+continued his course to the south, not doubtless, as far as Florida
+as he states himself, the time occupied by the voyage making it
+impossible that he can have descended so low, but as far as
+Chesapeake Bay. These were the countries which the Spaniards
+afterwards called "Terra de Estevam Gomez."
+
+On the 3rd of February, 1498, King Henry VII. signed at Westminster
+some new letters patent. He empowered John Cabot or his
+representative,--being duly authorized--to take in English ports six
+vessels of 200 tons' burden, and to procure all that should be
+required for their equipment, at the same price as if it were for
+the crown. He was allowed to take on board such master-mariners,
+pages, and other subjects as might of their own accord wish to go,
+and pass with him to the recently discovered land and islands. John
+Cabot bore the expense of the equipment of two vessels, and three
+others were fitted out at the cost of the merchants of Bristol.
+
+In all probability it was death--a sudden and unexpected
+death--which prevented John Cabot from taking the command of this
+expedition. His son Sebastian then assumed the direction of the
+fleet, which carried 300 men and provisions for a year. After having
+sighted land at 45 degrees, Sebastian Cabot followed the coast as
+far as 58 degrees, perhaps even higher, but then it became so cold,
+and although it was the month of July, there was so much floating
+ice about, that, it would have been impossible to go further
+northwards. The days were very long, and the nights excessively
+light, an interesting detail by which to fix the latitude reached,
+for we know that below the 60th parallel of latitude the longest
+days are eighteen hours. These various reasons made Sebastian Cabot
+decide to put about, and he touched at the Bacalhaos Islands, of
+which the inhabitants, who were clothed in the skins of animals,
+were armed with bow and arrows, lance, javelin, and wooden sword.
+The navigators here caught a great number of cod-fish; they were
+even so numerous, says an old narrative, that they hindered ships
+from advancing. After having sailed along the coast of America as
+far as 38 degrees, Cabot set out for England, where he arrived at
+the beginning of autumn. This voyage had indeed a threefold object,
+that of discovery, commerce, and colonization, as is shown by the
+number of vessels which took part in it and the strength of the
+crews. Nevertheless it does not appear that Cabot landed any one, or
+that he made any attempts at forming a settlement, either in
+Labrador, or in Hudson's Bay--which he was destined to explore more
+completely in 1517, in the reign of Henry VIII.--or even to the
+south of the Bacalhaos, known by the general name of Newfoundland.
+At the close of this expedition, which was almost entirely
+unproductive, we lose sight of Sebastian Cabot, if not completely,
+at least so as to be insufficiently informed about his deeds and
+voyages until 1517. The traveller Hojeda, whose various enterprises
+we have related above, had left Spain in the month of May, 1499. We
+know that in this voyage he met with an Englishman at Caquibaco, on
+the coast of America. Can this have been Cabot? Nothing has come to
+light to enable us to settle this point; but we may believe that
+Cabot did not remain idle, and that he would be likely to undertake
+some fresh expedition: what we do know is, that in spite of the
+solemn engagements that he had made with Cabot, the King of England
+granted certain privileges of trading in the countries which he had
+discovered, to the Portuguese and to the merchants of Bristol. This
+ungenerous manner of recognizing his services wounded the navigator,
+and decided him to accept the offers which had been made to him on
+different occasions, to enter the Spanish service. From the death of
+Vespucius, which happened in 1512, Cabot was the navigator held in
+most renown. To attach him to himself, Ferdinand wrote on the 13th
+of September, 1512, to Lord Willoughby, commander in chief of the
+troops which had been transported to Italy, to treat with the
+Venetian navigator.
+
+[Illustration: Discoveries of John and Sebastian Cabot.]
+
+As soon as he arrived in Castille, Cabot received the rank of
+captain, by an edict dated the 20th of October, 1512, with a salary
+of 5000 maravédis. Seville was fixed upon for his residence, until
+an opportunity might arise of turning his talents and experience to
+account. There was a plan on foot for his taking the command of a
+very important expedition, when Ferdinand the Catholic died, on the
+23rd of January, 1516. Cabot returned at once to England, having
+probably obtained leave of absence. Eden tells us that the following
+year Cabot was appointed with Sir Thomas Pert to the command of a
+fleet which was to reach China by the north-west. On the 11th of
+June, he was in Hudson's Bay at 67-1/2 degrees of latitude; the sea
+free from ice spread itself out before him so far that he reckoned
+upon success in his enterprise, when the faintheartedness of his
+companion, together with the cowardice and mutinous spirit of the
+crews, who refused to go any further, obliged him to return to
+England. In his _Theatrum orbis terrarum_, Ortelius traces the shape
+of Hudson's Bay as it really is; he even indicates at its northern
+extremity a strait leading northwards. How can the geographer have
+attained to such exactness? "Who," says Mr. Nicholls, "can have
+given him the information set forth in his map, if not Cabot?"
+
+On his return to England, Cabot found the country ravaged by a
+horrible plague, which put a stop even to commercial transactions.
+Soon, either because the time of his leave had expired, or that he
+wished to escape from the pestilence, or that he was recalled to
+Spain, the Venetian navigator returned to that country. In 1518, on
+the 5th of February, Cabot was made pilot-major, with a salary which,
+added to that which he already had, made a total of 125,000
+maravédis, say, 300 ducats. He did not actually exercise the
+functions of his office till Charles V. returned from England. His
+principal duty consisted in examining pilots, who were not allowed
+to go to the Indies until after having passed this examination.
+
+This epoch was by no means favourable to great maritime expeditions.
+The struggle between France and Spain absorbed all the resources
+both in men and money, of these two countries--Cabot too, who seems
+to have adopted science for his fatherland, much more than any
+particular country, made some overtures to Contarini, the Ambassador
+of Venice, to take service on board the fleets of the Republic; but
+when the favourable answer of the Council of Ten arrived, he had
+other projects in his head, and did not carry his attempt any
+further.
+
+[Illustration: Cabot presides over a Conference of Cosmographers.]
+
+In the month of April, 1524, Cabot presided at a conference of
+mariners and cosmographers, which met at Badajoz, to discuss the
+question whether the Moluccas belonged, according to the celebrated
+treaty of Tordesillas, to Spain or Portugal. On the 31st of May, it
+was decided that the Moluccas were within the Spanish waters, by 20
+degrees. Perhaps this resolution of the junta of which Cabot was
+president, and which again placed in the hands of Spain a great part
+of the spice trade, was not without its influence upon the
+resolutions of the council of the Indies. However this may be, in
+the month of September of the same year Cabot was authorized to take
+the command of three vessels of 100 tons, and a small caravel,
+carrying together 150 men, with the title of captain-general.
+
+The declared aim of this voyage was to pass through the Strait of
+Magellan, carefully to explore the western coast of America, and to
+reach the Moluccas, where they would take in on their return a cargo
+of spices. The month of August, 1525, had been fixed upon as the
+date of departure, but the intrigues of Portugal succeeded in
+delaying it until April, 1526.
+
+Different circumstances seem from this moment to have augured ill
+for the voyage. Cabot had only a nominal authority, and the
+association of merchants who had defrayed the expenses of the
+equipment not accepting him willingly as chief, had found means to
+oppose all the plans of the Venetian sailor. Thus it was that in
+place of the man whom he had appointed as second in command, another
+was imposed upon him, and that instructions destined to be unsealed
+when at sea were delivered to each captain. They contained this
+absurd arrangement, that in case of the death of the captain-general,
+eleven individuals were to succeed him each in his turn. Was not
+this an encouragement given to assassination?
+
+Scarcely was the fleet out of sight of land, when discontent
+appeared. The rumour spread that the captain-general was not equal
+to his task; then as they saw that these calumnies did not affect
+him, they pretended that the flotilla was already short of
+provisions. The mutiny broke out as soon as land was reached, but
+Cabot was not the man to allow himself to be annihilated by it; he
+had suffered too much from Sir Thomas Pert's cowardice to bear such
+an insult. In order to nip the evil in the bud, he had the mutinous
+captains seized, and notwithstanding their reputation and the
+brilliancy of their past services, he made them get into a boat, and
+abandoned them on the shore. Four months afterwards they had the
+good luck to be picked up by a Portuguese expedition, which seems to
+have had orders to thwart the plans of Cabot.
+
+The Venetian navigator then penetrated into the Rio de la Plata, the
+exploration of which had been commenced by his predecessor the
+Pilot-major de Solis. The expedition was not then composed of more
+than two vessels, one having been lost during the voyage. Cabot
+sailed up the Argent River, and discovered an island which he called
+Francis Gabriel, and upon which he built the fort of San Salvador,
+entrusting the command of it to Antonio de Grajeda. Cabot had the
+keel removed from one of his caravels, and with it, being towed by
+his small boats, entered the Parana, built a new fort at the
+confluence of the Carcarama and Terceiro, and after having thus
+secured his line of retreat he pursued the course of these rivers
+farther into the interior. Arriving at the confluence of the Parana
+and Paraguay, he followed the second, the direction of which agreed
+best with his project of reaching the region of the west where
+silver was to be obtained. But it was not long before the aspect of
+the country changed, and the attitude of the inhabitants altered
+also. Until now, they had collected in crowds, astonished at the
+sight of the vessels; but upon the cultivated shores of the Paraguay
+they courageously opposed the strangers' landing, and three
+Spaniards having tried to knock down the fruit from a palm-tree, a
+struggle took place, in which 300 natives lost their lives. This
+victory had disabled twenty-five Spaniards. It was too much for
+Cabot, who rapidly removed his wounded to the fort San Spirito and
+retired, still presenting a bold front to the enemy.
+
+Cabot had already sent two of his companions to the Emperor, to
+acquaint him with the attempt at revolt of the captains, to explain
+to him the motives which obliged him to modify the course marked out
+for his voyage, and to request aid from him, both in men and
+provisions. The answer arrived at last. The Emperor approved of what
+Cabot had done, and ordered him to colonize the country in which he
+had just made a settlement, but did not send him either one man or a
+single maravédi. Cabot tried to procure the resources which he
+needed in the country, and caused some attempts at cultivation to be
+commenced. At the same time, to keep his troops in exercise, he
+reduced the neighbouring nations to obedience, had some forts built,
+and again sailing up the Paraguay he reached Potosi, and the
+water-courses of the Andes which feed the basin of the Atlantic. At
+last he prepared to enter Peru, from whence came the gold and silver
+which he had seen in the possession of the natives; but it needed
+more troops than he could muster, to attempt the conquest of this
+vast region. The Emperor, however, was quite unable to send him any.
+His European wars absorbed all his resources, the Cortez refused to
+vote new subsidies and the Moluccas had just been pledged to
+Portugal. In this state of affairs, after having occupied the
+country for five years, and waited all this time for the assistance
+which never came, Cabot decided to evacuate a part of his
+settlements, and he returned with some of his people to Spain. The
+rest, amounting to 120, men who were left to guard the fort of San
+Spirito, after many vicissitudes which cannot be related here,
+perished by the hands of the Indians, or were obliged to take refuge
+in the Portuguese settlements on the coast of Brazil. It is to the
+horses imported by Cabot that is due the wonderful race of wild
+horses which may be seen in large troops on the pampas of La Plata
+at the present day; this was the only result of the expedition.
+
+Some time after his return to Spain, Cabot resigned his office, and
+went to Bristol, where he settled about 1548, that is to say at the
+beginning of the reign of Edward VI. What were the motives of this
+fresh change? Was Cabot discontented at having been left to his own
+resources during his expedition? Was he hurt at the manner in which
+his services were recompensed? It is impossible to say. But Charles
+V. took advantage of Cabot's departure to deprive him of his pension,
+which Edward VI. hastened to replace, causing him to receive 250
+marks annually, about 116_l._ and a fraction, which was a
+considerable sum for that period.
+
+The post which Cabot occupied in England seems to be best expressed
+by the name of Intendant of the Navy; under the authority of the
+king and council, he appears to have superintended all maritime
+affairs. He issues licences, he examines pilots, he frames
+instructions, he draws maps, a varied and complicated function for
+which he possessed the rare gift of both practical and theoretical
+knowledge. At the same time he instructed the young king in
+cosmography, explained to him the variation of the compass, and was
+successful in interesting him in nautical matters, and in the glory
+resulting from maritime discoveries. It was a high and almost unique
+situation. Cabot used it to put into execution a project which he
+had long cherished.
+
+At this period, we may almost say there was no trade in England. All
+commerce was in the hands of the Hanseatic towns, Antwerp, Hamburg,
+Bremen, &c. These companies of merchants had, on various occasions,
+obtained considerable reductions in import duties, and had ended by
+monopolizing the English trade. Cabot held that Englishmen possessed
+as good qualifications as these merchants for becoming manufacturers,
+and that the already powerful navy which England possessed might
+assist marvellously in the export of the products of the soil and of
+the manufactures. What was the use of having recourse to strangers
+when people could do their own business? If they had been unable up
+to this time to reach Cathay and India by the north-west, might they
+not endeavour to reach it by the north-east. And if they did not
+succeed, would they not find in this direction more commercial, and
+more civilized people than the miserable Esquimaux on the coast of
+Labrador and Newfoundland?
+
+Cabot assembled some leading London merchants, laid his projects
+before them, and formed them into an association, of which on the
+14th of December, 1551, he was named president for life. At the same
+time he exerted himself most vigorously with the king, and having
+made him understand the wrong which the monopoly enjoyed by
+strangers did to his own subjects, he obtained its abolition on the
+23rd of February, 1551, and inaugurated the practice of free trade.
+
+The Association of English Merchants, under the name of "Merchant
+Adventurers," hastened to have some vessels built, adapted to the
+difficulties to be encountered in the navigation of the Arctic
+regions. The first improvement which the English marine owed to
+Cabot was the sheathing of the keels, which he had seen done in
+Spain, but which had not hitherto been practised in England.
+
+A flotilla of three vessels was assembled at Deptford. They were the
+_Buona-Speranza_, of which the command was given to Sir Hugh
+Willoughby, a brave gentleman who had earned a high reputation in
+war; the _Buona-Confidencia_, Captain Cornil Durforth; and the
+_Bonaventure_, Captain Richard Chancellor, a clever sailor, and a
+particular friend of Cabot's; he received the title of pilot-major.
+The sailing-master of the _Bonaventure_ was Stephen Burrough, an
+accomplished mariner, who was destined to make numerous voyages in
+the North seas, and later to become pilot in chief for England.
+
+Although age and his important duties prevented Cabot from placing
+himself at the head of the expedition, he wished at least, to
+preside over all the details of the equipment. He himself wrote out
+the instructions, which have been preserved, and which prove the
+prudence and skill of this distinguished navigator. He there
+recommends the use of the log-line, an instrument intended to
+measure the speed of the vessel, and he desires that the journal of
+the events happening at sea may be kept with regularity, and that
+all information as to the character, manners, habits, and resources
+of the people visited, and the productions of the country, may be
+recorded in writing. The sailors were to offer no violence to the
+natives, but to act towards them with courtesy. All blasphemy and
+swearing was to be punished with severity, and also drunkenness. The
+religious exercises are prescribed, prayers are to be said morning
+and evening, and the Holy Scriptures are to be read once in the day.
+Cabot ends by recommending union and concord above all, and reminds
+the captains of the greatness of their enterprise, and the honour
+which they might hope to gain; finally he promises them to add his
+prayers to theirs for the success of their common work.
+
+The squadron set sail on the 20th of May, 1558, in presence of the
+court assembled at Greenwich, amid an immense concourse of people,
+after fêtes and rejoicings, at which the king, who was ill, could
+not be present. Near the Loffoden Islands, on the coast of Norway at
+the bearing of Wardhous, the squadron was separated from the
+_Bonaventure_. Carried away by the storm, Willoughby's two vessels
+touched, without doubt, at Nova Zembla, and were forced by the ice
+to return southwards. On the 18th of September, they entered the
+port formed by the mouth of the River Arzina in East Lapland. Some
+time afterwards, the _Buona-Confidencia_, separated from Willoughby
+by a fresh tempest, returned to England. As to the latter, some
+Russian fishermen found his vessel the following year, in the midst
+of the ice. The whole crew had died of cold. This, at least, is what
+we are led to suppose from the journal kept by the unfortunate
+Willoughby up to the month of January, 1554.
+
+Chancellor, after having waited in vain for his two consorts at the
+rendezvous which had been agreed upon in case of separation, thought
+they must have outsailed him, and rounding the North Cape, he
+entered a vast gulf which was none other than the White Sea; he then
+landed at the mouth of the Dwina, near the monastery of St. Nicholas,
+on the spot upon which the town of Archangel was soon to stand. The
+inhabitants of these desolate places told him that the country was
+under the dominion of the Grand Duke of Russia. Chancellor resolved
+at once to go to Moscow, in spite of the enormous distance which
+separated him from it. The Czar then on the throne was Ivan IV.
+Wassiliewitch, called the Terrible. For some time before this, the
+Russians had shaken off the Tartar yoke, and Ivan had united all the
+petty rival principalities in one body politic, of which the power
+was already becoming considerable. The situation of Russia,
+exclusively continental, far from any frequented sea, isolated from
+the rest of Europe, of which it did not yet form part, so much were
+its habits and manners still Asiatic, promised success to Chancellor.
+
+[Illustration: Chancellor received by the Czar.]
+
+The Czar, who up to this time, had not been able to procure European
+merchandise, except by way of Poland, and who wished to gain access
+to the German seas, saw with pleasure the attempts of the English to
+establish a trade which would be beneficial to both parties. He not
+only received Chancellor courteously, but he made him most
+advantageous offers, granted him great privileges and encouraged him,
+by the kindness of his reception, to repeat his voyage. Chancellor
+sold his merchandise to great advantage, and after taking on board
+another cargo of furs, of seal and whale oils, copper, and other
+products, returned to England, carrying a letter from the Czar. The
+advantages which the Company of Merchant Adventurers had derived
+from this first voyage, encouraged them to attempt a second. So
+Chancellor the following year, made a fresh voyage to Archangel, and
+took two of the Company's agents to Russia, who concluded an
+advantageous treaty with the Czar. Then he set out again for England
+with an ambassador and his suite, sent by Ivan to Great Britain. Of
+the four vessels which composed the flotilla, one was lost on the
+coast of Norway, another as it left Drontheim, and the _Bonaventure_,
+on board of which were Chancellor and the ambassador, foundered in
+the Bay of Pitsligo, on the east coast of Scotland on the 10th of
+November, 1556. Chancellor was drowned in the wreck, being less
+fortunate than the Muscovite ambassador, who had the good luck to
+escape; but the presents and merchandise which he was carrying to
+England were lost.
+
+[Illustration: Wreck of the _Bonaventure_.]
+
+Such was the commencement of the Anglo-Russian Company. A goodly
+number of expeditions succeeded each other in those parts, but it
+would be beside our purpose to give an account of them. Let us now
+return to Cabot.
+
+It was in 1554 that Queen Mary of England was married to Philip II.,
+King of Spain. When the latter came to England he showed himself
+very ill-disposed towards Cabot, who had abandoned the service of
+Spain, and who, at this very moment was procuring for England a
+commerce which would soon immensely increase the maritime power of
+an already formidable country. Thus we are not surprised to learn
+that eight days after the landing of the King of Spain, Cabot was
+forced to resign his office and his pension, both of which had been
+bestowed upon him for life by Edward VI. Worthington was nominated
+in his place. Mr. Nicholls thinks that this dishonourable man, who
+had had some quarrels with the law, had a secret mission to seize
+among Cabot's plans, maps, instructions, and projects, those which
+could be of use to Spain. The fact is that all these documents are
+now lost, at least unless they may yet be discovered among the
+archives of Simancas.
+
+At the end of this period, history completely loses sight of the old
+mariner. The same mystery which hangs over his birth, also envelopes
+the place and date of his death. His immense discoveries, his
+cosmographical works, his study of the variations of the magnetic
+needle, his wisdom, his humane disposition, and his honourable
+conduct, place Sebastian Cabot in the foremost rank among
+discoverers. A figure lost in the shadow and vagueness of legends
+until our own day, Cabot owes it to his biographers, to Biddle,
+D'Avezac, and Nicholls, that he is now better known, more highly
+appreciated, and for the first time really placed in the light.
+
+
+II.
+POLAR EXPEDITIONS.
+
+John Verrazzano--Jacques Cartier and his three voyages to Canada--
+The town of Hochelaga--Tobacco--The scurvy--Voyage of Roberval--
+Martin Frobisher and his voyages--John Davis--Barentz and
+Heemskerke--Spitzbergen--Winter season at Nova Zembla--Return to
+Europe--Relics of the Expedition.
+
+
+From 1492 to 1524, France had stood aloof, officially at least, from
+enterprises of discovery and colonization. But Francis I. could not
+look on quietly while the power of his rival Charles V. received a
+large addition by the conquest of Mexico. He therefore ordered John
+Verrazzano, a Venetian who was in his service, to make a voyage of
+exploration. We will pause here for a short time, although the
+various places may have already been visited on several occasions,
+because for the first time the banner of France floats over the
+shores of the New World. This exploration besides, was to prepare
+the way for those of Jacques Cartier and of Champlain in Canada, as
+well as for the unlucky experiments in colonization of Jean Ribaut,
+and of Laudonnière, the sanguinary voyage of reprisals of Gourgues,
+and Villegagnon's attempt at a settlement in Brazil.
+
+We possess no biographical details with regard to Verrazzano. Under
+what circumstances did he enter the service of France? What was his
+title to the command of such an expedition? Nothing is known of the
+Venetian traveller, for all we possess of his writings is the
+Italian translation of his report to Francis I. published in the
+collection of Ramusio. The French translation of this Italian
+translation exists in an abridged form in Lescarbot's work on New
+France and in the _Histoire des Voyages_. For our very rapid epitome
+we shall make use of the Italian text of Ramusio, except in some
+passages where Lescarbot's translation has appeared to give an idea
+of the rich, original, and marvellously modulated language of the
+sixteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Newfoundland and of the Mouth of the St.
+Lawrence.]
+
+Having set out with four vessels to make discoveries in the ocean,
+says Verrazzano in a letter written from Dieppe to Francis I. on the
+8th July, 1524, he was forced by a storm to take refuge in Brittany
+with two of his vessels, the _Dauphine_ and the _Normande_, there to
+repair damages. Thence he set sail for the coast of Spain, where he
+seems to have given chase to some Spanish vessels. We see him leave
+with the _Dauphine_ alone on the 17th of January, 1524, a small
+inhabited island in the neighbourhood of Madeira, and launch himself
+upon the ocean with a crew of fifty men, well furnished with
+provisions and ammunition for an eight months' voyage.
+
+Twenty-five days later he has made 1500 miles to the west, when he
+is assailed by a fearful storm; and twenty-five days afterwards,
+that is to say on the 8th or 9th of March, having made about 1200
+miles, he discovers land at 30 degrees north latitude, which he
+thought had never been previously explored. "When we arrived, it
+seemed to us to be very low, but on approaching within a quarter of
+a league we saw by the great fires which were lighted along the
+harbours and borders of the sea, that it was inhabited, and in
+taking trouble to find a harbour in which to land and make
+acquaintance with the country, we sailed more than 150 miles in vain,
+so that seeing the coast trended ever southwards, we decided to turn
+back again." The Frenchmen finding a favourable landing-place,
+perceived a number of natives who came towards them, but who fled
+away when they saw them land. Soon recalled by the friendly signs
+and demonstrations of the French, they showed great surprise at
+their clothes, their faces, and the whiteness of their skin. The
+natives were entirely naked, except that the middle of the body was
+covered with sable-skins, hung from a narrow girdle of prettily
+woven grasses, and ornamented with tails of other animals, which
+fell to their knees. Some wore crowns of birds' feathers. "They have
+brown skins," says the narrative, "and are exactly like the
+Saracens; their hair is black, not very long, and tied at the back
+of the head in the form of a small tail. Their limbs are well
+proportioned, they are of middle height, although a little taller
+than ourselves, and have no other defect beyond their faces being
+rather broad; they are not strong, but they are agile, and some of
+the greatest and quickest runners in the world." It was impossible
+for Verrazzano to collect any details about the manners and mode of
+life of these people, on account of the short time that he remained
+among them. The shore at this place was composed of fine sand
+interspersed here and there with little sandy hillocks, behind which
+were scattered "groves and very thick forests which were wonderfully
+pleasant to look upon." There were in this country, as far as we
+could judge, abundance of stags, fallow deer and hares, numerous
+lakes, and streams of sparkling water, as well as a quantity of
+birds.
+
+This land lies at 34 degrees. It is therefore the part of the United
+States which now goes by the name of Carolina. The air there is pure
+and salubrious, the climate temperate, the sea is entirely without
+rocks, and in spite of the want of harbours it is not unfavourable
+for navigators.
+
+During the whole month of March the French sailed along the coast,
+which seemed to them to be inhabited by a numerous population. The
+want of water forced them to land several times, and they perceived
+that the savages were most pleased with mirrors, bells, knives, and
+sheets of paper. One day they sent a long-boat ashore with
+twenty-five men in it. A young sailor jumped into the water "because
+he could not land on account of the waves and currents, in order to
+give some small articles to these people, and having thrown them to
+them from a distance because he was distrustful of the natives, he
+was cast violently on shore by the waves. The Indians seeing him in
+this condition, take him and carry him far away from the sea, to the
+great dismay of the poor sailor, who expected they were about to
+sacrifice him. Having placed him at the foot of a little hill, in
+the full blaze of the sun, they stripped him quite naked and
+wondered at the whiteness of his skin; then lighting a large fire
+they made him come to it and recover his strength, and it was then
+that the poor young man as well as those who were in the boat,
+thought that the Indians were about to massacre and immolate him,
+roasting his flesh in this large brazier and then eating their
+victim, as do the cannibals. But it happened quite differently; for
+having shown a desire to return to the boat they reconducted him to
+the edge of the sea, and having kissed him very lovingly, they
+retired to a hill to see him re-enter the boat."
+
+Continuing to follow the shore northwards for more than 150 miles,
+the Frenchmen reached a land which seemed to them more beautiful,
+being covered with thick woods. Into these forests, twenty men
+penetrated for more than six miles and only returned to the shore
+from the fear of losing themselves. In this walk, having met two
+women, one young and the other old, with some children, they seized
+one of the latter who might be about eight years old, with the idea
+of taking him away to France; but they could not do the same with
+the young woman, who began to cry with all her might, calling for
+aid from her compatriots, who were hidden in the wood. In this place
+the savages were whiter than any of those hitherto met with; they
+snared birds and used a bow of very hard wood, and arrows tipped
+with fish-bones. Their canoes, twenty feet long and four feet wide,
+were hollowed by fire out of a trunk of a tree. Wild vines abounded
+and climbed over the trees in long festoons as they do in Lombardy.
+With a little cultivation they would no doubt produce excellent
+wine--"for the fruit is sweet and pleasant like ours, and we thought
+that the natives were not insensible to it, for in all directions
+where these vines grew, they had taken care to cut away the branches
+of the surrounding trees so that the fruit might ripen." Wild roses,
+lilies, violets, and all kinds of odoriferous plants and flowers,
+new to the Europeans, carpeted the ground everywhere, and filled the
+air with sweet perfumes.
+
+[Illustration: Canadian Landscape.]
+
+After remaining for three days in this enchanting place, the
+Frenchmen continued to follow the coast northwards, sailing by day
+and casting anchor at night. As the land trended towards the east,
+they went 150 miles further in that direction, and discovered an
+island of triangular shape about thirty miles distant from the
+continent, similar in size to the Island of Rhodes, and upon which
+they bestowed the name of the mother of Francis I., Louisa of Savoy.
+Then they reached another island forty-five miles off, which
+possessed a magnificent harbour and of which the inhabitants came in
+crowds to visit the strange vessels. Two kings, especially, were of
+fine stature and great beauty. They were dressed in deer-skins, with
+the head bare, the hair carried back and tied in a tuft, and they
+wore on the neck a large chain ornamented with coloured stones. This
+was the most remarkable nation which they had until now met with.
+"The women are graceful," says the narrative published by Ramusio.
+"Some wore the skins of the lynx on their arms; their head was
+ornamented with their plaited hair and long plaits hung down on both
+sides of the chest; others had headdresses which recalled those of
+the Egyptian and Syrian women; only the elderly women, and those who
+were married, wore pendants in their ears of worked copper." This
+land is situated on the same parallel as Rome, in 41 degrees 40
+minutes, but its climate is much colder.
+
+[Illustration: Two Canadian Kings.]
+
+On the 5th of May, Verrazzano left this port and sailed along the
+sea-shore for 450 miles. At last he reached a country of which the
+inhabitants resembled but little any of those whom he had hitherto
+met with. They were so wild that it was impossible to carry on any
+trade with them, or any sustained intercourse. What they appeared to
+esteem above everything else were fish-hooks, knives, and all
+articles in metal, attaching no value to all the trifling baubles
+which up to this time had served for barter. Twenty-five armed men
+landed and advanced from four to six miles into the interior of the
+country. They were received by the natives with flights of arrows,
+after which the latter retired into the immense forests which
+appeared to cover the whole country.
+
+One hundred and fifty miles further on spreads out a vast
+archipelago composed of thirty-two islands, all near the land,
+separated by narrow canals, which reminded the Venetian navigator of
+the archipelagos which in the Adriatic border the coasts of
+Sclavonia and Dalmatia. At length, 450 miles further on, in latitude
+50 degrees, the French came to lands which had been previously
+discovered by the Bretons. Finding themselves then short of
+provisions, and having reconnoitred the coast of America for a
+distance of 2100 miles, they returned to France, and disembarked
+safely at Dieppe in the month of July, 1524.
+
+Some historians relate that Verrazzano was made prisoner by the
+savages who inhabit the coast of Labrador, and was eaten by them. A
+fact which is simply impossible, since he addressed from Dieppe to
+Francis I. the account of his voyage which we have just abridged.
+Besides, the Indians of these regions were not anthropophagi.
+Certain authors, but we have not been able to discover on the
+authority of what documents, nor under what circumstances this
+happened, relate that Verrazzano having fallen into the power of the
+Spaniards, had been taken to Spain and there hanged. It is wiser to
+admit that we know nothing certain about Verrazzano, and that we are
+totally ignorant what rewards his long voyage procured for him.
+Perhaps when some learned man shall have looked through our archives
+(of which the abstract and inventory are far from being finished),
+he may recover some new documents; but for the present we must
+confine ourselves to the narrative of Ramusio.
+
+[Illustration: Jacques Cartier. _From an old print_.]
+
+Ten years later a captain of St. Malo, named Jacques Cartier, born
+on the 21st of December, 1484, conceived the project of establishing
+a colony in the northern part of America. Being favourably received
+by Admiral Philippe de Chabot, and by Francis I., who asked to see
+the clause in Adam's will which disinherited him of the New World in
+favour of the kings of Spain and Portugal, Cartier left St. Malo
+with two vessels on the 20th of April, 1534. The vessel which
+carried him weighed only sixty tons and carried a crew of sixty-one
+men. At the end of only twenty days, so favourable was the voyage,
+Cartier discovered Newfoundland at Cape Bonavista. He then went
+northwards as far as Bird Island, which he found surrounded by ice,
+all broken up and melting, but on which he was able, nevertheless,
+to lay in a stock of five or six tons of guillemots, puffins, and
+penguins, without reckoning those which were eaten fresh. He then
+explored all the coast of the island, which at this time bore a
+number of Breton names, thus proving the assiduous manner in which
+the French frequented these shores. Then penetrating into the Strait
+of Belle-Isle, which separates the continent from the Island of
+Newfoundland, Cartier arrived at the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Along the
+whole of this coast the harbours are excellent: "If the land only
+corresponded to the goodness of the harbours," says the St. Malo
+sailor, "it would be a great blessing; but one ought not to call it
+_land_; it is rather pebbles and savage rocks and places fit for
+wild beasts: as for all the land towards the north, I never saw as
+much earth there as would fill a tumbrel." After having coasted
+along the continent, Cartier was cast by a tempest upon the west
+coast of Newfoundland, where he explored Cape Royal and Cape Milk,
+the Columba Islands, Cape St. John, the Magdalen Islands, and the
+Bay of Miramichi on the continent. In this place he had some
+intercourse with the savages, who showed "a great and marvellous
+eagerness in the acquisition of iron tools and other things, always
+dancing and performing various ceremonies, among others throwing
+sea-water on their heads with their hands; so well did they receive
+us that they gave us all that they had, keeping back nothing." The
+next day the number of the savages was even greater, and our French
+sailors made an ample harvest of furs and skins of animals.
+
+After having explored the Bay of Chaleurs, Cartier arrived at the
+entrance of the estuary of the St. Lawrence, where he saw some
+natives, who possessed neither the appearance nor the language of
+the first. "The latter may truly be called savages, for no poorer
+people can be found in the world, and I think that all put together,
+excepting their boats and their nets, they could not have had the
+value of two pence half-penny. They have the head entirely shaved,
+with the exception of a lock of hair on the very top, which they
+allow to grow as long as a horse's tail, and which they fasten upon
+the head with some small copper needles. Their only dwelling is
+underneath their boats, which they overturn and then stretch
+themselves on the ground beneath them without any covering."
+
+After having planted a large cross in this place, Jacques Cartier
+obtained the chief's permission to take away with him two of his
+children, whom he was to bring back again on his next voyage. Then
+he set out again for France, and landed at St. Malo on the 5th of
+September, 1534.
+
+The following year, on the 19th of May, Cartier left St. Malo at the
+head of a fleet composed of three vessels called the _Grande_ and
+the _Petite Hermine_ and the _Emerillon_ on board of which some
+gentlemen of high rank had taken passages, among whom may be named
+Charles de la Pommeraye, and Claude de Pont-Briant, son of the Sieur
+de Moncevelles and cup-bearer to the Dauphin.
+
+Very soon the squadron was dispersed by the storm, and could not be
+brought together again until it reached Newfoundland. After having
+landed at Bird Island, in Whitesand harbour, which is in Castle Bay,
+Cartier penetrated into the Bay of St. Lawrence. He discovered there
+the Island of Natiscotec which we call Anticosti, and entered a
+great river called Hochelaga, which leads to Canada. On the banks of
+this river lies the country called Saguenay, whence comes the red
+copper, to which the two savages whom he had taken on his first
+voyage gave the name of _caquetdazé_. But before entering the St.
+Lawrence, Cartier wished to explore the whole gulf, to see if no
+passage existed to the north. He afterwards returned to the Bay of
+the Seven Islands, went up the river, and soon reached the river
+Saguenay, which falls into the St. Lawrence on its northern bank. A
+little further on, after passing by fourteen islands, he entered the
+Canadian territories, which no traveller before him had ever visited.
+
+"The next day the lord of Canada, called Donnacona, with twelve
+boats and accompanied by sixteen men, approached the ships. When
+abreast of the smallest of our vessels he began to make a palaver or
+preachment in their fashion, while moving his body and limbs in a
+marvellous manner, which is a sign of joy and confidence, and when
+he arrived at the flag-ship where were the two Indians who had been
+brought back from France, the said chief spoke to them and they to
+him. And they began to relate to him what they had seen in France
+and the good treatment which they had received, at which the said
+chief was very joyful, and begged the captain to give him his arms
+that he might kiss and embrace them, which is their mode of welcome
+in this country. The country of Stadaconé, or St. Charles, is
+fertile and full of very fine trees of the same nature and kind as
+in France, such as oaks, elms, plum-trees, yews, cedars, vines,
+hawthorns--which bear fruit as large as damsons--and other trees;
+beneath them grows hemp as good as that of France." Cartier
+succeeded afterwards in reaching with his boats and his galleon a
+place which is the Richelieu of the present day, next, a great lake
+formed by the river--St. Peter's Lake--and at last he arrived at
+Hochelaga or Montreal, which is 630 miles from the mouth of the St.
+Lawrence. In this place are "ploughed lands and large and beautiful
+plains full of the corn of the country, which is like the millet of
+Brazil, as large or larger than peas, on which they live as we do on
+wheat. And among these plains is placed and seated the said town of
+Hochelaga near to and joining on to some high ground which is around
+the town; and which is well cultivated and quite small; from the top
+of it one can see very far. We named this mountain the _Mount
+Royal_."
+
+The welcome given to Jacques Cartier could not have been more
+cordial. The chief or Agouhanna, who was crippled in all his limbs,
+begged the captain to touch them, as if he had asked him for a cure.
+Then the blind, and those who were blind in one eye, the lame, and
+the impotent came and sat down near Jacques Cartier, that he might
+touch them, so thoroughly were they persuaded that he was a god
+descended to heal them. "The said captain, seeing the faith and
+piety of this people, recited the Gospel of St. John, namely: _In
+principio_, making the sign of the cross over the poor sick people,
+praying GOD that he would give them the knowledge of our holy faith
+and grace to accept Christianity and baptism. Then the said captain
+took a book of Hours and read aloud the Passion of our Saviour, so
+well that all those present could hear it, all the poor people being
+quite silent, looking up to heaven and using the same ceremonies as
+they saw us use." After making themselves acquainted with the
+country, which could be seen for ninety miles around from the top of
+Mount Royal, and having collected some information about the
+water-falls and rapids of the St. Lawrence, Jacques Cartier returned
+towards Canada, where he did not delay to rejoin his ships. We owe
+to him the first information on tobacco for smoking, which does not
+seem to have been in use throughout the whole extent of the New
+World. "They have a herb," he says, "of which they collect great
+quantities during the summer for the winter; they esteem it highly,
+and the men alone use it in the following manner: they dry it in the
+sun and carry it on their necks in a small skin of an animal in the
+shape of a bag, with a horn of stone or of wood, then constantly
+they make the said herb into powder, and put it into one of the ends
+of the said horn; they then place a live coal upon it and blow
+through the other end, and so fill their body with smoke that it
+issues from the mouth and nostrils, as if from the shaft of a
+chimney. We have tried the said smoke, but after having put it into
+our mouths, it seemed as if there were ground pepper in them, so hot
+is it." In the month of December the inhabitants of Stadaconé were
+attacked by an infectious disease which proved to be the scurvy.
+"This malady spread so rapidly in our vessels that by the middle of
+February out of our 110 men there were but ten in good health."
+Neither prayers, nor orisons, nor vows to our Lady of Roquamadour
+brought any relief. Twenty-five Frenchmen perished up to the 18th of
+April, and there were not four amongst them who were not attacked by
+the malady. But at this time a savage chief informed Jacques Cartier
+that a decoction of the leaves and sap of a certain tree, probably
+either the Canadian fir-tree or the barberry, was very salutary. As
+soon as two or three had experienced its beneficial effects "there
+was a crowding as if they would have killed each other to be the
+first to get the medicine; and one of the tallest and largest trees
+I ever saw was used in less than eight days, which had such an
+effect that if all the doctors of Louvain and Montpellier had been
+there with all the drugs of Alexandria, they had not done as much in
+a year as the said tree accomplished in eight days."
+
+Some time after, Cartier, having noticed that Donnacona was trying
+to excite sedition against the French, caused him to be seized, as
+well as nine other savages, that he might take them to France, where
+they died. He set sail from the harbour of St. Croix on the 6th of
+May, descended the St. Lawrence, and after a voyage which was not
+marked by any incident, he landed at St. Malo on the 16th of July,
+1536.
+
+Francis I., in consequence of the report of this voyage which the St.
+Malo captain made to him, resolved to take effective possession of
+the country. After having appointed François de la Roque, Sieur de
+Roberval, viceroy of Canada, he caused five vessels to be fitted out,
+which being laden with provisions and ammunition for two years, were
+to transport Roberval and a certain number of soldiers, artizans,
+and gentlemen to the new colony, which they were about to establish.
+The five vessels set sail on the 23rd of May, 1541. They met with
+such contrary winds that it took them three months to reach
+Newfoundland. Cartier did not arrive at the harbour of St. Croix
+till the 23rd of August. As soon as he had landed his provisions, he
+sent back two of his vessels to France with letters for the king,
+telling him what had been done, also that the Sieur de Roberval had
+not yet appeared, and that they did not know what had happened to
+him. Then he had works commenced to clear the land, to build a fort,
+and to lay the first foundations of the town of Quebec. He next set
+out for Hochelaga, taking with him Martin de Paimpont and other
+gentlemen, and went to examine the three waterfalls of Sainte Marie,
+La Chine, and St. Louis; on his return to St. Croix, he found
+Roberval had just arrived. Cartier returned to St. Malo in the month
+of October, 1542, where, probably ten years later, he died. As to
+the new colony, Roberval having perished in a second voyage, it
+vegetated, and was nothing more than a factory until 1608, the date
+of the foundation of Quebec by M. de Champlain, of whom we shall
+relate the services and discoveries a little further on.
+
+We have just seen how Cartier, who had set out first to seek for the
+north-west passage, had been led to take possession of the country
+and to lay the foundations of the colony of Canada. In England a
+similar movement had begun, set on foot by the writings of Sir
+Humphrey Gilbert and of Richard Wills. They ended by carrying public
+opinion with them, and demonstrating that it was not more difficult
+to find this passage than it had been to discover the Strait of
+Magellan. One of the most ardent partizans of this search was a bold
+sailor, called Martin Frobisher, who after having many times applied
+to rich ship-owners, at last found in Ambrose Dudley, Earl of
+Warwick, the favourite of Queen Elizabeth, a patron, whose pecuniary
+help enabled him to equip a pinnace and two poor barks of from
+twenty to twenty-five tons' burden. It was with means thus feeble,
+that the intrepid navigator went to encounter the ice in localities
+which had never been visited since the time of the Northmen. Setting
+out from Deptford on the 8th of June, 1576, he sighted the south of
+Greenland, which he took for the Frisland of Zeno. Soon stopped by
+the ice, he was obliged to return to Labrador without being able to
+land there, and he entered Hudson's Straits. After having coasted
+along Savage and Resolution Islands, he entered a strait which has
+received his name, but which is also called by some geographers,
+Lunley's inlet. He landed at Cumberland, took possession of the
+country in the name of Queen Elizabeth, and entered into some
+relations with the natives. The cold increased rapidly, and he was
+obliged to return to England. Frobisher only brought back some
+rather vague scientific and geographical details about the countries
+which he had visited; he received, however, a most flattering
+welcome when he showed a heavy black stone in which a little gold
+was found. At once all imaginations were on fire. Several lords and
+the Queen herself contributed to the expense of a new armament,
+consisting of a vessel of 200 tons, with a crew of 100 men, and two
+smaller barks, which carried six months' provision both for war and
+for nourishment. Frobisher had some experienced sailors--Fenton,
+York, George Best, and C. Hall, under his command. On the 31st of
+May, 1577, the expedition set sail, and soon sighted Greenland, of
+which the mountains were covered with snow, and the shores defended
+by a rampart of ice. The weather was bad. Exceedingly dense
+fogs,--as thick as pease-soup, said the English sailors,--islands of
+ice a mile and a half in circumferance, floating mountains which
+were sunk seventy or eighty fathoms in the sea, such were the
+obstacles which prevented Frobisher from reaching before the 9th of
+August, the strait which he had discovered during his previous
+campaign. The English took possession of the country, and pursued
+both upon land and sea some poor Esquimaux, who, wounded "in this
+encounter, jumped in despair from the top of the rocks into the
+sea," says Forster in his _Voyages in the North_, "which would not
+have happened if they had shown themselves more submissive, or if we
+could have made them understand that we were not their enemies." A
+great quantity of stones similar to that which had been brought to
+England were soon discovered. They were of gold marcasite, and 200
+tons of this substance was soon collected. In their delight, the
+English sailors set up a memorial column on a peak to which they
+gave the name of Warwick Mount, and performed solemn acts of
+thanksgiving. Frobisher afterwards went ninety miles further on in
+the same strait, as far as a small island, which received the name
+of Smith's Island. There the English found two women, of whom they
+took one with her child, but left the other on account of her
+extreme ugliness. Suspecting, so much did superstition and ignorance
+flourish at this time, that this woman had cloven feet, they made
+her take the coverings off her feet, to satisfy themselves that they
+really were made like their own. Frobisher, now perceiving that the
+cold was increasing, and wishing to place the treasures which he
+thought he had collected, in a place of safety, resolved to give up
+for the present any farther search for the north-west passage. He
+then set sail for England, where he arrived at the end of September,
+after weathering a storm which dispersed his fleet. The man, woman,
+and child who had been carried off were presented to the Queen. It
+is said with regard to them, that the man, seeing at Bristol
+Frobisher's trumpeter on horseback wished to imitate him, and
+mounted with his face turned towards the tail of the animal. These
+savages were the objects of much curiosity, and obtained permission
+from the Queen to shoot all kinds of birds, even swans, on the
+Thames, a thing which was forbidden to every one else under the most
+severe penalties. They did not long survive, and died before the
+child was fifteen months old.
+
+People were not slow in discovering that the stones brought back by
+Frobisher really contained gold. The nation, but above all the
+higher classes, were immediately seized with a fever bordering on
+delirium. They had found a Peru, an Eldorado. Queen Elizabeth, in
+spite of her practical good sense, yielded to the current. She
+resolved to build a fort in the newly discovered country, to which
+she gave the name of _Meta incognita_, (unknown boundary) and to
+leave there, with 100 men as garrison, under the command of Captains
+Fenton, Best, and Philpot, three vessels which should take in a
+cargo of the auriferous stones. These 100 men were carefully chosen;
+there were bakers, carpenters, masons, gold-refiners, and others
+belonging to all the various handicrafts. The fleet was composed of
+fifteen vessels, which set sail from Harwich on the 31st of May,
+1578. Twenty days later the western coasts of Frisland were
+discovered. Whales played round the vessels in innumerable troops.
+It is related even that one of the vessels propelled by a favourable
+wind, struck against a whale with such force that the violence of
+the shock stopped the ship at once, and that the whale after
+uttering a loud cry, made a spring out of the water and then was
+suddenly swallowed up. Two days later, the fleet met with a dead
+whale which they thought must be the one struck by the _Salamander_.
+When Frobisher came to the entrance of the strait which has received
+his name, he found it blocked up with floating ice. "The barque
+_Dennis_, 100 tons," says the old account of George Best, "received
+such a shock from an iceberg that she sank in sight of the whole
+fleet. Following upon this catastrophe, a sudden and horrible
+tempest arose from the south-east, the vessels were surrounded on
+all sides by the ice; they left much of it, between which they could
+pass, behind them, and found still more before them through which it
+was impossible for them to penetrate. Certain ships, either having
+found a place less blocked with ice, or one where it was possible to
+proceed, furled sails and drifted; of the others, several stopped
+and cast their anchors upon a great island of ice. The latter were
+so rapidly enclosed by an infinite number of islets of ice and
+fragments of icebergs, that the English were obliged to resign
+themselves and their ships to the mercy of the ice, and to protect
+the ships with cables, cushions, mats, boards, and all kinds of
+articles which were suspended to the sides, in order to defend them
+from the fearful shocks and blows of the ice." Frobisher himself was
+thrown out of his course. Finding the impossibility of rallying his
+squadron, he sailed along the west coast of Greenland, as far as the
+strait which was soon to be called Davis' Strait, and penetrated as
+far as the Countess of Warwick Bay. When he had repaired his vessels
+with the wood which was to have been used in the building of a
+dwelling, he loaded the ships with 500 tons of stones similar to
+those which he had already brought home. Judging the season to be
+then too far advanced, and considering also that the provisions had
+been either consumed, or lost in the _Dennis_, that the wood for
+building had been used for repairing the vessels, and having lost 40
+men, he set out on his return to England on the 31st of August.
+Tempests and storms accompanied him to the shores of his own country.
+As to the results of his expedition they were almost none as to
+discoveries, and the stones, which he had put on board in the midst
+of so many dangers, were valueless.
+
+This was the last Arctic voyage in which Frobisher took part. In
+1585 we meet with him again as vice-admiral, under Drake; in 1588 he
+distinguished himself against the _Invincible Armada_; in 1590 he
+was with Sir Walter Raleigh's fleet on the coast of Spain; finally
+in a descent on the coast of France, he was so seriously wounded
+that he had only time to bring his squadron back to Portsmouth
+before he died. If Frobisher's voyages had only gain for their
+motive, we must put this down not to the navigator himself, but to
+the passions of the period, and it is not the less true that in
+difficult circumstances, and with means the insufficiency of which
+makes us smile, he gave proof of courage, talent, and perseverance.
+To Frobisher is due, in one word, the glory of having shown the
+route to his countrymen, and of having made the first discoveries in
+the localities where the English name was destined to render itself
+illustrious.
+
+If it became necessary to abandon the hope of finding in these
+circumpolar regions countries in which gold abounded as it did in
+Peru, this was no ground for not continuing to seek there for a
+passage to China; an opinion supported by very skilful sailors, and
+one which found many adherents among the merchants of London. By the
+aid of several high personages, two ships were equipped; the
+_Sunshine_, of fifty tons' burden and carrying a crew of
+twenty-three in number, and the _Moonshine_, of thirty-five tons.
+They quitted Portsmouth on the 7th of June, 1585, under the command
+of John Davis.
+
+Davis discovered the entrance of the strait which received his name,
+and was obliged to cross immense fields of drifting ice, after
+having reassured his crew, who were frightened while in the midst of
+a dense fog, by the dash of the icebergs, and the splitting of the
+blocks of ice. On the 20th July, Davis discovered the Land of
+Desolation, but without being able to disembark upon it. Nine days
+later he entered Gilbert Bay, where he found a peaceable population,
+who gave him sealskins and furs in exchange for some trifling
+articles. These natives, some days afterwards, arrived in such
+numbers, that there were not less than thirty-seven canoes around
+Davis' vessels. In this place, the navigator perceived an enormous
+quantity of drift wood, amongst which he mentions an entire tree,
+which could not have been less than sixty feet in length. On the 6th
+of August, he cast anchor in a fine bay called Tottness; near a
+mountain of the colour of gold, which received the name of Raleigh,
+at the same time, he gave the names of Dyer and Walsingham to two
+capes of that land of Cumberland.
+
+During eleven days, Davis still sailed northwards on a very open sea,
+free from ice, and of which the water had the colour of the Ocean.
+Already he believed himself at the entrance of the sea, which
+communicated with the Pacific, when all at once the weather changed,
+and became so foggy, that he was forced to return to Yarmouth, where
+he landed on the 30th of September.
+
+Davis had the skill to make the owners of his ships partake in the
+hope which he had conceived. Thus on the 7th of May (1586), he set
+out again with the two ships which had made the previous voyage. To
+them were added the _Mermaid_ of 120 tons, and the pinnace _North
+Star_. When, on the 25th of June, he arrived at the southern point
+of Greenland, Davis despatched the _Sunshine_ and the _North Star_
+towards the north, in order to search for a passage upon the eastern
+coast, whilst he pursued the same route as in the preceding year,
+and penetrated into the strait which bears his name as far as 69
+degrees. But there was a much greater quantity of ice this year, and
+on the 17th of July, the expedition fell in with an "icefield" of
+such extent that it took thirteen days to coast along it. The wind
+after passing over this icy plain was so cold, that the rigging and
+sails were frozen, and the sailors refused to go any further. It was
+needful, therefore, to descend again to the east-south-east. There
+Davis explored the land of Cumberland, without finding the strait he
+was seeking, and after a skirmish with the Esquimaux, in which three
+of his men were killed, and two wounded, he set out on the 19th of
+September, on his return to England.
+
+Although once more his researches had not been crowned with success,
+Davis still had good hope, as is witnessed by a letter, which he
+wrote to the Company, in which he said that he had reduced the
+existence of the passage to a species of certainty. Foreseeing,
+however, that he would have more trouble in obtaining the despatch
+of a new expedition, he added that the expenses of the enterprise
+would be fully covered by the profit arising from the fishery of
+walrus, seals, and whales, which were so numerous in those parts,
+that they appeared to have there established their head-quarters. On
+the 15th of May, 1587, he set sail with the _Sunshine_, the
+_Elizabeth_ of Dartmouth, and the _Helen_ of London. This time he
+went farther north than he had ever done before, and reached 72
+degrees 12 minutes, that is to say, nearly the latitude of Upernavik,
+and he descried Cape Henderson's Hope. Stopped by the ice, and
+forced to retrace his way, he sailed in Frobisher's Strait, and
+after having crossed a large gulf, he arrived, in 61 degrees 10
+minutes latitude, in sight of a cape to which he gave the name of
+Chudleigh. This cape is a part of the Labrador coast, and forms the
+southern entrance to Hudson's Bay. After coasting along the American
+shores as far as 52 degrees, Davis set out for England, which he
+reached on the 15th of September.
+
+Although the solution of the problem had not been found, yet
+nevertheless, precious results had been obtained, but results to
+which people at that period did not attach any great value. Nearly
+the half of Baffin's Bay had been explored, and clear ideas had been
+obtained of its shores, and of the people inhabiting them. These
+were considerable acquisitions, from a geographical point of view,
+but they were scarcely those which would greatly affect the
+merchants of the city. In consequence, the attempts at finding a
+north-west passage were abandoned by the English for a somewhat long
+period.
+
+A new nation was just come into existence. The Dutch--while scarcely
+delivered from the Spanish yoke,--inaugurated that commercial policy,
+which was destined to make the greatness and prosperity of their
+country, by the successive despatch of several expeditions to seek
+for a way to China by the north-east; the same project formerly
+conceived by Sebastian Cabot, and which had given to England the
+Russian trade. With their practical instinct, the Dutch had
+acquainted themselves with English navigation. They had even
+established factories at Kola, and at Archangel, but they wished to
+proceed further in their search for new markets. The Sea of Kara
+appearing to them too difficult, they resolved, acting on the advice
+of the cosmographer Plancius, to try a new way by the north of Nova
+Zembla. The merchants of Amsterdam applied therefore, to an
+experienced sailor, William Barentz, born in the island of
+Terschelling, near the Texel. This navigator set out from the Texel
+in 1594, on board the _Mercure_, doubled the North Cape, saw the
+island of Waigatz, and found himself, on the 4th of July, in sight
+of the coast of Nova Zembla, in latitude 73 degrees 25 minutes. He
+sailed along the coast, doubled Cape Nassau on the 10th of July, and
+three days later he came in contact with the ice. Until the 3rd of
+August, he attempted to open a passage through the pack, testing the
+mass of ice on various sides, going up as far as the Orange Islands
+at the north-western extremity of Nova Zembla, sailing over 1700
+miles of ground, and putting his ship about no less than eighty-one
+times. We do not imagine that any navigator had hitherto displayed
+such perseverance. Let us add that he turned this long cruise to
+account, to fix astronomically, and with remarkable accuracy, the
+latitude of various points. At last, wearied with the fruitless
+boxing about along the edge of the pack, the crew cried for mercy,
+and it became necessary to return to the Texel.
+
+The results obtained were judged so important, that the following
+year, the Dutch States-General entrusted to Jacob van Heemskerke,
+the command of a fleet of seven vessels, of which Barentz was named
+chief pilot. After touching at various points upon the coasts of
+Nova Zembla and of Asia, this squadron was forced by the pack to go
+back without having made any important discovery, and it returned to
+Holland on the 18th of September.
+
+As a general rule governments do not possess as much perseverance as
+do private individuals. The large fleet of the year 1595, had cost a
+great sum of money, and had produced no results; this was sufficient
+to discourage the States-General. The merchants of Amsterdam
+therefore, substituting private enterprise for the action of the
+government, which merely promised a reward to the man who should
+first discover the north-east passage--fitted out two vessels, of
+which the command was given to Heemskerke and to Jan Corneliszoon
+Rijp, while Barentz, who had only the title of pilot, was virtually
+the leader of the expedition. The historian of the voyage, Gerrit de
+Veer, was also on board as second mate.
+
+The Dutchmen sailed from Amsterdam on the 10th of May, 1596, passed
+by the Shetland and Faröe Islands, and on the 5th of June, saw the
+first masses of ice, "whereat we were much amazed, believing at
+first that they were white swans." They soon arrived to the south of
+Spitzbergen, at Bear Island, upon which they landed on the 11th of
+June. They collected there a great number of sea-gulls' eggs, and
+after much trouble killed at some distance inland a white bear,
+destined to give its name to the land which Barentz had just
+discovered. On the 19th of June, they disembarked upon some
+far-spreading land, which they took to be a part of Greenland, and
+to which on account of the sharp-pointed mountains, they gave the
+name of Spitzbergen; of this they explored a considerable portion of
+the western coast. Forced by the Polar pack to go southwards again
+to Bear Island, they separated there from Rijp, who was once more to
+endeavour to find a way by the north. On the 11th of July,
+Heemskerke and Barentz were in the parts of Cape Kanin, and five
+days later they had reached the western coast of Nova Zembla, which
+was called Willoughby's Land. They then altered their course, and
+again going northwards, they arrived on the 19th at the Island of
+Crosses, where the ice which was still attached to the shore, barred
+their passage. They remained in this place until the 4th of August,
+and two days later they doubled Cape Nassau. After several changes
+of course, which it would take too long to relate, they reached the
+Orange Islands at the northern extremity of Nova Zembla. They began
+to descend the eastern coast, but were soon obliged to enter a
+harbour, where they found themselves completely blocked in by the
+pack-ice, and in which "they were forced in great cold, poverty,
+misery, and grief, to stay all the winter." This was on the 26th of
+August. "On the 30th the masses of ice began to pile themselves one
+upon another against the ship, with snow falling. The ship was
+lifted up and surrounded in such a manner, that all that was about
+her and around her began to crack and split. It seemed as if the
+ship must break into a thousand pieces, a thing most terrible to see
+and to hear, and fit to make one's hair stand on end. The ship was
+afterwards in equal danger, when the ice formed beneath, raising her
+and bearing her up as though she had been lifted by some
+instrument." Soon the ship cracked to such a degree, that prudence
+dictated the debarkation of some of the provisions, sails, gunpowder,
+lead, the arquebuses as well as other arms, and the erection of a
+tent or hut, in which the men might be sheltered from the snow and
+from any attacks by bears. Some days later, some sailors who had
+advanced from four to six miles inland, found near a river of fresh
+water, a quantity of drift-wood; they discovered there also the
+traces of wild goats and of reindeer. On the 11th of September,
+seeing that the bay was filled with enormous blocks of ice piled one
+upon the other, and welded together, the Dutchmen perceived that
+they would be obliged to winter in this place, and resolved, "in
+order to be better defended against the cold, and armed against the
+wild beasts," to build a house there, which might be able to contain
+them all, while they would leave to itself the ship, which became
+each day less safe and comfortable. Fortunately, they found upon the
+shore whole trees, coming doubtless from Siberia, and driven here by
+the current, and in such quantity that they sufficed not only for
+the construction of their habitation, but also for firewood
+throughout the winter.
+
+[Illustration: Barentz's Ship. _From an old print_.]
+
+Never yet had any European wintered in these regions, in the midst
+of that slothful and immovable sea, which according to the very
+false expressions used by Tacitus, forms the girdle of the world,
+and in which is heard the uproar caused by the rising of the sun.
+The Dutchmen, therefore, were unable to picture to themselves the
+sufferings which threatened them. They bore them, however, with
+admirable patience, without a single murmur, and without the least
+want of discipline or attempt at mutiny. The conduct of these brave
+seamen, quite ignorant of what so apparently dark a future might
+have in reserve for them, but who with wonderful faith had "placed
+their affairs in the hands of God," may be always proposed as an
+example even to the sailors of the present day. It may well be said
+that they had really in their heart the _æs triplex_ of which Horace
+speaks. It was owing to the skill, knowledge, and foresight of their
+leader Barentz, as much as to their own spirit of obedience, that
+the Dutch sailors ever came forth from Nova Zembla, which threatened
+to be their tomb, and again saw the shores of their own country.
+
+[Illustration: Interior view of the house. _From an old print_.]
+
+The bears, which were extremely numerous at that period of the year,
+made frequent visits to the crew. More than one was killed, but the
+Dutchmen contented themselves with skinning them for the sake of
+their fur, and did not eat them, probably because they believed the
+flesh to be unwholesome. It would have been, however, a considerable
+addition to their food, and would have saved them from using their
+salted meat, and thus they might longer have escaped the attacks of
+scurvy. But that we may not anticipate, let us continue to follow
+the journal of Gerrit de Veer.
+
+On the 23rd September, the carpenter died, and was interred the next
+day in the cleft of a mountain, it being impossible to put a spade
+into the ground, on account of the severity of the frost. The
+following days were devoted to the transport of driftwood and the
+building of the house. To cover it in, it was necessary to demolish
+the fore and aft cabins of the ship; the roof was put on, on the 2nd
+October, and a piece of frozen snow was set up like a May pole. On
+the 31st September, there was a strong wind from the north-west, and
+as far as the eye could reach, the sea was entirely open and without
+ice. "But we remained as though taken and arrested in the ice, and
+the ship was raised full two or three feet upon the ice, and we
+could imagine nothing else but that the water must be frozen quite
+to the bottom, although it was three fathoms and a half in depth."
+
+On the 12th October, they began to sleep in the house, although it
+was not completed. On the 21st, the greater part of the provisions,
+furniture, and everything which might be wanted was withdrawn from
+the ship, for they felt certain that the sun was about to disappear.
+A chimney was fixed in the centre of the roof, inside a Dutch clock
+was hung up, bed-places were formed along the walls, and a wine-cask
+was converted into a bath, for the surgeon had wisely prescribed to
+the men frequent bathing as a preservative of health. The quantity
+of snow which fell during this winter, was really marvellous. The
+house disappeared entirely beneath this thick covering, which,
+however, sensibly raised the temperature within. Every time that
+they wished to go forth, the Dutchmen were obliged to hollow out a
+long corridor beneath the snow. Each night they first heard the
+bears, and then the foxes, which walked upon the top of the dwelling,
+and tried to tear off some planks from the roof, that they might get
+into the house. So the sailors were accustomed to climb into the
+chimney, whence, as from a watch-tower they could shoot the animals
+and drive them off. They had manufactured a great number of snares,
+into which fell numbers of blue foxes, the valuable fur of which
+served as a protection against cold, while their flesh enabled the
+sailors to economize their provisions. Always cheerful and good
+tempered, they bore equally well the ennui of the long polar night,
+and the severity of the cold, which was so extreme, that during two
+of three days, when they had not been able to keep so large a fire
+as usual, on account of the smoke being driven back again by the
+wind, it froze so hard in the house, that the walls and the floor
+were covered with ice to the depth of two fingers, even in the cots
+where these poor people were sleeping. It was necessary to thaw the
+sherry, when it was served out, as was done every two days, at the
+rate of half a pint.
+
+"On the 7th of December, the rough weather continued, with a violent
+storm coming from the north-east, which produced horrible cold. We
+knew no means of guarding ourselves against it, and while we were
+consulting together, what we could do for the best, one of our men
+in this extreme necessity proposed to make use of the coal which we
+had brought from the ship into our house, and to make a fire of it,
+because it burns with great heat and lasts a long time. In the
+evening we lighted a large fire of this coal, which threw out a
+great heat, but we did not provide against what might happen, for as
+the heat revived us completely, we tried to retain it for a long
+time. To this end we thought it well to stop up all the doors and
+the chimney, to keep in the delightful warmth. And thus, each went
+to repose in his cot, and animated by the acquired warmth, we
+discoursed long together. But in the end, we were seized with a
+giddiness in the head, some however, more than others; this was
+first perceived to be the case with one of our men who was ill, and
+who for this reason, had less power of resistance. And we also
+ourselves were sensible of a great pain which attacked us, so that
+several of the bravest came out of their cots and began by
+unstopping the chimney, and afterwards opening the door. But the man
+who opened the door fainted, and fell senseless upon the snow, on
+perceiving which, I ran to him and found him lying on the ground in
+a fainting fit. I went in haste to seek for some vinegar, and with
+it I rubbed his face until he recovered from his swoon. Afterwards,
+when we were somewhat restored, the captain gave to each a little
+wine, in order to comfort our hearts...."
+
+"On the 11th, the weather continued fine, but so extremely cold,
+that no one who had not felt it could imagine it; even our shoes,
+frozen to our feet, were as hard as horn, and inside they were
+covered with ice in such a manner that we could no longer use them.
+The garments which we wore were quite white with frost and ice."
+
+On Christmas Day, the 25th December, the weather was as rough as on
+the preceding days. The foxes made havoc upon the house, which one
+of the sailors declared to be a bad omen, and upon being asked why
+he said so, answered, "Because we cannot put them in a pot, or on
+the spit, which would have been a good omen."
+
+If the year 1596, had closed with excessive cold, the commencement
+of 1597 was not more agreeable. Most violent storms of snow, and
+hard frost prevented the Dutchmen from leaving the house. They
+celebrated Twelfth Night with gaiety, as is related in the simple
+and touching narrative of Gerrit de Veer. "For this purpose, we
+besought the captain to allow us a little diversion in the midst of
+our sufferings, and to let us use a part of the wine which was
+destined to be served out to us every other day. Having two pounds
+of flour we made some pancakes with oil, and each one brought a
+white biscuit, which we soaked in the wine and eat. And it seemed to
+us that we were in our own country, and amongst our relations and
+friends; and we were as much diverted as if a banquet had been given
+in our honour, so much did we relish our entertainment. We also made
+a Twelfth-Night king, by means of paper, and our master gunner was
+king of Nova Zembla, which is a country enclosed between two seas,
+and of the great length of six hundred miles."
+
+After the 21st January, the foxes became less numerous, the bears
+reappeared, and daylight began to increase, which enabled the
+Dutchmen, who had been so long confined to the house, to go out a
+little. On the 24th, one of the sailors, who had been long ill, died,
+and was buried in the snow at some distance from the house. On the
+28th, the weather being very fine, the men all went out, walking
+about, running for exercise, and playing at bowls, to take off the
+stiffness of their limbs, for they were extremely weak, and nearly
+all suffering from scurvy. They were so much enfeebled that they
+were obliged to go to work several times before they could carry to
+their house the wood which was needful. At length in the first days
+of March, after several tempests and driving snowstorms, they were
+able to verify the fact that there was no ice in the sea.
+Nevertheless, the weather was still rough and the cold glacial. It
+was not feasible as yet to put to sea again, the rather because the
+ship was still embedded in the ice. On the 15th of April, the
+sailors paid a visit to her and found her in fairly good condition.
+
+[Illustration: Exterior view of the house. _From an old print_.]
+
+At the beginning of May the men became somewhat impatient, and asked
+Barentz if he were not soon intending to make the necessary
+preparations for departure. But Barentz answered that he must wait
+until the end of the month, and then, if it should be impossible to
+set the ship free, he would take measures to prepare the long-boats
+and the launch, and to render them fit for a sea voyage. On the 20th
+of the month the preparations for departure commenced; with what joy
+and ardour it is easy to imagine. The launch was repaired, the sails
+were mended, and both boats were dragged to the sea, and provisions
+put on board. Then, seeing that the water was free, and that a
+strong wind was blowing, Heemskerke went to seek Barentz, who had
+been long ill, and declared to him "that it seemed good to him to
+set out from thence, and in God's name to commence the voyage and
+abandon Nova Zembla."
+
+"William Barentz had before this written a paper setting forth how
+we had started from Holland to go towards the kingdom of China, and
+all that had happened, in order that, if by chance, some one should
+come after us, it might be known what had befallen us. This note he
+enclosed in the case of a musket which he hung up in the chimney."
+
+On the 13th June, 1597, the Dutchmen abandoned the ship, which had
+not stirred from her icy prison, and commending themselves to the
+protection of God, the two open boats put to sea. They reached the
+Orange Islands, and again descended the western coast of Nova Zembla
+in the midst of ceaselessly recurring dangers.
+
+"On the 20th of June Nicholas Andrieu became very weak, and we saw
+clearly that he would soon expire. The lieutenant of the governor
+came on board our launch, and told us that Nicholas Andrieu was very
+much indisposed, and that it was very evident that his days would
+soon end. Upon which, William Barentz said, 'It appears to me that
+my life also will be very short.' We did not imagine that Barentz
+was so ill, for we were chatting together, and William Barentz was
+looking at the little chart which I had made of our voyage, and we
+had various discourses together. Finally, he laid down the chart,
+and said to me, 'Gerard, give me something to drink.' After he had
+drunk, such weakness supervened that his eyes turned in his head,
+and he died so suddenly that we had not time to call the captain,
+who was in the other boat. This death of William Barentz saddened us
+greatly, seeing that he was our principal leader, and our sole pilot,
+in whom we had placed our whole trust. But we could not oppose the
+will of God, and this thought quieted us a little." Thus died the
+illustrious Barentz, like his successors Franklin and Hall, in the
+midst of his discoveries. In the measured and sober words of the
+short funeral oration of Gerrit de Veer may be perceived the
+affection, sympathy, and confidence which this brave sailor had been
+able to inspire in his unfortunate companions. Barentz is one of the
+glories of Holland, so prolific in brave and skilful navigators. We
+shall mention presently what has been done to honour his memory.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Nova Zembla.]
+
+After having been forced several times to haul the boats out of the
+water when they were on the point of being crushed between the
+blocks of ice; after having seen on various occasions the sea open,
+and again close before them; after having suffered both from thirst
+and hunger, the Dutchmen reached Cape Nassau. One day, being obliged
+to draw up the long-boat, which was in danger of being stove in upon
+an iceberg, the sailors lost a part of their provisions and were all
+deluged with water, for the ice broke away under their feet. In the
+midst of so much misery they sometimes met with good windfalls. Thus,
+when they were upon the ice on the Island of Crosses they found
+there seventy eggs of the mountain-duck. "But they did not know what
+they should put them in to carry them. At length one man took off
+his breeches, tying them together by the ends, and having put the
+eggs into them, they carried them on a pike between two, while the
+third man carried the musket. The eggs were very welcome, and we eat
+them like lords." From the 19th July, the Dutchmen sailed over a sea,
+which, if not altogether free from ice, was at least clear of those
+great fields of ice which had given them so much trouble to avoid.
+On the 28th July, when entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence, they met
+with two Russian vessels, which at first they dared not approach.
+But when they saw the sailors come to them unarmed and with friendly
+demonstrations, they put aside all fear, the rather as they
+recognized in the Russians some people whom they had met with the
+year before in the neighbourhood of Waigatz. The Dutchmen received
+some assistance from them, and then continued their voyage, still
+keeping along the coast of Nova Zembla, and as close in shore as the
+ice would allow. Upon one occasion when they landed, they discovered
+the cochlearia (scurvy-grass), a plant of which the leaves and seeds
+form one of the most powerful of known anti-scorbutics. They eat
+them, therefore, by handfuls, and immediately experienced great
+relief. Their provisions were, however, nearly exhausted; they had
+only a little bread remaining and scarcely any meat. They decided
+therefore to take to the open sea, in order to shorten the distance
+which separated them from the coast of Russia, where they hoped to
+fall in with some fishermen's boats, from which they might obtain
+assistance. In this hope they were not deceived, although they had
+still many trials to undergo. The Russians were much touched by
+their misfortunes, and consented on several occasions to bestow
+provisions upon them, which prevented the Dutch sailors from dying
+of hunger. In consequence of a thick fog the two boats were
+separated from each other, and did not come together again until
+some distance beyond Cape Kanin on the further side of the White Sea,
+at Kildyn Island, where some fishermen informed the Dutchmen that at
+Kola there were three ships belonging to their nation, which were
+ready to put to sea on their return to their own country. They
+therefore despatched thither one of their men accompanied by a
+Laplander, who returned three days afterwards with a letter signed
+_Jan Rijp_. Great was the astonishment of the Dutch at the sight of
+this signature. It was only on comparing the letter just received
+with several others which Heemskerke had in his possession, that
+they were convinced that it really came from the captain who had
+accompanied them the preceding year. Some days later, on the 30th
+September, Rijp himself arrived with a boat laden with provisions,
+to seek them out and take them to the Kola River, in which his ship
+was at anchor.
+
+Rijp was greatly astonished at all that they related to him, and at
+the terrible voyage of nearly 1200 miles which they had made, and
+which had not taken less than 104 days--namely, from the 13th June
+to the 25th September. Some days of repose accompanied by wholesome
+and abundant food sufficed to clear off the last remains of scurvy,
+and to refresh the sailors after their fatigues. On the 17th
+September, Jan Rijp left the Kola River, and on the 1st November the
+Dutch crew arrived at Amsterdam. "We had on," says Gerrit de Veer,
+"the same garments which we wore in Nova Zembla, having on our heads
+caps of white fox-skin, and we repaired to the house of Peter
+Hasselaer, who had been one of the guardians of the town of
+Amsterdam charged with presiding over the fitting out of the two
+ships of Jan Rijp and of our own captain. Arrived at this house, in
+the midst of general astonishment, because that we had been long
+thought to be dead, and this report had been spread throughout the
+town, the news of our arrival reached the palace of the prince,
+where there were then at table the Chancellor, and the Ambassador of
+the high and mighty King of Denmark and Norway, of the Goths and the
+Vandals. We were then brought before them by M. l'Écoutets and two
+lords of the town, and we gave to the said lord Ambassador, and to
+their lordships the burgomasters, a narrative of our voyage.
+Afterwards each of us retired to his own house. Those who had not
+dwellings in the town, were lodged in an inn until such time as we
+had received our money, when each went his own way. These are the
+names of the men who returned from this voyage: Jacob Heemskerke,
+clerk and captain, Peter Peterson Vos, Gerrit de Veer, mate, Jan Vos,
+surgeon, Jacob Jansen Sterrenburg, Leonard Henry, Laurence William,
+Jan Hillebrants, Jacob Jansen Hoochwout, Peter Corneille, Jacob de
+Buisen, and Jacob Everts."
+
+Of all these brave sailors we have nothing further to record except
+that De Veer published the following year the narrative of his
+voyage, and that Heemskerke after having made several cruises to
+India, received in 1607 the command of a fleet of twenty-six vessels,
+at the head of which, on the 25th of April, he had a severe battle
+with the Spaniards under the guns of Gibraltar, in which battle,
+although the Dutch were the conquerers, Heemskerke lost his life.
+
+The spot where the unfortunate Barentz and his companions had
+wintered was not revisited until 1871, nearly three hundred years
+after their time. The first to double the northern point of Nova
+Zembla, Barentz had remained alone in the achievement until this
+period. On the 7th September, 1871, the Norwegian Captain, Elling
+Carlsen, well known by his numerous voyages in the North Sea and the
+Frozen Ocean, arrived at the ice haven of Barentz, and on the 9th he
+discovered the house which had sheltered the Dutchmen. It was in
+such a wonderful state of preservation that it seemed to have been
+built but a day, and everything was found in the same position as at
+the departure of the shipwrecked crew. Bears, foxes, and other
+creatures inhabiting these inhospitable regions had alone visited
+the spot. Around the house were standing some large puncheons and
+there were heaps of seal, bear, and walrus bones. Inside, everything
+was in its place. It was the faithful reproduction of the curious
+engraving of Gerrit de Veer. The bed-places were arranged along the
+partition as they are shown in the drawing, as well as the clock,
+the muskets, and the halberd. Amongst the household utensils, the
+arms, and the various objects brought away by Captain Carlsen, we
+may mention two copper cooking-pans, some goblets, gun-barrels,
+augers and chisels, a pair of boots, nineteen cartridge-cases, of
+which some were still filled with powder, the clock, a flute, some
+locks and padlocks, twenty-six pewter candlesticks, some fragments
+of engravings, and three books in Dutch, one of which, the last
+edition of Mendoza's "History of China" shows the goal which Barentz
+sought in this expedition, and a "Manual of Navigation" proves the
+care taken by the pilot to keep himself well up in all professional
+matters.
+
+Upon his return to the port of Hammerfest, Captain Carlsen met with
+a Dutchman, Mr. Lister Kay, who purchased the Barentz relics, and
+forwarded them to the authorities of the Netherlands. These objects
+have been placed in the Naval Museum at the Hague, where a house,
+open in front, has been constructed precisely similar to the one
+represented in the drawing of Gerrit de Veer, and each object or
+instrument brought back has been placed in the very position which
+it occupied in the house in Nova Zembla. Surrounded by all the
+respect and affection which they merit, these precious witnesses of
+a maritime event so important as the first wintering in the Arctic
+regions, these touching reminiscences of Barentz, Heemskerke, and
+their rough companions, constitute one of the most interesting
+monuments in the Museum. Beside the clock is placed a copper dial,
+through the middle of which a meridian is drawn. This curious dial,
+invented by Plancius, which served without doubt to determine the
+variations of the compass, is now the only example extant of a
+nautical instrument which has never been in very general use. For
+this reason it is as precious as, from another point of view, are
+the flute used by Barentz, and the shoes of the poor sailor who died
+during the winter sojourn. It is impossible to behold this curious
+collection without experiencing poignant emotion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+VOYAGES OF ADVENTURE AND PRIVATEERING WARFARE.
+
+Drake--Cavendish--De Noort--Walter Raleigh.
+
+
+A very poor cottage at Tavistock in Devonshire was the birthplace in
+1540, of Francis Drake, who was destined to gain millions by his
+indomitable courage, which however, he lost with as much facility as
+he had obtained them. Edmund Drake his father, was one of those
+clergy who devote themselves to the education of the people. His
+poverty was only equalled by the respect which was felt for his
+character. Burdened with a family as he was, the father of Francis
+Drake found himself obliged from necessity to allow his son to
+embrace the maritime profession, for which he had an ardent longing,
+and to serve as cabin-boy on board a coasting vessel which traded
+with Holland. Industrious, active, self-reliant, and saving, the
+young Francis Drake had soon acquired all the theoretical knowledge
+needed for the direction of a vessel. When he had realized a small
+sum, which was increased by the sale of a vessel bequeathed to him
+by his first master, he made more extended voyages; he visited the
+Bay of Biscay and the Gulf of Guinea, and laid out all his capital
+in purchasing a cargo which he hoped to sell in the West Indies. But
+no sooner had he arrived at Rio de la Hacha, than both ship and
+cargo were confiscated, we know not under what frivolous pretext.
+All the remonstrances of Drake, who thus saw himself ruined, were
+useless. He vowed to avenge himself for such a piece of injustice,
+and he kept his word.
+
+In 1567, two years after this adventure, a small fleet of six
+vessels, of which the largest was of 700 tons' burden, left Plymouth
+with the sanction of the Queen, to make an expedition to the Coasts
+of Mexico. Drake was in command of a ship of fifty tons. At first
+starting they captured some negroes on the Cape de Verd Islands, a
+sort of rehearsal of what was destined to take place in Mexico. Then
+they besieged La Mina, where some more negroes were taken, which
+they sold at the Antilles. Hawkins, doubtless by the advice of Drake,
+captured the town of Rio de la Hacha; after which he reached St.
+Jean d'Ulloa, having encountered a fearful storm. But the harbour
+contained a numerous fleet, and was defended by formidable artillery.
+The English fleet was defeated, and Drake had much difficulty in
+regaining the English coast in January, 1568.
+
+Drake afterwards made two expeditions to the West Indies for the
+purpose of studying the country. When he considered himself to have
+acquired the necessary information, he fitted out two vessels at his
+own expense: the _Swan_, of twenty-five tons, commanded by his
+brother John, and the _Pasha_ of Plymouth, of seventy tons. The two
+vessels had as crew seventy-three jack-tars, who could be thoroughly
+depended on. From July, 1572, to August, 1573, sometimes alone,
+sometimes in concert with a certain Captain Rawse, Drake made a
+lucrative cruise upon the coasts of the Gulf of Darien, attacked the
+towns of Vera Cruz and of Nombre de Dios, and obtained considerable
+spoil. Unfortunately these enterprises were not carried out without
+much cruelty and many acts of violence which would make men of the
+present day blush. But we will not dwell upon the scenes of piracy
+and barbarity which are only too frequently met with in the
+sixteenth century.
+
+After assisting in the suppression of the rebellion in Ireland,
+Drake, whose name was beginning to be well known, was presented to
+Queen Elizabeth. He laid before her his project of going to ravage
+the western coasts of South America, by passing through the Strait
+of Magellan, and he obtained, with the title of admiral, a fleet of
+six vessels, on board of which were 160 picked sailors.
+
+Francis Drake started from Plymouth on the 15th November, 1577. He
+had some intercourse with the Moors of Mogador, of which he had no
+reason to boast, made some captures of small importance before
+arriving at the Cape de Verd Islands, where he took in fresh
+provisions, and then was fifty-six days in crossing the Atlantic and
+reaching the coast of Brazil, which he followed as far as the
+estuary of La Plata, where he laid in a supply of water. He
+afterwards arrived at Seal Bay in Patagonia, where he traded with
+the natives, and killed a great number of penguins and sea-wolves
+for the nourishment of his crew. "Some of the Patagonians who were
+seen on the 13th May a little below Seal Bay," says the original
+narrative, "wore on the head a kind of horn, and nearly all had many
+beautiful birds' feathers by way of hats. They also had the face
+painted and diversified by several kinds of colours, and they each
+held a bow in the hand, from which every-time they drew it, they
+discharged two arrows. They were very agile, and as far as we could
+see, well instructed in the art of making war, for they kept good
+order in marching and advancing, and for so few men as they were,
+they made themselves appear a large number." M. Charton, in his
+_Voyageurs Anciens et Modernes_, notices that Drake does not mention
+the extraordinary stature which Magellan had attributed to the
+Patagonians. For this there is more than one good reason. There
+exists in Patagonia more than one tribe, and the description here
+given by Drake of the savages whom he met, does not at all resemble
+that given by Pigafetta of the Patagonians of Port St. Julian. If
+there exist, as seems now to be proved, a race of men of great
+stature, their habitat appears fixed upon the shores of the Strait
+at the southern extremity of Patagonia, and not at fifteen days'
+sail from Port Desire, at which Drake arrived on the 2nd June. On
+the following day he reached the harbour of St. Julian, where he
+found a gibbet erected of yore by Magellan for the punishment of
+some rebellious members of his crew. Drake in his turn, chose this
+spot to rid himself of one of his captains, named Doughty, who had
+been long accused of treason and underhand dealing, and who on
+several occasions had separated himself from the fleet. Some sailors
+having confessed that he had solicited them to join with him in
+frustrating the voyage, Doughty was convicted of the crimes of
+rebellion, and of tampering with the sailors, and according to the
+laws of England, he was condemned by a court martial to be beheaded.
+This sentence was immediately executed, although Doughty until the
+last moment vehemently declared his innocence. Was his guilt
+thoroughly proved? If Drake were accused upon his return to
+England--in spite of the moderation which he always evinced towards
+his men,--of having taken advantage of the opportunity to get rid of
+a rival whom he dreaded, it is difficult to conceive that the forty
+judges who pronounced the sentence should have concerted together to
+further the secret designs of their admiral and condemn an innocent
+man.
+
+On the 20th of August, the fleet, now reduced to three vessels--two
+of the ships having been so much damaged that they were at once
+destroyed by the admiral--entered the strait, which had not been
+traversed since the time of Magellan. Although he met with fine
+harbours, Drake found that it was difficult to anchor in them, on
+account both of the depth of the water close to the shore, and of
+the violence of the wind, which, blowing as it did in sudden squalls,
+rendered navigation dangerous. During a storm which was encountered
+at the point where the strait opens into the Pacific, Drake beheld
+one of his ships founder, while his last companion was separated
+from him a few days afterwards, nor did he see her again until the
+end of the campaign. Driven by the currents to the south of the
+strait as far as 55 degrees 40 minutes, Drake had now only his own
+vessel; but by the injury which he did to the Spaniards, he showed
+what ravages he would have committed if he had had still under his
+command the fleet with which he left England. During a descent upon
+the island of Mocha, the English had two men killed and several
+wounded, while Drake himself, hit by two arrows on the head, found
+himself utterly unable to punish the Indians for their perfidy. In
+the harbour of Valparaiso he captured a vessel richly laden with the
+wines of Chili, and with ingots of gold valued at 37,000 ducats;
+afterwards he pillaged the town, which had been precipitately
+abandoned by its inhabitants. At Coquimbo, the people were
+forewarned of his approach, so that he found there a strong force,
+which obliged him to re-embark. At Arica he plundered three small
+vessels, in one of which he found fifty-seven bars of silver valued
+at 2006_l._ In the harbour of Lima, where were moored twelve ships
+or barks, the booty was considerable. But what most rejoiced the
+heart of Drake was to learn that a galleon named the _Cagafuego_,
+very richly laden, was sailing towards Paraca. He immediately went
+in pursuit, capturing on the way a bark carrying 80 lbs. of gold,
+which would be worth 14,080 French crowns, and in the latitude of
+San Francisco he seized without any difficulty the _Cagafuego_, in
+which he found 80 lbs. weight of gold. This caused the Spanish pilot
+to say, laughing, "Captain, our ship ought no longer to be called
+_Cagafuego_ (spit-fire), but rather _Caga-Plata_ (spit money), it is
+yours which should be named _Caga-Fuego_." After making some other
+captures more or less valuable, upon the Peruvian coast, Drake,
+learning that a considerable fleet was being prepared to oppose him,
+thought it time to return to England. For this, there were three
+different routes open to him: he might again pass the Strait of
+Magellan, or he might cross the Southern Sea, and doubling the Cape
+of Good Hope might so return to the Atlantic Ocean, or he could sail
+up the coast of China and return by the Frozen Sea and the North
+Cape. It was this last alternative, as being the safest of the three,
+which was adopted by Drake. He therefore put out to sea, reached the
+38 degrees of north latitude, and landed on the shore of the Bay of
+San Francisco, which had been discovered three years previously by
+Bodega. It was now the month of June, the temperature was very low,
+and the ground covered with snow. The details given by Drake of his
+reception by the natives, are curious enough: "When we arrived, the
+savages manifested great admiration at the sight of us, and thinking
+that we were gods, they received us with great humanity and
+reverence."
+
+"As long as we remained, they continued to come and visit us,
+sometimes bringing us beautiful plumes made of feathers of divers
+colours, and sometimes petun (tobacco) which is a herb in general
+use among the Indians. But before presenting these things to us,
+they stopped at a little distance, in a spot where we had pitched
+our tents. Then they made a long discourse after the manner of a
+harangue, and when they had finished, they laid aside their bows and
+arrows in that place, and approached us to offer their presents."
+
+"The first time they came their women remained in the same place,
+and scratched and tore the skin and flesh of their cheeks, lamenting
+themselves in a wonderful manner, whereat we were much astonished.
+But we have since learnt that it was a kind of sacrifice which they
+offered to us."
+
+The facts given by Drake with regard to the Indians of California
+are almost the only ones which he furnishes upon the manners and
+customs of the nations which he visited. We would draw the reader's
+attention here, to that custom of long harangues which the traveller
+especially remarks, just as Cartier had observed upon it forty years
+earlier, and which is so noticeable amongst the Canadian Indians at
+the present day. Drake did not advance farther north and gave up his
+project of returning by the Frozen Sea. When he again set sail, it
+was to descend towards the Line, to reach the Moluccas, and to
+return to England by the Cape of Good Hope. As this part of the
+voyage deals with countries already known, and as the observations
+made by Drake are neither numerous nor novel, our narrative here
+shall be brief.
+
+On the 13th of October, 1579, Drake arrived in latitude 8 degrees
+north, at a group of islands of which the inhabitants had their ears
+much lengthened by the weight of the ornaments suspended to them;
+their nails were allowed to grow, and appeared to serve as defensive
+weapons, while their teeth, "black as ship's pitch," contracted this
+colour from the use of the betel-nut. After resting for a time,
+Drake passed by the Philippines, and on the 14th of November arrived
+at Ternate. The king of this island came alongside, with four canoes
+bearing his principal officers dressed in their state costumes.
+After an interchange of civilities and presents, the English
+received some rice, sugar-canes, fowls, _figo_, cloves, and sago. On
+the morrow, some of the sailors who had landed, were present at a
+council. "When the king arrived, a rich umbrella or parasol all
+embroidered in gold was borne before him. He was dressed after the
+fashion of his country, but with extreme magnificence, for he was
+enveloped from the shoulders with a long cloak of cloth of gold
+reaching to the ground. He wore as an ornament upon the head, a kind
+of turban made of the same stuff, all worked in fine gold and
+enriched with jewels and tufts. On his neck there hung a fine gold
+chain many times doubled, and formed of broad links. On his fingers,
+he had six rings of very valuable stones, and his feet were encased
+in shoes of morocco leather."
+
+After remaining some time in the country to refresh his crew, Drake
+again put to sea, but his ship on the 9th of January, 1580, struck
+on a rock, and to float her off it was necessary to throw overboard
+eight pieces of ordnance and a large quantity of provisions. A month
+later, Drake arrived at Baratena Island where he repaired his ship.
+This island afforded much silver, gold, copper, sulphur, spices,
+lemons, cucumbers, cocoa-nuts, and other delicious fruits. "We
+loaded our vessels abundantly with these, being able to certify that
+since our departure from England we have not visited any place where
+we have found more comforts in the way of food and fresh provisions
+than in this island and that of Ternate."
+
+After quitting this richly endowed island, Drake landed at Greater
+Java, where he was very warmly welcomed by the five kings amongst
+whom the island was partitioned, and by the inhabitants. "These
+people are of a fine degree of corpulence, they are great
+connoisseurs in arms, with which they are well provided, such as
+swords, daggers, and bucklers, and all these arms are made with much
+art." Drake had been some little time at Java when he learnt that
+not far distant there was a powerful fleet at anchor, which he
+suspected must belong to Spain; to avoid it he put to sea in all
+haste. He doubled the Cape of Good Hope during the first days of
+June, and after stopping at Sierra Leone to take in water, he
+entered Plymouth harbour on the 3rd November, 1580, after an absence
+of three years all but a few days.
+
+The reception which awaited him in England was at first extremely
+cold. His having fallen by surprise both upon Spanish towns and
+ships, at a time when the two nations were at peace, rightly caused
+him to be regarded by a portion of society as a pirate, who tramples
+under foot the rights of nations. For five months the Queen herself,
+under the pressure of diplomatic proprieties, pretended to be
+ignorant of his return. But at the end of that time, either because
+circumstances had altered, or because she did not wish to show
+herself any longer severe towards the skilful sailor, she repaired
+to Deptford where Drake's ship was moored, went on board, and
+conferred the honour of knighthood upon the navigator.
+
+[Illustration: Elizabeth knighting Drake.]
+
+From this period Drake's part as a discoverer is ended, and his
+after-life as a warrior and as the implacable enemy of the Spaniards
+does not concern us. Loaded with honours, and invested with
+important commands, Drake died at sea on the 28th January, 1596,
+during an expedition against the Spaniards.
+
+To him pertains the honour of having been the second to pass through
+the Strait of Magellan, and to have visited Tierra del Fuego as far
+as the parts about Cape Horn. He also ascended the coast of North
+America to a point higher than any his predecessors had attained,
+and he discovered several islands and archipelagos. Being a very
+clever navigator, he made the transit through the Strait of Magellan
+with great rapidity. If there are but very few discoveries due to
+him, this is probably either because he neglected to record them in
+his journal, or because he often mentions them in so inaccurate a
+manner that it is scarcely possible to recognize the places. It was
+he who inaugurated that privateering warfare by which the English,
+and later on the Dutch, were destined to inflict much injury upon
+the Spaniards. And the large profits accruing to him from it,
+encouraged his contemporaries, and gave birth in their minds to the
+love for long and hazardous voyages.
+
+Among all those who took example by Drake, the most illustrious was
+undoubtedly Thomas Cavendish or Candish. Cavendish joined the
+English marine service at a very early age; and passed a most stormy
+youth, during which he rapidly dissipated his modest fortune. That
+which play had robbed him of, he resolved to recover from the
+Spaniards. Having in 1585 obtained letters of mark, he made a cruise
+to the East Indies and returned with considerable booty. Encouraged
+by his easy success as a highwayman on the great maritime roads, he
+thought that if he could acquire some honour and glory while engaged
+in making his fortune, so much the better would it be for him. With
+this idea he bought three ships, the _Desire_, of twenty tons, the
+_Content_, of sixty tons, and the _Hugh Gallant_, of forty tons,
+upon which he embarked one hundred and twenty-three soldiers and
+sailors. Setting sail on the 22nd July, 1586, he passed by the
+Canaries, and landed at Sierra Leone, which town he attacked and
+plundered; then, sailing again, he crossed the Atlantic, sighted
+Cape Sebastian in Brazil, sailed along the coast of Patagonia, and
+arrived on the 27th November at Port Desire. He found there an
+immense quantity of dog-fish, very large, and so strong that four
+men could with difficulty kill them, and numbers of birds, which,
+having no wings, could not fly, and which fed upon fish. They are
+classed under the general names of auks and penguins. In this very
+secure harbour, the ships were drawn up on shore to be repaired.
+During his stay at this place Cavendish had some skirmishes with the
+Patagonians,--"men of gigantic size, and having feet eighteen inches
+long"--who wounded two of the sailors with arrows tipped with
+sharpened flints.
+
+On the 7th January, 1587, Cavendish entered the Strait of Magellan,
+and in the narrowest part of it received on board his ships
+one-and-twenty Spaniards and two women, the sole survivors of the
+colony founded three years previously, under the name of
+Philippeville, by Captain Sarmiento. This town, which had been built
+to bar the passage through the strait, had possessed no fewer than
+four forts as well as several churches. Cavendish could discern the
+fortress, then deserted and already falling into ruins. Its
+inhabitants, who had been completely prevented by the continual
+attacks of the savages from gathering in their harvests, had died of
+hunger, or had perished in endeavouring to reach the Spanish
+settlements in Chili. The Admiral, upon hearing this lamentable tale,
+changed the name of Philippeville into that of Port Famine, under
+which appellation the place is known at the present day. On the 21st
+the ships entered a beautiful bay, which received the name of
+Elizabeth, and in which was buried the carpenter of the _Hugh
+Gallant_. Not far from thence a fine river fell into the sea, on the
+banks of which dwelt the anthropophagi who had fought so fiercely
+with the Spaniards, and who endeavoured, but in vain, to entice the
+Englishmen into the interior of the country.
+
+On the 24th February, as the little squadron came forth from the
+strait, it encountered a violent storm, which dispersed it. The
+_Hugh Gallant_, left alone, and letting in water in all directions,
+was only kept afloat with the greatest trouble. Rejoined on the 15th
+by his consorts, Cavendish tried in vain to land on Mocha Island,
+where Drake had been so maltreated by the Araucanians. This country,
+rich in gold and silver, had hitherto successfully resisted all
+Spanish attempts to subjugate it, and its inhabitants, fully
+determined to maintain their liberty, repulsed by force of arms
+every attempt to land. It was necessary therefore to go to the
+island of St. Maria, where the Indians, who took the Englishmen for
+Spaniards, furnished them with abundance of maize, fowls, sweet
+potatoes, pigs, and other provisions.
+
+On the 30th March, Cavendish dropped anchor in 32 degrees 50 minutes
+in the Bay of Quintero. A party of thirty musketeers advanced into
+the country and met with oxen, cows, wild horses, hares, and
+partridges in abundance. The little troop was attacked by the
+Spaniards, and Cavendish was obliged to return to his ships after
+losing twelve of his men. He afterwards ravaged, plundered, or burnt
+the towns of Paraca, Cincha, Pisca, and Païta, and devastated the
+island of Puna, where he obtained a booty in coined money of the
+value of 25,760_l._ After having scuttled the _Hugh Gallant_, which
+was totally unfit any longer to keep the water, Cavendish continued
+his profitable cruising, burnt, in the latitude of New Spain, a ship
+of 120 tons, plundered and burnt Aguatulio, and captured, after six
+hours of fighting, a vessel of 708 tons, laden with rich stuffs, and
+with 122,000 gold pesos. Then, "victorious and contented," Cavendish
+wished to secure the great spoils which he was conveying against any
+chance of danger. He touched at the Ladrones, the Philippines, and
+Greater Java, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, recruited himself at St.
+Helena, and on the 9th September, 1588, anchored at Plymouth, after
+two years of sailing, privateering, and fighting. At the end of two
+years after his return, of all the great fortune which he had
+brought back with him, there remained only a sum sufficient for the
+fitting out of a third, and as it proved, a last expedition.
+
+Cavendish started on the 6th August, 1591, with five vessels, but a
+storm on the coast of Patagonia scattered the flotilla, which could
+not be collected again until the arrival at Port Desire. Assailed by
+fearful hurricanes in the Strait of Magellan, Cavendish was obliged
+to go back, after having seen himself deserted by three of his ships.
+The want of fresh provisions, the cold, and the privations of all
+kinds which he underwent, and which had decimated his crew, forced
+him to return northwards along the coast of Brazil, where the
+Portuguese opposed every attempt at landing. He was therefore
+obliged to put to sea again without having been able to revictual.
+Cavendish died, from grief perhaps as much as from hardships, before
+he reached the English coast.
+
+One year after the return of the companions of Barentz, two ships,
+the _Mauritius_ and the _Hendrik Fredrik_, with two yachts, the
+_Eendracht_ and _Espérance_, having on board a crew of 248 men,
+quitted Amsterdam on the 2nd July, 1598. The commander-in-chief of
+this squadron was Oliver de Noort, a man at that time about thirty
+or thereabouts, and well known as having made several long cruising
+voyages. His second in command and vice-admiral was Jacob Claaz
+d'Ulpenda, and as pilot there was a certain Melis, a skilful sailor
+of English origin. This expedition, fitted out by the merchants of
+Amsterdam with the concurrence and aid of the States-General of
+Holland, had a double purpose; at once commercial and military.
+Formerly the Dutch had contented themselves with fetching from
+Portugal the merchandise which they distributed by means of their
+coasting vessels throughout Europe; but now they were reduced to the
+necessity of going to seek the commodities in the scene of their
+production. For this object, De Noort was to show his countrymen the
+route inaugurated by Magellan, and on the way to inflict as much
+injury as he could upon the Spaniards and Portuguese. At this period
+Philip II., whose yoke the Dutch had shaken off, and who had just
+added Portugal to his possessions, had forbidden his subjects to
+have any commercial intercourse with the rebels of the Low Countries.
+It was thus a necessity for Holland if she did not wish to be ruined,
+and as a consequence, to fall anew under Spanish rule, to open up
+for herself a road to the Spice Islands. The route which was the
+least frequented by the enemy's ships was that by the Strait of
+Magellan, and this was the one which De Noort was ordered to follow.
+
+After touching at Goree, the Dutch anchored in the Gulf of Guinea,
+at the Island _do Principe_. Here the Portuguese pretended to give a
+friendly welcome to the men who went on shore, but they took
+advantage of a favourable opportunity, to fall upon and massacre
+them without mercy. Among the dead were Cornille de Noort, brother
+of the admiral, Melis, Daniel Goerrits, and John de Bremen--the
+captain, Peter Esias, being the only man who escaped. It was a
+sorrowful commencement for a campaign, a sad presage which was
+destined not to remain unfulfilled. De Noort, who was furious over
+this foul play, landed from his ships 120 men; but he found the
+Portuguese so well entrenched, that after a brisk skirmish in which
+seventeen more of his men were either killed or wounded, he was
+obliged to weigh anchor without having been able to avenge the
+wicked and cowardly perfidy to which his brother and twelve of his
+companions had fallen victims. On the 25th December, one of the
+pilots named Jan Volkers, was abandoned on the African coast as a
+punishment for his disloyal intrigues, for endeavouring to foment a
+spirit of despondency amongst the crews, and for his well-proved
+rebellion. On the 5th January, the island of Annobon, situated in
+the Gulf of Guinea, a little below the Line, was sighted, and the
+course of the ships was changed for crossing the Atlantic. De Noort
+had scarcely cast anchor in the Bay of Rio Janeiro before he sent
+some sailors on shore to obtain water and buy provisions from the
+natives; but the Portuguese opposed the landing, and killed eleven
+men. Afterwards, repulsed from the coast of Brazil by the Portuguese
+and the natives, driven back by contrary winds, having made vain
+efforts to reach the island of St. Helena, where they had hoped to
+obtain the provisions of which they were in the most pressing want,
+the Dutchmen, deprived of their pilot, toss at random upon the ocean.
+They land upon the desert islands of Martin Vaz, again reach the
+coast of Brazil at Rio Doce, which they mistake for Ascension Island,
+and are finally obliged to winter in the desert island of Santa
+Clara. The putting into port at this place was marked by several
+disagreeable events. The flag-ship struck upon a rock with so much
+violence that had the sea been a little rougher, she must have been
+lost. There were also some bloody and barbarous executions of
+mutinous sailors, notably that of a poor man, who having wounded a
+pilot with a knife thrust, was condemned to have his hand nailed to
+the mainmast. The invalids, of whom there were many on board the
+fleet, were brought on shore, and nearly all were cured by the end
+of a fortnight. From the 2nd to the 21st of June, De Noort remained
+in this island, which was not more than three miles from the
+mainland. But before putting to sea he was obliged to burn the
+_Eendracht_, as he had not sufficient men to work her. It was not
+until the 20th December, after having been tried by many storms,
+that he was able to cast anchor in Port Desire, where the crew
+killed in a few days a quantity of dog-fish and sea-lions, as well
+as more than five thousand penguins. "The general landed," says the
+French translation of De Noort's narrative, published by De Bry,
+"with a party of armed men, but they saw nobody, only some graves
+placed on high situations among the rocks, in which the people bury
+their dead, putting upon the grave a great quantity of stones, all
+painted red, having besides adorned the graves with darts, plumes of
+feathers, and other singular articles which they use as arms."
+
+[Illustration: A Sea-lion Hunt. _From an old print_.]
+
+The Dutch saw also, but at too great a distance to shoot them,
+buffalos, stags, and ostriches, and from a single nest they obtained
+ten ostrich eggs. Captain Jacob Jansz Huy de Cooper, died during the
+stay at this place, and was interred at Port Desire. On the 23rd
+November, the fleet entered the Strait of Magellan. During a visit
+to the shore three Dutchmen were killed by some Patagonians, and
+their death was avenged by the massacre of a whole tribe of Enoos.
+The long navigation through the narrows and the lakes of the Strait
+of Magellan was signalized by the meeting with two Dutch ships,
+under the command of Sebald de Weerdt, who had wintered not far from
+the Bay of Mauritius, and by the abandoning of Vice-admiral Claaz,
+who, as it would appear, had been several times guilty of
+insubordination. Are not these acts, which we see so frequently
+committed by English, Dutch, and Spanish navigators, a true sign of
+the times? A deed which we should regard now-a-days as one of
+terrible barbarity seemed, doubtless, a relatively mild punishment
+in the eyes of men so accustomed to set but little value upon human
+life. Nevertheless, could anything be more cruel than to abandon a
+man in a desert country, without arms and without provisions, to put
+him on shore in a country peopled by ferocious cannibals, prepared
+to make a repast on his flesh; what was it but condemning him to a
+horrible death?
+
+On the 29th of February, 1600, De Noort, after having been
+ninety-nine days in passing through the strait, came out on to the
+Pacific Ocean. A fortnight later, a storm separated him from the
+_Hendrik Fredrik_, which was never again heard of. As for De Noort,
+who had now with him only one yacht besides his own vessel, he cast
+anchor at the island of Mocha, and, unlike the experience of his
+predecessors, he was very well received by the natives. Afterwards
+he sailed along the coast of Chili, where he was able to obtain
+provisions in abundance in exchange for Nuremberg knives, hatchets,
+shirts, hats, and other articles of no great value. After ravaging,
+plundering, and burning several towns on the Peruvian coast, after
+sinking all the vessels that he met with, and amassing a
+considerable booty, De Noort, hearing that a squadron commanded by
+the brother of the viceroy, Don Luis de Velasco, had been sent in
+pursuit of him, judged it time to make for the Ladrone Islands,
+where he anchored on the 16th of September. "The inhabitants came
+around our ship with more than 200 canoes, there being three, four,
+or five men in each canoe, crying out all together: 'Hierro, hierro'
+(iron, iron), which is greatly in request amongst them. They are as
+much at home in the water as upon land, and are very clever divers,
+as we perceived when we threw five pieces of iron into the sea,
+which a single man went to search for." De Noort could testify
+unfortunately, that these islands well deserved their name. The
+islanders tried even to drag the nails out of the ship, and carried
+off everything upon which they could lay their hands. One of them,
+having succeeded in climbing along a part of the rigging, had the
+audacity to enter a cabin and seize upon a sword, with which he
+threw himself into the sea.
+
+On the 14th October following, De Noort traversed the Philippine
+Archipelago, where he made several descents, and burnt, plundered,
+or sunk a number of Spanish or Portuguese vessels, and some Chinese
+junks. While cruising in the Strait of Manilla he was attacked by
+two large Spanish vessels, and in the battle which followed the
+Dutch had five men killed, and twenty-five wounded and lost their
+brigantine, which was captured with her crew of twenty-five men. The
+Spaniards lost more than 200 men, for their flag-ship caught fire
+and sank. Far from picking up the wounded and the able-bodied men,
+who were trying to save themselves by swimming, the Dutch, "making
+way with sails set on the foremast, across the heads which were to
+be seen in the water, pierced some with lances, and also discharged
+their cannon over them." After this bloody and fruitless victory, De
+Noort went to recruit at Borneo, captured a rich cargo of spices at
+Java, and having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, landed at Rotterdam
+on the 26th of August, having only one ship and forty-eight men
+remaining. If the merchants who had defrayed the expenses of the
+expedition approved of the conduct of De Noort, who brought back a
+cargo which more than reimbursed them for their expenditure, and who
+had taught his countrymen the way to the Indies, it behoves us,
+while extolling his qualities as a sailor, to take great exception
+to the manner in which he exercised the command, and to mete out
+severe blame for the barbarity which has left a stain of blood upon
+the first Dutch voyage of circumnavigation.
+
+[Illustration: Battle of Manilla. _From an old print_.]
+
+We have now to speak of a man who, endowed with eminent qualities
+and with at least equal defects, carried on his life's work in
+divers, sometimes even in opposing directions, and who after having
+reached the highest summit of honour to which a gentleman could
+aspire, at last laid his head upon a scaffold, accused of treason
+and felony. This man is Sir Walter Raleigh. If he have any claim to
+a place in this portrait gallery of great sailors, it is neither as
+founder of any English colony nor as a sailor; it is as a discoverer,
+and what we have to say of him is not to his credit. Walter Raleigh
+passed five years in France fighting against the League, in the
+midst of all those Gascons who formed the basis of the armies of
+Henry of Navarre, and in such society he perfected the habits of
+boasting and falsehood which belonged to his character. In 1577,
+after a campaign in the Low Countries against the Spaniards, he
+returns to England and takes a deep interest in the questions so
+passionately debated among his three brothers by the mother's side,
+John, Humphrey, and Adrian Gilbert. At this period England was
+passing through a very grave economic crisis. The practice of
+agriculture was undergoing a transformation; in all directions
+grazing was being substituted for tillage, and the number of
+agricultural labourers was greatly reduced by the change. From
+thence arose general distress, and also such a surplussage of
+population as was fast becoming a matter of anxious concern. At the
+same time, to long wars succeeds a peace, destined to endure
+throughout the reign of Elizabeth, so that a great number of
+adventurers know not how to find indulgence for their love of
+violent emotions. At this moment, therefore, arises the necessity
+for such an emigration as may relieve the country of its population,
+may permit all the miserable people dying of hunger to provide for
+their own wants in a new country, and by that means may increase the
+influence and prosperity of the mother country. All the more
+thoughtful minds in England, who follow the course of public
+opinion--Hakluyt, Thomas Hariot, Carlyle, Peckham, and the brothers
+Gilbert--are struck with this need. But it is to the last named that
+belongs the credit of indicating the locality suitable for the
+establishing of colonies. Raleigh only joined with his brothers in
+the scheme, following their lead, but he neither conceived nor began
+the carrying into execution--as he has been too often credited with
+doing--of this fruitful project, the colonization of the American
+shores of the Atlantic. If Raleigh, all-powerful with Queen
+Elizabeth, fickle and nevertheless jealous in her affections as she
+was, encourage his brothers; if he expend himself 40,000_l._
+sterling in his attempts at colonization, he still takes good care
+not to quit England, for the life of patience and self-devotion of
+the founder of a colony would have no attractions for him. He gives
+up and sells his patent as soon as he perceives the inutility of his
+efforts, while he does not forget to reserve for himself the fifth
+part of any profit arising eventually from the colony.
+
+[Illustration: Sir Walter Raleigh. _From an old print_.]
+
+At the same time Raleigh fits out some vessels against the Spanish
+possessions; and himself soon takes part in the strife and the
+battles which saved England from the Invincible Armada, afterwards
+proceeding to support the claims of the Prior de Crato, to the
+throne of Portugal. It is a short time after his return to England
+that he falls into disgrace with his royal mistress, and after his
+release from prison, while he is confined to his princely mansion of
+Sherborne, he conceives the project of his voyage to Guiana. To his
+mind, this is a gigantic enterprise of which the marvellous results
+are destined to draw upon him the attention of the whole world, and
+to restore to him the favour of his sovereign. Would not the
+discovery and conquest of El Dorado, of the country in which
+according to Orellana, the temples are roofed with plates of gold,
+where all the tools, even those for the meanest purposes, are made
+of gold, where one walks upon precious stones, "procure for him
+greater glory," these are the very words which Raleigh employs in
+his account, "than Cortès had gained in Mexico, or Pizarro in Peru.
+He will have under him more golden towns and nations than the King
+of Spain, the Sultan of the Turks, and no matter what Emperor!" We
+have already spoken of the fables which Orellana had invented in
+1539, and which had been the fruitful source of more than one legend.
+Humboldt discloses what had given them birth when he describes to us
+the nature of the soil and the rocks which surround Lake Parima,
+between the Essequibo and the Branco. "They are," says this great
+traveller, "rocks of micaceous slate, and of sparkling talc, which
+are resplendent in the midst of a sheet of water, which acts as a
+reflector beneath the burning tropical sun." So are explained those
+massive domes of gold, those obelisks of silver, and all those
+marvels of which the boastful and enthusiastic minds of the
+Spaniards afforded them a glimpse. Did Raleigh believe really in the
+existence of this city of gold, for the conquest of which he was
+about to sacrifice so many lives? Was he thoroughly convinced
+himself, or did he not yield to the illusions of a mind eager for
+glory? It is impossible to say, but this at least is indisputable,
+that, to borrow the just expressions of M. Philarète Chasles, "at
+the moment even of his embarkation men did not believe in his
+promises, they were suspicious of his exaggerations, and dreaded the
+results of an expedition directed by a man so fool-hardy, and of a
+morality so equivocal."
+
+[Illustration: Raleigh seizes Berreo. _From an old print_.]
+
+Nevertheless, it seemed that Raleigh had foreseen everything needful
+for this undertaking, and that he had made the necessary studies.
+Not only did he speak of the nature of the soil of Guiana, of its
+productions, and its inhabitants with imperturbable assurance, but
+he had taken care to send, at his own expense, a ship commanded by
+Captain Whiddon, to prepare the way for the fleet which he intended
+to conduct in person to the banks of the Orinoco. What he took good
+care, however, not to confide to the public, was that all the
+information he received from his emissary was unfavourable to the
+enterprise. Raleigh himself started from Plymouth on the 9th
+February, 1595, with a small fleet of five vessels, and 100 soldiers,
+without reckoning marines, officers, and volunteers. After stopping
+four days at Fortaventura, one of the Canaries, to take in wood and
+water there, he reached Teneriffe, where Captain Brereton ought to
+have rejoined him. Having waited for him in vain for eighty days,
+Raleigh sailed for Trinidad, where he met Whiddon. The island of
+Trinidad was at that time governed by Don Antonio de Berreo, who, it
+is said, had obtained accurate information concerning Guiana. The
+arrival of the English did not please him, and he immediately
+despatched emissaries to Cumana and to Margarita, with orders to
+gather together the troops to attack the Englishmen, while at the
+same time he forbade any Indians or Spaniards to hold intercourse
+with them under pain of death. Raleigh, forewarned, determined to be
+beforehand with him. At nightfall he landed in secret with 100 men,
+captured the town of St. Joseph, to which the Indians set fire,
+without a blow, and carried off Berreo and the principal personages
+to the ships. At the same time arrived Captains Gifford and Knynin,
+from whom he had been separated upon the Spanish Coasts. Raleigh at
+once sailed for the Orinoco, entered Capuri Bay with a large galley
+and three boats carrying 100 sailors and soldiers, became entangled
+in the inextricable labyrinth of islands and canals which form the
+mouth of the river, and ascended the Orinoco for a distance of 330
+miles. The account which Raleigh gives of his campaign is so
+fabulous, with the coolness of a Gascon transported to the banks of
+the Thames, he so heaps one falsehood upon the top of another, that
+one is almost tempted to class his narrative amongst the number of
+imaginary voyages. He says that some Spaniards who had seen the town
+of Manoa, called El Dorado, told him that this town exceeds in size
+and wealth all the towns in the world, and everything which the
+"conquistadores" had seen in America. "There is no winter there," he
+says; "a soil dry and fertile, with game, and birds of every species
+in great abundance, who filled the air with hitherto unknown notes;
+it was a real concert for us. My captain, sent to search for mines,
+perceived veins both of gold and silver; but as he had no tool but
+his sword, he was unable to detach these metals to examine them in
+detail; however, he carried away several bits of them which he
+reserved for future examination. A Spaniard of Caracas called this
+mine _Madre del Oro_ (mother of gold)." Then, as Raleigh well knows
+that the public is on its guard against his exaggerations, he adds,
+"It will be thought perchance, that I am the sport of a false and
+cheating delusion, but why should I have undertaken a voyage thus
+laborious, if I had not entertained the conviction that there is not
+a country upon earth which is richer in gold than Guiana? Whiddon
+and Milechappe, our surgeon, brought back several stones which
+resembled sapphires. I showed these stones to several inhabitants of
+Orinoco, who have assured me that there exists an entire mountain of
+them." An old cacique of the age of 110, who nevertheless could
+still walk ten miles without fatigue, came to see Raleigh, boasted
+to him of the formidable power of the Emperor of Manoa, and proved
+to him that his forces were insufficient. He depicted these people
+as much civilized, as wearing clothes, and possessing great riches,
+especially in plates of gold; finally, he spoke to him of a mountain
+of pure gold. Raleigh relates that he wished to approach this
+mountain, but, sad mischance, it was at that moment half submerged.
+"It had the form of a tower, and appeared to me rather white than
+yellow. A torrent which precipitated itself from the mountain,
+swollen by the rains, made a tremendous noise, which could be heard
+at the distance of many miles, and which deafened our people. I
+recollected the description which Berreo had given of the brilliancy
+of the diamonds and of the other precious stones scattered over the
+various parts of the country. I had, however, some doubt as to the
+value of these stones; their extraordinary whiteness, nevertheless
+surprised me. After a short time of repose on the banks of the
+Vinicapara, and a visit to the village of the cacique, the latter
+promised to conduct me to the foot of the mountain by a circuitous
+route; but at the sight of the numerous difficulties which presented
+themselves, I preferred to return to the mouth of the Cumana, where
+the caciques of the neighbourhood came to bring various presents,
+consisting of the rare productions of the country." We will spare
+the reader the description of people three times taller than
+ordinary men, of cyclops, of natives who had their eyes upon the
+shoulders, their mouth in the chest, and the hair growing from the
+middle of the back--all affirmations seriously related, but which
+give to Raleigh's narrative a singular resemblance to a fairy tale.
+One fancies while reading it that it must be a page taken out of the
+_Thousand and one Nights_.
+
+If we put on one side all these figments of an imagination run mad,
+what gain has been derived for geography? There was certainly no
+pains spared in announcing with much noise, and very great puffing,
+this fantastic expedition, and we may well say with the
+fable-writer,--
+
+   "In fancy free I an author see,
+    Who says, 'The awful war I'll sing
+    Of Titans with the Thunder-King:'
+    Of this grand promise the result, we find,
+                           Is often wind."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+MISSIONARIES AND SETTLERS. MERCHANTS AND TOURISTS.
+
+I.
+
+Distinguishing characteristics of the Seventeenth Century--The more
+thorough exploration of regions previously discovered--To the thirst
+for gold succeeds Apostolic zeal--Italian missionaries in Congo--
+Portuguese missionaries in Abyssinia--Brue in Senegal and Flacourt
+in Madagascar--The Apostles of India, of Indo-China, and of Japan.
+
+
+The seventeenth century has a distinctive character of its own,
+differing from that of the preceding century in the fact that nearly
+all the great discoveries have been already made, and that the work
+of this whole period consists almost exclusively in perfecting the
+information already acquired. It contrasts equally with the century
+which is to succeed it, because scientific methods are not yet
+applied by astronomers and sailors, as they are to be 100 years
+later. It appears in fact, that the narratives of the first
+explorers--who were only able, so to speak, to obtain a glimpse of
+the regions which they traversed while waging their wars,--may have
+in some degree exercised a baneful influence upon the public mind.
+Curiosity, in the narrowest sense of the word, is carried to an
+extreme. Men travel over the world to gain an idea of the manners
+and customs of each nation, of the productions and manufactures of
+each country, but there is no real study. They do not seek to trace
+what they see to its source, and to reason scientifically upon the
+why and wherefore of facts. They behold, curiosity is satisfied, and
+they pass on. The observations made do not penetrate beneath the
+surface, and the great object appears to be to visit, as rapidly as
+may be, all the regions which the sixteenth century has brought to
+light.
+
+Besides, the abundance of the wealth diffused on a sudden over the
+whole of Europe has caused an economic crisis. Commerce, like
+industry, is transformed and altered. New ways are opened, new
+mediums arise, new wants are created, luxury increases, and the
+eagerness to make a fortune rapidly by speculation, turns the heads
+of many. If Venice from a commercial point of view be dead, the
+Dutch are about to constitute themselves, to use a happy expression
+of M. Leroy-Beaulieu, "the carriers and agents of Europe," and the
+English are preparing to lay the foundations of their vast colonial
+empire.
+
+To the merchants succeed the missionaries. They alight in large
+numbers upon the newly-discovered countries, preaching the Gospel,
+civilizing the barbarous nations, studying and describing the
+country. The development of Apostolic zeal is one of the dominant
+features of the seventeenth century, and it behoves us to recognize
+all that geography and historic science owe to these devoted,
+learned, and unassuming men. The traveller only passes through a
+country, the missionary dwells in it. The latter has evidently much
+greater facilities for acquiring an intimate knowledge of the
+history and civilization of the nations which he studies. It is
+therefore very natural that we should owe to them narratives of
+journeys, descriptions, and histories, which are still consulted
+with advantage, and which have served as a basis for later works.
+
+If there be any country to which these reflections more particularly
+apply, it is to Africa, and especially to Abyssinia. How much of
+this vast triangular continent of Africa was known in the
+seventeenth century? Nothing but the coasts, it will be said. A
+mistake. From the earliest times the two branches of the Nile, the
+Astapus and the Bahr-el-Abiad, had been known to the ancients. They
+had even advanced--if the lists of countries and nations discovered
+at Karnak by M. Mariette may be believed--as far as the great Lakes
+of the interior. In the twelfth century, the Arab geographer Edrisi
+writes an excellent description of Africa for Roger II. of Sicily,
+and confirms these data. Later on, Cadamosto and Ibn Batuta travel
+over Africa, and the latter goes as far as Timbuctoo. Marco Polo
+affirms that Africa is only united to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez,
+and he visits Madagascar. Lastly, when the Portuguese, led by Vasco
+da Gama, have completed the circumnavigation of Africa, some of them
+remain in Abyssinia, and in a short time diplomatic relations are
+established between that country and Portugal. We have already said
+something of Francesco Alvarez; in his train several Portuguese
+missionaries settle in the country, amongst whom must be named
+Fathers Paez and Lobo.
+
+Father Paez left Goa in 1588 to preach Christianity upon the eastern
+coast of North Africa. After long and sad mishaps, he landed at
+Massowah in Abyssinia, traversed the country, and in 1618 pushed on
+as far as the sources of the Blue Nile,--a discovery the
+authenticity of which Bruce was hereafter to dispute, but of which
+the narrative differs only in some unimportant particulars from that
+of the Scotch traveller. In 1604, Paez, arrived at the court of the
+king Za Denghel, had preached with such success that he had
+converted the king and all his court. He had even soon acquired so
+great an influence over the Abyssinian monarch, that the latter, in
+writing to the Pope and to the King of Spain to offer them his
+friendship, asked them to send him men fitted to teach his people.
+
+Father Geronimo Lobo landed in Abyssinia with Alfonzo Meneses,
+patriarch of Ethiopia, in 1625. But times were greatly changed. The
+king converted by Paez had been murdered, and his successor, who had
+summoned the Portuguese missionaries, died after a short time. A
+violent revulsion of feeling ensued against the Christians, and the
+missionaries were driven away, imprisoned, or given up to the Turks.
+Lobo was charged with the mission of obtaining the sum necessary for
+the ransom of his companions. After many wanderings, which led him
+to Brazil, Carthagena, Cadiz, and Seville, to Lisbon and to Rome,
+where he gave the Pope and the King of Spain numerous and accurate
+details upon the Church of Ethiopia and the manners of the
+inhabitants, he made a last journey in India, and returned to Lisbon
+to die, in 1678.
+
+Christianity had been introduced into Congo, upon the Atlantic coast,
+in 1489, the year of its discovery by the Portuguese. At first
+Dominicans were sent; but as they made scarce any progress, the Pope,
+with the consent of the King of Portugal, despatched thither some
+Italian Capuchins. These were Carli de Placenza in 1667, Giovanni
+Antonio Cavazzi, from 1654 to 1668, afterwards Antonio Zucchelli and
+Gradisca, from 1696 to 1704. We shall mention these missionaries
+only, because they have published accounts of their journeys.
+Cavazzi explored in succession Angola, the country of Matumba, and
+the islands of Coanza and Loana. In the ardour of his apostolic zeal,
+he could devise no better means of converting the blacks than by
+burning their idols, rebuking the kings for the time-honoured custom
+of polygamy, and subjecting to torture, or to being torn with whips,
+those who relapsed into idolatry. Notwithstanding all this, he
+gained considerable ascendancy over the natives, which, if it had
+been well directed, might have produced very useful results in the
+development of civilization and the progress of religion. The same
+reproach is due also to Father Zucchelli and to the other
+Missionaries in Congo. The narrative of Cavazzi, published at Rome
+in 1687, asserted that Portuguese influence extended from 200 to 300
+miles from the coast, and that in the interior there existed a very
+important town, known by the name of San Salvador, which possessed
+twelve churches, a Jesuit college, and a population of 50,000 souls.
+
+At the close of the fourteenth century Pigafetta published the
+account of the journey of Duarte Lopez, ambassador from the King of
+Congo to the Courts of Rome and Lisbon. A map which accompanies this
+narrative presents to us a Lake Zambré, in the very place occupied
+by Lake Tanganyika, and more to the west, Lake Acque Lunda, from
+whence issued the Congo River; south of the equator two lakes are
+indicated, one the Lake of the Nile, the other, more to the east,
+bears the name of Colué; they appear to be the Albert and the
+Victoria Nyanza. This most curious information was rejected by the
+geographers of the nineteenth century, who left blank the whole
+interior of Africa.
+
+Upon the West Coast of Africa at the mouth of the Senegal, the
+French had established settlements which, under the skilful
+administration of Andrew Brue, speedily received considerable
+extension. Brue, _Commandant for the King and Director-general of
+the Royal French Company upon the Senegal Coast and in other parts
+of Africa_--so ran his official title--although he may be little
+known, and the article which treats of him may be one of the most
+curtailed in the great collections of biography, deserves to occupy
+one of the most prominent positions among colonizers and explorers.
+Not content with extending the colony as far as its present limits,
+he explored countries which have been only lately revisited by
+Lieutenant Mage, or which have not been visited at all since Brue's
+time. He carried the French outposts eastwards above the junction of
+the Senegal and the Faleme, northwards as far as Arguin, which we
+have since abandoned, although reserving our rights, and southwards
+as far as the island of Bissao. He explored in the interior Galam
+and Bambouk, so rich in gold, and collected the earliest documents
+concerning the Pouls, Peuls or Fouls, the Yoloffs and the Mussulmen,
+who coming from the north, attempted the religious conquest of all
+the black nations of the country. The information thus collected by
+Brue about the history and migrations of these various people, is of
+the greatest value, affording clear light, even in the present day,
+to the geographer and the historian. Not only has Brue left us the
+narrative of deeds of which he was witness and the description of
+the places which he visited, but we also owe to him much information
+about the productions of the countries, the plants, the animals, and
+all the objects which would give occasion for commercial or
+industrial enterprise. These most curious documents, put together
+very maladroitly it must be confessed, by Father Labat, formed the
+subject, a few years ago, of a very interesting work by M. Berlioux.
+
+To the south-east of Africa, during the first half of the
+seventeenth century, the French founded some commercial settlements
+in Madagascar, an island long known under the name of St. Lawrence.
+They build Fort Dauphin under the administration of M. de Flacourt;
+several unknown districts of the island are explored as well as the
+neighbouring islands upon the coast; the Mascarene Islands are
+occupied in 1649. Although firm and moderate towards his countrymen,
+De Flacourt did not use the same self-control towards the natives;
+he even brought about a general revolt, as a consequence of which he
+was recalled. Expeditions into the interior of Madagascar were
+henceforth very rare, and it is not until the present day that we
+find a thorough exploration carried out.
+
+Of Indo-China and Thibet the only information which reached Europe
+during the whole of the seventeenth century was due to the
+missionaries. Such names as Father Alexandre de Rhodes, Ant.
+d'Andrada, Avril, Benedict Goes, may not be passed over in silence.
+In their _Annual Letters_ is to be found a quantity of information,
+which even in the present day retains a real interest, as concerning
+regions so long closed against Europeans. In Cochin China and Tonkin,
+Father Tachard devoted himself to astronomical observations, of
+which the result was to prove by the most conclusive evidence the
+great errors in the longitudes given by Ptolemy. This called the
+attention of the learned world to the necessity of a reform in the
+graphic representation of the countries of the extreme east, and for
+attaining this end, to the absolute need of close observations made
+by specially qualified scientific men, or by navigators familiar
+with astronomical calculations. The country which especially
+attracted the missionaries was China, that enormous and populous
+empire, which ever since the arrival of Europeans in India, had
+persevered with the greatest strictness in the absurd policy of
+abstention from any intercourse whatsoever with foreigners. It was
+not until the close of the sixteenth century that the missionaries
+obtained the permission, so often demanded before in vain, to
+penetrate into the Middle Empire. Their knowledge of mathematics and
+astronomy facilitated their settlement and enabled them to gather,
+as well from the ancient annals of the country, as during their
+journies, a prodigious quantity of most valuable information
+concerning the history, ethnography, and geography of the Celestial
+Empire. Fathers Mendoza, Ricci, Trigault, Visdelou, Lecomte,
+Verbiest, Navarrete, Schall, and Martini, deserve especial mention
+for having carried to China the arts and sciences of Europe, while
+they diffused in the west the first accurate and precise information
+upon the unprogressive civilization of the Flowery Land.
+
+
+II.
+MISSIONARIES AND SETTLERS. MERCHANTS AND TOURISTS.
+
+The Dutch in the Spice Islands--Lemaire and Schouten--Tasman--
+Mendana--Queiros and Torrès--Pyrard de Laval--Pietro della Valle--
+Tavernier--Thévenot--Bernier--Robert Knox--Chardin--De Bruyn--
+Kæmpfer.
+
+
+The Dutch were not slow in perceiving the weakness and decadence of
+the Portuguese power in Asia. They felt with how much ease a clever
+and prudent nation might in a short time become possessed of the
+whole commerce of the extreme East. After a considerable number of
+private expeditions and voyages of reconnaissance they had founded
+in 1602 that celebrated Company of the Indies which was destined to
+raise to so high a pitch the wealth and prosperity of the metropolis.
+Equally in its strife with the Portuguese as in its dealing with the
+natives, the Company pursued a very skilful policy of moderation.
+Far from founding colonies, or repairing and occupying the
+fortresses which they took from the Portuguese, the Dutch bore
+themselves as simple traders, exclusively occupied with their
+commerce. They avoided building any fortified factory, except at the
+intersection of the great commercial roads. Thus they were able in a
+short time to seize all the carrying trade between India, China,
+Japan, and Oceania. The one fault committed by the all-powerful
+Company was the concentrating in its own hands a monopoly of the
+trade in spices. It drove away the foreigners who had settled in the
+Moluccas or in the Islands of Sunda, or who came thither to obtain a
+cargo of spices; it even went the length, in order to raise the
+price of this valuable commodity, of proscribing the cultivation of
+certain species in a large number of islands, and of forbidding,
+under pain of death, the exportation and sale of seeds and cuttings
+of the spice-producing trees. In a few years the Dutch were
+established in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Moluccas, and at the Cape
+of Good Hope, harbours the best placed for ships returning to Europe.
+
+It was at this time that a rich merchant of Amsterdam, Jacob Lemaire,
+in concert with a skilful mariner, named Wilhem Cornelis Schouten,
+conceived a project for reaching the Indies by a new route. The
+Dutch States-General had in fact forbidden any subject of the United
+Provinces, not in the pay of the Company of the Indies, from going
+to the Spice Islands by way of the Cape of Good Hope or of the
+Strait of Magellan. Schouten, according to some, Lemaire, according
+to others, had formed the idea of eluding this interdict by seeking
+a passage to the south of Magellan's Strait. This much is certain,
+that Lemaire bore one half of the expense of the expedition, while
+Schouten, by the aid of several merchants whose names have been
+handed down to us, and who filled the chief offices in the town of
+Hoorn, provided the other half. They fitted out the _Concorde_, a
+vessel of 360 tons, and a yacht, carrying together a crew of
+sixty-five men, and twenty-nine cannon. This was certainly an
+equipment but little in accordance with the magnitude of the
+enterprise. But Schouten was a skilful mariner, the crew had been
+carefully chosen, and the vessels were abundantly furnished with
+provisions and spare rigging. Lemaire was commissioner, and Schouten
+the captain of the ship. The destination was kept secret, and
+officers and crew entered into an unlimited engagement to go
+wherever they might be led. On the 25th June, 1615, eleven days
+after quitting the Texel, and when there was no longer anything to
+be feared from indiscretion, the crews were assembled to listen to
+the reading of an order which ran as follows: "The two vessels would
+seek another passage than that of Magellan, by which to enter the
+South Sea, and to discover there certain southern countries, in the
+hope of obtaining enormous profits from them, and if heaven should
+not favour this design, they would repair by means of the same sea
+to the East Indies." This declaration was received with enthusiasm
+by the whole crew, who were animated, like all Dutchmen of that
+period, with a love for great discoveries.
+
+The route then usually pursued for reaching South America--as may
+perhaps have been already observed--followed the African coasts as
+far as below the equator. The _Concorde_ did not try to deviate from
+it; she reached the shores of Brazil, Patagonia, and Port Desire, at
+300 miles to the north of the Strait of Magellan, but was for
+several days hindered by storms from entering the harbour. The yacht
+even remained for the space of one whole tide, aground and lying on
+her side, but high water set her afloat again; only for a short time
+however, for whilst some repairs were being done to her keel, her
+rigging took fire, and she was consumed in spite of the energetic
+efforts of the two crews. On the 13th January, 1616, Lemaire and
+Schouten arrived at the Sebaldine Islands, discovered by Sebald de
+Weerdt, and followed the coast of Tierra del Fuego at a short
+distance from land. The coast ran east-quarter-south-east, and was
+skirted by high mountains covered with snow. On the 24th of January
+at mid-day, they sighted its extreme point, but eastward stretched
+some more land, which also appeared to be of great elevation. The
+distance between these two islands, according to the general opinion,
+appeared to be about twenty-four miles, and Schouten entered the
+strait which divided them. It was so encumbered with whales that the
+ship was obliged to tack more than once to avoid them. The island to
+the east received the name of Staten Island, and that to the west
+the name of Maurice of Nassau.
+
+[Illustration: The sea was so encumbered with whales.]
+
+Twenty-four hours after entering this strait, which received the
+name of Lemaire, the ship emerged from it, and to an archipelago of
+small islands situated to starboard was given the name of Barneveldt,
+in honour of the Grand Pensionary of Holland. In 58 degrees Lemaire
+doubled Cape Horn--so named in remembrance of the town where the
+expedition had been fitted out--and entered the South Sea. Lemaire
+afterwards went northwards as far as the parallel of the Juan
+Fernandez Islands, where he judged it wise to stop, in order to
+recruit his men who were suffering from scurvy. As Magellan had done,
+Lemaire and Schouten passed without perceiving them amongst the
+principal Polynesian archipelagos, and cast anchor on the 10th April,
+at the Island of Dogs, where it was only possible to procure a
+little fresh water and some herbs. They hoped to reach the Solomon
+Islands, but in the north the Dangerous Archipelago was entered, in
+which were discovered Waterland Island--so named on account of its
+containing a great lake--and Fly Island, because a cloud of these
+insects settled upon the vessel, and it was impossible to get rid of
+them until at the end of four days there was a change of wind.
+Afterwards Lemaire crossed the Friendly Archipelago, and entered
+that of the Navigators, or of Samoa, of which four small islands
+still retain the names which were then given to them: Goed Hoep,
+Cocoa, Horn, and Traitors' Islands. The inhabitants of these parts
+showed themselves extremely addicted to stealing; they tried to draw
+out the bolts from the ship and to break the chains. Scurvy
+continued to prevail among the crew, and it was therefore a great
+boon to receive from the king a present of a black boar and some
+fruits. The sovereign, who was named Latou, speedily arrived in a
+large canoe with sails, in shape like the Dutch sledges (_trainaux_),
+escorted by a flotilla of five and twenty boats. The king did not
+venture himself to go on board the _Concorde_, but his son was of a
+bolder spirit, and inquired the reason of everything he saw with the
+most lively curiosity. The next day the number of canoes was greatly
+augmented, and the Dutch perceived by certain indications that an
+attack was impending. Accordingly, a shower of stones falls on a
+sudden upon the ship, the canoes approach nearer, become annoying,
+and the Dutch to free themselves from them are forced to resort to a
+discharge of musketry. This island was rightly named Traitors'
+Island.
+
+It was now the 18th of May, and Lemaire ordered the course to be
+changed, that the Moluccas might be reached by the north of New
+Guinea. He probably passed within sight of the Solomon Archipelago,
+the Admiralty Islands, and the Thousand Islands (Mille Iles),
+coasting afterwards along New Guinea from 143 degrees to Geelwink
+Bay. He frequently landed, and gave names to a number of points: the
+twenty-five islands which form a part of the Admiralty Archipelago,
+the High Corner, the High Mountain (Hoogberg)--which seems to
+correspond to a portion of the neighbouring coast of Kornelis-Kinerz
+Bay--Moa and Arimoa, two islands again seen later on by Tasman, the
+island to which was given the name of Schouten, but which is now
+called Mysore and which must not be confounded with some other
+Schouten Islands situated upon the Coast of Guinea but much farther
+to the west, and finally the Cape Goede-Hoep, which appears to be
+Cape Saavedra at the western extremity of Mysore. After sighting the
+country of Papua, Schouten and Lemaire reached Gilolo, one of the
+Moluccas, where they received an eager welcome from their
+compatriots.
+
+When they were thoroughly rested from their fatigues and cured of
+scurvy, the Dutch went to Batavia, arriving there on the 23rd
+October, 1616, only thirteen months after quitting the Texel, and
+having lost only thirteen men during the long voyage. But the
+Company of the Indies did not at all understand their privileges
+being infringed upon, and a possibility discovered of reaching the
+colonies by a way not foreseen in the letters patent which had been
+granted to the Company at the time of its establishment. The
+Governor caused the _Concorde_ to be seized, and arrested her
+officers and sailors, whom he sent off to Holland, there to be tried.
+Poor Lemaire, who had expected a totally different recompense for
+his toils and fatigues, and for the discoveries which he had made,
+could not bear up under the blow which had fallen so unexpectedly
+upon him; he fell ill of grief and died in the latitude of the
+island of Mauritius. As for Schouten, he appears not to have been
+molested upon his return to his own country, and to have made
+several voyages to the Indies, which were not distinguished by any
+fresh discovery. He was returning to Europe in 1625, when he was
+forced by bad weather to enter Antongil Bay, upon the east coast of
+Madagascar, where he died.
+
+Such was the history of this important expedition, which by means of
+Strait Lemaire opened up a shorter and less dangerous route than
+that by Magellan's Strait, an expedition signalized by several
+discoveries in Oceania, and by a more attentive exploration of
+points already seen by Spanish or Portuguese navigators. But it is
+often a matter of difficulty to settle with accuracy to which of
+these nations the discovery of certain islands, countries, or
+archipelagos in the neighbourhood of Australia, may be due.
+
+Since we are speaking of the Dutch, we shall put the chronological
+order of discoveries a little on one side, that we may relate as
+well as those of Mendana and Quiros, the expeditions of Jan Abel
+Tasman.
+
+What was the early history of Tasman, by what concurrence of
+circumstances did he embrace the profession of a sailor, by what
+means did he acquire the nautical skill and science of which he gave
+so many proofs, and which conducted him to his important
+discoveries? From ignorance we cannot answer these questions, all we
+know of his biography commences with his departure from Batavia on
+2nd June, 1639. After passing the Philippines, he would seem during
+this first voyage to have visited in company with Matthew Quast the
+Bonin Islands, then known by the fantastic title of "the Gold and
+Silver Islands."
+
+In a second expedition, composed of two vessels of which he had the
+chief command, and which sailed from Batavia on the 14th of August,
+1642, he reached the Mauritius on the 5th September, and afterwards
+sailed to the south-east, seeking for the Australian Continent. On
+the 24th November in latitude 42 degrees 25 minutes south, he
+discovered land, to which he gave the name of Van-Diemen, after the
+Governor of the Sunda Islands, but which is now with much greater
+justice called Tasmania. He anchored there in Fredrik Hendrik Bay,
+and ascertained that the country was inhabited, although he could
+not see a single native.
+
+After following this coast for a certain time, he sailed eastwards,
+with the intention of afterwards making once more for the north, to
+reach the Solomon Archipelago. On the 13th December, in latitude 42
+degrees 10 minutes, he came in sight of a mountainous country which
+he followed towards the north, until the 18th December, when he cast
+anchor in a bay; but even the boldest of the savages whom he met
+with there, did not approach the ship within a stone's throw. Their
+voices were rough, their stature tall, their colour brown inclining
+to yellow, and their black hair, which was nearly as long as that of
+the Japanese, was worn drawn up to the crown of the head. On the
+morrow they summoned courage to go on board one of the vessels and
+carry on traffic by means of barter. Tasman, upon seeing these
+pacific dispositions, despatched a boat for the purpose of obtaining
+a more accurate knowledge of the shore. Of the sailors who manned it,
+three were killed without provocation by the natives, while the
+others escaped by swimming, and were picked up by the ships' boats,
+but by the time they were in readiness to fire upon the assailants,
+these had disappeared. The spot where this sad event happened,
+received the name of Assassins' (Moordenaars) Bay. Tasman, who felt
+convinced that he could not carry on any intercourse with such
+fierce people, weighed anchor and sailed up the coast as far as its
+extreme point, which he named Cape Maria Van-Diemen, in honour of
+his "lady," for a legend states that having had the audacity to
+pretend to the hand of the daughter of the governor of the East
+Indies, the latter had sent him to sea with two dilapidated ships,
+the _Heemskerke_ and the _Zeechen_.
+
+[Illustration: Three were killed by the natives without
+provocation.]
+
+The land thus discovered received the name of Staaten Land, soon
+changed into that of New Zealand. On the 21st January, 1643, Tasman
+discovered the islands of Amsterdam and Rotterdam, upon which he
+found a great quantity of pigs, fowls, and fruit. On the 6th
+February, the ships entered an archipelago, consisting of a score of
+islands, which were called Prince William Islands, and after
+sighting Anthong-Java, Tasman followed the coast of New Guinea from
+Cape Santa Maria, passed by the various points previously discovered
+by Lemaire and Schouten, and anchored off Batavia on the 15th June
+following, after a ten months' voyage.
+
+In a second expedition, Tasman, in obedience to his orders dated
+1664, was to visit Van Diemen's Land, and to make a careful
+examination of the western coast of New Guinea, as far as 17 degrees
+south latitude, in order to ascertain whether that island belonged
+to the Australian Continent. It does not appear that Tasman carried
+out this programme, but the loss of his journals causes complete
+uncertainty as to the route which he followed, and the discoveries
+which he may have made. From this time there is no record of the
+events which marked the close of his career, nor of the place and
+date of his death.
+
+From the period of the taking of Malacca by Albuquerque, the
+Portuguese conceived that a new world extended to the south of Asia.
+Their ideas were soon shared by the Spaniards, and henceforward a
+series of voyages were made on the Pacific Ocean, to search for a
+southern continent, of which the existence appeared geographically
+necessary to counterbalance the immense extent of the lands already
+known. Java the Great, designated later by the names of New Holland
+and Australia, had been seen by the French perhaps, or as is more
+probable by Saavedra, from 1530 to 1540, and it was sought for by a
+crowd of navigators, amongst whom we may mention the Portuguese,
+Serrao and Meneses, and the Spaniards, Saavedra, Hernando de
+Grijalva, Alvarado, and Inigo Ortiz de Retes, who explored the
+greater part of the islands to the north of New Guinea, as well as
+that great island itself. Afterwards come Mendana, Torrès, and
+Quiros, upon whose deeds we shall pause a little, on account of the
+importance and authenticity of the discoveries which we owe to them.
+
+Alvaro Mendana de Neyra was nephew to the Governor of Lima, Don
+Pedro de Castro, who warmly advocated with the home government his
+nephew's project of searching for new countries in the Pacific Ocean.
+Mendana was one-and-twenty when he took the command of two ships and
+one hundred and twenty-five soldiers and sailors. He sailed from
+Callao, the port of Lima, on the 19th November, 1567. After sighting
+the small Island of Jesus, he discovered on the 7th February between
+7 degrees and 8 degrees south latitude, the Island of Santa Isabella,
+where the Spaniards built a brigantine, with which they explored the
+archipelago of which this island was a part. "The inhabitants," says
+the narrative of a companion of Mendana, "are anthropophagi, they
+devour those whom they can make their prisoners in war, and even
+without being in open hostility, those whom they can succeed in
+taking by treachery." One of the chiefs in the island sent to
+Mendana as a delicacy, a quarter of a child, but the Spanish
+commander caused it to be buried in the presence of the natives, who
+appeared much hurt by an act which they could not understand. The
+Spaniards explored the Island las Palmas (Palm Island), los
+Ramos--so named because it was discovered on Palm Sunday--Galley
+Island, and Buena-Vista, of which the inhabitants, under the
+appearance of friendship concealed hostile intentions, which were
+not long in displaying themselves. The same reception awaited the
+Spaniards at the Island San Dimas, at Sesarga, and at Guadalcanar,
+upon which ginger was found for the first time. In the return voyage
+to Santa Isabella, the Spaniards pursued a course which enabled them
+to discover St. George Island, where they found bats as large as
+kites. Scarcely had the crew of the brigantine cast anchor in the
+harbour of Santa Isabella, than they were obliged again to weigh it,
+for the place was so unhealthy that five soldiers died and a great
+number of others were taken ill. Mendana stopped at the Island of
+Guadalcanar, where out of ten men who had landed to fetch water, one
+negro alone escaped from the attacks of the natives, who were
+extremely angry at one of their fellows having been carried off by
+the Spaniards. The punishment was terrible; twenty men were killed
+and a number of houses burnt. Mendana afterwards visited several
+islands of the Solomon archipelago, amongst others the Three Maries
+and San Juan. Upon the latter island, whilst the ships were being
+repaired and calked, several affrays with the natives occurred, in
+which some prisoners were made. After this checkered rest, Mendana
+again put to sea, and visited the islands of San Christoval, Santa
+Catalina, and Santa Anna. But as by this time the number of invalids
+was considerable, the provisions and ammunition nearly exhausted,
+and the rigging become rotten, the flotilla now set out to return to
+Peru. The separation of the flagship, the discovery of certain
+islands which it is difficult to identify, and probably of the
+Sandwich Islands; violent storms, during which the sails were
+carried away; the sickness caused by the insufficiency and
+putrefaction of the water and biscuit on board, were all incidents
+signalizing this long and trying return voyage, which was ended by
+the arrival of the ships at the port of Colima in California after
+five months of navigation.
+
+The narrative of Mendana excited no enthusiasm, in spite of the name
+of Solomon which he gave to the archipelago discovered by him, to
+make it believed that from thence came the treasures of the Jewish
+King. Marvellous recitals had no longer any fascination for men
+glutted with the riches of Peru. Proofs were what they demanded; the
+smallest nugget of gold, or the least grain of silver would have
+been more satisfactory to them.
+
+Mendana had twenty-seven years to wait before he was able to
+organize another expedition, but then his fleet was a large one, it
+being proposed to found a colony in the island of San Christoval
+which Alvaro de Mendana had seen during his first voyage. Thus four
+ships carrying nearly four hundred people sailed from the port of
+Lima on the 11th April, 1595. Amongst those on board may be named
+Doña Isabella, wife of Mendana, the three brothers-in-law of the
+general, and the pilot Pedro Fernandez Quiros, who later on
+distinguished himself as commander-in-chief of another expedition.
+The fleet did not finally leave the Peruvian coast, where its
+equipment had been completed, until the 16th April. At the end of a
+month's navigation, not distinguished by any remarkable incident, an
+island was discovered, which according to custom received the name
+of the saint whose day it was, and was called Magdalena. Immediately
+the fleet was surrounded by a crowd of canoes bearing more than four
+hundred Indians, of fine stature and nearly white, and who while
+presenting cocoa-nuts and other fruits to the sailors, appeared to
+entreat them to disembark. The natives no sooner came on board than
+they began to pilfer, and it was necessary to fire a cannon to get
+rid of them; a wound which one of the natives received in the fray
+soon changed their disposition, and a discharge of musketry was the
+reply to the shower of arrows which they let fly from their boats.
+Not far from this island three others were discovered, San Pedro,
+Dominica, and Santa Christina, and the name of _las Marquezas de
+Mendoça_ was given to the group, in honour of the governor of Peru.
+So friendly had been the intercourse at the beginning, that an
+Indian woman upon seeing the beautiful fair hair of Doña Isabella de
+Mendana had begged her by signs to give her a curl of it; but by the
+fault of the Spaniards the mutual relations speedily became hostile,
+and so continued until the day when the natives, becoming conscious
+of the great inferiority of their arms, begged for peace.
+
+On the 5th August the Spanish flotilla again put to sea and made
+1200 miles west-north-west. On the 20th August were discovered the
+St. Bernard, since called Dangerous Islands, and afterwards Queen
+Charlotte's Islands, upon which notwithstanding the scarcity of
+provisions, no landing was made. After Solitary Island--a name which
+explains its situation--the Santa Cruz archipelago was reached. But
+at this time, during a storm, the flagship became separated from the
+fleet, and although search was made several times, no tidings of her
+were obtained. Fifty canoes, carrying a crowd of natives of a tawny
+complexion, or of a lustrous black, immediately approached the ships.
+"All had frizzled hair, black, red, or some other colour (for it was
+dyed); their teeth also were dyed red; the head was half shaven, the
+body was naked, except a small veil of fine linen, the face and the
+arms painted black, glittering and striped with various colours; the
+neck and limbs loaded with several strings of small beads, of gold,
+or of black wood, of fishes' teeth, or of a species of medals made
+of mother of pearl, or of pearls." For arms they carried bows,
+poisoned arrows with sharp points hardened in the fire, or tipped
+with bone and steeped in the juice of a herb, great stones, heavy
+wooden swords made of stiff wood, with three harpoon points, each
+more than a handbreadth long. Slung over their shoulders they had
+haversacks exceedingly well made out of palm leaves, and filled with
+biscuits made from certain roots which serve them for food.
+
+[Illustration: Doña Isabella consults the officers.]
+
+At first Mendana thought he recognized in these natives the
+inhabitants of the islands he was seeking, but he was quickly
+undeceived. The vessels were received with a shower of arrows, which
+was the more vexatious because Mendana, seeing that he could not
+find the Solomon Islands, had determined to establish his colony in
+this archipelago. At this juncture, discord reigned among the
+Spaniards; a revolt fomented against the general was almost
+immediately suppressed, and the guilty were executed. But these
+sorrowful events and the fatigues of the voyage had so completely
+undermined the health of the head of the expedition, that he died on
+the 17th October, after having had time to indicate his wife as his
+successor in the conduct of the enterprise. After the death of
+Mendana the hostilities with the natives redoubled, and many of the
+Spaniards were so exhausted by sickness and hardships, that a score
+of thoroughly determined natives might easily have gained the
+mastery over them. To persist in the intention of founding a
+settlement under such conditions would have been folly; all agreed
+in this, and the anchor was raised on the 18th November. Doña
+Isabella de Mendana's project was to go to Manilla, and there to
+obtain recruits from amongst the colonists, with whom she would
+return to found a settlement. She consulted the officers, who all
+gave their approval in writing; and she found in Quiros a devotion
+and skill which were speedily to be put to a severe proof. They at
+once steered away from New Guinea, in order to avoid being entangled
+amongst the numerous archipelagos surrounding it, and also to enable
+them sooner to reach the Philippines, which the dilapidated state of
+the ships rendered necessary. After passing within sight of several
+islands surrounded by reefs of madrepore, upon which the crews
+wished to land, a permission which Quiros with great prudence always
+refused, after having been separated from one of the ships of the
+squadron, which could not or would not follow, the flotilla arrived
+at the Ladrone--soon to be called the Marianne--Islands. The
+Spaniards went on shore several times to buy some provisions; the
+natives did not desire either their silver or gold, but set the
+highest value upon iron and all tools made of that metal. The
+narrative contains here some details upon the veneration shown by
+the natives towards their ancestors, which are curious enough to
+warrant our reproducing them verbatim: "They take out the bones from
+the bodies of their relations, burn the flesh, and mixing the ashes
+with _tuba_, a wine made from the cocoa palm, swallow them. They
+weep for the dead every year for a whole week; there are a great
+number of female mourners, who are to be hired for the purpose.
+Besides that, all the neighbours come to weep in the house of the
+deceased; the compliment being returned to them when the turn comes
+for the feast to take place at their house. These anniversaries are
+much frequented, all those assisting at them being liberally regaled.
+They weep all day and drink to intoxication all night. They recite
+in the midst of tears, the life and deeds of the dead, beginning
+with the moment of his birth, and dealing with the whole course of
+his life, recounting his strength, his height, his beauty, in a word,
+all that can in any way do him honour. If some amusing action occur
+in the recital, the company begin to laugh as if they would split
+their sides; then on a sudden they drink and are again drowned in
+tears. There are sometimes two hundred persons present at these
+absurd anniversaries." When the Spanish crew arrived at the
+Philippines, it was scarcely more than a company of skeletons,
+emaciated and half dead with hunger. Doña Isabella landed at Manilla
+on the 11th February, 1596, under a salute from the guns, and was
+solemnly received in the midst of the troops drawn up under arms.
+The rest of the crew, fifty having died since the departure from
+Santa Cruz, were housed and fed at the public expense, and the women
+all found husbands in Manilla, except four or five who embraced the
+religious life. As for Doña Isabella, she was escorted back to Peru
+some time afterwards by Quiros, who lost no time in submitting to
+the viceroy a project for a fresh voyage. But Luis de Velasco, who
+had succeeded Mendoza, referred the navigator to the King of Spain
+and the Council of the Indies, under the pretext that such a
+decision would overstep the limits of his authority. Quiros
+therefore went to Spain and thence to Rome, where he received a
+kindly welcome from the Pope, who recommended him warmly to Philip
+III. At length in 1605, after numberless applications and
+solicitations, he was empowered to fit out at Lima the two vessels
+which he should judge the most suitable for the investigation of the
+Australian continent and for continuing the discoveries of Mendana.
+With two ships and one light vessel, Quiros set out from Callao on
+the 21st December, 1605. At 3000 miles from Peru he had as yet
+discovered no land. In latitude 25 degrees south he observed a group
+of small islands belonging to the Dangerous archipelago. These were
+the _Convercion de San Pablo_, the _Osnabrugh_ of Wallis, and
+_Decena_, so named because it was the tenth island seen. Although
+this island was defended by rocks, intercourse was carried on with
+the natives, whose dwellings were scattered about amongst palm-trees
+on the sea shore. The natives were strong and well proportioned, and
+their chief wore on his head a kind of crown made of small black
+feathers so fine and supple that they might have been taken for silk.
+His fair hair, which descended to the waist, excited the wonder of
+the Spaniards, who, not being able to understand how a man with so
+tawny coloured a face could have such light yellow hair, "chose to
+think that he was married, and that he wore his wife's hair." This
+singular colour was only due to the habitual use of powdered lime,
+which burns the hair and causes it to turn yellow.
+
+This island to which Quiros gave the name of Sagittaria, is,
+according to Fleurieu, Tahiti, one of the principal of the group of
+Society Islands. On the succeeding days Quiros sighted several other
+islands, upon which he did not land, and to which he gave names
+taken from the Calendar, according to a practice which has changed
+all the native nomenclature of Oceania into a veritable litany. One
+island visited may be especially noticed; it was named the island of
+_la Gente Hermosa_ on account of the beauty of its inhabitants, and
+of the fair colour and coquetry of its women, who, as the Spaniards
+declared, even bore away the palm for grace and attractiveness from
+their own fellow-countrywomen of Lima, whose beauty is proverbial.
+This island, according to Quiros, was situated upon the same
+parallel as Santa Cruz, to which he intended to go. He therefore
+sailed westward and reached an island called by the natives Taumaco,
+in 10 degrees south latitude and 240 miles east of Santa Cruz. This
+must have been one of the Duff Islands, and here Quiros was told
+that if he directed his course southwards, he would discover a great
+land, of which the inhabitants were whiter than those whom he had
+hitherto seen. This information determined him to abandon his scheme
+of going to Santa Cruz. He steered in a south-westerly direction,
+and after having sighted several small islands, he arrived on the
+1st May, 1606, in a bay more than twenty-four miles broad. He gave
+to this island the name which it still bears, of Espiritu Santo. It
+was one of the New Hebrides group. What events happened during the
+stay of the ships here? The narrative is silent upon this subject,
+but we know from other sources that the crew mutinied, made Quiros
+prisoner, and abandoning the second ship and the brigantine, set out
+on the 11th June to return to America, where they arrived on the 3rd
+October, 1606, after a nine months' voyage. M. Ed. Charton throws no
+light upon this incident. He is silent upon the mutiny of the crew,
+and even throws all the blame of the separation upon the commander
+of the second vessel, Luis Vaes de Torrès, who abandoned his chief
+in quitting Espiritu Santo. Now it is known by a letter from Torrès
+himself to the King of Spain--published by Lord Stanley at the end
+of his English edition of Antoine de Morga's _History of the
+Philippines_--that he remained "fifteen" days waiting for Quiros in
+the Bay of Saint Philip and Saint James. The officers met in council,
+resolved to weigh anchor on the 26th June, and to continue the
+search for the Australian continent. Hindered by bad weather, which
+prevents him from sailing round Espiritu Santo Island, assailed by
+the demands of a crew over whom prevails a slight breath of mutiny,
+Torrès decides to steer to the north-east to reach the Spanish
+Islands. In 11 degrees 30 minutes he discovers land, which he
+imagines must be the commencement of New Guinea. "All this land is
+part of New Guinea," says Torrès, "it is peopled by Indians who are
+not very white, and who go naked, although their middles are covered
+with the bark of trees.... They fight with javelins, bucklers, and
+certain clubs of stone, the whole adorned with beautiful feathers.
+All along this land there are other inhabited islands. Upon the
+whole of this coast there are numerous and vast harbours, with very
+broad rivers and great plains. Outside these islands stretch reefs
+and shallows; the islands are between these dangers and the mainland,
+and a channel runs between. We took possession of these harbours in
+your Majesty's name. Having pursued this coast for 900 miles, and
+seen our latitude decrease from 2-1/2 degrees until we found
+ourselves in 9 degrees, at this point commenced a shoal of from
+three to nine fathoms deep, which stretched along the coast to 7-1/2
+degrees. Not being able to proceed farther on account of the
+numerous shallows and powerful currents which we encountered, we
+decided to alter our course to the south-west, by the deep channel
+which has been mentioned, as far as about 11 degrees. There is there,
+from one end to the other, an archipelago of innumerable islands, by
+which I passed. At the end of the eleventh degree the bottom became
+deeper. There were some very large islands there, and there appeared
+to be more of them towards the south; they were inhabited by a black
+population, very robust and quite naked, bearing for arms, strong
+and long spears, arrows, and stone clubs roughly fashioned."
+
+Modern geographers are agreed in recognizing in the localities thus
+described, that portion of the Australian Coast which ends in York
+Peninsula, and the extremity of New Guinea recently visited by
+Captain Moresby. It was known that Torrès had entered the strait
+which has been named after him, and which divides New Guinea from
+Cape York; but the very recent exploration of the south-eastern
+portion of New Guinea, of which the population has been discovered
+to be of a comparatively light colour and differing much from the
+Papous, has just furnished an unexpected confirmation of the
+discoveries of Quiros. It is for this reason that we have dwelt at
+some length upon them, referring for the purpose to a very learned
+work of M. E. T. Hamy, which appeared in the _Bulletin de la Société
+de Géographie_.
+
+It behoves us now to say a few words about some travellers who
+explored some unfrequented countries, and furnished their
+contemporaries with more exact knowledge of a world until then
+almost unknown. The first of these travellers is François Pyrard, of
+Laval. Having embarked in 1601 on board a St. Malo ship to go to the
+Indies to trade, he was wrecked in the Maldive Archipelago. These
+islets or atolls (detached coral reefs,) to the number of at least
+12,000, descend into the Indian Ocean from Cape Comorin as far as
+the equator. The worthy Pyrard relates his shipwreck, the flight of
+a portion of his companions in captivity in the archipelago, and his
+long sojourn of seven years upon the Maldive Islands, a stay
+rendered almost agreeable by the pains which he took to acquire the
+native language. He had plenty of time to learn the manners, customs,
+religion, and industries of the inhabitants, as well as to study the
+productions and climate of the country. Thus his narrative is filled
+with details of all kinds, and had retained its attractions until
+recent years, because travellers do not voluntarily frequent this
+unhealthy archipelago, the isolated situation of which had kept away
+foreigners and conquerors. Pyrard's narrative therefore, is still
+instructive and agreeable reading.
+
+In 1607, a fleet was sent to the Maldives by the King of Bengal, in
+order to carry off the 100 or 120 cannon which the Maldive sovereign
+owed to the wreck of numerous Portuguese vessels. Pyrard,
+notwithstanding all the liberty allowed him, and that he had become
+a landholder, was desirous to behold his beloved Brittany once more.
+He therefore eagerly embraced this opportunity of quitting the
+Archipelago with the three companions who out of the whole crew
+alone remained with him. But the eventful travels of Pyrard were not
+yet concluded. Taken first to Ceylon, he was carried afterwards to
+Bengal, and endeavoured to reach Cochin. Before reaching this town
+he was captured by the Portuguese and carried prisoner to Cochin; he
+afterwards fell ill and was nursed in the Hospital of Goa which he
+only quitted to serve for two years as a soldier, at the end of
+which time he was again thrown into prison, and it was not until
+1611, that he was able to revisit the good town of Laval. After so
+many trials, Pyrard must doubtless have felt the need of repose, and
+we are justified in imagining, from the silence of history as to the
+close of his life, that he was privileged at length to find
+happiness.
+
+While the honest burgess François Pyrard, was, so to speak, in spite
+of himself, and from having indulged the desire of making a fortune
+too rapidly, launched into adventures in which he had to pass much
+of his life, circumstances of a different and romantic kind caused
+Pietro della Valle to determine upon travelling. Descendant of an
+ancient and noble family, he is by turns a soldier of the Pope, and
+a sailor chasing Barbary corsairs. Upon his return to Rome he finds
+that a rival, profiting by his absence, has taken his place with a
+young girl whom he was to have married. So great a misfortune
+demands an heroic remedy, and Della Valle makes a vow of pilgrimage
+to the Holy Sepulchre. But if, as saith the proverb, there is no
+road which does not lead to Rome, so there is no circuit so long as
+not to lead to Jerusalem, and of this Della Valle was to make proof.
+He embarks at Venice in 1614, passes thirteen months at
+Constantinople, reaches Alexandria by sea, afterwards Cairo, and
+joins a caravan which at length brings him to Jerusalem. But while
+en route, Delia Valle had no doubt imbibed a taste for a traveller's
+life, for he visits in succession Baghdad, Damascus, Aleppo, and
+even pushes on as far as the ruins of Babylon. We must believe that
+Della Valle was marked out as an easy prey to love, for upon his
+return he becomes enamoured of a young Christian woman of Mardin, of
+wondrous beauty, whom he marries. One would imagine that here at
+length is fixed the destiny of this indefatigable traveller. Nothing
+of the kind. Della Valle contrives to accompany the Shah in his war
+against the Turks, and to traverse during four consecutive years the
+provinces of Iran. He quits Ispahan in 1621, loses his wife in the
+month of December of the same year, causes her to be embalmed, and
+has her coffin carried about in his train for four years longer,
+which he devotes to exploring Ormuz, the western coasts of India,
+the Persian Gulf, Aleppo, and Syria, landing at length at Naples in
+1626.
+
+The countries which this singular character visited, urged on as he
+was by an extraordinary enthusiasm, are described by him in a shrewd,
+gay, and natural style, and even with some degree of fidelity. But
+he inaugurates the pleiad of amateur, curious, and commercial
+travellers. He is the first of that prolific race of tourists who
+each year encumber geographical literature with numerous volumes,
+from which the savant finds nothing to glean beyond meagre details.
+
+Tavernier is a specimen of insatiable curiosity. At two-and-twenty
+he has traversed France, England, the Low Countries, Germany,
+Switzerland, Poland, Hungary, and Italy. Then when Europe no longer
+offers any food for his curiosity, he starts for Constantinople,
+where he remains for a year, and then arrives in Persia, where the
+opportunity and
+
+    Quelque diable, aussi, le poussant,
+
+he sets to work to purchase carpets, stuffs, precious stones, and
+those thousand trifles of which lovers of curiosities soon became
+passionately fond, and for which they were ready to pay fabulous
+sums. The profit which Tavernier realized from his cargo induced him
+to resume his travels. But like a wise and prudent man, before
+starting he learnt from a jeweller the art of knowing precious
+stones. During four successive journeys from 1638 to 1663, he
+travelled over Persia, the Mogul Empire, the Indies as far as the
+frontier of China, and the Islands of Sunda. Dazzled by the immense
+fortune which his traffic had obtained for him, Tavernier would play
+the lord, and soon saw himself on the verge of ruin, which he hoped
+to avert by sending one of his nephews to the east with a
+considerable venture, but instead, his ruin was consummated by this
+young man, who, judging it best to appropriate the goods which had
+been confided to him, settled down at Ispahan. Tavernier, who was a
+well-educated man, made a number of interesting observations upon
+the history, manners and customs, of the countries which he visited.
+His narrative certainly contributed to give his contemporaries a
+much more correct idea of the countries of the east than they
+previously possessed.
+
+All travellers during the reign of Louis XIV. take the route to the
+East Indies, whatever may be the end they have in view. Africa is
+entirely deserted, and if America be the theatre of any real
+exploration, it is carried out without aid from government.
+
+Whilst Tavernier was accomplishing his last and distant excursions,
+a distinguished archæologist, Jean de Thévenot, nephew of
+Melchisedec Thévenot--a learned man to whom we owe an interesting
+series of travels--journeyed through Europe, and visited Malta,
+Constantinople, Egypt, Tunis, and Italy. He brought back in 1661 an
+important collection of medals and monumental inscriptions,
+recognized nowadays as so important a help to the historian and the
+philologist. In 1664, he set out anew for the Levant, and visited
+Persia, Bassorah, Surat, and India, where he saw Masulipatam,
+Burhampur, Aurungabad, and Golconda. But the fatigues which he had
+experienced prevented his return to Europe, and he died in Armenia
+in 1667. The success of his narratives was considerable, and was
+well deserved by the care and exactitude of a traveller whose
+scientific attainments in history, geography, and mathematics, far
+surpassed the average level of his contemporaries.
+
+We must now speak of the amiable Bernier, the "pretty philosopher,"
+as he was entitled in his polite circle, in which were found Ninon
+and La Fontaine, Madame de la Sablière, St. Evremont, and Chapelle,
+without reckoning many other good and gay spirits, refractories from
+the stiff solemnity which then weighed upon the entourage of Louis
+XIV. Bernier could not escape from the fashion of travelling. After
+having taken a rapid survey of Syria and Egypt, he resided for
+twelve years in India, where his good knowledge of medicine
+conciliated the favour of Aurung-Zebe, and gave him the opportunity
+of beholding in detail, and with profit, an empire then in the full
+bloom of its prosperity.
+
+To the south of Hindostan, Ceylon had more than one surprise in
+reserve for its explorers. Robert Knox, taken prisoner by the
+natives, owed to this sad circumstance his long residence in the
+country and the collection of the first authentic documents relating
+to the forests and the savage natives of Ceylon, the Dutch, with a
+commercial jealousy which they were not singular in evincing, having
+until now kept secret all the information which had come to light
+concerning an island of which they were endeavouring to make a
+colony.
+
+[Illustration: Jean Chardin. _From an old print_.]
+
+Another merchant, Jean Chardin, the son of a rich Parisian jeweller,
+jealous of the successes of Tavernier, desired, like him, to make
+his fortune by trading in diamonds. The countries which attract
+these merchants are those of which the fame for wealth and
+prosperity is become proverbial; these are Persia and India, where
+rich costumes sparkle with jewels and gold, and where there are
+mines of diamonds of a fabulous size. The moment is well chosen for
+visiting these countries. Thanks to the Mogul Emperors, civilization
+and art have been developed; mosques, palaces, temples have been
+built, and towns have risen suddenly. Their taste--that curious
+taste, so distinctly characterized, so different from our own,--is
+displayed in the construction of gigantic edifices, quite as much as
+in jewellery and goldsmith's work, and in the manufacture of those
+costly trifles of which the east was beginning to be passionately
+fond. Like a wise man, Chardin takes a partner, as good a
+connoisseur as himself. At first Chardin only traversed Persia in
+order to reach Ormuz and to embark for the Indies. The following
+year he returns to Ispahan, and applies himself to learn the
+language of the country, in order to be able to transact business
+directly and without any intermediary agent. He has the good fortune
+to please the Shah, Abbas II. From that time his fortune is made,
+for it is at once genteel and also the part of a prudent courtier to
+employ the same purveyor as his sovereign. But Chardin had another
+merit besides that of making a fortune. He was able to collect so
+considerable a mass of information concerning the government,
+manners, creeds, customs, towns, and populations of Persia, that his
+narrative has remained to our own days the _vade-mecum_ of the
+traveller. This guide is so much the more precious because Chardin
+took care to engage at Constantinople a clever draughtsman named
+Grelot, by whom were reproduced the monuments, cities, scenes,
+costumes, and ceremonies which so well portray what Chardin called,
+"the every day of a people."
+
+When Chardin returned to France in 1670, the Revocation of the Edict
+of Nantes, with the barbarous persecutions which resulted from it,
+had chased from their country great numbers of artisans, who, taking
+refuge in foreign countries enriched them with our arts and
+manufactures. Chardin, being a protestant, clearly perceived that
+his religion would hinder him from attaining "to what are termed
+honours and advancement." As, to use his own words, "one is not free
+to believe what one will," he resolved to return to the Indies
+"where, without being urged to a change of religion," he could not
+fail of attaining an honourable position. Thus liberty of conscience
+was at that period greater in Persia than in France. Such an
+assertion on the part of a man who had made the comparison, is but
+little flattering to the grandson of Henry IV.
+
+This time, however, Chardin did not follow the same route as before.
+He passed by Smyrna and Constantinople, and from thence, crossing
+the Black Sea, he landed in the Crimea, in the garb of a religious.
+Whilst passing through the region of the Caucasus he had the
+opportunity of studying the Abkasians and Circassians. He afterwards
+penetrated into Mingrelia, where he was robbed of his goods and
+papers, and of a portion of the jewels which he was taking back to
+Europe. He could not have escaped himself had it not been for the
+devotion to him of the theatines, from whom he had received
+hospitality, but he escaped only to fall into the hands of the Turks,
+who, in their turn, accepted a ransom for him. After further
+misadventures he arrived at Tiflis on the 17th of December, 1672,
+and as Georgia was then governed by a prince who was a tributary of
+the Shah of Persia, it was easy for Chardin to reach Erivan, Tauriz,
+and finally Ispahan.
+
+After a stay of four years in Persia, and a concluding journey to
+India, during which he realized a considerable fortune, Chardin
+returned to Europe and settled in England, his own country on
+account of his religion, being forbidden ground to him.
+
+The journal of his travels forms a large work, in which everything
+that concerns Persia is especially developed. The long stay he made
+in the country and his intimate acquaintance with the highest
+personages of the state enabled him to collect numerous and
+authentic documents. It may fairly be said that in this way Persia
+was better known in the seventeenth century than it was 100 years
+later.
+
+The countries which Chardin had just explored were visited again
+some years later by a Dutch painter, Cornelius de Bruyn, or Le Brun.
+The great value of his work consists in the beauty and accuracy of
+the drawings which illustrate it, for as far as the text is
+concerned, it contains nothing which was not known before, except in
+what relates to the Samoyedes, whom he was the first to visit.
+
+[Illustration: Japanese Warrior. _From an old print_.]
+
+We must now speak of the Westphalian, Kæmpfer, almost a naturalized
+Swede in consequence of his long sojourn in Scandinavian countries.
+He refused the brilliant position which was there offered him in
+order to accompany as secretary, an ambassador who was going to
+Moscow. He was thus enabled to see the principal cities of Russia, a
+country which at that period had scarcely entered upon the path of
+western civilization; afterwards he went to Persia, where he quitted
+the Ambassador Fabricius, in order to enter the service of the Dutch
+Company of the Indies, and to continue his travels. He thus visited
+in the first place Persepolis, Shiraz, Ormuz upon the Persian Gulf,
+where he was extremely ill, and whence he embarked in 1688 for the
+East Indies. Arabia Felix, India, the Malabar Coast, Ceylon, Java,
+Sumatra, and Japan were afterwards all visited by him. The object of
+these journeys was exclusively scientific. Kæmpfer was a physician,
+but was more especially devoted to the various branches of Natural
+History, and collected, described, drew, or dried, a considerable
+number of plants then unknown in Europe, gave new information upon
+their use in medicine or manufactures, and collected an immense
+herbarium, which is now preserved with the greater part of his
+manuscripts in the British Museum in London. But the most
+interesting portion of his narrative, now-a-days indeed quite
+obsolete and very incomplete since the country has been opened up to
+our scientific men,--was for a long time that relating to Japan. He
+had contrived to procure books treating of the history, literature,
+and learning of the country, when he had failed in obtaining from
+certain personages to whom he had rendered himself very acceptable,
+information which was not usually imparted to foreigners.
+
+To conclude, if all the travellers of whom we have just spoken are
+not strictly speaking discoverers, if they do not explore countries
+unknown before, they all have, in various degrees and according to
+their ability or their studies, the merit of having rendered the
+countries which they visited better known. Besides they were able to
+banish to the domain of fable, many of the tales which others less
+learned had naïvely accepted, and which had for long become so
+completely public property that nobody dreamed of disputing them.
+
+Thanks to these travellers, something is known of the history of the
+east, the migrations of nations began to be dimly suspected, and
+accounts to be given of the changes in those great empires of which
+the very existence had been long problematical.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+I.
+THE GREAT CORSAIR.
+
+William Dampier; or a Sea-King of the Seventeenth Century.
+
+
+William Dampier was born in 1612 at East Coker, and by the death of
+his parents was from his childhood left to his own control. Not
+possessing any great taste for study, he preferred running wild in
+the woods, and fighting with his companions, to remaining in his
+place on the school benches. While still young he was sent to sea as
+cabin-boy on board merchant ships. After a voyage to Newfoundland
+and a campaign in the East Indies, he took service in the Naval
+Marine, and being wounded in a battle, returned to Greenwich to be
+nursed. Free from any prejudices, Dampier forgot his engagement when
+he left the Military Hospital, and started for Jamaica in the
+position of manager of a plantation. It did not require a long trial
+to discover that this occupation was not to his taste. So he
+abandoned his negroes at the end of six months, and went on board a
+ship bound for the Bay of Campeachy, where he worked for three years
+at gathering in woods for dyeing.
+
+At the end of that period he is again found in London, but the laws
+and the officers charged with compelling their observance are too
+strict for his comfort. He goes back to Jamaica, where he speedily
+puts himself into communication with those famous buccaneers and
+corsairs, who at that time did so much harm to the Spaniards.
+
+These English or French adventurers, established in the Island of
+Tortuga, off the coast of San Domingo, had sworn implacable hatred
+to Spain. Their ravages were not confined to the Gulf of Mexico:
+they crossed the Isthmus of Panama and devastated the coast of the
+Pacific Ocean from the Strait of Magellan to California. Terror
+exaggerated the exploits of these pirates, which however presented
+something of the marvellous.
+
+It was amongst these adventurers, then commanded by Harris, Sawkins,
+and Shays, that Dampier enrolled himself. In 1680 we find him in
+Darien, where he pillages Santa Maria, endeavours in vain to
+surprise Panama, and with his companions, on board of some wretched
+canoes stolen from the Indians, captures eight vessels well armed,
+which were at anchor not far from the town. In this affair the
+losses of the corsairs are so great in the fight, and the spoil is
+so poor, that they separate from each other. Some go back to the
+Gulf of Mexico, while others establish themselves upon the island of
+Juan Fernandez, whence shortly after they attack Arica. But here
+again they were so roughly handled that a new secession takes place,
+and Dampier is sent to Virginia, where his captain hoped to make
+some recruits. There Captain Cook was fitting out a vessel, with the
+intention of reaching the Pacific by the Strait of Magellan, and
+Dampier joins the expedition. It begins by privateering upon the
+African coast, in the Cape de Verd Islands, at Sierra Leone, and in
+the River Scherborough, for this is the route habitually taken by
+the ships going to South America. In 36 degrees south latitude,
+Dampier, who notes in his journal every interesting fact, remarks
+that the sea is become white or rather pale, but of this he cannot
+explain the reason, which he might easily have done had he made use
+of the microscope. The Sebaldine Islands are passed without incident,
+the Strait of Le Maire is traversed, Cape Horn is doubled on the 6th
+February, 1684, and as soon as he can escape from the storms which
+usually assail ships entering the Pacific, Captain Cook arrives at
+the island of Juan Fernandez, where he hopes to revictual. Dampier
+wondered if he would find a Nicaraguan Indian there, who had been
+left behind in 1680 by Captain Sharp. "This Indian had remained
+alone upon the island for more than three years. He had been in the
+woods hunting goats when the English captain had ordered his men to
+re-embark, and they had set sail without perceiving his absence. He
+had only his gun and his knife, with a small horn of powder and a
+little lead; when his powder and lead were exhausted he had
+contrived to saw the barrel of his gun into small pieces with his
+knife, and out of them to make harpoons, spears, fish hooks and a
+long knife. With these instruments he obtained all the supplies
+which the island afforded: goats and fish. At the distance of half a
+mile from the sea, he had a small hut covered with goat skins. He
+had no clothes left, but an animal's skin covered his loins." We
+have dwelt at some length upon this involuntary hermit because he
+served Daniel de Foe as the original of his "Robinson Crusoe," a
+romance which has formed the delight of every child.
+
+We shall not relate minutely all the expeditions in which Dampier
+participated. Suffice it to mention that in this campaign he visited
+the Gallapagos Islands. In 1686, Dampier was serving on board of
+Captain Swan's ship, who, seeing that the greater part of his
+enterprises failed, went to the East Indies, where the Spaniards
+were less upon their guard, and where the corsairs reckoned upon
+seizing the Manilla galleon. But when our adventurers arrived at
+Guaham, they had only three days' provisions, and the sailors had
+plotted if the voyage should be prolonged, to eat in turn all those
+who had declared themselves in favour of the voyage, and to begin
+with the captain who had proposed it. Dampier's turn would have come
+next. "Thus it came to pass," says he very humourously, "that after
+having cast anchor at Guaham, Swan embraced him and said: 'Ah
+Dampier, you would have made them but a sorry meal.' He was right,"
+he adds, "for I was as thin and lean, as he was fat and plump."
+Mindanao, Manilla, certain parts of the Chinese coasts, the Moluccas,
+New Holland, and the Nicobar Islands, were the places visited and
+plundered by Dampier in this campaign. In the last-named archipelago
+he became separated from his companions, and was discovered half
+dead upon the coast of Sumatra.
+
+[Illustration: "Ah! Dampier, you would have afforded them but a
+sorry meal."]
+
+During this voyage, Dampier had discovered several hitherto unknown
+islands, and especially the Baschi group. Like the thorough
+adventurer he was, immediately he recovered his health he travelled
+over the south of Asia, Malacca, Tonkin, Madras, and Bencoolen,
+where he enrolled himself as an artilleryman in the English service.
+Five months afterwards he deserted and returned to London. The
+narrative of his adventures and his privateering obtained for him a
+certain amount of sympathy amongst the higher classes, and he was
+presented to the Earl of Oxford, Lord High Admiral. He speedily
+received the command of the ship _Roebuck_ to attempt a voyage of
+discovery in the seas which he had already explored. He left England
+on the 14th January, 1699, with the intention of passing through the
+Strait of Magellan, or of making the tour of Tierra del Fuego, so as
+to commence his discoveries on the coasts of the Pacific, which had
+hitherto received the visits of a comparatively small number of
+travellers. After crossing the line on the 10th March, he sailed for
+Brazil, where the ship was revictualled. Far from being able again
+to descend the coast of Patagonia, he beheld himself driven by the
+wind to forty-eight miles south of the Cape of Good Hope, whence he
+steered east-south-east towards New Holland, a long passage which
+was not signalized by any adventure. On the 1st August, Dampier saw
+land, and at once sought for a harbour in which to land. Five days
+later he entered the Bay of Sea-Dogs upon the western coast of
+Australia; but he only found there a sterile soil, and met with
+neither water nor vegetation. Until the 31st August, he sailed along
+this coast without discovering what he sought. Once when he landed,
+he had a slight skirmish with some of the inhabitants, who seemed to
+be very thinly scattered over the country. Their chief was a young
+man of middle height, but quick and vigilant; his eyes were
+surrounded by a single ring of white paint, while a stripe of the
+same colour descended from the top of his forehead to the end of his
+nose; his chest and arms were likewise striped with white. His
+companions were black, fierce in aspect, their hair woolly, and in
+shape they were tall and slender.
+
+For five weeks Dampier hovered near land, and found neither water
+nor provisions; however, he would not give in, and intended to
+continue to ascend the coast northwards, but the shallows which he
+incessantly encountered, and the monsoon from the north-west which
+was soon due, obliged him to give up the enterprise, after having
+discovered more than 900 miles of the Australian continent. He
+afterwards steered towards Timor, where he intended to repose and
+recruit his crew, exhausted by the long voyage. But he knew little
+of these parts, and his charts were quite insufficient. He was
+therefore obliged to make a reconnaissance of it, as if the Dutch
+had not already been long settled there. Thus he discovered a
+passage between Timor and Anamabao, in a locality in which his map
+only indicated a bay. The arrival of Dampier in a port known only to
+themselves, astonished and greatly displeased the Dutch. They
+imagined that the English could only have reached it by means of
+charts taken on board a ship of their own. However, in the end they
+recovered from their fright and received the strangers with kindness.
+
+Although the precursors of the monsoon were making themselves felt,
+Dampier again put to sea, and steered towards the western coast of
+New Guinea, where he arrived on the 4th February, 1700, near to Cape
+Maho of the Dutch. Amongst the things which struck him, Dampier
+notices the prodigious quantities of a species of pigeon, bats of
+extraordinary size, and scallops, a kind of shell fish, of which the
+empty shell weighed as much as 258 lbs. On the 7th of February he
+approaches King William's Island and runs to the east, where he soon
+sights the Cape of Good Hope of Schouten, and the island named after
+that navigator. On the 24th the crew witnessed a curious spectacle:
+"Two fish, which had accompanied the vessel for five or six days,
+perceived a great sea serpent, and began to pursue it. They were
+about the shape and size of mackerel, but yellow and green in colour.
+The serpent, who fled from them with great swiftness, carried his
+head out of the water, and one of them attempted to seize his tail.
+As soon as he turned round, the first fish remained in the rear, and
+the other took his place. They retained their wind for a long time,
+always heedful to defend themselves by flight, until they were lost
+to view."
+
+On the 25th, Dampier gave the name of Saint Matthias to a
+mountainous island, thirty miles long, situated above and to the
+east of the Admiralty Islands. Further on at the distance of
+twenty-one or twenty-four miles, he discovered another island, which
+received the name of Squally Island, on account of violent
+whirlwinds which prevented him from landing upon it. Dampier
+believed himself to be on the coast of New Guinea, while he was in
+reality sailing along that of New Ireland. He endeavoured to land
+there, but he was surrounded by canoes carrying more than 200
+natives, and the shore was covered by a large crowd. Seeing that it
+would be imprudent to send a boat on shore, Dampier ordered the ship
+to be put about. Scarcely was the order given, when the ship was
+assailed by showers of stones, which the natives hurled from a
+machine of which Dampier could not discover the shape, but which
+caused the name of Slingers' Bay to be given to this locality. A
+single discharge of cannon stupefied the natives, and put an end to
+hostilities. A little further on, at some distance from the coast of
+New Ireland, the English discover the Islands of Denis and St. John.
+Dampier is the first to pass through the strait which separates New
+Ireland from New Britain, and discovers Vulcan, Crown, G. Rook, Long
+Reach and Burning Islands.
+
+[Illustration: Battle in Slingers' Bay.]
+
+After this long cruise, distinguished by important discoveries,
+Dampier again steered towards the west, reached Missory Island, and
+at length arrived at the Island of Ceram, one of the Moluccas, where
+he made a somewhat long stay. He went afterwards to Borneo, passed
+through the Strait of Macassar, and on the 23rd of June anchored at
+Batavia, in the Island of Java. He remained there until the 17th of
+October, when he set out for Europe. On arriving at the Island of
+Ascension on the 23rd of February, 1701, his vessel had so
+considerable a leak that it was impossible to stop it. It was
+necessary to run the ship aground and to put the crew and cargo on
+shore. Happily there was no want of water, turtles, goats, and
+land-crabs, which prevented any fear of dying of hunger before some
+ship should call at the island, and transport the shipwrecked
+sailors to their country. For this they had not long to wait, for on
+the 2nd of April an English vessel took them on board and carried
+them to England. We shall have occasion again to speak of Dampier
+with relation to the voyages of Wood Rodgers.
+
+
+II.
+THE POLE AND AMERICA.
+
+Hudson and Baffin--Champlain and La Sale--The English upon the coast
+of the Atlantic--The Spaniards in South America--Summary of the
+information acquired at the close of the 17th century--The measure
+of the terrestrial degree--Progress of cartography--Inauguration of
+Mathematical Geography.
+
+
+Although the attempts to find a passage by the north-west had been
+abandoned by the English for twenty years, they had not, however,
+given up the idea of seeking by that way, for a passage which was
+only to be discovered in our own days, and of which the absolute
+impracticability was then to be ascertained. A clever sailor, Henry
+Hudson, of whom Ellis says, "that never did any one better
+understand the seafaring profession, that his courage was equal to
+any emergency, and that his application was indefatigable,"
+concluded an agreement with a company of merchants to search for the
+passage by the north-west. On the 1st of May, 1607, he sailed from
+Gravesend in the _Hopewell_, a craft about the size of one of the
+smallest of modern collier brigs, and having on board a crew of
+twelve men; and on the 13th of June, reached the eastern coast of
+Greenland at 73 degrees, and gave it a name answering to the hopes
+he entertained, in calling it Cape Hold with Hope. The weather here
+was finer and less cold than it had been ten degrees southwards. By
+the 27th of June, Hudson had advanced 5 degrees more to the north,
+but on the 2nd of July, by one of the sudden changes which so
+frequently occur in those countries, the cold became severe. The sea,
+however, remained free, the air was still, and drift wood floated
+about in large quantity. On the 14th of the same month, in 33
+degrees 23 minutes, the master's mate and the boatswain of the
+vessel landed upon a shore which formed the northern part of
+Spitzbergen. Traces of musk oxen, and foxes, great abundance of
+aquatic birds, two streams of fresh water, one of them being warm,
+proved to our navigators that it was possible to live in these
+extreme latitudes at this period of the year. Hudson, who had
+re-embarked without delay, found himself arrested at the height of
+82 degrees, by thick pack ice, which he endeavoured in vain to
+penetrate or sail round. He was compelled to return to England,
+where he arrived on September 15th, after having discovered an
+island, which is probably that of Jan Mayen. The route followed in
+this first voyage having had no result towards the north, Hudson
+would try another, and accordingly set sail on April 21st in the
+following year, and advanced between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla;
+but he could only follow for a certain distance the coast of that
+vast land, without being able to attain as high an elevation as he
+had wished. The failure of this second attempt was more complete
+than that of the voyage of 1607. In consequence, the English Company,
+which had defrayed the expenses of both attempts, declined to
+proceed further. This was doubtless the reason which decided Hudson
+to take service in Holland.
+
+The Company of Amsterdam gave him, in 1609, the command of a vessel,
+with which he set sail from the Texel at the beginning of the year.
+Having doubled the North Cape, he advanced along the coasts of Nova
+Zembla; but his crew, composed of English and Dutch, who had made
+voyages to the East Indies, were soon disheartened by the cold and
+ice. Hudson found himself forced to change his route, and to propose
+to his sailors, who were in open mutiny, to seek for a passage,
+either by Davis' Strait, or the coasts of Virginia, where, according
+to the information of Captain Smith, who had frequently visited them,
+an outlet must surely be found. The choice of this crew, little
+accustomed to discipline, could not be doubtful. In order not to
+render the outlay of the Company completely abortive, Hudson was
+obliged to make for the Faröe Islands, to descend southward as low
+as 44 degrees, and to search on the coast of America for the strait,
+of the existence of which he had been assured. On July 18th, he
+disembarked on the continent, in order to replace his foremast,
+which had been broken in a storm; and he took the opportunity of
+bartering furs with the natives. But his undisciplined sailors,
+having by their exactions roused the indignation of the poor and
+peaceable natives, compelled him again to set sail. He continued to
+follow the coast until August 3rd, and then landed a second time. At
+40 degrees 30 minutes, he discovered a great bay which he explored
+in a canoe for more than 150 miles. In the meantime, his provisions
+began to run short, and it was impossible to procure supplies on
+land. The crew, which appears to have imposed its wishes on its
+captain during this whole voyage, assembled; some proposed to winter
+in Newfoundland, in order to resume the search for the passage in
+the following year; others wished to make for Ireland. This latter
+proposition was adopted; but when they approached the shores of
+Great Britain, the land proved so attractive to his men, that Hudson
+was obliged, on November 7th, to cast anchor at Dartmouth.
+
+The following year, 1610, notwithstanding all the mortifications
+which he had experienced, Hudson tried to renew his engagement with
+the Dutch company. But the terms which they named as the price of
+their concurrence compelled him to renounce the project, and induced
+him to submit to the requirements of the English Company. This
+company imposed on Hudson as a condition, that he should carry on
+board, rather as an assistant than as a subordinate, a clever seaman,
+named Coleburne, in whom they had full confidence. It is easy to
+understand how mortifying this condition was to Hudson. Accordingly,
+he took the earliest opportunity of ridding himself of the
+superintendent who had been imposed upon him. He had not yet left
+the Thames when he sent Coleburne back to shore with a letter for
+the Company, in which he endeavoured to palliate and justify this
+certainly very strange proceeding.
+
+Towards the end of May, when the ship had cast anchor in one of the
+ports of the island, the crew formed on the subject of Coleburne,
+its first conspiracy, which was repressed without difficulty, and
+when Hudson quitted the island on June 1st, he had re-established
+his authority. After having passed Frobisher's Strait, he sighted
+the land of Desolation of Davis, entered the strait which has
+received his name, and speedily penetrated into a wide bay, the
+entire western coast of which he examined until the beginning of
+September. At this epoch, one of the inferior officers, continuing
+to excite revolt against his chief, was superseded; but this act of
+justice only exasperated the sailors. In the early part of November,
+Hudson, having arrived at the extremity of the bay, sought for an
+appropriate spot to winter in, and having soon found one, drew up
+the ship on dry land. It is difficult to understand such a
+resolution. On the one hand, Hudson had left England with provisions
+for six months only, which had already been largely reduced, and he
+could scarcely reckon, considering the barrenness of the country,
+upon procuring a further supply of nourishment; on the other, the
+crew had exhibited such numerous signs of mutiny, that he could
+hardly rely upon its discipline and good will. Nevertheless,
+although the English were often obliged to content themselves with
+scanty rations, they did not, owing to the arrival of great numbers
+of birds, pass a very distressing winter. But, on the return of
+spring, as soon as the ship was prepared to resume her route to
+England, Hudson found that his fate was decided. He made his
+arrangements accordingly, distributed to each his share of biscuit,
+paid the wages due, and awaited the course of events. He had not
+long to wait. The conspirators seized their captain, his son, a
+volunteer, the carpenter, and five sailors, put them on board a boat,
+without arms, provisions, or instruments, and abandoned them to the
+mercy of the ocean. The culprits reached England again, but not all;
+two were killed in an encounter with the Indians, another died of
+sickness, while the others were sorely tried by famine. Eventually,
+no prosecution was commenced against them. Only, the Company, in
+1674, procured employment, on board a vessel, for the son of Henry
+Hudson, "lost in the discovery of the North-west," the son being
+entirely destitute of resources.
+
+[Illustration: Hudson abandoned by his crew.]
+
+The expeditions of Hudson were followed by those of Button and of
+Gibbons, to whom we owe, if not new discoveries, important
+observations on the tides, the variation of the weather and the
+temperature, and on a number of natural phenomena.
+
+In 1615, the English Company entrusted to Byleth, who had taken part
+in the last voyages, the command of a vessel of fifty tons. Her name,
+the _Discovery_, was of good augury. She carried, as pilot, the
+famous William Baffin, whose renown has eclipsed that of his captain.
+Setting sail from England on April 13th, the English explorers
+sighted Cape Farewell by the 6th of May, passed from the Island of
+Desolation to the Savage Islands, where they met with a great number
+of natives, and ascended north-westward as high as 64 degrees. On
+July 10th, land appeared on the starboard, and the tide flowed from
+the north; from which they conceived so much hope of the passage
+sought for, that they gave to the cape, discovered on this spot, the
+name of Comfort. It was probably Cape Walsingham, for they
+ascertained, after doubling it, that the land inclined towards the
+north-east, and the east. It was at the entry of Davis' Strait, that
+their discoveries came to an end for this year. They returned to
+Plymouth on September 9th, without having lost a single man.
+
+So strong were the hopes entertained by Byleth and Baffin, that they
+obtained permission to put to sea again in the same vessel the
+following year. On May 14th, 1616, after a voyage in which nothing
+worthy of remark occurred, the two captains penetrated into Davis'
+Strait, sighted Cape Henderson's Hope, the extreme point formerly
+reached by Davis, and ascended as high as 72 degrees 40 minutes to
+the Women's Island, thus named after some Esquimaux females whom
+they met with. On June 12th, Byleth and Baffin were forced by the
+ice to enter a bay on the coast. Some Esquimaux brought them a great
+quantity of horns, without doubt tusks of walruses, or horns of musk
+oxen; from which they named the bay Horn Sound. After remaining some
+days in this place, they were able to put to sea again. On setting
+out from 75 degrees 40 minutes, they encountered a vast expanse of
+water free from ice, and penetrated, without much danger, beyond the
+78 degree of latitude, to the entrance of the strait, which
+prolonged northwards the immense bay which they had just traversed,
+and which received the name of Baffin. Then turning to the west, and
+afterwards to the south-west, Byleth and Baffin discovered the Carey
+Islands, Jones Strait, Coburg Island, and Lancaster Strait, and
+afterwards they descended along the entire western shore of Baffin's
+Bay as far as Cumberland Land. Despairing then of being able to
+carry his discoveries further, Byleth, who had several men among his
+crew afflicted with scurvy, found himself obliged to return to the
+shores of England, where he disembarked at Dover, on August 30th.
+
+If this expedition terminated again in failure, in the sense that
+the north-west passage was not discovered, the results obtained were
+nevertheless considerable. Byleth and Baffin had prodigiously
+increased the knowledge of the seas and coasts in the quarters of
+Greenland. The captain and the pilot, in writing to the Director of
+the Company, assured him that the bay which they had visited was an
+excellent spot for fishing, in which thousands of whales, seals, and
+walruses, disported themselves. The event could not be long in amply
+proving the correctness of this information.
+
+Let us now descend again upon the coast of America, as far as Canada,
+and see what had happened since the time of Jacques Cartier. This
+latter, we may remember, had made an attempt at colonization, which
+had not produced any important results. Nevertheless, some Frenchmen
+had remained in the country, had married there, and founded families
+of colonists. From time to time, they received reinforcements
+brought by fishing vessels from Dieppe or St. Malo. But it was
+difficult to establish a current of emigration. It was under these
+circumstances that a gentleman, named Samuel de Champlain, a veteran
+of the wars of Henry IV., and who, for two years and a half, had
+frequented the East Indies, was engaged by the Commander of Chastes
+with the Sieur de Pontgravé, to continue the discoveries of Jacques
+Cartier, and to choose the situations most favourable for the
+establishment of towns and centres of population. This is not the
+place for us to consider the manner in which Champlain understood
+the business of a colonizer, nor his great services, which might
+well entitle him to be called the father of Canada. We will,
+therefore, advisedly leave this aspect of his undertaking, not the
+least brilliant, in order simply to occupy ourselves with the
+discoveries which he effected in the interior of the continent.
+
+Setting sail from Honfleur, on March 15th, 1603, the two chiefs of
+the enterprise first ascended the St. Lawrence, as far as the
+harbour of Tadoussac, 240 miles from its mouth. They were welcomed
+by the populations, which had, however, "neither faith, nor law, and
+lived without God, and without religion, like brute beasts." At this
+place they quitted their ships, which could not have advanced
+further without danger, and reached in a boat the Fall of St. Louis,
+where Jacques Cartier had been stopped; they even penetrated a
+little into the interior, and then returned to France, where
+Champlain printed a narrative of the voyage for the king.
+
+Henry IV. resolved to continue the enterprise. In the meantime M. de
+Chastes having died, his privilege was transferred to M. de Monts,
+with the title of Vice-admiral and Governor of Acadia. Champlain
+accompanied M. de Monts to Canada, and passed three whole years,
+whether in aiding by his counsels and his exertions the efforts of
+colonization, or in exploring the coasts of Acadia, the bearings of
+which he took beyond Cape Cod, or in making excursions into the
+interior and visiting the savage tribes which it was important to
+conciliate. In 1607, after a new voyage to France to recruit
+colonists, Champlain returned again to New France, and founded, in
+1608, a town which was to become Quebec. The following year was
+devoted to again ascending the St. Lawrence, and ascertaining its
+course. On board of a pirogue, with two companions only, Champlain
+penetrated, with some Algonquins, to the Iroquois, and remained
+conqueror in a great battle fought on the borders of a lake which
+has received his name; he then descended the river Richelieu, as far
+as the St. Lawrence. In 1610, he made a fresh incursion into the
+territory of the Iroquois, at the head of his allies, the Algonquins,
+whom he had the greatest possible difficulty in making observe the
+European discipline. In this campaign he employed instruments of
+warfare which greatly astonished the savages, and easily secured him
+the victory. For the attack of a village, he constructed a cavalier
+of wood, which 200 of the most powerful men "carried before this
+village to within a pike's length, and displayed three arquebusiers
+well protected from the arrows and stones which might be shot or
+launched at them." A little later, we see him exploring the river
+Ottawa, and advancing, in the north of the continent, to within 225
+miles of Hudson's Bay. After having fortified Montreal, in 1615, he
+twice ascended the Ottawa, explored Lake Huron, and arrived by land
+at Lake Ontario, which he crossed.
+
+[Illustration: Siege of a village by Champlain.]
+
+It is very difficult to divide into two parts a life so occupied as
+Champlain's. All his excursions, all his reconnaissances, had but
+one object, the development of the work to which he had consecrated
+his existence. Thus detached from what gives them their interest,
+they appear to us unimportant; and yet if the colonial policy of
+Louis XIV. and his successor had been different, we should possess
+in America a colony which assuredly would not yield in prosperity to
+the United States. Notwithstanding our abandonment, Canada has
+preserved a fervent love for the mother country.
+
+We must now leap over a period of forty years, to arrive at Robert
+Cavelier de la Sale. During this time, the French establishments
+have acquired some importance in Canada, and have extended
+themselves over a great part of North America. Our hunters and
+trappers scour the woods, and bring, every year, with their load of
+furs, new information respecting the interior of the continent. In
+this latter task they are powerfully seconded by the missionaries,
+in the first rank of whom we must place Father Marquette, whom the
+extent of his voyages on the great lakes and as far as the
+Mississippi marks out for special acknowledgment. Two men, besides,
+deserve to be mentioned for the encouragements and facilities which
+they afforded to the explorers, viz., M. de Frontenac, Governor of
+New France, and Talon, intendant of justice and police. In 1678,
+there arrived in Canada, without any settled purpose, a young man
+named Cavelier de la Sale. "He was born at Rouen," says Father
+Charlevoix, "of a family in easy circumstances; but having passed
+some years with the Jesuits, he had had no share in the inheritance
+of his parents. He had a cultivated mind, he wished to distinguish
+himself, and he felt within himself sufficient genius and courage to
+ensure success. In reality, he was not deficient in resolution to
+enter upon, nor in perseverance to follow up, an undertaking, nor in
+firmness in contending against obstacles, nor in resource to repair
+his losses; but he knew not how to make himself loved, nor how to
+manage those of whom he stood in need, and when he had attained
+authority, he exercised it with harshness and arrogance. With such
+defects he could not be happy, and in fact he was not."
+
+Father Charlevoix's portrait appears to us somewhat too black, and
+he does not seem to estimate at its true value the great discovery
+which we owe to Cavelier de la Sale; a discovery, which has nothing
+like it, we do not say equal to it, except that of the river Amazon,
+by Orellana, in the 16th century, and that of the Congo, by Stanley,
+in the 19th. However this may be, no sooner had he arrived in the
+country, than he set himself, with extraordinary application, to
+study the native idioms, and to associate with the savages in order
+to render himself familiar with their manners and habits. At the
+same time he gathered from the trappers a mass of information on the
+situation of the rivers and lakes. He communicated his projects of
+exploration to M. de Frontenac, who encouraged him, and gave him the
+command of a fort constructed at the outlet of the lake into the St.
+Lawrence. In the meantime, one Jolyet arrived at Quebec. He brought
+the news that in company with Father Marquette and four other
+persons, he had reached a great river called the Mississippi,
+flowing towards the south. Cavelier de la Sale very soon understood
+what advantage might be derived from an artery of this importance,
+especially if the Mississippi had, as he believed, its mouth in the
+Gulf of Mexico. By the lakes and the Illinois, an affluent of the
+Mississippi, it was easy to effect a communication between the St.
+Lawrence, and the Sea of the Antilles. What marvellous profit would
+France derive from this discovery! La Sale explained the project
+which he had conceived to the Count of Frontenac, and obtained from
+him very pressing letters of recommendation to the Minister of
+Marine. On arriving in France, La Sale learned the death of Colbert;
+but he remitted to his son, the Marquis of Seignelay, who had
+succeeded him, the despatches of which he was the bearer. This
+project, which appeared to rest upon solid foundations, could not
+fail to please a young minister. Accordingly, Seignelay presented La
+Sale to the king, who caused letters of nobility to be prepared for
+him, granted him the Seignory of Catarocouy, and the government of
+the fort which he had built, with the monopoly of commerce in the
+countries which he might discover.
+
+La Sale had also found means to procure the patronage of the Prince
+de Conti, who asked him to take with him the Chevalier Tonti, son of
+the inventor of the Tontine, in whom he felt an interest. He was for
+La Sale a precious acquisition. Tonti, who had made a campaign in
+Sicily, where his hand had been carried off by the explosion of a
+grenade, was a brave and skilful officer, who always showed himself
+extremely devoted.
+
+La Sale and Tonti embarked at Rochelle, on July 14th, 1678, carrying
+with them about thirty men, workmen and soldiers, and a Recollet
+(monk), Father Hennepin, who accompanied them in all their voyages.
+
+Then La Sale, being conscious that the execution of his project
+required more considerable resources than those which were at his
+disposal, constructed a boat upon the Lake Erie, and devoted a whole
+year to scouring the country, visiting the Indians, and carrying on
+an active trade in furs, which he stored in his fort of Niagara,
+while Tonti pursued the same course in other directions. At length,
+towards the middle of August, of the year 1679, his boat, the
+_Griffon_, being prepared for sailing, he embarked on the Lake Erie,
+with thirty men, and three Fathers, Recollets, for Machillimackinac.
+In crossing the lakes St. Clair and Huron, he experienced a violent
+storm, which caused the desertion of some of his people, whom,
+however, Tonti brought back to him. La Sale arrived at
+Machillimackinac, and very soon entered the Green Bay. But during
+this time his creditors at Quebec had sold all that he possessed,
+and the _Griffon_, which he had despatched, laden with furs, to the
+fort of Niagara, was either lost or pillaged by the Indians; which
+of these took place has never been precisely ascertained. For
+himself, although the departure of the _Griffon_ had displeased his
+companions, he continued his route, and reached the river St. Joseph,
+where he found an encampment of Miamis, and where Tonti speedily
+rejoined him. Their first care was to construct a fort on this spot.
+Then they crossed the dividing line of the water between the basin
+of the great lakes, and that of the Mississippi; they subsequently
+reached the river of the Illinois, an affluent on the left of that
+great river. With his small band of followers, upon whose fidelity
+he could not entirely depend, the situation of La Sale was critical,
+in the midst of an unknown country, and among a powerful nation, the
+Illinois, who, at first allies of France, had been prejudiced and
+excited against us by the Iroquois and the English, jealous of the
+progress of the Canadian colony.
+
+Nevertheless, it was necessary, at all cost, to attach to himself
+these Indians, who from their situation, were able to hinder all
+communication between La Sale and Canada. In order to strike their
+imagination, Cavelier de la Sale proceeds to their encampment, where
+more than 3000 men are assembled. He has but twenty men, but he
+traverses their village haughtily, and stops at some distance. The
+Illinois, who have not yet declared war, are surprised. They advance
+towards him, and overwhelm him with pacific demonstrations. So
+versatile is the spirit of the savages! Such an impression does
+every mark of courage make upon them! Without delay, La Sale takes
+advantage of their friendly dispositions, and erects upon the very
+site of their camp, a small fort, which he calls Crèvecoeur, in
+allusion to the troubles which he has already experienced. There he
+leaves Tonti with all his people, and he himself, anxious about the
+fate of the _Griffon_, returns with three Frenchmen and one Indian,
+to the fort of Catarocouy, separated by 500 leagues from Crèvecoeur.
+Before setting out, he had detached with Father Hennepin, one of his
+companions named Dacan, on a mission to reascend the Mississippi
+beyond the river of the Illinois, and if possible, to its source.
+"These two travellers," says Father Charlevoix, "set out from the
+fort of Crèvecoeur, on February 28th, and having entered the
+Mississippi, ascended it as far as 46 degrees of north latitude.
+There they were stopped by a considerable waterfall, extending quite
+across the river, to which Father Hennepin gave the name of St.
+Anthony of Padua. Then they fell, I know not by what mischance, into
+the hands of the Sioux, who kept them for a long time prisoners."
+
+On his journey back to Catarocouy, La Sale, having discovered a new
+site appropriate to the construction of a fort, summoned Tonti
+thither, who immediately set to work, while La Sale continued his
+route. This is Fort St. Louis. On his arrival at Catarocouy, La Sale
+learned news which would have broken down a man of a less hardy
+temperament. Not only had the _Griffon_, on board of which he had
+furs of the value of 10,000 crowns, been lost, but a vessel which
+was bringing him from France a cargo worth 880_l._ had been
+shipwrecked, and his enemies had spread a report of his death.
+Having no further business at Catarocouy, and having proved by his
+presence that the reports of his disappearance were all false, he
+arrived again at the fort of Crèvecoeur, where he was much
+astonished to find no one.
+
+This is what had happened. While the Chevalier Tonti was employed in
+the construction of Fort St. Louis, the garrison of Fort Crèvecoeur
+had mutinied, had pillaged the magazines, had done the same at Fort
+Miami, and then fled to Machillimackinac. Tonti, almost alone in
+face of the Illinois, who were roused against him by the
+depredations of his men, and judging that he could not resist in his
+fort of Crèvecoeur, had left it on September 11th, 1680, with the
+five Frenchmen who composed his garrison, and had retired as far as
+the bay of the Lake Michigan. After having placed a garrison at
+Crèvecoeur and at Fort St. Louis, La Sale came to Machillimackinac,
+where he rejoined Tonti, and together they set out again from thence
+towards the end of August for Catarocouy, whence they embarked on
+the Lake Erie with fifty-five persons, on August 28th, 1681. After a
+journey of 240 miles along the frozen river of the Illinois, they
+reached Fort Crèvecoeur, where the water, free from ice, permitted
+the use of their canoes. On February 6th, 1682, La Sale arrived at
+the confluence of the Illinois and the Mississippi. He descended the
+river, sighted the mouth of the Missouri, and that of the Ohio,
+where he raised a fort, penetrated into the country of the Arkansas,
+of which he took possession in the name of France, crossed the
+country of the Natchez, with whom he made a treaty of friendship,
+and finally passed out into the Gulf of Mexico on April 9th, after a
+navigation of 1050 miles in a mere bark. The anticipations so
+skilfully conceived by Cavelier de la Sale, were realized. He
+immediately took formal possession of the country, to which he gave
+the name of Louisiana, and called the immense river which he had
+just discovered the St. Louis.
+
+La Sale's return to Canada occupied not less than one year and a
+half. There is no ground for astonishment, when all the obstacles
+scattered in his path are considered. What energy, what strength of
+mind were requisite in one of the greatest travellers of whom France
+has reason to be proud, to succeed in such an enterprise!
+
+Unhappily, a man, otherwise well intentioned, but who allowed
+himself to be prejudiced against La Sale by his numerous enemies, M.
+Lefèvre de la Barre, who had succeeded M. de Frontenac as governor
+of Canada, wrote to the Minister of Marine, that the discoveries of
+La Sale were not to be regarded as of much importance. "This
+traveller," he said "was actually, with about twenty French
+vagabonds and savages, at the extremity of the bay, where he played
+the part of sovereign, plundered and ransomed those of his own
+nation, exposed the people to the incursions of the Iroquois, and
+covered all these acts of violence with the pretext of the
+permission, which he had from His Majesty, to carry on commerce
+alone in the countries which he might be able to discover."
+
+Cavelier de la Sale could not allow himself to remain exposed to
+these calumnious imputations. On the one side, honour prompted him
+to return to France to exculpate himself; on the other, he would not
+leave others to reap the profit of his discoveries. He set out,
+therefore, and received from Seignelay a kindly welcome. The
+minister had not been much influenced by the letters of M. de la
+Barre; he was aware that men could not accomplish great achievements
+without wounding much self-love, nor without making numerous enemies.
+La Sale took the opportunity to explain to him his project of
+discovering the mouth of the Mississippi by sea, in order to open a
+way for French vessels, and to found an establishment there. The
+minister entered into these views, and gave him a commission which
+placed Frenchmen and savages under his orders, from Fort St. Louis
+to the sea. At the same time the commandant of the squadron which
+was to transport him to America, was to be under his authority, and
+to furnish him on his disembarkation with all the succours which he
+might require, provided that nothing was done to the prejudice of
+the king. Four vessels, one of them a frigate of forty guns,
+commanded by M. de Beaujeu were to carry 280 persons, including the
+crews, to the mouth of the Mississippi, to form the nucleus of the
+new colony. Soldiers and artisans had been very badly chosen, as was
+perceived when too late, and no one knew his business. Setting sail
+from La Rochelle, on July 24th, 1684, the little squadron was almost
+immediately obliged to return to port, the bowsprit of the frigate
+having broken suddenly in the very finest weather. This inexplicable
+accident was the commencement of misunderstanding between M. de
+Beaujeu and M. de la Sale. The former could scarcely be pleased to
+see himself subordinated to a private individual, and did not
+forgive Cavelier this. Nothing however would have been more easy
+than to decline the command. La Sale had not the gentleness of
+manner and the politeness necessary to conciliate his companions.
+The disagreement did but gather force during the voyage by reason of
+the obstacles raised by M. de Beaujeu to the rapidity and secrecy of
+the expedition. The annoyances of La Sale had indeed become so great
+when he arrived at St. Domingo, that he fell seriously ill. He
+recovered, however, and the expedition set sail again on November
+25th. A month later, it was off Florida; but, as "La Sale had been
+assured that in the Gulf of Mexico, all the currents bore eastwards,
+he did not doubt that the mouth of the Mississippi must be far to
+the west; an error which was the source of all his misfortunes."
+
+La Sale then steered to the west, and passed by, without perceiving
+it, without deigning even to attend to certain signs which he was
+asked to observe, the mouth of the Mississippi. When he perceived
+his mistake, and entreated M. de Beaujeu to turn back, the latter
+would no longer consent. La Sale, seeing that he could make no
+impression upon the contradictory mind of his companion, decided to
+disembark his men and his provisions in the Bay of St. Bernard. Yet,
+in this very last act, Beaujeu manifested an amount of culpable
+ill-will, which did as little honour to his judgment as to his
+patriotism. Not only was he unwilling to land all the provisions,
+under the pretext that certain of them being at the bottom of the
+hold, he had no time to change his stowage, but further he gave
+shelter on board his own ship to the master and crew of the
+transport, laden with the stores, utensils, and implements necessary
+for a new establishment, people whom everything seems to convict of
+having purposely cast their vessel upon shore. At the same time, a
+number of savages took advantage of the disorder caused by the
+shipwreck of the transport, to plunder everything on which they
+could lay their hands. Nevertheless, La Sale, who had the talent of
+never appearing depressed by misfortune, and who found in his own
+genius resources adapted to the circumstances of the case, ordered
+the works of the establishment to be begun. In order to give courage
+to his companions, he more than once took part with his own hands in
+the work; but very slow progress was made, in consequence of the
+ignorance of the workmen. Struck with the resemblance of the
+language and habits of the Indians of these parts to those of the
+Mississippi, La Sale was very soon persuaded that he was not far
+distant from that river, and made several excursions in order to
+approach it. But, if he found a country beautiful and fertile, he
+did not make progress towards what he was in search of. He returned
+each time to the fort more gloomy and more harsh; and this was not
+the way to restore calm to spirits embittered by sufferings and the
+inutility of their efforts. Grain had been sown; but scarcely any
+came up for want of rain, and what had sprung up was soon laid waste
+by the savages and the deer. The hunters who wandered far from the
+camp were massacred by the Indians, and sickness found an easy prey
+in men overwhelmed with ennui, disappointment, and misery. In a
+short time, the number of the colonists fell to thirty-seven. At
+length, La Sale resolved to try a last effort to reach the
+Mississippi, and in descending the river to seek help from the
+nations with which he had made alliance. He set out on January 12th,
+1687, with his brother, his two nephews, two missionaries, and
+twelve colonists. He was approaching the country of the Shawnees,
+when, in consequence of an altercation between one of his nephews
+and three of his companions, these latter assassinated the young man
+and his servant during their sleep, and resolved immediately to do
+the same with the chief of the enterprise. De la Sale, uneasy at not
+seeing his nephew return, set out to seek him on the morning of the
+19th, with Father Anastase. The assassins, seeing him approach, lay
+in ambush in a thicket, and one of them shot him in the head, and
+stretched him on the ground stark dead. Thus perished Cavelier de la
+Sale, "a man of a capacity," says Father Charlevoix, "of a largeness
+of mind, of a courage and firmness of soul, which might have led him
+to the achievement of something great, if with so many great
+qualities, he had known how to master his gloomy and atrabilious
+disposition, and to soften the severity or rather the harshness of
+his nature...." Many calumnies had been spread abroad against him;
+but it is necessary so much the more to be on our guard against all
+these malevolent reports "as it is only too common to exaggerate the
+defects of the unfortunate, to impute to them even some which they
+had not, especially when they have given occasion for their
+misfortune, and have not known how to make themselves beloved. What
+is sadder for the memory of this celebrated man, is that he has been
+regretted by few persons, and that the ill-success of his
+undertakings--only of his last--has given him the air of an
+adventurer, among those who judge only by appearances. Unhappily,
+these are usually the most numerous, and in some degree the voice of
+the public."
+
+[Illustration: Assassination of La Sale.]
+
+We have but little to add to these last wise words. La Sale knew not
+how to obtain pardon for his first success. We have related
+subsequently by what concurrence of circumstances his second
+enterprise miscarried. He died, the victim it may be said, of the
+jealousy and malevolence of the Chevalier de Beaujeu. It is to this
+slight cause that we owe the failure to found in America a powerful
+colony, which would very soon have been found in a condition to
+compete with the English establishments.
+
+We have narrated the beginning of the English colonies. The events
+which took place in England were highly favourable to them. The
+religious persecutions, the revolutions of 1648 and 1688, furnished
+numerous recruits, who, animated by an excellent spirit, set
+themselves to work, and transported to the other side of the
+Atlantic the arts, the industry, and in a short time the prosperity,
+of the mother country. Very soon, the immense forests which covered
+Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Carolina, fell beneath the hatchet of
+the "Squatter," and the soil became cleared, while the hunters of
+the woods, driving back the Indians, made the interior of the
+country better known, and prepared the work of civilization.
+
+In Mexico, in the whole of Central America, in Peru, in Chili, and
+on the shores of the Atlantic, a different state of things prevailed.
+The Spaniards had extended their conquests; but, far from acting
+like the English, they had reduced the Indians to slavery. Instead
+of applying themselves to the cultivation appropriate to the variety
+of the climates and of the countries of which they had made
+themselves masters, they sought only in the produce of the mines the
+resources and prosperity which they should have endeavoured to
+obtain from the land. If a country can thus rapidly attain
+prodigious wealth, yet this factitious system cannot last long. With
+the mines a prosperity which does not renew itself, must ere long
+become exhausted. The Spaniards could not fail to experience the sad
+result.
+
+Thus then, at the end of the seventeenth century, a great part of
+the new world was known. In North America, Canada, the shores of the
+Atlantic and of the Gulf of Mexico, the valley of the Mississippi,
+the coasts of California and of New Mexico, were discovered or
+colonized. All the central part of the continent, from Rio del Norte,
+as far as Terra Firma, was subject, at least nominally, to the
+Spaniards. In the south, the savannahs and the forests of Brazil,
+the pampas of the Argentine, and the interior of Patagonia, escaped
+the observation of the explorers, as they were destined to do for a
+long time yet.
+
+In Africa, the long line of coasts, which are washed by the Atlantic
+and the Indian Oceans, had been patiently followed and observed by
+navigators. At some points only, colonists and missionaries had
+tried to penetrate the mystery of this vast continent. Senegal,
+Congo, the valley of the Nile, and Abyssinia, were all that were
+known with some degree of detail and of certainty.
+
+If many of the countries of Asia, surveyed by the travellers of the
+middle ages, had not been revisited since that epoch, we had
+carefully explored the whole anterior part of that continent, India
+had been revealed to us, we had even founded some establishments
+there, China had been touched by our missionaries, and Japan, that
+famous Cipango which had exercised so great an attraction for our
+travellers of the preceding age, was at length known to us. Only
+Siberia and the whole north-east angle of Asia had escaped our
+investigations, and it was not yet known whether America was not
+connected with Asia, a mystery which was before long to be cleared
+up.
+
+In Oceania, a number of archipelagos, of islands and separate islets,
+remained still to be discovered, but the islands of Sunda were
+colonized, the coasts of Australia and of New Zealand had been
+partially revealed, and the existence of that great continent which,
+according to Tasman, extended from Tierra del Fuego to New Zealand,
+began to be doubted; but it still required the long and careful
+researches of Cook to banish definitely into the domain of fable a
+chimera so long cherished.
+
+Geography was on the point of transforming itself. The great
+discoveries made in astronomy were about to be applied to geography.
+The labours of Fernel and above all of Picard, upon the measure of a
+terrestrial degree between Paris and Amiens, had made it clear that
+the globe is not a sphere, but a spheroid, that is to say, a ball
+flattened at the poles and swollen at the equator, and thus were
+found at one stroke the form and the dimensions of the world which
+we inhabit. At length the labours of Picard, continued by La Hire
+and Cassini, were completed at the commencement of the following
+century. The astronomical observations, rendered possible by the
+calculation of the satellites of Jupiter, enabled us to rectify our
+maps. If this rectification had been already effected with regard to
+certain places, it became indispensable when the number of points of
+which the astronomical position had been observed, had been
+considerably increased; and this was to be the work of the next
+century. At the same time, historical geography was more studied; it
+began to take for its foundation the study of inscriptions, and
+archæology was about to become one of the most useful instruments of
+comparative geography.
+
+In a word, the seventeenth century is an epoch of transition and of
+progress; it seeks and it finds the powerful means which its
+successor, the eighteenth century, was destined to put into
+operation. The era of the sciences has already opened, and with it
+the modern world commences.
+
+
+
+
+END OF THE SECOND PART.
+
+
+
+
+GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, ST. JOHN'S SQUARE, LONDON.
+
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+	<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Celebrated Travels and Travellers, by Jules Verne
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Celebrated Travels and Travellers
+       Part I. The Exploration of the World
+
+Author: Jules Verne
+
+Illustrator: Léon Benett
+             Paul Philippoteaux
+
+Translator: Dora  Leigh
+
+Release Date: March 7, 2008 [EBook #24777]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ron Swanson (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian
+Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Front Cover">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="797">
+			<img src="images/001.jpg" alt="The Exploration of the World.">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h3>CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS.</h3>
+<center><hr width="20%"></center>
+<h1>THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.</h1>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Frontispiece">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="764">
+			<img src="images/002.jpg" alt="Translated by Dora Leigh.">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h3>CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS.</h3>
+<center><hr width="20%"></center>
+<h1>THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.</h1>
+<br>
+<h3>B<small>Y</small> JULES VERNE</h3>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<center>WITH 59 ILLUSTRATIONS BY L. BENETT AND P. PHILIPPOTEAUX,<br>
+AND 50 FAC-SIMILES OF ANCIENT DRAWINGS.</center>
+<br>
+<br>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Title Page">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="554">
+			<img src="images/003.jpg" alt="Natives in a boat.">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+<center><small><i>TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH.</i></small></center>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<center>London:<br>
+SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, &amp; RIVINGTON,<br>
+<small>CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.</small><br>
+1882.<br>
+<small>[<i>All rights reserved.</i>]</small></center>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><table align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="frame"><tr><td>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" summary="Series Ad">
+	<tr>
+		<td align="center" colspan="2"><big>Celebrated Travels and Travellers,</big></td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td align="center" colspan="2">BY JULES VERNE.</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td align="center" colspan="2"><hr width="20%"></td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td colspan="2"><small><i>In Three Vols., demy 8vo, each containing 400 pages and upwards of<br>
+		100 Illustrations, price 12s. 6d. each; cloth extra, gilt edges, 14s.</i></small></td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td align="right">Part I.</td>
+		<td>The Exploration of the World.</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td align="right">Part II.</td>
+		<td>The Great Navigators of the Eighteenth Century.</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td align="right">Part III.</td>
+		<td>The Great Navigators of the Nineteenth Century.</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+</td></tr></table>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h2>EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.</h2>
+<br>
+<center><hr width="20%"></center>
+<br>
+<h2>LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+<h4>REPRODUCED IN FAC-SIMILE FROM THE ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS,<br>
+GIVING THE SOURCES WHENCE THEY ARE DERIVED.</h4>
+<br>
+<center><hr width="20%"></center>
+<br>
+
+<h3>FIRST PART.</h3>
+
+<p><a href="#fax01">Map of the World as known to the Ancients.</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax02">Approach to Constantinople.</a> Anselmi Banduri Imperium orientale, tome
+II., p. 448. 2 vols. folio. Parisiis, 1711.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax04">Map of the World according to Marco Polo's ideas.</a> Vol. I., p. 134 of
+the edition of Marco Polo published in London by Colonel Yule, 2
+vols. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax03">Plan of Pekin in 1290.</a> Yule's edition. Vol. I., p. 332.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax05">Portrait of Jean de Béthencourt.</a> "The discovery and conquest of the
+Canaries." Page 1, 12mo. Paris, 1630.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax06">Plan of Jerusalem.</a> "Narrative of the journey beyond seas to the Holy
+Sepulchre of Jerusalem," by Antoine Régnant, p. 229, 4to. Lyons,
+1573.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax07">Prince Henry the Navigator.</a> From a miniature engraved in "The
+Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator," by H. Major. 8vo. London,
+1877.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax08">Christopher Columbus.</a> Taken from "Vitæ illustrium virorum," by Paul
+Jove. Folio. Basileæ, Perna.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax09">Imaginary view of Seville.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, pl. I., part
+IV.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax10">Building of a caravel.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part IV.,
+plate XIX.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax11">Christopher Columbus on board his caravel.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands
+Voyages, Americæ, part IV., plate VI.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax12">Embarkation of Christopher Columbus.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages,
+Americæ, part IV., plate VIII.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax13">Map of the Antilles and the Gulf of Mexico.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands
+Voyages, Americæ, part V.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax14">Fishing for Pearl oysters.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part
+IV., plate XII.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax15">Gold-mines in Cuba.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part V.,
+plate I.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax16">Vasco da Gama.</a> From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes of the
+Bibl. Nat.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax17">La Mina.</a> "Histoire générale des Voyages," by the Abbé Prévost. Vol.
+III., p. 461, 4to. 20 vols. An X. 1746.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax18">Map of the East Coast of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to the
+Cape del Gado.</a> From the French map of the Eastern Ocean, published
+in 1740 by order of the Comte de Maurepas.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax19">Map of Mozambique.</a> Bibl. Nat. Estampes.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax20">Interview with the Zamorin.</a> "Hist. Gén. des Voyages," by Prévost.
+Vol. I., p. 39. 4to. An X. 20 vols. 1746.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax21">View of Quiloa.</a> From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes.
+Topography. (Africa).</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax22">Map of the Coasts of Persia, Guzerat, and Malabar.</a> From the French
+Map of the Eastern Ocean, pub. in 1740 by order of the Comte de
+Maurepas.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax23">The Island of Ormuz.</a> "Hist. Gén. des Voyages." Prévost. Vol. II., p.
+98.</p>
+<br>
+
+<h3>SECOND PART.</h3>
+
+<p><a href="#fax24">Americus Vespucius.</a> From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes of
+the Bibliothèque Nationale.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax25">Indians devoured by dogs.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part
+IV., plate XXII.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax26">Punishment of Indians.</a> Page 17 of Las Casas' "Narratio regionum
+indicarum per Hispanos quosdam devastatarum," 4to. Francofurti,
+sumptibus Th. de Bry, 1698.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax27">Portrait of F. Cortès.</a> From an engraving after Velasquez in the
+Cabinet des Estampes of the Bibliothèque Nationale.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax28">Plan of Mexico.</a> From Clavigero and Bernal Diaz del Castillo.
+Jourdanet's translation, 2nd Edition.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax29">Portrait of Pizarro.</a> From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes
+of the Bib. Nat.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax30">Map of Peru.</a> From Garcilasso de la Vega. History of the Incas. 4to.
+Bernard, Amsterdam, 1738.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax31">Atahualpa taken prisoner.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part
+VI., plate VII.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax32">Assassination of Pizarro.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ, part
+VI., plate XV.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax33">Magellan on board his caravel.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americæ,
+part IV., plate XV.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax34">Map of the Coast of Brazil.</a> From the map called Henry 2nd's. Bibl.
+Nat., Geographical collections.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax35">The Ladrone Islands.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Occidentalis Indiæ,
+pars VIII., p. 50.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax36">Portrait of Sebastian Cabot.</a> From a miniature engraved in "The
+remarkable Life, adventures, and discoveries of Sebastian Cabot," by
+Nicholls. 8vo. London, 1869.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax37">Fragment of Cabot's map.</a> Bibl. Nat., Geographical collections.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax38">Map of Newfoundland and of the Mouth of the St. Lawrence.</a> Lescarbot,
+"Histoire de la Nouvelle France." 12mo. Perier, Paris, 1617.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax39">Portrait of Jacques Cartier.</a> After Charlevoix. "History and general
+description of New France," translated by John Gilmary Shea, p. III.
+6 vols. 4to. Shea, New York, 1866.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax40">Barentz' ship fixed in the ice.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia
+pars Indiæ Orientales, plate XLIV.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax41">Interior of Barentz' house.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia pars
+Indiæ Orientalis, plate XLVII.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax42">Exterior view of Barentz' house.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia
+pars Indiæ Orientalis, plate XLVIII.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax43">Map of Nova Zembla.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia pars Indiæ
+Orientalis, plate LIX.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax44">A sea-lion hunt.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Occidentalis Indiæ,
+pars VIII., p. 37.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax45">A fight between the Dutch and the Spaniards.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands
+Voyages, "Historiarum novi orbis;" part IX., book II., page 87.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax46">Portrait of Raleigh.</a> From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes
+of the Bibl. Nat.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax47">Berreo seized by Raleigh.</a> Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Occid. Indiæ,
+part VIII., p. 64.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax48">Portrait of Chardin.</a> "Voyages de M. le Chevalier Chardin en Perse."
+Vol. I. 10 vols. 12mo. Ferrand, Rouen, 1723.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax49">Japanese Archer.</a> From a Japanese print engraved by Yule, vol. II., p.
+206.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fax50">Attack upon an Indian Town.</a> "Voyages du Sieur de Champlain," p. 44.
+12mo. Collet, Paris, 1727.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h2>NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL TRAVELLERS</h2>
+<h4>OF WHOM THE HISTORY AND TRAVELS ARE RELATED IN THIS VOLUME.</h4>
+<br>
+<center><hr width="20%"></center>
+<br>
+
+<h3>FIRST PART.</h3>
+
+<blockquote>H<small>ANNO</small>&mdash;H<small>ERODOTUS</small>&mdash;P<small>YTHEAS</small>&mdash;N<small>EARCHUS</small>&mdash;E<small>UDOXUS</small>&mdash;C<small>ÆSAR</small>&mdash;S<small>TRABO</small>&mdash;P<small>AUSANIAS</small>&mdash;F<small>A</small>-H<small>IAN</small>&mdash;C<small>OSMOS</small>
+I<small>NDICOPLEUSTES</small>&mdash;A<small>RCULPHE</small>&mdash;W<small>ILLIBALD</small>&mdash;S<small>OLEYMAN</small>&mdash;B<small>ENJAMIN OF</small>
+T<small>UDELA</small>&mdash;P<small>LAN DE</small> C<small>ARPIN</small>&mdash;R<small>UBRUQUIS</small>&mdash;M<small>ARCO</small>
+P<small>OLO</small>&mdash;I<small>BN</small> B<small>ATUTA</small>&mdash;J<small>EAN DE</small> B<small>ÉTHENCOURT</small>&mdash;C<small>HRISTOPHER</small> C<small>OLUMBUS</small>&mdash;C<small>OVILHAM
+AND</small> P<small>AÏVA</small>&mdash;V<small>ASCO DA</small> G<small>AMA</small>&mdash;A<small>LVARÈS</small> C<small>ABRAL</small>&mdash;J<small>OAO DA</small> N<small>OVA</small>&mdash;D<small>A</small> C<small>UNHA</small>&mdash;A<small>LMEIDA</small>&mdash;A<small>LBUQUERQUE</small>.</blockquote>
+<br>
+
+<h3>SECOND PART.</h3>
+
+<blockquote>H<small>OJEDA</small>&mdash;A<small>MERICUS</small> V<small>ESPUCIUS</small>&mdash;J<small>UAN DE LA</small> C<small>OSA</small>&mdash;Y<small>AÑEZ</small> P<small>INZON</small>&mdash;D<small>IAZ DE</small>
+S<small>OLIS</small>&mdash;P<small>ONCE DE</small> L<small>EON</small>&mdash;B<small>ALBOA</small>&mdash;G<small>RIJALVA</small>&mdash;C<small>ORTÈS</small>&mdash;P<small>IZARRO</small>&mdash;A<small>LMAGRO</small>&mdash;A<small>LVARADO</small>&mdash;O<small>RELLANA</small>&mdash;M<small>AGELLAN</small>&mdash;E<small>RIC
+THE</small> R<small>ED</small>&mdash;T<small>HE</small> Z<small>ENI</small>&mdash;T<small>HE</small>
+C<small>ORTEREALS</small>&mdash;T<small>HE</small> C<small>ABOTS</small>&mdash;W<small>ILLOUGHBY</small>&mdash;C<small>HANCELLOR</small>&mdash;V<small>ERRAZZANO</small>&mdash;J<small>ACQUES</small>
+C<small>ARTIER</small>&mdash;F<small>ROBISHER</small>&mdash;J<small>OHN</small> D<small>AVIS</small>&mdash;B<small>ARENTZ AND</small> H<small>EEMSKERKE</small>&mdash;D<small>RAKE</small>&mdash;C<small>AVENDISH</small>&mdash;D<small>E</small>
+N<small>OORT</small>&mdash;W. R<small>ALEIGH</small>&mdash;L<small>EMAIRE AND</small> S<small>CHOUTEN</small>&mdash;T<small>ASMAN</small>&mdash;M<small>ENDANA</small>&mdash;Q<small>UIROS
+AND</small> T<small>ORRÈS</small>&mdash;P<small>YRARD DE</small> L<small>AVAL</small>&mdash;P<small>IETRO DELLA</small> V<small>ALLE</small>&mdash;T<small>AVERNIER</small>&mdash;T<small>HÉVENOT</small>&mdash;B<small>ERNIER</small>&mdash;R<small>OBERT</small> K<small>NOX</small>&mdash;C<small>HARDIN</small>&mdash;D<small>E</small>
+B<small>RUYN</small>&mdash;K<small>ÆMPFER</small>&mdash;W<small>ILLIAM</small> D<small>AMPIER</small>&mdash;H<small>UDSON AND</small> B<small>AFFIN</small>&mdash;C<small>HAMPLAIN AND</small> L<small>A</small> S<small>ALE</small>.</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<center><hr width="20%"></center>
+<br>
+
+<p>This narrative will comprehend not only all the explorations made in
+past ages, but also all the new discoveries which have of late years
+so greatly interested the scientific world. In order to give to this
+work&mdash;enlarged perforce by the recent labours of modern
+travellers,&mdash;all the accuracy possible, I have called in the aid of
+a man whom I with justice regard as one of the most competent
+geographers of the present day: M. Gabriel Marcel, attached to the
+Bibliothèque Nationale.</p>
+
+<p>With the advantage of his acquaintance with several foreign
+languages which are unknown to me, we have been able to go to the
+fountain-head, and to derive all information from absolutely
+original documents. Our readers will, therefore, render to M. Marcel
+the credit due to him for his share in a work which will demonstrate
+what manner of men the great travellers have been, from the time of
+Hanno and Herodotus down to that of Livingstone and Stanley.</p>
+
+<div align="right"><big>JULES VERNE.</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<center><hr width="20%"></center>
+<br>
+
+<h3>FIRST PART.</h3>
+
+<h4><a href="#p1c1">CHAPTER I.</a></h4>
+<center>C<small>ELEBRATED</small> T<small>RAVELLERS BEFORE THE</small> C<small>HRISTIAN</small> E<small>RA</small>.<br><br>
+H<small>ANNO</small>, 505; H<small>ERODOTUS</small>, 484; P<small>YTHEAS</small>, 340; N<small>EARCHUS</small>, 326;<br>
+E<small>UDOXUS</small>, 146; C<small>ÆSAR</small>, 100; S<small>TRABO</small>, 50.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Hanno, the Carthaginian&mdash;Herodotus visits Egypt, Lybia, Ethiopia,
+Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylon, Persia, India, Media, Colchis, the
+Caspian Sea, Scythia, Thrace, and Greece&mdash;Pytheas explores the
+coasts of Iberia and Gaul, the English Channel, the Isle of
+Albion, the Orkney Islands, and the land of Thule&mdash;Nearchus
+visits the Asiatic coast, from the Indus to the Persian Gulf&mdash;Eudoxus
+reconnoitres the West Coast of Africa&mdash;Cæsar conquers
+Gaul and Great Britain&mdash;Strabo travels over the interior of
+Asia, and Egypt, Greece, and Italy</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p1c2">CHAPTER II.</a></h4>
+<center>C<small>ELEBRATED</small> T<small>RAVELLERS FROM THE</small> F<small>IRST TO THE</small> N<small>INTH</small> C<small>ENTURY</small>.<br><br>
+P<small>AUSANIAS</small>, 174; F<small>A</small>-H<small>IAN</small>, 399; C<small>OSMOS</small> I<small>NDICOPLEUSTES</small>, 500;<br>
+A<small>RCULPHE</small>, 700; W<small>ILLIBALD</small>, 725; S<small>OLEYMAN</small>, 851.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Pliny, Hippalus, Arian, and Ptolemy&mdash;Pausanias visits Attica,
+Corinth, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Achaia, Arcadia, Boeotia, and
+Phocis&mdash;Fa-Hian explores Kan-tcheou, Tartary, Northern India,
+the Punjaub, Ceylon, and Java&mdash;Cosmos Indicopleustes, and the
+Christian Topography of the Universe&mdash;Arculphe describes
+Jerusalem, the valley of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives,
+Bethlehem, Jericho, the river Jordan, Libanus, the Dead Sea,
+Capernaum, Nazareth, Mount Tabor, Damascus, Tyre, Alexandria,
+and Constantinople&mdash;Willibald and the Holy Land&mdash;Soleyman
+travels through Ceylon, and Sumatra, and crosses the Gulf of
+Siam and the China Sea</blockquote>
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p1c3">CHAPTER III.</a></h4>
+<center>C<small>ELEBRATED</small> T<small>RAVELLERS BETWEEN THE</small> T<small>ENTH AND</small> T<small>HIRTEENTH</small> C<small>ENTURIES</small>.<br><br>
+B<small>ENJAMIN OF</small> T<small>UDELA</small>, 1159-1173; P<small>LAN DE</small> C<small>ARPIN, OR</small> C<small>ARPINI</small>, 1245-1247;<br>
+R<small>UBRUQUIS</small>, 1253-1254.</center>
+
+<blockquote>The Scandinavians in the North, Iceland and Greenland&mdash;Benjamin
+of Tudela visits Marseilles, Rome, Constantinople, the
+Archipelago, Palestine, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Damascus, Baalbec,
+Nineveh, Baghdad, Babylon, Bassorah, Ispahan, Shiraz, Samarcand,
+Thibet, Malabar, Ceylon, the Red Sea, Egypt, Sicily, Italy,
+Germany, and France&mdash;Carpini explores Turkestan&mdash;Manners and
+customs of the Tartars&mdash;Rubruquis and the Sea of Azov, the
+Volga, Karakorum, Astrakhan, and Derbend</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p1c4">CHAPTER IV.</a></h4>
+<center>M<small>ARCO</small> P<small>OLO</small>, 1253-1324.<br>
+<br>
+<a href="#p1c4">I.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>The interest of the Genoese and Venetian merchants in
+encouraging the exploration of Central Asia&mdash;The family of Polo,
+and its position in Venice&mdash;Nicholas and Matteo Polo, the two
+brothers&mdash;They go from Constantinople to the Court of the
+Emperor of China&mdash;Their reception at the Court of Kublaï-Khan&mdash;The
+Emperor appoints them his ambassadors to the Pope&mdash;Their
+return to Venice&mdash;Marco Polo&mdash;He leaves his father Nicholas and
+his uncle Matteo for the residence of the King of Tartary&mdash;The
+new Pope Gregory X.&mdash;The narrative of Marco Polo is written in
+French from his dictation, by Rusticien of Pisa</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p1c42">II.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Armenia Minor&mdash;Armenia&mdash;Mount Ararat&mdash;Georgia&mdash;Mosul, Baghdad,
+Bussorah, Tauris&mdash;Persia&mdash;The Province of Kirman&mdash;Comadi&mdash;Ormuz&mdash;The
+Old Man of the Mountain&mdash;Cheburgan&mdash;Balkh&mdash;Cashmir&mdash;Kashgar&mdash;Samarcand&mdash;Kotan&mdash;The
+Desert&mdash;Tangun&mdash;Kara-Korum&mdash;Signan-fu&mdash;The Great
+Wall&mdash;Chang-tou&mdash;The residence of
+Kublaï-Khan&mdash;Cambaluc, now Pekin&mdash;The Emperor's fêtes&mdash;His
+hunting&mdash;Description of Pekin&mdash;Chinese Mint and bank-notes&mdash;The
+system of posts in the Empire</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p1c43">III.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Tso-cheu&mdash;Tai-yen-fou&mdash;Pin-yang-fou&mdash;The Yellow
+River&mdash;Signan-fou&mdash;Szu-tchouan&mdash;Ching-tu-fou&mdash;Thibet&mdash;Li-kiang-fou&mdash;Carajan&mdash;Yung-tchang&mdash;Mien&mdash;Bengal&mdash;Annam&mdash;Tai-ping&mdash;Cintingui&mdash;Sindifoo&mdash;Té-cheu&mdash;Tsi-nan-fou&mdash;Lin-tsin-choo&mdash;Lin-sing&mdash;Mangi&mdash;Yang-tcheu-fou&mdash;Towns
+on the coast&mdash;Quin-say or Hang-tcheou-foo&mdash;Fo-kien</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p1c44">IV.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Japan&mdash;Departure of the three Venetians with the Emperor's
+daughter and the Persian ambassadors&mdash;Sai-gon&mdash;Java&mdash;Condor&mdash;Bintang&mdash;Sumatra&mdash;The
+Nicobar Islands&mdash;Ceylon&mdash;The Coromandel
+coast&mdash;The Malabar coast&mdash;The Sea of Oman&mdash;The island of
+Socotra&mdash;Madagascar&mdash;Zanzibar and the coast of Africa&mdash;Abyssinia&mdash;Yemen&mdash;Hadramaut
+and Oman&mdash;Ormuz&mdash;The return to
+Venice&mdash;A feast in the household of Polo&mdash;Marco Polo a Genoese
+prisoner&mdash;Death of Marco Polo about 1323</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p1c5">CHAPTER V.</a></h4>
+<center>I<small>BN</small> B<small>ATUTA</small>, 1328-1353.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Ibn Batuta&mdash;The Nile&mdash;Gaza, Tyre, Tiberias, Libanus, Baalbec,
+Damascus, Meshid, Bussorah, Baghdad, Tabriz, Mecca and Medina&mdash;Yemen&mdash;Abyssinia&mdash;The
+country of the Berbers&mdash;Zanguebar&mdash;Ormuz&mdash;Syria&mdash;Anatolia&mdash;Asia
+Minor&mdash;Astrakhan&mdash;Constantinople&mdash;Turkestan&mdash;Herat&mdash;The
+Indus&mdash;Delhi&mdash;Malabar&mdash;The Maldives&mdash;Ceylon&mdash;The Coromandel
+coast&mdash;Bengal&mdash;The Nicobar Islands&mdash;Sumatra&mdash;China&mdash;Africa&mdash;The Niger&mdash;Timbuctoo</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p1c6">CHAPTER VI.</a></h4>
+<center>J<small>EAN DE</small> B<small>ÉTHENCOURT</small>, 1339-1425.<br>
+<br>
+<a href="#p1c6">I.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>The Norman cavalier&mdash;His ideas of conquest&mdash;What was known of
+the Canary Islands&mdash;Cadiz&mdash;The Canary Archipelago&mdash;Graciosa&mdash;Lancerota&mdash;Fortaventura&mdash;Jean
+de Béthencourt returns to Spain&mdash;Revolt of Berneval&mdash;His interview with King
+Henry III.&mdash;Gadifer
+visits the Canary Archipelago&mdash;Canary Island or "Gran Canaria"&mdash;Ferro
+Island&mdash;Palma Island</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p1c62">II.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>The return of Jean de Béthencourt&mdash;Gadifer's jealousy&mdash;Béthencourt
+visits his archipelago&mdash;Gadifer goes to conquer Gran
+Canaria&mdash;Disagreement of the two commanders&mdash;Their return to
+Spain&mdash;Gadifer blamed by the King&mdash;Return of Béthencourt&mdash;The
+natives of Fortaventura are baptized&mdash;Béthencourt revisits
+Caux&mdash;Returns to Lancerota&mdash;Lands on the African coast&mdash;Conquest
+of Gran Canaria, Ferro, and Palma Islands&mdash;Maciot appointed
+Governor of the archipelago&mdash;Béthencourt obtains the Pope's
+consent to the Canary Islands being made an Episcopal See&mdash;His
+return to his country and his death</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p1c7">CHAPTER VII.</a></h4>
+<center>C<small>HRISTOPHER</small> C<small>OLUMBUS</small>, 1436-1506.<br>
+<br>
+<a href="#p1c7">I.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Discovery of Madeira, Cape de Verd Islands, the Azores, Congo,
+and Guinea&mdash;Bartholomew Diaz&mdash;Cabot and Labrador&mdash;The
+geographical and commercial tendencies of the middle ages&mdash;The
+erroneous idea of the distance between Europe and Asia&mdash;Birth of
+Christopher Columbus&mdash;His first voyages&mdash;His plans rejected&mdash;His
+sojourn at the Franciscan convent&mdash;His reception by Ferdinand
+and Isabella&mdash;Treaty of the 17th of April, 1492&mdash;The brothers
+Pinzon&mdash;Three armed caravels at the port of Palos&mdash;Departure on
+the 3rd of August, 1492</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p1c72">II.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>First voyage: The Great Canary&mdash;Gomera&mdash;Magnetic variation&mdash;Symptoms
+of revolt&mdash;Land, land&mdash;San Salvador&mdash;Taking
+possession&mdash;Conception&mdash;Fernandina or Great Exuma&mdash;Isabella, or
+Long Island&mdash;The Mucaras&mdash;Cuba&mdash;Description of the island&mdash;Archipelago
+of Notre-Dame&mdash;Hispaniola or San Domingo&mdash;Tortuga
+Island&mdash;The cacique on board the <i>Santa-Maria</i>&mdash;The caravel of
+Columbus goes aground and cannot be floated off&mdash;Island of
+Monte-Christi&mdash;Return&mdash;Tempest&mdash;Arrival in Spain&mdash;Homage
+rendered to Christopher Columbus</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p1c73">III.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Second Voyage: Flotilla of seventeen vessels&mdash;Island of
+Ferro&mdash;Dominica&mdash;Marie-Galante&mdash;Guadaloupe&mdash;The
+Cannibals&mdash;Montserrat&mdash;Santa-Maria-la-Rodonda&mdash;St. Martin and Santa Cruz&mdash;Archipelago
+of the Eleven Thousand Virgins&mdash;The island of St. John Baptist,
+or Porto Rico&mdash;Hispaniola&mdash;The first Colonists massacred&mdash;Foundation
+of the town of Isabella&mdash;Twelve ships laden with
+treasure sent to Spain&mdash;Fort St. Thomas built in the Province of
+Cibao&mdash;Don Diego, Columbus' brother, named Governor of the
+Island&mdash;Jamaica&mdash;The Coast of Cuba&mdash;The Remora&mdash;Return to
+Isabella&mdash;The Cacique made prisoner&mdash;Revolt of the
+Natives&mdash;Famine&mdash;Columbus traduced in Spain&mdash;Juan Aguado sent as
+Commissary to Isabella&mdash;Gold-mines&mdash;Departure of Columbus&mdash;His
+arrival at Cadiz</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p1c74">IV.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Third Voyage: Madeira&mdash;Santiago in the Cape Verd
+Archipelago&mdash;Trinidad&mdash;First sight of the American Coast in Venezuela, beyond
+the Orinoco, now the Province of Cumana&mdash;Gulf of Paria&mdash;The
+Gardens&mdash;Tobago&mdash;Grenada&mdash;Margarita&mdash;Cubaga&mdash;Hispaniola during
+the absence of Columbus&mdash;Foundation of the town of San Domingo&mdash;Arrival
+of Columbus&mdash;Insubordination in the Colony&mdash;Complaints
+in Spain&mdash;Bovadilla sent by the king to inquire into the conduct of
+Columbus&mdash;Columbus sent to Europe in fetters with his two
+brothers&mdash;His appearance before Ferdinand and Isabella&mdash;Renewal
+of royal favour</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p1c75">V.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Fourth Voyage: A Flotilla of four vessels&mdash;Canary
+Islands&mdash;Martinique&mdash;Dominica&mdash;Santa-Cruz&mdash;Porto-Rico&mdash;Hispaniola&mdash;Jamaica&mdash;Cayman
+Island&mdash;Pinos Island&mdash;Island of Guanaja&mdash;Cape
+Honduras&mdash;The American Coast of Truxillo on the Gulf of Darien&mdash;The
+Limonare Islands&mdash;Huerta&mdash;The Coast of Veragua&mdash;Auriferous
+Strata&mdash;Revolt of the Natives&mdash;The Dream of Columbus&mdash;Porto-Bello&mdash;The
+Mulatas&mdash;Putting into port at Jamaica&mdash;Distress&mdash;Revolt of
+the Spaniards against Columbus&mdash;Lunar
+Eclipse&mdash;Arrival of Columbus at Hispaniola&mdash;Return of Columbus
+to Spain&mdash;His death, on the 20th of March, 1506</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p1c8">CHAPTER VIII.</a></h4>
+<center>T<small>HE</small> C<small>ONQUEST OF</small> I<small>NDIA, AND OF THE</small> S<small>PICE</small> C<small>OUNTRIES</small>.<br>
+<br>
+<a href="#p1c8">I.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Covilham and Païva&mdash;Vasco da Gama&mdash;The Cape of Good Hope is
+doubled&mdash;Escalès at Sam-Braz&mdash;Mozambique, Mombaz, and Melinda&mdash;Arrival
+at Calicut&mdash;Treason of the Zamorin&mdash;Battles&mdash;Return to
+Europe&mdash;The scurvy&mdash;Death of Paul da Gama&mdash;Arrival at Lisbon</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p1c82">II.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Alvarès Cabral&mdash;Discovery of Brazil&mdash;The coast of
+Africa&mdash;Arrival at Calicut, Cochin, Cananore&mdash;Joao da Nova&mdash;Gama's
+second expedition&mdash;The King of Cochin&mdash;The early life of
+Albuquerque&mdash;The taking of Goa&mdash;The siege and capture of
+Malacca&mdash;Second expedition against Ormuz&mdash;Ceylon&mdash;The
+Moluccas&mdash;Death of Albuquerque&mdash;Fate of the Portuguese empire of the
+Indies</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h3>SECOND PART.</h3>
+
+<h4><a href="#p2c1">CHAPTER I.</a></h4>
+<center>T<small>HE</small> C<small>ONQUERORS OF</small> C<small>ENTRAL</small> A<small>MERICA</small>.<br>
+<br>
+<a href="#p2c1">I.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Hojeda&mdash;Americus Vespucius&mdash;The New World named after him&mdash;Juan
+de la Cosa&mdash;Vincent Yañez Pinzon&mdash;Bastidas&mdash;Diego de Lepe&mdash;Diaz
+de Solis&mdash;Ponce de Leon and Florida&mdash;Balboa discovers the
+Pacific Ocean&mdash;Grijalva explores the coast of Mexico</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p2c12">II.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Ferdinand Cortès&mdash;His character&mdash;His appointment&mdash;Preparations
+for the expedition, and attempts of Velasquez to stop it&mdash;Landing
+at Vera-Cruz&mdash;Mexico and the Emperor Montezuma&mdash;The
+republic of Tlascala&mdash;March upon Mexico&mdash;The Emperor is made
+prisoner&mdash;Narvaez defeated&mdash;The <i>Noche Triste</i>&mdash;Battle of
+Otumba&mdash;The second siege and taking of Mexico&mdash;Expedition to
+Honduras&mdash;Voyage to Spain&mdash;Expeditions on the Pacific Ocean&mdash;Second
+Voyage of Cortès to Spain&mdash;His death</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p2c13">III.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>The triple alliance&mdash;Francisco Pizarro and his brothers&mdash;Don
+Diego d'Almagro&mdash;First attempts&mdash;Peru, its extent, people, and
+kings&mdash;Capture of Atahualpa, his ransom and death&mdash;Pedro
+d'Alvarado&mdash;Almagro in Chili&mdash;Strife among the conquerors&mdash;Trial
+and execution of Almagro&mdash;Expeditions of Gonzalo Pizarro and
+Orellana&mdash;Assassination of Francisco Pizarro&mdash;Rebellion and
+execution of his brother Gonzalo</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p2c2">CHAPTER II.</a></h4>
+<center>T<small>HE</small> F<small>IRST</small> V<small>OYAGE ROUND THE</small> W<small>ORLD</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Magellan&mdash;His early history&mdash;His disappointment&mdash;His change of
+nationality&mdash;Preparations for the expedition&mdash;Rio de Janeiro&mdash;
+St. Julian's Bay&mdash;Revolt of a part of the squadron&mdash;Terrible
+punishment of the guilty&mdash;Magellan's Strait&mdash;Patagonia&mdash;The
+Pacific&mdash;The Ladrone Islands&mdash;Zebu and the Philippine Islands&mdash;
+Death of Magellan&mdash;Borneo&mdash;The Moluccas and their Productions&mdash;
+Separation of the <i>Trinidad</i> and <i>Victoria</i>&mdash;Return to Europe by
+the Cape of Good Hope&mdash;Last misadventures</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p2c3">CHAPTER III.</a></h4>
+<center>T<small>HE</small> P<small>OLAR</small> E<small>XPEDITIONS AND THE</small> S<small>EARCH FOR THE</small> N<small>ORTH-WEST</small> P<small>ASSAGE</small>.<br>
+<br>
+<a href="#p2c3">I.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>The Northmen&mdash;Eric the Red&mdash;The Zenos&mdash;John
+Cabot&mdash;Cortereal&mdash;Sebastian Cabot&mdash;Willoughby&mdash;Chancellor</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p2c32">II.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>John Verrazzano&mdash;Jacques Cartier and his three voyages to
+Canada&mdash;The town of Hochelaga&mdash;Tobacco&mdash;The scurvy&mdash;Voyage of
+Roberval&mdash;Martin Frobisher and his voyages&mdash;John Davis&mdash;Barentz
+and Heemskerke&mdash;Spitzbergen&mdash;Winter season at Nova Zembla&mdash;
+Return to Europe&mdash;Relics of the Expedition</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p2c4">CHAPTER IV.</a></h4>
+<center>V<small>OYAGES OF</small> A<small>DVENTURE AND</small> P<small>RIVATEERING</small> W<small>ARFARE</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Drake&mdash;Cavendish&mdash;De Noort&mdash;Walter Raleigh</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p2c5">CHAPTER V.</a></h4>
+<center>M<small>ISSIONARIES AND</small> S<small>ETTLERS</small>. M<small>ERCHANTS AND</small> T<small>OURISTS</small>.<br>
+<br>
+<a href="#p2c5">I.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>Distinguishing characteristics of the Seventeenth Century&mdash;The
+more thorough exploration of regions previously discovered&mdash;To
+the thirst for gold succeeds Apostolic zeal&mdash;Italian
+Missionaries in Congo&mdash;Portuguese Missionaries in Abyssinia&mdash;Brue
+in Senegal and Flacourt in Madagascar&mdash;The Apostles of
+India, of Indo-China, and of Japan</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p2c52">II.</a></center>
+
+<blockquote>The Dutch in the Spice Islands&mdash;Lemaire and Schouten&mdash;Tasman&mdash;Mendana&mdash;Queiros
+and Torrès&mdash;Pyrard de Laval&mdash;Pietro della
+Valle&mdash;Tavernier&mdash;Thévenot&mdash;Bernier&mdash;Robert Knox&mdash;Chardin&mdash;De
+Bruyn&mdash;Kæmpfer</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<h4><a href="#p2c6">CHAPTER VI.</a></h4>
+
+<center><a href="#p2c6">I.</a><br>
+T<small>HE</small> G<small>REAT</small> C<small>ORSAIR</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>William Dampier; or a Sea-King of the Seventeenth Century</blockquote>
+<br>
+<center><a href="#p2c62">II.</a><br>
+T<small>HE</small> P<small>OLE AND</small> A<small>MERICA</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Hudson and Baffin&mdash;Champlain and La Sale&mdash;The English upon the
+coast of the Atlantic&mdash;The Spaniards in South America&mdash;Summary
+of the information acquired at the close of the 17th century&mdash;The
+measure of the terrestrial degree&mdash;Progress of cartography&mdash;Inauguration
+of Mathematical Geography</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Part 1">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="745">
+			<img src="images/004.jpg" alt="Exporation of the World. Part I.">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c1"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER I.</h4>
+<center>C<small>ELEBRATED</small> T<small>RAVELLERS BEFORE THE</small> C<small>HRISTIAN</small> E<small>RA</small>.<br><br>
+H<small>ANNO</small>, 505; H<small>ERODOTUS</small>, 484; P<small>YTHEAS</small>, 340; N<small>EARCHUS</small>, 326;<br>
+E<small>UDOXUS</small>, 146; C<small>ÆSAR</small>, 100; S<small>TRABO</small>, 50.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Hanno, the Carthaginian&mdash;Herodotus visits Egypt, Lybia, Ethiopia,
+Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylon, Persia, India, Media, Colchis, the
+Caspian Sea, Scythia, Thrace, and Greece&mdash;Pytheas explores the
+coasts of Iberia and Gaul, the English Channel, the Isle of Albion,
+the Orkney Islands, and the land of Thule&mdash;Nearchus visits the
+Asiatic coast, from the Indus to the Persian Gulf&mdash;Eudoxus
+reconnoitres the West Coast of Africa&mdash;Cæsar conquers Gaul and Great
+Britain&mdash;Strabo travels over the interior of Asia, and Egypt, Greece,
+and Italy.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>The first traveller of whom we have any account in history, is Hanno,
+who was sent by the Carthaginian senate to colonize some parts of
+the Western coast of Africa. The account of this expedition was
+written in the Carthaginian language and afterwards translated into
+Greek. It is known to us now by the name of the "Periplus of Hanno."
+At what period this explorer lived, historians are not agreed, but
+the most probable account assigns the date <small>B.C.</small> 505 to his
+exploration of the African coast.</p>
+
+<p>Hanno left Carthage with a fleet of sixty vessels of fifty oars each,
+carrying 30,000 persons, and provisions for a long voyage. These
+emigrants, for so we may call them, were destined to people the new
+towns that the Carthaginians hoped to found on the west coast of
+Libya, or as we now call it, Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet successfully passed the Pillars of Hercules, the rocks of
+Gibraltar and Ceuta which command the Strait, and ventured on the
+Atlantic, taking a southerly course. Two days after passing the
+Straits, Hanno anchored on the coast, and laid the foundation of the
+town of Thumiaterion.</p>
+
+<p>Then he put to sea again, and doubling the cape of Soloïs, made
+fresh discoveries, and advanced to the mouth of a large African
+river, where he found a tribe of wandering shepherds camping on the
+banks. He only waited to conclude a treaty of alliance with them,
+before continuing his voyage southward. He next reached the Island
+of Cerne, situated in a bay, and measuring five stadia in
+circumference, or as we should say at the present day, nearly 925
+yards. According to Hanno's own account, this island should be
+placed, with regard to the Pillars of Hercules, at an equal distance
+to that which separates these Pillars from Carthage.</p>
+
+<p>They set sail again, and Hanno reached the mouth of the river
+Chretes, which forms a sort of natural harbour, but as they
+endeavoured to explore this river, they were assailed with showers
+of stones from the native negro race, inhabiting the surrounding
+country, and driven back, and after this inhospitable reception they
+returned to Cerne. We must not omit to add that Hanno mentions
+finding large numbers of crocodiles and hippopotami in this river.
+Twelve days after this unsuccessful expedition, the fleet reached a
+mountainous region, where fragrant trees and shrubs abounded, and it
+then entered a vast gulf which terminated in a plain. This region
+appeared quite calm during the day, but after nightfall it was
+illumined by tongues of flame, which might have proceeded from fires
+lighted by the natives, or from the natural ignition of the dry
+grass when the rainy season was over.</p>
+
+<p>In five days, Hanno doubled the Cape, known as the Hespera Keras,
+there, according to his own account, "he heard the sound of fifes,
+cymbals, and tambourines, and the clamour of a multitude of people."
+The soothsayers, who accompanied the party of Carthaginian explorers,
+counselled flight from this land of terrors, and, in obedience to
+their advice, they set sail again, still taking a southerly course.
+They arrived at a cape, which, stretching southwards, formed a gulf,
+called Notu Keras, and, according to M. D'Avezac, this gulf must
+have been the mouth of the river Ouro, which falls into the Atlantic
+almost within the Tropic of Cancer. At the lower end of this gulf,
+they found an island inhabited by a vast number of gorillas, which
+the Carthaginians mistook for hairy savages. They contrived to get
+possession of three female gorillas, but were obliged to kill them
+on account of their great ferocity.</p>
+
+<p>This Notu Keras must have been the extreme limit reached by the
+Carthaginian explorers, and though some historians incline to the
+belief that they only went to Bojador, which is two degrees North of
+the tropics, it is more probable that the former account is the true
+one, and that Hanno, finding himself short of provisions, returned
+northwards to Carthage, where he had the account of his voyage
+engraved in the temple of Baal Moloch.</p>
+
+<p>After Hanno, the most illustrious of ancient travellers, was
+Herodotus, who has been called the "Father of History," and who was
+the nephew of the poet Panyasis, whose poems ranked with those of
+Homer and Hesiod. It will serve our purpose better if we only speak
+of Herodotus as a traveller, not an historian, as we wish to follow
+him so far as possible through the countries that he traversed.</p>
+
+<p>Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus, a town in Asia Minor, in the
+year <small>B.C.</small> 484. His family were rich, and having large commercial
+transactions they were able to encourage the taste for explorations
+which he showed. At this time there were many different opinions as
+to the shape of the earth: the Pythagorean school having even then
+begun to teach that it must be round, but Herodotus took no part in
+this discussion, which was of the deepest interest to learned men of
+that time, and, still young, he left home with a view of exploring
+with great care all the then known world, and especially those parts
+of it of which there were but few and uncertain data.</p>
+
+<p>He left Halicarnassus in 464, being then twenty years of age, and
+probably directed his steps first to Egypt, visiting Memphis,
+Heliopolis, and Thebes. He seems to have specially turned his
+attention to the overflow of the banks of the Nile, and he gives an
+account of the different opinions held as to the source of this
+river, which the Egyptians worshipped as one of their deities. "When
+the Nile overflows its banks," he says, "you can see nothing but the
+towns rising out of the water, and they appear like the islands in
+the Ægean Sea." He tells of the religious ceremonies among the
+Egyptians, their sacrifices, their ardour in celebrating the feasts
+in honour of their goddess Isis, which took place principally at
+Busiris (whose ruins may still be seen near Bushir), and of the
+veneration paid to both wild and tame animals, which were looked
+upon almost as sacred, and to whom they even rendered funeral
+honours at their death. He depicts in the most faithful colours, the
+Nile crocodile, its form, habits, and the way in which it is caught,
+and the hippopotamus, the momot, the phoenix, the ibis, and the
+serpents that were consecrated to the god Jupiter. Nothing can be
+more life-like than his accounts of Egyptian customs, and the
+notices of their habits, their games, and their way of embalming the
+dead, in which the chemists of that period seem to have excelled.
+Then we have the history of the country from Menes, its first king,
+downwards to Herodotus' time, and he describes the building of the
+Pyramids under Cheops, the Labyrinth that was built a little above
+the Lake Moeris (of which the remains were discovered in <small>A.D.</small> 1799),
+Lake Moeris itself, whose origin he ascribes to the hand of man, and
+the two Pyramids which are situated a little above the lake. He
+seems to have admired many of the Egyptian temples, and especially
+that of Minerva at Sais, and of Vulcan and Isis at Memphis, and the
+colossal monolith that was three years in course of transportation
+from Elephantina to Sais, though 2000 men were employed on the
+gigantic work.</p>
+
+<p>After having carefully inspected everything of interest in Egypt,
+Herodotus went into Lybia, little thinking that the continent he was
+exploring, extended thence to the tropic of Cancer. He made special
+inquiries in Lybia as to the number of its inhabitants, who were a
+simple nomadic race principally living near the sea-coast, and he
+speaks of the Ammonians, who possessed the celebrated temple of
+Jupiter Ammon, the remains of which have been discovered on the
+north-east side of the Lybian desert, about 300 miles from Cairo.
+Herodotus furnishes us with some very valuable information on Lybian
+customs; he describes their habits; speaks of the animals that
+infest the country, serpents of a prodigious size, lions, elephants,
+bears, asps, horned asses (probably the rhinoceros of the present
+day), and cynocephali, "animals with no heads, and whose eyes are
+placed on their chest," to use his own expression; foxes, hyenas,
+porcupines, wild zarus, panthers, etc. He winds up his description
+by saying that the only two aboriginal nations that inhabit this
+region are the Lybians and Ethiopians.</p>
+
+<p>According to Herodotus the Ethiopians were at that time to be found
+above Elephantina, but commentators are induced to doubt if this
+learned explorer ever really visited Ethiopia, and if he did not, he
+may easily have learnt from the Egyptians the details that he gives
+of its capital, Meroe, of the worship of Jupiter and Bacchus, and
+the longevity of the natives. There can be no doubt, however, that
+he set sail for Tyre in Phoenicia, and that he was much struck with
+the beauty of the two magnificent temples of Hercules. He next
+visited Tarsus and took advantage of the information gathered on the
+spot, to write a short history of Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine.</p>
+
+<p>We next find that he went southward to Arabia, and he calls it the
+Ethiopia of Asia, for he thought the southern parts of Arabia were
+the limits of human habitation. He tells us of the remarkable way in
+which the Arabs kept any vow that they might have made; that their
+two deities were Uranius and Bacchus, and of the abundant growth of
+myrrh, cinnamon and other spices, and he gives a very interesting
+account of their culture and preparation.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot be quite sure which country he next visited, as he calls
+it both Assyria and Babylonia, but he gives a most minute account of
+the splendid city of Babylon (which was the home of the monarchs of
+that country, after the destruction of Nineveh), and whose ruins are
+now only in scattered heaps on either side of the Euphrates, which
+flowed a broad, deep, rapid river, dividing the city into two parts.
+On one side of the river the fortified palace of the king stood, and
+on the other the temple of Jupiter Belus, which may have been built
+on the site of the Tower of Babel. Herodotus next speaks of the two
+queens, Semiramis and Nitocris, telling us of all the means taken by
+the latter to increase the prosperity and safety of her capital, and
+passing on to speak of the natural products of the country, the
+wheat, barley, millet, sesame, the vine, fig-tree and palm-tree. He
+winds up with a description of the costume of the Babylonians, and
+their customs, especially that of celebrating their marriages by the
+public crier.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 1">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="583">
+			<img src="images/005.jpg" alt="The Marriage Ceremony">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="583" align="center">
+			The Marriage Ceremony.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After exploring Babylonia he went to Persia, and as the express
+purpose of his travels was to collect all the information he could
+relating to the lengthy wars that had taken place between the
+Persians and Grecians, he was most anxious to visit the spots where
+the battles had been fought. He sets out by remarking upon the
+custom prevalent in Persia, of not clothing their deities in any
+human form, nor erecting temples nor altars where they might be
+worshipped, but contenting themselves with adoring them on the tops
+of the mountains. He notes their domestic habits, their disdain of
+animal food, their taste for delicacies, their passion for wine, and
+their custom of transacting business of the utmost importance when
+they had been drinking to excess; their curiosity as to the habits
+of other nations, their love of pleasure, their warlike qualities,
+their anxiety for the education of their children, their respect for
+the lives of all their fellow-creatures, even of their slaves, their
+horror both of debt and lying, and their repugnance to the disease
+of leprosy which they thought proved that the sufferer "had sinned
+in some way against the sun." The India of Herodotus, according to M.
+Vivien de St. Martin, only consisted of that part of the country
+that is watered by the five rivers of the Punjaub, adjoining
+Afghanistan, and this was the region where the young traveller
+turned his steps on leaving Persia. He thought that the population
+of India was larger than that of any other country, and he divided
+it into two classes, the first having settled habitations, the
+second leading a nomadic life. Those who lived in the eastern part
+of the country killed their sick and aged people, and ate them,
+while those in the north, who were a finer, braver, and more
+industrious race, employed themselves in collecting the auriferous
+sands. India was then the most easterly extremity of the inhabited
+world, as he thought, and he observes, "that the two extremities of
+the world seem to have shared nature's best gifts, as Greece enjoyed
+the most agreeable temperature possible," and that was his idea of
+the western limits of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Media is the next country visited by this indefatigable traveller,
+and he gives the history of the Medes, the nation which was the
+first to shake off the Assyrian yoke. They founded the great city of
+Ecbatana, and surrounded it with seven concentric walls. They became
+a separate nation in the reign of Deioces. After crossing the
+mountains that separate Media from Colchis, the Greek traveller
+entered the country, made famous by the valour of Jason, and studied
+its manners and customs with the care and attention that were among
+his most striking characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>Herodotus seems to have been well acquainted with the geography of
+the Caspian Sea, for he speaks of it as a Sea "quite by itself" and
+having no communication with any other. He considered that it was
+bounded on the west by the Caucasian Mountains and on the east by a
+great plain inhabited by the Massagetæ, who, both Arian and Diodorus
+Siculus think, may have been Scythians. These Massagetæ worshipped
+the Sun as their only deity, and sacrificed horses in its honour. He
+speaks here of two large rivers, one of which, the Araxes, would be
+the Volga, and the other, that he calls the Ista, must be the Danube.
+The traveller then went into Scythia, and he thought that the
+Scythians were the different tribes inhabiting the country that lay
+between the Danube and the Don, in fact a considerable portion of
+European Russia. He found the barbarous custom of putting out the
+eyes of their prisoners was practised among them, and he notices
+that they only wandered from place to place without caring to
+cultivate their land. Herodotus relates many of the fables that make
+the origin of the Scythian nation so obscure, and in which Hercules
+plays a prominent part. He adds a list of the different tribes that
+composed the Scythian nation, but he does not seem to have visited
+the country lying to the north of the Euxine, or Black Sea. He gives
+a minute description of the habits of these people, and expresses
+his admiration for the Pontus Euxinus. The dimensions that he gives
+of the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, of the Propontis, the Palus Mæotis
+and of the Ægean Sea, are almost exactly the same as those given by
+geographers of the present day. He also names the large rivers that
+flow into these seas. The Ister or Danube, the Borysthenes or
+Dnieper, the Tanais, or Don; and he finishes by relating how the
+alliance, and afterwards the union between the Scythians and Amazons
+took place, which explains the reason why the young women of that
+country are not allowed to marry before they have killed an enemy
+and established their character for valour.</p>
+
+<p>After a short stay in Thrace, during which he was convinced that the
+Getæ were the bravest portion of this race, Herodotus arrived in
+Greece, which was to be the termination of his travels, to the
+country where he hoped to collect the only documents still wanting
+to complete his history, and he visited all the spots that had
+become illustrious by the great battles fought between the Greeks
+and Persians. He gives a minute description of the Pass of
+Thermopylæ, and of his visit to the plain of Marathon, the
+battlefield of Platæa, and his return to Asia Minor, whence he
+passed along the coast on which the Greeks had established several
+colonies. Herodotus can only have been twenty-eight years of age
+when he returned to Halicarnassus in Caria, for it was in <small>B.C.</small> 456
+that he read the history of his travels at the Olympic Games. His
+country was at that time oppressed by Lygdamis, and he was exiled to
+Samos; but though he soon after rose in arms to overthrow the tyrant,
+the ingratitude of his fellow-citizens obliged him to return into
+exile. In 444 he took part in the games at the Pantheon, and there
+he read his completed work, which was received with enthusiasm, and
+towards the end of his life he retired to Thurium in Italy, where he
+died, <small>B.C.</small> 406, leaving behind him the reputation of being the
+greatest traveller and the most celebrated historian of antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>After Herodotus we must pass over a century and a half, and only
+note, in passing, the Physician Ctesias, a contemporary of Xenophon,
+who published the account of a voyage to India that he really never
+made; and we shall come in chronological order to Pytheas, who was
+at once a traveller, geographer, and historian, one of the most
+celebrated men of his time. It was about the year <small>B.C.</small> 340 that
+Pytheas set out from the columns of Hercules with a single vessel,
+but instead of taking a southerly course like his Carthaginian
+predecessors, he went northwards, passing by the coasts of Iberia
+and Gaul to the furthest points which now form the Cape of
+Finisterre, and then he entered the English Channel and came upon
+the English coast&mdash;the British Isles&mdash;of which he was to be the
+first explorer. He disembarked at various points on the coast and
+made friends with the simple, honest, sober, industrious inhabitants,
+who traded largely in tin.</p>
+
+<p>Pytheas ventured still further north, and went beyond the Orcades
+Islands to the furthest point of Scotland, and he must have reached
+a very high latitude, for during the summer the night only lasted
+two hours. After six days further sailing, he came to lands which he
+calls Thule, probably the Jutland or Norway of the present day,
+beyond which he could not pass, for he says, "there was neither land,
+sea, nor air there." He retraced his course, and changing it
+slightly, he came to the mouth of the Rhine, to the country of the
+Ostians, and, further inland, to Germany. Thence he visited the
+mouth of the Tanais, that is supposed to be the Elbe or the Oder,
+and he retuned to Marseilles, just a year after leaving his native
+town. Pytheas, besides being such a brave sailor, was a remarkably
+scientific man: he was the first to discover the influence that the
+moon exercises on the tides, and to notice that the polar star is
+not situated at the exact spot at which the axis of the globe is
+supposed to be. Some years after the time of Pytheas, about <small>B.C.</small> 326
+a Greek traveller made his name famous. This was Nearchus, a native
+of Crete, one of Alexander's admirals, and he was charged to visit
+all the coast of Asia from the mouth of the Indus to that of the
+Euphrates. When Alexander first resolved that this expedition should
+take place, which had for its object the opening up of a
+communication between India and Egypt, he was at the upper part of
+the Indus. He furnished Nearchus with a fleet of thirty-three
+galleys, of some vessels with two decks, and a great number of
+transport ships, and 2000 men. Nearchus came down the Indus in about
+four months, escorted on either bank of the river by Alexander's
+armies, and after spending seven months in exploring the Delta, he
+set sail and followed the west line of what we call Beloochistan in
+the present day.</p>
+
+<p>He put to sea on the second of October, a month before the winter
+storms had taken a direction that was favourable to his purpose, so
+that the commencement of his voyage was disastrous, and in forty
+days he had scarcely made eighty miles in a westerly direction. He
+touched first at Stura and at Corestis, which do not seem to answer
+to any of the now-existing villages on the coast; then at the Island
+of Crocala, which forms the bay of Caranthia. Beaten back by
+contrary winds, after doubling the cape of Monze, the fleet took
+refuge in a natural harbour that its commander thought that he could
+fortify as a defence against the attacks of the barbarous natives,
+who, even at the present day, keep up their character as pirates.</p>
+
+<p>After spending twenty-four days in this harbour, Nearchus put to sea
+again on the 3rd of November. Severe gales often obliged him to keep
+very near the coast, and when this was the case he was obliged to
+take all possible precautions to defend himself from the attacks of
+the ferocious Beloochees, who are described by eastern historians
+"as a barbarous nation, with long dishevelled hair, and long flowing
+beards, who are more like bears or satyrs than human beings." Up to
+this time, however, no serious disaster had happened to the fleet,
+but on the 10th of November in a heavy gale two galleys and a ship
+sank. Nearchus then anchored at Crocala, and there he was met by a
+ship laden with corn that Alexander had sent out to him, and he was
+able to supply each vessel with provisions for ten days.</p>
+
+<p>After many disasters and a skirmish with some of the natives,
+Nearchus reached the extreme point of the land of the Orites, which
+is marked in modern geography by Cape Morant. Here, he states in his
+narrative that the rays of the sun at mid-day are vertical, and
+therefore there are no shadows of any kind; but this is surely a
+mistake, for at this time in the Southern hemisphere the sun is in
+the Tropic of Capricorn; and, beyond this, his vessels were always
+some degrees distant from the Tropic of Cancer, therefore even in
+the height of summer this phenomenon could not have taken place, and
+we know that his voyage was in winter.</p>
+
+<p>Circumstances seemed now rather more in his favour; for the time of
+the eastern monsoon was over, when he sailed along the coast which
+is inhabited by a tribe called Ichthyophagi, who subsist solely on
+fish, and from the failure of all vegetation are obliged to feed
+even their sheep upon the same food. The fleet was now becoming very
+short of provisions; so after doubling Cape Posmi Nearchus took a
+pilot from those shores on board his own vessel, and with the wind
+in their favour they made rapid progress, finding the country less
+bare as they advanced, a few scattered trees and shrubs being
+visible from the shore. They reached a little town, of the name of
+which we have no record, and as they were almost without food
+Nearchus surprised and took possession of it, the inhabitants making
+but little resistance. Canasida, or Churbar as we call it, was their
+next resting-place, and at the present day the ruins of a town are
+still visible in the bay. But their corn was now entirely exhausted,
+and though they tried successively at Canate, Trois, and Dagasira
+for further supplies, it was all in vain, these miserable little
+towns not being able to furnish more than enough for their own
+consumption. The fleet had neither corn nor meat, and they could not
+make up their minds to feed upon the tortoises that abound in that
+part of the coast.</p>
+
+<p>Just as they entered the Persian Gulf they encountered an immense
+number of whales, and the sailors were so terrified by their size
+and number, that they wished to fly; it was not without much
+difficulty that Nearchus at last prevailed upon them to advance
+boldly, and they soon scattered their formidable enemies.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 2">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="582">
+			<img src="images/006.jpg" alt="Nearchus leading on his followers against the monsters of the deep">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="582" align="center">
+			Nearchus leading on his followers against the monsters of the deep.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Having changed their westerly course for a north-easterly one, they
+soon came upon fertile shores, and their eyes were refreshed by the
+sight of corn-fields and pasture-lands, interspersed with all kinds
+of fruit-trees except the olive. They put into Badis or Jask, and
+after leaving it and passing Maceta or Mussendon, they came in sight
+of the Persian Gulf, to which Nearchus, following the geography of
+the Arabs, gave the misnomer of the Red Sea.</p>
+
+<p>They sailed up the gulf, and after one halt reached Harmozia, which
+has since given its name to the little island of Ormuz. There he
+learnt that Alexander's army was only five days' march from him, and
+he disembarked at once, and hastened to meet it. No news of the
+fleet having reached the army for twenty-one weeks, they had given
+up all hope of seeing it again, and great was Alexander's joy when
+Nearchus appeared before him, though the hardships he had endured
+had altered him almost beyond recognition. Alexander ordered games
+to be celebrated and sacrifices offered up to the gods; then
+Nearchus returned to Harmozia, as he wished to go as far as Susa
+with the fleet, and set sail again, having invoked Jupiter the
+Deliverer.</p>
+
+<p>He touched at some of the neighbouring islands, probably those of
+Arek and Kismis, and soon afterwards the vessels ran aground, but
+the advancing tide floated them again, and after passing Bestion,
+they arrived at the island of Keish, that is sacred to Mercury and
+Venus. This was the boundary-line between Karmania and Persia. As
+they advanced along the Persian coast, they visited different places,
+Gillam, Indarabia, Shevou, &amp;c., and at the last-named was found a
+quantity of wheat which Alexander had sent for the use of the
+explorers.</p>
+
+<p>Some days after this they came to the mouth of the river Araxes,
+that separates Persia from Susiana, and thence they reached a large
+lake situated in the country now called Dorghestan, and finally
+anchored near the village of Degela, at the source of the Euphrates,
+having accomplished their project of visiting all the coast lying
+between the Euphrates and Indus. Nearchus returned a second time to
+Alexander, who rewarded him magnificently, and placed him in command
+of his fleet. Alexander's wish, that the whole of the Arabian coast
+should be explored as far as the Red Sea, was never fulfilled, as he
+died before the expedition was arranged.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that Nearchus became governor of Lysia and Pamphylia, but
+in his leisure time he wrote an account of his travels, which has
+unfortunately perished, though not before Arian had made a complete
+analysis of it in his Historia Indica. It seems probable that
+Nearchus fell in the battle of Ipsu, leaving behind him the
+reputation of being a very able commander; his voyage may be looked
+upon as an event of no small importance in the history of navigation.</p>
+
+<p>We must not omit to mention a most hazardous attempt made in <small>B.C.</small>
+146, by Eudoxus of Cyzicus, a geographer living at the court of
+Euergetes II, to sail round Africa. He had visited Egypt and the
+coast of India, when this far greater project occurred to him, one
+which was only accomplished sixteen hundred years later by Vasco da
+Gama. Eudoxus fitted out a large vessel and two smaller ones, and
+set sail upon the unknown waters of the Atlantic. How far he took
+these vessels we do not know, but after having had communication
+with some natives, whom he thought were Ethiopians, he returned to
+Mauritania. Thence he went to Tiberia, and made preparations for
+another attempt to circumnavigate Africa, but whether he ever set
+out upon this voyage is not known; in fact some learned men are even
+inclined to consider Eudoxus an impostor.</p>
+
+<p>We have still to mention two names of illustrious travellers, living
+before the Christian era; those of Cæsar and Strabo. Cæsar, born <small>B.C.</small>
+100, was pre-eminently a <i>conqueror</i>, not an <i>explorer</i>, but we must
+remember, that in the year <small>B.C.</small> 58, he undertook the conquest of
+Gaul, and during the ten years that were occupied in this vast
+enterprise, he led his victorious Legions to the shores of Great
+Britain, where the inhabitants were of German extraction.</p>
+
+<p>As to Strabo, who was born in Cappadocia <small>B.C.</small> 50, he distinguished
+himself more as a geographer than a traveller, but he travelled
+through the interior of Asia, and visited Egypt, Greece, and Italy,
+living many years in Rome, and dying there in the latter part of the
+reign of Tiberius. Strabo wrote a Geography in seventeen Books, of
+which the greater part has come down to us, and this work, with that
+of Ptolemy, are the two most valuable legacies of ancient to modern
+Geographers.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c2"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER II.</h4>
+<center>C<small>ELEBRATED</small> T<small>RAVELLERS FROM THE</small> F<small>IRST TO THE</small> N<small>INTH</small> C<small>ENTURY</small>.<br><br>
+P<small>AUSANIAS</small>, 174; F<small>A</small>-H<small>IAN</small>, 399; C<small>OSMOS</small> I<small>NDICOPLEUSTES</small>, 500;<br>
+A<small>RCULPHE</small>, 700; W<small>ILLIBALD</small>, 725; S<small>OLEYMAN</small>, 851.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Pliny, Hippalus, Arian, and Ptolemy&mdash;Pausanias visits Attica,
+Corinth, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Achaia, Arcadia, Boeotia, and
+Phocis&mdash;Fa-Hian explores Kan-tcheou, Tartary, Northern India, the
+Punjaub, Ceylon, and Java&mdash;Cosmos Indicopleustes, and the Christian
+Topography of the Universe&mdash;Arculphe describes Jerusalem, the valley
+of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives, Bethlehem, Jericho, the river
+Jordan, Libanus, the Dead Sea, Capernaum, Nazareth, Mount Tabor,
+Damascus, Tyre, Alexandria, and Constantinople&mdash;Willibald and the
+Holy Land&mdash;Soleyman travels through Ceylon, and Sumatra, and crosses
+the Gulf of Siam and the China Sea.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>In the first two centuries of the Christian era, the study of
+geography received a great stimulus from the advance of other
+branches of science, but travellers, or rather explorers of new
+countries were very few in number. Pliny in the year <small>A.D.</small> 23,
+devoted the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth books of his Natural
+History to geography, and in <small>A.D.</small> 50, Hippalus, a clever navigator,
+discovered the laws governing the monsoon in the Indian Ocean, and
+taught sailors how they might deviate from their usual course, so as
+to make these winds subservient to their being able to go to and
+return from India in one year. Arian, a Greek historian, born <small>A.D.</small>
+105, wrote an account of the navigation of the Euxine or Black Sea,
+and pointed out as nearly as possible, the countries that had been
+discovered by explorers who had lived before his time; and Ptolemy
+the Egyptian, about <small>A.D.</small> 175, making use of the writings of his
+predecessors, published a celebrated geography, in which, for the
+first time, places and cities were marked in their relative latitude
+and longitude on a mathematical plan.</p>
+
+<p>The first traveller of the Christian era, whose name has been handed
+down to us, was Pausanias, a Greek writer, living in Rome in the
+second century, and whose account of his travels bears the date of
+<small>A.D.</small> 175. Pausanias did for ancient Greece what Joanne, the
+industrious and clever Frenchman did for the other countries of
+Europe, in compiling the "Traveller's Guide." His account, a most
+reliable one on all points, and most exact even in details, was one
+upon which travellers of the second century might safely depend in
+their journeys through the different parts of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Pausanias gives a minute description of Attica, and especially of
+Athens and its monuments, tombs, temples, citadel, academy, columns,
+and of the Areopagus.</p>
+
+<p>From Attica Pausanias went to Corinth, and then explored the Islands
+of Ægina and Methana, Sparta, the Island of Cerigo, Messene, Achaia,
+Arcadia, Boeotia, and Phocis. The roads in the provinces and even
+the streets in the towns, are mentioned in his narrative, as well as
+the general character of the country through which he passed;
+although we can scarcely say that he added any fresh discoveries to
+those already made, he was one of those careful travellers whose
+object was more to obtain exact information, than to make new
+discoveries. His narrative has been of the greatest use to all
+geographers and writers upon Greece and the Peloponnesus, and an
+author of the sixteenth century has truly said that this book is "a
+most ancient and rare specimen of erudition."</p>
+<a name="fax01"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 1">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="1261">
+			<img src="images/007.jpg" alt="World as known to the Ancients">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It was about a hundred and thirty years after the Greek historian,
+in the fourth century, that a Chinese monk undertook the exploration
+of the countries lying to the west of China. The account of his
+travels is still extant, and we may well agree with M. Charton when
+he says that "this is a most valuable work, carrying us beyond our
+ordinarily narrow view of western civilization."</p>
+
+<p>Fa-Hian, the traveller, was accompanied by several monks; wishing to
+leave China by the west, they crossed more than one chain of
+mountains, and reached the country now called Kan-tcheou, which is
+not far from the great wall. They crossed the river Cha-ho, and a
+desert that Marco Polo was to explore eight hundred years later.
+After seventeen days' march they reached the Lake of Lobnor in
+Turkestan. From this point all the countries that the monks visited
+were alike as to manners and customs, the languages alone differing.
+Being dissatisfied with the reception that they met with in the
+country of the Ourgas, who are not a hospitable people, they took a
+south-easterly course towards a desert country, where they had great
+difficulty in crossing the rivers; and, after a thirty-five days'
+march, the little caravan reached Tartary in the kingdom of Khotan,
+which contained, according to Fa-Hian, "Many times ten thousand holy
+men." Here they met with a cordial welcome, and after a residence of
+three months were allowed to assist at the "Procession of the
+Images," a great feast, in which both Brahmins and Buddhists join,
+when all the idols are placed upon magnificently decorated cars, and
+paraded through streets strewn with flowers, amid clouds of incense.</p>
+
+<p>The feast over, the monks left Khotan for Koukonyar, and after
+resting there fifteen days, we find them further south in the
+Balistan country of the present day, a cold and mountainous district,
+where wheat was the only grain cultivated, and where Fa-Hian found
+in use the curious cylinders on which prayers are written, and which
+are turned by the faithful with the most extraordinary rapidity.
+Thence they went to the eastern part of Afghanistan; it took them
+four weeks to cross the mountains, in the midst of which, and the
+never-melting snow they are said to have found venomous dragons.</p>
+
+<p>On the further side of this rocky chain the travellers found
+themselves in Northern India, where the country is watered by the
+streams which, further on, form the Sinde or Indus. After traversing
+the kingdoms of On-tchang, Su-ho-to, and Kian-tho-wei, they arrived
+at Fo-loo-cha, which must be the town of Peshawur, standing between
+Cabul and the Indus, and twenty-four leagues farther west, they came
+to the town of Hilo, built on the banks of a tributary of the river
+Kabout. In these towns Fa-Hian specially notices the feasts and
+religious ceremonies practised in the worship of Fo or Buddha.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 3">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="589">
+			<img src="images/008.jpg" alt="One of Fa-Hian's companions falls">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="589" align="center">
+			One of Fa-Hian's companions falls.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>When the monks left Kito, they were obliged to cross the
+Hindoo-Koosh mountains, lying between Turkestan and the Gandhara,
+the cold being so intense that one of their party sank under it.
+After enduring great hardships they reached Banoo, a town that is
+still standing, and then, after again crossing the Indus, they
+entered the Punjaub. Thence, descending towards the south-east, with
+a view of crossing the northern part of the Indian Peninsula, they
+reached Mathura, a town in the province of Agra, and crossing the
+great salt desert which lies to the east of the Indus, travelled
+through a country that Fa-Hian calls "a happy kingdom, where the
+inhabitants are good and honest, needing neither laws nor
+magistrates, and indebted to none for their support; without markets
+or wine merchants, and living happily, with plenty of all that they
+required, where the temperature was neither hot nor cold." This
+happy kingdom was India. Fa-Hian followed a south-easterly route,
+and came to Feroukh-abad, where Buddha is said to have alighted as
+he came down from heaven, the Chinese traveller dwelling much upon
+the Buddhist Creed. Thence he visited the town of Kanoji, standing
+on the right bank of the Ganges, that he calls Heng, and this is the
+very centre of Buddhism. Wherever Buddha is supposed to have rested,
+his followers have erected high towers in his honour. The travellers
+visited the temple of Tchihouan, where for twenty-five years Fo
+practised the most severe mortifications, and where he is said to
+have given sight to five hundred blind men. They are said to have
+been much moved by the sight of this temple.</p>
+
+<p>They set out again, passing Kapila and Goruckpoor, on the frontier
+of Nepaul, all made famous by Fo's miracles, and then reached the
+celebrated town of Palian-foo, in the delta of the Ganges, in the
+kingdom of Magadha. This was a fertile tract of country inhabited by
+a civilized, upright people, who loved all philosophic researches.
+After climbing the peak of Vautour, which stands at the source of
+the Dyardanes and Banourah rivers, Fa-Hian descended the Ganges,
+visited the temple of Issi-paten that was frequented by magicians
+and astrologers, reached Benares, "the kingdom of splendours," and a
+little lower down, the town of Tomo-li-ti, situated at the mouth of
+the river, a short distance from the site of Calcutta in the present
+day.</p>
+
+<p>Fa-Hian found a party of merchants just preparing to put to sea with
+the intention of going to Ceylon; he sailed with them, and in
+fourteen days landed on the shores of the ancient Taprobana, of
+which the Greek merchant, Jamboulos, had given a curious account
+some centuries previously. Here the Chinese monk found all the
+traditions and legends regarding the god Fo, and passed two years in
+searching ancient manuscripts. He left Ceylon for Java, where he
+landed after a very rough voyage, in the course of which, when the
+sky was overclouded, he says, "we saw nothing but great waves
+dashing one against another, lightning, crocodiles, tortoises, and
+monsters of the deep."</p>
+
+<p>He spent five months in Java, and then set sail for Canton; but the
+winds were again unfavourable, and after undergoing great hardships
+he landed at the town of Chantoung of the present day; then having
+spent some time at Nankin he returned to Fi-an-foo, his native town,
+after an absence of eighteen months. Such is the account of
+Fa-Hian's travels, which have been well translated by M. Abel de
+Rémusat, and which give very interesting details of Indian and
+Tartar customs, especially those relating to their religious
+ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>The next traveller to the Chinese monk, in chronological order, is
+an Egyptian called Cosmos Indicopleustes, a name that M. Charton
+renders as "Cosmographic traveller in India." He lived in the sixth
+century, and was a merchant of Alexandria, who, on his return from
+visiting Ethiopia and part of Asia, entered a monastery.</p>
+
+<p>His narrative is called the "Christian Topography of the Universe."
+It gives no details of its author's voyages, but begins with
+cosmographic discussions, to prove that the world is square, and
+enclosed in a great oblong coffer with all the other planets. This
+is followed by some dissertations on the function of the angels, and
+a description of the dress of the Jewish Priests. Cosmos also gives
+the natural history of the animals of India and Ceylon, and notices
+the rhinoceros and buffalo, which can be made of use for domestic
+purposes, the giraffe, the wild ox, the musk that is hunted for its
+"perfumed blood," the unicorn, which he considers a real animal and
+not a myth, the wild boar, the hippopotamus, the phoca, the dolphin,
+and the tortoise. Afterwards, Cosmos describes the pepper-plant, as
+a frail and delicate shrub, like the smallest tendrils of the vine,
+and the cocoa-tree, whose fruit has a fragrance "equal to that of a
+nut."</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest times of the Christian era there has been a great
+love for visiting the Holy Land, the cradle of the new religion.
+These pilgrimages became more and more frequent, and we have many
+names left to us of those who visited Palestine during the first
+centuries of Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>One of these pilgrims, the French Bishop Arculphe, who lived towards
+the end of the seventh century, has left us an account of his
+travels.</p>
+
+<p>He sets out by giving a topographical description of the site of
+Jerusalem, and describes the wall that surrounds the holy city, then
+the circular church built over the Holy Sepulchre, the tomb of our
+Lord Jesus Christ, and the stone that closed it, the church
+dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the church built upon Calvary, and the
+basilica of Constantine on the site of the place where the real
+cross was found. These various churches are united in one building,
+which also encloses the Tomb of Christ, and Calvary, where our Lord
+was crucified.</p>
+
+<p>Arculphe then descended into the Valley of Jehoshaphat, which is
+situated to the east of the city, and contains the church that
+covers the tomb of the Virgin; he also saw that of Absalom, which he
+calls the Tower of Jehoshaphat. He describes the Mount of Olives
+that faces the city beyond the valley, and he prayed in the cave
+where Jesus prayed. He also went to Mount Zion, which stands outside
+the town on the south side; he notices the gigantic fig-tree, on
+which, according to tradition, Judas Iscariot hanged himself, and he
+visited the church of the guest-chamber, now destroyed.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 4">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="576">
+			<img src="images/009.jpg" alt="Absalom's Tomb">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="576" align="center">
+			Absalom's Tomb.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After making the tour of the city by the Valley of Siloam, and
+ascending by the brook Cedron, the bishop returned to the Mount of
+Olives, which was covered with waving wheat and barley, grass and
+wild flowers, and he describes the place where Christ ascended from
+the summit of the mountain. On this spot a large church has been
+built, with three arched porticoes that are not roofed over or
+covered in any way, but are open to the sky. "They have not roofed
+in this church," says the bishop, "because it was the place whence
+our Saviour ascended upon a cloud, and the space open to heaven
+allows the prayers of the faithful to ascend thither. For when they
+paved this church they could not lay the pavement over the place
+where our Lord's feet had rested, as, when the stones were laid upon
+that spot, the earth, as though impatient of anything not divine
+resting upon it, threw them up again before the workmen. Beyond this,
+the dust bears the impress of the divine feet, and though, day by
+day, the faithful who visit the spot efface the marks, they
+immediately reappear and may be seen perpetually."</p>
+
+<p>After having explored the neighbourhood of Bethany in the midst of
+the grove of olives, where the grave of Lazarus is said to be, and
+where the church, standing on the right hand is supposed to mark the
+spot where our Lord usually conversed with His disciples, Arculphe
+went to Bethlehem, which is a short distance from the holy city. He
+describes the birthplace of our Lord, a natural cave, hollowed out
+of the rock at the eastern end of the village, the church, built by
+St. Helena, the tombs of the three shepherds, upon whom the heavenly
+light shone at the birth of our Saviour, the burial-places of the
+patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and that of Rachel, and he
+visited the oak of Mamre, under which Abraham received the visit of
+the angels. Thence, Arculphe went to Jericho, or rather the place
+where the town once stood, whose walls fell at the sound of Joshua's
+trumpets. He explored the place where the children of Israel first
+rested in the land of Canaan after crossing the river Jordan, and he
+speaks of the church of Galgala, where the twelve stones are placed,
+which the children of Israel took from the river when they entered
+the promised land. He followed the course of the Jordan, and found
+near one of the bends of the river on the right bank, and among the
+most beautiful scenery, about an hour's walk from the Dead Sea, the
+place where our Lord was baptized by St. John the Baptist. A cross
+is placed to mark the spot, but when the river is swollen, it is
+covered by the water.</p>
+
+<p>After examining the banks of the Dead Sea and tasting its brackish
+water, he viewed the source of the Jordan, at the foot of Libanus,
+and explored the greater part of the Lake of Tiberias, visiting the
+well where the woman of Samaria gave our Lord the water He so much
+needed, seeing the fountain in the desert of which St. John the
+Baptist drank, and the great plain of Gaza, where our Lord blessed
+the five loaves and two fishes, and fed the multitude. Next he went
+down to Capernaum, of which there are now no remains; then visited
+Nazareth, where our Lord spent His childhood, and ended his journey
+at Mount Tabor in Galilee.</p>
+
+<p>The bishop's narrative contains both geographical and historical
+accounts of other places, beyond those immediately connected with
+our Lord's life on earth. He visited the royal city of Damascus,
+which is watered by four large rivers. Also Tyre, the chief town of
+Phoenicia, which, though once separated from the mainland, was
+joined to it again by the jetty or pier made by the orders of
+Nabuchodonosor. He speaks of Alexandria, once the capital of Egypt,
+which he reached forty days after leaving Jaffa, and lastly, of
+Constantinople, where he often visited the large church in which
+"the wood of the cross is preserved, upon which the Saviour suffered
+for the salvation of the human race."</p>
+
+<p>The account of this journey was written by the Abbé de St. Columban
+at the dictation of the bishop, and not many years afterwards the
+same journey was undertaken by an English pilgrim, and accomplished
+in much the same way. The name of this pilgrim was Willibald, a
+member of a rich family living at Southampton, who, on his recovery
+from a long illness, dedicated him to God's service. All his early
+life was spent in holy exercises in the monastery of Woltheim; when
+he was grown up he had the most intense wish to see St. Peter's at
+Rome, and was so set upon this, that it induced his father, brother,
+and young sister to wish to go there also; they embarked at
+Southampton in the spring of 721, and making their way up the Seine,
+they landed at Rouen. We have but few details of the journey to Rome,
+but Willibald mentions that after passing through Cortona and Lucca,
+at which latter place his father sank under the fatigue of the
+journey and died, he reached Rome in safety with his brother and
+sister, and passed the winter there, but they were all in turn
+attacked with fever. When Willibald regained his health, he
+determined to continue his journey to the Holy Land. He sent his
+brother and sister back to England, while he joined some monks who
+were going in the same direction as himself. They went by Terracina
+and Gaeta to Naples, and set sail for Reggio in Calabria, and
+Catania and Syracuse in Sicily, whence they again embarked, and,
+after touching at Cos and Samos, landed at Ephesus in Asia Minor,
+where they visited the tombs of St. John the Evangelist, of Mary
+Magdalene, and of the seven sleepers of Ephesus, that is, seven
+Christians martyred in the time of the Emperor Decius.</p>
+
+<p>They made some stay at Patara and at Mitylene, and then went to
+Cyprus and Paphos; we next find the party, seven in number, at
+Edessa, visiting the tomb of St. Thomas the Apostle. Here they were
+arrested as spies, and thrown into prison by the Saracens, but the
+king, on the petition of a Spaniard, set them at liberty. As soon as
+they were set free they left the town in great haste, and from that
+time their route is almost the same as that of the Bishop Arculphe;
+they visited Damascus, Nazareth, Cana, where they saw a wonderful
+amphora on Mount Tabor, where our Lord was transfigured, and the
+Lake of Tiberias, where St. Peter walked upon the water; Magdala,
+where Lazarus and his sister dwelt; Capernaum, where our Lord raised
+to life the son of the nobleman; Bethsaida in Galilee, the native
+place of St. Peter and St. Andrew; Chorazin, where our Lord cured
+those possessed with devils; Cæsarea, and the spot where our Lord
+was baptized, as well as Jericho and Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>They also went to the Valley of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives,
+and to Bethlehem, the scene of the murder of the Innocents by Herod,
+and Gaza. While they were at Gaza, Willibald tells us that he
+suddenly became blind, while he was in the church of St. Matthias,
+and only recovered his sight two months afterwards, as he entered
+the church of the Holy Cross at Jerusalem. He went through the
+valley of Diospolis or Lydda, ten miles from Jerusalem, and then
+went to Tyre and Sidon, and thence, by Libanus, Damascus, Cæsarea,
+and Emmaus, back to Jerusalem, where the travellers spent the winter.</p>
+
+<p>This was not to be the limit of their exploration, for we hear of
+them at Ptolemais, Emesa, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Samaria, where St.
+John the Baptist is said to have been buried, and at Tyre, where it
+must be confessed that Willibald defrauded the revenue of that time
+by smuggling some balsam that was very celebrated, and on which a
+duty was levied. On quitting Tyre they went to Constantinople and
+lived there for two years before returning by Sicily, Calabria,
+Naples, and Capua. The English pilgrim reached the monastery of
+Monte Cassino, just ten years after his first setting out on his
+travels; but his time of rest had not yet come, as he was appointed
+to a bishopric in Franconia by Pope Gregory III. He was forty-one
+years of age when he was made bishop, and he lived forty years
+afterwards. In 938 he was canonized by Leo VII.</p>
+
+<p>We will conclude the list of celebrated travellers living between
+the first and ninth centuries, by giving a short account of Soleyman,
+a merchant of Bassorah, who, starting from the Persian Gulf, arrived
+eventually on the shores of China. This narrative is in two distinct
+parts, one written in 851, by Soleyman himself, who was the
+traveller, and the other in 878 by a geographer named Abou-Zeyd
+Hassan with the view of completing the first. Renaud, the
+orientalist, is of opinion that this narrative "has thrown quite a
+new light on the commercial transactions that existed in the ninth
+century between Egypt, Arabia, and the countries bordering on the
+Persian Gulf on one side, and the vast provinces of India and China
+on the other."</p>
+
+<p>Soleyman, as we have said, started from the Persian Gulf after
+having taken in a good supply of fresh water at Muscat, and visited
+first, the second sea, or that of Oman. He noticed a fish of
+enormous size, probably a spermaceti whale, which the seamen
+endeavoured to frighten away by ringing a bell, then a shark, in
+whose stomach they found a smaller shark, enclosing in its turn one
+still smaller, "both alive," says the traveller, which is manifestly
+an exaggeration; then, after describing the remora, the dactyloptera,
+and the porpoise, he speaks of the sea near the Maldive Islands in
+which he counted an enormous number of islands, among them he
+mentions Ceylon by its Arabian name, with its pearl fisheries;
+Sumatra, inhabited by cannibals, and rich in gold-mines; Nicobar,
+and the Andaman Islands, where cannibalism still exists even at the
+present day. "This sea," he says, "is subject to fearful
+water-spouts which wreck the ships, and throw on its shores an
+immense number of dead fish and sometimes even large stones. When
+these tempests are at their height the sea seethes and boils."
+Soleyman imagined it to be infested by a sort of monster who preyed
+upon human beings; this is thought to have been a kind of dog-fish.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 5">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586">
+			<img src="images/010.jpg" alt="Soleyman noticed a shark in whose stomach they found a smaller shark">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586" align="center">
+			Soleyman noticed a shark in whose stomach they found a smaller shark.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Arrived at Nicobar, Soleyman traded with the inhabitants, bartering
+some iron for cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane, bananas, &amp;c.; he then crossed
+the sea, and seems to have made for Singapore, and northwards by the
+Gulf of Siam. Soleyman put into a harbour, near Cape Varella, to
+revictual his ships, and thence he went by the China Sea to
+Jehan-fou the port of the present town of Tche-kiang. The remainder
+of the account of Soleyman's travels, written by Abou-Zeyd Hassan,
+contains a detailed account of the manners and customs of the
+Indians and Chinese; but it is not the traveller himself who is
+speaking, and we shall find the same subjects spoken of in a more
+interesting manner by later authors.</p>
+
+<p>We must add, in reviewing the discoveries made by travellers sixteen
+centuries before, and nine centuries after, the Christian era, that
+from Norway to the extreme boundaries of China, taking a line
+through the Atlantic ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the
+Indian Ocean, and the Sea of China, the immense extent of coast
+bordering these seas had been in a great measure visited. Some
+explorations had been attempted in the interior of these countries;
+for instance, in Egypt as far as Ethiopia, in Asia Minor to the
+Caucasus, in India and China; and if these old travellers may not
+have quite understood mathematical precision, as to some of the
+points they visited, at all events the manners and customs of the
+inhabitants, the productions of the different countries, the mode of
+trading with them, and their religious customs, were quite
+sufficiently understood. Ships could sail with more safety when the
+change of winds was no longer a subject of mere speculation, the
+caravans could take a more direct route in the interior of the
+countries, and the great increase of trade which took place in the
+middle ages is surely owing to the facilities afforded by the
+writings of travellers.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c3"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER III.</h4>
+<center>C<small>ELEBRATED</small> T<small>RAVELLERS BETWEEN THE</small> T<small>ENTH AND</small> T<small>HIRTEENTH</small> C<small>ENTURIES</small>.<br><br>
+B<small>ENJAMIN OF</small> T<small>UDELA</small>, 1159-1173; P<small>LAN DE</small> C<small>ARPIN, OR</small> C<small>ARPINI</small>, 1245-1247;<br>
+R<small>UBRUQUIS</small>, 1253-1254.</center>
+
+<blockquote>The Scandinavians in the North, Iceland and Greenland&mdash;Benjamin of
+Tudela visits Marseilles, Rome, Constantinople, the Archipelago,
+Palestine, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Damascus, Baalbec, Nineveh, Baghdad,
+Babylon, Bassorah, Ispahan, Shiraz, Samarcand, Thibet, Malabar,
+Ceylon, the Red Sea, Egypt, Sicily, Italy, Germany, and France&mdash;Carpini
+explores Turkestan&mdash;Manners and customs of the Tartars&mdash;Rubruquis
+and the Sea of Azov, the Volga, Karakorum, Astrakhan, and
+Derbend.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>In the course of the tenth, and at the beginning of the eleventh
+century, a considerable amount of ardour for exploration had arisen
+in Northern Europe. Some Norwegians and adventurous Gauls had
+penetrated to the Northern seas, and, if we may trust to some
+accounts, they had gone as far as the White Sea and visited the
+country of the Samoyedes. Some documents say that Prince Madoc may
+have explored the American continent.</p>
+
+<p>At all events we may be tolerably certain that Iceland was
+discovered about <small>A.D.</small> 861 by some Scandinavian adventurers, and that
+it was soon after colonized by Normans. About this same time a
+Norwegian had taken refuge on a newly discovered land, and surprised
+by its verdure he gave it the name of Greenland.</p>
+
+<p>The communication with this portion of the American continent was
+difficult and uncertain, and one geographer says "it took five years
+for a vessel to go from Norway to Greenland, and to return from
+Greenland to Norway." Sometimes in severe winters the Northern Ocean
+was completely frozen over, and a certain Hollur-Geit, guided by a
+goat, was able to cross on foot from Norway to Greenland. We should
+keep in mind that the period of which we are speaking is the time
+when legends and traditions were very plentiful, and gained ready
+credence.</p>
+
+<p>Let us return to well-authenticated facts, and relate the journey of
+a Spanish Jew, whose truthfulness is beyond question.</p>
+
+<p>This Jew was the son of a rabbi of Tudela, a town in Navarre, and he
+was called Benjamin of Tudela. It seems probable that the object of
+his voyage was to make a census of his brother Jews scattered over
+the surface of the Globe, but whatever may have been his motive, he
+spent thirteen years, from 1160-1173, exploring nearly all the known
+world, and his narrative was considered the great authority on this
+subject up to the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Benjamin of Tudela left Barcelona, and travelling by Tarragona,
+Gironde, Narbonne, Béziers, Montpellier, Sunel, Pousquiers, St.
+Gilles, and Arles, reached Marseilles. Here he visited the two
+synagogues in the town and the principal Jews, and then set sail for
+Genoa, arriving there in four days. The Genoese were masters of the
+sea at that time, and were at war with the people of Pisa, a brave
+people, who, like the Genoese, says the traveller, "owned neither
+kings nor princes, but only the judges whom they appointed at their
+own pleasure."</p>
+
+<p>After visiting Lucca, Benjamin of Tudela went to Rome. Alexander III.
+was Pope at that time, and according to this traveller, he included
+some Jews among his ministers. Among the monuments of special
+interest in the eternal city, he mentions St. Peter's and St. John
+Lateran, but his descriptions are not interesting. From Rome by
+Capua, and Pozzuoli, then partly inundated, he went to Naples, where
+he seems to have seen nothing but the five hundred Jews living
+there; then by Salerno, Amalfi, Benevento, Ascoli, Trani, St.
+Nicholas of Bari, and Brindisi, he arrived at Otranto, having
+crossed Italy and yet found nothing interesting to relate of this
+splendid country.</p>
+
+<p>The list of the places Benjamin of Tudela visited, is not
+interesting, but we must not omit to mention one of them, for his
+narrative is most precise, and it is useful to follow his route by
+the maps specially prepared for this purpose by Lelewel. From
+Otranto to Zeitun, his halting-places were Corfu, the Gulf of Arta,
+Achelous, an ancient town in Ætolia, Anatolia in Greece, on the Gulf
+of Patras, Patras, Lepanto, Crissa, at the foot of Mount Parnassus,
+Corinth, Thebes, whose two thousand Jewish inhabitants were the best
+makers of silk and purple in Greece, Negropont and Zeitoun. Here,
+according to the Spanish traveller, is the boundary-line of
+Wallachia; he says the Wallachians are as nimble as goats, and come
+down from the mountains to pillage the neighbouring Greek towns.</p>
+
+<p>Benjamin of Tudela went on to Constantinople by way of Gardiki, a
+small township on the Gulf of Volo, Armyros, a port much frequented
+by the Venetians and Genoese, Bissina, a town of which no traces are
+left, Salonica, the ancient Thessalonica, and Abydos. He gives us
+some details of Constantinople; the Emperor Emmanuel Comnenus was
+reigning at that time and lived in a palace that he had built upon
+the sea-shore, containing columns of pure gold and silver, and "the
+golden throne studded with precious stones, above which a golden
+crown is suspended by a chain of the same precious metal, which
+rests upon the monarch's head as he sits upon the throne." In this
+crown are many precious stones, and one of priceless worth: "so
+brilliant are they," says this traveller, "that at night, there is
+no occasion for any further light than that thrown back by these
+jewels." He adds that there is a large population in the city, and
+for the number of merchants from all countries who assemble there,
+it can only be compared to Baghdad. The inhabitants are principally
+dressed in embroidered silk robes enriched with golden fringes, and
+to see them thus attired and mounted upon their horses, one would
+take them for princes, but they are not brave warriors, and they
+keep mercenaries from all nations to fight for them. One regret he
+expresses, and that is, that there are no Jews left in the City, and
+that they have all been transported to Galata, near the entrance of
+the port, where are nearly two thousand five hundred of the sects
+(Rabbinites and Caraites), and among them many rich merchants and
+silk manufacturers, but the Turks have a bitter hatred for them, and
+treat them with great severity. Only one of these rich Jews was
+allowed to ride on horseback, he was the Emperor's physician,
+Solomon, the Egyptian. As to the remarkable buildings of
+Constantinople, he mentions the Mosque of St. Sophia, in which the
+number of altars answers to the number of days in a year, and the
+columns and gold and silver candlesticks, are too numerous to be
+counted; also the Hippodrome, which at the present day is used as a
+horse-market, but was then the scene of combats between "lions,
+bears, tigers, other wild beasts, and even birds."</p>
+<a name="fax02"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 2">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="782">
+			<img src="images/011.jpg" alt="The approach to Constantinople">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="782" align="center">
+			The approach to Constantinople.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>When Benjamin of Tudela left Constantinople, he visited Gallipoli
+and Kilia, a port on the Eastern coast, and went to the islands in
+the Archipelago, Mitylene, Chios, whence there was much trade in the
+juice of the pistachio-tree, Samos, Rhodes, and Cyprus. As he sailed
+towards the land of Aram, he passed by Messis, by Antioch, where he
+admired the arrangements for supplying the city with water, and by
+Latakia on his way to Tripoli, which he found had been recently
+shaken by an earthquake, that had been felt for miles round. We next
+hear of him at Beyrout, at Sidon, and Tyre, celebrated for its glass
+manufactory, at Acre, at Jaffa near Mount Carmel, at Capernaum, at
+the beautiful town of Cæsarea, at Samaria, which is built in the
+midst of a fertile tract, where are vineyards, gardens, orchards,
+and olive-yards, at Nablous, at Gibeon, and then at Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>In the holy city, it was but natural that the Jew could see nothing
+that would have interested a Christian visitor. For him, Jerusalem
+appeared only a small town, defended by three walls and peopled with
+Jews, Syrians, Greeks, Georgians, and Franks of all languages and
+nations. He found four hundred horse-soldiers in the city ready for
+war at any moment, a great temple in which is the tomb of "that
+man," as the Talmud styles our Saviour, and a house in which the
+Jews had the privilege of carrying on the work of dyeing; but they
+were few in number, scarcely two hundred, and they lived under the
+tower of David at one corner of the city. Outside Jerusalem, the
+traveller mentions the tomb of Absalom, the sepulchre of Osias, the
+pool of Siloam, near the brook Cedron, the valley of Jehoshaphat,
+and the Mount of Olives, from whose summit one can see the Dead Sea.
+Two leagues from it stands the pillar of Lot's wife, and the
+traveller adds, "that though the flocks and herds which pass this
+pillar of salt are continually licking it, yet it never diminishes
+in size." From Jerusalem, Benjamin of Tudela went to Bethlehem, and
+inscribed his name on Rachel's tomb, as it was customary for all
+Jews to do who passed by it; and from Bethlehem, after counting
+twelve Jewish dyeing establishments, he went on to Hebron, which is
+now deserted and in ruins.</p>
+
+<p>After visiting, in the plain of Machpelah, the tombs of Abraham,
+Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, and Leah, and passing by Beth-Jairim,
+Scilo, Mount Moriah, Beth-Nubi, Ramah, Joppa, Jabneh, Azotus,
+Ascalon, built by Esdras, Lud, Tiberias, where are some hot springs,
+Gish and Merom, which is still a spot visited by Jewish pilgrims,
+Kedesh and Laish, near the cavern, where the Jordan takes its rise,
+the traveller left the land of Israel, and entered Damascus.</p>
+
+<p>The following is his description of this city, where the Turkish
+rule begins. "It is a very large and beautiful city, walled round,
+and outside the walls for fifteen miles are gardens and orchards,
+and of all the surrounding country, this is the most fertile spot.
+The town stands at the foot of Mount Hermon, whence rise the two
+rivers, Abana and Pharpar; the first passes through the city, and
+its waters are taken into the larger houses by means of aqueducts,
+as well as through the streets and markets. This town trades with
+all the world. The river Pharpar fertilizes the orchards and gardens
+outside the town. There is an Ishmaelitish mosque, called
+Goman-Dammesec, meaning the synagogue of Damascus, and this building
+has not its equal; it is said to have been Benhadad's palace, and it
+contains a glass wall, built apparently by magic. This wall has 365
+holes in it, answering to the days of the year; as the sun rises and
+sets it shines through one or other of these holes, so that the hour
+of the day may thus always be known. Inside the palace or mosque are
+gold and silver houses, large enough to hold two or three persons at
+a time, if they wish to wash or bathe in them."</p>
+
+<p>After going to Galad and Salkah, which are two days' journey from
+Damascus, Benjamin reached Baalbec, the Heliopolis of the Greeks and
+Romans, built by Solomon, in the valley of the Libanus, then to
+Tadmor, which is Palmyra, also built entirely of great stones. Then
+passing by Cariatin, he stopped at Hamah, which was partially
+destroyed by an earthquake in 1157, which overthrew many of the
+Syrian towns.</p>
+
+<p>Now comes in the narrative a list of names, which are of no great
+interest: we may mention among them, Nineveh, whence the traveller
+returned towards the Euphrates; and finally that he reached Baghdad,
+the residence of the Caliph.</p>
+
+<p>Baghdad was of great interest to the Jewish traveller; he says it is
+a large town three miles in circumference, containing a hospital
+both for Jews and sick people of any nation. It is the centre for
+learned men, philosophers, and magicians from all parts of the world.
+It is the residence of the Caliph, who at this time was probably
+Mostaidjed, whose dominion included western Persia and the banks of
+the Tigris. He had a vast palace, standing in a park watered by a
+tributary of the Tigris and filled with wild beasts, he may be taken
+as a model sovereign on some points; he was a good and very truthful
+man, kind and considerate to all with whom he came in contact. He
+lived on the produce of his own toil, and made blankets, which,
+marked with his own seal, were sold in the market by the princes of
+his court, to defray the expense of his living. He only left his
+palace once a year, at the feast of Ramadan, when he went to the
+mosque near the Bassorah gate, and there acting as Iman, he
+explained the law to his people. He returned to his palace by a
+different route which was carefully guarded all the rest of the year,
+so that no other passer by might profane the marks of his footsteps.
+All the brothers of the Caliph inhabit the same palace as he does;
+they are all treated with much respect, and have the government of
+provinces and towns in their hands, the revenues from them enabling
+them to pass a pleasant life; only, as they once rebelled against
+their sovereign, they are now all fettered with chains of iron, and
+have guards mounted before their houses.</p>
+
+<p>Benjamin of Tudela visited that part of Turkey in Asia which is
+watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, and saw the ruined city of
+Babylon, passing by what is said to be the furnace into which
+Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego were thrown, and the tower of Babel,
+which he describes as follows. "The tower built by the tribes that
+were dispersed is of bricks; its largest ground work must be two
+miles in circumference; its length is two hundred and forty cubits.
+At every ten cubits there is a passage leading to a spiral staircase,
+which goes to the upper part of the building; from the tower there
+is a view of the surrounding country for twenty miles; but the wrath
+of God fell upon it and it is now only a heap of ruins."</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 6">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="577">
+			<img src="images/012.jpg" alt="The Tower of Babel">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="577" align="center">
+			The Tower of Babel.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>From Babel the traveller went to the Synagogue of Ezekiel, situated
+on the Euphrates, a real sanctuary where believers congregate to
+read the book written by the prophet. Then traversing Alkotzonath,
+&amp;c., to Sura, once the site of a celebrated Jewish college, and
+Shafjathib, whose synagogue is built with stones from Jerusalem, and
+crossing the desert of Yemen he passed Themar, Tilimar, and Chaibar
+which contained a great number of Jewish inhabitants, to Waseth; and
+thence to Bassorah on the Tigris, nearly at the end of the Persian
+Gulf.</p>
+
+<p>He gives no account of this important town; and thence he seems to
+have gone to Karna, to visit the tomb of the prophet Esdras; then he
+entered Persia and sojourned at Chuzestan, a large town, partly in
+ruins, which the river Tigris divides into two parts, one rich the
+other poor, joined by a bridge, over which hangs the coffin of
+Daniel the prophet. He went to Amaria, which is the boundary of
+Media, where he says the impostor David-el-roi appeared, the worker
+of false miracles, who is none other than our Lord Jesus Christ, but
+called among the Jews of that part by the former name. Then he went
+to Hamadan, where the tombs of Mordecai and Esther are found, and by
+Dabrestan he reached Ispahan, the capital of the kingdom, a city
+measuring twelve miles in circumference. At this point the narrative
+of the traveller becomes somewhat obscure; according to his notes we
+find him at Shiraz, then at Samarcand, then at the foot of the
+mountains in Thibet. This seems to have been his farthest point
+towards the north-east; he must have come back to Nizapur and
+Chuzestan on the banks of the Tigris; thence after a sea voyage of
+two days to El-Cachif, an Arabian town on the Persian Gulf, where
+the pearl fishery is carried on. Then, after another voyage of seven
+days and crossing the Sea of Oman, he seems to have reached Quilon
+on the coast of Malabar.</p>
+
+<p>He was at last in India, the kingdom of the worshippers of the Sun
+and of the descendants of Cush. This country produces pepper, ginger,
+and cinnamon. Twenty days after leaving Quilon he was among the
+fire-worshippers in Ceylon, and thence, perhaps, he went to China.
+He thought this voyage a very perilous one, and says that many
+vessels are lost on it, giving the following singular expedient for
+averting the danger. "You should take on board with you several
+skins of oxen, and, if the wind rises and threatens the vessel with
+danger, all who wish to escape envelope themselves each in a skin,
+sew up this skin so as to make it as far as possible water-tight,
+then throw themselves into the sea, and flocks of the great eagles
+called griffins, thinking that they are really oxen, will descend
+and bear them on their wings to some mountain or valley, there to
+devour their prey. Immediately on reaching land the man will kill
+the eagle with his knife, and leaving the skin, will walk towards
+the nearest habitation; many people," he adds, "have been saved by
+this means."</p>
+
+<p>We find Benjamin of Tudela again at Ceylon, then at the Island of
+Socotra in the Persian Gulf, and after crossing the Red Sea he
+arrives in Abyssinia, which he styles "the India that is on terra
+firma." Thence he goes down the Nile, crosses the country of Assouan,
+reaches the town of Holvan, and by the Sahara, where the sand
+swallows up whole caravans, he goes to Zairlah, Kous, Faiouna and
+Misraim or Cairo.</p>
+
+<p>This last is a large town containing fine squares and shops. It
+never rains there, but this want is supplied by the overflow of the
+Nile once a year, which waters the country and renders it very
+fertile.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 7">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581">
+			<img src="images/013.jpg" alt="Benjamin of Tudela in the Desert of Sahara">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581" align="center">
+			Benjamin of Tudela in the Desert of Sahara.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>He passed Gizeh on leaving Misraim but does not mention the pyramids,
+and just names Ain-Schams, Boutig, Zefita, and Damira; he stopped at
+Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, a city of great commerce,
+frequented by merchants from all parts of the world. Its squares and
+streets are thronged with people, and so long that one cannot see
+from one end to another. A dike or causeway runs out a mile into the
+sea, on which a high tower was built by the conqueror, and on the
+top of it a glass mirror was placed, by which all vessels could be
+seen while still fifty days' sail away, coming from Greece or the
+east on their way to make war upon or otherwise harm the town. "This
+tower," if we may credit the writer, "is still of use as a signal to
+vessels coming to Alexandria, for it can be seen night or day, a
+great flaming torch being kept lighted at night, visible 100 miles
+off!" What are our light-houses when even with the electric light
+they are only visible thirty miles away? From Damietta, the
+traveller visited several neighbouring towns, then returning there
+he embarked on board a vessel and twenty days afterwards landed at
+Messina. He wished to continue the census that he was making, so by
+way of Rome and Lucca he went to St. Bernard. He mentions visiting
+several towns both in Germany and France, where Jews had settled,
+and according to Chateaubriand's account, Benjamin of Tudela's
+computation brought the number of Jews to about 768,165.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion the traveller speaks of Paris, which he seems to have
+visited; he says, "This great town numbers among its inhabitants
+some remarkably learned men, who are unequalled for learning by any
+in the world; they spend all their time studying law, and at the
+same time are very hospitable to all strangers, but especially to
+all their Jewish brethren." Such is the account of Benjamin of
+Tudela's travels; they form an important part of the geographical
+science of the middle of the twelfth century. As we have used the
+modern names, it is easy to follow the short account of his route
+that we have given, on any atlas of the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Next in order of succession we come to the name of Jean du Plan de
+Carpin, or as some authors render it simply, Carpini. He was a
+Franciscan or Grey Friar, born in 1182, at Perugia in Italy. It is
+well known what inroads the Mongolians had made under Gengis-Khan,
+and in 1206 this chieftain had made Karakorum, an ancient Turkish
+town, his capital. This town was a little north of China. His
+successor Ojadaï, extended the Mongolian dominion into the centre of
+China, and, after raising an army of 600,000 men, he even invaded
+Europe. Russia, Georgia, Poland, Moravia, Silesia, and Hungary, all
+became the scenes of sanguinary conflicts which almost always ended
+in favour of the invaders. The Mongols were looked upon as demons
+possessed with superhuman power, and Western Europe was terrified at
+their approach.</p>
+
+<p>Pope Innocent IV. sent an ambassador to the Tartars, but he was
+treated with arrogance; at the same time he sent other ambassadors
+to the Tartars living in North-Eastern Tartary, in the hope of
+stopping the Mongolian invasion, and as chief in this mission, the
+Franciscan Carpini was chosen, being known to be a clever and
+intelligent diplomatist. Carpini was accompanied by Stephen, a
+Bohemian; they set out on the 6th of April, 1245, and went first to
+Bohemia, where the king gave them letters to some relations living
+in Poland, who he hoped might facilitate their entrance into Russia.
+Carpini had no difficulty in reaching the territory of the Archduke
+of Russia, and by his advice they bought beaver and other furs as
+presents for the Tartar chiefs. Thus provided, they took a
+north-easterly route to Kiev, then the chief town of Russia and now
+the seat of Government of that part, but they travelled in fear of
+the Lithuanians, who scoured the country at that time.</p>
+
+<p>The Governor of Kiev advised the Pope's envoys to exchange their own
+for Tartar horses, who were accustomed to seek for their food under
+the snow, and thus mounted they had no difficulty in getting as far
+as Danilisha. There they both were attacked by severe illness; when
+nearly recovered they bought a carriage, and in spite of the intense
+cold set out again. Arrived at Kaniev, on the Dnieper, they found
+themselves in the frontier town of the Mongol empire, and hence they
+were conducted to the Tartar camp by one of the chiefs, whom they
+had made their friend by gifts. In the camp they were badly received
+at first, but being directed to the Duke of Corrensa, who commanded
+an army of 60,000 men forming the advanced guard: this general sent
+them with an escort of three Tartars to Prince Bathy, the next in
+command to the Emperor himself. Relays of horses were prepared for
+them on the road, they travelled night and day, and thus passed
+through the Comans' country lying between the Dnieper, the Tanais,
+the Volga, and the Yaik, frequently having to cross the frozen
+rivers, and finally reaching the court of Prince Bathy on the
+frontiers of the Comans' country. "As we were being conducted to the
+prince," says Carpini, "we were told that we should have to pass
+between two fires, in order to purify us from any infection we might
+carry, and also to do away with any evil designs we might have
+towards the prince, which we agreed to do that we might be freed
+from all suspicion."</p>
+
+<p>The prince was seated on his throne in the midst of his courtiers
+and officers in a magnificent tent made of fine linen. He had the
+reputation of being a just and kind ruler of his people, but very
+cruel in war. Carpini and Stephen were placed on the left of the
+throne, and the papal letters, translated into a language composed
+of Tartar and Arabic, were presented to the prince. He read them
+attentively and then dismissed the envoys to their tents, where
+their only refreshment was a little porringer full of millet.</p>
+
+<p>This interview took place on Good Friday, and the next day Bathy
+sent for the envoys, and told them they must go to the Emperor. They
+set out on Easter-day with two guides; but having lived upon nothing
+but millet, water, and salt, the travellers were but little fit for
+a journey; nevertheless their guides obliged them to travel very
+quickly, changing horses five or six times in a day. They passed
+through almost a desert country, the Tartars having driven away
+nearly all the inhabitants. They came next to the country of the
+Kangites to the east of Comania, where there was a great deficiency
+of water; in this province the people were mostly herdsmen, under
+the hard yoke of the Mongolians.</p>
+
+<p>Carpini was travelling from Easter till Ascension-Day through the
+land of the Kangites, and thence he came into the Biserium country,
+or what we call Turkestan in the present day; on all sides the eye
+rested on towns and villages in ruins. After crossing a chain of
+mountains the envoys entered Kara-Kâty on the 1st of July; here the
+governor received them very hospitably, and made his sons and the
+principal officers of his court dance before them for their
+amusement.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving Kara-Kâty the envoys rode for some days along the banks
+of a lake lying to the north of the town of Zeman, which must be,
+according to M. de Rémusat, the Lake Balkash. There lived Ordu, the
+eldest of the Tartar captains, and here Carpini and Stephen took a
+day's rest before encountering the cold and mountainous country of
+the Maimans, a nomadic people living in tents. After some days the
+travellers reached the country of the Mongols, and on the 22nd of
+July arrived at the place where the Emperor was, or rather he who
+was to be Emperor, the election having not yet taken place.</p>
+
+<p>This future Emperor was named Cunius; he received the envoys in a
+most friendly manner, a letter from Prince Bathy having explained to
+him the object of their visit; not being yet Emperor he could not
+entertain them nor take any part in public affairs, but from the
+time of Ojadaï's death, his widow, the mother of Prince Cunius had
+been Regent; she received the travellers in a purple and white tent
+capable of holding 2000 persons. Carpini gives the following account
+of the interview: "When we arrived we saw a large assembly of dukes
+and princes who had come from all parts with their attendants, who
+were on horseback in the neighbouring fields and on the hills. The
+first day they were all dressed in white and purple, on the second
+when Cunius appeared in the tent, in red, on the third day they wore
+violet, and on the fourth, scarlet, or crimson. Outside the tent, in
+the surrounding palisade were two great gates, by one of which the
+Emperor alone might enter; it was unguarded, but none dared to enter
+or leave by it; while the other, which was the general entrance, was
+guarded by soldiers with swords, and bows and arrows; if any one
+approached within the prescribed limits he was beaten, or else shot
+to death with arrows. We noticed several horsemen there, on whose
+harness cannot have been less than twenty marks' worth of silver."</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 8">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="583">
+			<img src="images/014.jpg" alt="The Tartars">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="583" align="center">
+			The Tartars.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A whole month passed away before Cunius was proclaimed Emperor, and
+the envoys were obliged to wait patiently for this before they could
+be received by him. Carpini turned this leisure time to account by
+studying the habits of the people; he has given much interesting
+information on the subject in his account of his travels.</p>
+
+<p>The country seemed to him to be principally very hilly and the soil
+sandy, with but little vegetation. There is scarce any wood; but all
+classes are content with dung for fuel. Though the country is so
+bare, sheep seem to do well. The climate is very changeable; in
+summer, storms are very frequent, many fall victims to the vivid
+lightning, and the wind is often so strong as even to blow over men
+on horseback: during the winter there is no rain, which all falls in
+the summer, and then scarcely enough to lay the dust, while the
+storms of hail are terrible; during Carpini's residence in the
+country they were so severe that once 140 persons were drowned by
+the melting of the enormous mass of hail-stones that had fallen. It
+is a very extensive country, but miserable beyond expression.</p>
+
+<p>Carpini who seems to have been a man of great discernment took a
+very just idea of the Tartars themselves. He says, "Their eyes are
+set very far apart; they have very high cheek-bones, their noses are
+small and flat; their eyes small, and their eye-lashes and eyebrows
+seem to meet; they are of middle height with slender waists, they
+have small beards, some wear moustaches, and what are now called
+imperials. On the top of the head the hair is shaved off like monks,
+and to the width of three fingers between their ears they also shave
+off the hair, letting what is between the tonsure and the back of
+the head grow to some length; in fact it is as long as a woman's in
+many cases, and plaited and tied in two tails behind the ear. They
+have small feet. He says there is but little difference perceptible
+in the dress of the men and women, all alike wearing long robes
+trimmed with fur, and high buckram caps enlarged towards the upper
+part. Their houses are built like tents of rods and stakes, so that
+they can be easily taken down and packed on the beasts of burden.
+Other larger dwellings are sometimes carried whole as they stand, on
+carts, and thus follow their owner about the country.</p>
+
+<p>"The Tartars believe in God as the Creator of the universe and as
+the Rewarder and Avenger of all, but they also worship the sun, moon,
+fire, earth, and water, and idols made in felt, like human beings.
+They have little toleration, and put Michael of Turnigoo and Féodor
+to death for not worshipping the sun at midday at the command of
+Prince Bathy. They are a superstitious people, believing in
+enchantment and sorcery, and looking upon fire as the purifier of
+all things. When one of their chiefs dies he is buried with a horse
+saddled and bridled, a table, a dish of meat, a cup of mare's milk,
+and a mare and foal.</p>
+
+<p>"The Tartars are most obedient to their chiefs, and are truthful and
+not quarrelsome; murders and deeds of violence are rare, there is
+very little robbery, and articles of value are never guarded. They
+bear great fatigue and hunger without complaint, as well as heat and
+cold, singing and dancing under the most adverse circumstances. They
+are much prone to drink to excess; they are very proud and
+disdainful to strangers, and have no respect for the lives of human
+beings."</p>
+
+<p>Carpini completes his sketch of the Tartar character by adding that
+they eat all kinds of animals, dogs, wolves, foxes, horses, and even
+sometimes their fellow-creatures. Their principal beverage is the
+milk of the mare, sheep, goat, cow, and camel. They have neither
+wine, cervisia, (a beverage composed of grain and herbs,) nor mead,
+but only intoxicating liquors. They are very dirty in their habits,
+scarcely ever washing their porringers, or only doing so in their
+broth; they hardly ever wash their clothes, more especially "when
+there is thunder about;" and they eat rats, mice, &amp;c., if they are
+badly off for other food. The men are not brought up to any manual
+labour, their whole occupation consisting in hunting, shooting with
+bow and arrows, watching the flocks, and riding. The women and girls
+are very athletic and very brave, they prepare furs and make clothes,
+drive carts and camels, and as polygamy is practised among them, and
+a man <i>buys</i> as many wives as he can keep, there are enough women
+for all these employments.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the résumé of Carpini's observations made during his
+residence at Syra-Orda while he was awaiting the Emperor's election.
+Soon he found that the election was about to take place; he noticed
+that the courtiers always sang before Cunius when he came out of his
+tent, and bowed down before him with beautiful little wands in their
+hands, having small pieces of scarlet wool attached to them. On a
+plain about four leagues from Syra-Orda, beside a stream, a tent was
+prepared for the Coronation, carpeted with scarlet, and supported on
+columns covered with gold. On St. Bartholomew's day a large
+concourse of people assembled, each one fell on his knees as he
+arrived, and remained praying towards the sun; but Carpini and his
+companion refused to join in this idolatrous worship of the sun.
+Then Cunius was placed on the imperial throne, and the dukes and all
+the assembled multitudes having done homage to him, he was
+consecrated.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as this ceremony was over, Carpini and Stephen were
+commanded to appear before the Emperor. They were first searched and
+then entered the imperial presence at the same time as other
+Ambassadors, the bearers of rich presents; the poor papal envoys had
+nothing to present; whether this had anything to do with the length
+of time they had to wait before his Imperial Majesty could attend to
+their affairs we do not know; but days passed slowly by, and they
+were nearly dying of hunger and thirst, before they received a
+summons to appear before the Secretary of the Emperor, and letters
+to the Pope were given to them, ending with these words, "we worship
+G<small>OD</small>, and by His help we shall destroy the whole earth from east to
+west."</p>
+
+<p>The envoys had now nothing to wait for, and during the whole of the
+winter they travelled across icy deserts. About May they again
+arrived at the court of Prince Bathy, who gave them free passes, and
+they reached Kiev about the middle of June, 1247. On the 9th of
+October of the same year the Pope made Carpini Bishop of Antivari in
+Dalmatia, and this celebrated traveller died at Rome about the year
+1251.</p>
+
+<p>Carpini's mission was not of much use, and the Tartars remained much
+as they were before, a savage and ferocious tribe; but six years
+after his return another monk of the minor order of Franciscans,
+named William Rubruquis, of Belgian origin, was sent to the
+barbarians who lived in the country between the Volga and the Don.
+The object of this journey was as follows,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>St. Louis was waging war against the Saracens of Syria at this time,
+and while he was engaging the Infidels, Erkalty, a Mongol prince,
+attacked them on the side nearest to Persia, and thus caused a
+diversion that was in favour of the King of France. The report arose
+that Prince Erkalty had become a Christian, and St. Louis, anxious
+to prove the truth of it, charged Rubruquis to go into the prince's
+own country and there make what observations he could upon the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of June 1253, Rubruquis and his companions embarked for
+Constantinople. From thence they reached the mouth of the river Don
+on the Sea of Azov where they found a great number of Goths. On
+their arrival among the Tartars, their reception was at first very
+inhospitable, but after presenting the letters with which they were
+furnished, Zagathal, the governor of that province, gave them
+waggons, horses, and oxen for their journey.</p>
+
+<p>Thus equipped they set out and were much surprised next day by
+meeting a moving village; that is to say, all the huts were placed
+on waggons and were being moved away. During the ten days that
+Rubruquis and his companions were passing through this part of the
+country they were very badly treated, and had it not been for their
+own store of biscuits, they must have died of starvation. After
+passing by the end of the Sea of Azov they went in an easterly
+direction and crossed a sandy desert on which neither tree nor stone
+was visible. This was the country of the Comans that Carpini had
+traversed, but in a more northerly part. Rubruquis left the
+mountains inhabited by the Circassians to the south, and after a
+wearisome journey of two months arrived at the camp of Prince
+Sartach on the banks of the Volga.</p>
+
+<p>This was the court of the prince, the son of Baatu-Khan; he had six
+wives, each of whom possessed a palace of her own, some houses, and
+a great number of chariots, some of them very large, being drawn by
+a team of twenty-two oxen harnessed in pairs.</p>
+
+<p>Sartach received the envoys of the King of France very graciously,
+and seeing their poverty, he supplied them with all that they
+required. They were to be presented to the prince in their
+sacerdotal dress, when, bearing on a cushion a splendid Bible, the
+gift of the King of France, a Psalter given by the Queen, a Missal,
+a crucifix and a censer, they entered the royal presence, taking
+good care not to touch the threshold of the door, which would have
+been considered profanation. Once in the royal presence, they sang
+the "Salve Regina." After the prince and those of the princesses who
+were present at the ceremony had examined the books, &amp;c., that the
+monks had brought with them, the envoys were allowed to retire; it
+being impossible for Rubruquis to form any opinion as to Sartach's
+being a Christian, or not; but his work was not yet finished, the
+prince having pressed the envoys to go to his father's court.
+Rubruquis complied with the request, and crossing the country lying
+between the Volga and the Don, they arrived at their destination.
+There the same ceremonies had to be gone through as at the court of
+Prince Sartach. The monks had to prepare their books, &amp;c., and be
+presented to the Khan, who was seated on a large gilded throne, but
+not wishing to treat with the envoys himself, he sent them to
+Karakorum, to the court of Mangu-khan.</p>
+
+<p>They crossed the country of the Bashkirs and visited Kenchat, Talach,
+passed the Axiartes and reached Equius, a town of which the position
+cannot be accurately ascertained in the present day; then by the
+land of Organum, by the Lake of Balkash, and the territory of the
+Uigurs, they arrived at Karakorum, the capital of the Mongolian
+empire, where Carpini had stopped without entering the town.</p>
+
+<p>This town, says Rubruquis, was surrounded with walls of earth, and
+had four gates in the walls. The principal buildings it contained
+were two mosques and a Christian church. While in this city, the
+monk made many interesting observations on the surrounding people,
+especially upon the Tangurs, whose oxen, of a remarkable race, are
+no other than the Yaks, so celebrated in Thibet. In speaking of the
+Thibetans he notices their most extraordinary custom of eating the
+bodies of their fathers and mothers, in order to secure their having
+an honourable sepulture.</p>
+
+<p>When Rubruquis and his companions reached Karakorum, they found that
+the great khan was not in his capital, but in one of his palaces
+which was situated on the further side of the mountains which rise
+in the northern part of the country. They followed him there, and
+the next day after their arrival presented themselves before him
+with bare feet, according to the Franciscan custom, so securing for
+themselves frozen toes. Rubruquis thus describes the interview:
+"Mangu-Khan is a man of middle height with a flat nose; he was lying
+on a couch clad in a robe of bright fur, which was speckled like the
+skin of a sea-calf." He was surrounded with falcons and other birds.
+Several kinds of beverages, arrack punch, fermented mare's milk, and
+ball, a kind of mead, were offered to the envoys; but they refused
+them all. The khan, less prudent than they, soon became intoxicated
+on these drinks, and the audience had to be ended without any result
+being arrived at. Rubruquis remained several days at Mangu-Khan's
+court; he found there a great number of German and French prisoners,
+mostly employed in making different kinds of arms, or in working the
+mines of Bocol. The prisoners were well treated by the Tartars, and
+did not complain of their lot. After several interviews with the
+great khan, Rubruquis gained permission to leave, and he returned to
+Karakorum.</p>
+
+<p>Near this town stood a magnificent palace, belonging to the khan; it
+was like a large church with nave and double aisles, here the
+sovereign sits at the northern end on a raised platform, the
+gentlemen being seated on his right, and the ladies on his left hand.
+It is at this palace that twice every year splendid fêtes are given,
+when all the nobles of the country are assembled round their
+sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>While at Karakorum, Rubruquis collected many interesting documents
+relating to the Chinese, their customs, literature, &amp;c.; then
+leaving the capital of the Mongols, he returned by the same route as
+he had come, as far as Astrakhan; but there he branched to the south
+and went to Syria with a Turkish escort, which was rendered
+necessary by the presence of tribes bent on pillage. He visited
+Derbend, and went thence by Nakshivan, Erzeroum, Sivas, Cæsarea, and
+Iconium, to the port of Kertch, whence he embarked for his own
+country. His route was much the same as that of Carpini, but his
+narrative is less interesting, and the Belgian does not seem to have
+been gifted with the spirit of observation which characterized the
+Italian monk.</p>
+
+<p>With Carpini and Rubruquis closes the list of celebrated travellers
+of the thirteenth century, but we have the brilliant career of Marco
+Polo now before us, whose travels extended over part of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c4"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER IV.</h4>
+<center>M<small>ARCO</small> P<small>OLO</small>, 1253-1324.<br>
+<br>
+I.</center>
+
+<blockquote>The interest of the Genoese and Venetian merchants in encouraging
+the exploration of Central Asia&mdash;The family of Polo, and its
+position in Venice&mdash;Nicholas and Matteo Polo, the two brothers&mdash;They
+go from Constantinople to the Court of the Emperor of China&mdash;Their
+reception at the Court of Kublaï-Khan&mdash;The Emperor appoints them his
+ambassadors to the Pope&mdash;Their return to Venice&mdash;Marco Polo&mdash;He
+leaves his father Nicholas and his uncle Matteo for the residence of
+the King of Tartary&mdash;The new Pope Gregory X.&mdash;The narrative of Marco
+Polo is written in French from his dictation, by Rusticien of Pisa.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>The Genoese and Venetian merchants could not fail to be much
+interested in the explorations of the brave travellers in Central
+Asia, India, and China, for they saw that these countries would give
+them new openings for disposing of their merchandise, and also the
+great benefit to be derived by the West from being supplied with the
+productions of the East. The interests of commerce stimulated fresh
+explorations, and it was this motive that actuated two noble
+Venetians to leave their homes, and brave all the fatigue and danger
+of a perilous journey.</p>
+
+<p>These two Venetians belonged to the family of Polo, which had come
+originally from Dalmatia, and, owing to successful trading, had
+become so opulent as to be reckoned among the patrician families of
+Venice. In 1260 the two brothers, Nicholas and Matteo, who had lived
+for some years in Constantinople, where they had established a
+branch house, went to the Crimea, with a considerable stock of
+precious stones, where their eldest brother, Andrea Polo, had his
+place of business. Thence, taking a north-easterly direction and
+crossing the country of the Comans, they reached the camp of
+Barkaï-Khan on the Volga. This Mongol prince received the two
+merchants very kindly, and bought all the jewels they offered him at
+double their value.</p>
+
+<p>Nicolo and Matteo remained a year in the Mongolian camp, but a war
+breaking out at this time between Barkaï, and Houlagou, the
+conqueror of Persia, the two brothers, not wishing to be in the
+midst of a country where war was being waged, went to Bokhara, and
+there they remained three years. But when Barkaï was vanquished and
+his capital taken, the partisans of Houlagou induced the two
+Venetians to follow them to the residence of the grand Khan of
+Tartary, who was sure to give them a hearty welcome. This
+Kublaï-Khan, the fourth son of Gengis-Khan, was Emperor of China,
+and was then at his summer-palace in Mongolia, on the frontier of
+the Chinese empire.</p>
+
+<p>The Venetian merchants set out, and were a whole year crossing the
+immense extent of country lying between Bokhara and the northern
+limits of China. Kublaï-Khan was much pleased to receive these
+strangers from the distant West. He fêted them, and asked, with much
+eagerness, for any information that they could give him of what was
+happening in Europe, requiring details of the government of the
+various kings and emperors, and their methods of making war; and he
+then conversed at some length about the Pope and the state of the
+Latin Church. Matteo and Nicolo fortunately spoke the Tartar
+language fluently, so they could freely answer all the emperor's
+questions.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 9">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584">
+			<img src="images/015.jpg" alt="Kublaï-Khan's feast on the arrival of the Venetian Merchants">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584" align="center">
+			Kublaï-Khan's feast on the arrival of the Venetian Merchants.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It had occurred to Kublaï-Khan to send messengers to the Pope; and
+he seized the opportunity to beg the two brothers to act as his
+ambassadors to his Holiness. The merchants thankfully accepted his
+proposal, for they foresaw that this new character would be very
+advantageous to them. The emperor had some charters drawn up in the
+Turkish language, asking the Pope to send a hundred learned men to
+convert his people to Christianity; then he appointed one of his
+barons named Cogatal to accompany them, and he charged them to bring
+him some oil from the sacred lamp, which is perpetually burning
+before the tomb of Christ at Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>The two brothers took leave of the khan, having been furnished with
+passports by him, which put both men and horses at their disposal
+throughout the empire, and in 1266 they set out on their journey.
+Soon the baron Cogatal fell ill, and the Venetians were obliged to
+leave him and continue their journey; but in spite of all the aid
+that had been given to them, they were three years in reaching the
+port of Laïas, in Armenia, now known by the name of Issus. Leaving
+this port, they arrived at Acre in 1269, where they heard of the
+death of Pope Clement IV., to whom they were sent, but the legate
+Theobald lived in Acre and received the Venetians; learning what was
+the object of their mission he begged them to wait for the election
+of the new Pope.</p>
+
+<p>The brothers had been absent from their country for fifteen years,
+so they resolved to return to Venice, and at Negropont they embarked
+on board a vessel that was going direct to their native town.</p>
+
+<p>On landing there, Nicolo was met by news of the death of his wife,
+and of the birth of his son, who had been born shortly after his
+departure in 1254; this son was the celebrated Marco Polo. The two
+brothers waited at Venice for the election of the Pope, but at the
+end of two years, as it had not taken place, they thought they could
+no longer defer their return to the Emperor of the Mongols;
+accordingly they started for Acre, taking Marco Polo with them, who
+could not then have been more than seventeen. At Acre they had an
+interview with the legate Theobald, who authorized them to go to
+Jerusalem and there to procure some of the sacred oil. This mission
+accomplished, the Venetians returned to Acre and asked the legate to
+give them letters to Kublaï-Khan, mentioning the death of Pope
+Clement IV.; he complied with their request, and they returned to
+Laïas or Issus. There, to their great joy, they learnt that the
+legate Theobald had just been made Pope with the title of Gregory X.,
+on the 1st of September, 1271. The newly-elected Pope sent at once
+for the Venetian envoys, and the King of Armenia placed a galley at
+their disposal to expedite their return to Acre. The Pope received
+them with much affection, and gave them letters to the Emperor of
+China; he added two preaching friars, Nicholas of Vicenza and
+William of Tripoli, to their party, and gave them his blessing on
+their departure. They went back to Laïas, but had scarcely arrived
+before they were made prisoners by the soldiers of the Mameluke
+Sultan Bibars, who was then ravaging Armenia. The two preaching
+friars were so discouraged at this outset of the expedition that
+they gave up all idea of going to China, and left the two Venetians
+and Marco Polo to prosecute the journey together as best they could.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 10">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588">
+			<img src="images/016.jpg" alt="Marco Polo">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588" align="center">
+			Marco Polo.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Here begins what may properly be called Marco Polo's travels. It is
+a question if he really visited all the places that he describes,
+and it seems probable that he did not; in fact, in the narrative
+written at his dictation by Rusticien of Pisa it is stated
+"Marco-Polo, a wise and noble citizen of Venice, saw nearly all
+herein described with his own eyes, and what he did not see he
+learnt from the lips of truthful and credible witnesses;" but we
+must add that the greater part of the kingdoms and towns spoken of
+by Marco Polo he certainly did visit. We will follow the route he
+describes, simply pointing out what the traveller learnt by hearsay,
+during the important missions with which he was charged by
+Kublaï-Khan. During this second journey the travellers did not
+follow exactly the same road as on the first occasion of their visit
+to the Emperor of China. They had lengthened their route by passing
+to the north of the celestial mountains, but now they turned to the
+south of them, and though this route was shorter than the other,
+they were three years and a half in accomplishing their journey,
+being much impeded by the rains and the difficulty of crossing the
+great rivers. Their course may be easily followed with the help of a
+map of Asia, as we have substituted the modern names in place of the
+ancient ones used by Marco Polo in his narrative.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c42"></a>
+<center>II.<br>
+M<small>ARCO</small> P<small>OLO</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Armenia Minor&mdash;Armenia&mdash;Mount Ararat&mdash;Georgia&mdash;Mosul, Baghdad,
+Bussorah, Tauris&mdash;Persia&mdash;The Province of Kirman&mdash;Comadi&mdash;Ormuz&mdash;The
+Old Man of the Mountain&mdash;Cheburgan&mdash;Balkh&mdash;Cashmir&mdash;Kashgar&mdash;Samarcand&mdash;Kotan&mdash;The
+Desert&mdash;Tangun&mdash;Kara-Korum&mdash;Signan-fu&mdash;The
+Great Wall&mdash;Chang-tou&mdash;The residence of Kublaï-Khan&mdash;Cambaluc, now
+Pekin&mdash;The Emperor's fêtes&mdash;His hunting&mdash;Description of Pekin&mdash;Chinese
+Mint and bank-notes&mdash;The system of posts in the Empire.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>Marco Polo left the town of Issus; he describes Armenia Minor as a
+very unhealthy place, the inhabitants of which, though once valiant,
+are now cowardly and wretched, their only talent seeming to lie in
+their capacity for drinking to excess. From Armenia Minor he went to
+Turcomania, whose inhabitants, though somewhat of savages, are
+clever in cultivating pastures and breeding horses and mules; and
+the townspeople excel in the manufacture of carpets and silk.
+Armenia Proper, that Marco Polo next visited, affords a good
+camping-ground to the Tartar armies during the summer. There the
+traveller saw Mount Ararat, where Noah's Ark rested after the Deluge.
+He noticed that the lands bordering on the Caspian Sea afford large
+supplies of naphtha, which forms an important item in the trade of
+that neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>When he left Armenia he took a north-easterly course towards Georgia,
+a kingdom lying on the south side of the Caucasus, whose ancient
+kings, says the legend, "were born with an eagle traced on their
+right shoulders." The Georgians, he describes as good archers and
+men of war, and also as clever in working in gold and manufacturing
+silk. Here is a celebrated defile, four leagues in length, which
+lies between the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea, that the Turks call
+the Iron Door, and Europeans the Pass of Derbend, and here too is
+the miraculous lake, where fish are said to exist only during Lent.
+Hence the travellers descended towards the kingdom of Mosul, and
+arrived at the town of the same name on the right bank of the Tigris,
+thence going to Baghdad, the residence of the Caliph of all the
+Saracens. Marco Polo gives an account of the taking of Baghdad by
+the Tartars in 1255; mentioning a wonderful story in support of the
+Christian idea of Faith, "that can remove mountains;" he points out
+the route from this town to the Persian Gulf, which may be reached
+in eighteen days by the river, passing Bussorah, the country of
+dates.</p>
+
+<p>From this point to Tauris, a Persian town in the province of
+Adzer-baidjan, Marco Polo's route seems to be doubtful. He takes up
+his narrative at Tauris, which he describes as a large flourishing
+town built in the midst of beautiful gardens and carrying on a great
+traffic in precious stones and other valuable merchandise, but its
+Saracen inhabitants are disloyal and treacherous. Here he seems to
+divide Persia geographically into eight provinces. The natives of
+Persia, according to him, are formidable enemies to the merchants,
+who are obliged to travel armed with bows and arrows. The principal
+trade of the country seems to be in horses and asses, which are sent
+to Kis or Ormuz and thence to India. The natural productions of the
+country are wheat, barley, millet, and grapes, which grow in
+abundance.</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo went next to Yezd, the most easterly town of Persia
+Proper; on leaving it, after a ride of seven days through
+magnificent forests abounding in game, he came to the province of
+Kirman. Here the mines yield large quantities of turquoise, as well
+as iron and antimony; the manufacture of arms and harness as well as
+embroidery and the training of falcons for hunting occupy a great
+number of the inhabitants. On leaving Kirman Marco Polo and his two
+companions set out on a nine days' journey across a rich and
+populous country to the town of Comadi, which is supposed to be the
+Memaun of the present day, and was even then sinking into decay. The
+country was superb; on all sides were to be seen fine fat sheep,
+great oxen, white as snow, with short strong horns, and thousands of
+domestic fowls and other birds; also there were magnificent date,
+orange, and pistachio trees.</p>
+
+<p>After travelling for five days they entered the beautiful and well
+watered plain of Cormos or Ormuz, and after two days' further march
+they reached the shores of the Persian Gulf and the town of Ormuz,
+which forms the sea-port of the kingdom of Kirman. This country they
+found very warm und unhealthy, but rich in date and spice trees, in
+grain, precious stones, silk and golden stuffs, and elephants' tusks,
+wine made from the date and other merchandise being brought into the
+town ready for shipment on board ships with but one mast, which came
+in numbers to the port; but many were lost on the voyage to India,
+as they were only built with wooden pegs, not iron nails, to fasten
+them together.</p>
+
+<p>From Ormuz, Marco Polo, going up again towards the north-east,
+visited Kirman; then he ventured by dangerous roads across a sandy
+desert, where there was only brackish water to be found, the desert
+across which, 1500 years before, Alexander had led his army to meet
+Nearchus. Seven days afterwards he entered the town of Khabis. On
+leaving this town he crossed for eight days the great plains to
+Tonokan, the capital of the province of Kumis, probably Damaghan. At
+this point of his narrative Marco Polo gives an account of the "Old
+Man of the Mountain," the chief of the Mahometan sect called the
+Hashishins, who were noted for their religious fanaticism and
+terrible cruelty. He next visited the Khorassan town of Cheburgan, a
+city celebrated for its sweet melons, and then the noble city of
+Balkh, situated near the source of the Oxus. Next he crossed a
+country infested by lions to Taikan, a great salt-market frequented
+by a large number of merchants, and to Scasem; this town seems to be
+the Kashme spoken of by Marsden, the Kishin or Krishin of
+Hiouen-Tsang, which Sir Henry Rawlinson has identified with the hill
+of Kharesm of Zend-Avesta, that some commentators think must be the
+modern Koundouz. In this part of the country he says porcupines
+abound, and when they are hunted they curl themselves up, darting
+out the prickles on their sides and backs at the dogs that are
+hunting them. We now know how much faith to put in this pretended
+power of defence said to be possessed by the porcupine.</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo now entered the rocky mountainous kingdom of the Balkhs,
+whose kings claim descent from Alexander the Great; a cold country,
+producing good fast horses, excellent falcons, and all kinds of game.
+Here, too, are prolific ruby-mines worked by the king and which
+yield large quantities, but they are so strictly enclosed that no
+one on pain of death may set foot on the Sighinan mountain
+containing the mines. In other places silver is found, and many
+precious stones, of which he says "they make the finest azure in the
+world," meaning lapis-lazuli; his stay in this part of the country
+must have been a long one to have enabled him to observe so many of
+its characteristics. Ten days' journey from hence he entered a
+province which must be the Peshawur of the present day, whose
+dark-skinned inhabitants were idolaters; then after seven days'
+further march, about mid-day he came to the kingdom of Cashmere,
+where the temperature is cool, and towns and villages are very
+numerous. Had Marco Polo continued his route in the same direction
+he would soon have reached the territory of India, but instead of
+that he took a northerly course, and in twelve days was in Vaccan, a
+land watered by the Upper Oxus, which runs through splendid pastures,
+where feed immense flocks of wild sheep, called mufflons. Thence he
+went through a mountainous country, lying between the Altai and
+Himalayan ranges to Kashgar. Here Marco Polo's route is the same as
+that of his uncle and his father during their first voyage, when
+from Bokhara they were taken to the residence of the great khan.
+From Kashgar, Marco Polo diverged a little to the west, to Samarcand,
+a large town inhabited by Saracens and Christians, then to Yarkand,
+a city frequented by caravans trading between India and Northern
+Asia; passing by Khotan, the capital of the province of that name,
+and by Pein, a town whose situation is uncertain, but in a part of
+the country where chalcedony and jasper abound. He came to the
+kingdom of Kharachar, which extends along the borders of the desert
+of Jobe; then after five days' further travelling over sandy plains,
+where there was no water fit to drink, he rested for eight days in
+the city of Lob, a place now in ruins, while he prepared to cross
+the desert lying to the east, "so great a desert," he says, "that it
+would require a year to traverse its whole length, a haunted
+wilderness, where drums and other instruments are heard, though
+invisible."</p>
+
+<p>After spending a year crossing this desert, Marco Polo reached
+Tcha-tcheou, in the province of Tangaut, a town built on the western
+limits of the Chinese empire. There are but few merchants here, the
+greater part of the population being agricultural. The custom that
+seems to have struck him the most in the province of Tangaut, was
+that of burning their dead only on a day fixed by the astrologers;
+"all the time that the dead remain in their houses, the relations
+stay there with them, preparing a place at each meal as well as
+providing both food and drink for the corpse, as though it were
+still alive."</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo and his companions made an excursion to the north-east,
+to the city of Amil, going on as far as Ginchintalas, a town
+inhabited by idolaters, Mahometans, and Nestorian Christians, whose
+situation is disputed. From this town Marco Polo returned to
+Tcha-tcheou, and went eastward across Tangaut, by the town of So-ceu,
+over a tract of country particularly favourable to the cultivation
+of rhubarb, and by Kanpiceon, the Khan-tcheou of the Chinese, then
+the capital of the province of Tangaut, an important town, whose
+numerous chiefs are idolaters and polygamists. The three Venetians
+remained a year in this large city; it is easy to understand, from
+their long halts and deviations, why they required three years for
+their journey across Central Asia.</p>
+
+<p>They left Khan-tcheou, and after riding for twelve days they reached
+the borders of a sandy desert, and entered the city of Etzina. This
+was another détour, as it lay directly north of their route, but
+they wished to visit Kara-Korum, the celebrated capital of Tartary,
+where Rubruquis had been in 1254. Marco Polo was certainly an
+explorer by nature; fatigue was nothing to him if he had any
+geographical studies to complete, which is proved by his spending
+forty days crossing an uninhabited desert without vegetation, in
+order to reach the Tartar town.</p>
+
+<p>When he arrived there, he found a city measuring three miles in
+circumference, which had been for a long time the capital of the
+Empire, before it was conquered by Gengis-Khan, the grandfather of
+the reigning emperor. Here Marco Polo makes an historical digression,
+in which he gives an account of the wars of the Tartar chiefs
+against the famous Prester John who held all this part of the
+country under his dominion.</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo after returning to Khan-tcheou left it again, marching
+five days towards the east, and arriving at the town of Erginul.
+Thence he went a little to the south to visit Sining-foo, across a
+tract of country where grazed great wild oxen and the valuable
+species of goat which is called the "musk-bearer." Returning to
+Erginul, they went eastward to Cialis, where there is the best
+manufactory of cloth made from camels' hair in the world, to Tenduc,
+a town in the province of the same name, where a descendant of
+Prester John reigned, but who had given in his submission to the
+great khan; this was a busy flourishing town: from hence the
+travellers went to Sinda-tchou, and on beyond the great wall of
+China as far as Ciagannor, which must be Tzin-balgassa, a pretty
+town where the emperor lives when he wishes to hawk; for cranes,
+storks, pheasants, and partridges abound in this neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>At last Marco Polo, his father, and his uncle, reached Ciandu or
+Tchan-tchou of the present day, called elsewhere in this narrative
+Clemen-foo. Here Kublaï-Khan received the papal envoys, for he was
+occupying his summer palace beyond the great wall, north of Pekin,
+which was then the capital of the empire. The traveller does not
+tell us what reception he met with, but he describes most carefully
+the palace, the grandeur of the building of stone and marble,
+standing in the middle of a park surrounded by walls, enclosing
+menageries and fountains. Also a building made of reeds, so closely
+interlaced as to be impenetrable to water; it was a sort of movable
+kiosk that the great khan inhabited during the fine months of June,
+July, and August. The weather during the emperor's sojourn in this
+summer palace could not but be beautiful, for, according to Marco
+Polo, the astrologers who were attached to the khan's court were
+charged to scatter all rain and fog by their sorcery, and the
+travellers seem to believe in the power of these magicians. "These
+astrologers," he says, "belong to two races, both idolaters; they
+are learned in all magic and enchantments, above any other men, and
+what they do is done by the aid of the devil, but they make others
+believe that they owe their power to the help of God, and their own
+holiness. These people have the following strange custom: when a man
+has been condemned and put to death, they take the body, cook, and
+eat it; but in the case of a natural death they do not eat the body.
+And you must know that these people of whom I am speaking, who know
+so many kinds of enchantments, work the wonder I am about to relate.
+When the great khan is seated at dinner in the principal dining-hall,
+the table of which is eight cubits in length, and the cups are on
+the floor ten paces from the table, filled with wine, milk, and
+other good beverages, these clever magicians, by their arts, make
+these cups rise by themselves, and without any one touching them,
+they are placed before the great khan. This has been done before an
+immense number of people, and is the exact truth; and those skilled
+in necromancy will tell you that it is quite possible to do this."</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo next gives a history of Kublaï, whom he considers to
+possess more lands and treasures than any man since our first father,
+Adam. He tells how the great khan ascended the throne in the year
+1256, being then eighty-five; he was a man of middle height, rather
+stout, but of a fine figure, with a good complexion and black eyes.
+He was a good commander in war, and his talents were put to the
+proof when his uncle Naïan, having rebelled against him, wished to
+dispute his power at the head of 400,000 cavalry. Kublaï-Khan
+collected (in secret) a force of 300,000 horsemen, and 100,000
+foot-soldiers, and marched against his uncle. The battle was a most
+terrible one, so many men being killed, but the khan was victorious,
+and Naïan, as a prince of the blood royal, was condemned to be sewn
+up tightly in a carpet, and died in great suffering. After his
+victory the khan made a triumphal entry into Cathay, capital of
+Cambaluc, or, as it is now called, Pekin. When Marco Polo arrived at
+this city he made a long stay there, remaining until the emperor
+needed his services to undertake various missions into the interior
+of China. The emperor had a splendid palace at Cambaluc, and the
+traveller gives so graphic an account of the riches and magnificence
+of the Mongol sovereigns, that we give it word for word. "The palace
+is surrounded by a great wall, a mile long each way, four miles in
+length altogether, very thick, ten feet in height, all white and
+battlemented. At each corner of this wall is a palace beautiful and
+rich, in which all the trappings of war belonging to the great khan
+are kept; his bows, quivers, the saddles and bridles of the horses,
+the bow-strings, in fact everything that would be wanted in time of
+war; in the midst of each square is another building, like those at
+the corner, so that there are eight in all, and each building
+contains one particular kind of harness or trapping. In the wall on
+the south side are five doors, the middle or large door only being
+opened when the emperor wishes to go in or out; near this great gate
+on either side is a smaller one through which other people may pass,
+and two others for the same purpose. Inside this wall is another,
+having also eight buildings to be used in the same manner."</p>
+<a name="fax03"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 3">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586">
+			<img src="images/017.jpg" alt="Plan of Pekin">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586" align="center">
+			Plan of Pekin.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Thus we see that all these buildings constituted the emperor's
+armoury and harness-store; we shall not be surprised that there was
+so much harness to be kept when we know that the emperor possessed a
+race of horses white as snow, and among them ten thousand mares,
+whose milk was reserved for the sole use of princes of the blood
+royal.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 11">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586">
+			<img src="images/018.jpg" alt="The Emperor's palace at Pekin">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586" align="center">
+			The Emperor's palace at Pekin.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Marco Polo continues his narrative thus:&mdash;"The inner wall has five
+gates on the south side, answering to those in the outer wall, but
+on the other sides the walls have only one gate each. In the centre
+of the enclosure made by these walls, stands the palace, the largest
+in the world. It has no second story, but the ground-floor is raised
+about eight feet above the ground. The roof is very high, the walls
+of the rooms are covered with gold and silver, and on this gold and
+silver are paintings of dragons, birds, horses, and other animals,
+so that nothing can be seen but gilding and pictures. The
+dining-hall is large enough to hold 6000 men, and the number of
+other rooms is marvellous, and all is so well arranged that it could
+not be improved. The ceilings are painted vermillion, green, blue,
+yellow, and all kinds of colours, varnished so as to shine like
+crystal, and the roof is so well built that it will last for many
+years. Between the two walls the land is laid out in fields with
+fine trees in them, containing different species of animals, the
+musk-ox, white deer, roe-buck, fallow-deer, and other animals, who
+fill the space between the walls, except the roads reserved for
+human beings. On the north-western side is a great lake, full of
+fishes of divers kinds, for the great khan has had several species
+placed there, and each time that he desires it to be done, he has
+his will in it. A river rises in this lake and flows out from the
+grounds of the palace, but no fish escape in it, there being iron
+and brass nets to prevent their doing so. On the northern side, near
+an arched doorway, the emperor has had a mound made, a hundred feet
+in height and more than a mile in circumference; it is covered with
+evergreen trees, and the emperor, being very fond of horticulture,
+whenever he hears of a fine tree, sends for it and has it brought by
+his elephants, with the roots and surrounding soil, the size of the
+tree being no impediment, and thus he has the finest collection of
+trees in the world. The hill is called 'green hill,' from its being
+covered with evergreen trees and green turf, and on the top of the
+hill is a house. This hill is altogether so beautiful that it is the
+admiration of every one."</p>
+
+<p>After Marco Polo has concluded his description of this palace, he
+gives one of that of the emperor's son and heir; then he speaks of
+the town of Cambaluc, the old town which is separated from the
+modern town of Taidu by a canal, the same which divides the Chinese
+and Tartar quarters of Pekin. The traveller gives many particulars
+of the emperor's habits, and among other things, he says that
+Kublaï-Khan has a body-guard of 2000 horse-soldiers; but he adds,
+"it is not fear that causes him to keep this guard." His meals are
+real ceremonies, and etiquette is most rigidly enforced. His table
+is raised above the others, and he always sits on the north side
+with his principal wife on his right, and lower down his sons,
+nephews, and relations; he is waited upon by noble barons, who are
+careful to envelope their mouths and noses in fine cloth of gold,
+"so that their breath and their odour may not contaminate the food
+or drink of their lord." When the emperor is about to drink, a band
+of music plays, and when he takes the cup in his hand, all the
+barons and every one present, fall on their knees.</p>
+
+<p>The principal fêtes given by the grand khan were on the anniversary
+of his birth, and on the first day of the year. At the first, 12,000
+barons were accustomed to assemble round the throne, and to them
+were presented annually 150,000 garments made of gold and silk and
+ornamented with pearls, whilst the subjects, idolaters as well as
+Christians, offered up public prayers. At the second of these fêtes,
+on the first day of the year, the whole population, men and women
+alike, appeared dressed in white, following the tradition that white
+brings good fortune, and every one brought gifts to the king of
+great value. One hundred thousand richly-caparisoned horses, five
+thousand elephants covered with handsome cloths and carrying the
+imperial plate, as well as a large number of camels, passed in
+procession before the emperor.</p>
+
+<p>During the three winter months of December, January, and February,
+when the khan is living in his winter palace, all the nobles within
+a radius of sixty days' march are obliged to supply him with boars,
+stags, fallow-deer, roes, and bears. Besides, Kublaï is a great
+huntsman himself, and his hunting-train is superbly mounted and kept
+up. He has leopards, lynxes and fine lions trained to hunt for wild
+animals, eagles strong enough to chase wolves, foxes, fallow and
+roe-deer, and, as Marco Polo says, "often to take them too," and his
+dogs may be counted by thousands. It is about March when the emperor
+begins his principal hunting in the direction of the sea, and he is
+accompanied by no less than 10,000 falconers, 500 gerfalcons, and
+many goshawks, peregrine, and sacred falcons. During the hunting
+excursion, a portable palace, covered outside with lions' skins and
+inside with cloth of gold, and carried on four elephants harnessed
+together, accompanies the emperor everywhere, who seems to enjoy all
+this oriental pomp and display. He goes as far as the camp of
+Chachiri-Mongou, which is situated on a stream, a tributary of the
+river Amoor, and the tent is set up, which is large enough to hold
+ten thousand nobles. This is his reception-saloon where he gives
+audiences; and when he wishes to sleep he goes into a tent which is
+hung all round with ermine and sable furs of almost priceless value.
+The emperor lives thus till about Easter, hunting cranes, swans,
+hares, stags, roebucks, &amp;c., and then returns to his capital,
+Cambaluc.</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo now completes his description of this fine city and
+enumerates the twelve quarters it contains, in many of which the
+rich merchants have their palatial houses, for commerce flourishes
+in this town, and more valuable merchandise is brought to it than to
+any other in the world. It is the depôt and market for the richest
+productions of India, such as pearls and precious stones, and
+merchants come from long distances round to purchase them. The khan
+has established a mint here for the benefit of trade, and it is an
+inexhaustible source of revenue to him. The bank-notes, sealed with
+the emperor's seal, are made of a kind of card-board manufactured
+from the bark of the mulberry-tree. The card-board thus prepared is
+cut into various thicknesses according to the value of the money it
+is supposed to represent. The currency of this money is enforced,
+none daring to refuse it "on pain of death;" the emperor using it in
+all his payments, and enforcing its circulation throughout his
+dominions. Besides this, several times in the year the possessors of
+precious stones, pearls, gold, or silver, are obliged to bring their
+treasures to the mint and receive in exchange for them these pieces
+of card-board, so that, in fact, the emperor becomes the possessor
+of all the riches in his empire.</p>
+
+<p>According to Marco Polo the system of the Imperial Government was
+wonderfully centralized. "The kingdom is divided into thirty-four
+provinces, and is governed by twelve of the greatest barons living
+in Cambaluc; in the same palace also reside the intendants and
+secretaries, who conduct the business of each province. From this
+central city a great number of roads diverge to the various parts of
+the kingdom, and on these roads are now post-houses stationed at
+intervals of twenty-two miles, where well-mounted messengers are
+always ready to carry the emperor's messages. Besides this, at every
+three miles on the road there is a little hamlet of about fourteen
+houses where the couriers live, who carry messages on foot; these
+men wear a belt round their waists and have a girdle with bells
+attached to it, that are heard at a long distance; they start at a
+gallop, quickly accomplishing the three miles and giving the message
+to the courier who is waiting for it at the next hamlet; thus the
+emperor receives news from places at long distances from the capital
+in a comparatively short time." This mode of communication also
+involved but small expense to Kublaï-Khan, as the only remuneration
+he gave these couriers was their exemption from taxation, and as to
+the horses, they were furnished gratuitously by the provinces.</p>
+
+<p>But if the emperor used his power in this manner to lay heavy
+burdens upon his subjects, he exerted himself actively for their
+good, and was always ready to help them; for instance, when their
+crops were damaged by hail-storms, he not only remitted all taxes,
+but gave them corn from his own stores, and when there was any great
+mortality among the flocks and herds in any particular province, he
+always replaced them at his own expense. He was careful to have a
+large quantity of wheat, barley, millet, and rice, stored up in
+years of abundant harvest, so as to keep the price of grain at a
+uniform rate when the harvest failed. He was particularly careful of
+the poor who lived in Cambaluc. "He had a list made of all the
+poorest houses in the town, where they were usually short of food,
+and supplied them liberally with wheat and other grain according to
+the size of their families, and bread was never refused to any
+applying at the palace for it; it is computed that at least 30,000
+persons avail themselves of this daily throughout the year. His
+kindness to his poor subjects makes them almost worship him." The
+whole affairs of the empire are administered with great care, the
+roads well kept up and planted with fine trees, so that from a
+distance their direction can easily be traced. There is no want of
+wood, and in Cathay they work a number of coal-pits which supply
+abundance of coal.</p>
+<a name="fax04"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 4">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="1266">
+			<img src="images/019.jpg" alt="Map of the World according to Marco Polo's ideas">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Marco Polo remained a long time at Cambaluc, and his intelligence,
+spirit, and readiness in adapting himself, made him a great
+favourite with the emperor. He was intrusted with various missions,
+not only in China, but also to places on the coast of India, Ceylon,
+the Coromandel and Malabar coasts, and a part of Cochin-China near
+Cambogia, and between the years 1277 and 1280 he was made governor
+of Yang-tcheou, and of twenty-seven other towns which were joined
+with it under the same government. Thanks to the missions on which
+he was sent, he travelled over an immense extent of country, and
+gained a great amount of ethnological and geographical knowledge. We
+can now follow him map in hand through some of these journeys, which
+were of the greatest service to science.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c43"></a>
+<center>III.<br>
+M<small>ARCO</small> P<small>OLO</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Tso-cheu&mdash;Tai-yen-fou&mdash;Pin-yang-fou&mdash;The Yellow
+River&mdash;Signan-fou&mdash;Szu-tchouan&mdash;Ching-tu-fou&mdash;Thibet&mdash;Li-kiang-fou&mdash;Carajan&mdash;Yung-tchang&mdash;Mien&mdash;Bengal&mdash;Annam&mdash;Tai-ping&mdash;Cintingui&mdash;Sindifoo&mdash;Té-cheu&mdash;Tsi-nan-fou&mdash;Lin-tsin-choo&mdash;Lin-sing&mdash;Mangi&mdash;Yang-tcheu-fou&mdash;Towns
+on the coast&mdash;Quin-say or Hang-tcheou-foo&mdash;Fo-kien.</blockquote>
+
+<p>When Marco Polo had been at Cambaluc some time, he was sent on a
+mission that kept him absent from the capital for four months. Ten
+miles southwards from Cambaluc, he crossed the fine river Pe-ho-nor
+(which he calls the Pulisanghi), by a stone bridge of twenty-four
+arches, and 300 feet in length, which was then without parallel in
+the world. Thirty miles further on he came to the town of Tso-cheu,
+where a large trade in sandal-wood is carried on; at ten days'
+journey from hence he came to the modern town of Tai-yen-fou, which
+was once the seat of an independent government. All the province of
+Shan-si seemed rich in vines and mulberry-trees; the principal
+industry in the towns was the making of armour for the emperor's use.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 12">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578">
+			<img src="images/020.jpg" alt="A fine bridge of stone built on twenty-four arches">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578" align="center">
+			A fine bridge of stone built on twenty-four arches.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Seven days' journey further on they came to the beautiful commercial
+city of Pianfou, now called Pin-yang-foo, where the manufacture of
+silk was carried on. He soon afterwards came to the banks of the
+Yellow River, which he calls Caramoran or Black River, probably on
+account of its waters being darkened by the aquatic plants growing
+in them; at two days' journey from hence he came to the town of
+Cacianfu, whose position is not now clearly defined. He found
+nothing remarkable in this town, and leaving it he rode across a
+beautiful country, covered with towns, country-houses, and gardens,
+and abounding in game.</p>
+
+<p>In eight days he reached the fine city of Quangianfoo, the ancient
+capital of the Tâng dynasty, now called Signanfoo, and the capital
+of Shensi; here reigned Prince Mangalai, the emperor's son, an
+upright and amiable prince, much loved by his people. He lived in a
+magnificent palace outside the town, built in the midst of a park,
+of which the battlemented wall cannot have been less than five miles
+in circumference.</p>
+
+<p>From Signanfoo, the traveller went towards Thibet, across the modern
+province of Szu-tchouan, a mountainous country intersected by deep
+valleys, where lions, bears, lynxes, &amp;c., abounded, and after
+twenty-eight days' march he found himself on the borders of the
+great plain of Acmelic-mangi. This is a fertile country and produces
+all kinds of vegetation; ginger is especially cultivated; there is
+sufficient to supply all the province of Cathay, and so fertile is
+the soil that according to a French traveller, M. E. Simon, an acre
+is now worth 15,000 francs, or three francs the metre. In the
+thirteenth century this plain was covered with towns and
+country-houses, and the inhabitants lived upon the fruits of the
+ground, and the produce of their flocks and herds, while the large
+quantity of game furnished hunters with abundant occupation.</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo next visited the town of Sindafou (now Tching-too-foo),
+the capital of the province of Se-tchu-an, whose population at the
+present day exceeds 1,500,000 souls. Sindafu, measuring at that time
+twenty miles round, was divided into three parts, each surrounded
+with its own wall, and each part had a king of its own before
+Kublaï-Khan took possession of the town. The great river Kiang ran
+through the town: it contained large quantities of fish, and from
+its size resembled a sea more than a river; its waters were covered
+by a vast number of vessels. Five days after leaving this busy,
+thriving town Marco Polo reached the province of Thibet, which he
+says "is very desolate, for it has been destroyed by the war."</p>
+
+<p>Thibet abounds in lions, bears, and other savage animals, from which
+the travellers would have much difficulty in defending themselves
+had it not been for the quantity of large thick canes that grow
+there, which are probably bamboos: he says, "the merchants and
+travellers passing through these countries at night collect a
+quantity of these canes and make a large fire of them, for when they
+are burning they make such a noise and crackle so much, that the
+lions, bears, and other wild beasts take flight to a distance, and
+would not approach these fires on any account; thus both men, horses,
+and camels are safe. In another way, too, protection is afforded by
+throwing a number of these canes on a wood fire, and when they
+become heated and split, and the sap hisses, the sound is heard at
+least ten miles off. When any one is not accustomed to this noise,
+it is so terrifying that even the horses will break away from their
+cords and tethers; so their owners often bandage their eyes and tie
+their feet together to prevent their running away." This method of
+burning canes is still used in countries where the bamboo grows, and
+indeed the noise may be compared to the loudest explosion of
+fire-works.</p>
+
+<p>According to Marco Polo, Thibet is a very large province, having its
+own language; and its inhabitants, who are idolaters, are a race of
+bold thieves. A large river, the Khin-cha-kiang, flows over
+auriferous sands through the province; a quantity of coral is found
+in it which is much used for idols, and for the adornment of the
+women. Thibet was at this time under the dominion of the great khan.</p>
+
+<p>The traveller took a westerly direction when he left Sindafou, and
+crossing the kingdom of Gaindu he must have come to Li-kiang-foo,
+the capital of the country that is now called Tsi-mong. In this
+province he visited a beautiful lake which produces pearl-oysters;
+the fishing is the emperor's property; he also found great
+quantities of cinnamon, ginger, cloves, and other spices under
+cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>After leaving the province of Gaindu, and crossing a large river,
+probably the Irrawaddy, Marco Polo took a south-easterly course to
+the province of Carajan, which probably forms the north-western part
+of Yunnan. According to his account all the inhabitants of this
+province, who are mostly great riders, live on the raw flesh of
+fowls, sheep, buffaloes, and oxen; the rich seasoning their raw meat
+with garlic sauce and good spices. This country is infested with
+great adders, and serpents, "hideous to look upon." These reptiles,
+probably alligators, were ten feet long, had two legs armed with
+claws, and with their large heads and great jaws could at one gulp
+swallow a man.</p>
+
+<p>Five days' journey west of Carajan, Marco Polo took a new route to
+the south, and entered the province of Zardandan, whose capital
+Nocian, is the modern town of Yung-chang. All the inhabitants of the
+city had teeth of gold; that is to say, they covered their teeth
+with little plates of gold which they removed before eating. The men
+of this province employed themselves only in hunting, catching birds,
+and making war, the hard work all devolving upon the women and
+slaves. These Zardanians have neither idols nor churches, but they
+each worship their ancestor, the patriarch of the family. Their
+tradesmen carry their goods about on barrows like the bakers in
+France. They have no doctors, but only enchanters, who jump, dance,
+and play musical instruments around the invalid's bed till he either
+dies or recovers.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 13">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584">
+			<img src="images/021.jpg" alt="Marco Polo in the midst of the forests">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584" align="center">
+			Marco Polo in the midst of the forests.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Leaving these people with gilded teeth, Marco Polo took the great
+road which conveys all the traffic between India and Indo-China, and
+passed by Bhamo, where a market is held three times a week, which
+attracts merchants from the most distant countries. After riding for
+fifteen days through forests filled with elephants, unicorns, and
+other wild animals, he came to the great city of Mien; that is to
+say, to that part of Upper Burmah, of which the present capital, of
+recent erection, is called Amarapura. This city of Mien, which may
+be, perhaps, the old town of Ava now in ruins, or the old town of
+Paghan situated on the Irrawaddy, possessed a veritable
+architectural marvel, in two towers, one built of fine stone, and
+entirely covered with a coating of gold about an inch in thickness,
+and the other, also of stone, coated with silver, both intended to
+serve as a tomb for the king of Mien, before his kingdom fell under
+the dominion of the khan. After visiting this province, the
+traveller went to Bangala, the Bengal of the present day, which at
+this time, 1290, did not belong to Kublaï-Khan. The emperor's forces
+were then engaged in trying to conquer this fertile country, rich in
+cotton plants, in sugar-canes, &amp;c., and whose magnificent oxen were
+like elephants in height. From thence, the traveller ventured as far
+as the city of Cancigu, in the province of the same name, probably
+the modern town of Kassaye. The natives here tattooed their bodies,
+and with needles drew pictures of lions, dragons, and birds on their
+faces, necks, bellies, hands, legs, and bodies, and he who had the
+greatest number of these pictures they considered the most beautiful
+of human beings.</p>
+
+<p>Cancigu was the most southerly point visited by Marco Polo, during
+this journey. Leaving this city, he went towards the north-east, and
+by the country of Amu, Anam, and Tonkin, he reached Toloman, now
+called Tai-ping, after fifteen days' march. There he found that fine
+race of men, of dark colour, who have crowned their mountains with
+strong castles, and whose ordinary food is the flesh of animals,
+milk, rice, and spices.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving Toloman, he followed the course of a river for twelve
+days, and found numerous towns on its banks. Here, as M. Charton
+truly observes, the traveller is leaving the country known as India
+beyond the Ganges, and returning towards China. In fact, Marco Polo
+after leaving Toloman visited the province of Guigui with its
+capital of the same name, and what struck him most in this country,
+(and we cannot but think that the bold explorer was also a keen
+hunter) was the great number of lions that were to be seen about its
+mountains and plains. Only, commentators are of opinion that the
+lions he speaks of must have been tigers, for no lions are found in
+China, but we will give his own words: he says, "There are so many
+lions in this country, that it is not safe to sleep out of doors for
+fear of being devoured. And when you are on the river and stop for
+the night, you must be careful to anchor far from land, for
+otherwise the lions come to the vessel, seize upon a man, and devour
+him. The inhabitants of this part of the country are well aware of
+this, and so take measures to guard against it. These lions are very
+large and very dangerous, but there are dogs in this country brave
+enough to attack these lions; it requires two dogs and a man to
+overcome each lion."</p>
+
+<p>From this province Marco Polo returned to Sindifu, the capital of
+the province of Se-chuen, whence he had started on his excursion
+into Thibet; and retracing the route by which he had set out, he
+returned to Kublaï-Khan, after having brought his mission to
+Indo-China to a satisfactory termination. It was probably at this
+time that the traveller was first entrusted by the emperor with
+another mission to the south-east of China. M. Pauthier, in his fine
+work upon the Venetian traveller, speaks of this south-easterly part
+of China as "the richest and most flourishing quarter of this vast
+empire and that also about which, since the 16th century, Europeans
+have had the most information."</p>
+
+<p>As we return to the route that M. Pauthier has traced on his map, we
+find that Marco Polo went southwards to Ciangli, probably the town
+of Ti-choo, and at six days' journey from thence he came to
+Condinfoo, the present city of Tsi-nan, the capital of the province
+of Shan-tung, the birthplace of Confucius. It was at that time a
+fine town and much frequented by silk-merchants, and its beautiful
+gardens produced abundance of excellent fruit. Three days' march
+from hence, the traveller came to the town of Lin-tsing, standing at
+the mouth of the Yu-ho canal, the principal rendezvous for the
+innumerable boats that carry so much merchandise to the provinces of
+Mangi and Cathay. Eight days afterwards he passed by Ligui, which
+seems to correspond to the modern town of Lin-tsin, and the town of
+Piceu, the first city in the province of Tchang-su; then by the town
+of Cingui, he arrived at Caramoran, the Yellow River, which he had
+crossed higher up when he was on his way to Indo-China; here Marco
+Polo was not more than a league from the mouth of this great river.
+After crossing it he was in the province of Mangi, a territory
+included in the Empire of the Soongs.</p>
+
+<p>Before this province of Mangi belonged to Kublaï-Khan it was
+governed by a very pacific king, who shunned war, and was very
+merciful to all his subjects. Marco Polo describes him so well that
+we will quote his own words. "This last emperor of the Soong dynasty
+was most generous, and I will cite but two noble traits to show
+this; every year he had nearly 20,000 infants brought up at the
+royal charge, for it was the custom in these provinces, when a poor
+woman could not bring up a child herself, to cast it away as soon as
+it was born, to die. The king had all these children taken care of,
+and a record kept of the sign and the planet under which each was
+born, and then they were sent to different places to be brought up,
+for there are a quantity of nurses. When a rich man had no sons, he
+came to the king and asked of him some of his wards, who were
+immediately given to him. As the children grew up they intermarried,
+and the king gave them sufficient incomes to live upon. When he went
+through his dominions and saw a small house among several much
+larger ones, he inquired why this house was smaller than those near
+it, and if he found it was on account of the poverty of the owner,
+he immediately had it made as large as the others at his own expense.
+He was always waited upon by a thousand pages and a thousand girls.
+He kept up such rigorous discipline throughout his kingdom that
+there was never any crime; at night, houses and shops remained open,
+and nothing was taken from them, and travelling was as safe by night
+as by day."</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo came first to the town of Coigangui, now called Hoang-fou,
+on the banks of the Yellow River, where the principal industry is
+the preparation of the salt found in the salt marshes. One day's
+journey from this town he came to Pau-in-chen, famous for its cloth
+of gold, and the town of Caiu, now Kao-yu, whose inhabitants are
+clever fishermen and hunters, then to the city of Tai-cheu, where
+numerous vessels are generally to be found, and at last to the city
+of Yangui.</p>
+
+<p>This town of Yangui, of which Marco Polo was the governor for three
+years, is the modern Yang-tchou; it is a very populous and busy town,
+and cannot be less than two leagues in circumference. It was from
+Yangui that the traveller set out on the various expeditions which
+enabled him to see so much of the inland and sea-coast towns.</p>
+
+<p>First, the traveller went westward to Nan-ghin, which must not be
+confounded with Nan-kin of the present day. Its modern name is
+Ngan-khing, and it stands in the midst of a remarkably fertile
+province. Further on in the same direction he came to Saianfu, which
+is now called Siang-yang, and is built in the northern part of the
+province of Hou-pe. This was the last town in the province of Mangi
+that resisted the dominion of Kublaï-Khan; he besieged it for three
+years, and he owed his taking it at last to the help of the three
+Polos, who constructed some powerful balistas and crushed the
+besieged under a perfect hail-storm of stones, some of which weighed
+as much as three hundred pounds. From Saianfu Marco Polo retraced
+his steps that he might visit some of the towns on the sea-coast. He
+visited Kui-kiang on the river Kiang, which is very broad here, and
+upon which 5000 ships can sail at the same moment; Kain-gui, which
+supplies the Emperor's palace with corn; Ching-kiang where are two
+Nestorian Christian churches; Ginguigui, now Tchang-tcheou, a busy
+thriving city; and Singui, now called Soo-choo, a large town, which,
+according to the very exaggerated account of the Venetian traveller,
+has no less than 6000 bridges.</p>
+
+<p>After spending some time at Vugui, probably Hou-tcheou, and at
+Ciangan, now Kia-hing, Marco Polo reached the fine city of Quinsay,
+after three days' march. This name means the "City of Heaven," but
+it is now called Hang-chow-foo. It is six leagues round; the river
+Tsien-tang-kiang flows through it, and by its constant windings,
+makes Quinsay almost a second Venice. This ancient capital of the
+Soongs is almost as populous as Pekin; its streets are paved with
+stones and bricks, and if we may credit Marco Polo's statement, it
+contained "600,000 houses, 4000 bathing establishments, and 12,000
+stone bridges." In this city dwell the richest merchants in the
+world with their wives, who are "beautiful and angelic creatures."
+It is the residence of a viceroy, who has besides, 140 other cities
+under his dominion. Here was to be seen also the palace of the Mangi
+sovereigns surrounded by beautiful gardens, lakes, and fountains,
+the palace itself containing more than a thousand rooms. Kublaï-Khan
+draws immense revenues from this town and province, and it is by
+tens of thousands of pounds we must reckon the income derived from
+the sugar, salt, spices, and silk, which form the principal
+productions of this country. At one day's journey south from Quinsay,
+Marco Polo visited Chao-hing, Vugui, or Hou-tcheou, Ghengui or
+Kui-tcheou, Cianscian or Yo-tcheou-fou (according to M. Charton),
+and Sonï-tchang-fou (according to M. Pauthier), and Cugui or
+Kiou-tcheou, the last town in the kingdom of Quinsay; thence he
+entered the kingdom of Fugui, whose chief town of the same name is
+now called Fou-tcheou-foo, the capital of the province of Fo-kien.
+According to Marco Polo, the inhabitants of this province are a
+cruel warlike race, never sparing their enemies, of whom, after they
+have killed them, they drink the blood and eat the flesh. After
+passing by Quenlifu, now Kien-ning-foo, and Unguen, the traveller
+entered Fugui, probably the modern town of Kuant-tcheou (called
+Canton amongst us), and the chief town of the province, where a
+large trade in pearls and precious stones was carried on, and in
+five days he reached the port of Zaitem, probably the Chinese town
+of Tsiuen-tcheou, which was the extreme point reached by him in this
+exploration of south-eastern China.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c44"></a>
+<center>IV.<br>
+M<small>ARCO</small> P<small>OLO</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Japan&mdash;Departure of the three Venetians with the Emperor's daughter
+and the Persian ambassadors&mdash;Sai-gon&mdash;Java&mdash;Condor&mdash;Bintang&mdash;Sumatra&mdash;The
+Nicobar Islands&mdash;Ceylon&mdash;The Coromandel coast&mdash;The
+Malabar coast&mdash;The Sea of Oman&mdash;The island of Socotra&mdash;Madagascar&mdash;Zanzibar
+and the coast of Africa&mdash;Abyssinia&mdash;Yemen&mdash;Hadramaut and
+Oman&mdash;Ormuz&mdash;The return to Venice&mdash;A feast in the household of
+Polo&mdash;Marco Polo a Genoese prisoner&mdash;Death of Marco Polo about 1323.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>Marco Polo returned to the court of Kublaï-Khan when he had finished
+the expedition of which we spoke in the last chapter. He was then
+entrusted with several other missions, in which he found his
+knowledge of the Turkish, Chinese, Mongolian, and Mantchorian
+languages of the greatest use. He seems to have taken part in an
+expedition to the islands in the Indian Ocean, and he brought back a
+detailed account of this hitherto little known sea. There is a want
+of clearness as to dates at this part of his life, which makes it
+difficult to give a correct narrative of these voyages in their
+right order. He gives a circumstantial account of the Island of
+Cipango, a name applying to the group of islands which make up
+Japan; but it does not appear that he actually entered that kingdom.
+This country was famous for its wealth, and about 1264, some years
+before Marco Polo arrived at the Tartar court, Kublaï-Khan had tried
+to conquer it and sent his fleet there with that purpose. They had
+taken possession of a citadel and put all its valiant defenders to
+the edge of the sword, but just at the moment of apparent victory a
+storm arose and dispersed all the enemy's fleet, and thus the
+expedition was useless. Marco Polo gives a long account of this
+attempt, and adds many curious particulars as to Japanese customs.</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo, with his father and uncle, had now been seventeen years
+in the service of Kublaï-Khan, and even longer absent from their own
+country; they had a great wish to revisit it, but the Emperor had
+become so much attached to them, and valued their services so highly,
+that he could not make up his mind to part with them. He tried in
+every way to shake their resolution, offering them riches and honour
+if only they would remain with him, but they still held to their
+plan of returning to Europe; the Emperor then absolutely refused to
+allow them to go, and Marco Polo could find no means of eluding the
+surveillance of which he was the object, until circumstances arose
+which quite changed Kublaï-Khan's resolution.</p>
+
+<p>A Mongol prince, named Arghun, whose dominions were in Persia, had
+sent an ambassador to the Emperor to ask one of the princesses of
+the blood royal, in marriage. Kublaï-Khan acceded to his request and
+sent off his daughter Cogatra to Prince Arghun, attended by a
+numerous suite; but the countries by which they endeavoured to
+travel were not safe; the caravan was soon stopped by disturbances
+and rebellions, and after some months was obliged to return to the
+Emperor's palace. The Persian ambassadors had heard Marco Polo
+spoken of as a clever navigator who had had some experience of the
+Indian Ocean, and they begged the Emperor to confide the Princess
+Cogatra to his care, that he might conduct her to her future husband,
+thinking that the voyage by sea would probably be attended by less
+danger than a land journey.</p>
+
+<p>After some demur Kublaï-Khan acceded to their request, and equipped
+a fleet of forty four-masted vessels, provisioning them for two
+years. Some of these were very large, having a crew of 250 men, for
+this was an important expedition worthy of the opulent Emperor of
+China. Matteo, Nicolo, and Marco Polo set out with the Chinese
+princess and the Persian ambassadors, and it was during this voyage,
+which lasted eighteen months, that it seems most probable that Marco
+Polo visited the islands of Sunda and other islands in the Indian
+Ocean, as well as Ceylon and the towns on the coast of India. We
+will follow him in his voyage and give his description of the places
+that he visited in this hitherto little known portion of the globe.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 14">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578">
+			<img src="images/022.jpg" alt="Kublaï-Khan equips a fleet">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578" align="center">
+			Kublaï-Khan equips a fleet.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It must have been about 1291 or 1292 that the fleet left the port of
+Zaitem, under the command of Marco Polo. He steered first for
+Tchampa, a great country situated at the south of Cochin China, and
+which contains the present province of Saïgon, belonging to France.
+This was not a new country to Marco Polo, as he had visited it about
+1280, when he was on a mission for the Emperor. At this time,
+Tchampa was under the dominion of the grand khan, and paid him an
+annual tribute in elephants; when Marco Polo visited this country
+before its conquest by Kublaï-Khan, he found the reigning king had
+no less than 326 children, of whom 150 were old enough to carry arms.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving the peninsula of Cambodia, the fleet went in the direction
+of Java, the rich island that Kublaï-Khan had never been able to
+subjugate, where abundance of pepper, cloves, nutmegs, &amp;c., grew.
+After putting into port at Condor and Sandur, at the extremity of
+the peninsular of Cochin China, they reached the island of Pentam
+(Bintang), situated near the eastern entrance of the straits of
+Malacca, and the island of Sumatra, called Little Java. "This island
+is so much in the south," he says, "that they never see there the
+polar star," which is true as far as the inhabitants of the southern
+part are concerned. It is very fertile, aloes growing most
+luxuriantly; and here wild elephants and rhinoceroses (called by
+Marco Polo unicorns) are found, and apes, too, in large numbers. The
+fleet was detained five months on these shores by contrary winds,
+and the traveller made the most of his time in visiting the
+principal provinces of the island, such as Samara, Dagraian, and
+Labrin (which boasts a great number of men with tails&mdash;evidently
+apes), and the island of Fandur or Panchor, where the sago-tree
+grows, from which a kind of flour is obtained that makes very good
+bread.</p>
+
+<p>At last the wind changed, and enabled the vessels to leave Little
+Java, and after touching at Necaran, which must be one of the
+Nicobar Islands, and at the Andaman group, whose inhabitants are
+still cannibals, as they were in the time of Marco Polo, the fleet
+took a south-westerly course and arrived on the coast of Ceylon.
+"This island," says the traveller in his narrative, "was once much
+larger, for according to the map of the world that the pilots of
+these seas carry, it was once 3600 miles in circumference but the
+north wind blows with such force in these parts that it caused a
+part of the island to be submerged." This tradition is still held by
+the inhabitants of Ceylon. Here are collected in abundance, rubies,
+sapphires, topaz, amethysts, and other precious stones, such as
+garnets, opals, agates, and sardonyx. The king of the country was
+the possessor at this time of a most splendid ruby as long as the
+palm of the hand, as thick as a man's arm, and red as fire, which
+excited the envy of the grand khan, who vainly tried to induce its
+possessor to part with it, offering a whole city in exchange, but
+that could not tempt the King to let him have the jewel.</p>
+
+<p>Sixty miles west of Ceylon the travellers came to Maabar, a great
+province on the coast of India. This must not be mistaken for
+Malabar, which is situated on the west coast of the Indian peninsula.
+This Maabar forms the southern part of the Coromandel coast, and is
+celebrated for its pearl fisheries. Here the magicians are at work,
+and are said to render the monsters of the deep harmless to the
+fishermen; they are astrologers whose race is perpetuated even to
+modern times. Marco Polo gives some interesting details of the
+customs of the natives, one is that when a king dies, the nobles
+throw themselves into the fire in his honour; another strange custom
+is that of the religious purifications twice every day, and their
+blind faith in astrologers and diviners; he also speaks of the
+frequency of religious suicides, and the sacrifice of widows whom
+the funeral pile awaits on the death of their husbands. He also
+notices the skill in physiognomy evinced by the natives.</p>
+
+<p>The next resting-place of the fleet was Muftili, of which the
+capital is now called Masulipatam, the chief city of the kingdom of
+Golconda. This country was well governed by a queen, a widow for
+forty years, who desired to remain faithful to the memory of her
+husband. The country contained many valuable diamond mines, but
+these were unfortunately among mountains where serpents abounded;
+the miners had recourse to a strange device when collecting the
+precious stones, to protect themselves from these reptiles, which we
+may believe or not as we choose. Marco Polo says: "They take several
+pieces of meat, and throw them among the pointed rocks, where no man
+can go, and the meat, falling upon the diamonds, they become
+attached to it. Now, among these mountains live a number of white
+eagles, who hunt the serpents, and when they see the meat at the
+foot of the precipices they swoop down and carry it away. At the
+moment the men who have been following the eagles' movements see
+them alight to eat the meat, they raise fearful cries, the meat is
+dropped and the eagles take to flight, and thus the men have no
+difficulty in taking the diamonds that are attached to the meat.
+Diamonds are often found on the mountains, mingled with the
+excrement of the eagles."</p>
+
+<p>After visiting the small town of St. Thomas, situated some miles to
+the south of Madras, where St. Thomas the apostle is said to be
+buried, the travellers explored the kingdom of Maabar and especially
+the province of Lar, from whence spring all the "<i>Abrahamites</i>" of
+the world, probably the Brahmins. These men, he says, live to a
+great age, owing to their abstinence and sobriety; some have been
+known to attain 150 and even 200 years of age; their diet is
+principally rice and milk, and they drink a mixture of sulphur and
+quicksilver. These "Abrahamites" are clever merchants, superstitious,
+however, but remarkably sincere, and never guilty of theft of any
+kind; they never kill any living thing, and they worship the ox,
+which is a sacred animal among them.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet now returned to Ceylon, where in 1284 Kublaï-Khan had sent
+an ambassador who had brought him back some pretended relics of Adam,
+and among other things two of his molar teeth; for, if we can
+believe the Saracen traditions, the tomb of our first father must
+have been on the summit of one of the precipitous mountains, which
+forms the highest ground in the island. After losing sight of Ceylon,
+Marco Polo went to Cail, a port that we do not find marked on any of
+the modern maps, but a place where all the vessels touched coming
+from Ormuz, Kiss, Aden, and the coasts of Arabia. Thence doubling
+Cape Comorin they came to Coilum, now Quilon, which was a very
+thriving city in the thirteenth century. It is there that a great
+quantity of sandal-wood and indigo is found, and merchants come in
+large numbers from the Levant and from the West to trade in both.
+The country of Malabar produces a great quantity of rice, and wild
+animals are found there, such as leopards, which Marco Polo calls
+"black lions," also peacocks of much greater beauty than those of
+Europe, as well as different kinds of parroquets.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet, leaving Coilum, and advancing northwards along the
+Malabar coast, arrived at the shores of the kingdom of Maundallay,
+which derives its name from a mountain situated on the borders of
+Kanara and Malabar; here pepper, ginger, saffron, and other spices
+abound. To the north of this kingdom extended that country which the
+Venetian traveller calls Melibar, and which is situated to the north
+of Malabar proper. The vessels of the Mangalore merchants came here
+to trade with the natives of this part of India for cargoes of
+spices, a fine kind of cloth called buckram and other valuable
+wares; but their vessels were frequently attacked, and too often
+pillaged by the pirates who infested these seas, and who were justly
+regarded as formidable enemies. These pirates principally inhabit
+the peninsula of Gohourat, now called Gujerat, where the fleet was
+on its way after calling at Tana&mdash;a country where is collected the
+frankincense&mdash;and Canboat, now Kambay, a town where there is a great
+trade in leather. Visiting Sumenath, a city of the peninsula, whose
+inhabitants are cruel, ferocious, and idolaters, and Kesmacoran, the
+modern city of Kedje, the capital of Makran, situated on the Indus
+near the sea, and the last town in India on the northwest, Marco
+Polo went westward across the sea of Oman, instead of going to
+Persia, which was the destination of the princess.</p>
+
+<p>His insatiable love of exploration led him 500 miles away to the
+shores of Arabia, where he stopped at the Male and Female Islands,
+so called from the men usually living on one island, and their wives
+on the other. Thence they sailed to the south towards the island of
+Socotra, at the entrance of the Gulf of Aden, which, Marco Polo
+partially explored. He speaks of the inhabitants of Socotra as
+clever magicians, who, by their enchantments, obtain the fulfilment
+of all their wishes as well as the power of stilling storms and
+tempests. Then, taking a southerly course of 1000 miles, he arrived
+at the shores of Madagascar. This island appeared to him to be one
+of the grandest in the world. Its inhabitants are very much occupied
+with commerce, especially in elephants' tusks. They live principally
+upon camels' flesh, which is better and more wholesome food than any
+other. The merchants on their way from the coast of India are
+usually only twenty days crossing the Sea of Oman; but when they
+return they are often three months on the voyage on account of the
+opposing currents which take them always southwards. Nevertheless,
+they visit Madagascar very constantly, for there are whole forests
+of sandal-wood, and amber is also found there, from which they can
+obtain great profit by bartering it for gold and silk stuffs. Wild
+animals and game are plentiful; according to Marco Polo, leopards,
+bears, lions, wild boars, giraffes, wild asses, roebucks, deer,
+stags, and cattle were to be found in great numbers; but what seemed
+most marvellous of all to him was the fabulous griffin, the roc, of
+which we hear so much in the "Thousand and one Nights," which is not,
+he says, "an animal, half-lion and half-bird, able to raise and
+carry away an elephant in its claws." It was probably the "<i>epyornis
+maximus</i>," for some eggs of this bird are still to be found in
+Madagascar.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 15">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584">
+			<img src="images/023.jpg" alt="This wonderful bird was probably the epyornis maximus">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584" align="center">
+			This wonderful bird was probably the <i>epyornis maximus</i>.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>From this island Marco Polo went in a north-westerly direction to
+Zanzibar and the coast of Africa. The inhabitants seemed to him
+remarkably stout, but strong and able to carry the burdens of four
+ordinary men, "which is not strange," he says, "for they each eat as
+much as five other men;" these natives were black and wore no
+clothing, they had large mouths and turned-up noses, thick lips, and
+large eyes, a description that agrees exactly with that of the
+natives of that part of Africa now. They live upon rice, meat, milk,
+and dates, and make a kind of wine of rice, sugar, and spices. They
+are brave warriors and fearless of death; they are usually in war
+mounted on camels and elephants, and armed with a leathern shield, a
+sword, and a lance; they give their animals an intoxicating drink to
+excite them on going into action.</p>
+
+<p>In Marco Polo's time, says M. Charton, the countries comprised under
+the title of India were divided into three parts; Greater India or
+Hindostan, that is, the country lying between the Indus and the
+Ganges; Lesser India, that is, all the country lying beyond the
+Ganges, between the western coast of the peninsula and the coast of
+Cochin China; lastly, Middle India, that is, Abyssinia and the
+Arabian coast to the Persian Gulf. After leaving Zanzibar it was
+Middle India whose coast Marco Polo explored, sailing towards the
+north, and first Abassy or Abyssinia, a fertile country where the
+manufacture of fine cotton cloths and buckram is largely carried on.
+Then the fleet went to Zaila, almost at the entrance of the straits
+of Bab-el-Mandeb, and at last by the coast of Yemen and Hadramaut
+they came to Aden, the port frequented by all the ships trading with
+India and China; then to Escier, whence a great quantity of fine
+horses are exported; Dafar, which produces incense of the finest
+quality, and Galatu, now Kalajate, on the coast of Oman; then to
+Ormuz, that Marco Polo had visited once before when he was on his
+way from Venice to the court of Kublaï-Khan. This was the furthest
+point that the fleet had to reach, as the princess was now on the
+borders of Persia, after a voyage of eighteen months. But on their
+arrival they were met by the sad news of the death of Prince Arghun,
+the fiancé of the princess, and they found the country involved in
+civil war. The poor princess was put under the care of Prince Ghazan,
+the son of Prince Arghun, who did not ascend the throne until 1295,
+when his uncle, the usurper, was strangled. What became of the
+princess we do not hear, but on parting with Nicolo, Matteo, and
+Marco Polo, she bestowed on them great marks of favour. It was
+probably during Marco Polo's residence in Persia that he collected
+some curious documents upon Turkey in Asia; they are disconnected
+pieces, which he gives at the close of his narrative, and they form
+a genuine history of the Mongol Khans of Persia. His travels for
+exploration were at an end, and after taking leave of the Tartar
+princess, the three Venetians well escorted, and with all expenses
+paid, set out on their way home. They went to Trebizond, then to
+Constantinople, and thence to Negropont, where they embarked for
+Venice.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the year 1295, twenty-four years after leaving it, that
+Marco Polo and his companions returned to their native town. They
+were bronzed by exposure to the air and sun, coarsely clad in Tartar
+costume, and both in manners and language were so much more
+Mongolian than Venetian, that even their nearest relatives failed to
+recognize them. Beyond this, a report had been widely spread that
+they were dead, and it had gained so much credence that their
+friends never expected to see them again. They went to their own
+house in the part of Venice called St. John Chrysostom, and found it
+occupied by different members of the Polo family, who received the
+travellers with every mark of distrust, which their pitiable
+appearance did not tend to lessen, and placed no faith in the
+somewhat marvellous stories related to them by Marco Polo. After
+some persuasion, however, they gained admittance into their own
+house. When they had been a few days in Venice, the three travellers
+gave a magnificent banquet, followed by a splendid fête, to do away
+with any remaining doubts as to their identity. They invited the
+nobility of Venice and all the members of their own family, and when
+all the guests were assembled the three hosts appeared dressed in
+crimson satin robes; the guests then entered the dining-room, and
+the feast began. After the first course was over the three
+travellers retired for a few moments and then reappeared, clad in
+robes of splendid silk damask, which they proceeded to tear, and to
+present each of their guests with a piece. After the second course
+they dressed themselves in even more splendid robes of crimson
+velvet, which they wore until the feast was over, when they appeared
+in simple Venetian costume. The astonished guests marvelled at the
+magnificence of these garments, and wondered what their hosts would
+next show them; then the coarse rough clothes that they had worn on
+the voyage were brought in, and when the linings and seams were
+undone, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, diamonds, and carbuncles of
+great value were poured forth from them; great riches had been
+hidden in these rags. This unexpected sight cleared away all doubt;
+the three travellers were recognized at once as Marco, Nicolo, and
+Matteo Polo, and congratulations upon their return were showered
+upon them.</p>
+
+<p>So celebrated a man as Marco Polo could not escape civic honours. He
+was made first magistrate in Venice, and as he was continually
+speaking of the "millions" of the Grand Khan, who commanded
+"millions" of subjects, he gained the soubriquet of Signor Million.</p>
+
+<p>It was about 1296 that a war broke out between Venice and Genoa. A
+Genoese fleet under the command of Lamba Doria crossed the Adriatic,
+and threatened the sea coast. The Venetian Admiral Andrea Dandolo
+immediately manned a larger fleet and entrusted the command of a
+galley to Marco Polo who was justly considered an able commander.
+The Venetians were beaten in a naval battle on the 8th of September,
+1296, and Marco Polo, badly wounded, fell into the hands of the
+Genoese, who, knowing and appreciating the value of their prisoner,
+treated him with great kindness. He was taken to Genoa, and there
+met with a hearty welcome from the most distinguished people, who
+were anxious to hear the account of his travels. It was during his
+captivity, in 1298, that he made acquaintance with Pisano Rusticien,
+and, tired of repeating his story again and again, dictated his
+narrative to him.</p>
+
+<p>About 1299 Marco Polo was set at liberty; he returned to Venice, and
+there married. From this time we hear no more of the incidents of
+his life, and only know from his will that he left three daughters;
+he is thought to have died about the 9th of January, 1323, at the
+age of seventy.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the life of this celebrated traveller, whose narrative had a
+marked influence on the progress of geographical science. He was
+gifted with great power of observation, and could see and describe
+equally well; and all later explorers have confirmed the truth of
+his statements. Until the middle of the eighteenth century, the
+documents founded on this narrative formed the basis of geographical
+books, and were used as a guide in commercial expeditions to China,
+India, and Central Asia. Posterity will concur in the suitability of
+the title that the first copyists gave to Marco Polo's work, that of
+"The Book of the Wonders of the World."</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c5"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER V.</h4>
+<center>I<small>BN</small> B<small>ATUTA</small>, 1328-1353.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Ibn Batuta&mdash;The Nile&mdash;Gaza, Tyre, Tiberias, Libanus, Baalbec,
+Damascus, Meshid, Bussorah, Baghdad, Tabriz, Mecca and
+Medina&mdash;Yemen&mdash;Abyssinia&mdash;The country of the
+Berbers&mdash;Zanguebar&mdash;Ormuz&mdash;Syria&mdash;Anatolia&mdash;Asia
+Minor&mdash;Astrakhan&mdash;Constantinople&mdash;Turkestan&mdash;Herat&mdash;The
+Indus&mdash;Delhi&mdash;Malabar&mdash;The Maldives&mdash;Ceylon&mdash;The Coromandel
+coast&mdash;Bengal&mdash;The Nicobar Islands&mdash;Sumatra&mdash;China&mdash;Africa&mdash;The
+Niger&mdash;Timbuctoo.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>Marco Polo had returned to his native land now nearly twenty-five
+years, when a Franciscan monk traversed the whole of Asia, from the
+Black Sea to the extreme limits of China, passing by Trebizond,
+Mount Ararat, Babel, and the island of Java; but he was so credulous
+of all that was told him, and his narrative is so confused, that but
+little reliance can be placed upon it. It is the same with the
+fabulous travels of Jean de Mandeville. Cooley says of them, "They
+are so utterly untrue, that they have not their parallel in any
+language."</p>
+
+<p>But we find a worthy successor to the Venetian traveller in an
+Arabian theologian, named Abdallah El Lawati, better known by the
+name of Ibn Batuta. He did for Egypt, Arabia, Anatolia, Tartary,
+India, China, Bengal, and Soudan, what Marco Polo had done for
+Central Asia, and he is worthy to be placed in the foremost rank as
+a brave traveller and bold explorer. In the year 1324, the 725th
+year of the Hegira, he resolved to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, and
+starting from Tangier, his native town, he went first to Alexandria,
+and thence to Cairo. During his stay in Egypt he turned his
+attention to the Nile, and especially to the Delta; then he tried to
+sail up the river, but being stopped by disturbances on the Nubian
+frontier, he was obliged to return to the mouth of the river, and
+then set sail for Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 16">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584">
+			<img src="images/024.jpg" alt="Ibn Batuta in Egypt">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584" align="center">
+			Ibn Batuta in Egypt.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After visiting Gaza, the tombs of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, Tyre,
+then strongly fortified and unassailable on three sides, and
+Tiberias, which was in ruins, and whose celebrated baths were
+completely destroyed, Ibn Batuta was attracted by the wonders of
+Lebanon, the centre for all the hermits of that day, who had
+judiciously chosen one of the most lovely spots in the whole world
+wherein to end their days. Then passing Baalbec, and going on to
+Damascus, he found the city (in the year 1345) decimated by the
+plague. This fearful scourge devoured "24,000 persons daily," if we
+may believe his report, and Damascus would have been depopulated,
+had not the prayers of all the people offered up in the mosque
+containing the stone with the print of Moses' foot upon it, been
+heard and answered. On leaving Damascus, Ibn Batuta went to Mesjid,
+where he visited the tomb of Ali, which attracts a large number of
+paralytic pilgrims who need only to spend one night in prayer beside
+it, to be completely cured. Batuta does not seem to doubt the
+authenticity of this miracle, well known in the East under the title
+of "the Night of Cure."</p>
+
+<p>From Mesjid, the traveller went to Bussorah, and entered the kingdom
+of Ispahan, and then the province of Shiraz, where he wished to
+converse with the celebrated worker of miracles, Magd Oddin. From
+Shiraz he went to Baghdad, to Tabriz, then to Medina, where he
+prayed beside the tomb of the Prophet, and finally to Mecca, where
+he remained three years. It is well known that from Mecca, caravans
+are continually starting for the surrounding country, and it was in
+company with some of these bold merchants that Ibn Batuta was able
+to visit the towns of Yemen. He went as far as Aden, at the mouth of
+the Red Sea, and embarked for Zaila, one of the Abyssinian ports. He
+was now once more on African ground, and advanced into the country
+of the Berbers, that he might study the manners and customs of those
+dirty and repulsive tribes; he found their diet consisted wholly of
+fish and camels' flesh. But in the town of Makdasbu, there was an
+attempt at comfort and civilization, presenting a most agreeable
+contrast with the surrounding squalor. The inhabitants were very fat,
+each of them, to use Ibn's own expression, "eating enough to feed a
+convent;" they were very fond of delicacies, such as plantains
+boiled in milk, preserved citrons, pods of fresh pepper, and green
+ginger.</p>
+
+<p>After seeing all he wished of the country of the Berbers, chiefly on
+the coast, he resolved to go to Zanguebar, and then, crossing the
+Red Sea and following the coast of Arabia, he came to Zafar, a town
+situated upon the Indian Ocean. The vegetation of this country is
+most luxuriant, the betel, cocoa-nut, and incense-trees forming
+there great forests; still the traveller pushed on, and came to
+Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, and passed through several provinces of
+Persia. We find him a second time at Mecca in the year 1332, three
+years after he had left it.</p>
+
+<p>But this was only to be a short rest for the traveller, for now,
+leaving Asia for Africa, he went to Upper Egypt, a region but little
+known, and thence to Cairo. He next visited Syria, making a short
+stay at Jerusalem and Tripoli, and thence he visited the Turkomans
+of Anatolia, where the "confraternity of young men" gave him a most
+hearty welcome.</p>
+
+<p>After Anatolia, the Arabian narrative speaks of Asia Minor. Ibn
+Batuta advanced as far as Erzeroum, where he was shown an aerolite
+weighing 620 pounds. Then, crossing the Black Sea, he visited the
+Crimea, Kaffa, and Bulgar, a town of sufficiently high latitude for
+the unequal length of day and night to be very marked; and at last
+he reached Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga, where the Khan of
+Tartary lived during the winter months.</p>
+
+<p>The Princess Bailun, the wife of the khan, and daughter of the
+Emperor of Constantinople, was wishing to visit her father, and it
+was an opportunity not to be lost by Ibn Batuta for exploring Turkey
+in Europe; he gained permission to accompany the princess, who set
+out attended by 5000 men, and followed by a portable mosque, which
+was set up at every place where they stayed. The princess's
+reception at Constantinople was very magnificent, the bells being
+rung with such spirit that he says, "even the horizon seemed full of
+the vibration."</p>
+
+<p>The welcome given to the theologian by the princes of the country
+was worthy of his fame; he remained in the city thirty-six days, so
+that he was able to study it in all its details.</p>
+
+<p>This was a time when communication between the different countries
+was both dangerous and difficult, and Ibn Batuta was considered a
+very bold traveller. Egypt, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, the Caucasian
+provinces had all in turn been explored by him. After such hard work
+he might well have taken rest and been satisfied with the laurels
+that he had gained, for he was without doubt the most celebrated
+traveller of the fourteenth century; but his insatiable passion for
+travelling remained, and the circle of his explorations was still to
+widen considerably.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving Constantinople, Ibn Batuta went again to Astrakhan,
+thence crossing the sandy wastes of the present Turkestan, he
+arrived at Khovarezen, a large populous town, then at Bokhara, half
+destroyed by the armies of Gengis-Khan. Some time after we hear of
+him at Samarcand, a religious town which greatly pleased the learned
+traveller, and then at Balkh which he could not reach without
+crossing the desert of Khorassan. This town was all in ruins and
+desolate, for the armies of the barbarians had been there, and Ibn
+Batuta could not remain in it, but wished to go westward to the
+frontier of Afghanistan. The mountainous country, near the Hindoo
+Koosh range, confronted him, but this was no barrier to him, and
+after great fatigue, which he bore with equal patience and
+good-humour, he reached the important town of Herat. This was the
+most westerly point reached by the traveller; he now resolved to
+change his course for an easterly one, and in going to the extreme
+limits of Asia, to reach the shores of the Pacific: if he could
+succeed in this he would pass the bounds of the explorations of the
+celebrated Marco Polo.</p>
+
+<p>He set out, and following the course of the river Kabul and the
+frontiers of Afghanistan, he came to the Sindhu, the modern Indus,
+and descended it to its mouth. From the town of Lahore, he went to
+Delhi, which great and beautiful city had been deserted by its
+inhabitants, who had fled from the Emperor Mohammed.</p>
+
+<p>This tyrant, who was occasionally both generous and magnificent,
+received the Arabian traveller very well, made him a judge in Delhi,
+and gave him a grant of land with some pecuniary advantages that
+were attached to the post, but these honours were not to be of any
+long duration, for Ibn Batuta being implicated in a pretended
+conspiracy, thought it best to give up his place, and make himself a
+fakir to escape the Emperor's displeasure. Mohammed, however,
+pardoned him, and made him his ambassador to China.</p>
+
+<p>Fortune again smiled upon the courageous traveller, and he had now
+the prospect of seeing these distant lands under exceptionally good
+and safe circumstances. He was charged with presents for the Emperor
+of China, and 2000 horse-soldiers were given him as an escort.</p>
+
+<p>But Ibn Batuta had not thought of the insurgents who occupied the
+surrounding countries; a skirmish took place between the escort and
+the Hindoos, and the traveller, being separated from his companions,
+was taken prisoner, robbed, garotted, and carried off he knew not
+whither; but his courage and hopefulness did not forsake him, and he
+contrived to escape from the hands of these robbers. After wandering
+about for seven days, he was received into his house by a negro, who
+at length led him back to the emperor's palace at Delhi.</p>
+
+<p>Mohammed fitted out another expedition, and again appointed the
+Arabian traveller as his ambassador. This time they passed through
+the enemy's country without molestation, and by way of Kanoje, Mersa,
+Gwalior, and Barun, they reached Malabar. Some time after, they
+arrived at the great port of Calicut, an important place which
+became afterwards the chief town of Malabar; here they were detained
+by contrary winds for three months, and made use of this time to
+study the Chinese mercantile marine which frequented this port. Ibn
+speaks with great admiration of these junks which are like floating
+gardens, where ginger and herbs are grown on deck; they are each
+like a separate village, and some merchants were the possessors of a
+great number of these junks.</p>
+
+<p>At last the wind changed; Ibn Batuta chose a small junk well fitted
+up, to take him to China, and had all his property put on board.
+Thirteen other junks were to receive the presents sent by the King
+of Delhi to the Emperor of China, but during the night a violent
+storm arose, and all the vessels sank. Fortunately for Ibn he had
+remained on shore to attend the service at the mosque, and thus his
+piety saved his life, but he had lost everything except "the carpet
+which he used at his devotions." After this second misfortune he
+could not make up his mind to appear before the King of Delhi. This
+catastrophe was enough to weary the patience of a more
+long-suffering emperor than Mohammed.</p>
+
+<p>Ibn soon made up his mind what to do. Leaving the service of the
+emperor, and the advantages attaching to the post of ambassador, he
+embarked for the Maldive Islands, which were governed by a woman,
+and where a large trade in cocoa was carried on. Here he was again
+made a judge, but this was only of short duration, for the vizier
+became jealous of his success, and, after marrying three wives, Ibn
+was obliged to take refuge in flight. He hoped to reach the
+Coromandel coast, but contrary winds drove his vessel towards Ceylon,
+where he was very well received, and gained the king's permission to
+climb the sacred mountain of Serendid, or Adam's Peak. His object
+was to see the wonderful impression of a foot at the summit, which
+the Hindoos call "Buddha's," and the Mahometans "Adam's, foot." He
+pretends, in his narrative, that this impression measures eleven
+hands in length, a very different account from that of an historian
+of the ninth century, who declared it to be seventy-nine cubits
+long! This historian also adds that while one of the feet of our
+forefather rested on the mountain, the other was in the Indian ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Ibn Batuta speaks also of large bearded apes, forming a considerable
+item in the population of the island, and said to be under a king of
+their own, crowned with leaves. We can give what credit we like to
+such fables as these, which were propagated by the credulity of the
+Hindoos.</p>
+
+<p>From Ceylon, the traveller made his way to the Coromandel coast, but
+not without experiencing some severe storms. He crossed to the other
+side of the Indian peninsula, and again embarked.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 17">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584">
+			<img src="images/025.jpg" alt="Ibn Batuta's vessel was seized by pirates">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584" align="center">
+			Ibn Batuta's vessel was seized by pirates.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>But his vessel was seized by pirates, and Ibn Batuta arrived at
+Calicut almost without clothes, robbed, and worn out with fatigue.
+No misfortune could damp his ardour, his was one of those great
+spirits which seem only invigorated by trouble and disasters. As
+soon as he was enabled by the kindness of some Delhi merchants to
+resume his travels, he embarked for the Maldive Islands, went on to
+Bengal, there set sail for Sumatra, and disembarked at one of the
+Nicobar Islands after a very bad passage which had lasted fifty days.
+Fifteen days afterwards he arrived at Sumatra, where the king gave
+him a hearty welcome and furnished him with means to continue his
+journey to China.</p>
+
+<p>A junk took him in seventy-one days to the port Kailuka, capital of
+a country somewhat problematical, of which the brave and handsome
+inhabitants excelled in making arms. From Kailuka, Ibn passed into
+the Chinese provinces, and went first to the splendid town of Zaitem,
+probably the present Tsieun-tcheou of the Chinese, a little to the
+north of Nankin. He passed through various cities of this great
+empire, studying the customs of the people and admiring everywhere
+the riches, industry, and civilization that he found, but he did not
+get as far as the Great Wall, which he calls "The obstacle of Gog
+and Magog." It was while he was exploring this immense tract of
+country that he made a short stay in the city of Tchensi, which is
+composed of six fortified towns standing together. It happened that
+during his wanderings he was able to be present at the funeral of a
+khan, who was buried with four slaves, six of his favourites, and
+four horses.</p>
+
+<p>In the meanwhile, disturbances had occurred at Zaitem, which obliged
+Ibn to leave this town, so he set sail for Sumatra, and then after
+touching at Calicut and Ormuz, he returned to Mecca in 1348, having
+made the tour of Persia and Syria.</p>
+
+<p>But the time of rest had not yet come for this indefatigable
+explorer; the following year he revisited his native place Tangier,
+and then after travelling in the southern countries of Europe he
+returned to Morocco, went to Soudan and the countries watered by the
+Niger, crossed the Great Desert and entered Timbuctoo, thus making a
+journey which would have rendered illustrious a less ambitious
+traveller.</p>
+
+<p>This was to be his last expedition. In 1353, twenty-nine years after
+leaving Tangier for the first time, he returned to Morocco, and
+settled at Fez. He has earned the reputation of being the most
+intrepid explorer of the fourteenth century, and well merits to be
+ranked next after Marco Polo, the illustrious Venetian.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c6"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER VI.</h4>
+<center>J<small>EAN DE</small> B<small>ÉTHENCOURT</small>, 1339-1425.<br>
+<br>
+I.</center>
+
+<blockquote>The Norman cavalier&mdash;His ideas of conquest&mdash;What was known of
+the Canary Islands&mdash;Cadiz&mdash;The Canary Archipelago&mdash;Graciosa&mdash;Lancerota&mdash;Fortaventura&mdash;Jean
+de Béthencourt returns to Spain&mdash;Revolt of Berneval&mdash;His interview
+with King Henry III.&mdash;Gadifer
+visits the Canary Archipelago&mdash;Canary Island or "Gran Canaria"&mdash;Ferro
+Island&mdash;Palma Island.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>Jean de Béthencourt was born about the year 1339, at Eu in Normandy.
+He was of good family, and Baron of St. Martin-le-Gaillard, and had
+distinguished himself both as a navigator and warrior; he was made
+chamberlain to Charles VI. But his tastes were more for travelling
+than a life at court; he resolved to make himself a still more
+illustrious name by further conquests, and soon an opportunity
+offered for him to carry out his plans.</p>
+<a name="fax05"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 5">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="590">
+			<img src="images/026.jpg" alt="Jean de Béthencourt">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="590" align="center">
+			Jean de Béthencourt.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>On the coast of Africa there is a group of islands called the
+Canaries, which were once known as the Fortunate Islands. Juba, a
+son of one of the Numidian kings, is said to have been their first
+explorer, about the year of Rome 776. In the middle ages, according
+to some accounts, Arabs, Genoese, Portuguese, Spaniards, and
+Biscayans, had partially visited this interesting group of islands.
+In 1393, a Spanish gentleman named Almonaster, who was commanding an
+expedition, succeeded in landing on Lancerota, one of these islands,
+and brought back, with several prisoners, some produce which was a
+sufficient guarantee of the fertility of this archipelago.</p>
+
+<p>The Norman cavalier now found the opening that he sought, and he
+determined to conquer the Canary Islands and try to convert the
+inhabitants to the Catholic faith. He was as intelligent, brave, and
+full of resources as he was energetic; and leaving his house of
+Grainville-la-Teinturière at Caux, he went to La Rochelle, where he
+met the Chevalier Gadifer de la Salle, and having explained his
+project to him, they decided to go to the Canary Islands together.
+Jean de Béthencourt having collected an army and made his
+preparations, and had vessels fitted out and manned, Gadifer and he
+set sail; after experiencing adverse winds on the way to the Ile de
+Ré, and being much harassed by the constant dissensions on board,
+they arrived at Vivero, and then at Corunna. Here they remained
+eight days, then set sail again, and doubling Cape Finisterre,
+followed the Portuguese coast to Cape St. Vincent, and arrived at
+Cadiz, where they made a longer stay. Here Béthencourt had a dispute
+with some Genoese merchants, who accused him of having taken their
+vessel, and he had to go to Seville, where King Henry III. heard his
+complaint and acquitted him from all blame. On his return to Cadiz
+he found part of his crew in open mutiny, and some of his sailors so
+frightened that they refused to continue the voyage, so the
+chevalier sent back the cowardly sailors, and set sail with those
+who were more courageous.</p>
+
+<p>The vessel in which Jean de Béthencourt sailed was becalmed for
+three days, then, the weather improving, he reached the island of
+Graziosa, one of the smaller of the Canary group, in five days, and
+then the larger island of Lancerota, which is nearly the same size
+as the island of Rhodes. Lancerota has excellent pasturage, and
+arable land, which is particularly good for the cultivation of
+barley; its numerous fountains and cisterns are well supplied with
+excellent water. The orchilla, which is so much used in dyeing,
+grows abundantly here. The inhabitants of this island, who as a rule
+wear scarce any clothing, are tall and well-made, and the women, who
+wear leathern great-coats reaching to the ground, are very
+good-looking and honest.</p>
+
+<p>The traveller, prior to disclosing his plans of conquest, wished to
+possess himself of some of the natives, but his ignorance of the
+country made this a difficult matter, so, anchoring under the
+shelter of a small island in the archipelago, he called a meeting of
+his companions to decide upon a plan of action. They all agreed that
+the only thing to be done was to take some of the natives by fair
+means or foul. Guardafia, the king of the island, treated
+Béthencourt more as a friend than a subject. A castle or rather fort
+was built at the south-western extremity of the island, and some men
+left there under the command of Berthin de Berneval, while
+Béthencourt set out with the rest of his followers for the island of
+Erbania or Fortaventura. Gadifer counselled a debarcation by night,
+which was done, and then he took the command of a small body of men
+and scoured the island with them for eight days without meeting one
+native, they having all fled to the mountains. Provisions failing,
+Gadifer was forced to return, and he went to the island of Lobos
+between Lancerota and Fortaventura; but there his chief sailor
+mutinied and it was not without difficulty that Gadifer and
+Béthencourt reached the fort on Lancerota.</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt resolved to return to Spain to get provisions and a new
+contingent of soldiers, for his crew he could not depend upon; so he
+left Gadifer in command and set sail for Spain in one of Gadifer's
+ships.</p>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that Berthin de Berneval had been left in
+command of the fort on Lancerota Island. Unfortunately he was
+Gadifer's bitter enemy, and no sooner had Béthencourt set out than
+he tried to poison the minds of Gadifer's men against him; he
+succeeded in inducing some, especially the Gascons, to revolt
+against the governor, who, quite innocent of Berneval's base designs,
+was spending his time hunting sea-wolves on the island of Lobos with
+Remonnet de Levéden and several others. Remonnet having been sent to
+Lancerota for provisions, found no Berneval there, he having
+deserted the island with his accomplices for a port on Graziosa,
+where a coxswain, deceived by his promises, had placed his vessel at
+his disposal. From Graziosa, the traitor Berneval returned to
+Lancerota, and put the finishing stroke to his villany by pretending
+to make an alliance with the king of the island. The king, thinking
+that no officer of Béthencourt's, in whom he had implicit confidence,
+could deceive him, came with twenty-four of his subjects to see
+Berneval, who seized them when asleep, had them bound, and then
+carried them off to Graziosa. The king managed to break his bonds,
+set three of his men free, and succeeded in escaping, but the
+remainder of his unfortunate companions were still prisoners, and
+Berneval gave them up to some Spanish thieves, who took them away to
+sell in a foreign land.</p>
+
+<p>Berneval's evil deeds did not stop here. By his order the vessel
+that Gadifer had sent to the fort at Lancerota was seized; Remonnet
+tried resistance, but his numbers were too small, and his
+supplications were useless to prevent Berneval's men, and even
+Berneval himself, from destroying all the arms, furniture, and goods,
+which Béthencourt had placed in the fort at Lancerota. Insults were
+showered upon the governor, and Berneval cried, "I should like
+Gadifer de la Salle to know that if he were as young as I, I would
+kill him, but as he is not, I will spare him. If he is put above me
+I shall have him drowned, and then he can fish for sea-wolves."</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Gadifer and his ten companions were in danger of
+perishing on the island of Lobos for want of food and fresh water,
+but happily the two chaplains of the fort of Lancerota had gone to
+Graziosa, and met the coxswain, who had been the victim of
+Berneval's treason, and he sent one of his men named Ximenes with
+them back to Lancerota. There they found a small boat which they
+filled with provisions, and embarking with four men who were
+faithful to Gadifer, they succeeded in reaching Lobos, four leagues
+off, after a most dangerous passage.</p>
+
+<p>Gadifer and his companions were suffering fearfully from hunger and
+thirst, when Ximenes arrived just in time to save them from
+perishing, and the governor learning Berneval's treachery embarked
+in the boat for Lancerota, as soon as he was a little restored to
+health. He was grieved at Berneval's conduct towards the poor
+islanders whom Béthencourt and he had sworn to protect. No! he never
+could have expected such wickedness in one who was looked upon as
+the most able of the whole band.</p>
+
+<p>But what was Berneval doing meanwhile? After having betrayed his
+master, he did the same to the companions who had aided him in his
+evil deeds; he had twelve of them killed and then he set out for
+Spain to rejoin Béthencourt and make his own case good by
+representing all that had happened in his own way. It was to his
+interest to get rid of inconvenient witnesses, and therefore he
+abandoned his companions. These unfortunate men at first meditated
+imploring the pardon of the governor; they confessed all to the
+chaplains, but then, fearing the consequences of their deeds, they
+seized a boat and fled towards Morocco. The boat reached the coast
+of Barbary, where ten of the crew were drowned and the two others
+taken for slaves.</p>
+
+<p>While all this was happening at Lancerota, Béthencourt arrived at
+Cadiz, where he took strong measures against his mutinous crew, and
+had the ringleaders imprisoned. Then he sent his vessel to Seville,
+where King Henry III. was at that time; but the ship sank in the
+Guadalquiver, a great loss to Gadifer, her owner.</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt having arrived at Seville, met a certain Francisque
+Calve who had lately come from the Canaries, and who offered to
+return thither with all the things needed by the governor, but
+Béthencourt could not agree to this proposal before he had seen the
+king.</p>
+
+<p>Just at this time, Berneval arrived with some of his accomplices,
+and some islanders whom he intended to sell as slaves. He hoped to
+be able to deceive Béthencourt, but he had not reckoned upon a
+certain Courtille who was with him, who lost no time in denouncing
+the villany of Berneval, and on whose word the traitors were all
+imprisoned at Cadiz. Courtille also told of the treatment that the
+poor islanders had received; as Béthencourt could not leave Seville
+till he had had an audience with the king, he gave orders that they
+should receive every kindness, but while these preliminaries were
+being concluded, the vessel that contained them was taken to Aragon,
+and they were sold for slaves.</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt obtained the audience that he sought with the king of
+Castille, and after telling him the result of his expedition he said,
+"Sire, I come to ask your assistance and your leave to conquer the
+Canary Islands for the Catholic faith, and as you are king and lord
+of all the surrounding country, and the nearest Christian king to
+these islands, I beg you to receive the homage of your humble
+servant." The king was very gracious to him and gave him dominion
+over these islands, and beyond this, a fifth of all the merchandise
+that should be brought from them to Spain. He gave him 20,000
+maravédis, about 600<i>l.</i>, to buy all that he needed, and also the
+right to coin money in the Canary Islands. Most unfortunately these
+20,000 maravédis were confided to the care of a dishonest man, who
+fled to France, carrying the money with him.</p>
+
+<p>However, Henry III. gave Béthencourt a well-rigged vessel manned by
+eighty men, and stocked with provisions, arms, &amp;c. He was most
+grateful for this fresh bounty, and sent Gadifer an account of all
+that had happened, and his extreme disappointment and disgust at
+Berneval's conduct, in whom he had so much confidence, announcing at
+the same time the speedy departure of the vessel given by the King
+of Castille.</p>
+<a name="fax06"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 6">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="585">
+			<img src="images/027.jpg" alt="Plan of Jerusalem">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="585" align="center">
+			Plan of Jerusalem.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>But meanwhile very serious troubles had arisen on Lancerota. King
+Guardafia was so hurt at Berneval's conduct that he had revolted,
+and some of Gadifer's companions had been killed by the islanders.
+Gadifer insisted upon these subjects being punished, when one of the
+king's relations named Ache, came to him proposing to dethrone the
+king, and put himself in his place. This Ache was a villain, who
+after having betrayed his king, proposed to betray the Normans, and
+to chase them from the country. Gadifer had no suspicion of his
+motives; wishing to avenge the death of his men, he accepted Ache's
+proposal, and a short time afterwards, on the vigil of St.
+Catherine's day, the king was seized, and conveyed to the fort in
+chains.</p>
+
+<p>Some days afterwards, Ache, the new king of the island attacked
+Gadifer's companions, mortally wounding several of them, but the
+following night Guardafia having made his escape from the fort
+seized Ache, had him stoned to death, and his body burnt. The
+governor (Gadifer) was so grieved by these scenes of violence, which
+were renewed daily, that he resolved to kill all the men on the
+island, and save only the women and children, whom he hoped to have
+baptized. But just at this time, the vessel that Béthencourt had
+freighted for the governor arrived, and brought besides the eighty
+men, provisions, &amp;c., a letter which told him among other things
+that Béthencourt had done homage to the King of Castille for the
+Canary Islands. The governor was not well pleased at this news, for
+he thought that he ought to have had his share in the islands; but
+he concealed his displeasure, and gave the new comers a hearty
+welcome.</p>
+
+<p>The arms were at once disembarked, and then Gadifer went on board
+the vessel to explore the neighbouring islands. Remonnet and several
+others joined him in this expedition, and they took two of the
+islanders with them to serve as guides.</p>
+
+<p>They arrived safely at Fortaventura island; a few days after landing
+on the island, Gadifer set out with thirty-five men to explore the
+country; but soon the greater part of his followers deserted him,
+only thirteen men, including two archers, remaining with him. But he
+did not give up his project; after wading through a large stream, he
+found himself in a lovely valley shaded by numberless palm-trees;
+here having rested and refreshed himself, he set out again and
+climbed a hill. At the summit he found about fifty natives, who
+surrounded the small party and threatened to murder them. Gadifer
+and his companions showed no signs of fear, and succeeded in putting
+their enemies to flight; by the evening they were able to regain
+their vessel, carrying away four of the native women as prisoners.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 18">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581">
+			<img src="images/028.jpg" alt="Gadifer found himself in a lovely valley">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581" align="center">
+			Gadifer found himself in a lovely valley.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The next day Gadifer left the island and went to the Gran Canaria
+island anchoring in a large harbour lying between Telde and Argonney.
+Five hundred of the natives confronted them, but apparently with no
+hostile intentions; they gave them some fish-hooks and old iron in
+exchange for some of the natural productions of the island, such as
+figs, and dragon's blood, a resinous substance taken from the
+dragon-tree, which has a very pleasant balsamic odour. The natives
+were very much on their guard with the strangers, for twenty years
+before this some of Captain Lopez' men had invaded the island; so
+they would not allow Gadifer to land.</p>
+
+<p>The governor was obliged to weigh anchor without exploring the
+island; he went to Ferro Island, and coasting along it arrived next
+at Gomera; it was night, and the sailors were attracted by the fires
+that the natives had lighted on the shore. When day broke Gadifer
+and his companions wished to land; but the islanders would not allow
+them to proceed when they reached the shore, and drove them back to
+their vessel. Much disappointed by his reception, Gadifer determined
+to make another attempt at Ferro Island; there he found that he
+could land without opposition, and he remained on the island
+twenty-two days. The interior of the island was very beautiful.
+Pine-trees grew in abundance, and clear streams of water added to
+its fertility. Quails were found in large numbers, as well as pigs,
+goats, and sheep.</p>
+
+<p>From this fertile island the party of explorers went to Palma, and
+anchored in a harbour situated to the right of a large river. This
+is the furthest island of the Canary group; it is covered with pine
+and dragon-trees; from the abundance of fresh water the pasturage is
+excellent and the land might be cultivated with much profit. Its
+inhabitants are a tall, robust race, well made, with good features
+and very white skin. Gadifer remained a short time on this island;
+on leaving it he spent two days and two nights sailing round the
+other islands, and then returned to the fort on Lancerota. They had
+been absent three months. In the meantime, those of the party who
+had been left in the fort had waged a petty war with the natives,
+and had made a great number of prisoners. The Canarians, demoralized,
+now came daily to cast themselves on their mercy, and to pray for
+the consecration of baptism. Gadifer was so pleased to hear of this,
+that he sent one of his companions to Spain to inform Béthencourt of
+the state of the colony.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c62"></a>
+<center>II.<br>
+J<small>EAN DE</small> B<small>ÉTHENCOURT</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>The return of Jean de Béthencourt&mdash;Gadifer's jealousy&mdash;Béthencourt
+visits his archipelago&mdash;Gadifer goes to conquer Gran Canaria&mdash;Disagreement
+of the two commanders&mdash;Their return to Spain&mdash;Gadifer
+blamed by the King&mdash;Return of Béthencourt&mdash;The natives of
+Fortaventura are baptized&mdash;Béthencourt revisits Caux&mdash;Returns to
+Lancerota&mdash;Lands on the African coast&mdash;Conquest of Gran Canaria,
+Ferro, and Palma Islands&mdash;Maciot appointed Governor of the
+archipelago&mdash;Béthencourt obtains the Pope's consent to the Canary
+Islands being made an Episcopal See&mdash;His return to his country and
+his death.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>The envoy had not reached Cadiz when Béthencourt landed at the fort
+on Lancerota. Gadifer gave him a hearty welcome, and so did the
+Canary islanders who had been baptized. A few days afterwards, King
+Guardafia came and threw himself on their mercy. He was baptized on
+the 20th of February, 1404, with all his followers. Béthencourt's
+chaplains drew up a very simple form of instruction for their use,
+embracing the principal elements of Christianity, the creation, Adam
+and Eve's fall, the history of Noah, the lives of the patriarchs,
+the life of our Saviour and His crucifixion by the Jews, finishing
+with an exhortation to believe the ten commandments, the Holy
+Sacrament of the Altar, Easter, confession, and some other points.</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt was an ambitious man. Not content with having explored,
+and so to speak, gained possession of the Canary Islands, he desired
+to conquer the African countries bordering on the ocean. This was
+his secret wish in returning to Lancerota, and meanwhile, he had
+full occupation in establishing his authority in these islands, of
+which he was only the nominal sovereign. He gave himself wholly to
+the task, and first visited the islands which Gadifer had explored.</p>
+
+<p>But before he set out, a conversation took place between Gadifer and
+himself, which we must not omit to notice. Gadifer began boasting of
+all he had done, and asked for the gift of Fortaventura, Teneriffe,
+and Gomera Islands, as a recompense.</p>
+
+<p>"My friend," replied Béthencourt, "the islands that you ask me to
+give you are not yet conquered, but I do not intend you to be at any
+loss for your trouble, nor that you should be unrequited; but let us
+accomplish our project, and meanwhile remain the friends we have
+always been."</p>
+
+<p>"That is all very well," replied Gadifer, "but there is one point on
+which I do not feel at all satisfied, and that is that you have done
+homage to the King of Castille for these islands, and so you call
+yourself absolute master over them."</p>
+
+<p>"With regard to that," said Béthencourt, "I certainly have done
+homage for them, and so I am their rightful master, but if you will
+only patiently wait the end of our affair, I will give you what I
+feel sure will quite content you."</p>
+
+<p>"I shall not remain here," replied Gadifer, "I am going back to
+France, and have no wish to be here any longer."</p>
+
+<p>Upon this they separated, but Gadifer gradually cooled down and
+agreed to accompany Béthencourt in his exploration of the islands.</p>
+
+<p>They set out for Fortaventura well armed and with plenty of
+provisions. They remained there three months, and began by seizing a
+number of the natives, and sending them to Lancerota. This was such
+a usual mode of proceeding at that time that we are less surprised
+at it than we should be at the present day. The whole island was
+explored and a fort named Richeroque built on the slope of a high
+mountain; traces of it may still be found in a hamlet there.</p>
+
+<p>Just at this time, and when he had scarcely had time to forget his
+grievances and ill-humour, Gadifer accepted the command of a small
+band of men who were to conquer Gran Canaria.</p>
+
+<p>He set out on the 25th July, 1404, but this expedition was not fated
+to meet with any good results, winds and waves were against it. At
+last they reached the port of Telde, but as it was nearly dark and a
+strong wind blowing they dared not land, and they went on to the
+little town of Aginmez, where they remained eleven days at anchor;
+the natives, encouraged by their king, laid an ambush for Gadifer
+and his followers; there was a skirmish, blood was shed, and the
+Castilians, feeling themselves outnumbered, went to Telde for two
+days, and thence to Lancerota.</p>
+
+<p>Gadifer was much disappointed at his want of success, and began to
+be discontented with everything around him. Above all, his jealousy
+of Béthencourt increased daily, and he gave way to violent
+recriminations, saying openly that the chief had not done everything
+himself, and that things would not have been in so advanced a stage
+as they were if others had not aided him. This reached Béthencourt's
+ears; he was much incensed, and reproached Gadifer. High words
+followed, Gadifer insisted upon leaving the country, and as
+Béthencourt had just made arrangements for returning to Spain, he
+proposed to Gadifer to accompany him, that their cause of
+disagreement might be inquired into. This proposal being accepted,
+they set sail, but each in his own ship. When they reached Seville,
+Gadifer laid his complaints before the king, but as the king gave
+judgment against him, fully approving of Béthencourt's conduct, he
+left Spain, and returning to France, never revisited the Canary
+Islands which he had so fondly hoped to conquer for himself.</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt took leave of the king almost at the same time, for the
+new colony demanded his immediate presence there; but before he left,
+the inhabitants of Seville, with whom he was a great favourite,
+showed him much kindness; what he valued more highly than anything
+else was the supply of arms, gold, silver, and provisions that they
+gave him. He went to Fortaventura, where his companions were
+delighted to see him. Gadifer had left his son Hannibal in his place,
+but Béthencourt treated him with much cordiality.</p>
+
+<p>The first days of the installation of Béthencourt were far from
+peaceful; skirmishes were of constant occurrence, the natives even
+destroying the fortress of Richeroque, after burning and pillaging a
+chapel. Béthencourt was determined to overcome them, and in the end
+succeeded. He sent for several of his men from Lancerota, and gave
+orders that the fortress should be rebuilt.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of all this the combats began again, and many of the
+islanders fell, among others a giant of nine feet high, whom
+Béthencourt would have liked to have made prisoner. The governor
+could not trust Gadifer's son nor the men who followed him, for
+Hannibal seemed to have inherited his father's jealousy, but as
+Béthencourt needed his help, he concealed his distrust. Happily,
+Béthencourt's men outnumbered those who were faithful to Gadifer,
+but Hannibal's taunts became so unbearable that Jean de Courtois was
+sent to remind him of his oath of obedience and to advise him to
+keep it.</p>
+
+<p>Courtois was very badly received, he having a crow to pick with
+Hannibal with regard to some native prisoners whom Gadifer's
+followers had kept and would not give up. Hannibal was obliged to
+obey the orders, but Courtois represented his conduct to Béthencourt
+on his return in the very worst light, and tried to excite his
+master's anger against him. "No, sir," answered the upright
+Béthencourt, "I do not wish him to be wronged, we must never carry
+our power to its utmost limits, we should always endeavour to
+control ourselves and preserve our honour rather than seek for
+profit."</p>
+
+<p>In spite of these intestine discords, the war continued between the
+natives and the conquerors, but the latter being well-armed always
+came off victorious. The kings of Fortaventura sent a native to
+Béthencourt saying that they wished to make peace with him, and to
+become Christians. This news delighted the conqueror, and he sent
+word that they would be well received if they would come to him.
+Almost immediately on receiving this reply, King Maxorata, who
+governed the north-westerly part of the island, set out, and with
+his suite of twenty-two persons, was baptized on the 18th of January,
+1405. Three days afterwards twenty-two other natives received the
+sacrament of baptism. On the 25th of January the king who governed
+the peninsula of Handia, the south-eastern part of the island, came
+with twenty-six of his subjects, and was baptized. In a short time
+all the inhabitants of Fortaventura had embraced the Christian
+religion.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 19">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581">
+			<img src="images/029.jpg" alt="The King of Maxorata arrived with his suite">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581" align="center">
+			The King of Maxorata arrived with his suite.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Béthencourt was so elated with these happy results, that he arranged
+to revisit his own country, leaving Courtois as governor during his
+absence. He set out on the last day of January amid the prayers and
+blessings of his people, taking with him three native men and one
+woman, to whom he wished to show something of France. He reached
+Harfleur in twenty-one days, and two days later was at his own house,
+where he only intended making a short stay, and then returning to
+the Canary Islands. He met with a very warm reception from everybody.
+One of his chief motives in returning to France was the hope of
+finding people of all classes ready to return with him, on the
+promise of grants of land in the island. He succeeded in finding a
+certain number of emigrants, amongst whom were twenty-eight soldiers,
+of whom twenty-three took their wives. Two vessels were prepared to
+transport the party, and the 6th of May was the day named for them
+to set out. On the 9th of May they set sail, and landed on Lancerota
+just four mouths and a half after Béthencourt had quitted it.</p>
+
+<p>He was received with trumpets, clarionets, tambourines, harps, and
+other musical instruments. Thunder could scarcely have been heard
+above the sound of this music. The natives celebrated his return by
+dancing and singing, and crying out, "Here comes our king." Jean de
+Courtois hastened to welcome his master, who asked him how
+everything was going on; he replied, "Sir, all is going on as well
+as possible."</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt's companions stayed with him at the fort of Lancerota;
+they appeared much pleased with the country, enjoying the dates and
+other fruits on the island, "and nothing seemed to harm them." After
+they had been a short time at Lancerota, Béthencourt went with them
+to see Fortaventura, and here his reception was as warm as it had
+been at Lancerota, especially from the islanders and their two kings.
+The kings supped with them at the fortress of Richeroque, which
+Courtois had rebuilt.</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt announced his intention of conquering Gran Canaria
+Island, as he had done Lancerota and Fortaventura; his hope was that
+his nephew Maciot, whom he had brought with him from France, would
+succeed him in the government of these islands, so that the name of
+Béthencourt might be perpetuated there. He imparted his project to
+Courtois, who highly approved of it, and added, "Sir, when you
+return to France, I will go with you. I am a bad husband. It is five
+years since I saw my wife, and, by my troth, she did not much care
+about it."</p>
+
+<p>The 6th of October, 1405, was the day fixed for starting for Gran
+Canaria, but contrary winds carried the ships towards the African
+coast, and they passed by Cape Bojador, where Béthencourt landed. He
+made an expedition twenty-four miles inland, and seized some natives
+and a great number of camels that he took to his vessels. They put
+as many of the camels as possible on board, wishing to acclimatize
+them in the Canary Islands, and the baron set sail again, leaving
+Cape Bojador, which he had the honour of seeing thirty years before
+the Portuguese navigators.</p>
+
+<p>During this voyage from the coast of Africa to Gran Canaria, the
+three vessels were separated in stormy weather, one going to Palma,
+and another to Fortaventura, but finally they all reached Gran
+Canaria. This island is sixty miles long and thirty-six miles broad;
+at the northern end it is flat, but very hilly towards the south.
+Firs, dragon-trees, olive, fig, and date-trees form large forests,
+and sheep, goats, and wild dogs are found here in large numbers. The
+soil is very fertile, and produces two crops of corn every year, and
+that without any means of improving it. Its inhabitants form a large
+body of people, and consider themselves all on an equality.</p>
+
+<p>When Béthencourt had landed he set to work at once to conquer the
+island. Unfortunately his Norman soldiers were so proud of their
+success on the coast of Africa, that they thought they could conquer
+this island with its ten thousand natives, with a mere handful of
+men. Béthencourt seeing that they were so confident of success,
+recommended them to be prudent, but they took no heed of this and
+bitterly they rued their confidence. After a skirmish, in which they
+seemed to have got the better of the islanders, they had left their
+ranks, when the natives surprised them, massacring twenty-two of
+them, including Jean de Courtois and Hannibal, Gadifer's son.</p>
+
+<p>After this sad affair Béthencourt left Gran Canaria and went to try
+to subdue Palma. The natives of this island were very clever in
+slinging stones, rarely missing their aim, and in the encounters
+with these islanders many fell on both sides, but more natives than
+Normans, whose loss, however, amounted to one hundred.</p>
+
+<p>After six weeks of skirmishing, Béthencourt left Palma, and went to
+Ferro for three months, a large island twenty-one miles long and
+fifteen broad. It is a flat table-land, and large woods of pine and
+laurel-trees shade it in many places. The mists, which are frequent,
+moisten the soil and make it especially favourable for the
+cultivation of corn and the vine. Game is abundant; pigs, goats, and
+sheep run wild about the country; there are also great lizards in
+shape like the iguana of America. The inhabitants both men and women
+are a very fine race, healthy, lively, agile and particularly well
+made, in fact Ferro is one of the pleasantest islands of the group.</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt returned to Fortaventura with his ships after conquering
+Ferro and Palma. This island is fifty-one miles in length by
+twenty-four in breadth, and has high mountains as well as large
+plains, but its surface is less undulating than that of the other
+islands. Large streams of fresh water run through the island; the
+euphorbia, a deadly poison, grows largely here, and date and
+olive-trees are abundant, as well as a plant that is invaluable for
+dyeing and whose cultivation would be most remunerative. The coast
+of Fortaventura has no good harbours for large vessels, but small
+ones can anchor there quite safely. It was in this island that
+Béthencourt began to make a partition of land to the colonists, and
+he succeeded in doing it so evenly that every one was satisfied with
+his portion. Those colonists whom he had brought with him were to be
+exempted from taxes for nine years.</p>
+
+<p>The question of religion, and religious administration could not
+fail to be of the deepest interest to so pious a man as Béthencourt,
+so he resolved to go to Rome and try to obtain a bishop for this
+country, who "would order and adorn the Roman Catholic faith."
+Before setting out he appointed his nephew Maciot as lieutenant and
+governor of the islands. Under his orders two sergeants were to act,
+and enforce justice; he desired that twice a year news of the colony
+should be sent to him in Normandy, and the revenue from Lancerota
+and Fortaventura was to be devoted to building two churches. He said
+to his nephew Maciot, "I give you full authority in everything to do
+whatever you think best, and I believe you will do all for my honour
+and to my advantage. Follow as nearly as possible Norman and French
+customs, especially in the administration of justice. Above all
+things, try and keep peace and unity among yourselves, and care for
+each other as brothers, and specially try that there shall be no
+rivalry among the gentlemen; I have given to each one his share and
+the country is quite large enough for each to have his own sphere. I
+can tell you nothing further beyond again impressing the importance
+of your all living as good friends together, and then all will be
+well."</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt remained three months in Fortaventura and the other
+islands. He rode about among the people on his mule, and found many
+of the natives beginning to speak Norman-French. Maciot and the
+other gentlemen accompanied him, he pointing out what was best to be
+done and the most honest way of doing it. Then he gave notice that
+he would set out for Rome on the ensuing 15th of December. Returning
+to Lancerota, he remained there till his departure, and ordered all
+the gentlemen he had brought with him, the workmen, and the three
+kings to appear before him two days before his departure, to tell
+them what he wished done, and to commend himself and them to God's
+protection.</p>
+
+<p>None failed to appear at this meeting; they were all received at the
+fort on Lancerota, and sumptuously entertained. When the repast was
+over, he spoke to them, especially impressing the duty of obedience
+to his nephew Maciot upon them, the retention of the fifth of
+everything for himself, and also the exercise of all Christian
+virtues and of fervent love to God. This done, he chose those who
+were to accompany him to Rome, and prepared to set out.</p>
+
+<p>His vessel had scarcely set sail when cries and groans were heard on
+all sides, both Europeans and natives alike regretting this just
+master, who they feared would never return to them. A great number
+waded into the water, and tried to stop the vessel that carried him
+away from them, but the sails were set and Béthencourt was really
+gone. "May God keep him safe from all harm," was the utterance of
+many that day. In a week he was at Seville, from thence he went to
+Valladolid, where the king received him very graciously. He related
+the narrative of his conquests to the king, and requested from him
+letters recommending him to the Pope, that he might have a bishop
+appointed for the islands. The king gave him the letters, and loaded
+him with gifts, and then Béthencourt set out for Rome with a
+numerous retinue.</p>
+
+<p>He remained three weeks in the eternal city, and was admitted to
+kiss Pope Innocent VII.'s foot, who complimented him on his having
+made so many proselytes to the Christian faith, and on his bravery
+in having ventured so far from his native country. When the bulls
+were prepared as Béthencourt had requested, and Albert des Maisons
+was appointed Bishop of the Canary Islands, the Norman took leave of
+the Pope after receiving his blessing.</p>
+
+<p>The new prelate took leave of Béthencourt, and set out at once for
+his diocese. He went by way of Spain, taking with him some letters
+from Béthencourt to the king. Then he set sail for Fortaventura and
+arrived there without any obstacle. Maciot gave him a cordial
+reception, and the bishop at once began to organize his diocese,
+governing with gentleness and courtesy, preaching now in one island,
+now in another, and offering up public prayers for Béthencourt's
+safety. Maciot was universally beloved, but especially by the
+natives. This happy, peaceful time only lasted for five years, for
+later on, Maciot began to abuse his unlimited power, and levied such
+heavy exactions that he was obliged to fly the country to save his
+life.</p>
+
+<p>Béthencourt after leaving Rome went to Florence and to Paris, and
+then to his own chateau, where a great number of people came to pay
+their respects to the king of the Canary Islands, and if on his
+return the first time he was much thought of, his reception this
+second time far exceeded it. Béthencourt established himself at
+Grainville; although he was an old man, his wife was still young. He
+had frequent accounts from Maciot of his beloved islands, and he
+hoped one day to return to his kingdom, but God willed otherwise.
+One day in the year 1425 he was seized with what proved to be fatal
+illness; he was aware that the end was near; and after making his
+will and receiving the last sacraments of the church he passed away.
+"May God keep him and pardon his sins," says the narrative of his
+life; "he is buried in the church of Grainville la Teinturière, in
+front of the high altar."</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 20">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="580">
+			<img src="images/030.jpg" alt="Jean de Béthencourt makes his will">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="580" align="center">
+			Jean de Béthencourt makes his will.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c7"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER VII.</h4>
+<center>C<small>HRISTOPHER</small> C<small>OLUMBUS</small>, 1436-1506.<br>
+<br>
+I.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Discovery of Madeira, Cape de Verd Islands, the Azores, Congo, and
+Guinea&mdash;Bartholomew Diaz&mdash;Cabot and Labrador&mdash;The geographical and
+commercial tendencies of the middle ages&mdash;The erroneous idea of the
+distance between Europe and Asia&mdash;Birth of Christopher Columbus&mdash;His
+first voyages&mdash;His plans rejected&mdash;His sojourn at the Franciscan
+convent&mdash;His reception by Ferdinand and Isabella&mdash;Treaty of the 17th
+of April, 1492&mdash;The brothers Pinzon&mdash;Three armed caravels at the
+port of Palos&mdash;Departure on the 3rd of August, 1492.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>The year 1492 is an era in geographical annals. It is the date of
+the discovery of America. The genius of one man was fated to
+complete the terrestrial globe, and to show the truth of Gagliuffi's
+saying,&mdash;</p>
+
+<center><small>Unus erat mundus; duo sint, ait iste; fuere.</small></center>
+
+<p>The old world was to be entrusted with the moral and political
+education of the new. Was it equal to the task, with its ideas still
+limited, its tendencies still semi-barbarous, and its bitter
+religious animosities? We must leave the answer to these questions
+to the facts that follow.</p>
+
+<p>Between the year 1405, when Béthencourt had just accomplished the
+colonization of the Canary Islands, and the year 1492, what had
+taken place? We will give a short sketch of the geographical
+enterprise of the intervening years. A considerable impetus had been
+given to science by the Arabs (who were soon to be expelled from
+Spain), and had spread throughout the peninsula. In all the ports,
+but more especially in those of Portugal, there was much talk of the
+continent of Africa, and the rich and wonderful countries beyond the
+sea. "A thousand anecdotes," says Michelet, "stimulated curiosity,
+valour and avarice, every one wishing to see these mysterious
+countries where monsters abounded and gold was scattered over the
+surface of the land." A young prince, Don Henry, duke of Viseu,
+third son of John I., who was very fond of the study of astronomy
+and geography, exercised a considerable influence over his
+contemporaries; it is to him that Portugal owes her colonial power
+and wealth and the expeditions so repeatedly made, which were
+vividly described, and their results spoken of as so wonderful, that
+they may have aided in awakening Columbus' love of adventure. Don
+Henry had an observatory built in the southern part of the province
+of Algarve, at Sagres, commanding a most splendid view over the sea,
+and seeming as though it must have been placed there to seek for
+some unknown land; he also established a naval college, where
+learned geographers traced correct maps and taught the use of the
+mariner's compass. The young prince surrounded himself with learned
+men, and especially gathered all the information he could as to the
+possibility of circumnavigating Africa, and thus reaching India.
+Though he had never taken part in any maritime expedition, his
+encouragement and care for seamen gave him the soubriquet of "the
+Navigator," by which name he is known in history. Two gentlemen
+belonging to Don Henry's court, Juan Gonzales Zarco, and Tristram
+Vaz Teixeira had passed Cape Nun, the terror of ancient navigators,
+when they were carried out to sea and passed near an island to which
+they gave the name of Porto-Santo. Sometime afterwards, as they were
+sailing towards a black point that remained on the horizon, they
+came to a large island covered with splendid forests; this was
+Madeira.</p>
+<a name="fax07"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 7">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="591">
+			<img src="images/031.jpg" alt="Prince Henry of Portugal&mdash;'The Navigator.'">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="591" align="center">
+			Prince Henry of Portugal&mdash;"The Navigator."
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In 1433, Cape Bojador, which had for long been such a difficulty to
+navigators, was first doubled by the two Portuguese sailors,
+Gillianès and Gonzalès Baldaya, who passed more than forty leagues
+beyond it.</p>
+
+<p>Encouraged by their example, Antonio Gonzalès, and Nuño Tristram, in
+1441, sailed as far as Cape Blanco, "a feat," says Faria y Souza
+"that is generally looked upon as being little short of the labours
+of Hercules," and they brought back with them to Lisbon some
+gold-dust taken from the Rio del Ouro. In a second voyage Tristram
+noticed some of the Cape de Verd Islands, and went as far south as
+Sierra Leone. In the course of this expedition, he bought from some
+Moors off the coast of Guinea, ten negroes, whom he took back with
+him to Lisbon and parted with for a very high price, they having
+excited great curiosity. This was the origin of the slave-trade in
+Europe, which for the next 400 years robbed Africa of so many of her
+people, and was a disgrace to humanity.</p>
+
+<p>In 1441, Cada Mosto doubled Cape Verd, and explored a part of the
+coast below it. About 1446, the Portuguese, advancing further into
+the open sea than their predecessors, came upon the group of the
+Azores. From this time all fear vanished, for the formidable line
+had been passed, beyond which the air was said to scorch like fire;
+expeditions succeeded each other without intermission, and each
+brought home accounts of newly-discovered regions. It seemed as if
+the African continent was really endless, for the further they
+advanced towards the south, the further the cape they sought
+appeared to recede. Some little time before this King John II. had
+added the title of Seigneur of Guinea to his other titles, and to
+the discovery of Congo had been added that of some stars in the
+southern hemisphere hitherto unknown, when Diogo Cam, in three
+successive voyages, went further south than any preceding navigator,
+and bore away from Diaz the honour of being the discoverer of the
+southern point of the African continent. This cape is called Cape
+Cross, and here he raised a monument called a padrao or padron in
+memory of his discovery, which is still standing. On his way back,
+he visited the King of Congo in his capital, and took back with him
+an ambassador and numerous suite of natives, who were all baptized,
+and taught the elements of the Christian religion, which they were
+to propagate on their return to Congo.</p>
+
+<p>A short time after Diogo Cam's return in the month of August, 1487,
+three caravels left the Tagus under the command of Bartholomew Diaz,
+a gentleman attached to the king's household, and an old sailor on
+the Guinea seas. He had an experienced mariner under him, and the
+smallest of the three vessels freighted with provisions, was
+commanded by his brother Pedro Diaz. We have no record of the
+earlier part of this expedition; we only know, from Joao de Barros,
+to whom we owe nearly all we learn of Portuguese navigation, that
+beyond Congo he followed the coast for some distance, and came to an
+anchorage that he named "Das Voltas" on account of the manner in
+which he had to tack to reach it, and there he left the smallest of
+the caravels under the care of nine sailors. After having been
+detained here five days by stress of weather, Diaz stood out to sea,
+and took a southerly course, but for thirteen days his vessels were
+tossed hither and thither by the tempest.</p>
+
+<p>As he went further south the temperature fell and the air became
+very cold; at last the fury of the elements abated, and Diaz took an
+easterly course hoping to sight the land, but after several days had
+passed, and being in about 42&deg; south latitude, he anchored in
+the bay "dos Vaquieros," so named from the numbers of horned animals
+and shepherds, who fled inland at the sight of the two vessels.</p>
+
+<p>At this time Diaz was about 120 miles east of the Cape of Good Hope,
+which he had doubled without seeing it. They then went to Sam Braz
+(now Mossel) bay, and coasted as far as Algoa bay and to an island
+called Da Cruz where they set up a padrao. But here the crews being
+much discouraged by the dangers they had passed through, and feeling
+much the scarcity and bad quality of the provisions, refused to go
+any farther. "Besides," they said, "as the land is now on our left,
+let us go back and see the Cape, which we have doubled without
+knowing it."</p>
+
+<p>Diaz called a council, and decided that they should go forwards in a
+north-easterly direction for two or three days longer. We owe it to
+his firmness of purpose that he was able to reach a river, 75 miles
+from Da Cruz that he called Rio Infante, but then the crew refusing
+to go farther, Diaz was obliged to return to Europe. Barros says,
+"When Diaz left the pillar that he had erected, it was with such
+sorrow and so much bitterness, that it seemed almost as though he
+were leaving an exiled son, and especially when he thought of all
+the dangers that he and his companions had passed through, and the
+long distance which they had come with only this memorial as a
+remembrance: it was indeed painful to break off when the task was
+but half completed." At last they saw the Cape of Good Hope, or as
+Diaz and his followers called it then, the "Cape of Torments," in
+remembrance of all the storms and tempests they had passed through
+before they could double it. With the foresight which so often
+accompanies genius, John II. substituted for the "Cape of Torments,"
+the name of the "Cape of Good Hope," for he saw that now the route
+to India was open at last, and his vast plans for the extension of
+the commerce and influence of his country were about to be realized.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th of August, 1488, Diaz returned to Angra das Voltas,
+where he had left his smallest caravel. He found six of his nine men
+dead, and the seventh was so overcome with joy at seeing his
+companions again that he died also. No particular incident marked
+the voyage home; they reached Lisbon in December, 1488, after
+staying at Benin, where they traded, and at La Mina to receive the
+money gained by the commerce of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>It is strange but true, that Diaz not only received no reward of any
+kind for this voyage which had been so successful, but he seemed to
+be treated rather as though he had disgraced himself, for he was not
+employed again for ten years. More than this the command of the
+expedition that was sent to double the cape which Diaz had
+discovered, was given to Vasco da Gama, and Diaz was only to
+accompany it to La Mina holding a subordinate position. He was to
+hear of the marvellous campaign of his successful rival in India,
+and to see what an effect such an event would have upon the destiny
+of his country.</p>
+
+<p>He took part in Cabral's expedition which discovered Brazil, but he
+had not the pleasure of seeing the shores to which he had been the
+pioneer, for the fleet had only just left the American shore, when a
+fearful storm arose; four vessels sank, and among them the one that
+Diaz commanded. It is in allusion to his sad fate that Camoens puts
+the following prediction into the mouth of Adamastor, the spirit of
+the Cape of Tempests. "I will make a terrible example of the first
+fleet that shall pass near these rocks, and I will wreak my
+vengeance on him who first comes to brave me in my dwelling."</p>
+
+<p>In fact it was only in 1497, maybe five years after the discovery of
+America, that the southern point of Africa was passed by Vasco da
+Gama, and it may be affirmed that if this latter had preceded
+Columbus, the discovery of the new continent might have been delayed
+for several centuries. The navigators of this period were very
+timorous, and did not dare to sail out into mid-ocean; not liking to
+venture upon seas that were but little known, they always followed
+the coast-line of Africa, rather than go further from land. If the
+Cape of Tempests had been doubled, the sailors would have gone by
+this route to India, and none would have thought of going to the
+"Land of Spices," that is to say Asia, by venturing across the
+Atlantic. Who, in fact, would have thought of seeking for the east
+by the route to the west? But in truth this <i>was</i> the great idea of
+that day, for Cooley says, "The principal object of Portuguese
+maritime enterprise in the fifteenth century was to search for a
+passage to India by the Ocean." The most learned men had not gone so
+far as to imagine the existence of another continent to complete the
+equilibrium and balance of the terrestrial globe. Some parts of the
+American continent had been already discovered, for an Italian
+navigator Sebastian Cabot had landed on Labrador in 1487, and the
+Scandinavians had certainly disembarked on this unknown land. The
+colonists of Greenland, too had explored Winland, but so little
+disposition was there at this time to believe in the existence of a
+new world, that Greenland, Winland, and Labrador were all thought to
+be a continuation of the European continent.</p>
+
+<p>The main question before the navigators of the fifteenth century was
+the opening up of an easier communication with the shores of Asia.
+The route to India, China, and Japan (countries already known
+through the wonderful narrative of Marco Polo), viâ, Asia Minor,
+Persia, and Tartary, was long and dangerous. The transport of goods
+was too difficult and costly for these "ways terrestrial" ever to
+become roads for commerce. A more practicable means of communication
+must be found. Thus all the dwellers on the coasts, from England to
+Spain, as well as the people living on the shores of the
+Mediterranean, seeing the great Atlantic ocean open to their vessels,
+began to inquire, whether indeed this new route might not conduct
+them to the shores of Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The sphericity of the Globe being established, this reasoning was
+correct, for going always westward, the traveller must necessarily
+at last reach the east, and as to the route across the ocean, it
+would certainly be open. Who could, indeed, have suspected the
+existence of an obstacle 9750 miles in length, lying between Europe
+and Asia, and called America?</p>
+
+<p>We must observe also that the scientific men of the Middle Ages
+believed that the shores of Asia were not more than 6000 miles
+distant from those of Europe. Aristotle supposed the terrestrial
+globe to be smaller than it really is. Seneca said "How far is it
+from the shores of Spain to India? <i>A very few days' sail</i>, should
+the wind be favourable." This was also the opinion of Strabo. So it
+seemed that the route between Europe and Asia <i>must</i> be short, and
+there being such places for ships to touch at as the Azores and
+Antilles, of which the existence was known in the fifteenth century,
+the transoceanic communication promised not to be difficult. This
+popular error as to distance had the happy effect of inducing
+navigators to try to cross the Atlantic, a feat which, had they been
+aware of the 15,000 miles of ocean separating Europe from Asia, they
+would scarcely have dared to attempt.</p>
+
+<p>We must in justice allow that certain facts gave, or seemed to give,
+reason to the partisans of Aristotle and Strabo for their belief in
+the proximity of the eastern shores. Thus, a pilot in the service of
+the King of Portugal, while sailing at 1350 miles' distance from
+Cape St. Vincent, the south-western point of the Portuguese province
+of Algarve, met with a piece of wood ornamented with ancient
+sculptures, which he considered must have come from a continent not
+far off. Again, some fishermen had found near the island of Madeira,
+a sculptured post and some bamboos, which in shape resembled those
+found in India. The inhabitants of the Azores also, often picked up
+gigantic pine-trees, of an unknown species, and one day two human
+bodies were cast upon their shores, "corpses with broad faces," says
+the chronicler Herrera, "and not resembling Christians."</p>
+
+<p>These various facts tended to inflame imagination. As in the
+fifteenth century men had no knowledge of that great Gulf-stream,
+which, in nearing the European coasts, brings with it waifs and
+strays from America, so they could only imagine that these various
+débris must come from Asia. Therefore, they argued, Asia could not
+be far off, and the communication between these two extremes of the
+old continent must be easy. One point must be clearly borne in mind,
+no geographer of this period had any notion of the existence of a
+new world; it was not even a desire of adding to geographical
+knowledge which led to the exploration of the western route. It was
+the men of commerce who were the leaders in this movement, and who
+first undertook to cross the Atlantic. Their only thought was of
+traffic, and of carrying it on by the shortest road.</p>
+
+<p>The mariner's compass, invented, according to the generally received
+opinion, about 1302, by one Flavio Gioja of Amalfi, enabled vessels
+to sail at a distance from the coasts, and to guide themselves when
+out of sight of land. Martin Béhaim, with two physicians in the
+service of Prince Henry of Portugal, had also added to nautical
+science by discovering the way of directing the voyager's course
+according to the position of the sun in the heavens, and by applying
+the astrolabe to the purposes of navigation. These improvements
+being adopted, the commercial question of the western route
+increased daily in importance in Spain, Portugal, and Italy,
+countries in which three-quarters of the science is made up of
+imagination. There was discussion, there were writings. The excited
+world of commerce disputed with the world of science. Facts, systems,
+doctrines, were grouped together. The time was come when there was
+needed one single intelligence to collect together and assimilate
+the various floating ideas. This intelligence was found. At length
+all the scattered notions were gathered together in the mind of one
+man, who possessed in a remarkable degree genius, perseverance, and
+boldness.</p>
+<a name="fax08"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 8">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="591">
+			<img src="images/032.jpg" alt="Christopher Columbus">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="591" align="center">
+			Christopher Columbus.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This man was no other than Christopher Columbus, born, probably near
+Genoa, about the year 1436. We say "probably," for the towns of
+Cogoreo and Nervi dispute with Savona and Genoa, the honour of
+having given him birth. The date of his birth varies, with different
+biographers, from 1430 to 1445, but the year 1436 would appear to be
+the correct one, according to the most reliable documents. The
+family of Columbus was of humble origin; his father, Domenic
+Columbus, a manufacturer of woollen stuffs, seems, however, to have
+been in sufficiently easy circumstances to enable him to give his
+children a more than ordinarily good education. The young
+Christopher, the eldest of the family, was sent to the University of
+Pavia, there to study Grammar, Latin, Geography, Astronomy, and
+Navigation.</p>
+
+<p>At fourteen years of age Christopher left school and went to sea;
+from this time until 1487, very little is known of his career. It is
+interesting to give the remark of Humboldt on this subject, as
+reported by M. Charton; he said, "that he regretted the more this
+uncertainty about the early life of Columbus when he remembered all
+that the chroniclers have so minutely preserved for us upon the life
+of the dog Becerillo, or the elephant Aboulababat, which
+Haroun-al-Raschid sent to Charlemagne!" The most probable account to
+be gathered from contemporary documents and from the writings of
+Columbus himself, is that the young sailor visited the Levant, the
+west, the north, England several times, Portugal, the coast of
+Guinea, and the islands of Africa, perhaps even Greenland, for, by
+the age of forty "he had sailed to every part that had ever been
+sailed to before." He was looked upon as a thoroughly competent
+mariner, and his reputation led to his being chosen for the command
+of the Genoese galleys, in the war which that Republic was waging
+against Venice. He afterwards made an expedition, in the service of
+René, king of Anjou, to the coasts of Barbary, and in 1477, he went
+to explore the countries beyond Iceland.</p>
+
+<p>This voyage being successfully terminated, Christopher Columbus
+returned to his home at Lisbon. He there married the daughter of an
+Italian gentleman, Bartolomeo Munez Perestrello, a sailor like
+himself and deeply interested in the geographical ideas of the day.
+The wife of Columbus, Dona Filippa, was without fortune, and
+Columbus, having none himself, felt he must work for the support of
+himself and his family. The future discoverer, therefore, set to
+work to make picture-books, terrestrial globes, maps, and nautical
+charts, and continued in this employment until 1481, but without at
+the same time abandoning his scientific and literary pursuits. It
+seems probable even, that during this period he studied deeply, and
+attained to knowledge far beyond that possessed by most of the
+sailors of his time. Can it have been that at this time "the Great
+Idea" first arose in his mind? It may well have been so. He was
+following assiduously the discussions relative to the western routes,
+and the facility of communication by the west, between Europe and
+Asia. His correspondence proves that he shared the opinion of
+Aristotle as to the relatively short distance separating the extreme
+shores of the old Continent. He wrote frequently to the most
+distinguished savants of his time. Martin Béhaim, of whom we have
+already spoken, was amongst his correspondents, and also the
+celebrated Florentine astronomer, Toscanelli, whose opinions in some
+degree influenced those of Columbus.</p>
+<a name="fax09"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 9">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="582">
+			<img src="images/033.jpg" alt="Imaginary view of Seville">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="582" align="center">
+			A Spanish Port.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>At this time Columbus, according to the portrait of him given by his
+biographer Washington Irving, was a tall man, of robust and noble
+presence. His face was long, he had an aquiline nose, high cheek
+bones, eyes clear and full of fire; he had a bright complexion, and
+his face was much covered with freckles. He was a truly Christian
+man, and it was with the liveliest faith that he fulfilled all the
+duties of the Catholic religion.</p>
+
+<p>At the time when Christopher Columbus was in correspondence with the
+astronomer Toscanelli, he learnt that the latter, at the request of
+Alphonso V., King of Portugal, had sent to the king a learned Memoir
+upon the possibility of reaching the Indies by the western route.
+Columbus was consulted, and supported the ideas of Toscanelli with
+all his influence; but without result, for the King of Portugal, who
+was engaged at the time in war with Spain, died, without having been
+able to give any attention to maritime discoveries. His successor,
+John II., adopted the plans of Columbus and Toscanelli with
+enthusiasm. At the same time, with most reprehensible cunning, he
+tried to deprive these two savants of the benefit of their
+proposition; without telling them, he sent out a caravel to attempt
+this great enterprise, and to reach China by crossing the Atlantic.
+But he had not reckoned upon the inexperience of his pilots, nor
+upon the violence of the storms which they might encounter; the
+result was, that some days after their departure, a hurricane
+brought back to Lisbon the sailors of the Portuguese king. Columbus
+was justly wounded by this unworthy action, and felt that he could
+not reckon upon a king who had so deceived him. His wife being dead,
+he left Spain with his son Diego, towards the end of the year 1484.
+It is thought that he went to Genoa and to Venice, where his
+projects of transoceanic navigation were but badly received.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 21">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586">
+			<img src="images/034.jpg" alt="Columbus knocks at a convent door">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586" align="center">
+			Columbus knocks at a convent door.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>However it may have been, in 1485 we find him again in Spain. This
+great man was poor, without resources. He travelled on foot,
+carrying Diego his little son of ten years old, in his arms. From
+this period of his life, history follows him step by step; she no
+more loses sight of him, and she has preserved to posterity the
+smallest incidents of this grand existence. We find Columbus arrived
+in Andalusia, only half a league from the port of Palos. Destitute,
+and dying of hunger, he knocked at the door of a Franciscan convent,
+dedicated to Santa Maria de Rabida, and asked for a little bread and
+water for his poor child and for himself. The superior of the
+convent, Juan Perez de Marchena, gave hospitality to the unfortunate
+traveller. He questioned him, and was surprised by the nobleness of
+his language, but still more astonished was he, by the boldness of
+the ideas of Columbus, who made the good Father the confidant of his
+aspirations. For several months the wandering sailor remained in
+this hospitable convent; some of the monks were learned men, and
+interested themselves about him and his projects; they studied his
+plans; they mentioned him to some of the well-known navigators of
+the time; and we must give them the credit of having been the first
+to believe in the genius of Christopher Columbus. Juan Perez showed
+still greater kindness; he offered to take upon himself the charge
+of the education of Diego, and he gave to Columbus a letter of
+recommendation addressed to the confessor of the Queen of Castille.</p>
+
+<p>This confessor, prior of the monastery of Prado, was deep in the
+confidence of Ferdinand and Isabella; but he did not approve of the
+projects of the Genoese navigator, and he rendered him no service
+whatever with his royal penitent. Columbus must still resign himself
+to wait. He went to live at Cordova, where the court was soon to
+come, and for livelihood he resumed his trade of picture-seller. Is
+it possible to quote from the lives of illustrious men an instance
+of a more trying existence than this of the great navigator? Could
+ill-fortune have assailed any man with more cruel blows? But this
+indomitable, indefatigable man of genius, rising up again after each
+trial, did not despair. He felt within him the sacred fire of genius,
+he worked on unceasingly, he visited influential persons, spreading
+his ideas and defending them, and combating all objections with the
+most heroic energy. At length he obtained the protection of the
+great cardinal-archbishop of Toledo, Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, and
+thanks to him, was admitted into the presence of the King and Queen
+of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Christopher Columbus must have imagined himself now at the end of
+all his troubles. Ferdinand and Isabella received his project
+favourably, and caused it to be submitted for examination to a
+council of learned men, consisting of bishops and monks who were
+gathered together <i>ad hoc</i> in a Dominican convent at Salamanca. But
+the unfortunate pleader was not yet at the end of his vicissitudes.
+In this meeting at Salamanca all his judges were against him. The
+truth was, that his ideas interfered with the intolerant religious
+notions of the fifteenth century. The Fathers of the Church had
+denied the sphericity of the earth, and since the earth was not
+round they declared that a voyage of circumnavigation was absolutely
+contrary to the Bible, and could not therefore, on any logical
+theory, be undertaken. "Besides," said these theologians, "if any
+one should ever succeed in descending into the other hemisphere, how
+could he ever mount up again into this one?" This manner of arguing
+was a very formidable one at this period; for Christopher Columbus
+saw himself, in consequence, almost accused of heresy, the most
+unpardonable crime which could be committed in these intolerant
+countries. He escaped any evil consequences from the hostile
+disposition of the Council, but the execution of his project was
+again adjourned.</p>
+<a name="fax10"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 10">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="603">
+			<img src="images/035.jpg" alt="Building a caravel">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="603" align="center">
+			Building a caravel.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Long years passed away. The unfortunate man of genius, despairing of
+success in Spain, sent his brother to England to make an offer of
+his services to the king, Henry VII. But it is probable that the
+king gave no answer. Then Christopher Columbus turned again with
+unabated perseverance to Ferdinand, but Ferdinand was at this time
+engaged in a war of extermination against the Moors, and it was not
+until 1492, when he had chased the Moors from Spain, that he was
+able again to listen to the solicitations of the Genoese sailor.</p>
+
+<p>This time the affair was thoroughly considered, and the king
+consented to the enterprise. But Columbus, as is the manner of proud
+natures, wished to impose his own conditions. They bargained over
+that which should enrich Spain! Columbus, in disgust, was without
+doubt ready to quit, and for ever, this ungrateful country, but
+Isabella, touched by the thought of the unbelievers of Asia, whom
+she hoped to convert to the Catholic faith, ordered Columbus to be
+recalled, and then acceded to all his demands.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus was in the fifty-sixth year of his age when he signed a
+treaty with the King of Spain at Santa-Feta on the 17th of April,
+1492, being eighteen years after he had first conceived his project,
+and seven years from the time of his quitting the monastery of Palos.
+By this solemn convention, the dignity of high admiral was to belong
+to Columbus in all the lands which he might discover, and this
+dignity was to descend in perpetuity to his heirs and successors. He
+was named viceroy and governor of the new possessions which he hoped
+to conquer in the rich countries of Asia, and one-tenth part of the
+pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, provisions, and
+merchandise of whatever kind, which might be acquired in any manner
+whatsoever, within the limits of his jurisdiction, was of right to
+belong to him.</p>
+
+<p>All was arranged, and at length Columbus was to put his cherished
+projects in execution. But let us repeat, he had no thought of
+meeting with the New World, of the existence of which he had not the
+faintest suspicion. His aim was "to explore the East by the West,
+and to pass by the way of the West to the Land whence come the
+spices." One may even aver that Columbus died in the belief that he
+had arrived at the shores of Asia, and never knew himself that he
+had made the discovery of America. But this in no way lessens his
+glory; the meeting with the new Continent was but an accident. The
+real cause of the immortal renown of Columbus was that audacity of
+genius which induced him to brave the dangers of an unknown ocean,
+to separate himself afar from those familiar shores, which, until
+now, navigators had never ventured to quit, to adventure himself
+upon the waves of the Atlantic Ocean in the frail ships of the
+period, which the first tempest might engulf, to launch himself, in
+a word, upon the deep darkness of an unknown sea.</p>
+
+<p>The preparations began, Columbus entering into an arrangement with
+some rich navigators of Palos, the three brothers Pinzon, who made
+the necessary advances for defraying the expenses of fitting out the
+ships. Three caravels, named the <i>Gallega</i>, the <i>Nina</i>, and the
+<i>Pinta</i>, were equipped in the port of Palos. The <i>Gallega</i> was
+destined to carry the admiral, who changed her name to the
+<i>Santa-Maria</i>. The <i>Pinta</i> was commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon,
+and the <i>Nina</i> by his two brothers, Francis Martin, and Vincent
+Yanez Pinzon. It was difficult to man the ships, sailors generally
+being frightened at the enterprise, but at last the captains
+succeeded in getting together one hundred and twenty men, and on
+Friday, August 3rd, 1492, the admiral crossing at eight o'clock in
+the morning the bar of Saltez, off the town of Huelva, in Andalusia,
+adventured himself with his three half-decked caravels upon the
+Atlantic waves.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c72"></a>
+<center>II.<br>
+C<small>HRISTOPHER</small> C<small>OLUMBUS</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>First voyage: The Great Canary&mdash;Gomera&mdash;Magnetic variation&mdash;Symptoms
+of revolt&mdash;Land, land&mdash;San Salvador&mdash;Taking possession&mdash;Conception&mdash;Fernandina
+or Great Exuma&mdash;Isabella, or Long Island&mdash;The Mucaras&mdash;Cuba&mdash;Description
+of the island&mdash;Archipelago of Notre-Dame&mdash;Hispaniola or San Domingo&mdash;Tortuga
+Island&mdash;The cacique on board the
+<i>Santa-Maria</i>&mdash;The caravel of Columbus goes aground and cannot be
+floated off&mdash;Island of Monte-Christi&mdash;Return&mdash;Tempest&mdash;Arrival in
+Spain&mdash;Homage rendered to Christopher Columbus.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>During the first day's voyage, the admiral&mdash;the title by which he is
+usually known in the various accounts of his exploits&mdash;bearing
+directly southwards, sailed forty-five miles before sunset; turning
+then to the south-east, he steered for the Canaries, in order to
+repair the <i>Pinta</i>, which had unshipped her rudder, an accident
+caused perhaps by the ill-will of the steersman, who dreaded the
+voyage. Ten days later Columbus cast anchor before the Great Canary
+Island, where the rudder of the caravel was repaired. Nineteen days
+afterwards he arrived before Gomera, where the inhabitants assured
+him of the existence of an unknown land in the west of the
+Archipelago. He did not leave Gomera until the 6th of September. He
+had received warning that three Portuguese ships awaited him in the
+open sea, with the intention of barring his passage; however,
+without taking any heed of this news, he put to sea, cleverly
+avoided meeting his enemies, and steering directly westward, he lost
+all sight of land. During the voyage the admiral took care to
+conceal from his companions the true distance traversed each day; he
+made it appear less than it really was in the daily abstracts of his
+observations, that he might not add to the fear already felt by the
+sailors, by letting them know the real distance which separated them
+from Europe. Each day he watched the compasses with attention, and
+it is to him we owe the discovery of the magnetic variation, of
+which he took account in his calculations. The pilots, however, were
+much disturbed on seeing the compasses all "north-westers," as they
+expressed it.</p>
+<a name="fax11"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 11">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588">
+			<img src="images/036.jpg" alt="Christopher Columbus on board his caravel">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588" align="center">
+			Christopher Columbus on board his caravel.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>On the 14th of September the sailors saw a swallow and some
+tropic-birds. The sight of these birds was an evidence of land being
+near, for they do not usually fly more than about seventy miles out
+to sea. The temperature was very mild, the weather magnificent; the
+wind blew from the east and wafted the caravels in the desired
+direction. But it was exactly this continuance of east wind which
+frightened the greater part of the sailors, who saw in this
+persistence, so favourable for the outward voyage, the promise of a
+formidable obstacle to their return home. On the 16th of September
+some tufts of seaweed, still fresh, were seen floating on the waves.
+But no land was to be seen, and this seaweed might possibly indicate
+the presence of submarine rocks, and not of the shores of a
+continent. On the 17th, thirty-five days after the departure of the
+expedition, floating weeds were frequently seen, and upon one mass
+of weed was found a live cray-fish, a sure sign this of the
+proximity of land.</p>
+
+<p>During the following days a large number of birds, such as gannets,
+sea-swallows, and tropic-birds, flew around the caravels. Columbus
+turned their presence to account as a means of reassuring his
+companions, who were beginning to be terribly frightened at not
+meeting with land after six weeks of sailing. His own confidence
+never abated, but putting firm trust in God, he often addressed
+energetic words of comfort to those around him, and made them each
+evening chant the <i>Salve Regina</i>, or some other hymn to the Virgin.
+At the words of this heroic man, so noble, so sure of himself, so
+superior to all human weaknesses, the courage of the sailors revived,
+and they again went onwards.</p>
+
+<p>We can well imagine how anxiously both officers and men scanned the
+western horizon towards which they were steering. Each one had a
+pecuniary motive for wishing to be the first to descry the New
+Continent, King Ferdinand having promised a reward of 10,000
+maravédis, or 400 pounds sterling, to the first discoverer. The
+latter days of the month of September were enlivened by the presence
+of numerous large birds, petrels, man-of-war birds, and damiers,
+flying in couples, a sign that they were not far away from home. So
+Columbus retained his unshaken conviction that land could not be far
+off.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of October, the admiral announced to his companions that
+they had made 1272 miles to the west since leaving Ferro; in reality,
+the distance traversed exceeded 2100 miles, and of this Columbus was
+quite aware, but persisted in his policy of disguising the truth in
+this particular. On the 7th of October, the crews were excited by
+hearing discharges of musketry from the <i>Nina</i>, the commanders of
+which, the two brothers Pinzon, thought they had descried the land;
+they soon found, however, that they had been mistaken. Still, on
+their representing that they had seen some parroquets flying in a
+south-westerly direction, the admiral consented to change his route
+so far as to steer some points to the south, a change which had
+happy consequences in the future, for had they continued to run
+directly westward, the caravels would have been aground upon the
+great Bahama Bank, and would probably have been altogether destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Still the ardently desired land did not appear. Each evening the sun
+as it went down dipped behind an interminable horizon of water. The
+crews who had several times been the victims of an optical illusion,
+now began to murmur against Columbus, "the Genoese, the foreigner,"
+who had enticed them so far away from their country. Some symptoms
+of mutiny had already shown themselves on board the vessels, when,
+on the 10th of October, the sailors openly declared that they would
+go no further. In treating of this part of the voyage, the
+historians would seem to have drawn somewhat upon their
+imagination; they narrate scenes of serious import which took place
+upon the admiral's caravel, the sailors going so far as even to
+threaten his life. They say also, that the recriminations ended by a
+kind of arrangement, granting a respite of three days to Columbus,
+at the end of which time, should land not have been then discovered,
+the fleet was to set out on its return to Europe. All these
+statements we may look upon as pure fiction; there is nothing in the
+accounts given by Columbus himself which lends them the smallest
+credibility. But it has been needful to touch upon them, for nothing
+must be omitted relating to the great Genoese Navigator, and some
+amount of legend mixed up with history does not ill beseem the grand
+figure of Christopher Columbus. Still, it is an undoubted fact that
+there was much murmuring on board the caravels, but it would seem
+that the crews, cheered by the words of the admiral, and by his
+brave attitude in the midst of uncertainty, did not refuse to do
+their duty in working the ships.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th of October, the admiral noticed alongside of his vessel,
+a reed still green, floating upon the top of a large wave: at the
+same time the crew of the <i>Pinta</i> hoisted on board another reed, a
+small board, and a little stick, which appeared to have been cut
+with an instrument of iron; it was evident that human hands had been
+employed upon these things. Almost at the same moment, the men of
+the <i>Nina</i> perceived a branch of some thorny tree covered with
+blossoms. At all this every one rejoiced exceedingly; there could be
+no doubt now of the proximity of the coast. Night fell over the sea.
+The <i>Pinta</i>, the best sailor of the three vessels, was leading.
+Already, Columbus himself, and one Rodrigo Sanchez, comptroller of
+the expedition, had thought they had seen a light moving amidst the
+shadows of the horizon, when a sailor named Rodrigo, on board the
+<i>Pinta</i>, cried out, "Land, land."</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 22">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578">
+			<img src="images/037.jpg" alt="What must have been the feelings in the breast of Columbus at that moment?">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578" align="center">
+			What must have been the feelings in the breast of
+			Columbus at that moment?
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>What must have been the feelings in the breast of Columbus at that
+moment? Never had any man, since the first creation of the human
+race experienced a similar emotion to that now felt by the great
+navigator. Perhaps even it is allowable to think that the eye which
+first saw this New Continent, was indeed that of the admiral himself.
+But what matters it? The glory of Columbus consisted not in the
+having arrived, his glory was in the having set out. It was at two
+o'clock in the morning that the land was first seen, when the
+caravels were not two hours' sail away from it. At once all the
+crews deeply moved, joined in singing together the <i>Salve Regina</i>.
+With the first rays of the sun they saw a little island, six miles
+to windward of them. It was one of the Bahama group; Columbus named
+it San Salvador, and immediately falling on his knees, he began to
+repeat the hymn of Saint Ambrose and Saint Augustine: "Te Deum
+laudamus, Te Deum confitemur."</p>
+
+<p>At this moment, some naked savages appeared upon the newly
+discovered coast. Columbus had his long boat lowered, and got into
+it with Alonzo and Yanez Pinzon, the comptroller Rodrigo, the
+secretary Descovedo, and some others. He landed upon the shore,
+carrying in his hand the royal banner, whilst the two captains bore
+between them the green banner of the Cross, upon which were
+interlaced, the initials of Ferdinand and Isabella. Then the admiral
+solemnly took possession of the island in the name of the King and
+Queen of Spain, and caused a record of the act to be drawn up.
+During this ceremony the natives came round Columbus and his
+companions. M. Charton gives the account of the scene in the very
+words of Columbus: "Desiring to inspire them (the natives) with
+friendship for us, and being persuaded, on seeing them, that they
+would confide the more readily in us, and be the better disposed
+towards embracing our Holy Faith, if we used mildness in persuading
+them, rather than if we had recourse to force, I caused to be given
+to several amongst them, coloured caps, and also glass beads, which
+they put around their necks. I added various other articles of small
+value; they testified great joy, and showed so much gratitude that
+we marvelled greatly at it. When we were re-embarking, they swam
+towards us, to offer us parroquets, balls of cotton thread, zagayes
+(or long darts), and many other things; in exchange we gave them
+some small glass beads, little bells, and other objects. They gave
+us all they had, but they appeared to me to be very poor. The men
+and women both were as naked as when they were born. Amongst those
+whom we saw, one woman was rather young, and none of the men
+appeared to be more than thirty years of age. They were well made,
+their figures handsome, and their faces agreeable. Their hair,
+coarse as that of a horse's tail, hung down in front as low as their
+eyebrows, behind it formed a long mass, which they never cut. There
+are some who paint themselves with a blackish pigment; their natural
+colour being neither black nor white, but similar to that of the
+inhabitants of the Canary islands; some paint themselves with white,
+some with red, or any other colour, either covering the whole body
+with it, or the whole face, or perhaps only the eyes, or the nose.
+They do not carry arms like our people, and do not even know what
+they are. When I showed them some swords, they laid hold of them by
+the blades, and cut their fingers. They have no iron; their zagayes
+are sticks, the tip is not of iron, but sometimes made of a fish
+tooth, or of some other hard substance. They have much grace in
+their movements. I remarked that several had scars upon their bodies,
+and I asked them by means of signs, how they had been wounded. They
+answered in the same manner, that the inhabitants of the
+neighbouring islands had come to attack them, and make them
+prisoners, and that they had defended themselves. I thought then and
+I still think that they must have come from the mainland to make
+them prisoners for slaves; they would be faithful and gentle
+servants. They seem to have the power of repeating quickly what they
+hear. I am persuaded that they might be converted to Christianity
+without difficulty, for I believe that they belong to no sect."</p>
+
+<p>When Columbus returned on board, several of the savages swam after
+his boat; the next day, the 13th, they came in crowds around the
+ships, on board of enormous canoes shaped out of the trunks of
+trees; they were guided by means of a kind of baker's shovel, and
+some of the canoes were capable of holding forty men. Several
+natives wore little plates of gold hanging from their nostrils; they
+appeared much surprised at the arrival of the strangers, and quite
+believed that these white men must have fallen from the skies. It
+was with a mixture of respect and curiosity that they touched the
+garments of the Spaniards, considering them doubtless, a kind of
+natural plumage. The scarlet coat of the admiral excited their
+admiration above everything, and it was evident they looked upon
+Columbus as a parroquet of a superior species; at once they seemed
+to recognize him as the chief amongst the strangers.</p>
+
+<p>So Columbus and his followers visited this new island of San
+Salvador. They were never tired of admiring the beauty of its
+situation, its magnificent groves, its running streams, and verdant
+meadows. The fauna of the island offered little variety; parroquets
+of radiant plumage abounded amongst the trees, but they appeared to
+be the only species of birds upon the island. San Salvador presented
+an almost flat plateau of which no mountain broke the uniformity; a
+small lake occupied the centre of the island. The explorers imagined
+that San Salvador must contain great mineral riches, since the
+inhabitants were adorned with ornaments of gold. But was this
+precious metal derived from the island itself? Upon this point the
+admiral questioned one of the natives, and succeeded in learning
+from him by means of signs, that in turning the island and sailing
+towards the south, the admiral would find a country of which the
+king possessed great vessels of gold and immense riches. The next
+morning, at daybreak, Columbus gave orders to have the ships
+prepared for sea; he set sail, and steered towards the continent of
+which the natives had spoken, which, as he imagined, could be none
+other than Cipango.</p>
+
+<p>Here an important observation must be made, showing the state of
+geographical knowledge at this period: viz. that Columbus now
+believed himself to have arrived at Asia, Cipango being the name
+given by Marco Polo to Japan. This error of the admiral, shared in
+by all his companions, was not rectified for many years afterwards,
+and thus, as we have already remarked, the great navigator after
+four successive voyages to the islands, died, without knowing that
+he had discovered a new world. It is beyond doubt that the sailors
+of Columbus, and Columbus himself, imagined that they had arrived,
+during that night of the 12th October, 1492, either at Japan, or
+China, or the Indies. This is the reason why America so long bore
+the name of the "Western Indies," and why the aborigines of this
+continent, in Brazil and in Mexico, as well as in the United States,
+are still classed under the general appellation of "Indians."</p>
+
+<p>So Columbus dreamt only of reaching the shores of Japan. He coasted
+along San Salvador, exploring its western side. The natives, running
+down to the shore, offered him water and cassava bread, made from
+the root of a plant called the "Yucca." Several times the admiral
+landed upon the coast at different points, and with a sad want of
+humanity, he carried away some of the natives, that he might take
+them with him to Spain. Poor men! already the strangers began to
+tear them from their country; it would not be long before they began
+to sell them! At last the caravels lost sight of San Salvador, and
+were again upon the wide ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Fortune had favoured Columbus in thus guiding him into the centre of
+one of the most beautiful archipelagos which the world contains.
+These new lands which he discovered were as a casket of precious
+stones, which needed only to be opened, and the hands of the
+discoverer were full of treasures. On the 15th October, at sunset,
+the flotilla came to anchor near the western point of a second
+island, at a distance of only fifteen miles from San Salvador; this
+island was named Conception; on the morrow the admiral landed upon
+the shore, having his men well armed for fear of surprise; the
+natives, however, proved to be of the same race as those of San
+Salvador, and gave a kind welcome to the Spaniards. A south-easterly
+wind having arisen, Columbus soon put to sea again, and twenty-seven
+miles further westward, he discovered a third island, which he
+called Fernandina, but which now goes by the name of the Great Exuma.
+All night they lay-to, and next day, the 17th October, large native
+canoes came off to the vessels. The relations with the natives were
+excellent, the savages peacefully exchanging fruit, and small balls
+of cotton for glass beads, tambourines, needles, which took their
+fancy greatly, and some molasses, of which they appeared very fond.
+These natives of Fernandina wore some clothing, and appeared
+altogether more civilized than those of San Salvador; they inhabited
+houses made in the shape of tents and having high chimneys; the
+interiors of these dwellings were remarkably clean and well kept.
+The western side of the island, with its deeply indented shore,
+formed a grand natural harbour, capable of containing a hundred
+vessels.</p>
+
+<p>But Fernandina did not afford the riches so much coveted by the
+Spaniards as spoils to take back to Europe; there were no gold-mines
+here; the natives who were on board the flotilla always spoke,
+however, of a larger island, situated to the south and called
+Saometo, in which the precious metal was found. Columbus steered in
+the direction indicated, and during the night of Friday, the 19th of
+October, he cast anchor near this Saometo, calling it Isabella; in
+modern maps it goes by the name of Long Island. According to the
+natives of San Salvador, there was a powerful king in this island,
+but the admiral for several days awaited in vain the advent of this
+great personage; he did not show himself. The island of Isabella was
+beautiful of aspect, with its clear lakes, and thick forests; the
+Spaniards were never tired of admiring the new type of nature
+presented to their view, and of which the intense verdure was
+wonderful to European eyes. Parroquets in innumerable flocks were
+flying amongst the thick trees, and great lizards, doubtless iguanas,
+glided with rapid movements in the high grass. The inhabitants of
+the island fled at first at the sight of the foreigners, but soon
+becoming bolder, they trafficked with the Spaniards in the
+productions of their country.</p>
+
+<p>Still Columbus held firmly to the notion of reaching the shores of
+Japan. The natives had mentioned to him a large island a little to
+the west which they called Cuba, and this the admiral supposed must
+form part of the kingdom of Cipango; he felt little doubt but that
+he would soon arrive at the town of Quinsay, or Hang-tchoo-foo,
+formerly the capital of China. With this object, as soon as the
+winds permitted, the fleet weighed anchor. On Thursday, the 25th of
+October, seven or eight islands lying in a straight line were
+sighted, these were probably the Mucaras. Columbus did not stop to
+visit them, and on the Sunday he came in sight of Cuba. The caravels
+were moored in a river, to which the Spaniards gave the name of San
+Salvador; after a short stay, they sailed again towards the west,
+and entered a harbour situated at the mouth of a large river which
+was afterwards called the harbour of Las Nuevitas del Principe.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous palm-trees were growing upon the shores of the island,
+having leaves so broad that only one was required for roofing a
+native hut. The natives had fled at the approach of the Spaniards,
+who found upon the shore idols of female form, tame birds, bones of
+animals, also dumb dogs, and some fishing instruments. The Cuban
+savages, however, were ready to be enticed like the others, and they
+consented to barter their goods with the Spaniards. Columbus
+believed himself to be now on the mainland, and only a few leagues
+from Hang-tchoo-foo; this idea being so rooted in his mind, that he
+even busied himself in despatching some presents to the great Khan
+of China. On the 2nd of November he desired one of the officers of
+his ship, and a Jew who could speak Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, to
+set out to seek this native monarch. The ambassadors, carrying with
+them strings of beads, and having six days given to them for the
+fulfilment of their mission, started, taking a route leading towards
+the interior of this so-called continent.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, Columbus explored for nearly six miles a splendid
+river which flowed beneath the shade of woods of odoriferous trees.
+The inhabitants freely bartered their goods with the Spaniards, and
+frequently mentioned to them a place named Bohio, where gold and
+pearls might be obtained in abundance. They added that men lived
+there who had dogs' heads, and who fed upon human flesh.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral's envoys returned to the port on the 6th of November,
+after a four days' absence. Two days had sufficed to bring them to a
+village composed of about fifty huts, where they were received with
+every mark of respect; the natives kissing their feet and hands, and
+taking them for deities descended from the skies. Among other
+details of native customs, they reported that both men and women
+smoked tobacco by means of a forked pipe, drawing up the smoke
+through their nostrils. These savages were acquainted with the
+secret of obtaining fire by rubbing briskly two pieces of wood
+against each other. Cotton was found in large quantities in the
+houses, made up into the form of tents, one of these containing as
+much as 11,000 pounds of the material. As to the grand khan they saw
+no vestige of him.</p>
+
+<p>Another consequence of the error of Columbus must be noticed here,
+one which, according to Irving, changed the whole series of his
+discoveries. He believed himself to be on the coast of Asia, and
+therefore looked upon Cuba as a portion of that continent. In
+consequence, he never thought of making the tour of Cuba, but
+decided on returning towards the east. Now, had he not been deceived
+on this occasion, and had he continued to follow the same direction
+as at first, the results of his enterprise would have been greatly
+modified. He might then have drifted towards Florida at the
+south-eastern point of North America, or he might have run direct to
+Mexico. In this latter case, instead of ignorant and savage natives,
+what would he have found? The inhabitants of the great Aztec Empire,
+of the half-civilized kingdom of Montezuma. There he would have seen
+towns, armies, enormous wealth, and his rôle would no doubt have
+been the same as that afterwards played by Fernando Cortès. But it
+was not to be thus, and the admiral, persevering in his mistake,
+directed his flotilla towards the east, weighing anchor on the 12th
+of November, 1492.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus tacked in and out along the Cuban coast; he saw the two
+mountains&mdash;Cristal and Moa; he explored a harbour to which he gave
+the name of Puerto del Principe, and an archipelago which he called
+the Sea of Nuestra Señora. Each night the fishermen's fires were
+seen upon the numerous islands, the inhabitants of which lived upon
+spiders and huge worms. Several times the Spaniards landed upon
+different points of the coast, and there planted the cross as a sign
+of taking possession of the country. The natives often spoke to the
+admiral about a certain island of Babeque, where gold abounded, and
+thither Columbus resolved to go, but Martin-Alonzo Pinzon, the
+captain of the <i>Pinta</i>, the best sailer of the three ships, was
+beforehand with him, and at day-break on the 21st of November, he
+had completely disappeared from sight. The admiral was very angry at
+this separation, his feelings on the subject appearing plainly in
+his narrative, where he says, "Pinzon has said and done to me many
+like things." Continuing his exploration of the coast of Cuba,
+Columbus discovered the Bay of Moa, the Point of Mangle, Point Vaez,
+and the harbour of Barracoa, but nowhere did he meet with cannibals,
+although the huts of the natives were often to be seen adorned with
+human skulls, a sight which appeared to give great satisfaction to
+the islanders on board the fleet. On the following days, they saw
+the Boma River, and the caravels, doubling the point of Los Azules,
+found themselves upon the eastern part of the island, whose coast
+they had now reconnoitred for a distance of 375 miles. But Columbus
+instead of continuing his route to the south turned off to the east,
+and on the 5th of December perceived a large island, called by the
+natives Bohio. This was Hayti, or San Domingo.</p>
+
+<p>In the evening, the <i>Nina</i> by the admiral's orders, entered a
+harbour which was named Port Mary; it is situated at the
+north-western extremity of the island, and, with the cape near which
+it lies, is now called St. Nicholas. The next day the Spaniards
+discovered a number of headlands, and an islet, called Tortuga
+Island. Everywhere on the appearance of the ships, the Indian canoes
+took to flight. The island, along which they were now coasting,
+appeared very large and very high, from which latter peculiarity it
+gained, later on, its name of Hayti, which signifies High Land. The
+coast was explored by the Spaniards as far as Mosquito Bay; its
+natural features, its plains and hills, its plants and the birds
+which fluttered amongst the beautiful trees of the island, all
+recalled to the memory the landscapes of Castille, and for this
+reason Columbus named it Hispaniola, or Spanish Island. The
+inhabitants were extremely timid and distrustful; they fled away
+into the interior and no communication could be held with them. Some
+sailors, however, succeeded in capturing a young woman, whom they
+carried on board with them. She was young and rather pretty. The
+admiral gave her, besides rings and beads, some clothing, of which
+she had great need, and after most generous treatment, he sent her
+back to shore.</p>
+
+<p>This good conduct had the result of taming the natives, and the next
+day, when nine of the sailors, well armed, ventured as far as
+sixteen miles inland, they were received with respect, the savages
+running to them in crowds, and offering them everything which their
+country produced. The sailors returned to the ships enchanted with
+their excursion. The interior of the island they had found rich in
+cotton plants, mastic-trees and aloes, while a fine river, named
+afterwards the Three Rivers, flowed gently along its limpid course.
+On December 15th, Columbus again set sail, and was carried by the
+wind towards Tortuga Island, upon which he saw a navigable stream of
+water, and a valley so beautiful that he called it the Vale of
+Paradise. The day following, having tacked into a deep gulf, an
+Indian was seen who, notwithstanding the violence of the wind, was
+skilfully manoeuvring a light canoe. This Indian was invited to come
+on board, was loaded with presents by the admiral, and then put on
+shore again, at one of the harbours of Hispaniola, now called the
+Puerto de Paz. This kindness tended to attach the natives to the
+admiral, and from that day they came in numbers round the caravels;
+their king came with them, a strong, vigorous, and somewhat stout
+young man of twenty years of age; he was naked, like his subjects of
+both sexes, who showed him much respect, but with no appearance of
+servility. Columbus ordered royal honours to be rendered to him, and
+in return, the king, or rather cacique, informed the admiral that
+the provinces to the east abounded in gold.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 23">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579">
+			<img src="images/038.jpg" alt="Columbus named it the Vale of Paradise">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579" align="center">
+			Columbus named it the Vale of Paradise.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Next day another cacique arrived, offering to place all the
+treasures of his country at the service of the Spaniards. He was
+present at a fête in honour of the Virgin Mary, that Columbus caused
+to be celebrated with great pomp on board his vessel, which was
+gaily dressed with flags on the occasion. The cacique dined at the
+admiral's table, apparently enjoying the repast; after he had
+himself tasted of the different viands and beverages, he sent the
+dishes and goblets to the members of his suite; he had good manners,
+spoke little, but showed great politeness. After the feast, he gave
+the admiral some thin leaves of gold, while Columbus, on his side,
+presented him with some coins, upon which were engraved the
+portraits of Ferdinand and Isabella, and after explaining to him by
+signs that these were the representations of the most powerful
+sovereigns in the world, he caused the royal banners of Castille to
+be displayed before the savage prince. When night fell, the cacique
+retired, highly delighted with his visit; and on his departure he
+was saluted with a salvo of artillery. On the day following, the
+crews before quitting this hospitable coast, set up a large cross in
+the middle of the little town. In issuing from the gulf formed by
+Tortuga Island and Hispaniola, they discovered several harbours,
+capes, bays, and rivers; at the point of Limbé, a small island which
+Columbus named St. Thomas, and finally, an enormous harbour safe and
+sheltered, hidden between the island and the Bay of Acul, and to
+which access was given by a canal surrounded by high mountains
+covered with trees.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral often disembarked upon this coast, the natives receiving
+him as an ambassador from heaven, and imploring him to remain among
+them. Columbus gave them quantities of little bells, brass rings,
+glass beads, and other toys, which they eagerly accepted. A cacique
+named Guacanagari, reigning over the province of Marien, sent to the
+admiral a belt adorned with the figure of an animal with large ears,
+of which the nose and tongue were made of beaten gold. Gold appeared
+to be abundant in the island, and the natives soon brought a
+considerable quantity of it to the strangers. The inhabitants of
+this part of Hispaniola seemed to be superior in intelligence and
+appearance to those of that portion of the island which had been
+first visited; in the opinion of Columbus, the paint, red, black, or
+white, with which the natives covered their bodies, served to
+protect them from sunstroke. The huts of these savages were pretty
+and well built. Upon Columbus questioning them as to the country
+which produced gold, they always indicated one towards the east, a
+country which they called Cibao, and which the admiral continued to
+identify with Cipango or Japan.</p>
+
+<p>On Christmas Day a serious accident occurred to the admiral's
+caravel, the first damage sustained in this hitherto prosperous
+voyage. An inexperienced steersman was at the helm of the
+<i>Santa-Maria</i> during an excursion outside the Gulf of St. Thomas;
+night came on, and he allowed the vessel to be caught in some
+currents which threw her upon the rocks; the caravel grounded and
+her rudder stuck fast. The admiral, awakened by the shock, ran upon
+deck; he ordered an anchor to be fastened forward, by which the ship
+might warp herself off and so float again. The master and some of
+the sailors charged with the execution of this order, jumped into
+the long boat, but seized with a sudden panic, they rowed away in
+haste to the <i>Nina</i>. Meantime the tide fell, and the <i>Santa-Maria</i>
+ran further aground; it became necessary to cut away the masts to
+lighten her, and soon it was evident that everything on board must
+be removed to the other ship. The cacique Guacanagari, quite
+understanding the dangerous situation of the caravel, came with his
+brothers and other relations, accompanied by a great number of the
+Indians, and helped in unlading the ship. Thanks to this prince, not
+a single article of the cargo was stolen, and during the whole night
+armed natives kept watch around the stores of provisions.</p>
+
+<p>The next day Guacanagari went on board the <i>Nina</i>, to console the
+admiral, and to place all his own possessions at his disposal, at
+the same time offering him a repast of bread, doe's flesh, fish,
+roots, and fruit. Columbus, much moved by these tokens of friendship,
+formed the design of founding an establishment on this island. With
+this purpose in view, he addressed himself to gain the hearts of the
+Indians by presents and kindness, and wishing also to give them an
+adequate notion of his power, he ordered the discharge of an
+arquebuse and a small cannon, of which the reports frightened the
+poor savages terribly. On December 26th, the Spaniards commenced the
+construction of a fort upon this part of the coast, the intention of
+the admiral being to leave there a certain number of men, with a
+year's provision of bread, wine, and seed, and to give them the long
+boat belonging to the <i>Santa-Maria</i>. The works at the fort were
+pushed forward with rapidity. It was also on the 26th that they
+received news of the <i>Pinta</i>, which had been separated from the
+flotilla since November 21st. The natives announced that she was at
+anchor in a river at the extreme point of the island, but a canoe
+despatched by Guacanagari returned without having found her. Then
+Columbus, not wishing to continue his explorations under the present
+conditions, since the loss of the <i>Santa-Maria</i>, which could not be
+floated again, left him but one caravel, decided to return to Spain,
+and preparations for the departure began.</p>
+
+<p>On the 2nd of January Columbus caused his soldiers to act a mimic
+battle, greatly to the admiration of the cacique and his subjects.
+Afterwards the admiral chose out thirty-nine men to form the
+garrison of the fortress during his absence, naming Rodrigo de
+Escovedo as their commander. The greater part of the cargo of the
+<i>Santa-Maria</i> was to be left behind with them, for their year's
+provision. Amongst these first colonists of the New World were
+included a writer, an alguazil, a cooper, a doctor, and a tailor.
+These Spaniards were charged with the mission of seeking for
+gold-mines, and of choosing a suitable site for the building of a
+town. On the 3rd of January, after solemn leave-takings of the
+cacique and the new colonists, the <i>Nina</i> weighed anchor and sailed
+out of the harbour. An island was soon discovered, having upon it a
+very high mountain; to this was given the name of Monte-Christi.
+Columbus had already sailed for two days along the coast, when he
+was aware of the approach of the <i>Pinta</i>, and very soon her captain,
+Martin Alonzo Pinzon, came on board the <i>Nina</i>, endeavouring to
+excuse his conduct. The real truth was that Pinzon had taken the
+lead with the view of being the first to reach the pretended island
+of Babeque, of which the riches had been described in glowing
+colours by the natives. The admiral was very ready to accept the bad
+reasons given him by Captain Pinzon, and learnt from him that the
+<i>Pinta</i> had done nothing but coast along the shores of Hispaniola,
+without discovering any new island.</p>
+
+<p>On the 7th of January the ships lay to, to stop a leak which had
+sprung in the hold of the <i>Nina</i>. Columbus profited by this delay to
+explore a wide river, situated about three miles from Monte-Christi,
+and which carried so much gold-dust along with it, that he gave it
+the name of the Golden River. The admiral would have desired to
+visit this part of Hispaniola with greater care, but the crews were
+in haste to return home, and under the influence of the brothers
+Pinzon, began to murmur against his authority.</p>
+
+<p>On the 9th of January the caravels set sail and steered towards the
+east-south-east, skirting the coast, and distinguishing by names
+even its smallest sinuosities; of such were point Isabella, the cape
+of La Roca, French Cape, Cape Cabron, and the Bay of Samana,
+situated at the eastern extremity of the island, where was a port,
+in which the fleet, being becalmed, came to anchor. At first the
+relations between the foreigners and the natives were excellent, but
+a change was suddenly perceived, the savages ceasing to barter, and
+making some hostile demonstrations, which left no doubt of the bad
+intentions entertained by them. On the 13th of January the savages
+made a sudden and unexpected attack upon the Spaniards, who, however,
+put a bold face on the matter, and by the aid of their weapons, put
+their enemies to flight after a few minutes' combat. Thus, for the
+first time, the blood of the Indian flowed beneath the hand of the
+European.</p>
+
+<p>On the morrow Columbus again set sail, having on board four young
+natives, whom, notwithstanding their objections, he persisted in
+carrying off with him. His crews, embittered and fatigued, caused
+him great uneasiness, and in his narrative of the voyage, this great
+man, superior though he were to all human weaknesses, and a being
+whom adverse fate could not humble, bemoans himself bitterly over
+this trial. It was on the 16th of January that the homeward voyage
+commenced in good earnest, and Cape Samana, the extreme point of
+Hispaniola, disappeared below the horizon. The passage proved a
+quick one, and no incident is recorded until the 12th of February,
+when the vessels encountered a fearful storm lasting three days,
+with furious wind, enormous waves, and much lightning from the
+north-north-east. Three times did the terrified sailors make a vow
+of pilgrimage to St. Mary of Guadalupe, to our Lady of Loretto, and
+to St. Clara of Moguer, and at length, in extremity of fear, the
+whole crew swore to go and pray in their shirts and with naked feet
+in some church dedicated to the Virgin. But in spite of all, the
+storm raged with redoubled fury, and even the admiral feared for the
+result. In case of a catastrophe, he thought it well hastily to
+write upon a parchment an abstract of his discoveries, with a
+request that who ever should find the document would forward it to
+the King of Spain; wrapping the parchment in oil-cloth, he enclosed
+it in a wooden barrel, which was thrown into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>At sunrise on the 15th of February the hurricane abated, the two
+caravels which had been separated by the storm again joined company,
+and after three days they cast anchor at the island of St. Mary, one
+of the Azores; as soon as they arrived there, the admiral sought to
+further the accomplishment of the vows made during the storm, and
+with this object, sent half of his people on shore; but these were
+unhappily made prisoners by the Portuguese, who did not restore them
+to liberty for five days, notwithstanding the urgent remonstrances
+made by Columbus. The admiral put to sea again on the 23rd of
+February; again the winds were contrary, and again, amidst a violent
+tempest, he took fresh vows in company with all his crew, promising
+to fast on the first Saturday which should follow their arrival in
+Spain. At last, on the 4th of March, the pilots sighted the mouth of
+the Tagus, in which the <i>Nina</i> took refuge, whilst the <i>Pinta</i>,
+caught by the wind, was carried away into the Bay of Biscay.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese welcomed the admiral kindly, the king even admitting
+him to an audience. Columbus was in haste to return to Spain; as
+soon as the weather permitted, the <i>Nina</i> again set sail, and at
+mid-day on the 15th of March, she cast anchor in the port of Palos,
+after seven months and a half of navigation, during which Columbus
+had discovered the islands of San Salvador, Conception, Great Exuma,
+Long Island, the Mucaras, Cuba, and San Domingo.</p>
+
+<p>The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was then at Barcelona, whither
+the admiral was summoned. He set out immediately, taking with him
+the Indians whom he had brought from the New World. The enthusiasm
+he excited was extreme; from all parts the people ran to look at him
+as he passed, rendering him royal honours. His entry into Barcelona
+was magnificent. The king and queen, with the grandees of Spain,
+received him with great pomp at the palace of the Deputation. He
+there gave an account of his wonderful voyage, and presented the
+specimens of gold which he had brought with him; then all the
+assembly knelt down and chanted the Te Deum. Christopher Columbus
+was afterwards ennobled by letters patent, and the king granted him
+a coat of arms bearing this device: "To Castille and Leon, Columbus
+gives a New World." The fame of the Genoese navigator rang through
+the whole of Europe; the Indians whom he had brought with him were
+baptized in presence of the whole court; and thus, the man of genius,
+so long poor and unknown, had now risen to the highest point of
+celebrity.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c73"></a>
+<center>III.<br>
+C<small>HRISTOPHER</small> C<small>OLUMBUS</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Second Voyage: Flotilla of seventeen vessels&mdash;Island of
+Ferro&mdash;Dominica&mdash;Marie-Galante&mdash;Guadaloupe&mdash;The
+Cannibals&mdash;Montserrat&mdash;Santa-Maria-la-Rodonda&mdash;St. Martin and Santa Cruz&mdash;Archipelago of
+the Eleven Thousand Virgins&mdash;The island of St. John Baptist, or
+Porto Rico&mdash;Hispaniola&mdash;The first Colonists massacred&mdash;Foundation of
+the town of Isabella&mdash;Twelve ships laden with treasure sent to
+Spain&mdash;Fort St. Thomas built in the Province of Cibao&mdash;Don Diego,
+Columbus' brother, named Governor of the Island&mdash;Jamaica&mdash;The Coast
+of Cuba&mdash;The Remora&mdash;Return to Isabella&mdash;The Cacique made
+prisoner&mdash;Revolt of the Natives&mdash;Famine&mdash;Columbus traduced in Spain&mdash;Juan
+Aguado sent as Commissary to Isabella&mdash;Gold-mines&mdash;Departure of
+Columbus&mdash;His arrival at Cadiz.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>The narrative of the adventures of the great Genoese navigator had
+over-excited the minds of the hearers. Imagination already caught
+glimpses of golden continents situated beyond the seas. All the
+passions which are engendered by cupidity were seething in the
+people's hearts. The admiral, under pressure of public opinion, must
+set forth again with the most brief delay. He was himself also,
+eager to return to the theatre of his conquests, and to yet enrich
+the maps of the day with more new discoveries. He declared himself,
+therefore, ready to start.</p>
+
+<p>The king and queen placed at his disposal a flotilla composed of
+three large ships and fourteen caravels. Twelve hundred men were to
+sail in them. Several Castilian nobles, with firm faith in the lucky
+star of Columbus, decided to try their fortune with him beyond seas.
+In the holds of the vessels were horses, cattle, instruments of all
+kinds for collecting and purifying gold, grain of various kinds; in
+a word, everything that might be needful in the establishing an
+important colony. Of the ten natives brought to Europe, five
+returned to their country, three, who were ill, remained behind in
+Europe, the other two were dead. Columbus was named captain-general
+of the squadron, with unlimited powers.</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th of September, 1493, the seventeen ships left Cadiz, with
+all sails set, amidst the acclamations of an immense crowd of people
+and on the 1st of October, they cast anchor at the island of Ferro,
+the most westerly of the Canary group. On sailing again, the fleet
+was favoured by wind and sea, and after twenty-three days of
+navigation came in sight of new land. At sunrise on the 3rd of
+November, being the Sunday in the octave of All Saints, the pilot of
+the flag-ship, the <i>Marie-Galante</i>, cried out, "Good news, there is
+land." This land proved to be an island covered with trees; the
+admiral, thinking it uninhabited, did not stop; but, after passing
+several scattered islets, he arrived before a second island. The
+first he named Dominica, the second Marie-Galante, names which they
+retain to the present day. The next day a still larger island was in
+sight, and, says the narrative of this voyage given by Peter Martyr,
+the contemporary of Columbus, "When they were arrived, they saw it
+was the island of the infamous cannibals, or Caribbees, of whom they
+had only heard a rumour during the first voyage."</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards, well armed, landed upon the shore, where they found
+about thirty circular houses built of wood and covered with palm
+leaves. In the interior of the huts were suspended hammocks made of
+cotton. In the centre of the village were placed two trees or posts
+around which were entwined the dead bodies of two serpents. At the
+approach of the strangers the natives fled in haste, leaving behind
+them several prisoners whom they were preparing to devour. The
+sailors searched the houses, and found both leg and arm bones, heads
+so newly cut off that the blood was still moist, and other human
+remains, which left no doubt as to the food consumed by these
+Caribbees. This island, which, with its principal rivers, the
+admiral caused to be partially explored, was named Guadaloupe, on
+account of the resemblance it bore to one of the Spanish provinces.
+Some Indian women were carried off by the sailors, but, after having
+been kindly treated on board the admiral's ship, they were sent back
+to land, Columbus hoping that this conduct towards the females would
+induce the men of the place to come on board, but in this he was
+disappointed.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 24">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="580">
+			<img src="images/039.jpg" alt="The sailors find some recently-severed heads">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="580" align="center">
+			The sailors find some recently-severed heads.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>On the 8th of November the signal for departure was given, and the
+whole fleet sailed for Hispaniola, the present San Domingo, and the
+island upon which Columbus had left thirty-nine of the companions of
+his first voyage. In turning again towards the north, a large island
+was discovered, to which the natives who had been kept on board
+after having been saved from the jaws of the Caribbees, gave the
+name of Mandanino. They declared that it was inhabited only by women,
+and as Marco Polo had mentioned an Asiatic country which possessed
+an exclusively feminine population, Columbus was confirmed in the
+idea that he was sailing upon the coast of Asia. He felt a great
+desire to explore this island, but the contrary winds completely
+prevented his doing so. Thirty miles from thence an island was seen
+surrounded by high mountains; it received the name of Montserrat; on
+the next day another, which was called Santa-Maria la Rodonda; and
+on the day following two more islands, St. Martin and Santa Cruz.</p>
+
+<p>The squadron anchored before Santa Cruz, to take in water. There
+occurred a scene of grave import, reported by Peter Martyr in such
+expressive words, that we cannot do better than quote them: "The
+admiral," he says, "ordered thirty men from his ship to go ashore
+and explore the island; and these men, being landed on the coast,
+were aware of four dogs and as many young men and women coming
+towards them, extending their arms in supplication, and praying for
+help and deliverance from the cruel people. The cannibals on seeing
+this fled, as in the island of Guadaloupe, and all retired into the
+forests. And our people remained two days on the island to visit it.</p>
+
+<p>"During that time, those who had remained with the boat saw a canoe
+coming towards them from a distance, containing eight men and as
+many women; to these our people made signs; but they on approaching,
+began to transpierce ours with their arrows, before they had time to
+cover themselves with their bucklers, so that one Spaniard was
+killed by a shaft aimed by a woman, who also transfixed another with
+a second arrow. These savages had poisoned arrows, the poison being
+contained in the tip; amongst them was a woman whom all the others
+obeyed, bowing before her. And this was, as they conjectured, a
+queen, having a son of cruel appearance, robust, and with the face
+of a lion, who followed her.</p>
+
+<p>"Ours then, considering that it was better to fight hand to hand,
+than to wait for greater evils in thus fighting at a distance,
+advanced their boat by rowing, and by so great violence did they
+make it move forward, that the stern of the said boat came with such
+velocity, it caused the enemies' canoe to founder.</p>
+
+<p>"But these Indians, being very good swimmers, without moving
+themselves either more slowly or more rapidly, did not cease, both
+men and women, to shoot arrows with all their might, at our people.
+And they succeeded in reaching, by swimming, a rock covered with the
+water, upon which they mounted, and still fought manfully.
+Nevertheless, they were finally taken, and one of them slain, and
+the son of the queen, pierced in two places; when they were taken to
+the admiral's ship they showed no less ferociousness and atrocity of
+mien, than if they had been lions of Libya who felt themselves taken
+in the net. And such were they that no man could have even looked
+upon them without his heart trembling with horror, so greatly was
+their look hideous, terrible, and infernal."</p>
+
+<p>From all this it is clear that the strife between the Indians and
+the Europeans was beginning to be serious. Columbus sailed again
+towards the north, going in the midst of islands "pleasant and
+innumerable," covered with forests overshadowed by mountains of
+various hues. This collection of islands was called the Archipelago
+of the Eleven Thousand Virgins. Soon appeared the island of St. John
+Baptist (now Porto Rico), a place infested by Caribbees, but
+cultivated with care, and appearing truly superb from its immense
+woods. Some sailors landed upon the shore, but only found there a
+dozen uninhabited huts. The admiral put to sea again, and sailed
+along the southern coast of Porto Rico for about one hundred and
+fifty miles.</p>
+
+<p>On Friday, the 12th of November, Columbus at last reached the island
+of Hispaniola. With what emotions must he not have been agitated in
+revisiting the theatre of his first success, in seeking to behold
+that fortress in which he had left his companions! What might not
+have happened in the course of a year to those Europeans left alone
+in this barbarous land? Soon a great canoe, bringing the brother of
+the Cacique Guacanagari, came alongside of the <i>Marie-Galante</i>, and
+the Indian prince springing on board, offered two images of gold to
+the admiral. Still Columbus sought for his fortress, but, although
+he had anchored opposite its site, there was no trace whatever to be
+seen of it. With feelings of the deepest anxiety as to the fate of
+his companions, he went on shore. What was his dismay, when he found
+nothing left of the fortress but a few ashes! What could have become
+of his compatriots? Had their lives been the forfeit of this first
+attempt at colonization? The admiral ordered the simultaneous
+discharge of the cannon from all the ships to announce his arrival
+at Hispaniola. But none of his companions appeared. Columbus, in
+despair, immediately despatched messengers to the Cacique
+Guacanagari; who, on their return brought sad news. If Guacanagari
+might be believed, some other caciques, irritated by the presence of
+the foreigners in their island, had attacked the unfortunate
+colonists, and had massacred them to the last man. Guacanagari
+himself had received a wound in endeavouring to defend them, and to
+corroborate his story he showed his leg enveloped in a cotton
+bandage.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus did not believe in this intervention of the cacique, but,
+resolving to dissimulate, he welcomed Guacanagari kindly when he
+came on board the next day; the cacique accepted an image of the
+Virgin, suspending it on his bosom. He appeared astonished at the
+sight of the horses which they showed him, these animals having been
+hitherto quite unknown to himself and his companions. When his visit
+was over, he returned to the shore, regained the region of mountains,
+and was seen no more.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral then despatched one of his captains with three hundred
+men under his orders, to scour the country and carry off the cacique.
+This captain penetrated far into the interior, but found no traces
+of the cacique, nor of the unfortunate colonists. During this
+excursion, a great river was discovered, and also a fine sheltered
+harbour, which was named Port Royal. However, in spite of the bad
+success of his first attempt, Columbus had resolved to found a new
+colony upon this island, which appeared to be rich both in gold and
+silver. The natives constantly spoke of mines situated in the
+province of Cibao, and in the month of January two gentlemen, Alonzo
+de Hojeda and Corvalan, set out accompanied by a numerous escort to
+verify these assertions. They discovered four rivers having
+auriferous sands, and brought back with them a nugget which weighed
+nine ounces. The admiral on seeing these riches was confirmed in his
+idea that Hispaniola was the famous Ophir, spoken of in the Book of
+Kings. After looking for a site upon which to build a town, he laid
+the foundation of Isabella in a spot at the mouth of a river which
+formed a harbour, and at a distance of thirty miles east from Monte
+Christi. On the Feast of the Epiphany, thirteen priests officiated
+in the church in presence of an immense crowd of natives.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus was now anxious to send news of the colony to the King and
+Queen of Spain. Twelve ships laden with gold collected in the island,
+and with various specimens of the produce of the soil, were prepared
+to return to Europe under the command of Captain Torrès. This
+flotilla set sail on the 2nd of February, 1494, and a short time
+afterwards Columbus sent back one more of the five ships which
+remained to him, with the Lieutenant Bernard of Pisa, against whom
+he had cause of complaint.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as order was established in the colony of Isabella, the
+admiral, leaving his brother behind as governor, set out,
+accompanied by five hundred men, to visit the mines of Cibao. The
+country they traversed seemed to be splendidly fertile; vegetables
+came to perfection in thirteen days; corn sown in February was in
+full ear in April, and each year yielded two abundant harvests. They
+crossed successively mountains and valleys, where often the pick-axe
+had to be used to clear a way over these still virgin lands; at last
+the Spaniards arrived at Cibao. There the admiral caused a fort to
+be constructed of wood and stone on a hill near the brink of a large
+river; it was surrounded with a deep ditch, and Columbus bestowed
+upon it the name of St. Thomas, in derision of some of his officers
+who were incredulous upon the subject of the gold-mines. It ill
+became them to doubt, for from all parts the natives brought nuggets
+and gold dust, which they were eager to exchange for beads, and
+above all for the hawks' bells, of which the silvery sound excited
+them to dance. This country was not only a land of gold, it was also
+a country rich in spices and aromatic gums, the trees which bore
+them forming quite large forests. The Spaniards considered the
+conquest of this wealthy island a cause of unmixed congratulation.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus left fifty-six men to guard the Fort of St. Thomas, under
+the command of Don Pedro de Margarita, while he returned to Isabella,
+towards the beginning of April, being much hindered on the road by
+excessive rain. On his arrival he found the infant colony in great
+disorder; famine was threatening from the want of flour, which could
+not be obtained, for there were no mills; both soldiers and workmen
+were exhausted with fatigue. Columbus sought to oblige the gentlemen
+to aid them; but these proud Hidalgos, anxious as they were to
+conquer fortune, would not stoop to pick it up, and refused to
+perform any manual labour. The priests upholding them in this
+conduct, Columbus, who was forced to act with vigour, was obliged to
+place the churches under an interdict. He could not spare time to
+remain any longer at Isabella, but was in haste to make further
+discoveries; therefore, having formed a council, composed of three
+gentlemen and the chief of the missionaries, under the presidency of
+Don Diego, to govern the colony, he set out on the 24th of April
+with three vessels, to complete the cycle of his discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>The flotilla sailing towards the south, a new island was soon
+discovered, which was called by the natives Jamaica. The highest
+point of the island was a mountain of which the sides sloped gently
+down. The inhabitants appeared clever, and much given to the
+mechanical arts, but they were far from pacific in character, and
+several times opposed the landing of the Spaniards, who, however,
+repulsed them, and at length the savages were induced to conclude a
+treaty of alliance with the admiral. From Jamaica Columbus pushed
+his researches more towards the west. He imagined himself to be
+arrived at the point where the old geographers placed the golden
+region of the west, Chersonesus. Strong currents carried him towards
+Cuba, along whose coast he sailed for a distance of six hundred and
+sixty-six miles. During this dangerous navigation amongst shallows
+and narrow passages, he named more than seven hundred islands,
+discovered a great number of harbours, and often entered into
+communication with the natives.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 25">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="572">
+			<img src="images/040.jpg" alt="Fishermen on the coast of Cuba">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="572" align="center">
+			Fishermen on the coast of Cuba.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the month of May, the look-out-men on board the ships descried a
+large number of grassy islands, fertile and inhabited. Columbus, on
+approaching the shore, entered a river, of which the water was so
+warm that the hand could not remain in it, a fact evidently of
+exaggeration, and one which later researches have not authenticated.
+The fishermen of this coast employed a certain fish called the
+Remora or sucking-fish, "which fulfilled for them the same office as
+the dog does for the hunter. This fish was of an unknown species,
+having a body like a great eel, and upon the back of his head a very
+tenacious skin, in fashion like a purse, wherewith to take the
+fishes. They keep this fish fastened by a cord to the boat, always
+in the water, for it cannot bear the <i>look</i> of the air. And when
+they see a fish or a turtle, which there are larger than great
+bucklers, then they loose the fish by slackening the rope. And when
+he feels himself at liberty, suddenly, and more rapidly than the
+flight of an arrow, he (the remora) assails the said fish or turtle,
+throws over him his skin in the manner of a purse, and holds his
+prey so firmly, be it fish or turtle, by the part visible beyond the
+shell, that none can wrest it from him, if he be not drawn to the
+surface of the water; the cord is therefore pulled up, and gathered
+in little by little; and no sooner does he see the splendour of the
+air, than incontinent he lets go of his prey. And the fishermen
+descend as far as is necessary to take the prey, and they put it on
+board the boat, and fasten the fish-hunter with as much of rope as
+is necessary for him to regain his old position and place; then, by
+means of another rope, they give him for reward a small piece of the
+flesh of his prey."</p>
+
+<p>The exploration of the coasts continued towards the west. The
+admiral visited several countries, in which abounded goslings, ducks,
+herons, and those dumb dogs which the natives eat, as we should kids,
+and which were probably either almigui or racoons. As the ships
+advanced, the sandy channels became narrower and narrower, and
+navigation more and more difficult, but the admiral adhered to his
+resolution of continuing the exploration of these coasts. One day,
+he imagined he saw upon a point of land some men dressed in white,
+whom he took for brothers of the order of Santa Maria de la Merced;
+he sent some sailors to open communication with them, when it proved
+to be simply an optical illusion; these so-called monks turning out
+to be great tropical herons, to whom distance had lent the
+appearance of human beings.</p>
+
+<p>During the first days of June, Columbus was obliged to stop to
+repair the ships, of which the keels were much damaged by the
+shallow water on the coast. On the seventh day of the month he
+caused a solemn mass to be celebrated on the shore: during the
+service an old cacique arrived, who, the ceremony being over,
+offered the admiral some fruits, and then this native sovereign
+pronounced some words which the interpreters thus translated:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"It hath been told us after what manner thou hast invested and
+enveloped with thy power these lands, which were to you unknown, and
+how thy presence has caused great terror to the people and the
+inhabitants. But I hold it my duty to exhort and to warn thee that
+two roads present themselves before the souls, when they are
+separated from the bodies: the one, filled with shadows and sadness
+destined for those who are harmful and hurtful to the human species;
+the other, pleasant and delightful, reserved for those who in their
+life-time have loved peace and the repose of the people. Therefore,
+if thou rememberest that thou art mortal, and that the future
+retribution will be meted out according to the works of the present
+life, thou wilt take care to do harm to nobody." What philosopher of
+ancient or modern time could have spoken better or in sounder
+language! All the human side of Christianity is expressed in these
+magnificent words, and they came from the mouth of a savage!
+Columbus and the cacique separated, charmed with one another, and
+the more astonished of the two was not, perhaps, the old native. The
+rest of his tribe appeared to live in the practice of the excellent
+precepts indicated by their chief. Land was common property amongst
+the natives, as much so as sun, air, and water. The Meum and Tuum,
+cause of all strife, did not exist amongst them, and they lived
+content with little. "They enjoy the Golden Age," says the narrative,
+"they protect not their possessions with ditches and hedges, they
+leave their gardens open; without laws, without books, without
+judges, they by nature follow what is right, and hold as bad and
+unjust whatever sins against, or causes harm to another."</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Cuba, Columbus returned towards Jamaica, and sailed along
+the whole of the southern coast as far as the eastern extremity of
+the island. His intention was to attack the islands of the Caribbees,
+and destroy that mischievous brood. But the admiral was at this time
+seized with an illness, brought on by watching and fatigue, which
+obliged him to suspend his projects. He was forced to return to
+Isabella, where, under the influence of good air and repose, and the
+care of his brother and his friends, he recovered his health. The
+colony greatly needed his presence. The governor of St. Thomas had
+aroused the indignation of the natives by his cruel exactions, and
+had refused to listen to the remonstrances upon the subject
+addressed to him by Don Diego, the brother of Columbus; he had
+returned to Isabella from St. Thomas during the absence of the
+admiral and he embarked for Spain upon one of the ships which had
+just brought Don Bartolomeo, the second brother of Columbus, to
+Hispaniola. When the admiral regained his health he resolved to
+punish the cacique who had revolted against the governor of St.
+Thomas, feeling that it would be unwise to allow his authority, in
+the person of his delegates, to be set at nought. In the first place
+he sent nine men well armed to take prisoner a bold cacique named
+Caonabo. The leader Hojeda, with an intrepidity of which we shall
+have further instances in the future, carried off the cacique from
+the midst of his own people, and brought him prisoner to Isabella.
+Columbus afterwards sent Caonabo to Europe, but the ship in which he
+sailed was wrecked during the voyage, and he was never heard of more.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, Antonio de Torrès, sent by the King and Queen of
+Spain to compliment Columbus in their names, arrived at San Domingo
+with four vessels. Ferdinand declared himself highly content with
+the successes of the admiral, and informed him that he was about to
+establish a monthly service of transport between Spain and
+Hispaniola.</p>
+
+<p>The carrying off of Caonabo had excited a general revolt amongst the
+natives, who burned to revenge the chief, so deeply insulted and
+unjustly carried away. The Cacique Guacanagari, notwithstanding the
+share he had had in the murder of the first colonists, alone
+remained faithful to the Spaniards. Columbus, accompanied by his
+brother Bartolomeo and the cacique, marched against the rebels and
+soon met with an army of natives, the numbers of which, with
+manifest exaggeration, he places at 100,000 men. However numerous it
+may have been, this army was quickly routed by a small detachment,
+composed of 200 infantry, twenty-five cavalry, and twenty-five dogs.
+This victory to all appearance re-established the admiral's
+authority. The Indians were condemned to pay tribute to the
+Spaniards, those living near the mines were ordered to furnish every
+three months a small quantity of gold, while the others, more
+distant, were to contribute twenty-five pounds of cotton. But
+rebellion had been only curbed, not extinguished. At the voice of a
+woman, Anacaona, widow of Caonabo, the natives rose a second time;
+and even succeeded in drawing over the hitherto faithful Guacanagari
+to their side; the rebels destroyed all the fields of maize, and
+everything else which had been planted, and then retired into the
+mountains. The Spaniards, seeing themselves thus reduced to all the
+horrors of famine, indulged their anger by terrible reprisals
+against the natives; it is calculated that one-third of the island
+population perished from hunger, sickness, and the weapons of the
+companions of Columbus. These unfortunate Indians paid dearly indeed
+for their intercourse with the conquering Europeans.</p>
+
+<p>The good fortune of Columbus was by this time on the wane. While his
+authority in Hispaniola was continually more and more compromised,
+his reputation and his character were the objects of violent attack
+in Europe. The officers whom he had sent back to the mother country,
+loudly accused him of injustice and cruelty; they even insinuated
+that he sought to render himself independent of the king; and
+against all these attacks, Columbus, being absent, could not defend
+himself. Ferdinand, influenced by this unworthy discourse, chose a
+commissioner, whom he ordered to proceed to the West Indies and to
+examine into the truth of the accusations. This gentleman was named
+Juan d'Aguado, and the choice of such a man to fulfil such a mission,
+possessing as he did a mind both prejudiced and partial, was not a
+happy one. Aguado arrived at Isabella in the month of October, at
+the time when the admiral was absent on an exploring expedition, and
+began at once to treat the brother of Columbus with extreme
+haughtiness, while Diego on his side, relying upon his title of
+governor-general, refused to submit to the commands of the royal
+commissioner. Aguado soon considered himself ready to return to
+Spain, although the examination he had made was a most incomplete
+one, when a fearful hurricane occurred, which sank the vessels which
+had brought him over in the harbour. There now remained only two
+caravels at Hispaniola, but Columbus, who had returned to the colony,
+acting with a greatness of soul which cannot be too much admired,
+placed one of these ships at the disposal of the commissioner, with
+the proviso that he himself would embark in the other, to plead his
+cause in person before the king.</p>
+
+<p>So matters stood, when the news arriving of the discovery of fresh
+gold-mines in Hispaniola, caused the admiral to put off his
+departure. Covetousness was a power strong enough to cut short all
+discussions; there was no longer any mention of the King of Spain,
+nor of the inquiry which he had ordered; officers were sent off to
+the new auriferous ground, finding there nuggets of which some
+weighed as much as twenty ounces, and a lump of amber of the weight
+of 300 pounds. Columbus ordered two fortresses to be erected for the
+protection of the miners, one on the boundary of the province of
+Cibao, the other upon the banks of the River Hayna. Having taken
+this precaution, he set out for Europe, full of eagerness to justify
+himself. The two caravels sailed from the harbour of St. Isabella on
+the 10th of March, 1496. On board of the admiral's ship were 225
+persons and thirty Indians. On the 9th of April he touched at
+Marie-Galante, and on the 10th at Guadaloupe, to take in water; here
+there occurred a sharp skirmish with the natives. On the 20th he
+left this inhospitable island, and for a whole month he had to
+contend with contrary winds. On the 11th of June land was sighted in
+Europe, and on the next day the caravels entered the harbour of
+Cadiz.</p>
+
+<p>This second return of the great navigator was not welcomed, as the
+first had been, by the acclamations of the populace. To enthusiasm
+had succeeded coldness and envy; the companions even of the admiral
+took part against him. Discouraged as they were, with illusions
+destroyed, and not bringing back that wealth, for the acquisition of
+which they had encountered so many dangers, and submitted to so much
+fatigue, they became unjust, and forgot that it was not the fault of
+Columbus if the mines hitherto worked had been a source of expense
+rather than of profit.</p>
+
+<p>However, the admiral was received at court with a certain measure of
+favour, the narrative of his second voyage doing much to reinstate
+him in public opinion. And who could deny that during that
+expedition he had discovered the islands of Dominica, Marie-Galante,
+Guadaloupe, Montserrat, Santa-Maria, Santa Cruz, Porto Rico,
+Jamaica? Had he not also carried out a new survey of Cuba and San
+Domingo? Columbus fought bravely against his adversaries, even
+employing against them the weapon of irony. To those who denied the
+merit of his discoveries, he proposed the experiment of making an
+egg remain upright while resting upon one end, and when they could
+not succeed in doing this, the admiral, breaking the top of the
+shell, made the egg stand upon the broken part. "You had not thought
+of that," said he; "but behold! it is done."</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c74"></a>
+<center>IV.<br>
+C<small>HRISTOPHER</small> C<small>OLUMBUS</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Third Voyage: Madeira&mdash;Santiago in the Cape Verd
+Archipelago&mdash;Trinidad&mdash;First sight of the American Coast in Venezuela, beyond the
+Orinoco, now the Province of Cumana&mdash;Gulf of Paria&mdash;The
+Gardens&mdash;Tobago&mdash;Grenada&mdash;Margarita&mdash;Cubaga&mdash;Hispaniola during the absence of
+Columbus&mdash;Foundation of the town of San Domingo&mdash;Arrival of
+Columbus&mdash;Insubordination in the Colony&mdash;Complaints in
+Spain&mdash;Bovadilla sent by the king to inquire into the conduct of
+Columbus&mdash;Columbus sent to Europe in fetters with his two brothers&mdash;His
+appearance before Ferdinand and Isabella&mdash;Renewal of royal favour.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>Columbus had not yet given up the hope of pursuing his conquests on
+the further side of the Atlantic Ocean. No fatigue, no injustice
+from his fellow-men could stop him. After having triumphed, although
+not without difficulty, over the malice of his enemies, he succeeded
+in organizing a third expedition under the auspices of the Spanish
+government. The king granted him eight vessels, forty cavalry
+soldiers, and one hundred infantry, sixty sailors, twenty miners,
+fifty labourers, twenty workmen of various trades, thirty women,
+some doctors, and even some musicians. The admiral obtained the
+concession besides, that all the punishments in use in Spain should
+be changed into transportation to the islands. He was thus the
+precursor of the English in the intelligent idea of peopling new
+colonies with convicts, whom labour was to reform.</p>
+<a name="fax12"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 12">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581">
+			<img src="images/041.jpg" alt="Embarkation of Christopher Columbus">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581" align="center">
+			Embarkation of Christopher Columbus.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Columbus put to sea on the 30th of May, 1498, although he was still
+suffering from gout, and from the various mental trials which he had
+experienced since his return. Before starting, he learnt that a
+French fleet was lying in wait off Cape St. Vincent, with the
+purpose of hindering the expedition. To avoid it, Columbus made for
+Madeira, and anchored there; from that island he dispatched all his
+vessels, except three, to Hispaniola under the command of the
+Captains Pedro de Arana, Alonzo Sanchez of Carabajal, and Juan
+Antonio Columbus, one of his own relations, while he, with a large
+ship and two caravels bore down to the south with the intention of
+crossing the equator, and seeking for more southern countries, which,
+according to the general opinion, must be even richer in all kinds
+of productions. On the 27th of June the small flotilla touched at
+the islands of Sel and of Santiago, which form part of the Cape Verd
+group. It sailed again on the 4th of July, and made 360 miles to the
+south-west, experiencing long calms and intense heat; on arriving
+abreast of Sierra Leone, it steered due west, and at mid-day on the
+31st of July, one of the sailors raised the cry of "land." It was an
+island situated at the north-eastern extremity of South America, and
+very near the coast. The admiral gave it the name of Trinidad, and
+all the crews chanted the <i>Salve Regina</i> in sign of thankfulness. On
+the morrow, the 1st of August, at fifteen miles from the part of the
+land which had been first seen, the three vessels were moored near
+to the Point of Alcatraz, and the admiral sent some of his sailors
+ashore to obtain water and wood. The coast appeared to be
+uninhabited, but numerous footprints of animals were observed, made,
+as was thought, by goats.</p>
+
+<p>On the 2nd of August a long canoe, manned by twenty-four natives,
+came towards the ships. These Indians, tall of stature, and paler in
+colour than those of Hispaniola, wore upon the head a turban formed
+of a cotton scarf of brilliant colours, and a small skirt of the
+same material around the body. The Spaniards endeavoured to entice
+them on board, by showing them mirrors and glass trinkets; the
+sailors even executing lively dances, in the hope of inspiring them
+with confidence; but the savages, taking fright at the sound of a
+tambourine, which seemed to them a sign of hostility, discharged a
+flight of arrows, and directed their canoe towards one of the
+caravels, whose pilot endeavoured to reassure them by steering
+towards them; but in vain, the canoe soon made off, and was seen no
+more.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus again set sail, and discovered a new island which he called
+Gracia; but what he imagined to be an island, was, in reality, a
+portion of the American coast, and that part of the shore of
+Venezuela, which, being intersected by the numerous branches of the
+Orinoco, forms the Delta of that river. On this day the Continent of
+America, although unknown to him, was really discovered by
+Christopher Columbus, in that part of Venezuela which goes by the
+name of the Province of Cumana. Between this coast and the Island of
+Trinidad there is a dangerous gulf, the Gulf of Paria, in which a
+ship can with difficulty resist the currents which flow towards the
+west with great rapidity. The admiral, who believed himself to be in
+the open sea, was exposed to great peril in this gulf, where the
+rivers, falling into the sea from the continent, and being swollen
+at that time by an accidental flood, poured great masses of water
+upon the ships. Columbus, in writing to the king and queen,
+describes this incident in the following terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Being up on deck, at an advanced hour of the night, I heard a kind
+of terrible roaring; I tried to see through the darkness, and all at
+once I beheld a sea like a hill, as high as the ship, advancing
+slowly from the south towards my vessels. Opposing this great wave
+was a current, which met it with a frightful noise. I had no doubt
+then that we should be engulfed, and even now the remembrance causes
+me a feeling of horror. By good fortune, however, the current and
+the wave passed us, going towards the mouth of the canal, where,
+after long strife, they gradually sank to rest."</p>
+<a name="fax13"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 13">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="1252">
+			<img src="images/042.jpg" alt="Gulf of Mexico and the Antilles">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the difficulties of the navigation, Columbus
+continued to explore this sea, of which the waters became gradually
+calmer as he sailed northwards; he discovered various headlands, one
+of them was to the east of the Island of Trinidad, and called the
+Cape of Pera Blanca. Another was on the west of the promontory of
+Paria, and named Cape Lapa. Several harbours were also noticed,
+amongst others one situated at the mouth of the Orinoco, to which
+was given the name of the Port of Monkeys. Columbus landed on the
+shore, west of Point Cumana, and received a kindly welcome from the
+numerous inhabitants. Towards the west, beyond the point of Alcatraz,
+the country was magnificent, and there according to the natives,
+much gold and pearls were to be obtained. Here the admiral would
+gladly have remained for some time if he could have found a safe
+anchorage. But as this was impossible, he felt it best to make for
+Port Isabella, especially as his crews were worn down by fatigue,
+and his own health much affected, besides the sufferings he
+experienced from the bad state of his eyesight. So he sailed onwards
+along the Venezuelan coast, making friends as far as possible with
+the natives. These Indians were agreeable in feature, and of
+magnificent physique; their dwellings displayed a certain amount of
+taste, their houses being built with façades in front, and
+containing articles of furniture ingeniously made. The natives wore
+plates of gold as ornaments upon their necks. As to the country, it
+was superb; the rivers, the mountains, the immense forests made it a
+real land of delight. So the admiral gave this beautiful country the
+name of Gracia, and by many arguments he tried to prove that in this
+spot was situated that terrestrial Paradise once inhabited by Adam
+and Eve, being the cradle of the whole human race. To explain to a
+certain degree this idea of the great navigator, we must not forget
+that he imagined himself all this time to be on the shores of Asia.
+This spot which delighted him so much, he called "the Gardens."</p>
+
+<p>On the 23rd of August, after having at the expense of much danger
+and fatigue, overcome the perils of this bay, Columbus issued from
+the Gulf of Paria by the narrow strait to which he gave the name,
+retained to this day, of the Dragon's Mouth. Arrived in the open sea,
+the Spaniards discovered the Island of Tobago situated to the
+north-east of Trinidad, and then, more to the north, the Island of
+Conception, now known as Grenada. They next steered to the
+south-west and returned towards the American coast; after sailing
+along which for 120 miles, they discovered, on the 25th of August,
+the populous Island of Margarita, and afterwards the Island of
+Cubaga, situated very close to the mainland. At this place the
+natives had established a pearl-fishery, and busied themselves in
+collecting this valuable product. Columbus sent a boat on shore,
+when a very profitable traffic was carried on, the natives giving in
+exchange for broken pottery or hawks' bells, pounds' weight of
+pearls, some of which were very large, and of the finest water.</p>
+<a name="fax14"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 14">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="589">
+			<img src="images/043.jpg" alt="Pearl-fishers">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="589" align="center">
+			Pearl-fishers.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The admiral stopped at this point of his discoveries; the temptation
+was strong to explore this country, but both officers and crews were
+exhausted. Orders were therefore given to start for San Domingo,
+where matters of the gravest moment demanded the presence of
+Columbus. Before his departure from Hispaniola he had authorized his
+brother to lay the foundations of a new town. With this end Don
+Bartolomeo had explored the different portions of the island, and
+having discovered at the distance of 150 miles from Isabella a
+magnificent harbour at the mouth of a fine river, he there marked
+out the first streets of a town which became later on the city of
+San Domingo. Here Don Bartolomeo fixed his residence, while Don
+Diego remained as Governor of Isabella. By this arrangement
+Columbus' two brothers had the whole administration of the colony in
+their hands. But there were many malcontents who were ready to
+revolt against their authority, and it was while this bad spirit was
+abroad that the admiral arrived at San Domingo. He approved of all
+that his brothers had done, their administration having been in fact,
+marked by great wisdom, and he published a proclamation recalling to
+their obedience the Spaniards who had revolted. On the 18th of
+October he despatched five ships to Spain, and with them an officer
+commissioned to inform the king of the new discoveries, and of the
+state of the colony, endangered by the fomenters of disorder.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the affairs of Columbus had taken a bad turn in Europe.
+Since his departure calumnies against himself and his brothers had
+been ever on the increase. Some rebels who had been expelled the
+colony, denounced the encroaching dynasty of the Columbus family,
+thus exciting the jealousy of a vain and ungrateful monarch. Even
+the queen, until now the constant patroness of the Genoese navigator,
+was indignant at the arrival on board the vessels of three hundred
+Indians who had been torn from their country, and who were treated
+as slaves. Isabella did not know that this abuse of power had been
+carried out unknown to Columbus and during his absence; he was held
+responsible for it, and to inquire into his conduct, the Court sent
+to Hispaniola a commander of the order of Calatrava, named Francis
+de Bovadilla, to whom were given the titles of Governor-general, and
+Intendant of Justice. He was in reality meant to supersede Columbus.
+Bovadilla, invested with discretionary powers, set out with two
+caravels towards the end of June, 1500. On the 23rd of August, the
+colonists sighted the two ships, which were then endeavouring to
+enter the harbour of San Domingo.</p>
+
+<p>At this time Christopher Columbus and his brother Bartolomeo were
+absent, engaged in superintending the erection of a fort in the
+province of Xaragua; Don Diego was commanding in their absence.
+Bovadilla landed and went to hear mass, displaying during the
+ceremony a very significant ostentation; then, having summoned Don
+Diego before him, he ordered him to resign his office into his hands.
+The admiral, warned by a messenger of what was occurring, arrived in
+great haste. He examined the letters patent brought by Bovadilla,
+and having read them, he declared his willingness to recognize him
+as intendant of justice, but not as governor-general of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>Then Bovadilla gave him a letter from the king and queen, couched in
+the following terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Don Christopher Columbus, our Admiral in the ocean,</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"We have ordered Commander Don Francis Bovadilla to explain to you
+our intentions. We command you to give credit to, and to execute,
+whatever he shall order on our part.</p>
+
+<div align="right">"I, <small>THE</small> K<small>ING</small>, I, <small>THE</small> Q<small>UEEN</small>."&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p>In this letter, the title of Viceroy appertaining to Columbus by the
+solemn conventions signed by Ferdinand and Isabella, was not even
+mentioned. Columbus, suppressing his just indignation, quietly
+submitted. Then arose against the fallen admiral a whole host of
+false friends. All those who owed their fortune to Columbus turned
+against him; accusing him of having desired to render himself
+independent. Foolish calumnies! How could this idea have occurred to
+the mind of a foreigner, a Genoese, alone in the midst of a Spanish
+colony!</p>
+
+<p>Bovadilla found the moment propitious for harsh measures. Don Diego
+was already imprisoned, and the governor soon ordered Don Bartolomeo
+and Christopher Columbus himself to be put in fetters. The admiral,
+accused of high treason, was placed with his two brothers on board a
+vessel bound for Spain, under the command of Alphonso de Villejo.
+That officer, a man of feeling, and ashamed of the treatment to
+which Columbus was exposed, wished to strike off his chains; but
+Columbus refused. He, the conqueror of a new world, would arrive
+loaded with chains in that kingdom of Spain, which he had so greatly
+enriched!</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 26">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578">
+			<img src="images/044.jpg" alt="Columbus bound like a felon">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578" align="center">
+			Columbus bound like a felon.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The admiral judged rightly in thus acting, for public opinion was
+revolted by the sight of him in this depth of humiliation, bound
+like a felon, and treated as a criminal. Gratitude towards the man
+of genius asserted itself against the bad passions which had been so
+unjustly excited, and there arose a cry of indignation against
+Bovadilla. The king and queen, swayed by the feelings of the people,
+loudly blamed the conduct of the commander, and addressed an
+affectionate letter to Columbus, inviting him to present himself at
+court.</p>
+
+<p>Thus a bright day again dawned for Columbus. He appeared before
+Ferdinand, not as the accused, but as himself the accuser; then, his
+fortitude giving way under the remembrance of the unworthy treatment
+he had experienced, this unfortunate great man wept, and caused
+those around to weep with him. He pointed proudly to the story of
+his life. He showed himself to be almost without resources, he whom
+they accused of ambition, and of enriching himself out of the
+government of the colony! Verily, the man who had made the discovery
+of a world, did not possess a roof to shelter his own head!</p>
+
+<p>Isabella, ever good and compassionate, wept in company with the old
+sailor, and for sometime could not make him any answer, so choked
+was she with her tears. At length she was able to utter some
+affectionate words; in assuring Columbus of her protection, she
+promised to avenge him of his enemies; she excused the bad choice
+they had made in sending this Bovadilla to the islands, and she
+declared he should expiate his guilt by an exemplary punishment. In
+addition, she desired the admiral to allow some time to elapse
+before returning to his government, in order that the minds
+prejudiced against him might return to sentiments of honour and
+justice.</p>
+
+<p>The mind of Christopher Columbus was calmed by the gracious words of
+the queen; he showed himself content with his reception, and
+admitted the necessity of the delay enjoined upon him by Isabella.
+The chief wish of his heart was again to serve his adopted country
+and its sovereigns, and he sketched out grand designs of what still
+remained to be attempted in the way of discovery. His third voyage,
+in spite of its short duration, had not been without fruit, but had
+enriched the map with such new names as Trinidad, the Gulf of Paria,
+the coast of Cumana, the Islands of Tobago, of Grenada, of Margarita,
+and of Cubaga.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c75"></a>
+<center>V.<br>
+C<small>HRISTOPHER</small> C<small>OLUMBUS</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Fourth Voyage: A Flotilla of four vessels&mdash;Canary
+Islands&mdash;Martinique&mdash;Dominica&mdash;Santa-Cruz&mdash;Porto-Rico&mdash;Hispaniola&mdash;Jamaica&mdash;Cayman
+Island&mdash;Pinos Island&mdash;Island of Guanaja&mdash;Cape Honduras&mdash;The
+American Coast of Truxillo on the Gulf of Darien&mdash;The Limonare
+Islands&mdash;Huerta&mdash;The Coast of Veragua&mdash;Auriferous Strata&mdash;Revolt of
+the Natives&mdash;The Dream of Columbus&mdash;Porto-Bello&mdash;The Mulatas&mdash;Putting
+into port at Jamaica&mdash;Distress&mdash;Revolt of the Spaniards
+against Columbus&mdash;Lunar Eclipse&mdash;Arrival of Columbus at Hispaniola&mdash;Return
+of Columbus to Spain&mdash;His death, on the 20th of March, 1506.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>Christopher Columbus saw himself now reinstated in favour, as he
+deserved to be, at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. Perhaps the
+king may have still evinced a certain degree of coldness towards him,
+but the queen was his avowed and enthusiastic protectress. His
+official title as viceroy had not, however, been restored to him,
+but the admiral, with his usual magnanimity, did not demand it. He
+had the satisfaction of seeing Bovadilla deposed, partly for his
+abuse of power, and partly because his conduct towards the Indians
+had become atrocious; his inhuman proceedings towards them being
+pushed to such a length, that under his administration the native
+population of Hispaniola, sensibly decreased.</p>
+
+<p>During this time the island began to fulfil the hopes of Columbus,
+who had prophesied that in three years the crown would derive from
+it a revenue of sixty millions. Gold was obtained in abundance from
+the best worked mines; a slave had dug up on the banks of the Hayna,
+a mass, equal in weight to 3600 golden crowns; it was easy to
+foresee that the new colonies would yield incalculable riches.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral, who could not bear to remain inactive, earnestly
+demanded to be sent on a fourth voyage, although he was by this time
+sixty-six years of age. In support of his request he adduced some
+very plausible reasons. One year before the return of Columbus, the
+Portuguese navigator, Vasco da Gama, had returned from the Indies,
+after having doubled the Cape of Good Hope. Columbus felt certain
+that by sailing to India by the much safer and shorter western route,
+the Spaniards might enter into profitable competition with the
+Portuguese traders. He constantly maintained, believing as he did
+that he had been alongside the Asiatic territory, that the islands
+and continents discovered by him were only separated by a strait
+from the Moluccas. He therefore wished, without even returning to
+Hispaniola and the colonies already settled, to direct his course at
+once to the Indies. It is evident that the ex-Viceroy had again
+become the hardy navigator of his earlier years. The king agreed to
+the admiral's request, and placed him in command of a flotilla
+composed of four vessels, the <i>Santiago</i>, <i>Gallego</i>, <i>Vizcaino</i>, and a
+caravel, as admiral's galley. These ships were of small tonnage, the
+largest being only of seventy tons, and the smallest of fifty; they
+were in fact, little better than coasting-vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus left Cadiz on the 9th of May, 1502, with crews numbering in
+all 150 men. He took with him his brother Bartolomeo, and his son
+Fernando, the child of his second marriage, and at this time
+scarcely thirteen years old. On the 20th of May, the vessels stopped
+at Gran Canaria, and on the 15th of June arrived at Martinique, one
+of the Windward Islands; afterwards they touched at Dominica,
+Santa-Cruz, and Porto-Rico, and at length, after a prosperous voyage,
+reached Hispaniola, on the 29th of June. The intention of Columbus,
+acting on the queen's advice, was not to land upon the island whence
+he had been so unworthily expelled; but his badly-constructed ship
+was scarcely sea-worthy, and repairs to the keel were greatly needed.
+Therefore the admiral demanded permission of the governor to enter
+the harbour.</p>
+
+<p>The new governor, successor to Bovadilla, was a just and moderate
+man, a knight of the order of Alcantara, named Nicholas Ovando. His
+excessive caution, however, made him fear that the presence of
+Columbus in the colony might be a cause of disorder; he therefore
+thought it right to refuse the request. The admiral concealed the
+indignation which such treatment could not but cause him, and
+returned good for evil, by offering wise counsel to the governor in
+the following instance. The fleet which was to take Bovadilla back
+to Europe, and to bear with it, besides the enormous lump of gold
+already mentioned, other treasures of great value, was ready to put
+to sea. But the weather was very threatening, and Columbus, with a
+sailor's penetration, having observed the signs of an approaching
+storm, implored the governor not to expose the ships and passengers
+to such danger. Ovando would not listen to the advice, and the ships
+put to sea; scarcely had they reached the eastern point of the
+island before a terrible hurricane arose, causing twenty-one of the
+ships to founder with all on board. Bovadilla was drowned, and with
+him the greater part of the enemies of Columbus, but by an exception
+which may be called providential, the ship which carried the poor
+remains of the admiral's fortune, escaped destruction. In this storm
+ten millions' worth of gold and precious stones was engulfed by the
+ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the four caravels of Columbus, denied access to the
+harbour, had been driven before the storm. They were separated one
+from the other, and disabled, but they succeeded in meeting together
+again, and by the 14th of July, the squall had carried them within
+sight of Jamaica. Arrived there, strong currents bore them towards
+the islands called the Queen's Garden, and then in the direction of
+east-south-east. The little flotilla contended for sixty days
+against the wind without making more than 210 miles, and at length
+was driven towards the coast of Cuba, which led to the discovery of
+Cayman and Pinos Islands.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus then steered to the south-west, sailing upon seas hitherto
+unvisited by any European ship, and throwing himself once more into
+the course of discovery with all the passionate ardour of a
+navigator. Chance conducted him towards the southern coast of
+America; he discovered the island of Guanaja, on the 30th of July,
+and on the 14th of August he touched at Cape Honduras, that narrow
+strip of land, which, prolonged by the Isthmus of Panama, unites the
+two continents of America. Thus, for the second time Columbus,
+without being aware of it, approached the real soil of America. For
+more than nine months he followed the windings of these shores, in
+the face of all kinds of perils and difficulties, and succeeded in
+laying down the chart of the coast from the part since named
+Truxillo, as far as the Gulf of Darien. Each night he cast anchor,
+that he might not be driven far from the shore, and at length
+reached that eastern extremity of the coast where it ends abruptly
+in the Cape Gracias a Dios.</p>
+
+<p>This cape was doubled on the 14th of September, but the ships
+encountered contrary winds so violent, that even the admiral,
+himself the oldest sailor of the crews, had never before experienced
+the like. He relates this terrible episode in his letter to the king
+of Spain in the following terms: "During eighty-four days the waves
+continued their assaults, nor did my eyes perceive sun, nor stars,
+nor any planet; the seams of my vessels gaped, my sails were torn;
+tackle, boats, rigging, all were lost; my sailors, ill and
+frightened, devoted themselves to the pious duties of religion; no
+one failed to promise pilgrimages, and all confessed to each other,
+thinking that each moment might prove their last. I have seen many
+tempests, but never have I experienced any of such duration and
+violence. Many of my men who passed for intrepid sailors, lost
+courage; but that which broke my heart, was the pain of my son,
+whose tender age added to my despair, and whom I saw the prey of
+greater suffering, greater torments, than fell to the lot of any one
+amongst us; but it was doubtless no other than God, who bestowed
+upon him such energy, that it was He alone who animated the courage,
+and reawakened the patience of the sailors under their severe toil;
+in a word, looking upon him, one might have fancied him a sailor who
+had grown old in contending with storms, an astonishing fact, almost
+incredible, but one which awakened some gleam of joy amidst the
+sorrows which overwhelmed me. I was ill, and several times I thought
+my last hour was near.... To complete my misery comes the thought
+that twenty years of service, of fatigues and perils, have brought
+me no profit, and I find myself to-day unpossessed of even a roof to
+shelter me in Spain, and forced to betake myself to an inn when I
+would obtain repose or food; and when there I often find myself
+unable to pay my reckoning." Do not these lines indicate clearly the
+intensity of sorrow which overwhelmed the soul of Columbus? In the
+midst of such dangers and anxieties, how could he preserve the
+energy needful to command an expedition?</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the duration of the storm, the ships had been following
+the line of coast which successively bears the names of Honduras,
+Mosquito, Nicaragua, Costa-Rica, Veragua, and Panama, the twelve
+Limonare Islands being also discovered at this time, and at last, on
+the 25th of September, Columbus cast anchor between the small island
+of Huerta and the continent. On the 5th of October he again set sail,
+and after having taken the bearings of the Bay of Almirante, he
+anchored opposite to the village of Cariaz. There he remained until
+the 15th of October, the repairs of the vessels meanwhile going
+actively forward.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus now believed himself to be arrived near the mouth of the
+Ganges, and from the natives speaking of a certain province of
+Ciguare, which was surrounded by the sea, he felt himself confirmed
+in this opinion. They declared that it was a country containing rich
+gold-mines, of which the most important was situated seventy-five
+miles to the south. When the admiral again set sail, he followed the
+wooded coast of Veragua, where the Indians appeared to be very wild.
+On the 26th of November, the flotilla entered the harbour of El
+Retrete, which is now the port of Escribanos. The ships battered by
+the winds, were now in a most miserable plight; it was absolutely
+necessary to repair the damage they had sustained, and for this
+purpose to prolong the stay at El Retrete. Upon quitting this
+harbour Columbus was met by a storm even more dreadful than those
+which had preceded it: "During nine days," he says, "I remained
+without hope of being saved. Never did any man see a more violent or
+terrible sea; it was covered with foam, the wind permitted no ships
+to advance, nor to steer towards any cape; I was kept in that sea,
+of which the waves seemed to be of blood, and the surges boiled as
+though heated by fire. Never have I seen so appalling an aspect of
+the heavens: on fire during one whole day and night like a furnace,
+they sent forth thunder and flame incessantly, and I feared each
+moment that the masts and sails would be carried away. The growling
+of the thunder was so horrible that it appeared sufficient to crush
+our vessels; and during the whole time the rain fell with such
+violence that one could scarcely call it rain, but rather a second
+Deluge. My sailors, overcome by so much trouble and suffering,
+prayed for death as putting a term to their miseries; my ships
+opened in all directions, and boats, anchors, ropes, and sails were
+once again lost."</p>
+
+<p>During this long and painful navigation, the admiral had sailed one
+thousand and fifty miles. His crews were by this time quite
+exhausted; he was therefore obliged to turn back and to regain the
+river of Veragua, but not being able to find safe shelter there for
+his ships, he went a short distance off to the mouth of Bethlehem
+river, now called the Yebra, in which he cast anchor on the feast of
+the Epiphany in the year 1503. On the morrow the tempest was again
+renewed, and on the 24th of January, a sudden increase of water in
+the river caused the cables which held the ships to snap, and the
+vessels were only saved with great trouble.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of all this, the admiral, who never forgot the principal
+object of his mission in these new countries, had succeeded in
+establishing regular intercourse with the natives. The cacique of
+Bethlehem showed a friendly disposition, and pointed out a country
+fifteen miles inland, where he said the gold-mines were very rich.
+On the 6th of February, Columbus despatched a force of seventy men
+to the spot indicated, under the command of his brother Bartolomeo.
+After travelling through a very undulating country, watered by
+rivers so winding that one of them had to be crossed thirty-nine
+times, the Spaniards arrived at the auriferous tracts. They were
+immense, and extended quite out of sight. Gold was so abundant that
+one man alone could collect enough of it in ten days to fill a
+measure. In four hours, Bartolomeo and his men had picked up gold to
+an enormous amount. They returned to the admiral, who, when he heard
+their narrative, resolved to settle upon this coast, and to have
+some wooden barracks constructed.</p>
+<a name="fax15"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 15">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="590">
+			<img src="images/045.jpg" alt="Gold-mines in Cuba">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="590" align="center">
+			Gold-mines in Cuba.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The mines of this region were indeed of incomparable richness; they
+appeared to be inexhaustible, and quite made Columbus forget Cuba
+and San Domingo. His letter to King Ferdinand evinces his enthusiasm
+on the subject; one may feel some astonishment at reading the
+following sentiment from the pen of this great man, one indeed which
+is neither that of a philosopher nor of a Christian. "Gold! gold!
+excellent thing! It is from gold that spring riches! it is by means
+of gold that everything in the world is done, and its power suffices
+often to place souls in Paradise."</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards set to work with ardour to store up this gold in their
+ships. Hitherto the relations with the natives had been peaceable,
+although these people were of fierce disposition. But after a time
+the cacique, irritated by the usurpation of the foreigners, resolved
+to murder them and burn their dwellings. One day the natives
+suddenly attacked the Spaniards in considerable force, and a very
+severe battle ensued, ending in the repulse of the Indians. The
+cacique had been taken prisoner with all his family, but he
+succeeded with his children in escaping from custody, and took
+refuge in the mountains in company with a great number of his
+followers. In the month of April, a considerable troop of the
+natives again attacked the Spaniards, who exterminated a large
+proportion of them.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the health of Columbus became more and more enfeebled;
+the wind failed him for quitting the harbour, and he was in despair.
+One day, exhausted by fatigue, he fell asleep, and heard a pitying
+voice which addressed him as follows:&mdash;words which shall be given
+verbatim, for they bear the imprint of that kind of ecstatic
+religious fervour which gives a finishing touch to the picture of
+the great navigator.</p>
+
+<p>"'O foolish man! why such unwillingness to believe in and to serve
+thy God, the God of the Universe? What did He more for Moses His
+servant, and for David? Since thy birth, has He not had for thee the
+most tender solicitude; and when he saw thee of an age in which His
+designs for thee could be matured, has He not made thy name resound
+gloriously through the world? Has He not bestowed upon thee the
+Indies, the richest part of the earth? Has He not set thee free to
+make an offering of them to Him according to thine own will? Who but
+He has lent thee the means of executing His designs? Bounds were
+placed at the entrance of the ocean; they were formed of chains
+which could not be broken through. To thee were given the keys. Thy
+power was recognized in distant lands, and thy glory was proclaimed
+by all Christians. Did God even show Himself more favourable to the
+people of Israel, when He rescued them from Egypt? Did He favour
+David more, when from a shepherd boy He made him king of Judah? Turn
+to Him, confessing thy fault, for His compassion is infinite. Thine
+old age will prove no obstacle in the great actions which await
+thee: He holds in His hands a heritage the most brilliant. Was not
+Abraham a hundred years old, and had not Sarah already passed the
+flower of her youth when Isaac was born? Thou seekest an uncertain
+help. Answer me: who has exposed thee so often to so many dangers?
+Is it God, or the world? God never withholds the blessings promised
+to His servants. It is not His manner after receiving a service to
+pretend that His intentions have not been carried out, and to give a
+new interpretation to His desires; it is not He who seeks to give to
+arbitrary acts a favourable colour. His words are to be taken
+literally; all that He promises He gives with usury. Thus does He
+ever. I have told thee all that the Creator has done for thee; at
+this very moment He is showing thee the prize and the reward of the
+perils and sufferings to which thou hast been exposed in the service
+of thy fellow-men.' And I listened to this voice, overcome though I
+were with suffering; but I could not muster strength to reply to
+these assured promises; I contented myself by deploring my fault
+with tears. The voice concluded with these words:&mdash;'Take confidence,
+hope on; the record of thy labours will, with justice, be engraved
+on marble.'"</p>
+
+<p>Columbus, as soon as he recovered, was anxious to leave this coast.
+He had desired to found a colony here, but his crews were not
+sufficiently numerous to justify the risk of leaving a part of them
+on land. The four caravels were full of worm-holes, and one of them
+had to be left behind at Bethlehem. On Easter day the admiral put to
+sea, but scarcely had he gone ninety miles before a leak was
+discovered in one of the ships; it was necessary to steer for the
+coast with all speed, and happily Porto-Bello was reached in safety,
+where the ship was abandoned, her injuries being irreparable. The
+flotilla consisted now of but two caravels, without boats, almost
+without provisions, and with 7000 miles of ocean to traverse. It
+sailed along the coast, passed the port of El Retrete, discovered
+the group of islands called the Mulatas, and at length entered the
+Gulf of Darien. This was the farthest point east reached by Columbus.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of May the admiral steered for Hispaniola; by the 10th he
+was in sight of the Cayman Islands, but he found it impossible to
+make head against the winds which drove him to the north-west nearly
+as far as Cuba. There, while in shallow water, he encountered a
+storm, during which anchors and sails were carried away, and the two
+ships came into collision during the night. The hurricane then drove
+them southwards, and the admiral at length reached Jamaica with his
+shattered vessels, casting anchor on the 23rd of June in the harbour
+of San-Gloria, now called the bay of Don Christopher. Columbus
+wished to have gone to Hispaniola, where he would have found the
+stores needful for revictualling the ships, resources which were
+absolutely wanting in Jamaica; but his two caravels, full of
+worm-holes, "like to bee-hives," could not without danger attempt
+the ninety miles' voyage; the question now arose, how to send a
+message to Ovando, the governor of Hispaniola.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 27">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="587">
+			<img src="images/046.jpg" alt="The Admiral is obliged to run the caravels aground">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="587" align="center">
+			The Admiral is obliged to run the caravels aground.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The caravels let in water in every direction, and the admiral was
+obliged to run them aground; he then tried to organize a life in
+common upon shore. The Indians at first gave him assistance, and
+furnished the crews with the provisions of which they were in need,
+but the miserable and much tried sailors showed resentment against
+the admiral; they were ready for revolt, while the unfortunate
+Columbus, exhausted by illness, was confined to a bed of pain. It
+was in these trying circumstances that two brave officers, Mendez
+and Fieschi, proposed to the admiral to attempt to cross from
+Jamaica to Hispaniola in Indian canoes. This was in reality a voyage
+of six hundred miles, for it was necessary to row along the coast as
+far as the port where the colony was established. But these
+courageous officers were ready to face every peril, when it was a
+question of saving their companions. Columbus, appreciating the
+boldness of a proposal, which under other circumstances he would
+himself have been the first to make, gave the required permission to
+Mendez and Fieschi, who set out, while he, without ships, almost
+without provisions, remained with his crew upon this uncultivated
+island.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 28">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="596">
+			<img src="images/047.jpg" alt="Indian Boats">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="596" align="center">
+			Indian Boats.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Soon the misery of the shipwrecked people&mdash;for so we may fairly call
+them&mdash;became so great that a revolt ensued. The admiral's companions,
+blinded by their sufferings, imagined that their chief dared not
+return to the harbour in Hispaniola, to which Ovando had already
+denied him entrance. They thought this proscription applied to them
+equally with the admiral, and said among themselves that the
+governor, in excluding the flotilla from the harbours of the colony,
+must have acted under orders from the king. These absurd reasonings
+irritated minds already badly disposed, and at length on the 2nd of
+January, 1504, two brothers named Porras, one the captain of one of
+the caravels and the other the military treasurer, placed themselves
+at the head of the malcontents. Their wish was to return to Europe,
+and they rushed towards the admiral's tent, crying, "Castille!
+Castille!" Columbus was ill and in bed. His brother and his son
+threw themselves between him and the mutineers to defend him. At the
+sight of the aged admiral, the rebels stopped, and their violence
+abated; but they would not listen to the admiral's remonstrances and
+counsels; they did not understand that nothing could save them but
+general concord, and each, in unselfish forgetfulness, working for
+the public good. No! their decision was taken to quit the island, no
+matter by what means. Porras and his followers ran down to the shore,
+took possession of the canoes of the natives, and steered for the
+eastern extremity of the island. Arrived there, with no respect left
+for anything, and drunk with fury, they pillaged the Indians'
+dwellings&mdash;thus rendering the admiral responsible for their deeds of
+violence&mdash;and they dragged some unfortunate natives on board of the
+canoes which they had stolen. Porras and his companions continued
+their navigation; but when several leagues from shore, they were
+struck by a gust of wind which placed them in peril: with the object
+of lightening the canoes, they threw their prisoners overboard.
+After this barbarous execution, the canoes endeavoured, following
+the example of Mendez and Fieschi, to gain the island of Hispaniola,
+but in vain, they were continually thrown back upon the coasts of
+Jamaica.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the admiral, left alone with his friends and the sick,
+succeeded in establishing order in his little world. But the
+distress increased, and famine threatened. The natives wearied of
+providing food for these foreigners, whose sojourn upon their island
+was so prolonged; besides, they had seen the Spaniards fighting
+amongst themselves, a sight which had much destroyed their prestige,
+and convinced the Indians that these Europeans were nothing more
+than ordinary mortals; thus, they no longer respected nor feared
+them. The authority of Columbus over the native population was
+diminishing day by day, and an accidental circumstance was needed,
+of which the admiral cleverly took advantage, to bring back a renown
+which was necessary for the safety of his companions.</p>
+
+<p>A lunar eclipse, foreseen and calculated by Columbus, was due on a
+certain day. On the morning of this day, the admiral sent to request
+an interview with the caciques of the island. They accepted the
+invitation, and when they were assembled in the tent of Columbus,
+the latter announced to them that God, desirous of punishing them
+for their inhospitable conduct, and their bad feeling towards the
+Spaniards, would that evening refuse them the light of the moon. All
+came to pass as the admiral had foretold; the shadow of the earth
+began to conceal the moon, whose disc had the appearance of being
+eaten away by some formidable monster. The savages in terror cast
+themselves at the feet of Columbus, praying him to intercede with
+Heaven on their behalf, and promising to place all they had at his
+disposal. Columbus, after some well feigned hesitation, pretended to
+yield to the prayers of the natives. Under pretext of supplicating
+the Deity, he remained in his tent during the whole time of the
+eclipse, only reappearing at the moment when the phenomenon was
+nearly over. Then he told the caciques that God had heard his prayer,
+and extending his arm he commanded the moon to reappear. Soon the
+disc was seen to issue from the cone of the shadow, and the queen of
+night shone forth in all her splendour. From that day forward, the
+grateful and submissive Indians accepted the admiral's authority as
+one manifestly delegated to him by the celestial powers.</p>
+
+<p>While these events were passing at Jamaica, Mendez and Fieschi had
+long ago arrived at their destination. These brave officers had
+reached Hispaniola after a voyage of four days, little short of
+miraculous, accomplished as it was in a frail canoe. They
+immediately made the governor acquainted with the desperate
+condition of Columbus and his companions. Ovando, in a spirit of
+malice and injustice, detained these officers, and after a delay of
+eight months, under pretext of ascertaining the real condition of
+affairs, he despatched to Jamaica one of his own followers, a man
+named Diego Escobar, who was an especial enemy to Columbus. Escobar,
+on his arrival at Jamaica, would not communicate with Columbus; he
+did not even land, but contented himself with putting on shore, for
+the use of the distressed crews, "a side of pork and a barrel of
+wine;" then he again set sail without having allowed a single person
+to come on board. This infamous behaviour is but too real, although
+humanity almost refuses to believe in it.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral was indignant over this cruel mockery; but he showed no
+violence, used no recrimination. The arrival of Escobar somewhat
+reassured the shipwrecked men, for at least it proved that their
+situation was known. Deliverance was therefore only a matter of time,
+and the <i>morale</i> of the Spaniards gradually improved.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral was desirous of bringing about a reconciliation with
+Porras and the rebels, who, since their separation, had incessantly
+ravaged the island, and been guilty of odious cruelties towards the
+unfortunate natives. Columbus proposed to restore them to favour,
+but these foolish people only answered his generous overtures by
+advancing to attack him in his retreat. Those Spaniards who had
+remained faithful to the cause of order, were obliged to take up
+arms, and they valiantly defended the admiral, losing but one man in
+this sad affair. They took both the brothers Porras prisoners, and
+remained masters of the field of battle: then the rebels threw
+themselves on their knees before Columbus, who, in compassion for
+their sufferings, granted them pardon.</p>
+
+<p>At length, just one year after the departure of Mendez and Fieschi,
+a ship appeared, equipped by them at the expense of Columbus, which
+was destined to restore the shipwrecked company to their homes. On
+the 24th of June, 1504, every one went on board, and quitting
+Jamaica, the theatre of accumulated miseries, both moral and
+physical, they set sail for Hispaniola. Arrived in harbour, after a
+prosperous voyage, Columbus, to his no small surprise, found himself
+at first received with much respect, the governor Ovando, as a
+shrewd man not willing to go against public opinion, doing him
+honour. But this happy temper did not last. Soon the quarrels
+recommenced, and then Columbus, unable as well as unwilling to hear
+more, humiliated, and even maltreated, freighted two ships, of which
+he shared the command with his brother Bartolomeo, and on the 12th
+of September, 1504, he for the last time set out for Europe.</p>
+
+<p>His fourth voyage had increased geographical knowledge by the
+discovery of the Cayman Islands, Martinique, Guanaja, the Limonare
+Islands, with the coasts of Honduras, Mosquito, Nicaragua, Veragua,
+Costa-Rica, Porto-Bello, and Panama, the Mulatas Islands, and the
+Gulf of Darien.</p>
+
+<p>During this, his last voyage across the ocean, Columbus was destined
+to be again tried by storms. His own vessel was disabled, and he and
+his crew were obliged to go on board his brother's ship. On the 19th
+of October, another fearful hurricane broke the mast of this vessel,
+which had then to make more than two thousand miles with incomplete
+sails. At last, on the 7th of November, the admiral entered the
+harbour of San-Lucar. Here a sad piece of news was awaiting him.
+Isabella, his generous protectress, was dead. Who was there now to
+take an interest in the old Genoese?</p>
+
+<p>The admiral was coldly received by the ungrateful and jealous king
+Ferdinand, who did not even disdain to use subterfuges and delays,
+hoping thus to evade the solemn treaties given under his sign
+manual; he ended by proposing to Columbus the acceptance of a small
+Castilian town, Camon de los Condes, in exchange for his titles and
+dignities. This ingratitude and faithlessness overwhelmed the aged
+man; his health, already so much impaired, did not improve, and
+grief carried him to the grave. On the 20th of May, at Valladolid,
+at the age of seventy, he rendered up his soul to God with these
+words: "O Lord, into Thy hands I resign my soul and body."</p>
+
+<p>The remains of Columbus were at first laid in the monastery of St.
+Francis; in 1513, they were removed to the Carthusian monastery of
+Seville. But it seemed as if, even after death, repose were to be
+denied to the great navigator, for in 1536 his body was transported
+to the cathedral of San Domingo. Local tradition affirms that when,
+after the Treaty of Basle in 1795, the Spanish government, before
+giving up to France the eastern portion of the island of San Domingo,
+ordered the removal of the ashes of the great sailor to Havana, a
+canon substituted some other remains for those of Christopher
+Columbus, and that the latter were deposited in the choir of the
+cathedral, to the left of the altar. Thanks to this manoeuvre of the
+canon, whether dictated by a sentiment of local patriotism or by
+respect to the last wishes of Columbus who had indicated San Domingo
+as his chosen place of sepulture, it is not the dust of the
+illustrious navigator which Spain possesses at Havana, but probably
+that of his brother Diego. The discovery so lately made in the
+cathedral of San Domingo, on the 10th of September, 1877, of a
+leaden chest containing human bones, and bearing an inscription
+stating that it encloses the remains of the <i>Discoverer of America</i>,
+seems to confirm in every particular the tradition which has been
+just mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>But after all, it matters little whether the body of Columbus be at
+San Domingo or at Havana; his name and his glory are everywhere.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c8"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER VIII.</h4>
+<center>T<small>HE</small> C<small>ONQUEST OF</small> I<small>NDIA, AND OF THE</small> S<small>PICE</small> C<small>OUNTRIES</small>.<br>
+<br>
+I.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Covilham and Païva&mdash;Vasco da Gama&mdash;The Cape of Good Hope is
+doubled&mdash;Escalès at Sam-Braz&mdash;Mozambique, Mombaz, and Melinda&mdash;Arrival
+at Calicut&mdash;Treason of the Zamorin&mdash;Battles&mdash;Return to
+Europe&mdash;The scurvy&mdash;Death of Paul da Gama&mdash;Arrival at Lisbon.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>At the same time that the King of Portugal, John II., despatched
+Diaz to seek in the south of Africa the route to the Indies, he
+ordered two gentlemen of his court to find out if it would not be
+possible to attain the same end by an easier, safer, and more rapid
+means; by way of the isthmus of Suez, the Red Sea, and the Indian
+Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>For carrying out such a mission there was needed a clever,
+enterprising man, well acquainted with the difficulties of a journey
+in those regions, and possessing a knowledge of the Oriental
+languages, or at the very least, of Arabic. This agent must be of a
+versatile disposition, and able to dissemble; capable, in a word, of
+concealing the real meaning of projects which aimed at nothing less
+than withdrawing all the commerce of Asia from the hands of the
+Mussulmans and Arabs, and through them from the Venetians, in order
+to enrich Portugal with it.</p>
+
+<p>There was living at this time an experienced navigator, Pedro de
+Covilham, who had served with distinction under Alonzo V. in the war
+with Castille, and who had made a long stay in Africa. It was upon
+him that John II. cast his eye, and Alonzo de Païva was given him as
+a colleague. They left Lisbon in the month of May, 1487, furnished
+with detailed instructions, and with a chart drawn according to
+Bishop Calsadilla's map of the World, by the help of which the tour
+of Africa might be made.</p>
+
+<p>The two travellers reached Alexandria and Cairo, where they were
+much gratified at meeting with some Moorish traders from Fez and
+Tlemcen, who conducted them to Tor&mdash;the ancient Ezion-geber&mdash;at the
+foot of Sinai, where they were able to procure some valuable
+information upon the trade of Calicut. Covilham resolved to take
+advantage of this fortunate circumstance to visit a country which,
+for more than a century, had been regarded by Portugal with covetous
+longing, while Païva set out to penetrate into those regions then so
+vaguely designated as Ethiopia, in quest of the famous Prester John,
+who, according to old travellers, reigned over a marvellously rich
+and fertile country in Africa. Païva doubtless perished in his
+adventurous enterprise, being never again heard of.</p>
+
+<p>As for Covilham, he travelled to Aden, whence he embarked for the
+Malabar coast. He visited in succession Cananore, Calicut, and Goa,
+and collected accurate information upon the commerce and productions
+of the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean, without arousing the
+fears of the Hindoos, who could not suspect that the kind and
+friendly welcome they accorded to the traveller would bring about in
+the future the enthralment and ruin of their country. Covilham, not
+considering that he had yet done enough for his country, quitted
+India, and went to the eastern coast of Africa, where he visited
+Mozambique, Sofala&mdash;long famous for its gold-mines, of which the
+reputation, by means of the Arabs, had even reached Europe&mdash;and
+Zeila, the <i>Avalites portus</i> of the ancients, and the principal town
+of the Adel coast, upon the Gulf of Oman, at the entrance of the
+Arabian Sea. After a somewhat long stay in that country, he returned
+by Aden, then the principal entrepôt of the commerce of the east,
+went as far as Ormuz, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and then
+again passing up the Red Sea, he arrived at Cairo.</p>
+
+<p>John II. had sent to Cairo two learned Jews to await the arrival of
+Covilham, and to one of these, the Rabbi Abraham Beja, the traveller
+gave his notes, the itinerary of his journey, and a map of Africa
+given to him by a Mussulman, charging Beja to carry them all to
+Lisbon with the least possible delay. For himself, not content with
+all that he had done hitherto, and wishing to execute the mission
+which death had prevented Païva from accomplishing, he went into
+Abyssinia, where the "negus" or king, known by the name of Prester
+John, flattered by seeing his alliance sought by one of the most
+powerful sovereigns of Europe, received him with the greatest
+kindness, and gave him a high position at his court, but to make
+sure of retaining his services, he constantly refused him permission
+to leave the country. Although he had married there and had some
+children, Covilham still longed for his native country, and when, in
+1525, a Portuguese embassy, of which Alvarès was a member, came into
+Abyssinia, he witnessed the departure of his countrymen with the
+deepest regret, and the chaplain of the expedition has naïvely
+re-echoed his complaints and his grief.</p>
+
+<p>M. Ferdinand Denis says, "By furnishing precise information upon the
+possibility of circumnavigating Africa, by indicating the route to
+the Indies, by giving more positive and extended ideas upon the
+commerce of these countries, and above all, by describing the
+gold-mines of Sofala, and so exciting the cupidity of the Portuguese,
+Covilham contributed greatly to accelerate the expedition of Gama."</p>
+<a name="fax16"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 16">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="589">
+			<img src="images/048.jpg" alt="Vasco da Gama">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="589" align="center">
+			Vasco da Gama.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>If one may believe an old tradition, but one which is unsupported by
+any authentic document, Gama was descended by an illegitimate line
+from Alphonso III., King of Portugal. His father, Estevam Eanez da
+Gama, grand alcalde of Sinès and of Silvès, in the kingdom of
+Algarve, and commander of Seizal, occupied a high position at the
+court of John II. He enjoyed great reputation as a sailor, so much
+so, that just at the moment when his own unexpected death occurred,
+King John was thinking of giving Gama the command of the fleet which
+he was desirous of sending to the Indies. By his marriage with Dona
+Isabella Sodré, daughter of Juan de Resende, proveditore of the
+fortifications of Santarem, he had several children, and amongst
+them Vasco, who first reached India by doubling the Cape of Good
+Hope, and Paul, who accompanied him in that memorable expedition. It
+is known that Vasco was born at Sinès, but the date of his birth is
+uncertain; the year 1469 is that generally given, but besides the
+fact that if this be the correct date, Gama would have been very
+young&mdash;not more than eight and twenty&mdash;when the important command of
+the expedition to the Indies was confided to him, there was
+discovered twenty years ago, amongst the Spanish archives, a
+safe-conduct to Tangier granted in 1478 to two persons, Vasco da
+Gama and Lemos. It is scarcely probable that such a passport would
+have been given to a child of nine years of age, so that this
+discovery would appear to carry back the birth of the celebrated
+voyager to an earlier date.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that from an early period of his life, Vasco da Gama was
+destined to follow the career of a sailor, in which his father had
+distinguished himself. The first historian of the Indies, Lopez de
+Castañeda, delights in recalling the fact that he had signalized
+himself upon the African seas. At one time he was ordered to seize
+all the French ships lying in the Portuguese ports, in revenge for
+the capture by French pirates during a time of peace of a rich
+Portuguese galleon returning from Mina. Such a mission would only
+have been confided to an active, energetic and well-tried captain, a
+clear proof that Gama's valour and cleverness were highly
+appreciated by the king.</p>
+
+<p>About this time he married Dona Caterina de Ataïde, one of the
+highest ladies about the court, and by her he had several children,
+amongst others Estevam da Gama, who became governor of the Indies,
+and Dom Christovam, who, says Gaucher, by his struggle with Ahmed
+Guerad in Abyssinia, and by his romantic death, deserves to be
+reckoned amongst the famous adventurers of the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>All doubt as to the precise date of Gama's first voyage is now at an
+end, thanks to the document in the public library at Oporto, a paper
+with which Castañeda must have been acquainted, and of which M.
+Ferdinand Denis has published a translation in the <i>Ancient and
+Modern Travellers</i> of M. E. Charton. The date may be fixed with
+certainty for Saturday, the 8th of July, 1497.</p>
+
+<p>This expedition had been long ago determined upon, and all its
+details were minutely arranged. It was to be composed of four
+vessels of medium size, "in order," says Pacheco, "that they may
+enter everywhere and again issue forth rapidly." They were solidly
+constructed, and provided with a triple supply of sails and hawsers;
+all the barrels destined to contain water, oil, or wine had been
+strengthened with iron hoops; large provisions of all kinds had been
+made, such as flour, wine, vegetables, drugs, and artillery; the
+personnel of the expedition consisted of the best sailors, the
+cleverest pilots, and the most experienced captains.</p>
+
+<p>Gama, who had received the title of <i>Capitam mõr</i>, hoisted his flag
+upon the <i>Sam-Gabriel</i> of 120 tons. His brother Paul da Gama was on
+board the <i>Sam-Raphael</i> of 100 tons. A caravel of 50 tons, the
+<i>Berrio</i>, so named in memory of the pilot Berrio, who had sold her
+to Emmanuel I., was commanded by an experienced sailor, Nicolo
+Coelho, while Pedro Nuñes was the captain of a large barque, laden
+with provisions and merchandise, destined for exchange with the
+natives of the countries which should be visited. Pero de Alemquer,
+who had been pilot to Bartholomew Diaz, was to regulate the course
+of the vessels. The crews, including ten criminals who were put on
+board to be employed on any dangerous service, amounted to one
+hundred and sixty persons. What feeble means these, what almost
+absurd resources, compared with the grandeur of the mission which
+these men were to accomplish!</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of July, at sunrise, Gama advanced towards the vessels,
+followed by his officers through an immense crowd of people. Around
+him were a number of monks and religious persons, who chanted sacred
+hymns, and besought Heaven's protection for the voyagers. This
+departure from Rastello must have been a singularly moving scene;
+all, whether actors or spectators, mingling their chants, their
+cries, their adieux and their tears, while the sails, filled by a
+favourable breeze, bore away Gama and the fortune of Portugal
+towards the open sea. A large caravel and a smaller barque, which
+were bound for Mina under the command of Bartholomew Diaz, sailed in
+company with Gama's fleet. On the following Saturday, the ships were
+in sight of the Canaries, and passed the night windward of Lancerota.
+When they arrived parallel with the Rio de Ouro, a thick fog
+separated Paul da Gama, Coelho, and Diaz from the rest of the fleet,
+but they joined again near the Cape de Verd Islands, which were soon
+reached. At Santiago fresh stores of meat, water, and wood were
+taken on board, and the ships were again put into good sailing order.</p>
+<a name="fax17"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 17">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="783">
+			<img src="images/049.jpg" alt="La Mina">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="783" align="center">
+			La Mina.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>They quitted the shore of Santa Maria on the 3rd of August. The
+voyage was accomplished without any remarkable incidents, and on the
+4th of November, anchors were dropped upon the African Coast in a
+bay which received the name of <i>Santa-Ellena</i>. Eight days were spent
+there in shipping wood, and in putting everything in order on board
+the vessels. It was there that they saw for the first time the
+Bushmen, a miserable and degraded race of people who fed upon the
+flesh of sea-wolves and whales, as well as upon roots. The
+Portuguese carried off some of these natives, and treated them with
+kindness. The savages knew nothing of the value of the merchandize
+which was offered to them, they saw the objects for the first time
+and were ignorant of their use. Copper was the only thing which they
+appeared to prize, wearing in their ears small chains of that metal.
+They understood well the use of the zagayes&mdash;a kind of javelin, of
+which the point is hardened in the fire&mdash;of which three or four of
+the sailors and even Gama himself had unpleasant experience, while
+endeavouring to rescue from their hands a certain Velloso, a man who
+had imprudently ventured into the interior of the country. This
+incident has furnished Camoens with one of the most charming
+episodes of the "Lusiad."</p>
+
+<p>On leaving Santa-Ellena, Pero de Alemquer, formerly pilot to Diaz,
+declared his belief that they were then ninety miles from the Cape,
+but in the uncertainty the fleet stood off to sea; on the 18th of
+November the Cape of Good Hope was seen, and the next day it was
+doubled by the fleet sailing before the wind. On the 25th the
+vessels were moored in the Bay of Sam-Braz, where they remained
+thirteen days, during which time the boat which carried the stores
+was demolished, and her cargo divided amongst the three other
+vessels. During their stay the Portuguese gave the Bushmen some
+hawks' bells and other objects, which, to their surprise, were
+accepted, for in the time of Diaz the negroes had shown themselves
+timid and even hostile, and had thrown stones to prevent the crews
+from procuring water. Now they brought oxen and sheep, and to show
+their pleasure at the visit of the Portuguese, "they began," says
+Nicolas Velho, "to play upon four or five flutes, some set high,
+some low, a wonderful harmony for negroes, from whom one scarcely
+looks for music. They danced also, as dance the blacks, and the
+Capitam mõr commanded the trumpets to sound, and we in our boats
+danced too, the Capitam mõr himself dancing, as soon as he had
+returned amongst us."</p>
+
+<p>What shall we say to this little fête and this mutual serenade
+between the Portuguese and the negroes? Would any one have expected
+to behold Gama, a grave man, as his portraits represent him,
+initiating the negroes into the charms of the pavane. Unhappily
+these favourable dispositions were transient, and it was found
+necessary to have recourse to some hostile demonstrations by means
+of repeated discharges of artillery.</p>
+
+<p>In this Bay of Sam-Braz Gama erected a padrao, which was thrown down
+as soon as he was gone. The fleet soon passed the Rio Infante, the
+furthest point reached by Diaz. Here the ships experienced the
+effects of a strong current, but of which the violence was
+neutralized thanks to a favourable wind. On the 25th of December,
+Christmas Day, the country of Natal was discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The ships had sustained some damage, and fresh water was needed; it
+was therefore urgent for them to find some harbour, which they
+succeeded in doing on the 10th of January, 1498. The blacks whom the
+Portuguese saw here upon landing were people of greater stature than
+those whom they had hitherto met with. Their arms were a large bow
+with long arrows, and a zagaye tipped with iron. They were Caffres,
+a race very superior to the Bushmen. Such happy relations were
+quickly established with them that Gama gave the country the name of
+the Land of Good People (<i>Terra da bon Gente</i>).</p>
+<a name="fax18"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 18">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="787">
+			<img src="images/051.jpg" alt="Map of the East Coast of Africa">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A little further on, while still sailing up the coast, two Mussulman
+traders, one wearing a turban, the other a hood of green satin, came
+to visit the Portuguese, with a young man who, "from what could be
+understood from their signs, belonged to a very distant country, and
+who said he had already seen ships as large as ours." Vasco da Gama,
+took this as a proof that he was now approaching those Indian lands,
+which had been so long and so eagerly sought. For this reason he
+named the river which flowed into the sea at this place <i>Rio dos
+Bonis Signaes</i> (River of good tokens). Unhappily the first symptoms
+of scurvy appeared at this time amongst the crews, and soon there
+were many sailors upon the sick list.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th of March the expedition cast anchor before the Island of
+Mozambique, where, as Gama learnt through his Arab interpreters,
+there were several merchants of Mahometan extraction, who carried on
+trade with India. Gold and silver, cloth and spices, pearls and
+rubies, formed the staple of their commerce. Gama at the same time
+was assured that in pursuing the line of the coast, he would find
+numerous cities; "Whereat we were so joyful," says Velho in his
+naïve and valuable narrative, "that we wept for pleasure, praying
+God to grant us health that we might see all that which we had so
+much desired."</p>
+<a name="fax19"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 19">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="786">
+			<img src="images/050.jpg" alt="Mozambique Channel">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="786" align="center">
+			Mozambique Channel.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Viceroy Colyytam, who imagined he was dealing with Mussulmen,
+came on board several times and was magnificently entertained; he
+returned the civility by sending presents, and even furnished Gama
+with two skilful pilots, but when some Moorish merchants who had
+traded in Europe told him that these foreigners, far from being
+Turks, were in reality the worst enemies of the Mahometans, the
+viceroy, disgusted at his mistake, made preparations for seizing the
+Portuguese by treachery, and killing them. Gama was obliged to point
+his artillery at the town and threaten to reduce it to ashes before
+he could obtain the water needed for the prosecution of his voyage.
+Blood flowed, and Paul da Gama captured two barques, whose rich
+cargo was divided amongst the sailors. The ships quitted this
+inhospitable town, on the 29th of March, and the voyage continued, a
+close surveillance being kept over the Arab pilots, whom Gama was
+obliged to cause to be flogged.</p>
+
+<p>On the 4th of April the coast was seen, and on the 8th Mombasa or
+Mombaz was reached, a town, according to the pilots, inhabited by
+Christians and Mussulmen. The fleet dropped anchor outside the
+harbour, and did not enter it, notwithstanding the enthusiastic
+reception given to them. Already the Portuguese were reckoning upon
+meeting at mass the next day with the Christians of the Island, when
+during the night, the flag-ship was approached by a <i>zacra</i>, having on
+board a hundred armed men, who endeavoured to enter the ships in a
+body, which was refused them. The king of Mombaz was informed of all
+that had occurred at Mozambique, but pretending ignorance, he sent
+presents to Gama, proposing to him to establish a factory in his
+capital, and assuring him that so soon as he should have entered the
+port, he might take on board a cargo of spices and aromatics. The
+Capitam mõr, suspecting nothing, immediately sent two men to
+announce his entry for the morrow; already they were weighing anchor
+when the flag-ship refusing to tack, the anchor was let fall again.
+In graceful and poetic fiction, Camoens affirms that it was the
+Nereids led by Venus, the protectress of the Portuguese, who stayed
+their ships when on the point of entering the port. At this moment
+all the Moors on board the fleet quitted it simultaneously, whilst
+the Mozambique pilots threw themselves into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Two Moors who were put to the question with a drop of hot oil,
+confessed that the intention was to take all the Portuguese
+prisoners as soon as they should be inside the harbour. During the
+night the Moors endeavoured several times to climb on board and to
+cut the cables in order to run the ships aground, but each time they
+were discovered. Under these circumstances no prolonged stay was
+possible at Mombaz, but it had been long enough for all those ill of
+scurvy to recover their health.</p>
+
+<p>At the distance of four-and-twenty miles from land, the fleet
+captured a barque richly laden with gold, silver, and provisions.
+The next day Gama arrived at Melinda, a rich and flourishing city,
+whose gilded minarets, sparkling in the sunshine, and whose mosques
+of dazzling whiteness, stood out against a sky of the most intense
+blue. The reception of the Portuguese at Melinda was at first very
+cold, the capture of the barque the evening before being already
+known there, but as soon as explanations had been given, the people
+became cordial. The king's son came to visit the admiral,
+accompanied by a train of courtiers splendidly dressed, and a choir
+of musicians, who played upon various instruments. The greatest
+astonishment was shown at the artillery practice, for the invention
+of gunpowder was not yet known on the east coast of Africa. A solemn
+treaty was made, ratified by oaths upon the Gospel and the Koran,
+and cemented by an interchange of presents. From this moment the
+ill-will, the treachery, the difficulties of all kinds which had
+hitherto beset the expedition, ceased as if by magic: this must be
+attributed to the generosity of the King of Melinda, and to the aid
+which he furnished to the Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>Faithful to the promise which he had made to Vasco da Gama, the king
+sent him a Gujerat pilot named Malemo Cana, a man well instructed in
+navigation, understanding the use of charts, of the compass and the
+quadrant, and who rendered the most important service to the
+expedition. After a stay of nine days the fleet weighed anchor for
+Calicut. The coasting plan hitherto pursued was now to be abandoned,
+and the time was come when, in reliance upon the blessing of God,
+the Portuguese must venture out upon the wide ocean, without other
+guide than an unknown pilot furnished by a king whose kind welcome
+had not sufficed to lull to sleep the suspicions of the foreigners.
+And yet, thanks to the ability and loyalty of this pilot, thanks
+also to the clemency of the sea, and to the wind being constantly in
+its favour, the fleet, after a twenty-three days' voyage, reached
+the land on the 17th May, and the next day anchored at the distance
+of six miles below Calicut. The enthusiasm on board was great. At
+last they had arrived in those rich and wonderful countries.
+Fatigues, dangers, sickness, all were forgotten. The object of their
+long labours was attained! Or rather, it seemed to be so, for there
+was still needed the possession of the treasures and rich
+productions of India.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely were the anchors dropped when four boats came off from the
+shore, performing evolutions around the fleet, and apparently
+inviting the sailors to disembark. But Gama, rendered cautious by
+the occurrences at Mozambique and Mombaz, sent on shore one of the
+criminals who were on board, to act as a scout; ordering him to walk
+through the town and endeavour to ascertain the temper of its
+inhabitants. Surrounded by an inquisitive crowd, assailed by
+questions to which he could not reply, this man was conducted to the
+house of a Moor named Mouçaïda, who spoke Spanish, and to whom he
+gave a short account of the voyage of the fleet. Mouçaïda returned
+with him on board, and his first words on setting foot on the ship
+were "Good luck! good luck! quantities of rubies, quantities of
+emeralds!" Whereupon, Mouçaïda was at once engaged as interpreter.</p>
+
+<p>The King of Calicut was at this time at a distance of forty-five
+miles from his capital, so the Capitam mõr despatched two men to
+announce the arrival of an ambassador from the King of Portugal,
+being the bearer of letters to him from his sovereign. The king at
+once sent a pilot, with orders to take the Portuguese ships into the
+safer roadstead of Pandarany, and promised to return himself on the
+morrow to Calicut; this he did, and ordered his Intendant or Catoual
+to invite Gama to land and open negotiations. In spite of the
+supplications of his brother, Paul da Gama, who represented to him
+the dangers which he might incur, and those to which his death would
+expose the expedition, the Capitam mõr set out for the shore, upon
+which an enormous crowd of people were awaiting him.</p>
+
+<p>The idea that they were in the midst of a Christian population was
+so rooted in the minds of all the members of the expedition, that
+Gama, on passing by a pagoda on the way, entered it to perform his
+devotions. One of his companions, however, Juan de Saa, noticing the
+hideous pictures upon the walls, was less credulous, and whilst
+throwing himself upon his knees, said aloud, "If that be a devil, I
+intend nevertheless to adore only the true God!" A mental
+reservation which caused amusement to the admiral.</p>
+
+<p>Near the gates of the town the crowd was even more closely packed.
+Gama and his companions, under the guidance of the Catoual, had some
+difficulty in reaching the palace, where the king, who in the
+narrative is called the "Zamorin," was awaiting them with extreme
+impatience. Ushered into halls splendidly decorated with silken
+stuffs and carpets, and in which burned the most exquisite perfumes,
+the Portuguese found themselves in the presence of the Zamorin. He
+was magnificently attired, and loaded with jewels, the pearls and
+diamonds which he wore being of extraordinary size. The king ordered
+refreshments to be served to the strangers, and permitted them to be
+seated, a peculiar mark of favour in a country where the sovereign
+is usually only addressed with the most lowly prostrations. The
+Zamorin afterwards passed into another apartment, to hear with his
+own ears, as was proudly demanded by Gama, the reasons for the
+embassy and the desire felt by the King of Portugal to conclude a
+treaty of commerce and alliance with the King of Calicut. The
+Zamorin listened to Gama's discourse, and replied that he should be
+happy to consider himself the friend and brother of King Emmanuel,
+and that he would, by the aid of Gama, send ambassadors to Portugal.</p>
+<a name="fax20"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 20">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="591">
+			<img src="images/052.jpg" alt="Gama's interview with the Zamorin">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="591" align="center">
+			Gama's interview with the Zamorin.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There are certain proverbs of which the force is not affected by
+change of latitude, and the truth of that one which says, "The days
+succeed each other and have no similarity," was proved the next day
+at Calicut. The enthusiasm which had been aroused in the mind of the
+Zamorin by the ingenious discourse of Gama, and the hope it had
+awakened of the establishment of a profitable trade with Portugal,
+vanished at the sight of the presents which were to be given him.
+"Twelve pieces of striped cloth, twelve cloaks with scarlet hoods,
+six hats, and four branches of coral, accompanied by a box
+containing six large basons, a chest of sugar, and four kegs, two
+filled with oil, and two with honey," certainly did not constitute a
+very magnificent offering. At sight of it, the prime minister
+laughed, declaring that the poorest merchant from Mecca brought
+richer presents, and that the king would never accept of such
+ridiculous trifles. After this affront Gama again visited the
+Zamorin, but it was only after long waiting in the midst of a
+mocking crowd, that he was admitted to the presence of the king. The
+latter reproached him in a contemptuous manner for having nothing to
+offer him, while pretending to be the subject of a rich and powerful
+king. Gama replied with boldness, and produced the letters of
+Emmanuel, which were couched in flattering terms, and contained a
+formal promise to send merchandise to Calicut. The Zamorin, pleased
+at this prospect, then inquired with interest about the productions
+and resources of Portugal, and gave permission to Gama to disembark
+and sell his goods.</p>
+
+<p>But this abrupt change in the humour of the Zamorin was not at all
+agreeable to the Moorish and Arab traders, whose dealings made the
+prosperity of Calicut. They could not look on quietly whilst
+foreigners were endeavouring for their own advantage to turn aside
+the commerce which had been hitherto entirely in their hands; they
+resolved, therefore, to leave no stone unturned to drive away once
+for all these formidable rivals from the shores of India. Their
+first care was to gain the ear of the Catoual; then they painted in
+the blackest colours these insatiable adventurers, these bold
+robbers, whose only object was to spy out the strength and resources
+of the town, that they might return in force to pillage it, and to
+massacre those who should venture to oppose their designs.</p>
+
+<p>Upon arriving at the roadstead of Pandarany, Gama found no boat to
+take him off to the ships, and was forced to sleep on shore. The
+Catoual never left him, continually seeking to prove to him the
+necessity of bringing the ships nearer to the land; and when the
+admiral positively refused to consent to this, he declared him to be
+his prisoner. He had very little idea as yet of the firmness of
+Gama's character. Some armed boats were sent to surprise the ships,
+but the Portuguese, having received secret intelligence from the
+admiral of all that had happened, were on their guard, and their
+enemies dared not use open force. Gama, still a prisoner, threatened
+the Catoual with the anger of the Zamorin, whom he imagined could
+never thus have violated the duties of hospitality, but seeing that
+his menaces produced no effect, he tried bribery, presenting the
+minister with several pieces of stuff, who, thereupon at once
+altered his demeanour. "If the Portuguese," said he, "had but kept
+the promise they had made to the king, of disembarking their
+merchandise, the admiral would long ago have returned on board his
+ships." Gama at once sent an order to bring the goods to land,
+opened a shop for their sale, of which the superintendence was given
+to Diego Diaz, brother to the discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope,
+and was then allowed to go back to his ships.</p>
+
+<p>The Mussulmen placed obstacles in the way of the sale of the
+merchandise by depreciating its value; Gama sent his agent Diaz to
+the Zamorin to complain of the perfidy of the Moors and of the bad
+treatment to which he had been subjected, requesting at the same
+time permission to move his place of sale to Calicut, where he hoped
+that the goods would be more easily disposed of. This request was
+favourably received, and friendly relations were maintained, in
+spite of the Moorish intrigues, until the 10th of August, 1498. On
+that day Diaz went to announce Gama's impending departure to the
+king, reminding him of his promise to send an embassy to Portugal,
+and asking him to allow Gama a specimen of each of the productions
+of the country. These were to be paid for on the first sale of goods
+which should take place after the departure of the fleet, it being
+intended that the employés of the factory should remain at Calicut
+during Gama's absence. The Zamorin, instigated by the Arab traders,
+not only refused to execute his promise, but demanded the payment of
+600 <i>seraphins</i> as customs' duty, ordering at the same time the
+seizure of the merchandise, and making prisoners of the men employed
+in the factory.</p>
+
+<p>Such an outrage, such contempt for the rights of nations, called for
+prompt vengeance, but Gama understood the art of dissimulation;
+however, on receiving a visit on board from some rich merchants, he
+detained them, and sent to the Zamorin to demand an exchange of
+prisoners. The king's reply not being sent within the time specified
+by the admiral, the latter set sail and anchored at the distance of
+sixteen miles from Calicut. After another fruitless attack by the
+Hindoos, the two agents returned on board, and a portion of the
+hostages whom Gama had secured were given up. Diaz brought back with
+him a curious letter from the Zamorin to the King of Portugal. It
+was written upon a palm leaf, and shall be quoted in all its strange
+laconicism, so different from the usual grandiloquence of the
+oriental style:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Vasco da Gama, a noble of thy palace, is come into my country which
+I have permitted. In my kingdom there is much cinnamon, cloves, and
+pepper, with many precious stones, and what I desire from thy
+country is gold, silver, coral, and scarlet. Adieu."</p>
+
+<p>On the morrow, Mouçaïda the Moor of Tunis who had served as
+interpreter to the Portuguese, and had been a great assistance to
+them in their negotiations with the Zamorin, came to seek an asylum
+on board the ships. The merchandise had not been brought back on the
+appointed day, and the Capitam mõr now resolved to carry away with
+him the men whom he had kept as hostages, but the fleet was becalmed
+at several miles distance from Calicut, and was attacked by twenty
+armed boats, which were with difficulty kept at a distance by the
+artillery, until they were forced by a violent storm to take shelter
+under the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral was sailing along the coast of the Deccan, and had
+permitted some of the sailors to go on shore to gather fruit and
+collect cinnamon bark, when he perceived eight boats, which appeared
+to be coming towards him. Gama recalled the men, and sailed forward
+to meet the Hindoos, who made the greatest haste to flee from him,
+but not without leaving a boat laden with cocoa, and provisions, in
+the hands of the Portuguese. On arriving at the Laccadive
+Archipelago, Gama had the <i>Berrio</i> recalked, and his own ship drawn
+up on shore for repairs. The sailors were busy over this work when
+they were again attacked, but without more success than heretofore.
+The next day witnessed the arrival of an individual forty years of
+age, dressed in Hindoo style, who began to speak to the Portuguese
+in excellent Italian, telling them that he was a native of Venice,
+and had been torn from his country while still young, that he was a
+Christian, but without the possibility of practising his religion.
+He was in a high position at the court of the king of the country,
+who had sent him to them, to place at their disposal all that the
+country contained which could minister to their comfort. These
+offers of service, so different from the welcome accorded to them
+hitherto, excited the suspicions of the Portuguese, and they were
+not long in discovering that this adventurer was in command of the
+boats which had attacked them the day before. Upon this they had him
+scourged until he confessed that he had come to discover whether it
+were possible to attack the fleet with advantage, and he ended by
+affirming that all the inhabitants of the sea-shore were in league
+to destroy the Portuguese. He was retained on board, the work upon
+the ships was hurried forward, and as soon as water and provisions
+had been taken in, sail was made for a return to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of dead calms and contrary winds, the expedition was
+three months, all but three days, in reaching the African coast.
+During this long voyage the crews suffered terribly from scurvy, and
+thirty sailors perished. In each ship, only seven or eight men were
+in a condition to work the vessel, and very often the officers
+themselves were forced to lend a hand. "Whence I can affirm," says
+Velho, "that if the time in which we sailed across those seas had
+been prolonged a fortnight, nobody from hence would have navigated
+them after us.... And the captains having held a council upon the
+matter, it was resolved that in case of similar winds catching us
+again, to return towards India, there to take refuge." On the 2nd of
+February, 1499, the Portuguese found themselves at last abreast of a
+great town on the coast of Ajan, called Magadoxo, distant 300 miles
+from Melinda.</p>
+
+<p>Gama, dreading another reception like the one given to him at
+Mozambique, would not stop here, but while passing within sight of
+the town, ordered a general discharge of the guns. A few days
+afterwards the rich and salubrious plains of Melinda came in sight,
+and here they cast anchor. The king hastened to send off fresh
+provisions and oranges for the invalids on board. The reception
+given by him to the Portuguese was in every particular most
+affectionate, and the friendship which had arisen during Gama's
+first visit to Melinda was greatly strengthened. The Sheik of
+Melinda sent for the King of Portugal a horn made of ivory and a
+number of other presents, entreating Gama at the same time to
+receive a young Moor on board his ship, that through him the king
+might learn how earnestly he desired his friendship.</p>
+
+<p>The five days' rest at Melinda was of the greatest benefit to the
+Portuguese, at its expiration they again set sail. Soon after
+passing Mombaz they were obliged to burn the <i>Sam-Raphael</i>, the
+crews being too much reduced to be able to work three ships. They
+discovered the Island of Zanzibar, anchored in the Bay of Sam-Braz,
+and on the 20th February, a favourable wind enabled them to double
+the Cape of Good Hope, when they again found themselves upon the
+Atlantic Ocean. The breeze remaining favourable, helped forward the
+return of the mariners, and at the end of twenty-seven days, they
+had arrived in the neighbourhood of the Island of Santiago. On the
+25th of April Nicholas Coelho, captain of the <i>Berrio</i>, eager to be
+the first to carry to Emmanuel the news of the discovery of the
+Indies, separated himself from his chief, and without touching, as
+had been arranged, at the Cape de Verd Islands, made sail direct for
+Portugal, arriving there on the 10th of July.</p>
+
+<p>During this time the unfortunate Gama was plunged in the most
+profound sorrow, for his brother, Paul da Gama, who had shared his
+fatigues and sufferings, and who was to be a partaker of his glory,
+seemed to be slowly dying. At Santiago, Vasco da Gama, now returned
+to well known and much frequented seas, gave up the command of his
+ships to Joao da Saa, and chartered a fast-sailing caravel, to
+hasten as much as possible his beloved invalid's return to his
+native country. But all hope was vain, and the caravel only arrived
+at Terceira in time to inter there the body of the brave and
+sympathizing Paul da Gama.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his arrival in Portugal, which must have taken place during the
+early part of September, the admiral was received with stately
+festivals. Of the 160 Portuguese whom he had taken with him,
+fifty-five only returned with him. The loss was great certainly, but
+what was it compared with the great advantages to be hoped for? The
+public realized this, and gave the most enthusiastic reception to
+Gama. The King, Emmanuel II., added to his own titles that of Lord
+of the conquests and of the navigation of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia,
+and the Indies; but he allowed two years to pass before rewarding
+Gama. He then bestowed upon him the title of Admiral of the Indies,
+and authorized him to use the prefix of <i>Dom</i> before his name, a
+privilege then rarely granted. Also, doubtless to make Vasco da Gama
+forget the tardiness with which his services had been rewarded, the
+king gave him 1000 crowns, a considerable sum for that period, and
+also conceded to him certain privileges in connexion with the
+commerce of the Indies, which were likely speedily to make his
+fortune.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p1c82"></a>
+<center>II.<br>
+T<small>HE</small> C<small>ONQUEST OF</small> I<small>NDIA, AND OF THE</small> S<small>PICE</small> C<small>OUNTRIES</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Alvarès Cabral&mdash;Discovery of Brazil&mdash;The coast of Africa&mdash;Arrival at
+Calicut, Cochin, Cananore&mdash;Joao da Nova&mdash;Gama's second expedition&mdash;The
+King of Cochin&mdash;The early life of Albuquerque&mdash;The taking of
+Goa&mdash;The siege and capture of Malacca&mdash;Second expedition against
+Ormuz&mdash;Ceylon&mdash;The Moluccas&mdash;Death of Albuquerque&mdash;Fate of the
+Portuguese empire of the Indies.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>On the 9th of March, 1500, a fleet of thirteen vessels left Rastello,
+under the command of Pedro Alvarès Cabral; on board, as a volunteer,
+was Luiz de Camoens, who in his poem the "Lusiad," was to render
+illustrious the valour and adventurous spirit of his countrymen. But
+little is known of Cabral, and nothing of the reason which had
+gained him the command of this important expedition. Cabral belonged
+to one of the most illustrious families in Portugal, and his father,
+Fernando Cabral, lord of Zurara da Beira, was Alcalde mõr of
+Belmonte. Pedro Alvarès Cabral had married Isabel de Castro, first
+lady in waiting to the Infanta Dona Maria, daughter of John III. If
+it be asked whether Cabral had made himself famous by some important
+maritime discovery, we answer there is no reason to think so, for in
+that case the historians would have recorded it. But it is difficult
+to believe that he owed to court favour alone the command of an
+expedition in which such men as Bartholomew Diaz, Nicholas Coelho
+the companion of Gama, and Sancho de Thovar sailed under his orders.
+Why had not this mission been confided to Gama, who had been at home
+for six months, and whose knowledge of the countries to be visited
+and of the manners of their inhabitants, seemed to point him out as
+the fittest man for the service? Had he not yet recovered from the
+fatigues of his first voyage? Or had his grief for the loss of a
+brother who had died almost within sight of the coasts of Portugal
+so deeply affected him, that he desired to remain in retirement? May
+it not rather have been that King Emmanuel was jealous of the fame
+of Gama, and did not wish to give him the opportunity of increasing
+his renown? These are problems which perhaps history may be for ever
+unable to solve.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to believe in the realization of those things which we
+ardently desire. Emmanuel imagined that the Zamorin of Calicut would
+not object to the establishment of Portuguese shops and factories in
+his country, and Cabral, the bearer of presents of such magnificence
+as to obliterate the memory of the shabbiness of those offered by
+Gama, received orders to obtain from the Zamorin an interdict,
+forbidding any Moor to carry on trade in his capital. The new
+Capitam mõr was in the first place to visit Melinda, to offer rich
+presents to its king, and to restore to him the Moor who had come to
+Portugal with Gama. Sixteen friars were sent out on board the fleet,
+charged to carry the knowledge of the Gospel to the distant
+countries of Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet had sailed for thirteen days and had passed the Cape de
+Verd Islands, when it was discovered that one of the ships, under
+the command of Vasco d'Ataïde, was no longer in company. The rest of
+the ships lay to for some time to await her, but in vain, and the
+twelve vessels then continued their navigation upon the open sea,
+and not, as had been the manner hitherto, steering simply from cape
+to cape along the shores of Africa. Cabral hoped by this means to
+avoid the calms in the Gulf of Guinea, which had proved so great a
+cause of delay to the preceding expeditions. Perhaps even the
+Capitam mõr, who must, in common with the rest of his countrymen,
+have been acquainted with the discoveries of Christopher Columbus,
+may have had the secret hope, by keeping to the west, of arriving at
+some region unvisited by the great navigator.</p>
+
+<p>The fact remains, whether it is to be accounted for by a storm or by
+some secret design, that the fleet was out of the right way for
+doubling the Cape of Good Hope when, on the 22nd of April, a high
+mountain was seen, and soon afterwards a long stretch of coast,
+which received the name of Vera Cruz, changed afterwards to that of
+Santa Cruz. This was Brazil, and the point where now stands Porto
+Seguro. On the 28th, after a skilful reconnaissance of the coasts
+had been made by Coelho, the Portuguese sailors landed upon the
+American shores, and became aware of a delicious mildness of
+temperature, with a luxuriance of vegetation greatly exceeding
+anything which they had seen on the coasts of Africa or of Malabar.
+The natives formed themselves in groups around the sailors, without
+showing the least sign of fear. They were almost naked, and bore
+upon the wrist a tame parroquet, after the fashion in which the
+gentlemen of Europe carry their hawks or their gerfalcons.</p>
+
+<p>On Easter Sunday, the 26th of April, a solemn mass was celebrated on
+the shore in sight of the Indians, whose silence and attitude of
+respect excited the admiration of the Portuguese. On the 1st of May
+a large cross and a padrao were erected on the shore, and Cabral
+formally took possession of the country in the name of the King of
+Portugal. His first care after this formality was accomplished was
+to despatch Gaspard de Lemos to Lisbon, to announce the discovery of
+this rich and fertile country. Lemos took with him the narrative of
+the expedition written by Pedro Vaz de Caminha, and an important
+astronomical document, the work of Master Joao, in which was
+doubtless stated the exact situation of the new conquest. Before
+setting out for Asia, Cabral put on land two criminals, whom he
+ordered to ascertain the resources and riches of the country, as
+well as the manners and customs of the inhabitants. These wise and
+far-sighted measures speak much for Cabral's prudence and sagacity.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 29">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="583">
+			<img src="images/053.jpg" alt="Cabral takes formal possession of Brazil">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="583" align="center">
+			Cabral takes formal possession of Brazil.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It was the 2nd of May when the fleet lost sight of Brazil. All on
+board, rejoicing over this happy commencement of the voyage,
+believed in the prospect of an easy and rapid success, when the
+appearance of a brilliant comet on eight consecutive days struck the
+ignorant and simple minds of the sailors with terror; they
+considered it must be a bad omen, and for this once events appeared
+to justify superstition. A fearful storm arose, waves mountains high
+broke over the ships, whilst the wind blew furiously and rain fell
+without ceasing. When the sun at length succeeded in piercing the
+thick curtain of clouds which almost entirely intercepted his rays,
+a horrible scene was disclosed. The water looked thick and black,
+large patches of a livid white colour flecked the foaming, crested
+waves, while during the night phosphorescent lights, streaking the
+immense plain of water, marked out the course of the ships with a
+train of fire. For two-and-twenty days, without truce or mercy, the
+Portuguese ships were battered by the furious elements. The
+terrified sailors were utterly prostrate; they vainly exhausted
+their prayers and vows, and obeyed the orders of their officers only
+from the force of habit; from the first day they had given up any
+hope of their lives being spared, and only awaited the moment when
+they should all be submerged. When light at length returned and the
+billows became calm, each crew, thinking themselves to be perhaps
+the sole survivors, looked eagerly over the sea in search of their
+companions. Three ships met together again with a joy which the sad
+reality soon abated. Eight vessels were missing; four had been
+engulfed by a gigantic water-spout during the last days of the storm.
+One of these had been commanded by Bartholomew Diaz, the discoverer
+of the Cape of Good Hope: he had been drowned by these murderous
+waves, the defenders, according to Camoens, of the empire of the
+east against the nations of the west, who had for so many centuries
+coveted her marvellous riches.</p>
+
+<p>During this long series of storms the Cape had been doubled and the
+fleet was approaching the coast of Africa. On the 20th of July
+Mozambique was signalled. The Moors of this place showed a more
+agreeable disposition than they had done when Gama was there, and
+furnished the Portuguese with two pilots, who conducted them to
+Quiloa, an island famed for the trade in gold-dust which was carried
+on with Sofala. There Cabral found two of the missing ships, which
+had been driven to this island by the wind. A plot was on foot in
+Quiloa for a wholesale massacre of the Europeans, but this was
+frustrated by a prompt departure from the island, and the ships
+arrived at Melinda without any untoward incident. The stay of the
+fleet in this port was the occasion of fêtes and rejoicings without
+number, and soon, revictualled, repaired, and furnished with
+excellent pilots, the Portuguese vessels sailed for Calicut, where
+they arrived on the 13th of December, 1500.</p>
+<a name="fax21"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 21">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="773">
+			<img src="images/054.jpg" alt="View of Quiloa">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="773" align="center">
+			View of Quiloa.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This time, thanks to the power of their arms as well as to the
+richness of the presents offered to the Zamorin, the reception was
+different, and the versatile prince agreed to all the demands of
+Cabral: namely, a monopoly of the trade in aromatics and spicery,
+and the right of seizure upon all vessels which should infringe this
+privilege. For some time the Moors dissembled their resentment, but
+when they had succeeded in thoroughly exasperating the population
+against the foreigners, they rushed at a given signal into the
+factory which was under the direction of Ayrès Correa, and massacred
+fifty of the Portuguese, whom they surprised in it. Vengeance for
+this outrage was not slow; ten boats moored in the port were taken,
+pillaged, and burnt before the eyes of the Hindoos, who were
+powerless to render opposition; afterwards the town was bombarded,
+and was half-buried under its ruins.</p>
+
+<p>When this affair was concluded, Cabral, continuing the exploration
+of the Malabar coast, arrived at Cochin, where the Rajah, a vassal
+of the Zamorin, hastened to conclude an alliance with the Portuguese,
+eagerly seizing this opportunity to declare himself independent.
+Although by this time his fleet was richly laden, Cabral made a
+visit to Cananore, where he entered into a treaty with the Rajah of
+the country; then, being impatient to return home, he set sail for
+Europe. While coasting along that shore of Africa, which is washed
+by the Indian Ocean, he discovered Sofala, a place which had escaped
+the observation of Gama. On the 13th of July, 1501, Cabral arrived
+at Lisbon, where he had the joy of finding the two remaining ships
+which he had imagined to be lost.</p>
+
+<p>It is pleasant to believe that he received the welcome merited by
+the important results obtained in this memorable expedition.
+Although contemporary historians are silent upon the incidents of
+his life after his return, recent research has been rewarded by the
+discovery of his tomb at Santarem, and M. Ferdinand Denis has
+happily proved that, like Vasco da Gama, he received the title of
+<i>Dom</i> as a reward for his glorious deeds.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst he was returning to Europe Alvarès Cabral might have
+encountered a fleet of four caravels under the command of Joao da
+Nova, which King Emmanuel had despatched to give fresh vigour to the
+commercial relations which Cabral had been charged to establish in
+the Indies. This new expedition doubled the Cape of Good Hope
+without misadventure, discovered between Mozambique and Quiloa an
+unknown island, which was named after the commander of the fleet,
+and arrived at Melinda, where Da Nova was informed of the events
+which had taken place at Calicut. He felt that he had not forces at
+his disposal sufficient to justify him in going to punish the
+Zamorin, and not wishing to endanger the prestige of Portuguese arms
+by the risk of a reverse, he steered for Cochin and Cananore, of
+which the kings, although tributaries of the Zamorin, had entered
+into alliance with Alvarès Cabral. Da Nova had already taken on
+board 1000 hundredweights of pepper, 50 of ginger, and 450 of
+cinnamon, when he received warning that a considerable fleet, coming
+apparently from Calicut, was advancing with hostile intentions. If
+he had hitherto been more concerned with trade than with war, he did
+not the less in these critical circumstances display a bold and
+courageous spirit worthy of his predecessors. He accepted the combat,
+notwithstanding the apparent superiority of the Hindoos, and partly
+by the skilful arrangements which he made, partly by the power of
+his guns, he managed to disperse, to take, or to sink the hostile
+vessels. Perhaps Da Nova ought to have profited by the terror which
+his victory had spread along the coast, and the temporary exhaustion
+of the Moorish resources, to strike a great blow by the taking of
+Calicut. But we are too far removed in time from the events, and
+know too little of their details, to appreciate with impartiality
+the reasons which induced the admiral to return immediately to
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It was during this latter part of his voyage that Nova discovered
+the small island of Saint Helena in the midst of the Atlantic. A
+curious story attaches to this discovery. A certain Fernando Lopez
+had followed Gama to the Indies; this man, wishing to marry a Hindoo,
+was forced for this purpose to renounce Christianity and become a
+Mahometan. Upon Nova's visit, having had enough either of his wife
+or of her religion, he begged to be taken back to his country, and
+returned to his old creed. Upon arriving at Saint Helena, Lopez, in
+obedience to a sudden idea, which he regarded as an inspiration from
+on high, requested to be landed there, in order, as he said, to
+expiate his detestable apostasy and to atone for it by his devotion
+to humanity. His will appeared so fixed that Da Nova was forced to
+consent, and he left him there, having given him at his request
+various seeds of fruits and vegetables. It must be added that this
+singular hermit worked for four years at the clearing and planting
+of the island with such success, that ships were soon able to call
+there to revictual during their long passage from Europe to the Cape
+of Good Hope.</p>
+
+<p>The successive expeditious of Gama, Cabral, and Da Nova had
+conclusively proved that an uninterrupted commerce must not be
+reckoned upon, nor a continued exchange of merchandise, with the
+population of the Malabar Coast, who, while their own independence
+and liberty were respected had each time leagued together against
+the Portuguese. That trade with Europeans which they so persistently
+refused, must be forced upon them, and for that purpose permanent
+military establishments must be formed, capable of overawing the
+malcontents, and even in case of necessity of taking possession of
+the country. But to whom should such an important mission be
+entrusted? The choice could scarcely be doubtful, and Vasco da Gama
+was unanimously chosen to take the command of the powerful armament
+which was in preparation.</p>
+
+<p>Vasco had ten ships under his own immediate command, while his
+second brother Stephen da Gama, and his cousin Vincent Sodrez, had
+each five ships under his orders, but they were both to recognise
+Vasco da Gama as their chief. The ceremonies which preceded the
+departure of the fleet from Lisbon were of a particularly grave and
+solemn character. King Emmanuel, followed by the whole court,
+repaired to the cathedral in the midst of an enormous crowd, and
+there called down blessings from heaven upon this expedition, partly
+religious, partly military, while the Archbishop blessed the banner
+which was entrusted to Gama.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral's first care was to visit Sofala and Mozambique, towns
+of which he had had reason to complain in the course of his first
+voyage. Being anxious to establish harbours for refuge, and
+revictualling of ships, he established there merchants' offices, and
+laid the foundations of forts. He also levied a heavy tribute upon
+the Sheik of Quiloa, and then sailed for the coast of Hindostan.
+When Gama had arrived off Calicut, he perceived on the 3rd of
+October a vessel of large tonnage, which appeared to him to be
+richly laden. It was the <i>Merii</i> bringing back from Mecca a great
+number of pilgrims belonging to all the countries of Asia. Gama
+attacked the ship without provocation, captured her and put to death
+more than three hundred men who were on board. Twenty children alone
+were saved and taken to Lisbon, where they were baptized, and
+entered the army of Portugal. This frightful massacre, besides being
+quite in accordance with the ideas of the period, was calculated
+according to Gama, to strike terror into the Hindoo mind: it did
+nothing of the sort. This hateful and useless cruelty has left a
+stain of blood upon the hitherto pure fame of the admiral.</p>
+<a name="fax22"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 22">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="780">
+			<img src="images/055.jpg" alt="Map of the Coasts of Persia, Guzerat, and Malabar">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>As soon as he arrived at Cananore, Gama obtained an audience of the
+Rajah, who authorized him to establish a counting-house, and to
+build a fort. At the same time a treaty of alliance, offensive and
+defensive was concluded. After setting the labourers to work, and
+installing his agent, the admiral set sail for Calicut, where he
+intended to summon the Zamorin to a reckoning for his disloyalty, as
+well as for the murder of the Portuguese who had been surprised in
+the factory. Although the Rajah of Calicut had been informed of the
+arrival in the Indies of his formidable enemies, he had taken no
+military precautions, and thus, when Gama presented himself before
+the town, he was able to seize some vessels anchored in the port and
+to make a hundred prisoners, without encountering any resistance;
+afterwards he granted the Zamorin a respite of four days, in which
+to make atonement to the Portuguese for the murder of Correa, and to
+refund the value of the merchandise which had been stolen on that
+occasion.</p>
+
+<p>The time specified had scarcely elapsed when the bodies of fifty of
+the prisoners were strung up at the yard-arms of the vessels, where
+they remained exposed to the view of the town during the whole day.
+In the evening the feet and hands of these expiatory victims were
+cut off and taken on shore, with a letter from the admiral,
+declaring that his vengeance would not be limited to this execution.
+Accordingly, under cover of the night, the broadsides of the vessels
+were brought to bear upon the town, which was bombarded for the
+space of three days. It will never be known what was the exact
+number of the slain, but it must have been considerable. Without
+reckoning those killed by the fire of the cannon and the muskets, a
+great number of Hindoos were buried beneath the ruins of the
+buildings, or perished in the conflagration, which destroyed a
+portion of the town of Calicut. The Rajah had been one of the first
+to take flight, and fortunate was it for him that he had done so,
+for his palace was amongst the buildings which were demolished. At
+length, satisfied with having transformed this heretofore rich and
+populous city into a heap of ruins, and considering his vengeance
+satiated, and that the lesson so taught would be profitable, Gama
+set sail for Cochin, leaving behind him Vincent Sodrez, with several
+ships, to continue the blockade.</p>
+
+<p>Triumpara, the sovereign of Cochin, informed the admiral that he had
+been eagerly solicited by the Zamorin to take advantage of the
+confidence reposed in him by the Portuguese, to surprise and seize
+them, in consequence of which intelligence, and to reward the
+integrity of the king whose loyalty had exposed him to the enmity of
+the Rajah of Calicut, Gama, when starting for Lisbon with a valuable
+cargo, left with Triumpara ships sufficient to enable him to await
+in safety the arrival of another squadron. During Gama's return
+voyage the only noteworthy incident that occurred was the defeat of
+another Malabar fleet. The admiral arrived in Europe on the 20th of
+December, 1503.</p>
+
+<p>Once more the eminent services rendered by this great man went
+unrecognised, or rather they were not appreciated as they deserved.
+Gama, who had just laid the foundations of the colonial empire of
+Portugal in India, remained for one and twenty years without
+employment, and it was only through the intercession of the Duke of
+Braganza, that he obtained the title of Count de Vidigueyra. A too
+common instance this of ingratitude, but one which it is never <i>mal
+à propos</i> to stigmatize as it deserves.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely had Gama set out for Europe, before the Zamorin at the
+instigation of the Musselmen, who saw their commercial supremacy
+more and more compromised, assembled his allies at Pani with the
+object of attacking the King of Cochin and of punishing him for the
+counsel and assistance which he had given to the Portuguese. The
+unfortunate Rajah's fidelity was now put to a hard proof. Besieged
+in his capital by a large force, he saw himself all at once deprived
+of the aid of those for whose advantage he had incurred so great a
+risk. Sodrez and several of his captains had deserted the post,
+where both honour and gratitude required them to remain, and if need
+were, to die in the discharge of their duty; they forsook Triumpara
+to go and cruise in the neighbourhood of Ormuz, and at the entrance
+to the Red Sea, where they calculated that the annual pilgrimage to
+Mecca was likely to ensure them some rich booty. The Portuguese
+agent vainly represented to them the unworthiness of their conduct,
+they set out in haste, to escape from these inconvenient reproaches.</p>
+
+<p>The King of Cochin, betrayed by some of the Nairs (military nobles)
+of his palace, who had been gained over by the Zamorin, soon saw his
+capital carried by assault, and was obliged to seek refuge upon an
+inaccessible rock in the little Island of Viopia, with those
+Portuguese who had remained faithful to him. When he was reduced to
+the last extremity, an emissary was sent to him by the Zamorin, to
+promise him pardon and oblivion of his offences if he would give up
+to him the Portuguese. But Triumpara, whose fidelity cannot be
+sufficiently commended, answered, "that the Zamorin might use his
+rights of victory; that he was not ignorant of the perils by which
+he was menaced, but that it was not in the power of any man to make
+him a traitor and a perjurer." No one could have made a nobler
+return than this for the desertion and cowardice of Sodrez.</p>
+
+<p>Vincent Sodrez had arrived at the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, when a
+fearful tempest occurred, in which his ship split upon the rocks,
+and he and his brother perished. The survivors regarded this event
+as a judgment of Providence for their bad conduct, and they made
+haste, with all sails set to return to Cochin. They were detained by
+contrary winds at the Laccadive Islands, and were there joined by
+another Portuguese squadron under the command of Francisco
+d'Albuquerque, who had sailed from Lisbon almost at the same time as
+his cousin Alfonzo d'Albuquerque the most distinguished captain of
+the period, who with the title of Capitam mõr had started from Belem
+at the beginning of April, 1503.</p>
+
+<p>The arrival of Francisco d'Albuquerque placed the Portuguese affairs,
+which had been so gravely compromised by the criminal conduct of
+Sodrez, upon a better footing, and at the same time effected the
+rescue of Triumpara, their sole and faithful ally. The besiegers
+fled at the sight of the Portuguese squadron, without even a show of
+resistance, and the Europeans in conjunction with the troops of the
+King of Cochin ravaged the Malabar Coast. As a consequence of these
+events, Triumpara allowed his allies to construct a second fortress
+in his dominions, and authorised an augmentation of the number and
+importance of their mercantile houses. This was the moment that
+witnessed the arrival of Alfonzo d'Albuquerque, the man destined to
+be the real creator of the Portuguese Empire in the Indies. Diaz,
+Cabral, and Gama, had prepared the way, but Albuquerque was the
+leader of large views who was needed to determine which were the
+principal towns that must be seized in order to place the Portuguese
+dominion upon a solid and lasting basis. Thus every particular of
+the history of this man who showed so great a genius for
+colonisation, is of the deepest interest, and it is well worth while
+to record some particulars of his family, his education, and his
+early exploits.</p>
+
+<p>Alfonzo d'Alboquerque or d'Albuquerque, was born in 1453 at Alhandra,
+eighteen miles from Lisbon. Through his father Gonzalo d'Albuquerque,
+the Lord of Villaverde, he was descended, but illegitimately, from
+King Diniz; and through his mother from the Menezez, the great
+explorers. Brought up at the court of Alphonzo V., he there received
+as liberal and thorough an education as was possible at the period.
+He made an especial study of the great writers of antiquity, whose
+influence may be traced in the majesty and accuracy of his own style,
+and of mathematics of which he knew as much as could be learnt at
+that time. After staying for some years at Arzila, an African town
+which was under the dominion of Alphonzo V., he returned to Portugal,
+and was appointed Master of the Horse to John II., a prince whose
+chief anxiety was to extend the name and power of Portugal beyond
+the seas. It is evident that it was to the constant attendance upon
+the king imposed upon him by the duties of his office, that
+Albuquerque owed the inclination of his mind towards geographical
+studies, and his anxious desire to find the means of giving to his
+country the Empire of the Indies. He had already taken part in an
+expedition sent to the succour of the King of Naples against an
+incursion of the Turks, and in 1489, had been charged with the
+commission of revictualling and defending the fortress of Graciosa,
+upon the coast of Larache.</p>
+
+<p>We must now return from this digression and take up the history of
+Albuquerque, from the time of his arrival in India in 1503. It took
+him but a few days to become thoroughly aware of the position of
+affairs; he perceived that the commerce of Portugal must depend upon
+conquest for its power of development. But his first enterprise was
+proportioned to the feebleness of his resources; he laid siege to
+Raphelim, which he wished to make a military station for his
+countrymen, and then with two ships he undertook a reconnaissance of
+the coast of Hindostan. Being attacked quite unexpectedly both by
+land and sea, he was on the point of yielding when the fortunate
+arrival of his cousin Francisco turned the combat, and put the
+Zamorin's troops to flight. The importance of this victory was
+considerable; the conquerors remained masters of an immense booty
+and quantities of precious stones, which had the result of
+stimulating the Portuguese spirit of covetousness; at the same time
+it confirmed Albuquerque in his designs, for the execution of which
+the consent of the king was needful, and also more considerable
+resources. He therefore set out on his return to Lisbon, where he
+arrived in July, 1504.</p>
+
+<p>This same year, King Emmanuel wishing to organize a regular
+government in the Indies, had made Tristan da Cunha his viceroy, but
+Da Cunha having become temporarily blind was obliged to resign his
+power before he had exercised it. The king's choice next fell upon
+Francisco d'Almeida, who set out with his son in 1505. It will be
+soon seen what were the means which he considered should be employed
+to assure the triumph of his countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>On the 6th of March, 1506, sixteen vessels left Lisbon under the
+command of Tristan da Cunha, who had by that time regained his
+health. With him went Alfonzo Albuquerque, carrying with him, but
+unknown to himself, his patent of Viceroy of India. He was ordered
+not to open the sealed packet until three years should have expired,
+when Almeida would have completed the term of his mission.</p>
+
+<p>This numerous fleet, after having stopped at the Cape de Verd
+Islands and discovered Cape St. Augustine in Brazil, steered
+directly for the unexplored parts of the South Atlantic, and went so
+far south that the old chroniclers assert that several sailors being
+too lightly clad died from cold, while the others were scarcely able
+to work the ships. In 37&deg; 8' south latitude, and 14&deg; 21' west
+longitude, Da Cunha discovered three small
+uninhabited islands, of which the largest still bears his name. A
+storm prevented a landing there, and so completely dispersed the
+fleet that the admiral could not get his vessels together again
+before he arrived at Mozambique. In sailing along this African coast
+he explored the island of Madagascar or Sam-Lorenzo, which had just
+been discovered by Soarez, who was in command of eight vessels which
+Almeida was sending back to Europe; it was not thought advisable to
+make a settlement upon the island.</p>
+
+<p>After having wintered at Mozambique, Da Cunha landed three
+ambassadors at Melinda, who were to reach Abyssinia by travelling
+overland, then he anchored at Brava, which Coutinho, one of his
+lieutenants had been unable to subjugate. The Portuguese now laid
+siege to this town, which resisted bravely but which yielded in the
+end, thanks to the courage of the enemy and the perfection of their
+arms. The population was massacred without mercy, and the town
+pillaged and burnt. Upon Magadoxo, another town on the African Coast,
+Cunha tried but in vain, to impose his authority. The strength of
+the town and the stubborn resolution shown by the numerous
+population as well as the approach of winter forced him to raise the
+siege. He then turned his arms against Socotra, at the entrance of
+the Gulf of Aden, where he carried the fortress. The whole of the
+garrison were put to the sword, the only man spared being an old
+blind soldier, who was discovered hidden in a well. When asked how
+he had been able to get down there, he answered,&mdash;"The blind only
+see the road which leads to liberty." At Socotra, the two Portuguese
+chiefs constructed the fort of Çoco, intended by Albuquerque to
+command the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, by the Strait of
+Bab-el-Mandeb, thus cutting one of the lines of communication with
+the Indies, which was the most used by the Venetians.</p>
+
+<p>Here Da Cunha and Albuquerque separated, the former going to India
+to obtain a cargo of spices, the latter officially invested with the
+title of Capitam mõr, and bent on the realization of his vast
+schemes, setting out on the 10th of August, 1507, for Ormuz, having
+left his nephew Alfonzo da Noronha in charge of the new fortress. He
+took in succession, and as if to get his hand in for the work,
+Calayati, where were found immense stores, Curiaty and Mascati,
+which he gave up to pillage, fire, and destruction, in order to
+avenge a series of acts of treachery easily understood by those who
+know the duplicity of these eastern people. The success which he had
+just gained at Mascati, important as it was, did not content
+Albuquerque. He dreamed of other and grander projects, of which the
+execution was, however, much compromised by the jealousy of the
+captains under his orders, and notably of Joao da Nova, who
+contemplated abandoning his chief, and whom Albuquerque was obliged
+to place under arrest on board his own ship. After having suppressed
+these beginnings of disobedience and rebellion, the Capitam mõr
+reached Orfacati, which was taken after a vigorous resistance.</p>
+
+<p>It is a curious fact that Albuquerque had long heard Ormuz spoken of,
+but that as yet he was ignorant of its position. He knew that this
+town served as an entrepôt for all the merchandise passing from Asia
+into Europe. Its riches and power, the number of its inhabitants and
+the beauty of its monuments were at that time celebrated throughout
+the East, so much so that there was a common saying, "If the world
+be a ring, Ormuz is the precious stone set in it." Albuquerque had
+resolved to take this town, not only because in itself it was a
+prize worth having, but also because it commanded the whole of the
+Persian Gulf, which was the second of the great commercial roads
+between the East and West. Without saying anything to the captains
+of his fleet, who, without doubt, would have rebelled at the idea of
+attacking so strong a town, and the capital of a powerful empire,
+Albuquerque gave orders to double Cape Mussendom, and the fleet soon
+entered the Strait of Ormuz, the door of the Persian Gulf, from
+whence was seen rising in all its magnificence a busy town built
+upon a rocky island, provided with formidable artillery, and
+protected by an army amounting to not less than from fifteen to
+twenty thousand men, while its harbour enclosed a fleet more
+numerous than could have been suspected at first sight. At this
+sight the captains made urgent representations upon the danger that
+Albuquerque would run in attacking so well-prepared a town, and made
+the most of the plea how very bad an influence a reverse would
+exercise. To this discourse Albuquerque answered, that indeed "it
+was a very great affair, but that it was too late to draw back, and
+that he had greater need of determination than of good advice."</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 30">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="576">
+			<img src="images/056.jpg" alt="Albuquerque before Ormuz">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="576" align="center">
+			Albuquerque before Ormuz.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Scarcely was the anchor dropped before Albuquerque declared his
+ultimatum. Although the forces under his orders were very
+disproportionate in numbers, the Capitam mõr imperiously demanded
+that Ormuz should recognize the suzerainty of the King of Portugal
+and submit to his envoy, if it did not wish to share the same fate
+as Mascati. The King, Seif-Ed-din, who was then reigning over Ormuz,
+was still a child, and his Prime Minister, Kodja-Atar, a skilful and
+cunning diplomatist, governed in the king's name. Without denying in
+principle the pretensions of Albuquerque, the Prime Minister wished
+to gain time, to allow contingents to arrive for the help of the
+capital; but the admiral, who guessed his object, did not hesitate,
+after waiting three days, to attack the formidable fleet at anchor
+under the guns of Ormuz, with his five vessels and the <i>Flor de la
+Mar</i>, the finest and largest ship of that time. The combat was
+bloody and long undecided, but when they saw fortune was against
+them the Moors, abandoning their vessels, endeavoured to swim on
+shore. The Portuguese upon this jumped into their boats, pursuing
+the Moors vigorously, and causing horrible carnage. Albuquerque next
+directed his efforts against a large wooden jetty defended by
+numerous guns and by archers, whose well-aimed arrows wounded a
+number of the Portuguese and the general himself, who, however, was
+not hindered thereby from landing and proceeding to burn the suburbs
+of the town. Convinced that resistance would soon be impossible, and
+that their capital was in danger of being destroyed, the Moors
+hoisted a flag of truce, and signed a treaty, by which Seif-Ed-din
+declared himself the vassal of King Emmanuel, promised to pay him an
+annual tribute of 15,000 seraphins or xarafins, and gave to the
+conquerors a site for a fortress, which, in spite of the repugnance
+and reproaches of the Portuguese captains, was soon put into a
+condition of resistance. Unfortunately some deserters quickly
+brought these unworthy dissensions to the knowledge of Kodja-Atar,
+who profited by them to avoid, under various pretexts, fulfilling
+the execution of the articles of the new treaty. Some days
+afterwards Joao da Nova and two other captains, jealous of the
+successes of Albuquerque, and trampling in the dust every sentiment
+of honour, discipline, and patriotism, left him to go to the Indies;
+while Albuquerque was obliged by this cowardly desertion to withdraw
+without being able even to guard the fortress which he had been at
+so much pains to construct. He went to Socotra, where the garrison
+was in need of help, and then returned to cruise before Ormuz, but
+thinking himself too weak to undertake anything, he retired for a
+time to Goa, arriving there at the end of the year 1508.</p>
+
+<p>What had been occurring on the Malabar coast during this long and
+adventurous campaign? The answer may be summed up in a few lines. It
+will be remembered that Almeida had set out from Belem in 1505 with
+a fleet of twenty-two sail, carrying soldiers to the number of 1500
+men. First he seized Quiloa and then Mombaz, of which the "cavaliers,
+as the inhabitants loved to repeat, did not yield as easily as the
+chicken hearts of Quiloa." Out of the enormous booty, which by the
+fall of this town fell into the hands of the Portuguese, Almeida
+only took one arrow as his share of the spoil, thus giving a rare
+example of disinterestedness. After having stopped at Melinda he
+went on to Cochin, where he delivered to the Rajah the golden crown
+sent to him by Emmanuel, whilst he himself, with the presumptuous
+vanity of which he gave so many proofs, assumed the title of viceroy.
+Then, after commencing a fortress at Sofala, destined to overawe the
+Mussulmen of that coast, Almeida and his son, Lorenzo, scoured the
+Indian Seas, destroying the Malabar fleets, capturing some trading
+vessels, and causing great injury to the enemy, whose accustomed
+commercial roads were thus intercepted. But for this cruising
+warfare a numerous fleet of light vessels was needed, for there was
+scarcely any other harbour of refuge except Cochin upon the Asiatic
+coast. How preferable was Albuquerque's system of establishing
+himself in the country in a permanent manner, by constructing
+fortresses in all directions, by seizing upon the most powerful
+cities, whence it was easy to branch off into the interior of the
+country, by rendering himself master of the keys of the straits, and
+thus ensuring with much less risk, and more solidity, the monopoly
+of the Indian commerce.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the victories of Almeida, and the conquests of Albuquerque
+had much disquieted the Sultan of Egypt. The abandonment of the
+Alexandrian route caused a great diminution in the amount of imposts
+and dues of customs, anchorage, and transit, which were laid upon
+the merchandise of Asia as it passed through his states. Therefore,
+with the help of the Venetians, who furnished him with the wood for
+ship-building as well as with skilful sailors, he fitted out a
+squadron of twelve large ships, which came as far as Cochin, seeking
+the fleet of Lorenzo d'Almeida, and defeating it in a bloody combat
+in which Lorenzo was killed. If the sorrow of the viceroy were great
+at this sad news, at least he did not let it appear outwardly, but
+set to work to make all preparations for taking prompt vengeance
+upon the Roumis,&mdash;an appellation which shows the lasting terror
+attaching to the name of the Romans, and commonly used at this time
+upon the Malabar coast, for all Mussulman soldiers coming from
+Byzantium. With nineteen sail Almeida appeared before the fort where
+his son had been killed, and gained a great victory, but one sullied,
+it must be confessed, by most frightful cruelties, so much so that
+it soon became a common saying: "May the anger of the Franks fall
+upon thee as it fell upon Daboul." Not content with this first
+success, Almeida, some weeks later, annihilated the combined forces
+of the Sultan of Egypt, and the Rajah of Calicut, before Diu. This
+victory made a profound impression in India, and put an end to the
+power of the <i>Mahumetists</i> of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Joao da Nova and the other captains, who had abandoned Albuquerque
+before Ormuz, had decided to rejoin Almeida; they had excused their
+disobedience by calumnies, in consequence of which a judicial
+process was about to be instituted against Albuquerque, when the
+viceroy received the news of his being replaced in his office by
+Albuquerque. At first Almeida declared that obedience must be
+rendered to this sovereign decree, but afterwards influenced by the
+traitors, who feared that they would be severely punished when the
+power had passed into the hands of Albuquerque, he repaired to
+Cochin in the month of March, 1509, with the fixed determination not
+to give up the command to his successor. There were disagreeable and
+painful disputes between these two great men, in which all the wrong
+done was on the side of Almeida. Albuquerque was about to be sent to
+Lisbon with chains on his feet, when a fleet of fifteen sail entered
+the harbour, under the command of the grand Marshal of Portugal,
+Ferdinand Coutinho. The latter took the part of the prisoner, whom
+he immediately released, notifying again to Almeida the powers held
+by Albuquerque from the king, and threatening him with the great
+anger of Emmanuel if he refused to obey. Almeida could do nothing
+but yield, and he then did it nobly. As for Joao da Nova, the author
+of these sad misunderstandings, he died some time afterwards,
+forsaken by everybody, and had scarcely any one to follow him to the
+grave except the new viceroy, who thus generously forgot the
+injuries done to Alfonzo Albuquerque.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the departure of Almeida, the grand Marshal
+Coutinho declared that, having come to India with the intention of
+destroying Calicut, he intended to turn to account the absence of
+the Zamorin from his capital. In vain the new viceroy endeavoured to
+modify his zeal and induce him to take the wise measures recommended
+by experience. Coutinho would listen to nothing, and Albuquerque was
+obliged to follow him. Calicut, taken by surprise, was easily set on
+fire; but the Portuguese, having lingered to pillage the Zamorin's
+palace, were fiercely attacked in rear by the Nairs, who had
+succeeded in rallying their troops. Coutinho, whose impetuous valour
+led him into the greatest danger, was killed, and it required all
+the skill and coolness of the viceroy to effect a re-embarkation of
+the troops under the enemy's fire, and to preserve the soldiers of
+the King of Portugal from total destruction.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to Cintagara, a sea-port which was a dependency of the
+King of Narsingue, with whom the Portuguese had been able to form an
+alliance, Albuquerque learnt that Goa, the capital of a powerful
+kingdom, was a prey to political and religious anarchy. Several
+chiefs were contending there for power. One of them, Melek Çufergugi,
+was just on the point of seizing the throne, and it was important to
+profit by the circumstances of the moment, and attack the town
+before he should have been able to gather a force capable of
+resisting the Portuguese. The viceroy perceived all the importance
+of this counsel. The situation of Goa, giving access as it did to
+the kingdom of Narsingue and to the Deccan, had already struck him
+forcibly. He did not delay, and soon the Portuguese reckoned one
+conquest more. Goa the Golden, a cosmopolitan town, where were
+mingled with all the various sects of Islam Parsees, the worshippers
+of Fire, and even some Christians, submitted to Albuquerque, and
+soon became, under a wise and strict government which understood how
+to conciliate the sympathies of opposing sects, the capital, the
+chief fortress, and the principal seat of trade of the Portuguese
+empire of the Indies.</p>
+
+<p>By degrees and with the course of years the knowledge of these rich
+countries had increased. Much information had been gathered together
+by all those who had ploughed these sunny seas in their gallant
+vessels, and it was now known what was the centre of production of
+those spices which people went so far to seek, and for whose
+acquisition they encountered so many perils. It was already several
+years since Almeida had founded the first Portuguese factories in
+Ceylon, the ancient Taprobane. The Islands of Sunda, and the
+Peninsula of Malacca, were now exciting the desires of King Emmanuel,
+who had already been surnamed "the fortunate." He resolved to send a
+fleet to explore them, for Albuquerque had enough to do in India to
+restrain the trembling Rajahs, and the Mussulmen&mdash;Moors as they were
+then called&mdash;who were always ready to shake off the yoke. This new
+expedition was under the command of Diego Lopez Sequeira, and
+according to the traditional policy of the Moors, was at first
+amicably received at Malacca; but when the suspicions of Lopez
+Sequeira had been lulled to sleep by reiterated protestations of
+alliance, the whole population suddenly rose against him, and he was
+forced to return on board, but not without leaving thirty of his
+companions in the hands of the Malays. These events had already
+happened some time when the news of the taking of Goa arrived at
+Malacca. The <i>bendarra</i>, or Minister of Justice, who exercised regal
+power in the name of his nephew who was still a child, fearing the
+vengeance which the Portuguese would doubtless exact for his
+treachery, resolved to pacify them. He went to visit his prisoners,
+excused himself to them by swearing that all had been done unknown
+to him and against his will, for he desired nothing so much as to
+see the Portuguese establish themselves in Malacca; also he was
+about to order the authors of the treason to be sought out and
+punished. The prisoners naturally gave no credence to these lying
+declarations, but profiting by the comparative liberty which was
+henceforth granted to them, they cleverly succeeded in conveying to
+Albuquerque some valuable information upon the position and strength
+of the town.</p>
+
+<p>Albuquerque with much trouble collected a fleet of nineteen men of
+war, carrying fourteen hundred men, amongst whom there were only
+eight hundred Portuguese. This being the case, ought he to venture
+in obedience to the wish of King Emmanuel to steer for Aden, the key
+of the Red Sea, which it was important to master in preparation for
+opposing the passage of a new squadron, which the Sultan of Egypt
+was intending to send to India? Albuquerque hesitated, when a change
+in the trade-winds occurred which put an end to his irresolution. In
+fact, it was impossible to reach Aden in the teeth of the prevailing
+wind, while it was favourable for a descent upon Malacca. This town,
+at that time in its full splendour, did not contain less than
+100,000 inhabitants. If many of the houses were built of wood, and
+roofed with the leaves of the palm-tree, yet they were equalled in
+number by the more important buildings, such as mosques and towers
+built of stone, which stretched out in a long panorama for the
+distance of three miles. The ships of India, China, and of the Malay
+kingdoms of the Sunda Islands, met in its harbour, where numerous
+vessels coming from the Malabar coast, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea,
+and the coast of Africa traded in merchandise of all kinds and of
+every country.</p>
+
+<p>When the Rajah of Malacca saw the Portuguese fleet arrive in his
+waters, he felt that it was necessary to appear to give satisfaction
+to the foreigners by sacrificing the minister who had excited their
+anger and caused their arrival. His ambassador therefore came to the
+viceroy to announce the death of the <i>bendarra</i>, and to find out
+what were the intentions of the Portuguese. Albuquerque answered by
+demanding the prisoners who had remained in the hands of the Rajah,
+but the latter, desirous of gaining time to allow for the expected
+change in the trade-wind,&mdash;a change which would force the Portuguese
+to regain the Malabar coast, or else would oblige them to remain at
+Malacca, where he hoped to be able to exterminate them,&mdash;invented a
+thousand pretexts for delay, and in the meantime according to the
+old narratives, he prepared a battery of 8000 cannon, and collected
+troops to the number of 20,000. At length Albuquerque lost his
+patience, and ordered some houses and several Gujerat vessels to be
+set on fire, a beginning of execution which speedily brought about
+the restoration of the prisoners; he then claimed 20,000 crusades as
+indemnity for the damage caused to the fleet of Lopez Sequeira, and
+finally he demanded to be allowed to build a fortress within the
+town itself, which should also serve as a counting-house for the
+merchants. This demand could not be complied with as Albuquerque
+well knew; but upon the refusal he resolved to seize the town,
+fixing upon St. James' day for the attack. The town was taken
+quarter by quarter, house by house, after a truly heroic struggle
+and a most vigorous defence, which lasted for nine whole days,
+notwithstanding the employment of extraordinary devices, such as
+elephants of war, poisoned sabres and arrows, barricades, and
+skilfully concealed troops. An enormous booty was divided amongst
+the soldiers, Albuquerque only reserving to himself six lions, of
+gold according to some accounts, of iron according to others, which
+he intended for the adornment of his tomb, to perpetuate the memory
+of his victory.</p>
+
+<p>The door which gave access to Oceania, and to Upper Asia, was
+henceforth open. Many nations unknown till this time would now have
+intercourse with Europeans. The strange manners and fabulous history
+of many people were about to be disclosed to the astonished West. A
+new era had commenced, and these great results were due to the
+unbridled audacity, and indomitable courage of a nation whose
+country was scarcely discernible upon the map of the world!</p>
+
+<p>It was in part owing to the religious toleration which Albuquerque
+displayed, a toleration which contrasts strangely with the cruel
+fanaticism of the Spaniards, and in part to the skilful measures
+which he took, that the prosperity of Malacca resisted the rude
+shock which it had received. In the course of a few months no trace
+remained of the trials which the town had experienced, except the
+sight of the Portuguese banner floating proudly over this great city,
+which had now become the head and vanguard of the colonial empire of
+this people, small in numbers, but rendered great by their courage
+and their spirit of enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>Great and wonderful as this new conquest might be, it had not made
+Albuquerque forget his former projects. If he had appeared to have
+renounced them, it was only because circumstances had not hitherto
+seemed favourable for their execution. With that tenacity of
+determination which formed the basis of his character, while still
+at the southern extremity of the empire which he was founding, his
+thoughts were fixed upon the northern part of it, upon Ormuz, which
+the jealousy and treachery of his subordinates had obliged him to
+abandon at the beginning of his career, at the very moment when
+success was about to crown his persevering efforts; it was Ormuz
+which tempted him still.</p>
+<a name="fax23"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 23">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="790">
+			<img src="images/057.jpg" alt="The Island of Ormuz">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The fame of his exploits and the terror inspired by his name had
+decided Kodja-Atar to make some advances to Albuquerque, to ask for
+a treaty, and to send the arrears of the tribute which had been
+formerly imposed. Although the viceroy placed no belief on these
+repeated declarations of friendship&mdash;on that Moorish faith which
+deserves to be as notorious as Punic faith,&mdash;he nevertheless
+welcomed them, whilst waiting for the power to establish his
+dominion after a permanent manner in these countries. In 1513 or
+1514&mdash;the exact date is not ascertained&mdash;when his fleet and soldiers
+were set at liberty by the conquest of Malacca and the tranquillity
+of his other possessions, Albuquerque set sail for the Persian Gulf.
+Immediately upon his arrival, although a series of revolutions had
+changed the government of Ormuz and the power was then in the hands
+of a usurper named Rais-Nordim or Noureddin, Albuquerque demanded
+that the fortress, which had been formerly begun, should be
+immediately placed in his hands. After having had it repaired and
+finished, he took part against the pretender Rais Named, in the
+quarrel which was then dividing the town of Ormuz and preparing it
+to fall under the dominion of Persia. He seized upon the town and
+bestowed it upon the aspirant who had accepted his conditions
+beforehand, and who appeared to Albuquerque to present the most
+solid guarantees of submission and fidelity. Besides, it would not
+be difficult in the future to make this certain, for Albuquerque
+left in the new fortress a garrison perfectly able to bring
+Rais-Nordim to repentance for the slightest attempt at revolt, or
+the least desire of independence.</p>
+
+<p>A well-known anecdote is related of this expedition to Ormuz, but
+one which, even from its notoriety, we should be blamed for omitting.
+When the King of Persia sent to Noureddin to demand the tribute
+which the sovereigns of Ormuz had been in the habit of paying to him,
+Albuquerque gave orders that a quantity of bullets, cannon-balls and
+shells, should be brought from his ships, and showing them to the
+ambassadors he told them that such was the coin in which the King of
+Portugal was accustomed to pay tribute. It does not appear that the
+Persian ambassadors repeated their demand.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 31">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579">
+			<img src="images/058.jpg" alt="Albuquerque had a quantity of bullets brought from his vessels">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579" align="center">
+			Albuquerque had a quantity of bullets brought from his vessels.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>With his usual wisdom, the viceroy did not wound the feelings of the
+inhabitants, who speedily returned to the town. Far from squeezing
+all he could from them, as his successors were destined soon to do,
+he established an upright system of government which caused the
+Portuguese name to be loved and respected.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time that he was himself accomplishing these marvellous
+labours, Albuquerque had desired some of his lieutenants to explore
+the unknown regions to which access had been given by the taking of
+Malacca. For this purpose he gave to Antonio and Francisco d'Abreu
+the command of a small squadron carrying 220 men, with which they
+explored the whole of the Sunda Archipelago, Sumatra, Java, Anjoam,
+Simbala, Jolor, Galam, &amp;c.; then being not far from the coast of
+Australia they sailed back again to the north and arrived at the
+Islands of Buro and Amboyna, which form part of the Molucca group.
+After having made a voyage of more than 1500 miles amongst dangerous
+archipelagos strewn with rocks and coral reefs, and amidst
+populations often hostile, and after loading their ships there with
+cloves, nutmegs, sandal-wood, mace, and pearls, they set sail for
+Malacca in 1512. This time the veritable land of spices had been
+reached, it now only remained to found establishments there and to
+take possession of it definitely, which was not likely to be long
+postponed.</p>
+
+<p>It has been often remarked that the Tarpeian rock is not far from
+the Capitol; of this Albuquerque was destined to make experience,
+and his last days were to be saddened by unmerited disgrace, the
+result of calumnies and lies, and of a skilfully woven plot, which,
+although it succeeded in temporarily clouding his reputation with
+King Emmanuel, has not availed to obscure the glory of this great
+man in the eyes of posterity. Already there had been an effort made
+to persuade the king that the taking possession of Goa had been a
+grave error; its unhealthy climate must, it was said, decimate the
+European population in a short time, but the king, with perfect
+confidence in the experience and prudence of his lieutenant, had
+refused to listen to his enemies, for which Albuquerque had publicly
+thanked him, saying,&mdash;"I think more is owing to King Emmanuel for
+having defended Goa against the Portuguese, than to myself for
+having twice conquered it." But in 1514 Albuquerque had asked the
+king to bestow upon him as a reward for his services the title of
+Duke of Goa, and it was this imprudent step which gave an advantage
+to his adversaries.</p>
+
+<p>Soarez d'Albergavia and Diogo Mendez, whom Albuquerque had sent as
+prisoners to Portugal after they had publicly declared themselves
+his enemies, had succeeded not only in clearing themselves from the
+accusation brought against them by the viceroy, but in persuading
+Emmanuel that he wished to constitute an independent duchy of which
+Goa should be the capital, and they ended by obtaining his disgrace.
+The news of the appointment of Albergavia to the post of
+Captain-General of Cochin, reached Albuquerque as he was issuing
+from the Strait of Ormuz on his return to the Malabar coast, and at
+a time when he was suffering much from disease. "He raised his hands
+towards heaven," says M. F. Denis, in his excellent History of
+Portugal, "and pronounced these few words: Behold I am in disgrace
+with the king on account of my love to men, and with men on account
+of my love to the king. Turn thee, old man, to the Church, and
+prepare to die, for it behoves thine honour that thou shouldest die,
+and never hast thou neglected to do aught which thine honour
+demands." Whereupon, being arrived in the roadstead of Goa, Alfonzo
+Albuquerque set in order the affairs of his conscience with the
+Church, caused himself to be clad in the dress of the Order of St.
+Iago of which he was a commander, and then "on Sunday the 16th of
+December, an hour before daybreak, he rendered up his soul to God.
+Thus ended all his labours, without their having ever brought him
+any satisfaction."</p>
+
+<p>Albuquerque was buried with great pomp. The soldiers who had been
+the faithful companions of his wonderful adventures, and the
+witnesses of his manifold tribulations, disputed amidst their tears
+for the honour of carrying his remains to their last resting-place,
+which their commander had himself chosen. The Hindoos in their grief
+refused to believe that he was dead, declaring that he was gone to
+command the armies of the sky. A letter of King Emmanuel has been
+comparatively lately discovered which proves that, although he were
+deceived for a time by the false reports of the enemies of
+Albuquerque, he soon discovered his mistake, and rendered him full
+and entire justice. Unfortunately this letter of reparation never
+reached the unfortunate second Viceroy of the Indies; it would have
+sweetened his last moments, whereas he had the pain of dying in the
+belief that the sovereign for whose glory and the increase of whose
+power he had consecrated his life, had in the end proved ungrateful
+towards him. "With Albuquerque," says Michelet, "all humanity and
+all justice disappeared from amongst the conquerors. Long years
+after his death the Indians would repair to the tomb of the great
+Albuquerque, to demand justice of him against the oppressions of his
+successors."</p>
+
+<p>Many causes may be adduced as bringing about the rapid decay and
+dismemberment of that great colonial empire with which Albuquerque
+had enriched his country, and which even amidst its ruins has left
+ineffaceable traces upon India. With Michelet we may cite the
+distance and dispersion of the various factories, the smallness of
+the population of Portugal, but little suited to the wide extension
+of her establishments, the love of brigandage, and the exactions of
+a bad government, but beyond all, that indomitable national pride
+which forbade any mingling of the victors with the vanquished.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of the colonial empire was hindered for a time by the
+influence of two heroic men, the first was Juan de Castro, who after
+having had the control of untold riches, remained so poor that he
+had not even the wherewithal to buy a fowl in his last illness; and
+the second, Ataïde, who once again gave the corrupt eastern
+populations an example of the most manly virtues, and of the most
+upright administration. But after their time the empire began to
+drop to pieces, and fell by degrees into the hands of the Spaniards
+and the Dutch, who in their turn were unable to preserve it intact.
+All passes away, all is changed. What can be said but to repeat the
+Spanish saw, in applying it to the case of empires, "Life is but a
+dream"?</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<center><small>END OF THE FIRST PART</small>.</center>
+<br>
+<br>
+<center><hr width="80%"></center>
+<br>
+<br>
+<h3>PART II.</h3>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c1"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER I.</h4>
+<center>T<small>HE</small> C<small>ONQUERORS OF</small> C<small>ENTRAL</small> A<small>MERICA</small>.<br>
+<br>
+I.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Hojeda&mdash;Americus Vespucius&mdash;The New World named after him&mdash;Juan de
+la Cosa&mdash;Vincent Yañez Pinzon&mdash;Bastidas&mdash;Diego de Lepe&mdash;Diaz de
+Solis&mdash;Ponce de Leon and Florida&mdash;Balboa discovers the Pacific
+Ocean&mdash;Grijalva explores the coast of Mexico.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>The letters and narratives of Columbus and his companions,
+especially those dwelling upon the large quantity of gold and pearls
+found in the recently discovered countries, had inflamed the
+imagination of eager traders, and of numbers of gentlemen who loved
+adventure. On the 10th of April, 1495, the Spanish government had
+issued an order allowing any one who might wish to do so, to go and
+discover new countries; but this privilege was so much abused, and
+Columbus complained so bitterly of its trenching upon established
+rights, that the permission was withdrawn on the 2nd of June, 1497,
+and four years later it became necessary to repeat the prohibition
+with more severe penalties attached to its infringement. The effect
+of the royal decree was at once to produce a kind of general rush to
+the Indies, and this was favoured by Bishop Fonseca of Badajoz,
+through whose hands passed all business connected with the Indies,
+and of whom Columbus had had so much reason to complain.</p>
+
+<p>The admiral had but just left San-Lucar on his third voyage, when
+four expeditions of discovery were fitted out almost at the same
+moment, at the cost of some rich ship-owners, foremost among whom we
+find the Pinzons and Americus Vespucius. The first of these
+expeditions, which left the port of Santa-Maria on the 20th of May,
+1499, consisted of four vessels, and was commanded by Alonzo Hojeda.
+Juan de la Cosa sailed with him as pilot; Americus Vespucius was
+also on board, without any very clearly defined duties, but he would
+seem to have been astronomer to the fleet.</p>
+<a name="fax24"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 24">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584">
+			<img src="images/059.jpg" alt="Americus Vespucius">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584" align="center">
+			Americus Vespucius.<br>
+			<small><i>Fac-simile of an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Before entering on a brief account of this voyage, we will glance
+for a few moments at the three men whom we have just named; the last
+of the three especially, plays a most important part in the
+discovery of the New World, which received its name from him.</p>
+
+<p>Hojeda, born at Cuença about 1465, and brought up in the household
+of the Duke of Medina-Celi, had gained his first experience in arms
+in the wars against the Moors. Columbus enrolled him amongst the
+adventurers whom he recruited for his second voyage, when Hojeda
+distinguished himself alike by his cool courage and his readiness in
+surmounting all difficulties. What caused his complete rupture with
+Columbus remains a mystery; it appears still more inexplicable when
+we think of the distinguished services that Hojeda had rendered,
+especially in 1495, at the battle of La Vega, when the Caribbean
+Confederation was annihilated. All we know is, that on Hojeda's
+return to Spain he found shelter and protection with Bishop Fonseca.
+It is said even that the Indian minister supplied him with the
+journal of the admiral's last voyage, and the map of the countries
+which Columbus had discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The first pilot employed by Hojeda was Juan de la Cosa, born
+probably at Santona, in the Biscayan country. He had often sailed
+along the coast of Africa before accompanying Columbus on his first
+voyage, while in the second expedition he filled the post of
+hydrographer (<i>maestro de hacer cartas</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As specimens of La Cosa's talent in drawing maps may be mentioned
+two very curious ones still extant; one showing all the territory
+that had been acquired in Africa in 1500, the other on vellum, and
+enriched with colour like the first, giving the discoveries made by
+Columbus and his successors. The second pilot was Bartholomew Roldan,
+who had likewise sailed with Columbus on his voyage to Paria.</p>
+
+<p>As to Americus Vespucius, his duties were not, as we have said, very
+clearly defined, he was there to aid in making discoveries (<i>per
+ajutare a discoprire</i>, says the Italian text of his letter to
+Soderini). Born at Florence on the 9th of March, 1451, Amerigo
+Vespucci belonged to a family of distinction and wealth. He had made
+mathematics, natural philosophy, and astrology (as it was then
+called) his special studies. His knowledge of history and literature,
+judging from his letters, appears to have been somewhat vague and
+ill-digested. He left Florence in 1492 without any special aim in
+view, and went to Spain, where he occupied himself at first in
+commercial pursuits. We hear of him in Seville acting as factor in
+the powerful trading house of his fellow countryman, Juanoto Berardi.
+As this house had advanced money to Columbus for his second voyage,
+it is not unlikely that Vespucius had become acquainted with the
+admiral at this period of his career. On Juanoto's death in 1495,
+Vespucius was placed by his heirs at the head of the financial
+department of the house. Whether he may have been tired of a
+situation that he thought below his powers, or been seized in his
+turn with the fever for making new discoveries, or whether he hoped
+to make his fortune rapidly in the new countries reputed to be so
+rich; whatever in short may have been the motive that actuated him,
+at least this we know, that he joined Hojeda's expedition in 1499,
+this fact being so stated in Hojeda's deposition in the law-suit
+instituted by the Treasury with the heirs of Columbus.</p>
+
+<p>The flotilla, consisting of four vessels, set sail on the 20th of
+May from Santa-Maria, taking a south-westerly course, and in
+twenty-seven days the American continent was sighted at the place
+which was named Venezuela, because the houses being built upon piles
+reminded the beholders of Venice. Hojeda, after some ineffectual
+attempts to hold intercourse with the natives, with whom he had
+several skirmishes, next saw the Island of Margarita; after sailing
+about 250 miles to the east of the river Orinoco he reached the Gulf
+of Paria, and entered a bay called the Bay of <i>Las Perlas</i>, from the
+natives of that part being employed in the pearl fisheries.</p>
+
+<p>Guided by the maps of Columbus, Hojeda passed by the Dragon's-Mouth,
+which separates Trinidad from the continent, and returned westward
+to Cape <i>La Vela</i>. Then, after touching at the Caribbee Islands,
+where he made a number of prisoners, whom he hoped to sell for
+slaves in Spain, he was obliged to cast anchor at Yaquimo, in
+Hispaniola, on the 5th of September, 1499.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus, knowing Hojeda's courage and his restless spirit only too
+well, feared that he would introduce a new element of discord into
+the colony. He therefore despatched Francesco Roldan with two
+caravels to inquire into his motives in coming to the island, and if
+necessary to prevent his landing. The admiral's fears were but too
+well grounded; Hojeda had scarcely landed before he had an interview
+with some of the malcontents, inciting them to a rising at Xaragua,
+and to a determination to expel Columbus. After some skirmishes,
+which had not ended to Hojeda's advantage, a meeting was arranged
+for him with Roldan, Diego d'Escobar, and Juan de la Cosa, when they
+prevailed upon him to leave the island. "He took with him," says Las
+Casas, "a prodigious cargo of slaves, whom he sold in the market at
+Cadiz for enormous sums of money." He returned to Spain in February,
+1500, where he had been preceded by Americus Vespucius and B. Roldan
+on the 18th of October, 1499.</p>
+
+<p>The most southerly point that Hojeda had reached in this voyage was
+4&deg; north latitude, and he had only spent fourteen weeks on
+the voyage of discovery, properly so called. If we appear to have
+dwelt at some length upon this voyage, it is because it was the
+first one made by Vespucius. Some authors, Varnhagen for instance,
+and quite recently, Mr. H. Major, in his history of Prince Henry the
+Navigator, assert that Vespucius' first voyage was in 1497, and
+consequently that he must have seen the American continent before
+Columbus, but we prefer to follow Humboldt, who spent so many years
+in studying the history of the discovery of America, in his opinion
+that 1499 was the right date, also M. Ed. Charton and M. Jules
+Codine, the latter of whom discussed this question in the Report of
+the Geographical Society for 1873, <i>apropos</i> of Mr. Major's book.</p>
+
+<p>"If it were true," says Voltaire, "that Vespucius had discovered the
+American Continent, yet the glory would not be his; it belongs
+undoubtedly to the man who had the genius and courage to undertake
+the first voyage, to Columbus." As Newton says in his argument with
+Leibnitz, "the glory is due only to the inventor." But we agree with
+M. Codine when he says, "How can we allow that there was an
+expedition in 1497 which resulted in the discovery of above 2500
+miles of the coast-line of the mainland, when there is no trace of
+it left either among the great historians of that time, or in the
+legal depositions in connexion with the claims made by the heir of
+Columbus against the Spanish Government, in which the priority of
+the discoveries of each leader of an expedition is carefully
+mentioned, with the part of the coast explored by each?" Finally,
+the authentic documents extracted from the archives of the <i>Casa de
+contratacion</i> make it evident that Vespucius was entrusted with the
+preparation of the vessels destined for the third voyage of Columbus
+at Seville and at San Lucar from the middle of August, 1497, till
+the departure of Columbus on the 30th of May, 1498. The narratives
+of the voyages of Vespucius are very diffuse and wanting in
+precision and order; the information they give upon the places he
+visited is so vague, that it might apply to one part of the coast as
+well as to another; as to the localities treated of, as well as of
+the companions of Vespucius, there are no indications given of a
+nature to aid the historian. Not a single name is given of any
+well-known person, and the dates are contradictory in those famous
+letters which have given endless work to commentators. Humboldt says
+of them "There is an element of discord in the most authentic
+documents relating to the Florentine navigator." We have given an
+account of Hojeda's first voyage, which coincides with that of
+Vespucius according to Humboldt, who has compared the principal
+incidents of the two narratives. Varnhagen asserts that Vespucius,
+having started on the 10th of May, 1497, entered the Gulf of
+Honduras on the 10th of June, coasted by Yucatan and Mexico, sailed
+up the Mississippi, and at the end of February, 1498, doubled the
+Cape of Florida. After anchoring for thirty-seven days at the mouth
+of the St. Lawrence, he returned to Cadiz in October, 1498.</p>
+
+<p>If Vespucius had really made this marvellous voyage, he would have
+far outstripped all the navigators of his time, and would have fully
+deserved that his name should be given to the newly-discovered
+continent, whose coast-line he had explored for so great a distance.
+But nothing is less certain, and Humboldt's opinion has hitherto
+appeared to the best writers to offer the largest amount of
+probability.</p>
+
+<p>Americus Vespucius made three other voyages. Humboldt identifies the
+first with that of Vincent Yañez Pinzon, and M. d'Avezac with that
+of Diego de Lepe (1499-1500). At the close of this latter year,
+Giuliano Bartholomeo di Giocondo induced Vespucius to enter the
+service of Emmanuel, King of Portugal, and he accomplished two more
+voyages at the expense of his new master. On the first of these two
+voyages, he was no higher in command than he had been in his earlier
+ones, and only accompanied the expedition as one whose intimate
+acquaintance with all nautical matters might prove of service under
+certain circumstances. During this voyage the ships coasted along
+the American shores from Cape St. Augustine to 52&deg; of south
+latitude. The fourth voyage of Vespucius was marked by the wreck of
+the flag-ship off the Island of Fernando de Noronha, which prevented
+the other vessels from continuing their voyage towards Malacca by
+way of the Cape of Good Hope, and obliged the crews to land at All
+Saints' Bay, in Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>This fourth voyage was unquestionably made with Gonzalo Coelho, but
+we are quite ignorant as to who was in command on the third voyage.
+These various expeditions had not tended to enrich Vespucius, while
+his position at the Portuguese court was so far from satisfactory
+that he determined to re-enter the service of the King of Spain. By
+him he was made <i>Piloto Mayor</i> on the 22nd of March, 1508. There
+were some valuable emoluments attached for his advantage to this
+appointment, which enabled him to end his days, if not as a rich man,
+at least as one far removed from want. He died at Seville on the
+22nd of February, 1512, with the same conviction as Columbus, that
+he had reached the shores of Asia. Americus Vespucius is especially
+famous from the New World having been named after him, instead of
+being called Columbia, as in all justice it should have been, but
+with this Vespucius had nothing to do. He was for a long time
+charged, though most unjustly, with impudence, falsehood, and deceit,
+it being alleged that he wished to veil the glory of Columbus and to
+arrogate to himself the honour of a discovery which did not belong
+to him. This was an utterly unfounded accusation, for Vespucius was
+both loved and esteemed by Columbus and his contemporaries, and
+there is nothing in his writings to justify this calumnious
+assertion. Seven printed documents exist which are attributed to
+Vespucius; they are&mdash;the abridged accounts of his four voyages, two
+narratives of his third and fourth voyages, in the form of letters,
+addressed to Lorenzo de Pier Francesco de Medici, and a letter
+addressed to the same nobleman, relative to the Portuguese
+discoveries in the Indies. These documents, printed and bound up as
+small thin volumes, were soon translated into various languages and
+distributed throughout Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the year 1507 that a certain Hylacolymus, whose real name
+was Martin Waldtzemuller, first proposed to give the name of America
+to the new part of the world. He did so in a book printed at Saint
+Dié and called <i>Cosmographia introductio</i>. In 1509 a small
+geographical treatise appeared at Strasburg adopting the proposal of
+Hylacolymus; and in 1520 an edition of Pomponius Mela was printed at
+Basle, giving a map of the New World with the name of America. From
+this time the number of works employing the denomination proposed by
+Waldtzemuller increased perpetually.</p>
+
+<p>Some years later, when Waldtzemuller was better informed as to the
+real discoverer of America and of the value to be placed upon the
+voyages of Vespucius, he eliminated from his book all that related
+to the latter, and substituted everywhere the name of Columbus for
+that of Vespucius, but it was too late, the same error has prevailed
+ever since.</p>
+
+<p>As to Vespucius himself, it seems very unlikely that he was at all
+aware of the excitement which prevailed in Europe, nor of what was
+passing at St. Dié. The testimony that has been unanimously borne to
+his honourable and upright conduct should surely clear him from the
+unmerited accusations which have for too long a time clouded his
+memory.</p>
+
+<p>Three other expeditions left Spain almost at the same time as that
+of Hojeda. The first of these, consisting of but one vessel, sailed
+from Barra Saltez in June 1499. Pier Alonzo Nino, who had served
+under Columbus in his two last voyages, was its commander, and he
+was accompanied by Christoval Guerra, a merchant of Seville, who
+probably defrayed the expenses of the expedition. This voyage to the
+coast of Paria seems to have been dictated more by the hope of
+lucrative commerce than by the interests of science. No new
+discoveries were made, but the two voyagers returned to Spain in
+April, 1500, bringing with them so large a quantity of valuable
+pearls as to excite the cupidity of their countrymen, who became
+anxious to try their own fortunes in the same direction.</p>
+
+<p>The second expedition was commanded by Vincent Yañez Pinzon, the
+younger brother of Alonzo Pinzon who had been captain of the <i>Pinta</i>
+and had shown so much jealousy of Columbus, even adopting the
+following mendacious device:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table align="center" summary="poem 1">
+	<tr><td><small><i>A Castilla, y a Leon<br>
+		Nuevo Mundo dio Pinzon</i>.</small></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Yañez Pinzon, whose devotion to the admiral equalled his brother's
+jealousy, had advanced an eighth part of the funds required for the
+expedition of 1492, and had on that occasion been in command of the
+<i>Nina</i>.</p>
+
+<p>He set out in December, 1499, with four vessels, of which only two
+returned to Palos at the end of September, 1500. He touched the
+coast of the newly discovered continent at a point near the shore
+visited by Hojeda some months before, and explored the coast for
+some 2400 miles, discovering Cape St. Augustine at 8&deg; 20'
+south latitude, following the coast-line in a north-westerly
+direction to <i>Rio Grande</i>, which he named <i>Santa-Maria de la Mar
+dulce</i>, and continuing in the same direction as far as Cape St.
+Vincent. Diego de Lepe explored the same coasts with two caravels
+from January to June, 1500; there is nothing particular to record of
+this voyage beyond the very important observation that was made on
+the direction of the coast-line of the continent starting from Cape
+St. Augustine. Lepe had but just returned to Spain when two vessels
+left Cadiz, equipped by Rodrigo M. Bastidas, a wealthy and highly
+respectable man, with the view of making some fresh discoveries, but
+above all with the object of collecting as large a quantity of gold
+and pearls as possible, for which were to be bartered glass beads
+and other worthless trifles. Juan de la Cosa, whose talents as a
+navigator were proverbial, and who knew these coasts well from
+having explored them, was really at the head of this expedition. The
+sailors went on shore and saw the Rio Sinu, the Gulf of Urabia, and
+reached the <i>Puerto del Retrete</i> or <i>de los Escribanos</i>, in the
+Isthmus of Panama. This harbour was not visited by Columbus till the
+26th of November, 1502; it is situated about seventeen miles from
+the once celebrated, but now destroyed town of <i>Nombre de Dios</i>. In
+fact this expedition, which had been organized by a merchant, became,
+thanks to Juan de la Cosa, one of the voyages the most fertile in
+discoveries; but alas! it came to a sad termination; the vessels
+were lost in the Gulf of Xaragua, and Bastidas and La Cosa were
+obliged to make their way by land to St. Domingo. When they arrived
+there, Bovadilla, the upright man and model governor, whose infamous
+conduct to Columbus we have already mentioned, had them arrested, on
+the plea that they had bought some gold from the Indians of Xaragua;
+he sent them off to Spain, which was only reached after a fearfully
+stormy voyage, some of the vessels being lost on the way.</p>
+
+<p>After this expedition, so fruitful in results, voyages of discovery
+became rather less frequent for some years; the Spaniards being
+occupied in asserting their supremacy in the countries in which they
+had already founded colonies.</p>
+<a name="fax25"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 25">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="590">
+			<img src="images/060.jpg" alt="Indians devoured by Dogs">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="590" align="center">
+			Indians devoured by Dogs.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The colonization of Hispaniola had commenced in 1493, when the town
+of Isabella was built. Two years afterwards Christopher Columbus had
+travelled over the island and had subjugated the poor savages, by
+means of those terrible dogs which had been trained to hunt Indians,
+and unaccustomed as the natives were to any hard work, he had forced
+them to toil in the mines. Both Bovadilla and Ovando treating the
+Indians as a herd of cattle, had divided them among the colonists as
+slaves. The cruelty with which this unfortunate people was treated
+became more and more unbearable. By means of a despicable ambush,
+Ovando seized the Queen of Xaragua and 300 of her principal subjects,
+and at a given signal they were all put to the sword without there
+being any crime adduced against them. "For some years," says
+Robertson, "the gold brought into the royal treasury of Spain
+amounted to about 460,000 <i>pesos</i> (2,400,000 livres of the currency
+of Tours) an enormous sum if we take into consideration the great
+increase in the value of money since the beginning of the sixteenth
+century." In 1511 Diego Velasquez conquered Cuba with 300 men, and
+here again were enacted the terrible scenes of bloodshed and pillage
+which have rendered the Spanish name so sadly notorious. They cut
+off the thumbs of the natives, put out their eyes, and poured
+boiling oil or melted lead into their wounds, even when they did not
+torture them by burning them over a slow fire to extract from them
+the secret of the treasures of which they were believed to be the
+possessors. It was only natural under these circumstances that the
+population rapidly decreased, and the day was not far off when it
+would be wholly exterminated. To understand fully the sufferings of
+this race thus odiously persecuted, the touching and horrible
+narrative of Las Casas must be read, himself the indefatigable
+defender of the Indians.</p>
+<a name="fax26"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 26">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584">
+			<img src="images/061.jpg" alt="Indians burnt alive">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584" align="center">
+			Indians burnt alive.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In Cuba, the Cacique Hattuey was made prisoner and condemned to be
+burnt. When he was tied to the stake, a Franciscan monk tried to
+convert him, promising him that if he would only embrace the
+Christian faith, he would be at once admitted to all the joys of
+Paradise. "Are there any Spaniards in that land of happiness and joy
+of which you speak?" asked Hattuey. "Yes," replied the monk, "but
+only those who have been just and good in their lives." "The very
+best among them can have neither justice nor mercy!" said the poor
+cacique, "I do not wish to go to any place where I should meet a
+single man of that accursed race."</p>
+
+<p>Does not this fact suffice to paint the degree of exasperation to
+which these unfortunate people had been driven? And these horrors
+were repeated wherever the Spaniards set foot! We will throw a veil
+over these atrocities practised by men who thought themselves
+civilized, and who pretended that they wished to convert to
+Christianity, the religion pre-eminently of love and mercy, a race
+who were in reality less savage than themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In 1504 and 1505 four vessels explored the Gulf of Urabia. This was
+the first voyage in which Juan de la Cosa had the supreme command.
+This seems, too, to have been about the date of Hojeda's third
+voyage, when he went to the territory of Coquibacoa, a voyage that
+certainly was made, as Humboldt says, but of which we have no clear
+account.</p>
+
+<p>In 1509 Juan Diaz de Solis, in concert with Vincent Yañez Pinzon,
+discovered a vast province, since known by the name of Yucatan.</p>
+
+<p>"Though this expedition was not a very remarkable one in itself,"
+says Robertson, "it deserves to be noticed as it led to discoveries
+of the utmost importance." For the same reason we must mention the
+voyage of Diego d'Ocampo, who being charged to sail round Cuba, was
+the first to ascertain the fact that it was a large island, Columbus
+having always regarded it as part of the continent. Two years later
+Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Pinzon sailing southwards towards the
+equinoctial line, advanced as far as the 40&deg; of south
+latitude, and found, to their surprise, that the continent extended
+on their right hand even to this immense distance. They landed
+several times, and took formal possession of the country, but could
+not found any colonies there, on account of the small resources they
+had at their command. The principal result of this voyage was the
+more exact knowledge which it gave of the extent of this part of the
+globe.</p>
+
+<p>Alonzo de Hojeda, whose adventures we have narrated above, was the
+first to think of founding a colony on the mainland; although he had
+no means of his own, his courage and enterprising spirit soon gained
+him associates, who furnished him with the funds needed for carrying
+out his plans.</p>
+
+<p>With the same object Diego de Nicuessa, a rich colonist of
+Hispaniola, organized an expedition in 1509.</p>
+
+<p>King Ferdinand, who was always lavish of encouragements which cost
+little, gave both Hojeda and Nicuessa honourable titles and patents
+of nobility, but not a single maravédis (a Spanish coin). He also
+divided the newly-discovered continent into two governments, of
+which one was to extend from Cape <i>La Vela</i> to the Gulf of Darien,
+and the other from the Gulf of Darien to Cape <i>Gracias a Dios</i>. The
+first was given to Hojeda, the second to Nicuessa. These two
+"conquistadores" had to deal with a population far less easy to
+manage than that of the Antilles. Determined to resist to the utmost
+the invasion of their country, they adopted means of resistance
+hitherto unknown to the Spaniards. Thus the strife became deadly. In
+a single engagement seventy of Hojeda's companions fell under the
+arrows of the savages, fearful weapons steeped in "curare," so fatal
+a poison that the slightest wound was followed by death. Nicuessa on
+his side, had much difficulty in defending himself, and in spite of
+two considerable reinforcements from Cuba, the greater number of his
+followers perished during the year from wounds, fatigue, privations,
+or sickness. The survivors founded the small colony of Santa-Maria
+el Antigua upon the Gulf of Darien, and placed it under the command
+of Balboa.</p>
+
+<p>Before we speak of Balboa's wonderful expedition, we must notice the
+discovery of a country that forms the most northerly side of that
+arc, cut so deeply into the continent, and which bears the name of
+the Gulf of Mexico. In 1502 Juan Ponce de Leon, a member of one of
+the oldest families in Spain, had arrived in Hispaniola with Ovando.
+He had assisted in its subjugation, and in 1508 had conquered the
+island of San Juan de Porto Rico. Having learnt from the Indians
+that there existed a fountain in the island of Bimini which
+possessed the miraculous power of restoring youth to all who drank
+of its waters, Ponce de Leon resolved to go in search of it.
+Infirmities must have been already creeping on him at fifty years of
+age, or he would scarcely have felt the need of trying this fountain.
+Ponce de Leon equipped three vessels at his own expense, and set out
+from St. Germain in Porto Rico on the 1st of March, 1512. He went
+first to the Lucayan Islands, which he searched in vain, and then to
+the Bahamas. If he did not succeed in finding the fountain of youth
+which he sought so credulously, at least he had the satisfaction of
+discovering an apparently fertile tract of country, which he named
+Florida, either from his landing there on Palm Sunday,
+(Pâques-Fleuries), or perhaps from its delightful aspect. Such a
+discovery would have contented many a traveller, but Ponce de Leon
+went from one island to another, tasting the water of every stream
+that he met with, without the satisfaction of seeing his white hair
+again becoming black or his wrinkles disappearing. After spending
+six months in this fruitless search, he was tired of playing the
+dupe, so giving up the business he returned to Porto Rico on the 5th
+of October, leaving Perez de Ortubia and the pilot Antonio de
+Alaminos to continue the search. Père Charlevoix says, "He was the
+object of great ridicule when he returned in much suffering, and
+looking older than when he set out."</p>
+
+<p>This voyage, so absurd in its motive but so fertile in its results,
+might well be considered to be simply imaginary, were it not vouched
+for by historians of such high repute as Peter Martyr, Oviedo,
+Herrera, and Garcilasso de la Vega.</p>
+
+<p>Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who was fifteen years younger than Ponce de
+Leon, had come to America with Bastidas and had settled in
+Hispaniola. He was only anxious for a safe refuge from his numerous
+creditors, being, as were so many of his fellow-countrymen, deeply
+in debt, in spite of the <i>repartimiento</i> of Indians which had been
+allotted to him. Unfortunately for Balboa a law had been passed
+forbidding any vessels bound for the mainland taking insolvent
+debtors on board, but his ingenuity was equal to this emergency, for
+he had himself rolled in an empty barrel to the vessel which was to
+carry Encisco to Darien. The chief of the expedition had no choice
+but to receive the brave adventurer who had joined him in this
+singular manner, and who never fled except from duns, as he soon
+proved on landing. The Spaniards, accustomed to find but little
+resistance from the natives of the Antilles, could not subjugate the
+fierce inhabitants of the mainland. On account of the dissensions
+that had arisen among themselves, they were obliged to take refuge
+at Santa-Maria el Antigua, a settlement which Balboa, now elected
+commandant in place of Encisco, founded in Darien.</p>
+
+<p>If the personal bravery of Balboa, or the ferocity of Leoncillo his
+blood-hound&mdash;who was more dreaded than twenty armed men and received
+the same pay as a soldier,&mdash;could have awed the Indians, Balboa
+would have also won their respect by his justice and comparative
+moderation, for he allowed no unnecessary cruelty. In the course of
+some years he collected a great mass of most useful information with
+regard to that El Dorado, that land of gold, which he was destined
+never to reach himself, but the acquisition of which he did much to
+facilitate for his successors.</p>
+
+<p>It was in this way that he learnt the existence six suns away (six
+days' journey), of another sea, the Pacific Ocean, which washed the
+shores of Peru, a country where gold was found in large quantities.
+Balboa's character, which was as grand as those of Cortès and
+Pizarro, but who had not, as they, the time or opportunity to show
+the extraordinary qualities which he possessed, felt convinced that
+this information was most valuable, and that if he could carry out
+such a discovery, it would shed great lustre on his name.</p>
+
+<p>He assembled a body of 190 volunteers, all valiant soldiers, and
+like himself, accustomed to all the chances of war, as well as
+acclimatised to the unhealthy effluvia of a marshy country, where
+fever, dysentery, and complaints of the liver were constantly
+present.</p>
+
+<p>Though the Isthmus of Darien is only sixty miles in width, it is
+divided into two parts by a chain of high mountains; at the foot of
+these the alluvial soil is marvellously fertile, and the vegetation
+far more luxuriant than any European can imagine. It consists of an
+inextricable mass of tropical plants, creepers, and ferns, among
+trees of gigantic size which completely hide the sun, a truly virgin
+forest, interspersed here and there with patches of stagnant water,
+where live multitudes of birds, insects, and animals, never
+disturbed by the foot of man. A warm, moist atmosphere exists here
+which exhausts the strength and speedily saps the energy of any man,
+even the most robust.</p>
+
+<p>With all these obstacles which Nature seemed to have rejoiced in
+placing in Balboa's path, there was yet another no less formidable,
+and this was the resistance which the savage inhabitants of this
+inhospitable shore would offer to his progress. Balboa set out
+without caring for the risk he ran in the event of the guides and
+native auxiliaries proving faithless; he was escorted by a thousand
+Indians as porters, and accompanied by a troop of those terrible
+bloodhounds which had acquired the taste for human flesh in
+Hispaniola.</p>
+
+<p>Of the tribes that he met with on his route, some fled into the
+mountains carrying their provisions with them, and others, taking
+advantage of the difficulties the land presented, tried to fight.
+Balboa marching in the midst of his men, never sparing himself,
+sharing in their privations and rousing their courage, which would
+have failed more than once, was able to inspire them with so much
+enthusiasm for the object that was before them, that after
+twenty-five days of marching and fighting, they could see from the
+top of a mountain that vast Pacific Ocean, of which, four days later,
+Balboa, his drawn sword in one hand and the banner of Castille in
+the other, took possession in the name of the King of Spain. The
+part of the Pacific Ocean which he had reached is situated to the
+east of Panama, and still bears the name of the Gulf of San Miguel,
+given to it by Balboa. The information he obtained from the
+neighbouring caciques, whom he subjugated by force of arms, and from
+whom he obtained a considerable booty, agreed in every particular
+with what he had heard before he set out.</p>
+
+<p>A vast empire lay to the south, they said, "so rich in gold, that
+even the commonest instruments were made of it," where the domestic
+animals were llamas that had been tamed and trained to carry heavy
+burdens, and whose appearance in the native drawings resembled that
+of the camel. These interesting details, and the great quantity of
+pearls offered to Balboa, confirmed him in his idea, that he must
+have reached the Asiatic countries described by Marco Polo, and that
+he could not be far from the empire of Cipango or Japan, of which
+the Venetian traveller had described the marvellous riches which
+were perpetually dazzling the eyes of these avaricious adventurers.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 32">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578">
+			<img src="images/062.jpg" alt="Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578" align="center">
+			Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Balboa several times crossed the Isthmus of Darien, and always in
+some fresh direction. Humboldt might well say that this country was
+better known in the beginning of the sixteenth century than in his
+own day. Beyond this Balboa had launched some vessels built under
+his orders on the newly-discovered ocean, and he was preparing a
+formidable armament, with which he hoped to conquer Peru, when he
+was odiously and judicially murdered by the orders of Pedrarias
+Davila, the governor of Darien, who was jealous of the reputation
+Balboa had already gained, and of the glory which would doubtless
+recompense his bravery if he carried out the expedition which he had
+arranged. Thus the conquest of Peru was retarded by at least
+twenty-five years, owing to the culpable jealousy of a man whose
+name has acquired, by Balboa's assassination, almost as wretched a
+celebrity as that of Erostratus.</p>
+
+<p>If we owe to Balboa the first authentic documents regarding Peru,
+another explorer was destined to furnish some not less important
+touching that vast Mexican Empire, which had extended its sway over
+almost the whole of Central America. In 1518, Juan de Grijalva had
+been placed in command of a flotilla, consisting of four vessels,
+armed by Diego Velasquez, the conqueror of Cuba, which were destined
+to collect information upon Yucatan, sighted the year before by
+Hernandez de Cordova. Grijalva, accompanied by the pilot Alaminos,
+who had made the voyage to Florida with Ponce de Leon, had two
+hundred men under his command; amongst the volunteers was Bernal
+Diaz del Castillo, the clever author of a very interesting history
+of the conquest of Mexico, from which we shall borrow freely.</p>
+
+<p>After thirteen days' sailing, Grijalva reached the Island of Cozumel
+on the coast of Yucatan, doubled the Cape of Cotoche, and entered
+the Bay of Campeachy. He disembarked on the 10th of May at Potonchan,
+of which the inhabitants defended the town and citadel vigorously,
+in spite of their astonishment at the vessels, which they took for
+some kind of marine monsters, and their fear of the pale-faced men
+who hurled thunderbolts. Fifty-seven Spaniards were killed in the
+engagement, and many were wounded. This warm reception did not
+encourage Grijalva to make any long stay amongst this warlike people.
+He set sail again after anchoring for four days, took a westerly
+course along the coast of Mexico, and on the 19th of May entered a
+river named by the natives the Tabasco, where he soon found himself
+surrounded by a fleet of fifty native boats filled with warriors
+ready for the conflict, but thanks to Grijalva's prudence and the
+amicable demonstrations which he made, peace was not disturbed.</p>
+
+<p>"We made them understand," writes Bernal Diaz, "that we were the
+subjects of a powerful emperor called Don Carlos, and that it would
+be greatly to their advantage if they also would acknowledge him as
+their master. They replied that they had a sovereign already, and
+were at a loss to understand why we, who had only just arrived, and
+who knew so little of them, should offer them another king." This
+reply was scarcely that of a savage!</p>
+
+<p>In exchange for some worthless European trinkets, the Spaniards
+obtained some Yucca bread, copal gum, pieces of gold worked into the
+shape of fishes or birds, and garments made of cotton, which had
+been woven in the country. As the natives who had been taken on
+board at Cape Cotoche did not perfectly understand the language
+spoken by the inhabitants of Tabasco, the stay here was but of short
+duration, and the ships again put to sea. They passed the mouth of
+the Rio Guatzacoalco, the snowy peaks of the San Martin mountains
+being seen in the distance, and they anchored at the mouth of a
+river which was called <i>Rio de las Banderas</i>, from the number of
+white banners displayed by the natives to show their friendly
+feeling towards the new comers.</p>
+
+<p>When Grijalva landed, he was received with the same honour as the
+Indians paid to their gods; they burnt copal incense before him, and
+laid at his feet more than 1500 piastres' worth of small gold jewels,
+as well as green pearls and copper hatchets. After taking formal
+possession of the country, the Spaniards landed on an island called
+<i>Los Sacrificios</i> Island, from a sort of altar which they found
+there placed at the top of several steps, upon which lay the bodies
+of five Indians sacrificed since the preceding evening; their bodies
+were cut open, their hearts torn out, and both legs and arms cut off.
+Leaving this revolting spectacle, they went to another small island,
+which received the name of San Juan, being discovered on St. John's
+Day; to this they added the word <i>Culua</i>, which they heard used by
+the natives of these shores. But Culua was the ancient name for
+Mexico, and this Island of San-Juan de Culua is now known as St.
+John d'Ulloa.</p>
+
+<p>Grijalva put all the gold which he had collected on board one of the
+ships and despatched it to Cuba, while he continued his exploration
+of the coast, discovered the Sierras of Tusta and Tuspa, and
+collected a large amount of useful information regarding this
+populous country; on arriving at the <i>Rio Panuco</i>, he was attacked
+by a flotilla of native vessels, and had much difficulty in
+defending himself against their attacks.</p>
+
+<p>This expedition was nearly over, for provisions were running short,
+and the vessels were in a very bad state, the volunteers were many
+of them sick and wounded, and even had they been in good health
+their numbers were too small to make it safe to leave them among
+these warlike people, even under the shelter of fortifications.
+Besides, the leaders of the expedition no longer acted in concert,
+so after repairing the largest of the vessels in the Rio Tonala,
+where Bernal Diaz boasts of having sown the first orange-pips which
+were ever brought to Mexico, the Spaniards set out for Santiago in
+Cuba, where they arrived on the 15th of November, after a cruise of
+seven months, not forty-five days, as M. Ferdinand Denis asserts in
+the Biographie Didot, and as M. Ed. Charton repeats in his
+<i>Voyageurs Anciens et Modernes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The results obtained from this voyage were considerable. For the
+first time the long line of coast which forms the peninsula of
+Yucatan, the Bay of Campeachy, and the base of the Gulf of Mexico,
+had been explored continuously from cape to cape. Not only had it
+been proved beyond doubt that Yucatan was not an island as they had
+believed, but much and reliable information had been collected with
+regard to the existence of the rich and powerful empire of Mexico.
+The explorers had been much struck with the marks of a more advanced
+civilization than that existing in the Antilles, with the
+superiority of the architecture, the skilful cultivation of the land,
+the fine texture of the cotton garments, and the delicacy of finish
+of the golden ornaments worn by the Indians. All this combined to
+increase the thirst for riches among the Spaniards of Cuba, and to
+urge them on like modern Argonauts to the conquest of this new
+golden fleece. Grijalva was not destined to reap the fruits of his
+perilous and at the same time intelligent voyage, which threw so new
+a light on Indian civilization. The <i>sic vos, non vobis</i> of the poet
+was once again to find an exemplification in this circumstance.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c12"></a>
+<center>II.<br>
+T<small>HE</small> C<small>ONQUERORS OF</small> C<small>ENTRAL</small> A<small>MERICA</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Ferdinand Cortès&mdash;His character&mdash;His appointment&mdash;Preparations for
+the expedition, and attempts of Velasquez to stop it&mdash;Landing at
+Vera-Cruz&mdash;Mexico and the Emperor Montezuma&mdash;The republic of
+Tlascala&mdash;March upon Mexico&mdash;The Emperor is made prisoner&mdash;Narvaez
+defeated&mdash;The <i>Noche Triste</i>&mdash;Battle of Otumba&mdash;The second siege and
+taking of Mexico&mdash;Expedition to Honduras&mdash;Voyage to Spain&mdash;Expeditions
+on the Pacific Ocean&mdash;Second Voyage of Cortès to Spain&mdash;His death.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>Velasquez had not waited for Grijalva's return before sending off to
+Spain the rich products of the countries discovered by the latter,
+and at the same time soliciting from the council of the Indies, as
+well as from the Bishop of Burgos, an addition to his authority,
+that he might attempt the conquest of these countries. At the same
+time he fitted out a new armament proportioned to the dangers and
+importance of the undertaking that he proposed. But though it was
+comparatively easy for Velasquez to collect the necessary material
+and men, it was far more difficult for him&mdash;whom an old writer
+describes as niggardly, credulous, and suspicious in disposition&mdash;to
+choose a fit leader. He wished indeed, to find one who should
+combine qualities nearly always incompatible, high courage and great
+talent, without which there was no chance of success, with at the
+same time sufficient docility and submissiveness, to do nothing
+without orders, and to leave to him who incurred no risk, any glory
+and success which might attend the enterprise. Some who were brave
+and enterprising would not be treated as mere machines; others who
+were more docile or more cunning lacked the qualities required to
+insure the success of so vast an enterprise; among the former were
+some of Grijalva's companions who wished that he should be made
+commander, while the latter preferred Augustin Bermudez or
+Bernardino Velasquez. While this was pending, the governor's
+secretary, Andrès de Duero, and Amador de Larez, the Controller of
+Cuba, both favourites of Velasquez, made an arrangement with a
+Spanish nobleman named Ferdinand Cortès, that if they could obtain
+the appointment for him, they should be allowed a share in his gains.</p>
+
+<p>Bernal Diaz says, "They praised Cortès so highly, and pointed him
+out in such flattering terms as the very man fitted to fill the
+vacant post, adding that he was brave and certainly very faithful to
+Velasquez (to whom he was son-in-law), that he allowed himself to be
+persuaded, and Cortès was nominated captain-general. As Andrès de
+Duero was the governor's secretary, he hastened to formulate the
+powers in a deed, making them very ample, as Cortès desired, and
+brought it to him duly signed." Had Velasquez been gifted with the
+power of looking into the future, Cortès was certainly not the man
+he would have chosen.</p>
+<a name="fax27"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 27">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588">
+			<img src="images/063.jpg" alt="Ferdinand Cortès">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588" align="center">
+			Ferdinand Cortès.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Cortès was born at Medellin in Estramadura in 1485, of an ancient,
+but slenderly-endowed family; after studying at Salamanca for some
+time, he returned to his native town, but the quiet monotonous life
+there was little suited to his restless and capricious temper, and
+he soon started for America, reckoning upon the protection of his
+relation Ovando, the Governor of Hispaniola.</p>
+
+<p>His expectations were fully realized, and he held several honourable
+and lucrative posts, without counting that between times he joined
+in several expeditions against the natives. If he became in this
+manner initiated into the Indian system of tactics, so also,
+unfortunately, did he grow familiar with those acts of cruelty which
+have too often stained the Castilian name. He accompanied Diego de
+Velasquez in his Cuban expedition in 1511, and here he distinguished
+himself so highly, that notwithstanding certain disagreements with
+his chief, a large grant of land as well as of Indians was made to
+him as a recognition of his services.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès amassed the sum of 3000 castellanos in the course of a few
+years by his industry and frugality, a large sum for one in his
+position, but his chief recommendations in the eyes of Andrès de
+Duero and Amador de Sarès his two patrons, were his activity, his
+well-known prudence, his decision of character, and the power of
+gaining the confidence of all with whom he was brought into contact.
+In addition to all this, he was of imposing stature and appearance,
+very athletic, and possessed powers of endurance, remarkable even
+among the hardy adventurers who were accustomed to brave all kinds
+of hardships.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Cortès had received his commission, which he did with
+every mark of respectful gratitude, he set up a banner at the door
+of his house, made of black velvet embroidered in gold, bearing the
+device of a red cross in the midst of blue and white flames, and
+below, this motto in Latin, "Friends, let us follow the Cross, and
+if we have faith, we shall overcome by this sign." He concentrated
+the whole force of his powerful mind upon the means to make the
+enterprise a success; even his most intimate friends were astonished
+at his enthusiasm in preparing for it. He not only gave the whole of
+the money which he possessed towards arming the fleet, but he
+charged part on his estate, and borrowed considerable sums from his
+friends to purchase vessels, provisions, munitions of war, and
+horses. In a few days 300 volunteers had enrolled themselves,
+attracted by the fame of the general, the daring nature of the
+enterprise, and the profit that would probably accrue from it.
+Velasquez, always suspicious, and doubtless instigated by some who
+were jealous of Cortès, tried to put a stop to the expedition at its
+outset. Cortès being warned by his two patrons that Velasquez would
+probably try to take the command from him, acted with his customary
+decision; he collected his men and, in spite of the vessels not
+being completed and of an insufficient armament, he weighed anchor
+and sailed during the night. When Velasquez discovered that his
+plans had been check-mated he concealed his indignation, but at the
+same time, he made every arrangement to stop the man who could thus
+throw off all dependence upon him with such consummate coolness.
+Cortès anchored at Macaca, to complete his stores, and found many of
+those who had accompanied Grijalva now hasten to serve under his
+banner: Pedro de Alvarado and his brothers, Christoval de Olid,
+Alonzo de Avila, Hernandez de Puerto-Carrero, Gonzalo de Sandoval,
+and Bernal Diaz del Castillo, who was to write a valuable account of
+these events "<i>quorum pars magna fuit</i>." Trinity Harbour, on the
+south coast of Cuba was the next resting-place, and here a further
+supply of provisions was taken on board, but while Cortès lay at
+anchor for this purpose, Verdugo the governor, received letters from
+Velasquez, desiring him to arrest the captain-general, the command
+of the fleet having been just taken from him. This bold step would
+have endangered the safety of the town, so Verdugo refrained from
+executing the order. Cortès sailed away to Havana in order to enlist
+some new adherents, while his lieutenant Alvarado went over land to
+the port where the last preparations were made. Although Velasquez
+was unsuccessful in his first attempt, he again sent an order to
+arrest Cortès, but Pedro Barba the governor, felt the impossibility
+of executing the order in the midst of soldiers who, as Bernal Diaz
+says, "would willingly have given their lives to save Cortès."</p>
+
+<p>At length, having recalled the volunteers by beat of drum, and taken
+on board all that appeared necessary, Cortès set sail on the 18th
+February, 1519, with eleven ships (the largest being of 100 tons),
+110 sailors, 553 soldiers,&mdash;13 of whom were arquebusiers,&mdash;200
+Indians from the island, and some women for domestic work. The real
+strength of the armament lay in the ten pieces of artillery, the
+four falconets provided with an ample supply of ammunition, and the
+sixteen horses which had been obtained at great expense. It was with
+these almost miserable means, which, however, had given Cortès much
+trouble to collect, that he prepared to wage war with a sovereign
+whose dominions were of greater extent than those appertaining to
+the King of Spain&mdash;an enterprise from which he would have turned
+back if he had foreseen half its difficulties. But long ago a poet
+said, "Fortune smiles on those who dare."</p>
+
+<p>After encountering a very severe storm, the fleet touched at the
+island of Cozumel, where they found that the inhabitants had
+embraced Christianity, either from fear of the Spaniards, or from
+finding the inability of their gods to help them. Just as the fleet
+was about to leave the island, Cortès had the good fortune to meet
+with a Spaniard named Jeronimo d'Aguilar, who had been kept a
+prisoner by the Indians for eight years. During that time he had
+learnt the Indian language perfectly; he was as prudent as he was
+clever, and when he joined the expedition he was of the greatest use
+as an interpreter.</p>
+
+<p>After doubling Cape Catoche, Cortès sailed down the Bay of Campeachy,
+passed Potonchan, and entered the Rio Tabasco, hoping to meet with
+as friendly a reception there as Grijalva had done, and also to
+collect an equally large quantity of gold; but he found a great
+change had taken place in the feelings of the natives, and he was
+obliged to employ force. In spite of the bravery and numerical
+superiority of the Indians, the Spaniards overcame them in several
+engagements, thanks to the terror caused by the reports of their
+fire-arms and the sight of the cavalry, whom the Indians took for
+supernatural beings. The Indians lost a large number of men in these
+engagements, while among the Spaniards two were killed, and fourteen
+men and several horses wounded; the wounds of the latter were
+dressed with fat taken from the dead bodies of the Indians. At last
+peace was made, and the natives gave Cortès provisions, some cotton
+clothing, a small quantity of gold, and twenty female slaves, among
+whom was the celebrated Marina, who rendered such signal services to
+the Spaniards as an interpreter, and who is mentioned by all the
+historians of the conquest of the New World.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 33">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586">
+			<img src="images/064.jpg" alt="Cortès receives provisions, clothing, a little gold, and twenty female slaves">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586" align="center">
+			Cortès receives provisions, clothing, a little gold, and twenty female slaves.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Cortès continued on a westerly course, seeking a suitable place for
+landing, but he could find none until he reached St. John d'Ulloa.
+The fleet had scarcely cast anchor before a canoe made its way
+fearlessly to the admiral's vessel, and here Marina (who was of
+Aztec origin) was of the greatest use, in telling Cortès that the
+Indians of this part of the country were the subjects of a great
+empire, and that their province was one recently added to it by
+conquest. Their monarch, named Moctheuzoma, better known under the
+name of Montezuma, lived in Tenochtitlan, or Mexico, nearly 210
+miles away in the interior. Cortès offered the Indians some presents,
+assuring them of his pacific intentions, and then disembarked upon
+the torrid and unhealthy shore of Vera-Cruz. Provisions flowed in
+immediately, but the day after the landing, Teutile, governor of the
+province, and ambassador of Montezuma to the Spaniards, had much
+difficulty in answering Cortès when he asked him to conduct him to
+his master without delay, knowing as he did all the anxiety and
+fears which had haunted the mind of the Emperor since the arrival of
+the Spaniards. However, he caused some cotton stuffs, feather cloaks,
+and some articles made of gold to be laid at the feet of the general,
+a sight which simply excited the cupidity of the Europeans. To give
+these poor Indians an adequate idea of his power, Cortès called out
+his soldiers, and put them through their drill, he also ordered the
+discharge of some pieces of artillery, the noise of which froze the
+hearts of the savages with terror. During the whole time of the
+interview, some painters had been employed in sketching upon pieces
+of white cotton, the ships, the troops, and everything which had
+struck their fancy. These drawings very cleverly executed, were to
+be sent to Montezuma.</p>
+
+<p>Before beginning the history of the heroic struggles which shortly
+commenced, it will be useful to give some details as to that Mexican
+empire which, powerful as it appeared, nevertheless contained within
+itself numerous elements of decay and dissolution, which fact
+explains the cause of its conquest by a mere handful of adventurers.
+That part of America which was under the dominion of Montezuma was
+called Anahuac and lay between 14&deg; and 20&deg; north
+latitude. This region presents great varieties of climate on account
+of its difference of altitude; towards the centre, and rather nearer
+to the Pacific than to the Atlantic, there is a huge basin at an
+elevation of 7500 feet above the sea, and about 200 miles in
+circumference, in the hollow of which there were at that time
+several lakes; this depression is called the valley of Mexico,
+taking its name from the capital of the empire. As may be easily
+supposed, we possess very few authentic details about a people whose
+written annals were burnt by the ignorant "conquistadores" and by
+fanatical monks, who jealously suppressed everything which might
+remind the conquered race of their ancient religious and political
+traditions.</p>
+
+<p>Arriving from the north in the seventh century the Toltecs had
+overspread the plateau of Anahuac. They were an intelligent race of
+people, addicted to agriculture and the mechanical arts,
+understanding the working in metals, and to whom is due the
+construction of the greater part of the sumptuous and gigantic
+edifices of which the ruins are found in every direction in New
+Spain. After four centuries of power, the Toltecs disappeared from
+the country as mysteriously as they had come. A century later they
+were replaced by a savage tribe from the north-west, who were soon
+followed by more civilized races, speaking apparently the Toltec
+language. The most celebrated of these tribes were the Aztecs, and
+the Alcolhuès or Tezcucans, who assimilated themselves easily with
+the tincture of civilization which remained in the country with the
+last of the Toltecs. The Aztecs, after a series of migrations and
+wars, settled themselves in 1326 in the valley of Mexico, where they
+built their capital Tenochtitlan. A treaty of alliance both
+offensive and defensive was entered into between the states of
+Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tlacopan, and was rigorously observed for a
+whole century; in consequence of this the Aztec civilization, which
+had been at first bounded by the extent of the valley, spread on all
+sides, and soon was limited only by the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
+In a short time these people had reached a higher degree of
+civilization than any other tribe in the New World. The rights of
+property were recognized in Mexico, commerce flourished there, and
+three kinds of coin in circulation provided the ordinary mechanism
+of exchange. There was a well-organized police, and a system of
+relays which worked with perfect regularity, and enabled the
+sovereign to transmit his orders with rapidity from one end of the
+empire to the other. The number and beauty of the towns, the great
+size of the palaces, temples, and fortresses indicated an advanced
+civilization, which presented a singular contrast to the ferocious
+manners of the Aztecs. Their polytheistic religion was in the
+highest degree barbarous and sanguinary; the priests formed a very
+numerous body, and exercised great influence even over political
+affairs. Side by side with rites similar to those of Christians,
+such as baptism and confession, the religion presented a tissue of
+the most absurd and bloody superstitions. The offering up of human
+sacrifices, adopted at the beginning of the 14th century, and used
+at first very sparingly, had soon become so frequent, that the
+number of victims immolated each year, and drawn chiefly from the
+conquered nations, amounted to 20,000, while under certain
+circumstances the number was much larger. Thus in 1486, at the
+inauguration of the temple of Huitzilopchit, 70,000 captives
+perished in a single day.</p>
+
+<p>The Government of Mexico was monarchical; at first the imperial
+power had been carefully limited, but it had increased with the
+various conquests, and had become despotic. The sovereign was always
+chosen out of the same family, and his accession was marked by the
+offering up of numerous human sacrifices. The Emperor Montezuma
+belonged to the sacerdotal caste, and in consequence his power
+received some unwonted development. The result of his numerous wars
+had been the extension of his frontiers, and the subjugation of
+various nations; these latter welcomed the Spaniards with eagerness,
+thinking that their dominion must surely be less oppressive and less
+cruel than that of the Aztecs.</p>
+
+<p>It is certain that if Montezuma, with the large force which he had
+at his disposal, had fallen upon the Spaniards when they were
+occupying the hot and unhealthy shore of Vera-Cruz, they would have
+been unable, in spite of the superiority of their arms and
+discipline, to resist such a shock; they must all have perished, or
+been obliged to re-embark, and the fate of the New World would have
+been completely changed. But the decision which formed the most
+salient point in the character of Cortès, was completely wanting in
+that of Montezuma, a prince who never could at any time adopt a
+resolute policy.</p>
+
+<p>Fresh ambassadors from the emperor had arrived at the Spanish camp,
+bringing to Cortès an order to quit the country, and upon his
+refusal all intercourse between the natives and the invaders had
+immediately ceased. The situation was becoming critical, and this
+Cortès felt. After having overcome some hesitation which had been
+shown by the troops, he laid the foundations of Vera-Cruz, a
+fortress designed to serve as a basis of operations, and a shelter
+in case of a possible re-embarkation. He next organized a kind of
+civil government, a <i>junta</i>, as it would be called in the present
+day, to which he resigned the commission which had been revoked by
+Velasquez, and then he made the junta give him one with new
+provisions and more extended powers. After this he received the
+envoys from the town of Zempoalla, who were come to solicit his
+alliance, and his protection against Montezuma, whose dominion they
+bore with impatience. Cortès was indeed fortunate in meeting with
+such allies so soon after landing, and not wishing to allow so
+golden an opportunity to slip, he welcomed the Totonacs kindly, went
+with them to their capital, and after having caused a fortress to be
+constructed at Quiabislan on the sea-shore, he persuaded his new
+friends to refuse the payment of tribute to Montezuma. He took
+advantage of his stay at Zempoalla to exhort these people to embrace
+Christianity, and he threw down their idols, as he had already done
+at Cozumel, to prove to them the powerlessness of their gods.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile a plot had been forming in his own camp, and Cortès,
+feeling convinced that as long as there remained any way of
+returning to Cuba, there would be constant lukewarmness and
+discontent among his soldiers, caused all his ships to be run
+aground, under the pretext of their being in too shattered a
+condition to be of any further use. This was an unheard-of act of
+audacity, and one which forced his companions either to conquer or
+to die. Having no longer anything to fear from the want of
+discipline of his troops, Cortès set out for Zempoalla on the 16th
+of August, with five hundred soldiers, fifteen horses, and six field
+cannon, and also two hundred Indian porters, who were intended to
+perform all menial offices. The little army soon reached the
+frontiers of the small republic of Tlascala, of which the fierce
+inhabitants, impatient of servitude, had long been engaged in strife
+with Montezuma. Cortès flattered himself that his oft-proclaimed
+intention of delivering the Indians from the Mexican yoke would
+induce the Tlascalans to become his allies and at once to make
+common cause with him. He therefore asked for leave to cross their
+territory on his way to Mexico; but his ambassadors were detained,
+and as he advanced into the interior of the country, he was harassed
+for fourteen consecutive days and nights by continual attacks from
+several bodies of Tlascalans, amounting in all to 30,000 men, who
+displayed a bravery and determination such as the Spaniards had
+never yet seen equalled in the New World. But the arms possessed by
+these brave men were very primitive. What could they effect with
+only arrows and lances tipped with obsidian or fish-bones, stakes
+hardened in the fire, wooden swords, and above all with an inferior
+system of tactics? When they found that each encounter cost them the
+lives of many of their bravest warriors, while not a single Spaniard
+had been killed, they imagined that these strangers must be of a
+superior order of beings, while they could not tell what opinion to
+form of men who sent back to them the spies taken in their camp,
+with their hands cut off, and who yet after each victory not only
+did not devour their prisoners, as the Aztecs would have done, but
+released them, loading them with presents and proposing peace.</p>
+
+<p>Upon this the Tlascalans declared themselves vassals of the Spanish
+crown, and swore to assist Cortès in all his expeditions, while he
+on his side promised to protect them against their enemies. It was
+time that peace should be made, for many of the Spaniards were
+wounded or ill, and all were worn out with fatigue, but the entry in
+triumph into Tlascala, where they were welcomed as supernatural
+beings, quickly made them forget their sufferings.</p>
+
+<p>After twenty days of repose in this town, Cortès resumed his march
+towards Mexico, having with him an auxiliary army of six thousand
+Tlascalans. He went first to Cholula, a town regarded as sacred by
+the Indians, and as the sanctuary and favoured residence of their
+deities. Montezuma felt much satisfaction in the advance of the
+Spaniards to this town, either from the hope that the gods would
+themselves avenge the desecration of their temples, or that he
+thought a rising, and massacre of the Spaniards might be more easily
+organized in this populous and fanatical town. Cortès had been
+warned by the Tlascalans that he must place no trust in the
+protestations of friendship and devotion made by the Cholulans.
+However, he took up his quarters in the town, considering that he
+would lose his prestige if he showed any signs of fear, but upon
+being informed by the Tlascalans that the women and children were
+being sent away, and by Marina that a considerable body of troops
+was massed at the gates of the city, that pitfalls and trenches were
+dug in the streets, whilst the roofs of the houses were loaded with
+stones and missiles, Cortès anticipated the designs of his enemies,
+gave orders to make prisoners of all the principal men of the town,
+and then organized a general massacre of the population, thus taken
+by surprise and deprived of their leaders. For two whole days the
+unhappy Cholulans were subject to all the horrors which could be
+invented by the rage of the Spaniards, and the vengeance of their
+allies the Tlascalans. A terrible example was made, six thousand
+people being put to the sword, temples burned to the ground, and the
+town half destroyed, a work of destruction well calculated to strike
+terror into the hearts of Montezuma and his subjects.</p>
+<a name="fax28"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 28">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="789">
+			<img src="images/065.jpg" alt="Lake of Mexico">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="789" align="center">
+			Lake of Mexico.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Sixty miles now separated Cortès from the capital, and everywhere as
+he passed along he was received as a liberator. There was not a
+cacique who had not some cause of complaint against the imperial
+despotism, and Cortès felt confirmed in the hope that so divided an
+empire would prove an easy prey. As the Spaniards descended from the
+mountains of Chalco, they beheld with astonishment the valley of
+Mexico, with its enormous lake, deeply sunk and surrounded by large
+towns, the capital city built upon piles, and the well-cultivated
+fields of this fertile region.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès did not trouble himself about the continued tergiversations
+of Montezuma, who could not make up his mind to the last moment
+whether he would receive the Spaniards as friends or enemies. The
+Spanish general advanced along the causeway which leads to Mexico
+across the lake, and was already within a mile of the town, when
+some Indians, who, from their magnificent costume were evidently of
+high rank, came to greet him and to announce to him the approach of
+the emperor. Montezuma soon appeared, borne upon the shoulders of
+his favourites in a kind of litter adorned with gold and feathers,
+while a magnificent canopy protected him from the rays of the sun.
+As he advanced the Indians prostrated themselves before him, with
+their heads downwards, as though unworthy even to look at their
+monarch. This first interview was cordial, and Montezuma himself
+conducted his guests to the abode which he had prepared for them. It
+was a vast palace, surrounded by a stone wall, and defended by high
+towers. Cortès immediately took measures of defence, and ordered the
+cannon to be pointed upon the roads leading to the palace. At the
+second interview, magnificent presents were offered both to the
+general and soldiers. Montezuma related that according to an old
+tradition, the ancestors of the Aztecs had arrived in the country
+under the leadership of a man of white complexion, and bearded like
+the Spaniards. After laying the foundations of their power, he had
+embarked upon the ocean, promising them that one day his descendants
+would come to visit them and to reform their laws&mdash;and if, as
+Montezuma said, he now received the Spaniards rather as fathers than
+as foreigners, it was because he felt convinced that in them he
+beheld the descendants of his people's ancient chief, and he begged
+them to regard themselves as the masters of his country.</p>
+
+<p>The following days were employed in visiting the town, which
+appeared to the Spaniards as larger, more populous, and more
+beautiful than any city which they had hitherto seen in America. Its
+distinguishing peculiarity consisted in the causeways which formed a
+means of communication with the land, and which were cut through in
+various places to allow a free passage to vessels sailing on the
+waters of the lake. Across these openings were thrown bridges which
+could be easily destroyed. On the eastern side of the town there was
+no causeway and no means of communication with the land except by
+canoes. This arrangement of the town of Mexico caused some anxiety
+to Cortès, who saw that he might be at any moment blockaded in the
+town, without being able to find means of egress. He determined,
+therefore, to prevent any seditious attempt by securing the person
+of the emperor, and using him as a hostage. The following news which
+he had just received furnished him with an excellent pretext:
+Qualpopoca, a Mexican general, had attacked the provinces which had
+submitted to the Spaniards, and Escalante and seven of his soldiers
+had been mortally wounded; besides this, a prisoner had been
+beheaded and the head carried from town to town, thus proving that
+the invaders could be conquered, and were nothing more than ordinary
+mortals.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès profited by these events to accuse the emperor of perfidy. He
+declared that although Montezuma appeared friendly to him and to his
+soldiers, it was only that he might wait for some favourable
+opportunity to treat them in the same manner as Escalante, a
+proceeding quite unworthy of a monarch, and very different from the
+confidence which Cortès had shown in coming, as he had done, to
+visit him. He went on to say that if the suspicions of the Spaniards
+were not justified, the emperor could easily exonerate himself by
+having Qualpopoca punished, and finally, to prevent the recurrence
+of aggressions which could but destroy the existing harmony, and to
+prove to the Mexicans that he harboured no ill-design against the
+Spaniards, Montezuma could not do otherwise than come to reside
+amongst them. It may be easily imagined that the emperor was not
+very ready to decide upon this course, but was at last obliged to
+give in to the violence and threats of the Spaniards. Upon
+announcing his resolution to his subjects, he was made to assure
+them several times over that he put himself into the hands of the
+Spaniards of his own free will; these words were needed to calm the
+Mexicans, who threatened to make an attack upon the foreigners.</p>
+
+<p>The success of Cortès in this bold scheme was quite beyond his
+expectations. Qualpopoca, with his son and five of the chief
+ringleaders in the revolt, were seized by the Mexicans, and brought
+before a Spanish tribunal, which was at the same time judge and
+prosecutor; the Indians were condemned and burnt alive. Not content
+with having punished men who had committed no crime but that of
+executing the orders of their emperor, and of opposing an armed
+resistance to the invasion of their country, Cortès imposed a new
+humiliation upon Montezuma, in placing fetters upon his feet, under
+the pretext that the culprits in their last moments had made
+accusations against him. For six months the "Conquistador" exercised
+the supreme government in the name of the emperor, now reduced to a
+puppet-show of authority. Cortès changed the governors who
+displeased him, collected the taxes, presided over all the details
+of the administration, and sent Spaniards into the various provinces
+of the empire with orders to examine their productions, and to take
+particular notice of the mining districts and the processes in use
+for collecting gold.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès also turned to account the curiosity evinced by Montezuma to
+see European ships, to have rigging and other appurtenances brought
+from Vera-Cruz, and to order the construction of two brigantines
+destined to ensure his communications with terra-firma by the waters
+of the lake.</p>
+
+<p>Emboldened by receiving so many proofs of submission and humility,
+Cortès took another step in advance, and required that Montezuma
+should declare himself the vassal and tributary of Spain. The act of
+fidelity and homage was accompanied, as may be easily imagined, with
+presents both rich and numerous, as well as by a heavy tax which was
+levied without much difficulty. The opportunity was now taken to
+gather together everything in gold and silver, which had been
+extorted from the Indians, and to melt them down, except certain
+pieces which were kept as they were, on account of the beauty of the
+workmanship. The whole did not amount to more than 600,000 pesos, or
+100,000<i>l.</i> Thus, although the Spaniards had made use of all their
+power, and Montezuma had exhausted his treasures to satisfy them,
+the whole product amounted to an absurdly small sum, very little in
+accordance with the idea which the conquerors had formed of the
+riches of the country. After reserving one-fifth of the treasure for
+the king, and one-fifth for Cortès and subtracting enough to
+reimburse the sums which had been advanced for the expenses of the
+expedition, the share of each soldier did not amount to 100 <i>pesos</i>,
+and they considered that it would have been more worth their while
+to have remained in Hispaniola, than to have experienced such
+fatigues, encountered such great dangers, and suffered so many
+privations, all for the reward of 100 <i>pesos</i>! If the promises of
+Cortès ended in this beggarly result, and if the partition had been
+made with fairness, of which they did not feel certain, they argued
+that it was absurd to remain longer in so poor a country, while
+under a chief less prodigal in promises, but more generous, they
+might go to countries rich in gold and precious stones, where brave
+warriors would find an adequate compensation for their toils. So
+murmured these greedy adventurers; some accepting what fell to their
+share while fuming over its small amount, others disdainfully
+refusing it.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès had succeeded in persuading Montezuma to conform to his will
+in everything which concerned politics, but it was otherwise in
+regard to religion. He could not persuade him to change his creed,
+and when Cortès wished to throw down the idols, as he had done at
+Zempoalla, a tumult arose which would have become very serious, had
+he not immediately abandoned his project. From that time the
+Mexicans, who had offered scarcely any resistance to the subjugation
+and imprisonment of their monarch, resolved to avenge their outraged
+deities, and they prepared a simultaneous rising against the
+invaders. It was at this juncture, when the affairs in the interior
+seemed to be taking a less favourable turn, that Cortès received
+news from Vera-Cruz, that several ships were cruising off the
+harbour. At first he thought this must be a fleet sent to his aid by
+Charles V., in answer to a letter which he had sent to him on the
+16th of July, 1519, by Puerto Carrero and Montejo. But he was soon
+undeceived, and learnt that this expedition was organized by Diego
+Velasquez, who knew by experience how lightly his lieutenant could
+shake off all dependence upon him; he had sent this armament with
+the object of deposing Cortès from his command, of making him a
+prisoner, and of carrying him off to Cuba, where he would be
+speedily placed upon his trial. The fleet thus sent was under the
+command of Pamphilo de Narvaez; it consisted of eighteen vessels,
+and carried eighty horse-soldiers, and 100 infantry (of whom eighty
+were musketeers), 120 cross-bowmen, and twelve cannons.</p>
+
+<p>Narvaez disembarked without opposition, near to the fort of San Juan
+d'Ulloa, but upon summoning the Governor of Vera-Cruz, Sandoval, to
+give up the town to him, Sandoval seized the men who were charged
+with the insolent message, and sent them off to Mexico, where Cortès
+at once released them, and then gained from them circumstantial
+information as to the forces, and the projects of Narvaez. The
+personal danger of Cortès at this moment was great; the troops sent
+by Velasquez were more numerous and better furnished with arms and
+ammunition than were his own, but his deepest cause of anxiety was
+not the possibility of his own condemnation and death, it was the
+fear lest all fruit of his efforts might be lost, and the knowledge
+of the hurtfulness of these dissensions to his country's cause. The
+situation was a critical one, but after mature reflection and the
+careful weighing of arguments for and against the course he
+meditated, Cortès determined to fight, even at a disadvantage,
+rather than to sacrifice his conquests and the interests of Spain.
+Before proceeding to this last extremity, he sent his chaplain
+Olmedo to Narvaez, but he was very ill-received, and saw all his
+proposals for an accommodation disdainfully rejected. Olmedo met
+with more success amongst the soldiers, who most of them knew him,
+and to whom he distributed a number of chains, gold rings, and other
+jewels, which were well calculated to give them a high idea of the
+riches of the conqueror. But when Narvaez heard of what was going on,
+he determined not to leave his troops any longer exposed to
+temptation; he set a price upon the heads of Cortès and his
+principal officers, and advanced to the encounter.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès, however, was too skilful to be enticed into giving battle
+under unfavourable circumstances. He temporized and succeeded in
+tiring out Narvaez and his troops, who retired to Zempoalla. Then
+Cortès, having taken his measures with consummate prudence, and the
+surprise and terror of a nocturnal attack which he organized
+compensating for the inferiority of his troops, he made prisoners of
+his enemy and all his soldiers, his own loss amounting to but two
+men. The conqueror treated the vanquished well, and gave them the
+choice between returning to Cuba, or remaining to share his fortune.
+This latter proposal, backed up as it was by gifts and promises,
+appeared so seductive to the new arrivals, that Cortès found himself
+at the head of 1000 soldiers, the day after he had been in danger of
+falling into the hands of Narvaez. This rapid change of fortune was
+turned to the greatest advantage by the skilful diplomacy of Cortès,
+who hastened to return to Mexico. The troops whom he had left there
+under the command of Alvarado, to guard the emperor and the treasure,
+were reduced to the last extremity by the natives, who had killed or
+wounded a great number of soldiers, and who kept the rest in a state
+of close blockade, while threatening them constantly with a general
+assault. It must be confessed that the imprudent and criminal
+conduct of the Spaniards, and notably the massacre of the most
+distinguished citizens of the empire during a fête, had brought
+about the rising which they dreaded, and which they had hoped to
+prevent. After having been joined by 2000 Tlascalans, Cortès pressed
+forward by forced marches towards the capital, where he arrived in
+safety, and found that the Indians had not destroyed the bridges
+belonging to the causeways and dikes which joined Mexico to the land.
+In spite of the arrival of this reinforcement, the situation did not
+improve. Each day it was necessary to engage in new combats, and to
+make sorties to clear the avenues leading to the palace occupied by
+the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès now saw but too plainly the mistake which he had made in
+shutting himself up in a town where his position might be stormed at
+any moment, and from which it was so difficult to extricate himself.
+In this difficulty he had recourse to Montezuma, who, by virtue of
+his authority and of the prestige which still clung to him, could
+appease the tumult, give the Spaniards some respite, and enable them
+to prepare for their retreat. But when the unfortunate emperor, now
+become a mere toy in the hands of the Spaniards, appeared upon the
+walls decked out with regal ornaments, and implored his subjects to
+cease from hostilities, murmurs of discontent arose, and threats
+were freely uttered. Hostilities began afresh, and before the
+soldiers had time to protect him with their shields, Montezuma was
+pierced with arrows, and hit upon the head by a stone which knocked
+him down. At this sight the Indians, horrified at the crime which
+they had just committed, at once ceased fighting, and fled in all
+directions, while the emperor, understanding but too late all the
+baseness of the part which Cortès had forced him to play, tore off
+the bandages which had been applied to his wounds, and refusing all
+nourishment, he died cursing the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 34">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="576">
+			<img src="images/066.jpg" alt="Death of Montezuma">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="576" align="center">
+			Death of Montezuma.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After so fatal an event, there was no more room to hope for peace
+with the Mexicans, and it became necessary to retire in haste, and
+at whatever cost, from a town in which the Spaniards were threatened
+with blockade and starvation. For this retreat Cortès was preparing
+in secret. He saw his troops each day more and more closely hemmed
+in, whilst several times he was forced himself to take his sword in
+his hand and to fight like a common soldier. Solis even relates, but
+upon what authority is not known, that during an assault which was
+made upon one of the edifices commanding the Spanish quarter, two
+young Mexicans, recognizing Cortès, who was cheering on his soldiers,
+resolved to sacrifice themselves in the hope of killing the man who
+had been the author of their country's calamities. They approached
+him in a suppliant attitude, as though they would ask for quarter,
+then seizing him round the waist they dragged him towards the
+battlements, over which they threw themselves, hoping to drag him
+over with them. But thanks to his exceptional strength and agility
+Cortès managed to escape from their embrace, and these two brave
+Mexicans perished in their generous but vain attempt to save their
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The retreat being determined upon, it was necessary to decide upon
+whether it should be carried out by night or by day. If in the
+daytime the enemy would be more easily resisted, any ambuscades
+which might be prepared would be more easily avoided, while they
+could better take precautions to repair any bridges broken by the
+Mexicans. On the other hand, it was known that the Indians will
+seldom attack an enemy after sunset, but what really decided Cortès
+in favour of a nocturnal retreat was, that a soldier who dabbled in
+astrology had declared to his comrades that success was certain if
+they acted in the night.</p>
+
+<p>They therefore began their march at midnight. Besides the Spanish
+troops, Cortès had under his orders detachments from Tlascala,
+Zempoalla, and Cholula, which, notwithstanding the serious losses
+which had been sustained, still numbered 7000 men. Sandoval
+commanded the vanguard, and Cortès the centre, where were the cannon,
+baggage, and prisoners, amongst whom were a son and two daughters of
+Montezuma; Alvarado and Velasquez de Léon led the rearguard. With
+the army was carried a flying bridge, which had been constructed to
+throw over any gaps there might be in the causeway. Scarcely had the
+Spaniards debouched upon the dike leading to Tacuba, which was the
+shortest of all, when they were attacked in front, flank, and rear
+by solid masses of the enemy, whilst from a fleet of numberless
+canoes, a perfect hailstorm of stones and missiles fell upon them.
+Blinded and amazed, the allies knew not against whom to defend
+themselves first. The wooden bridge sank under the weight of the
+artillery and fighting men. Crowded together upon a narrow causeway
+where they could not use their fire-arms, deprived of their cavalry
+who had not room to act, mingled with the Indians in a hand-to-hand
+combat, not having strength to kill, and surrounded on all sides,
+the Spaniards and their allies gave way under the ever renewed
+numbers of the assailants. Officers and soldiers, infantry and
+cavalry, Spaniards and Tlascalans were confounded together, each
+defended himself to the best of his ability, without caring about
+discipline or the common safety.</p>
+
+<p>All seemed lost, when Cortès with one hundred men succeeded in
+crossing the breach in the dike upon the mass of corpses which
+filled it up. He drew up his soldiers in order as they arrived, and
+putting himself at the head of those least severely wounded, plunged
+wedge-fashion into the mêlée, and succeeded in disengaging from it a
+portion of his men. Before day dawned all those who had succeeded in
+escaping from the massacre of the <i>noche triste</i>, as this terrible
+night was called, found themselves reunited at Tacuba. It was with
+eyes full of tears that Cortès passed in review his remaining
+soldiers, all covered with wounds, and took account of the losses
+which he had sustained; 4000 Indians, Tlascalans, and Cholulans, and
+nearly all the horses were killed, all the artillery and ammunition,
+as well as the greatest part of the baggage, were lost, and amongst
+the dead were several officers of distinction&mdash;Velasquez de Léon,
+Salcedo, Morla, Larès, and many others; one of those most
+dangerously hurt was Alvarado, but not one man, whether officer or
+soldier, was without a wound.</p>
+
+<p>The fugitives did not delay at Tacuba, and by accident they took the
+road to Tlascala, where they did not know what reception might await
+them. Ever harassed by the Mexicans, the Spaniards were again
+obliged to give battle upon the plains of Otumba to a number of
+warriors, whom some historians reckon at two hundred thousand.
+Thanks to the presence of some cavalry soldiers who still remained
+to him, Cortès was able to overthrow all who were in front of him,
+and to reach a troop of persons whose high rank was easily discerned
+by their gilded plumes and luxurious costumes, amongst whom was the
+general bearing the standard. Accompanied by some horsemen, Cortès
+threw himself upon this group and was fortunate enough, or skilful
+enough, to overturn by a lance-thrust the Mexican general, who was
+then despatched by the sword by a soldier named Juan de Salamanca.
+From the moment when the standard disappeared the battle was gained,
+and the Mexicans, panic-stricken, fled hastily from the field of
+battle. "Never had the Spaniards incurred greater danger," says
+Prescott, "and had it not been for the lucky star of Cortès, not one
+would have survived to transmit to posterity the history of the
+sanguinary battle of Otumba." The booty was considerable, and
+sufficed in part, to indemnify the Spaniards for the loss they had
+sustained in leaving Mexico, for this army which they had just
+defeated was composed of the principal warriors of the nation, who,
+having been quite confident of success, had adorned themselves with
+their richest ornaments.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 35">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="574">
+			<img src="images/067.jpg" alt="Cortès at the Battle of Otumba">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="574" align="center">
+			Cortès at the Battle of Otumba.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The day after the battle the Spaniards entered the territory of
+Tlascala. Bernal Diaz says, "I shall now call the attention of
+curious readers to the fact that when we returned to Mexico to the
+relief of Alvarado, we were in all 1300 men, including in that
+number ninety-seven horsemen, eighty cross-bowmen, and the same
+number armed with carbines; besides, we had more than 2000
+Tlascalans, and much artillery. Our second entry into Mexico took
+place on St. John's Day, 1520; our flight from the city was on the
+10th day of the month of July following, and we fought the memorable
+battle of Otumba on the 14th day of this same month of July. And now
+I would draw attention to the number of men who were killed at
+Mexico during the passage of the causeways and bridges, in the
+battle of Otumba, and in the other encounters upon the route. I
+declare that in the space of five days 860 of our men were massacred,
+including ten of our soldiers and five Castilian women, who were
+killed in the village of Rustepèque; we lost besides 1200 Tlascalans
+during the same time. It is to be noticed also that if the number of
+dead in the troop of Narvaez were greater than in the troop of
+Cortès, it was because the former soldiers set out on the march
+laden with a quantity of gold, the weight of which hindered them
+from swimming, and from getting out of the trenches."</p>
+
+<p>The troops with Cortès were reduced to four hundred and forty men,
+with twenty horses, twelve cross-bowmen, and seven carabineers; they
+had not a single charge of gunpowder, they were all wounded, lame,
+or maimed in the arms. It was the same number of men that had
+followed Cortès when he first entered Mexico, but how great a
+difference was there between that conquering troop, and the
+vanquished soldiers who now quitted the capital.</p>
+
+<p>As they entered the Tlascalan territory Cortès recommended his men,
+and especially those of Narvaez, not to do anything which could vex
+the natives, the common safety depending upon not irritating the
+only allies which remained to them. Happily the fears which had
+arisen as to the fidelity of the Tlascalans proved groundless. They
+gave the Spaniards a most sympathizing welcome, and their thoughts
+seemed to be wholly bent upon avenging the death of their brothers
+massacred by the Mexicans. While in their capital Cortès heard of
+the loss of two more detachments, but these reverses, grave as they
+were, did not discourage him; he had under his orders troops inured
+to war and faithful allies, Vera-Cruz was intact, he might once more
+reckon upon his good fortune. But before undertaking a new campaign
+or entering upon another siege, help must be sought and preparations
+made, and with these objects in view the general set to work. He
+sent four ships to Hispaniola to enrol volunteers and purchase
+powder and ammunition, and meanwhile he caused trees to be cut down
+in the mountains of Tlascala, and with the wood thus obtained twelve
+brigantines were constructed, which were to be carried in pieces to
+the Lake of Mexico, to be launched there at the moment when needed.</p>
+
+<p>After suppressing some attempts at mutiny amongst the soldiers, in
+which those who had come with Narvaez were the most to blame, Cortès
+again marched forwards, and, with the help of the Tlascalans, first
+attacked the people of Tepeaca and of other neighbouring provinces,
+a measure which had the advantage of exercising anew his own troops
+in war, and of training his allies. While this was going on, two
+brigantines bringing ammunition and reinforcements fell into the
+hands of Cortès; these ships had been sent to Narvaez by Velasquez,
+in ignorance of his misadventures; at this time also some Spaniards
+sent by Francis de Garay, governor of Jamaica, joined the army. In
+consequence of these reinforcements the troops with Cortès, after he
+had rid himself of several partisans of Narvaez with whom he was
+dissatisfied, amounted to five hundred infantry, of whom eighty
+carried muskets, and forty horse-soldiers. With this small army, and
+with one thousand Tlascalans, Cortès set out once more for Mexico on
+the 28th of December, 1520, six months after he had been forced to
+abandon the city. This campaign had for its theatre countries
+already described, and must therefore be passed over somewhat
+rapidly here, notwithstanding the interest attaching to it; to enter
+fully into the history of the conquest of Mexico would not be in
+accordance with the primary object of this work.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Montezuma his brother Quetlavaca was raised to
+the throne, and he adopted all the measures of precaution compatible
+with Aztec strategic science. But he died of the smallpox, the sad
+gift of the Spaniards to the New World, at the very moment when his
+brilliant qualities of foresight and bravery were the most needed by
+his country. His successor was Guatimozin, the nephew of Montezuma,
+a man distinguished by his talents and courage.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès had no sooner entered the Mexican territory than fighting
+began. He speedily captured the town of Tezcuco, which was situated
+at twenty miles' distance, upon the edge of the great central lake,
+that lake upon whose waters the Spaniards were to see an imposing
+flotilla floating three months later. At this time a fresh
+conspiracy, which had for its object the assassination of Cortès and
+his principal officers, was discovered, and the chief culprit
+executed. At this moment fate seemed in every way to smile upon
+Cortès; he had just received the news of the arrival of fresh
+reinforcements at Vera-Cruz, and the greater part of the towns under
+the dominion of Guatimozin had submitted to the force of his arms.
+The actual siege of Mexico began in the month of May, 1521, and
+continued with alternate success and reverse until the day when the
+brigantines were launched upon the water of the lake. The Mexicans
+did not hesitate to attack them; from four to five thousand canoes,
+each bearing two men, covered the lake and advanced to the assault
+of the Spanish vessels, which carried in all nearly three hundred
+men. These nine brigantines were provided with cannon, and soon
+dispersed or sunk the enemy's fleet, who thenceforth left them in
+undisputed possession of the water. But this success and certain
+other advantages gained by Cortès had no very marked consequences,
+and the siege dragged slowly on, until the general made up his mind
+to capture the town by force. Unfortunately the officer who was
+charged with protecting the line of retreat by the causeways while
+the Spaniards were making their way into the town, abandoned his
+post, thinking it unworthy of his valour, and went to join in the
+combat. Guatimozin was informed of the fault which had been
+committed, and at once took advantage of it. His troops attacked the
+Spaniards on all sides with such fury that numbers of them were
+killed in a short time, while sixty-two of the soldiers fell alive
+into the hands of the Mexicans, a fate which Cortès, who was
+severely wounded in the thigh, narrowly escaped sharing. During the
+night following, the great temple of the war-god was illuminated in
+sign of triumph, and the Spaniards listened in profound sadness to
+the beating of the great drum. From the position they occupied they
+could witness the end of the prisoners, their unfortunate countrymen,
+whose breasts were opened and their hearts torn out, and whose dead
+bodies were hurled down the steps; they were then torn in pieces by
+the Aztecs, who quarrelled over the pieces with the object of using
+them for a horrible festival.</p>
+
+<p>This terrible defeat caused the siege to go on slowly, until the day
+came when three parts of the city having been taken or destroyed,
+Guatimozin was obliged by his councillors to quit Mexico and to set
+out for the mainland, where he reckoned upon organizing his
+resistance, but the boat which carried him being seized he was made
+prisoner. In his captivity he was destined to display much greater
+dignity and strength of character than his uncle Montezuma had done.
+From this time all resistance ceased, and Cortès might take
+possession of the half-destroyed capital. After a heroic resistance,
+in which 120,000 Mexicans according to some accounts, but 240,000
+according to others, had perished, after a siege which had lasted
+not less than seventy days, Mexico, and with the city all the rest
+of the empire, succumbed, less indeed to the blows dealt against it
+by the Spaniards than to the long-standing hatred and the revolts of
+the subjugated people, and to the jealousy of the neighbouring
+states, fated soon to regret the yoke which they had so deliberately
+shaken off.</p>
+
+<p>Contempt and rage soon succeeded amongst the Spaniards to the
+intoxication of success; the immense riches upon which they had
+reckoned either had no existence, or they had been thrown into the
+lake. Cortès found it impossible to calm the malcontents, and was
+obliged to allow the emperor and his principal minister to be put to
+the torture. Some historians, and notably Gomara, report that whilst
+the Spaniards were stirring the fire which burnt below the gridiron
+upon which the two victims were extended, the minister turned his
+head towards his master and apparently begged him to speak, in order
+to put an end to their tortures; but that Guatimozin reproved this
+single moment of weakness by these words, "And I, am I assisting at
+some pleasure, or am I in the bath?" an answer which has been
+poetically changed into, "And I, do I lie upon roses?"</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 36">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581">
+			<img src="images/068.jpg" alt="The Spaniards stir the fire burning below the gridiron">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581" align="center">
+			The Spaniards stir the fire burning below the gridiron.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The historians of the conquest of Mexico have usually stopped short
+at the taking of Mexico, but it remains for us to speak of some
+other expeditions undertaken by Cortès with different aims, but
+which resulted in casting quite a new light upon some portions of
+Central America; besides we could not leave this hero, who played so
+large a part in the history of the New World and in the development
+of its civilization, without giving some details of the end of his
+life.</p>
+
+<p>With the fall of the capital was involved, properly speaking, that
+of the Mexican empire; if there were still some resistance, as
+notably there was in the province of Oaxaca, it was of an isolated
+character, and a few detachments of troops sufficed to reduce to
+submission the last remaining opponents of the Spaniards, terrified
+as the Mexicans were by the punishments which had been dealt out to
+the people of Panuco, who had revolted. At the same time ambassadors
+were sent by the people of the distant countries of the empire, to
+convince themselves of the reality of that wonderful event, the
+taking of Mexico, to behold the ruins of the abhorred town, and to
+tender their submission to the conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès was at length confirmed in the position he held after
+incidents which would take too long to relate, and which caused him
+to say, "It has been harder for me to fight against my countrymen
+than against the Aztecs." It now remained to him to organize the
+conquered country, and he began by establishing the seat of
+government at Mexico, which he rebuilt. He attracted Spaniards to
+the city by granting them concessions of lands, and the Indians, by
+allowing them at first to remain under the authority of their native
+chiefs, although he speedily reduced them all, except the Tlascalans,
+to the condition of slaves, by the vicious system of
+<i>repartimientos</i>, in vogue in the Spanish colonies. But if it is
+justifiable to reproach Cortès with having held cheaply the
+political rights of the Indians, it must be conceded that he
+manifested the most laudable solicitude for their spiritual
+well-being. To further this object he brought over some Franciscans,
+who by their zeal and charity in a short time gained the veneration
+of the natives, and in a space of twenty years brought about the
+conversion of the whole population.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time Cortès sent some troops into the state of Mechoacan,
+who penetrated as far as the Pacific Ocean, and as they returned
+visited some of the rich provinces situated in the north. Cortès
+founded settlements in all the parts of the country which appeared
+to him advantageous: at Zacatula upon the shores of the Pacific, at
+Coliman in Mechoacan, at Santesteban near Tampico, at Medellin near
+Vera-Cruz, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the pacification of the country, Cortès entrusted
+Christoval de Olid with the command of a considerable force, in
+order to establish a colony in Honduras, and at the same time Olid
+was to explore the southern coast of that province, and to seek for
+a strait which should form a communication between the Atlantic and
+Pacific Oceans. But, carried away by the pride of command, Olid had
+no sooner reached his destination than he declared himself
+independent, whereupon Cortès immediately despatched one of his
+relations to arrest the culprit, and set out himself, accompanied by
+Guatimozin, at the head of one hundred horsemen and fifty
+foot-soldiers, on the 12th of October, 1524. After crossing the
+provinces of Goatzacoalco, Tabasco, and Yucatan, and enduring all
+kinds of privations in the course of a most trying march over marshy
+and shifting ground, and across a perfect ocean of undulating
+forests, the detachment was approaching the province of Aculan, when
+Cortès was told of the existence of a plot, formed, as was said, by
+Guatimozin and the principal Indian chiefs. Its aim was to seize the
+first opportunity to massacre both officers and soldiers, after
+which the march to Honduras was to be continued, the settlements
+were to be destroyed, and then there was to be a return to Mexico,
+where during a general rising there would doubtless be small
+difficulty experienced in getting rid of the invaders. Guatimozin in
+vain protested his innocence, in which there is every reason to
+believe; he was hung, as well as several of the Aztec nobles, upon
+the branches of a <i>Ceyba</i> tree, which shaded the road. Bernal Diaz
+del Castillo says, "The execution of Guatimozin was very unjust, and
+we were all agreed in condemning it." But Prescott says, "If Cortès
+had consulted but his own interest and his renown, he should have
+spared him, for he was the living trophy of his victory, as a man
+keeps gold in the lining of his coat."</p>
+
+<p>At length the Spaniards reached Aculan, a flourishing town, where
+they refreshed themselves after their journey in excellent quarters;
+when they set out again, it was in the direction of the Lake of
+Peten, a part of the country where the population was easily
+converted to Christianity. We shall not dwell upon the sufferings
+and misery which tried the expedition in these sparsely-peopled
+countries, until it arrived at San Gil de Buena-Vista, upon the
+Golfo Dolce, where Cortès, after receiving the news of the execution
+of Olid and the re-establishment of the central authority, embarked
+upon his return to Mexico. At this time he entrusted to Alvarado the
+command of three hundred infantry, one hundred and sixty cavalry,
+and four cannon, with a body of Indian auxiliaries, with which he
+set out for the south of Mexico, to conquer Guatemala. He reduced to
+submission the provinces of Zacatulan, Tehuantepec, Soconusco,
+Utlatlan, and laid the foundations of the town of Guatemala la
+Vieja; when, some time afterwards he made a voyage to Spain, he was
+named by Charles V. governor of the countries which he had conquered.</p>
+
+<p>Three years had not expired after the conquest, before a territory
+1200 miles in length upon the sea-board of the Atlantic, and 1500
+miles upon that of the Pacific, had submitted to the Castilian crown,
+and with but few exceptions, was in a state of perfect tranquillity.</p>
+
+<p>The return of Cortès to Mexico from the useless expedition to
+Honduras&mdash;which had wasted so much time and caused almost as great
+sufferings to the Spaniards as the conquest of Mexico&mdash;had taken
+place but a few days, when he received the news that he was
+temporarily replaced by another commander, and was invited to repair
+to Spain to exculpate himself from certain charges. He was not in
+any haste to comply with this order, hoping that it might be revoked,
+but his indefatigable calumniators and his implacable enemies, both
+in Spain and Mexico, preferred accusations against him after such a
+manner, that he found himself obliged to go and make his defence, to
+state his wrongs, and boldly to claim the approval of his conduct.
+Cortès therefore started accompanied by his friend Sandoval, as well
+as by Tapia und several Aztec chiefs, amongst whom was a son of
+Montezuma. He disembarked at Palos, in May, 1528, at the same place
+where Columbus had landed thirty-five years before, and he was
+welcomed with the same enthusiasm and rejoicings as the discoverer
+of America had been; here Cortès met with Pizarro, then at the
+outset of his career, who was come to solicit the support of the
+Spanish government. Cortès afterwards set out for Toledo, where the
+court then was. The mere announcement of his return had produced a
+complete change in public opinion. His unexpected arrival at once
+contradicted the idea that he harboured any projects of revolt and
+independence. Charles V. saw that public feeling would be outraged
+at the thought of punishing a man who had added its greatest gem to
+the crown of Castille, and so the journey of Cortès became one
+continual triumph in the midst of crowds of people greater than had
+been ever known before. "The houses and streets of the large towns
+and of the villages," says Prescott, "were filled with spectators
+impatient to contemplate the hero whose single arm might be said, in
+some sort, to have conquered an empire for Spain, and who, to borrow
+the language of an old historian, marched in all the pomp and glory,
+not of a great vassal, but of an independent monarch."</p>
+
+<p>Charles V., after having granted several audiences to Cortès, and
+bestowed upon him those particular marks of favour which are termed
+important by courtiers, deigned to accept from him the empire which
+he had conquered for him, and the magnificent presents which he
+brought. But he considered that he had fully recompensed him when he
+had given Cortès the title of Marquis della Valle de Oajaca, and the
+post of captain-general of New Spain, without, however, restoring to
+him the civil government, a power which had been formerly delegated
+to him by the junta of Vera-Cruz. Cortès, after his marriage with
+the niece of the Duke de Béjar, who belonged to one of the first
+families in Spain, accompanied the emperor, who was on his way to
+Italy, to the port of embarkation; but the general, soon becoming
+tired of the frivolities of a court, so little in accordance with
+the active habits of his past life, set out again for Mexico in 1530,
+and landed at Villa-Rica. After his arrival he underwent some
+annoyance caused by the Audienza, which had exercised the power in
+his absence, and which had instituted law-suits against him, and he
+also found himself in conflict with the new civil junta on the
+subject of military affairs. The Marquis della Valle withdrew
+himself to Cuernavaca, where he had immense estates, and busied
+himself with agriculture. He was the means of introducing the
+sugar-cane and the mulberry into Mexico, he also encouraged the
+cultivation of hemp and flax, and the breeding, on a large scale, of
+merino sheep.</p>
+
+<p>But this peaceable life without adventures could not long satisfy
+the enterprising spirit of Cortès. In 1532 and 1533, he equipped two
+squadrons destined to make voyages of discovery in the north-west of
+the Pacific. The latter expedition reached the southern extremity of
+the peninsula of California without attaining the object sought,
+namely the discovery of a strait uniting the Pacific with the
+Atlantic. Cortès himself met with no better success in 1536 in the
+Vermilion Sea (Gulf of California). Three years later a concluding
+expedition, of which Cortès gave the command to Ulloa, penetrated to
+the farthest extremity of the gulf, and then, sailing along the
+exterior side of the peninsula, reached the 29&deg; of north
+latitude. From thence the chief of the expedition sent back one of
+his ships to Cortès, while the rest proceeded northwards, but from
+that time nothing more is heard of them. Such was the unhappy result
+of the expeditions of Cortès, which, while they did not bring him in
+a single ducat, cost him not less than 300,000 gold castellanos. But
+they at least had the result of making known the coast of the
+Pacific Ocean, from the Bay of Panama as far as Colorado. The tour
+of the Californian Peninsula was made, and it was thus discovered
+that what had been imagined to be an island, was in reality a part
+of the continent. The whole of the Vermilion Sea, or Sea of Cortès,
+as the Spaniards justly named it, was carefully explored, and it was
+ascertained that, instead of having an outlet as was supposed to the
+north, it was in reality only a gulf deeply hollowed into the
+continent.</p>
+
+<p>Cortès had not been able to fit out these expeditions without coming
+into antagonism with the viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza, whom the
+emperor had sent to Mexico, an appointment which had wounded the
+feelings of the Marquis della Valle. Wearied with these continual,
+annoyances, and indignant at finding his prerogative as
+captain-general, if not absolutely ignored, at least perpetually
+questioned, Cortès left Mexico, and once more set out for Spain. But
+this journey was not destined at all to resemble the first. Grown
+old, disgusted with life, and betrayed by fortune, the
+"conquistador" had no longer anything to expect from government. He
+had not to wait long before receiving proof of this; one day he
+pressed through the crowd which surrounded the emperor's coach, and
+mounted upon the step of the door. Charles V. pretended not to
+recognize him, and asked who this man was. Cortès answered proudly,
+"It is the man who has given you more States than your father left
+you Towns." By this time public interest was diverted from Mexico,
+which had not yielded as much as had been expected from it, and was
+centred upon the marvellous riches of Peru. Cortès was, however,
+received with honour by the supreme council of the Indies, and
+permitted to state his complaints before it, but the debates upon
+the subject were endlessly drawn out, and he could obtain no redress.
+In 1541, during the disastrous expedition of Charles V. against
+Algiers, Cortès, who was serving in it as a volunteer, but whose
+counsels had not been listened to, had the misfortune to lose three
+great carved emeralds, jewels which would have sufficed for the
+ransom of an empire. Upon his return he renewed his solicitations,
+but with the same want of success. His grief over this injustice and
+these repeated disappointments was so deep, that his health suffered
+severely; he died far from the scene of his exploits, on the 10th of
+November, 1547, at Castilleja de la Cuesta, at the very moment when
+he was making preparations to return to America.</p>
+
+<p>"He was a true knight errant," says Prescott; "of all that glorious
+troop of adventurers which the Spain of the sixteenth century sent
+forth to a career of discovery and conquest, there was not one more
+deeply imbued with the spirit of romantic enterprise than Fernando
+Cortès. Strife was his delight, and he loved to attempt an
+enterprise by its most difficult side."...</p>
+
+<p>This passion for the romantic might have reduced the conqueror of
+Mexico to the part of a common adventurer, but Cortès was certainly
+a profound politician and a great captain, if one is justified in
+giving this name to a man who accomplished great actions by his own
+unassisted genius. There is no other example in history of so great
+an enterprise having been carried to a successful end with such
+inadequate means. It may be said with truth that Cortès conquered
+Mexico with his own resources alone. His influence over the minds of
+his soldiers was the natural result of their confidence in his
+ability, but it must be attributed also to his popular manners,
+which rendered him eminently fit to lead a band of adventurers. When
+he had attained to a higher rank, if Cortès displayed more of pomp,
+his veterans at least continued on the same terms of intimacy with
+him as before. In finishing this portrait of the "conquistador," we
+shall quote the upright and veracious Bernal Diaz, with whose
+sentiments we fully agree. "He preferred his name of Cortès to all
+the titles by which he might be addressed, and he had good reasons
+for it, for the name of Cortès is as famous in our days as that of
+Cesar amongst the Romans, or Hannibal amongst the Carthaginians."
+The old chronicler ends by a touch which vividly depicts the
+religious spirit of the sixteenth century: "Perhaps he was destined
+to receive his reward only in a better world, and I fully believe it
+to be so; for he was an honest knight, very sincere in his devotions
+to the Virgin, to the Apostle St. Peter, and to all the saints."</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c13"></a>
+<center>III.<br>
+T<small>HE</small> C<small>ONQUERORS OF</small> C<small>ENTRAL</small> A<small>MERICA</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>The triple alliance&mdash;Francisco Pizarro and his brothers&mdash;Don Diego
+d'Almagro&mdash;First attempts&mdash;Peru, its extent, people, and kings&mdash;Capture
+of Atahualpa, his ransom and death&mdash;Pedro d'Alvarado&mdash;Almagro
+in Chili&mdash;Strife among the conquerors&mdash;Trial and execution
+of Almagro&mdash;Expeditions of Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana&mdash;Assassination
+of Francisco Pizarro&mdash;Rebellion and execution of his brother Gonzalo.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>The information which had been gained by Balboa as to the riches of
+the countries situated to the south of Panama had scarcely become
+known to the Spaniards before several expeditions were organized to
+attempt the conquest of them. But all had failed, either from the
+means used being insufficient, or from the commanders not being
+equal to the greatness of the undertaking. It must be confessed also
+that the localities explored by these first adventurers&mdash;these
+pioneers, as they would be called now-a-days&mdash;did not at all come up
+to what Spanish greed had expected from them, and for this reason,
+that all the attempts had been hitherto made upon what was then
+called "Terra Firma," a country pre-eminently unhealthy, mountainous,
+marshy, and covered with forests; the inhabitants were few, but of
+so warlike a disposition that they had added another obstacle to all
+those which nature had strewn with so prodigal a hand in the path of
+the invaders. Little by little, therefore, the enthusiasm had cooled,
+and the wonderful narratives of Balboa were mentioned only to be
+turned into ridicule.</p>
+<a name="fax29"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 29">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="591">
+			<img src="images/069.jpg" alt="Francisco Pizarro">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="591" align="center">
+			Francisco Pizarro.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There lived, however, in Panama a man well able to weigh the truth
+of the reports which had been circulated concerning the richness of
+the countries bathed by the Pacific; this man was Francisco Pizarro,
+who had accompanied Muñez de Balboa to the southern sea, and who now
+associated with himself two other adventurers, Diego de Almagro and
+Ferdinand de Luque. A few words must be said about the chiefs of the
+enterprise. Francisco Pizarro, born near Truxillo between the years
+1471 and 1478, was the natural son of a certain Captain Gonzalo
+Pizarro, who had taught the boy nothing but to take care of pigs; he
+was soon tired of this occupation, and took advantage of his having
+allowed one of the animals who were in his charge to stray, not to
+return to the paternal roof, where he was accustomed to be cruelly
+beaten for the smallest peccadillo. The young Pizarro enlisted, and
+after passing some years amidst the Italian wars, he followed
+Christopher Columbus to Hispaniola in 1510. He served there with
+distinction, and also in Cuba; afterwards he accompanied Hojeda to
+Darien, discovered, as has been already mentioned, the Pacific, with
+Balboa, and after the execution of the latter, he assisted Pedrarias
+Davila, whose favourite he had become, in the conquest of all
+the country known as Castille d'Or.</p>
+
+<p>While Pizarro was an illegitimate child, Diego de Almagro was a
+foundling, picked up according to some in 1475 at Aldea del Rey, but
+according to others at Almagro, from which circumstance, as they
+maintain, he derived his name. He was educated in the midst of
+soldiers, and while still young went to America, where he had
+succeeded in amassing a small fortune.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand de Luque was a rich ecclesiastic of Tobago, who exercised
+the calling of a schoolmaster at Panama. The youngest of these
+adventurers was by this time more than fifty years of age, and
+Garcilasso de la Vega relates that upon their project being known,
+they became the objects of general derision; Ferdinand de Luque was
+the most laughed at, and was called by no other name than <i>Hernando
+el Loco</i>, Ferdinand the Fool. The terms of partnership were soon
+agreed upon between these three men, of whom two at least were
+without fear, if they were not all three without reproach. Luque
+furnished money needed for the armament of the vessels and the pay
+of the soldiers, and Almagro bore an equal part in the expense, but
+Pizarro, who possessed nothing but his sword, was to pay his
+contribution in another manner. It was he who took the command of
+the first attempt, upon which we shall dwell in some detail, because
+it was then that the perseverance and inflexible obstinacy of the
+"conquistador" first came fully into sight.</p>
+
+<p>One of the historians of the conquest of Peru, Augustin de Zarate,
+relates as follows:&mdash;"Having then asked and obtained the permission
+of Pedro Arias d'Avila, Francisco Pizarro after much trouble
+equipped a vessel upon which he embarked with 140 men. At the
+distance of 150 miles from Panama he discovered a small and poor
+province named Peru, which caused the same name to be henceforward
+improperly bestowed upon all the country which was discovered along
+that coast for the space of more than 3600 miles in length. Passing
+onwards he discovered another country, which the Spaniards called
+<i>the burnt people</i>. The Indians slew so many of his men that he was
+constrained to retire in great disorder to the country of Chinchama,
+which is not far distant from the place whence he had started.
+Almagro, however, who had remained at Panama, fitted out a ship
+there, upon which he embarked with seventy Spaniards, and descended
+the coast as far as the River San Juan, 300 miles from Panama. Not
+having met with Pizarro, he went back northwards as far as <i>the
+burnt people</i>, where, having ascertained by certain indications that
+Pizarro had been there, he landed his men. But the Indians, puffed
+up by the victory which they had gained over Pizarro, resisted
+bravely, forced the entrenchments with which Almagro had covered his
+position, and obliged him to re-embark. He returned therefore,
+still following the coast-line until he arrived at Chinchama, where
+he found Francisco Pizarro. They were much rejoiced at meeting again,
+and having added to their followers some fresh soldiers whom they
+had levied, they found their troops amounted to 200 Spaniards, and
+once more they descended the coast. They suffered so much from
+scarcity of provisions and from the attacks of the Indians, that Don
+Diego returned to Panama to collect more recruits and to obtain
+provisions. He took back with him eighty men, with whom and with
+those who remained to them, they went as far as the country called
+Catamez, a country moderately peopled and where they found abundance
+of provisions. They noticed that the Indians of these parts who
+attacked them and made war against them, had their faces studded
+with nails of gold inserted in holes which they had made expressly
+for receiving these ornaments. Diego de Almagro returned once again
+to Panama, whilst his companion waited for him and for the
+reinforcements which he was to bring with him, in a small island
+called Cock Island, where he suffered much from the scarcity of all
+the necessaries of life."</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 37">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="575">
+			<img src="images/070.jpg" alt="The Indians kill many of the Spaniards">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="575" align="center">
+			The Indians kill many of the Spaniards.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Upon his arrival in Panama, Almagro could not obtain permission from
+Los Rios, the successor of Avila, to make new levies, for he had no
+right, Los Rios said, to allow a greater number of people to go and
+perish uselessly in a rash enterprise; he even sent a boat to Cock
+Island to bring away Pizarro and his companions. But such a decision
+could not be pleasing to Almagro and De Luque. It meant expense
+thrown away; and it meant the annihilation of the hopes which the
+sight of the ornaments of gold and silver of the inhabitants of
+Catamez had caused them to entertain. They sent therefore a trusty
+person to Pizarro, to recommend him to persevere in his resolution,
+and to refuse to obey the orders of the Governor of Panama. But
+Pizarro in vain held out the most seductive promises; the
+remembrance of the fatigues which had been endured was too recent,
+and all his companions except twelve abandoned him.</p>
+
+<p>With these intrepid men, whose names have been preserved, and
+amongst whom was Garcia de Xerès, one of the historians of the
+expedition, Pizarro retired to an uninhabited island at a greater
+distance from the coast, to which he gave the name of Gorgona. There
+the Spaniards lived miserably on mangles, fish, and shell-fish, and
+awaited for five months the succour that Almagro and De Luque were
+to send them. At length, vanquished by the unanimous protestations
+of the whole colony,&mdash;who were indignant that people whose only
+crime was that they had not despaired of success, should be left to
+perish miserably and as though they were malefactors,&mdash;Los Rios sent
+to Pizarro a small vessel to bring him back. With the object of
+presenting no temptation to Pizarro to make use of this ship to
+renew his expedition, not a single soldier was placed on board of
+her. At the sight of the help which had arrived, and oblivious of
+all their privations, the thirteen adventurers thought of nothing
+but persuading the sailors who came to seek them to participate in
+their own hopes. Whereupon, instead of starting again on the route
+to Panama, they sailed all together, towards the south-east, in
+spite of contrary winds and currents, until, after having discovered
+the Island of St. Clara, they arrived at the port of Tumbez,
+situated beyond the 3&deg; of south latitude, where they saw a
+magnificent temple and a palace belonging to the Incas, the
+sovereigns of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The country was populous and fairly well-cultivated, but what proved
+beyond all else seductive to the Spaniards, and made them think that
+they had reached the marvellous countries of which so much had been
+said, was the sight of so great an abundance of gold and silver,
+that these metals were employed not only as finery and ornament by
+the inhabitants, but also for making vases and common utensils.</p>
+
+<p>Pizarro caused the interior of the country to be explored by Pietro
+de Candia and Alonzo de Molina, who brought back an enthusiastic
+description of it, and he caused some gold vases to be given up to
+him, as well as some llamas, a quadruped domesticated by the
+Peruvians. He took two natives on board his vessel, to whom he
+proposed to teach the Spanish language, and to use them as
+interpreters when he should return to the country. He anchored
+successively at Payta, Saugarata, and in the Bay of Santa-Cruz, of
+which the sovereign, Capillana, received the strangers with such
+friendly demonstrations, that several of them were unwilling to
+re-embark. After having sailed down the coast as far as Porto Santo,
+Pizarro set out on his return to Panama, where he arrived after
+three whole years spent in dangerous explorations, which had
+completely ruined De Luque and Almagro.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 38">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579">
+			<img src="images/071.jpg" alt="Pizarro received by Charles V">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579" align="center">
+			Pizarro received by Charles V.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Pizarro resolved to apply to Charles V. before undertaking the
+conquest of the country which he had discovered, for he could not
+obtain leave from Los Rios to engage fresh adventurers; so he
+borrowed the sum required for the voyage, and in 1528 he went to
+Spain to inform the emperor of the work which he had undertaken. He
+painted the picture of the countries that were to be conquered in
+the most pleasing light, and as a reward for his labours the titles
+of governor, captain-general, and alguazil-major of Peru were
+bestowed upon him and his heirs in perpetuity. At the same time he
+was ennobled, and a pension of 1000 crowns was bestowed upon him.
+His jurisdiction, independent of the governor of Panama, was to
+extend over a tract of 600 miles along the coast to the south of the
+Santiago river; it was to be called New Castille, and he was to be
+the governor; concessions that cost nothing to Spain, for Pizarro
+had yet to conquer the country. On his side he undertook to raise a
+body of 250 men, and to provide himself with the necessary ships,
+arms, and ammunition. Pizarro then repaired to Truxillo, where he
+persuaded his three brothers Ferdinand, Juan, and Gonzalo to
+accompany him, as well as one of his half-brothers Martin
+d'Alcantara. He took advantage of his stay in his native town, and
+at Caceres, to try to raise recruits, both there and throughout
+Estramadura; they did not, however, come forward in large numbers,
+in spite of the title of <i>Caballeros de la Espado dorada</i> which he
+promised to bestow upon all who would serve under him. Then he
+returned to Panama, where affairs were not going so smoothly as he
+had hoped. He had succeeded in getting De Luque named Bishop
+<i>protector de los Indios</i>; but for Almagro, whose talents he knew,
+and whose ambition he feared, he had only asked that he should be
+ennobled and a gratuity of 500 ducats bestowed upon him, with the
+government of a fortress which was to be built at Tumbez. Almagro
+refused to take part in this new expedition; he was not pleased with
+the meagre portion given to him after spending all his money on the
+earlier expeditions; he wished now to organize one on his own
+account. It required all Pizarro's address, aided by the promise to
+give up to Almagro the office of <i>adelantado</i>, to appease him and
+make him consent to renew the old partnership.</p>
+<a name="fax30"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 30">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="789">
+			<img src="images/072.jpg" alt="Map of Peru">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="789" align="center">
+			Map of Peru.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The resources of the three partners were so limited at this time,
+that they could only get together three small ships and 124 soldiers,
+of whom thirty-six were horse-soldiers; the expedition set out in
+February, 1531, under the command of Pizarro and his four brothers,
+whilst Almagro remained at Panama to organize an expedition of
+supplies. At the end of thirteen days' sailing, and after having
+been carried by a storm 300 miles more to the south than he had
+intended, Pizarro was forced to disembark both men and horses on the
+shores of the Bay of San Mateo, and to follow the line of the coast
+on land. This march was a difficult one in a very mountainous
+country, thinly-peopled, and intersected by rivers which had to be
+crossed at their mouths. At last a place called Coaqui was reached,
+where was found a great booty, which decided Pizarro to send back
+two of his ships. They carried to Panama and Nicaragua spoils to the
+amount of 30,000 <i>castellanos</i>, as well as a great number of
+emeralds, a rich booty, which would, according to Pizarro, determine
+many adventurers to come and join him.</p>
+
+<p>Then the conqueror continued his march southwards as far as
+Porto-Viejo, where he was joined by Sebastian Benalcazar and Juan
+Fernandez, who brought him twelve horsemen and thirty foot-soldiers.
+The effect which had been produced in Mexico by the sight of the
+horses and the reports of the fire-arms was repeated in Peru, and
+Pizarro was able to reach the Island of Puna in the Gulf of
+Guayaquil without encountering any resistance. But the islanders
+were more numerous and more warlike than their brothers of the
+mainland, and for six months they valiantly resisted all the attacks
+of the Spaniards. Although Pizarro had received some aid from
+Nicaragua, brought by Ferdinand de Soto, and although he had
+beheaded the cacique Tonalla and sixteen of the principal chiefs, he
+could not overcome their resistance. He was, therefore, obliged to
+regain the continent, where the maladies peculiar to the country
+tried his companions so cruelly, that he was forced to stay three
+months at Tumbez, exposed to the perpetual attacks of the natives.
+From Tumbez he went next to the Rio Puira, discovered the harbour of
+Payta, the best on this coast, and founded the colony of San-Miguel,
+at the mouth of the Chilo, in order that vessels coming from Panama
+might find a safe shelter. It was here that Pizarro received some
+envoys from Huascar, who informed him of the revolt of Atahualpa,
+the brother of Huascar, and asked his aid.</p>
+
+<p>At the period when the Spaniards landed to conquer Peru, it extended
+along the shore of the Pacific Ocean for 1500 miles, and stretched
+into the interior as far as the imposing chain of the Andes.
+Originally the population was divided into savage and barbarous
+tribes, having no idea of civilization, and living in a perpetual
+state of warfare with one another. For many centuries affairs had
+continued in the same state, and there appeared no presage of the
+coming of a better era, when, on the shores of Lake Titicaca, there
+appeared to the Indians a man and woman, who pretended that they
+were the Children of the Sun. They called themselves Manco-Capac and
+Mama-Oello, and were of majestic appearance; according to Garcilasso
+de la Vega, towards the middle of the twelfth century they united
+together a number of wandering tribes, and laid the foundations of
+the town of Cuzco. Manco-Capac had taught the men agriculture and
+mechanical arts, whilst Mama-Oello instructed the women in spinning
+and weaving. When Manco-Capac had satisfied these first needs of all
+societies, he framed laws for his subjects, and constituted a
+regular political state. It was thus that the dominion of the Incas
+or Lords of Peru was established. At first their empire was limited
+to the neighbourhood of Cuzco, but under their successors it rapidly
+increased, and extended from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Pearl
+Islands, a length of thirty degrees. The power of the incas was as
+absolute as that of the ancient Asiatic sovereigns. "Also," says
+Zarate, "there was perhaps no other country in the world where the
+obedience and submission of the subjects was carried further. The
+incas were to them quasi-divinities; they had but to place a thread
+drawn from the royal head-fillet in the hands of any one, and the
+man so distinguished, was certain to be everywhere respected and
+obeyed, and to find such absolute deference paid to the king's order
+which he carried, that he could alone exterminate a whole province
+without any assistance from soldiers, and cause to be put to death
+all the inhabitants, both male and female, because at the mere sight
+of this thread, taken from the royal crown, the people voluntarily
+and without any resistance, offered themselves up to die." However,
+the old chroniclers all agree in saying that this unlimited power
+was always used by the incas for the well-being of their subjects.
+Out of a series of twelve kings, who in succession sat on the throne
+of Peru, there was not one who did not leave behind him the memory
+of a just prince adored by his subjects. Should we not search in
+vain through the annals of any other country in the world for facts
+analogous to these? Must it not be regretted that the Spaniards
+should have brought war with all its attendant horrors, and the
+maladies and vices of a different climate, along with what they in
+their pride called civilization, amongst a rich and happy people,
+whose descendants, impoverished and debased as they are, have not
+even the recollection of their ancient prosperity to console them in
+their irremediable decay?</p>
+
+<p>"The Peruvians," says Michelet in his admirable <i>Précis d'Histoire
+Moderne</i>, "handed down the principal facts to posterity by knots,
+which they made in ropes. They had obelisks and exact gnomons to
+mark the equinoxes and solstices. Their year consisted of 365 days.
+They had erected prodigies of architecture, and they carved statues
+with amazing art. They formed the most polished and industrious
+nation of the New World."</p>
+
+<p>The inca Huayna-Capac, father of Atahualpa, under whom this vast
+empire was destroyed, had done much to increase and embellish it.
+This inca, who conquered all the country of Quito, had made, by the
+hands of his soldiers and of the vanquished people, a great road
+1500 miles in length from Cuzco to Quito, across precipices which
+had been filled up and mountains which had been levelled. Relays of
+men, stationed at intervals of a mile and a half from each other,
+carried the emperor's orders throughout the empire. Such was their
+police, and if we wish to judge of Peruvian magnificence, we need
+only instance the fact that the king when he travelled was carried
+on a throne of gold which weighed 25,000 ducats, and the golden
+litter upon which the throne rested was borne by the highest
+personages of the realm.</p>
+
+<p>In 1526, when the Spaniards appeared on the coast for the first time,
+the twelfth inca had lately married&mdash;in defiance of the ancient law
+of the kingdom&mdash;the daughter of the vanquished king of Quito, and
+had had a son of this marriage named Atahualpa, to whom he left this
+kingdom on his death, which happened about 1529. His eldest son
+Huascar, whose mother was descended from the incas, had the
+remainder of his states. But this partition, so contrary to the
+customs established from time immemorial, caused such great
+discontent at Cuzco, that Huascar, encouraged by his subjects,
+determined to march against his brother, who would not acknowledge
+him for his lord and master. Atahualpa, in his turn, had too lately
+tasted power to be willing to abandon it. He managed by bribes to
+attach to himself the greater part of the warriors who had
+accompanied his father during the conquest of Quito, and when the
+two armies met, fortune favoured the usurper.</p>
+
+<p>Is it not curious to remark how both in Peru and Mexico the
+Spaniards were aided by entirely exceptional circumstances? In
+Mexico some of the people who had recently submitted to the Aztec
+race, being mercilessly trampled upon by their conquerors, welcome
+the Spaniards as deliverers; in Peru the strife between two brothers,
+furious against each other, hinders the Indians from turning all
+their forces against the invaders whom they might easily have
+crushed.</p>
+
+<p>Pizarro upon receiving the envoys sent by Huascar, to ask his aid
+against his brother Atahualpa, whom he represented as a rebel and
+usurper, saw at once all the advantages that might accrue to him
+from these circumstances. He saw that by espousing the cause of one
+of the brothers, he could more easily crush them both, therefore he
+advanced at once into the interior of the country, at the head of a
+very inconsiderable force, consisting of sixty-two cavalry and one
+hundred and twenty foot-soldiers, of whom only twenty were armed
+with arquebuses and muskets; he was obliged to leave part of his
+troops to guard San-Miguel, in which Pizarro reckoned upon finding a
+refuge in case of his being unsuccessful, and where in any case all
+supplies which might arrive could be landed.</p>
+
+<p>Pizarro first made for Caxamalca, a small town situated at about
+twenty days' march from the coast. To reach it he had to cross a
+desert of burning sand, without vegetation and without water, which
+extended for sixty miles in length as far as the province of Motupé,
+and where the slightest attack of the enemy, joined to the
+sufferings endured by the little army, would have been sufficient to
+crush the whole expedition at one blow. Next the troops plunged into
+the mountains and became entangled in narrow defiles where a small
+force might have annihilated them. During this march Pizarro
+received an envoy from Atahualpa bringing him some painted shoes and
+gold bracelets, which he was requested to wear at his approaching
+interview with the inca. Naturally Pizarro was lavish in his
+promises of friendship and devotion, and assured the Indian
+ambassador that he should be only following the orders given him by
+the king his master in respecting the lives and property of the
+inhabitants. From the moment of his arrival at Caxamalca Pizarro
+prudently lodged his soldiers in a temple and a palace belonging to
+the inca, where they were sheltered from any surprise. Then he sent
+one of his brothers with De Soto and twenty horse-soldiers to the
+camp of Atahualpa, which was distant only three miles, to announce
+to him his arrival. The envoys of the governor were received with
+magnificence, and were astonished at the multiplicity of the
+ornaments and vases made of gold and silver which they saw
+throughout the Indian camp. They returned, bringing a promise from
+Atahualpa that he would come on the next day to visit Pizarro, to
+bid him welcome to his kingdom. At the same time the envoys gave an
+account of the wonderful riches they had seen, which confirmed
+Pizarro in the project which he had formed of seizing the
+unfortunate Atahualpa and his treasures by treachery.</p>
+
+<p>Several Spanish authors, and notably Zarate, disguise these facts,
+which no doubt appeared to them too odious, and altogether deny the
+treachery towards Atahualpa. But at the present day there are extant
+many documents which force the historian to believe, with Robertson
+and Prescott, in the perfidy of Pizarro. It was very important for
+him to have the inca in his own hands, and to employ him as a tool,
+just as Cortès had done with Montezuma. He therefore took advantage
+of the honesty and simplicity of Atahualpa, who placed entire
+confidence in Pizarro's protestations of friendship and so was
+thrown off his guard, to arrange an ambuscade into which Atahualpa
+was certain to fall. There was not a scruple in the disloyal soul of
+the conqueror; he was as cool as though he were about to offer
+battle to enemies who had been forewarned of his approach; this
+infamous treason must be an eternal dishonour to his memory. Pizarro
+divided his cavalry into three small squadrons, left all his
+infantry in one body, hid his arquebusiers on the road by which the
+inca must pass, and kept twenty of his most determined companions
+near himself. Atahualpa, wishing to give the Spaniards a great idea
+of his power, advanced with the whole of his army. He himself was
+borne upon a kind of bed, decorated with feathers, covered with
+plates of gold and silver, and ornamented with precious stones. He
+was accompanied by his principal nobles, carried like himself on the
+shoulders of their servants, and he was surrounded by dancers and
+jesters. Such a march was more that of a procession than of an army.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the inca had nearly reached the Spanish quarters
+(according to Robertson), Father Vincent Valverde, the chaplain of
+the expedition, who was afterwards made a bishop as a reward for his
+conduct, advanced with the crucifix in one hand and his breviary in
+the other. In an interminable discourse he set forth to the monarch
+the doctrine of the creation, the fall of the first man, the
+Incarnation, Passion, and Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, the
+choice made by God of St. Peter to be His vicar upon earth, the
+power transmitted through him to the Popes, and the gift made by
+Pope Alexander to the King of Castille of all the regions of the New
+World. When he had expounded all these doctrines, he called upon
+Atahualpa to embrace the Christian religion, to recognize the
+supreme authority of the Pope, and to submit to the King of Castille
+as his legitimate sovereign. If he submitted immediately, Valverde
+undertook to promise that the king his master would take Peru under
+his protection, and allow him to continue to reign there; but he
+declared war against him and threatened him with fearful vengeance
+if he refused to obey, and persevered in his impiety.</p>
+
+<p>To say the least of it, this was a singular scene and a very strange
+harangue, alluding to facts which were utterly unknown to the
+Peruvians, and of the truth of which a more skilful orator than
+Valverde would not have succeeded in persuading them. If we add that
+the interpreter knew so little of the Spanish language that it was
+almost an impossibility for him to translate what he scarcely
+understood himself, and that the Peruvian language lacked words to
+express ideas so foreign to its genius, we shall not be much
+surprised to learn that Atahualpa understood almost nothing of the
+Spanish monk's discourse. Some sentences, however, which attacked
+his own power, filled him with surprise and indignation. But he was
+none the less moderate in his reply. He said that, as master of his
+own kingdom by right of succession, he could not see how any one had
+the power to dispose of it without his consent; he added that he was
+not at all willing to renounce the religion of his fathers to adopt
+one of which he had only heard that day for the first time; with
+regard to the other points touched upon in the discourse he
+understood nothing, it was a thing entirely new to him, and he would
+much like to know where Valverde had learnt so many wonderful things.
+"In this book," replied Valverde, handing him his breviary.
+Atahualpa received it with eagerness and turned over some of the
+leaves with much curiosity, then, putting it to his ear, he
+exclaimed, "What you show me there does not speak to me, and tells
+me nothing." With this he flung the book upon the ground.</p>
+
+<p>This served as a signal for the combat, or rather for the massacre.
+Cannon and muskets came into play, the cavalry sprang forward, and
+the infantry fell sword in hand upon the stupefied Peruvians. In a
+few moments the confusion was at its height. The Indians fled on all
+sides, without attempting to defend themselves. As to Atahualpa,
+although his principal officers tried to make a rampart of their own
+bodies, while they carried him off, Pizarro sprang upon him,
+dispersed or overthrew his guards, and seizing him by his long hair,
+threw him down from the litter in which he was carried. Only the
+darkness could arrest the carnage. Four thousand Indians were killed,
+a greater number wounded, and 3000 were taken prisoners. An
+incontestable proof that there was no real battle is, that of all
+the Spaniards Pizarro alone was hit, and he received his wound from
+one of his own soldiers who was too precipitately endeavouring to
+seize upon the inca.</p>
+<a name="fax31"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 31">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="597">
+			<img src="images/073.jpg" alt="Atahualpa is made prisoner">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="597" align="center">
+			Atahualpa is made prisoner.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The booty collected in the camp and from the dead exceeded anything
+the Spaniards could have imagined, and their enthusiasm was
+proportioned to the conquest of such riches.</p>
+
+<p>At first Atahualpa bore his captivity with resignation, which may
+have been partly due to Pizarro's doing all he could to soothe him,
+at least by words. But the inca, soon understanding the unbridled
+covetousness of his jailors, made a proposal to Pizarro to pay him
+ransom, and to have a room of twenty-two feet in length by sixteen
+in width filled as high as the hand could reach with vases, utensils,
+and ornaments of gold. Pizarro eagerly agreed to this, and the
+captive inca despatched the necessary orders at once to all the
+provinces; these were carried out promptly and unmurmuringly. Beyond
+this, the Indian troops were disbanded, and Pizarro was able to send
+Soto and five Spaniards to Cuzco, a town situated more than 600
+miles from Caxamalca, while he himself subjugated all the country
+within a circuit of 300 miles.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime Almagro landed with 200 soldiers. There had been set
+aside for him and his men&mdash;with what regrets may easily be imagined&mdash;100,000
+pesos (a Spanish coin); a fifth was reserved for the king,
+and this left 1,528,500 pesos to be divided between Pizarro and his
+companions. This product of pillage and massacre was solemnly
+divided between those entitled to it on the Festival of St. James,
+the patron saint of Spain, after fervent prayer to God. A deplorable
+mixture this of religion and profanity, too common unfortunately, in
+these times of mingled superstition and avarice.</p>
+
+<p>Each horse-soldier received 8000 pesos as his share, and each
+foot-soldier 4000, which would be equivalent to about 1600<i>l.</i> and
+800<i>l.</i> sterling. This was enough to satisfy the most exacting
+soldier, after a campaign which had been neither long nor difficult.
+Many of the adventurers wished to enjoy this unexpected good fortune
+in a peaceable manner in their own country, and eagerly asked for
+their dismissal. This Pizarro granted without hesitation, for he
+felt sure that the news of their rapidly-acquired wealth would soon
+bring him new recruits. With his brother Ferdinand, who went to
+Spain to give the emperor an account of Pizarro's triumph and some
+splendid presents, went sixty Spaniards, laden heavily indeed with
+money, but lightly with remorse.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Atahualpa's ransom was paid, he claimed his freedom; but
+Pizarro, who had only saved his life that he might make all the
+treasures of Peru his own, and shelter himself under the prestige
+and authority which the inca still exercised over his subjects, was
+soon wearied by his entreaties. He suspected him also of having for
+some time secretly given orders to levy troops in the distant
+provinces of the empire. Besides, Atahualpa having soon discovered
+that Pizarro was no better educated than one of the lowest of his
+soldiers, felt in consequence a contempt for the governor which,
+unfortunately, he could not conceal. Such were the reasons, all
+trivial as they were, which determined Pizarro to prepare for the
+trial of the inca.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could have been more hateful than this trial, in which
+Almagro and Pizarro were at the same time both suitors and judges.
+The heads of the accusation were so ridiculous and absurd, that one
+is in doubt whether to be most surprised by the effrontery or the
+wickedness of Pizarro, in subjecting the head of a powerful empire,
+over which he had no jurisdiction, to such an inquiry. Atahualpa,
+being found guilty, was condemned to be burnt alive; but as he had
+at length asked to be baptized, that he might rid himself of the
+importunities of Valverde, his enemies contented themselves with
+strangling him. A worthy counterpart this, of Guatimozin's
+execution! These were amongst the most atrocious and odious deeds
+committed by the Spaniards in America, where, however, they have
+sullied themselves with every imaginable crime.</p>
+
+<p>Among this herd of adventurers there were still some men who had
+retained sentiments of honour and self-respect. They protested
+loudly against this perversion of justice, but their generous
+pleadings were stifled by the selfish declamations of Pizarro and
+his worthy assistants.</p>
+
+<p>The governor now raised one of Atahualpa's sons to the throne, under
+the name of Paul Inca; but the civil war between the two brothers,
+and the events which had occurred since the arrival of the Spaniards,
+had done much to loosen the ties which bound the Peruvians to their
+kings, and this young man, destined soon to die an ignominious death,
+had scarcely more authority than Manco-Capac, the son of Huascar,
+who was acknowledged by the inhabitants of Cuzco. Soon after this,
+some of the principal people in the country even tried to carve for
+themselves kingdoms out of the empire of Peru. Such was Ruminagui,
+the commandant of Quito, who caused the brother and the children of
+Atahualpa to be massacred, and declared himself independent. Discord
+reigned in the Peruvian camp, and the Spaniards resolved to take
+advantage of it. Pizarro advanced rapidly upon Cuzco, the small
+number of his forces having been the only reason which had prevented
+him from doing so sooner. Now that a crowd of adventurers, attracted
+by the treasures which had been brought back to Panama, vied with
+each other in hastening to Peru, now that he could assemble 500
+men&mdash;after leaving an important garrison at San-Miguel under
+Benalcazar's command,&mdash;Pizarro had no further reason for delay. On
+the way some skirmishes took place with large bodies of troops, but
+they ended as always, with severe loss to the natives, and a very
+insignificant one to the Spaniards. When they entered Cuzco, and
+took possession of the town, the invaders showed surprise at the
+small quantity of gold and precious stones which they found there,
+although it far exceeded Atahualpa's ransom. Was this because they
+were becoming accustomed to the riches of the country, or because
+there was a larger number to share in them?</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Benalcazar, being weary of inaction, took advantage of
+the arrival of a reinforcement from Nicaragua and Panama, to set out
+for Quito, where according to the Peruvians, Atahualpa had left the
+greater part of his treasure. He placed himself at the head of
+eighty horse-soldiers and 120 infantry, defeated on several
+occasions Ruminagui, who disputed his passage, and thanks to his
+prudence and cleverness, he entered Quito victorious; but he did not
+find there what he sought, that is to say, the treasures of
+Atahualpa.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, Peter d'Alvarado, who had so signally
+distinguished himself under Cortès, and who had been made governor
+of Guatemala, as a reward for his services, pretended to believe
+that the province of Quito was not included in Pizarro's command,
+and organized an expedition consisting of 500 men, 200 of whom were
+cavalry. Landing at Porto-Viejo, he wished to reach Quito without a
+guide, by going up the Guayaquil River and crossing the Andes. This
+road has always been one of the worst and most trying that it is
+possible to choose. Before they had reached the plain of Quito,
+after horrible sufferings from hunger and thirst, without speaking
+of the burning cinders hurled from the crater of Chimborazo, a
+volcano near Quito, and the snow-storms which assailed them, the
+fifth part of the band of adventurers, and half the horses, had
+perished; the remainder were completely discouraged and quite unfit
+for fighting. It was therefore with the greatest surprise, and some
+uneasiness, that they found themselves face to face, not with a body
+of Indians as they had expected, but with a party of Spaniards,
+under the command of Almagro. The latter were preparing to charge,
+when some of the more moderate among the officers caused an
+arrangement to be entered into, by virtue of which Alvarado was to
+withdraw to his own province after receiving 100,000 pesos to defray
+the expenses of the armament.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand Pizarro had set sail for Spain, while these events were
+happening in Peru, feeling sure that the immense quantity of gold,
+silver, and precious stones which he took with him, would secure him
+a warm welcome. He obtained for his brother Francisco the
+confirmation of his appointment as governor, with more extended
+powers; he himself was made a knight of the order of St. Iago; as
+for Almagro, he was confirmed in his title of <i>adelantado</i>, and his
+jurisdiction was extended 600 miles, without, however, its limits
+being very strictly defined, which left the door open for many
+contests and all kinds of arbitrary interpretations.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand Pizarro had not reached Peru again, when Almagro, having
+learnt that a special government had been assigned to him, pretended
+that Cuzco formed part of it, and made preparations for its conquest.
+But Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro had no intention of allowing themselves
+to be robbed, and the parties were on the point of coming to blows
+when Francisco Pizarro, who is often called <i>the Marquis</i> or <i>the
+great Marquis</i>, arrived at the capital.</p>
+
+<p>Almagro had never forgiven Francisco Pizarro the duplicity which he
+had displayed in his negotiations with Charles V., nor the coolness
+with which he had claimed for himself, at the expense of his two
+friends, the principal share of authority, and the most extended
+government. But as Almagro met with great opposition to his designs,
+and as he was not the stronger, he concealed his vexation, put a
+good face on the matter, and seemed delighted at a reconciliation.
+"They renewed their partnership, therefore," says Zarate, "on
+condition that Don Diego d'Almagro should go and discover the
+country on the south side, and if he found any that was really good,
+they should ask his Majesty to make him the governor of it; but that
+if he found nothing to suit him, they should share Don Francisco's
+government between them." This arrangement was made very solemnly,
+and they took their oath upon the consecrated wafer, that for the
+future they would undertake nothing against one another. Some say
+that Almagro swore that he would never encroach either upon Cuzco or
+on the surrounding country within 390 miles, even if his Majesty
+should give him the government of it. They add that turning towards
+the holy sacrament, he pronounced these words, "Lord, if I violate
+the oath that I now take, I pray that Thou wilt confound me, and
+punish me both in my body and my soul!"</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 39">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="570">
+			<img src="images/074.jpg" alt="Pizarro and Almagro take an oath upon the Host">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="570" align="center">
+			Pizarro and Almagro take an oath upon the Host.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After this solemn agreement, which was destined to be observed with
+as little fidelity as the first, Almagro made his preparations for
+departure. Thanks to his well-known liberality, as much as to his
+reputation for courage, he gathered together 570 men, of about equal
+numbers of cavalry and infantry, with which he set out by land for
+Chili. The journey was an extremely trying one, and the adventurers
+suffered severely from intense cold whilst crossing the Andes; they
+had also to deal with very warlike tribes, unsoftened by any
+civilization, who assailed them with a <i>furia</i> of which nothing they
+had seen in Peru had given them any idea. Almagro could make no
+settlement, for he had scarcely been two months in the country when
+he heard that the Indians in Peru had revolted, and massacred the
+greater part of the Spaniards, whereupon he immediately retraced his
+steps.</p>
+
+<p>After the new partnership had been signed between the conquerors
+(1534), Pizarro had returned to the provinces bordering on the sea,
+in which he could establish a regular government, there being no
+longer anything to dread from resistance. For a man who had never
+studied legislation, he had drawn up some very wise rules for the
+administration of justice, for the collection of taxes, the
+apportionment of the Indians, and the working of the mines. Some
+parts of the "conquistador's" character were doubtless very open to
+criticism, but it is only just to recognize that he was not wanting
+in enlarged ideas, and that he was conscientious in playing his part
+as the founder of a great empire. This it was which made him
+hesitate long before choosing the future capital of the Spanish
+possessions. Cuzco had the recommendation of having been the
+residence of the incas; but this town, situated more than 400 miles
+from the sea, was very distant from Quito, of which the importance
+seemed to Pizarro to be extreme. Before long he was struck with the
+beauty and fertility of a great valley, watered by a stream called
+the Rimac, and there in 1536, he established the seat of his
+dominion. Soon, the City of Kings (de Los Reyes), or Lima, as it is
+called by a corruption of the name of the river which flows at its
+feet, assumed the aspect of a great city, owing to the magnificent
+palace and the sumptuous residences for officers, which Pizarro
+caused to be built there. While these cares kept Pizarro far from
+his capital, small bodies of troops, sent in different directions,
+penetrated into the most distant provinces of the empire, with the
+object of extinguishing the last smouldering embers of resistance;
+so many of the soldiers were employed in this way, that there
+remained in Cuzco itself but a very small body of troops. The inca,
+who had remained in the hands of the Spaniards, thought this an
+opportune moment for fomenting a general rising, in which he
+earnestly hoped that the foreign government might be overthrown.
+Although closely guarded, he contrived to take his measures with so
+much skill that he did not arouse the suspicions of his oppressors.
+He obtained permission even to be present at a grand fête, which was
+to be held at several miles' distance from Cuzco, and for which the
+most distinguished persons in the empire had met together. As soon
+as the inca appeared, the standard of revolt was raised. The country
+was soon in arms from the confines of the province of Quito as far
+as Chili, and a number of small detachments of Spaniards were
+surprised and destroyed. Cuzco, defended by the three brothers
+Pizarro with but 170 Spaniards, was exposed for eight consecutive
+months to the incessant attacks of the Peruvians, who had now become
+expert in the use of the arms which they had taken from their
+enemies. The conquerors made a most valiant resistance, but
+experienced some severe losses, especially that of Juan Pizarro.
+Almagro left Chili in the greatest haste, crossed the stony and
+sandy desert of Atacama, where he suffered as severely from heat and
+drought as he had done in the Andes from cold and snow, penetrated
+into the Peruvian territory, defeated Manco-Capac in a great battle,
+and succeeded in approaching the town of Cuzco, after having driven
+away the Indians. He then tried to get the town given up to him, on
+the pretext that it was not included in Pizarro's government, and
+violating a truce, during which the followers of the marquis were
+taking a short rest, he entered Cuzco, seized both Ferdinand and
+Gonzalo Pizarro, and had himself acknowledged as governor.</p>
+
+<p>While this was going on, a considerable body of Indians invested
+Lima, intercepted all communications, and annihilated the various
+small bodies of troops which Pizarro sent at intervals to the aid of
+the Spaniards at Cuzco. At this time he sent away all his vessels to
+Panama to compel his companions to make a desperate resistance; he
+recalled from Truxillo the forces under the command of Alonzo
+d'Alvarado, and entrusted to the latter a column of 500 men, which
+advanced to within several miles of the capital without having the
+slightest suspicion that the town was now in the hands of
+fellow-countrymen, who were fully determined to bar their passage.
+But Almagro desired much rather to attract these new adversaries to
+himself than to destroy them; he arranged therefore, to surprise
+them and make them prisoners. He had now a fine opportunity in his
+hands of ending the war, and making himself master of the two
+governments by a single blow. Several of his officers had observed
+this to him, and especially Orgoños, who proposed that the two
+brothers of the "conquistador" should be put to death, and that
+Almagro should advance by forced marches with his victorious troops
+against Lima, where Pizarro, taken by surprise, would not be able to
+resist him. But as a Latin poet says, "Jupiter makes dotards of
+those whom he means to ruin." Almagro, who in so many other
+instances had thrown aside all scruples, did not wish to put himself
+in the wrong by invading Pizarro's dominions as a rebel, and he
+quietly took the road back to Cuzco.</p>
+
+<p>Looking at it only from the side of Almagro's own interests, he
+evidently committed in this a gross blunder, of which he was soon to
+repent; but if we consider, what we should never lose sight of, the
+interest of the country, he had already committed a capital crime in
+the acts of aggression of which he had been guilty, and in kindling
+civil war in face of an enemy quite ready to take advantage of it.
+His adversaries did not delay to remind him of it. Whereas prompt
+decision would have been necessary for Almagro to make him master of
+the situation, Pizarro had everything to expect from time and
+opportunity. While waiting for the promised reinforcements from
+Darien, he commenced negotiations with his adversary, lasting for
+several months, during which time one of his brothers, as well as
+Alvarado, found means to escape with more than seventy men. Although
+Almagro had been so often duped, he consented again to receive the
+licentiate Espinosa, who was ordered to represent to him, that if
+the emperor knew what was taking place between the two competitors,
+and learnt the condition to which their contests had reduced affairs,
+no doubt he would recall them both, and put some one else in their
+place. At last, after the death of Espinosa, it was decided by the
+friar Francisco de Bovadilla, to whom Pizarro and Almagro had
+referred their differences, that Ferdinand Pizarro should be
+immediately set free, that Cuzco should be given back to the marquis,
+and that they should send several officers on both sides to Spain,
+charged with representing the respective rights of the two parties
+and submitting them to the emperor's decision.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely had the last of his brothers been set at liberty than
+Pizarro, rejecting all idea of peace and amicable arrangement,
+declared that arms alone should decide whether he or Almagro was to
+be lord of Peru. In a short time he had assembled a body of 700 men,
+of which he entrusted the command to his two brothers. Finding it
+impossible to cross the mountains which would have been the most
+direct road to Cuzco, they followed the line of the sea-coast as far
+as Nasca, and then penetrated into a branch of the Andes, by which
+they could reach the capital in a short time. Possibly Almagro ought
+to have defended the mountain defiles, but he had only 500 men, and
+he reckoned much on his splendid cavalry, whom he could not deploy
+in a confined space; he therefore waited for the enemy in the plain
+of Cuzco. The two parties encountered each other on the 26th of
+April, 1538, with equal animosity; but the victory was decided by
+two companies of musketeers which the emperor had sent to Pizarro
+when he heard of the revolt of the Indians. One hundred and forty
+soldiers perished in this engagement, which received the name of
+<i>las salinas</i>. Orgoños and several officers of distinction were
+killed in cold blood after the battle, and Almagro himself, aged and
+ill, could not escape from Pizarro.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians who, assembled in arms on the surrounding mountains, had
+reckoned upon falling on the conqueror, had need instead to fly in
+all haste. "Nothing," says Robertson, "more entirely proves the
+ascendancy gained by the Spaniards over the Americans, than seeing
+that the latter, witnesses of the defeat and dispersion of one of
+the parties, had not the courage to attack the other, even weakened
+and fatigued as they were by their victory, and dared not fall upon
+their oppressors when fortune offered them so favourable an
+opportunity for attacking them with advantage."</p>
+
+<p>At this period a victory not followed by pillage was incomplete, so
+the town of Cuzco was sacked, and all the riches that Pizarro's
+companions found there did not suffice to content them. They had
+such exalted ideas of their merits and of the services which they
+had rendered, that each would have desired an appointment as
+governor. Ferdinand Pizarro therefore dispersed them, and sent them
+to conquer fresh territories with some of the partisans of Almagro
+who had rallied, and whom it was important to send to a distance.</p>
+
+<p>As for Almagro himself, Ferdinand Pizarro, feeling convinced that
+his name constituted a focus of permanent agitation, resolved to get
+rid of him. He caused him therefore to be put upon his trial, which
+ended, as it was easy to foresee, in a sentence of death. When
+Almagro received this news, after giving way for a few moments to a
+very natural grief, pleading his great age and the different way in
+which he had behaved with regard to Ferdinand and Gonzalo Pizarro
+when they were his prisoners, he recovered his calmness and awaited
+his death with a soldier's courage. He was strangled in his prison,
+and afterwards publicly beheaded (1538).</p>
+
+<p>After several successful expeditions, Ferdinand Pizarro set out for
+Spain, to give the Emperor an account of what had taken place. He
+found most minds there strangely prejudiced against him and his
+brothers. Their cruelty, their violence, and their disregard of the
+most sacred engagements had been laid bare without reserve, by some
+friends of Almagro's. Ferdinand Pizarro needed the utmost cleverness
+to win the Emperor round. Charles V. had no means of judging fairly
+on which side the justice of the case lay, for he had only heard of
+it from the interested parties; he could only discern the deplorable
+consequences to his own government of the civil war. He decided,
+therefore, to send a commissioner to the country, to whom he gave
+most extensive powers, and who, after having inquired into all that
+had taken place, should establish whatever form of government he
+thought most advisable. This delicate mission was confided to
+Christoval de Vaca, a judge of <i>audience</i> at Valladolid, who proved
+not unequal to his task. One fact is worthy of notice; he was
+recommended to show the greatest respect towards Francisco Pizarro,
+at the very time when his brother Ferdinand was arrested and thrown
+into a prison, where he was destined to remain forgotten for twenty
+years.</p>
+
+<p>While these events were taking place in Spain, the Marquis portioned
+out the conquered country, keeping for himself and his trustworthy
+friends the most fertile and best situated districts, and giving to
+Almagro's companions, the men of Chili as they were called, only the
+more sterile and distant territories. Next he confided to Pedro de
+Valdivia, one of his aides-de-camp the execution of the project
+which Almagro had only been able to sketch out, the conquest of
+Chili. Valdivia set out on the 28th of January, 1540, with 150
+Spaniards, amongst whom Pedro Gomez, Pedro de Miranda, and Alonzo de
+Monroy were destined especially to distinguish themselves; he
+crossed first the desert of Atacama, which even at the present day
+is considered a most troublesome enterprise, and reached Copiapo,
+standing in the midst of a beautiful valley. Received at first with
+great cordiality, he had to sustain, as soon as harvest was over,
+several combats with the Araucanians, a race of brave, indefatigable
+warriors, very different from the Indians of Peru. In spite of this,
+he laid the foundations of the town of Santiago on the 12th of
+February, 1541. Valdivia spent eight years in Chili, presiding over
+the conquest and organization of the country. Less greedy than the
+other "conquistadores" his contemporaries, he only sought for the
+mineral riches of the country that he might ensure the development
+of the prosperity of his colony, in which he had taken care first of
+all to encourage agriculture. "The best mine that I know of, is one
+of corn and wine with nourishment for livestock. Who has this, has
+money. As for mines, we do not depend upon them for subsistence. And
+often that which looks well outwardly is not really worth much."
+These wise words of Lescarbot, in his <i>Histoire de la Nouvelle
+France</i>, might have been used by Valdivia, so exactly do they
+correspond with and express his sentiments. His valour, prudence,
+and humanity, more especially the latter quality, which shines forth
+strangely in contrast with the cruelty of Pizarro, ensures for him a
+distinction all his own among the "conquistadores" of the sixteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 40">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="566">
+			<img src="images/075.jpg" alt="The shores of Rio Napo">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="566" align="center">
+			The shores of Rio Napo.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>At the time that Valdivia set out for Chili, Gonzalo Pizarro crossed
+the Andes at the head of 340 Spaniards, half of whom were mounted,
+and 4000 Indians, of whom the greater part of the Indians perished
+from cold; then he penetrated eastwards into the interior, seeking
+for a country where spices and cinnamon were said to abound. In
+these vast Savannahs, intersected by marshes and virgin forests, the
+Spaniards encountered torrents of rain, which lasted quite two
+months; they found only a scattered population, who were not
+industrious and also hostile; in consequence, the invaders often
+suffered from hunger in a country where there were then neither
+horses nor oxen, where the largest quadrupeds were tapirs and llamas,
+and even the latter were seldom met with on this slope of the Andes.
+In spite of these difficulties, which would have discouraged any
+less energetic explorers than the <i>descubridores</i> of the sixteenth
+century, they persevered in their attempt and descended the Rio Napo
+or Coca, an affluent on the left of the Marañon, as far as its
+confluence. There, with great difficulty they built a brigantine,
+which was manned by fifty soldiers under the command of Francisco
+Orellana. But either the strength of the current carried him away,
+or else being no longer under the eyes of his chief, he wished in
+his turn to be the leader of an expedition of discovery; he did not
+wait for Gonzalo Pizarro at the appointed rendezvous, but continued
+to descend the river until he reached the ocean. Such a voyage is
+simply marvellous, through nearly 6000 miles of an unknown region,
+without guide, without compass, without provisions, with a crew who
+murmured more than once against the foolish attempt of their leader,
+and in the midst of populations almost invariably hostile. From the
+mouth of the river, which he had just descended in his badly built
+and dilapidated vessel, Orellana succeeded in reaching the Island of
+Cubagua, whence he set sail for Spain. If the proverb "He who comes
+from a distance tells many lies" were not of much earlier date, one
+might have thought it had been coined for Orellana. He invented the
+most preposterous fables as to the wealth of the countries he had
+traversed; the inhabitants were so rich that the roofs of the
+temples were formed of plates of gold; an assertion which gave rise
+to the legend of <i>El Dorado</i>. Orellana had heard of the existence of
+a Republic of female warriors who had founded a vast empire, which
+caused the river Marañon to be called the <i>River of the Amazons</i>. If,
+however, we strip this narrative of all that is ridiculous and
+grotesque, and calculated to please the imaginations of his
+contemporaries, it remains certain that Orellana's expedition is one
+of the most remarkable of this epoch, so fertile in gigantic
+enterprises; and it furnishes the first information upon the immense
+zone of country lying between the Andes and the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>But we must return to Gonzalo Pizarro. His embarrassment and
+consternation had been great, when on arriving at the confluence of
+the Napo and Marañon, he had not found Orellana, who was to have
+been awaiting him. Fearing that some accident might have befallen
+his lieutenant, he had descended the course of the river for 150
+miles, until he met with an unfortunate officer, who had been left
+behind for having addressed some remonstrances to his chief upon his
+perfidy. The bravest among Pizarro's men were discouraged at the
+news of the cowardly way in which they had been abandoned, and at
+the destitute condition in which they were left. Pizarro was obliged
+to yield to their entreaties and to return to Quito, from which they
+were more than 1200 miles away. To give an idea of their sufferings
+on this return journey, it suffices to say that, after having eaten
+horses, dogs, and reptiles, roots, and wild beasts, and after having
+devoured every article made of leather in their accoutrements, the
+unfortunate survivors who reached Quito, lacerated by brambles,
+emaciated and utterly impoverished, numbered only twenty-four. Four
+thousand Indians and two hundred and ten Spaniards had perished in
+this expedition, which had lasted less than two years.</p>
+
+<p>While Gonzalo Pizarro was conducting the unfortunate expedition just
+related, the old partisans of Almagro, who had never frankly joined
+Pizarro, gathered round the son of their old leader, and formed a
+plot for murdering the Marquis. In vain was Francisco Pizarro
+several times warned of what was threatening him, he would pay no
+heed to the report. He said "Keep quiet, I shall be safe as long as
+there is no one in Peru who does not know that I can in a moment
+take the life of any one who should dare to form the project of
+attempting mine."</p>
+
+<p>On Sunday, the 26th of June, 1541, at the hour of siesta, Juan de
+Herrada and eighteen conspirators left the house of Almagro's son
+with drawn swords in their hands and armed from top to toe. They ran
+towards the house of Pizarro, crying out, "Death to the tyrant!
+death to the infamous wretch!" They entered the palace, killed
+Francisco de Chaves, who had appeared in haste on hearing the noise,
+and gained the hall, where was Francisco Pizarro, with his brother
+Francisco-Martin, the doctor Juan Velasquez, and a dozen servants.
+These jumped out of the windows, with the exception of Martin
+Pizarro, two other gentlemen, and two tall pages, who were killed
+while defending the door of the governor's apartment. He himself had
+not had time to put on his cuirass, but he seized his sword and
+buckler and defended himself valiantly, killing four of his
+adversaries and wounding several others. One of his assailants, in a
+spirit of self-devotion, attracted to himself the blows of Pizarro.
+Meanwhile the other conspirators made their way in and attacked him
+with such fury that he could not parry all the blows, being so
+exhausted that he could scarcely wield his sword. "Thus," says
+Zarate, "they made an end, and succeeded in killing him by a thrust
+in the throat. Falling to the ground, he asked in a loud voice that
+he might be allowed to confess, and then not being able any longer
+to speak, he made the sign of the cross on the ground, which he
+kissed, and then yielded up his soul to God." Some negroes carried
+his body to the church, where Juan Barbazan, his old servant, alone
+ventured to come and claim it. This faithful servant secretly
+rendered to it funeral honours, for the conspirators had pillaged
+the house of Pizarro, not leaving enough even to pay for wax tapers.</p>
+<a name="fax32"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 32">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588">
+			<img src="images/076.jpg" alt="Death of Pizarro">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588" align="center">
+			Death of Pizarro.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Thus did Francisco Pizarro come to his end, assassinated even in the
+capital of the vast empire which Spain owed to his valour and
+indefatigable perseverance, but which he bestowed upon his country,
+it must be admitted, ravaged, decimated, and drowned in a deluge of
+blood. Pizarro is often compared with Cortès; the one had as much
+ambition, courage, and military capacity as the other; but the
+cruelty and avarice of the Marquis della Valle were carried to an
+extreme in Pizarro, and united in him to perfidy and duplicity. If
+we are inclined to excuse certain parts of Cortès' character which
+are not estimable, by the times in which he lived, we are at least
+charmed by that grace and nobility of manners, and by that way of a
+gentleman above prejudices, which made him so much beloved by the
+soldier. In Pizarro, on the contrary, we find roughness, and a harsh,
+unsympathizing way of feeling, while his chivalrous qualities
+disappear entirely behind the rapacity and perfidy which are the
+salient features of his character.</p>
+
+<p>If Cortès found brave and resolute adversaries among the Mexicans,
+who opposed almost insurmountable difficulties to his progress,
+Pizarro had no trouble in vanquishing the Peruvians, who were timid
+and enervated, and who never made any serious resistance to his arms.
+Of the conquests of Peru and Mexico, the less difficult produced the
+greater metallurgic advantage to Spain, and thus it was the more
+appreciated.</p>
+
+<p>The civil war was on the point of breaking out again after Pizarro's
+death when the governor arrived, who was delegated by the
+metropolitan government. As soon as he had collected the needful
+troops, he marched towards Cuzco. He seized young Almagro without
+trouble, had him beheaded with forty of his confederates and
+governed the country with firmness, until the viceroy Blasco Nuñez
+Vela, arrived. It is not our intention to enter into the detail of
+the disputes which took place between the latter and Gonzalo Pizarro,
+who, profiting by the general discontent, caused by the new
+regulations as to the "repartimientos," revolted against the
+Emperor's representative. After many changes of fortune, for which
+we have not space, the struggle ended by the defeat and execution of
+Gonzalo Pizarro, which took place in 1548. His body was taken to
+Cuzco and buried fully dressed; "No one," says Garcilasso de la Vega,
+"being willing to give even a winding-sheet for it." Thus ended the
+judicial assassin of Almagro. Is not the text appropriate in this
+case: "They that take the sword shall perish with the sword"?</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c2"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER II.</h4>
+<center>T<small>HE</small> F<small>IRST</small> V<small>OYAGE ROUND THE</small> W<small>ORLD</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Magellan&mdash;His early history&mdash;His disappointment&mdash;His change of
+nationality&mdash;Preparations for the expedition&mdash;Rio de Janeiro&mdash;St.
+Julian's Bay&mdash;Revolt of a part of the squadron&mdash;Terrible punishment
+of the guilty&mdash;Magellan's Strait&mdash;Patagonia&mdash;The Pacific&mdash;The
+Ladrone Islands&mdash;Zebu and the Philippine Islands&mdash;Death of
+Magellan&mdash;Borneo&mdash;The Moluccas and their Productions&mdash;Separation of
+the <i>Trinidad</i> and <i>Victoria</i>&mdash;Return to Europe by the Cape of Good
+Hope&mdash;Last misadventures.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>No one as yet was aware of the immense size of the continent
+discovered by Christopher Columbus. Still was sought perseveringly
+on the coast of America&mdash;which was thought to be a collection of
+several islands&mdash;the famous strait which should lead at once to the
+Pacific Ocean and to those Spice Islands the possession of which
+would have made the fortune of Spain. While Cortereal and Cabot were
+seeking for it in the Atlantic Ocean, and Cortès in the furthest
+part of the Gulf of California, while Pizarro was coasting along
+Peru, and Valdivia was conquering Chili, the solution of this
+problem was found by a Portuguese in the service of Spain, Ferdinand
+de Magellan.</p>
+
+<p>The son of a gentleman of <i>Cota e Armas</i>, Ferdinand de Magellan was
+born either at Oporto, at Lisbon, at Villa de Sabrossa, or at Villa
+de Figueiro, it is not actually known which; the date of his birth
+is unknown, but it took place towards the end of the fifteenth
+century. He had been brought up in the house of King John II., where
+he received as complete an education as could then be given him.
+After having made mathematics and navigation his special study&mdash;for
+at this time in Portugal there was an irresistible current which
+drew the whole country towards maritime expeditions and
+discoveries&mdash;Magellan early embraced a maritime career, and embarked
+in 1505 with Almeida, who was on his way to the Indies. He took part
+in the sacking of Quiloa, and in all the events of that campaign.
+The following year he accompanied Vaz Pereira to Sofala; then, on
+returning to the Malabar coast, we find him assisting Albuquerque at
+the taking of Malacca, and bearing himself on that occasion with
+equal prudence and bravery. He took part in the expedition sent by
+Albuquerque about 1510, to seek for the famous Spice Islands, under
+the command of Antonio de Abreu and of Francisco Serrão, which
+discovered Banda, Amboyna, Ternate, and Tidor. During this time
+Magellan had landed at the Malaysian Islands, distant 1800 miles
+from Malacca, and in the Archipelago of the Moluccas he had obtained
+the circumstantial information which gave birth in his mind to the
+idea of the voyage which he was destined to accomplish later on.</p>
+<a name="fax33"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 33">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="590">
+			<img src="images/077.jpg" alt="Magellan on board his caravel">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="590" align="center">
+			Magellan on board his caravel.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>On his return to Portugal, Magellan obtained leave, though not
+without difficulty, to search through the royal archives. He soon
+became certain that the Moluccas were situated in the hemisphere
+which the bull of demarcation adopted at Tordesillas by the kings of
+Spain and Portugal, and confirmed in 1494 by Pope Alexander VI., had
+given to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In virtue of this line of demarcation, which was destined to give
+rise to so many impassioned debates, all the countries situated at
+360 miles west of the meridian of the Cape de Verd Islands were to
+belong to Spain, and all those lying to the east of the same
+meridian to Portugal. Magellan was of too active a nature to remain
+long without again taking service; he went next to fight in Africa
+at Azamor, a town in Morocco, where he received a slight wound in
+his knee, but one which by injuring a nerve made him lame for the
+remainder of his life, and obliged him to return to Portugal.
+Conscious of the superiority which his theoretical and practical
+knowledge and his services had earned for him above the herd of
+courtiers, Magellan naturally felt more keenly than another would
+have done the unjust treatment he received from Emmanuel with regard
+to certain complaints laid by the people of Azamor against the
+Portuguese officers. King Emmanuel's prejudices soon changed to a
+real dislike. It showed itself by the outrageous imputation that
+Magellan was pretending to suffer from a wound which was really of
+no consequence and was completely cured, that he might escape from
+accusations which he could not refute. Such an assertion was a
+serious matter for the honour of Magellan, so susceptible and
+suspicious; he thereupon came to a desperate determination which
+corresponded moreover with the greatness of the insult which he had
+received. That no one might be ignorant of it, he caused it to be
+legally set forth that he renounced his rights as a Portuguese
+citizen, and changed his nationality, and he then took out letters
+of naturalization in Spain. This was to proclaim, as solemnly as
+could possibly be done, that he intended to be looked upon as a
+subject of the crown of Castille, to which henceforward he would
+consecrate his services and his whole life. This was a serious
+determination, as we can see, which no one blamed, and which even
+the most severe historians, such as Barros and Faria y Sousa, have
+excused.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time as Magellan, the licentiate Rey Faleiro left Lisbon
+with his brother Francisco and a merchant named Christovam de Haro;
+the former was a man deeply versed in cosmographical knowledge, and
+had equally with Magellan fallen under Emmanuel's displeasure.
+Faleiro had entered into a treaty of partnership with Magellan to
+reach the Moluccas by a new way, but one which was not otherwise
+specified, and which remained Magellan's secret. As soon as they
+arrived in Spain, (1517), the two partners submitted their project
+to Charles V., who accepted it in principle; but there remained the
+always delicate question touching the means for putting it into
+execution. Happily, Magellan found in Juan de Aranda, the factor of
+the Chamber of Commerce, an enthusiastic partisan of his theories,
+and one who promised to exert all his influence to make the
+enterprise a success. He had an interview accordingly with the high
+Chancellor, the Cardinal and Bishop of Burgos, Fonseca. He set forth
+with such skill the great advantage that Spain would derive from the
+discovery of a route leading to the very centre of the spice
+production, and the great prejudice which it would cause to the
+trade of Portugal, that an agreement was signed on the 22nd of March,
+1518. The Emperor undertook to pay all the expenses of the
+expedition on condition that the greater part of the profits should
+belong to him.</p>
+
+<p>But Magellan had still many obstacles to surmount before taking to
+the sea. In the first place there were the remonstrances of the
+Portuguese ambassador, Alvaro de Costa, who, seeing that his
+endeavours were in vain, even tried to compass the assassination of
+Magellan, so says Faria y Sousa. Then he encountered the ill-will of
+the employés of the <i>Casa de contratacion</i> at Seville, who were
+jealous of a stranger being entrusted with the command of such an
+important expedition, and envious of the least token of favour which
+had been accorded to Magellan and Rey Faleiro, who had been named
+commanders of the order of St. James. But Charles V. had given his
+consent by a public act, which seemed to be irrevocable. They tried,
+however, to make the Emperor alter his decision by organizing, on
+the 22nd of October, 1518, a disturbance paid for with Portuguese
+gold. It broke out on the pretext that Magellan, who had just had
+one of his ships drawn on shore for repairs and painting, had
+decorated it with the Portuguese arms. This last attempt failed
+miserably, and three statutes of the 30th of March, and 6th and 30th
+of April, fixed the composition of the crews and named the staff;
+while a final official document dated from Barcelona the 26th of
+July, 1519, confided the sole command of the expedition to Magellan.</p>
+
+<p>What had meanwhile been happening to Rey Faleiro? We cannot exactly
+say. But this man, who had up to this time been treated on the same
+footing as Magellan, and who had perhaps first conceived the project,
+now found himself quite excluded from the command of the expedition,
+after some dissensions of which the cause is unknown. His health,
+already shaken, received a last shock from this affront, and poor
+Rey Faleiro, who had become almost childish, having returned to
+Portugal to see his family, was arrested there, and only released
+upon the intercession of Charles V. At last, after having sworn
+fidelity and homage to the crown of Castille, Magellan received in
+his turn the oath of his officers and sailors, and left the port of
+San Lucar de Barrameda on the morning of the 10th of August, 1519.</p>
+
+<p>But before entering on the narrative of this memorable campaign, we
+must give a few particulars of the man who has left us the most
+complete account of it, Francesco Antonio Pigafetta or Jerome
+Pigaphète as he is often called in France. Born at Venice about 1491,
+of a noble family, Pigafetta formed part of the suite of the
+Ambassador Francesco Chiericalco, sent by Leo X. to Charles V., who
+was then at Barcelona. His attention was no doubt aroused by the
+noise which the preparations for the expedition made at that time in
+Spain, and he obtained permission to take part in the voyage. This
+volunteer proved an excellent recruit, for he showed himself in
+every respect as faithful and intelligent an observer as he was a
+brave and courageous companion. He was wounded at the battle of Zebu,
+fighting beside Magellan, which prevented him from being present at
+the banquet during which so many of his companions were destined to
+lose their lives. As to his narrative, with the exception of some
+exaggerations of detail according to the taste of that time, it is
+exact, and the greater part of the descriptions which we owe to him
+have been verified by modern travellers and learned men, especially
+by M. Alcide d'Orbigny.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his return to San Lucar on the 6th of September, 1522, after
+having fulfilled the vow which he had made to go bare-foot to return
+thanks to <i>Nuesta Señora de la Victoria</i>, the Lombard (as they
+called him on board the <i>Victoria</i>,) presented to Charles V., then
+at Valladolid, a complete journal of the voyage. When he returned to
+Italy, by means of the original as well as of some supplementary
+notes, he wrote a longer narrative of the expedition, at the request
+of Pope Clement VII. and of Villiers de l'Isle Adam, grand-master of
+the Knights of Malta. He sent copies of this work to several
+distinguished personages, and notably to Louisa of Savoy, mother of
+Francis I. But she not understanding, so thinks Harrisse, the very
+learned author of the <i>Bibliotheca Americana Vetustissima</i>, the kind
+of patois used by Pigafetta, and which resembles a mixture of
+Italian, Venetian, and Spanish, employed a certain Jacques Antoine
+Fabre to translate it into French. Instead of giving a faithful
+translation, Fabre made a kind of abridgment of it. Some critics,
+however, suppose that this narrative must have been written
+originally in French; they found their opinion upon the existence of
+three French manuscripts of the sixteenth century, which give very
+different readings, and of which two are deposited in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Pigafetta died at Venice about 1534, in a house in the Rue de la
+Lune, which in 1800 was still to be seen, and which bore the
+well-known device, "No rose without a thorn."</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, not wishing to confine ourselves to Pigafetta's
+narrative entirely, we have compared and completed it with that of
+Maximilian Transylvain, secretary to Charles V., of which there is
+an Italian translation in Ramusio's valuable collection.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet of Magellan consisted of the <i>Trinidad</i>, of 120 tons'
+burden, which carried the flag of the commander of the expedition;
+the <i>Sant'-Antonio</i>, also of 120 tons, commanded by Juan de
+Carthagena, the second in rank, the <i>person joined with</i> Magellan,
+says the official document; the <i>Concepcion</i>, of 90 tons, commanded
+by Gaspar de Quesada; the famous <i>Victoria</i>, of 85 tons, commanded
+by Luis de Mendoza; and lastly the <i>Santiago</i>, of 75 tons, commanded
+by Joao Serrâo, called by the Spaniards Serrano.</p>
+
+<p>Four of these captains and nearly all the pilots were Portuguese.
+Barbosa and Gomez on board the <i>Trinidad</i>, Luis Alfonso de Goez and
+Vasco Gallego on the <i>Victoria</i>, Serrâo, Joao Lopez de Carvalho on
+the <i>Concepcion</i>, Joao Rodriguez de Moefrapil on the <i>Sant'-Antonio</i>,
+and Joao Serrâo on the <i>Santiago</i>, with 25 sailors, formed a total
+of 33 Portuguese out of the whole body of 237 individuals whose
+names have all been handed down to us, and amongst whom are found a
+considerable number of Frenchmen.</p>
+
+<p>Of the officers whose names have been mentioned, it is to be
+remembered that Duarte Barbosa was brother-in-law to Magellan and
+that Estavam Gomez, who, by returning to Seville on the 6th of May,
+1521, did not participate in the conclusion of this memorable voyage,
+was afterwards sent by Charles V. to seek for the north-west passage,
+and in 1524 sailed along the coast of America from Florida to Rhode
+Island, and perhaps as far as Cape Cod.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could have been better arranged than this expedition, for
+the equipment of which the whole resources of the nautical science
+of that epoch had been taxed. At the moment of departure Magellan
+gave his last orders to his pilots and captains, and the code of
+signals which were to ensure unanimity in manoeuvres, and prevent a
+possible separation.</p>
+
+<p>On Monday morning, the 10th of August, 1519, the fleet weighed
+anchor and sailed down the Guadalquiver as far as San Lucar de
+Barrameda, which forms the port of Seville, where the victualling of
+the ships was completed, and it was the 20th of September before
+they were really off. Six days afterwards the fleet anchored at
+Teneriffe in the Canary Archipelago, where both wood and water were
+taken on board. It was on leaving this island that the first
+symptoms appeared of the misunderstanding between Magellan and Juan
+de Carthagena which was to prove so fatal to the expedition. The
+latter claimed to be informed by the commander-in-chief of the route
+which he intended to take, a claim which was at once rejected by
+Magellan, who declared that he was not called upon to give any
+explanation to his subordinate.</p>
+
+<p>After having passed between the Cape de Verd Islands and Africa, the
+ships reached the shores of Sierra Leone, where contrary winds and
+dead calms detained the fleet for twenty days.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 41">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="574">
+			<img src="images/078.jpg" alt="Juan de Carthagena placed in the stocks">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="574" align="center">
+			Juan de Carthagena placed in the stocks.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A painful incident now occurred. During a council which was held on
+board the flag-ship, a sharp dispute arose, and Juan de Carthagena,
+who affected to treat the Captain-general with contempt, having
+answered him with pride and insolence, Magellan felt obliged to
+arrest him with his own hand, and to have him put in the stocks, an
+instrument made of two pieces of wood placed one upon the other and
+pierced with holes, in which were placed the legs of the sailor who
+was to be punished. The other captains remonstrated loudly with
+Magellan against a punishment which was too degrading for a superior
+officer, and Carthagena in consequence was simply put under arrest,
+and guarded by one of the captains. To the calms now succeeded rain,
+tempests, and heavy squalls, which obliged the vessels to lie-to.
+During these storms the navigators several times witnessed an
+electric phenomenon of which the cause was not then known, but which
+they considered an undoubted sign of the protection of heaven, and
+which even at the present day is known by the name of St. Elmo's
+fire. Once past the equinoctial line&mdash;a passage which does not at
+that time seem to have been celebrated by the grotesque ceremony of
+baptism which is in vogue at the present day&mdash;they steered for
+Brazil, where, on the 13th of December, 1519, the fleet cast anchor
+in the magnificent port of Santa Lucia, now known under the name of
+Rio Janeiro. This was not, however, the first time that this bay had
+been seen by Europeans, as was long believed. Since the year 1511 it
+had been known under the name of <i>Bahia do Cabo Frio</i>. It had been
+visited also, four years before Magellan's arrival, by Pero Lopez,
+and seems to have been frequented since the commencement of the
+sixteenth century by mariners from Dieppe who, inheritors of the
+passion for adventurous navigation of their ancestors the North-men,
+roamed over the world, and founded small establishments or factories
+in all directions. Here the Spanish expedition procured cheaply, in
+exchange for looking-glasses, pieces of ribbon, scissors, hawks'
+bells or fish-hooks, a quantity of provisions, amongst which
+Pigafetta mentions pine-apples, sugar-canes, sweet potatoes, fowls,
+and the flesh of the <i>Anta</i>, which is thought to be the tapir.</p>
+
+<p>The account given in the same narrative of the manners of the
+inhabitants is sufficiently curious to be repeated. "The Brazilians
+are not Christians," he says, "but no more are they idolaters, for
+they worship nothing; natural instinct is their only law." This is
+an interesting fact, and a singular avowal for an Italian of the
+sixteenth century, deeply imbued with superstition; it offers one
+more proof that the idea of the Divinity is not innate, as some
+theologians have imagined. "These natives live to a great age, they
+go entirely naked, and sleep in cotton nets called hammocks,
+suspended by the two ends to beams. As to their boats, called canoes,
+each is hollowed out of the single trunk of a tree and can hold as
+many as forty men. They are anthropophagi (cannibals), but only on
+special occasions, and scarcely ever eat any but their enemies taken
+in battle. Their dress of ceremony is a kind of vest made of
+paroquets' feathers, woven together, and so arranged that the large
+wing and tail-feathers form a sort of girdle round their loins,
+which gives them a whimsical and ridiculous appearance."</p>
+
+<p>We have already said that the feather cloak was in use on the shores
+of the Pacific, among the Peruvians; it is curious to ascertain that
+it was worn equally by the Brazilians. Some specimens of this
+singular garment may be seen at the exhibition of the Ethnographical
+Museum. This was not however the only ornament of these savages;
+they suspended little stone cylinders from three holes pierced in
+the lower lip, a custom which is common among many of the Oceanic
+people, and which may be compared with our fashion of ear-rings.
+These people were extremely credulous and of good disposition and
+thus, as Pigafetta says, they could easily have been converted to
+Christianity, for they assisted in silence, and with gravity, at the
+mass which was said on shore, a remark that Alvarez Cabral had
+already made.</p>
+<a name="fax34"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 34">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="777">
+			<img src="images/079.jpg" alt="The Coast of Brazil">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="777" align="center">
+			The Coast of Brazil.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After remaining thirteen days in this place, the squadron continued
+its route to the south, coasting along the shore, and arrived at 34&deg;
+40' of south latitude in a country where flowed a
+large river of fresh water. It was the La Plata. The natives, called
+Charruas, were so frightened at the sight of the vessels that they
+hastily took refuge in the interior of the country, carrying with
+them all their valuables, and it was impossible to overtake any of
+them. It was in this country that four years previously, Juan Diaz
+de Solis had been massacred by a tribe of Charruas, armed with that
+terrible engine which is still in use at the present day among the
+<i>gauchos</i> of the Argentine Republic, the <i>bolas</i>, which are metal
+balls fastened to the two ends of a long leather thong, called a
+<i>lasso</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A little below the estuary of the La Plata, once thought to be an
+arm of the sea opening into the Pacific, the flotilla anchored at
+Port Desire. Here they obtained an ample supply of penguins for the
+crews of the five vessels&mdash;a bird which did not make a very
+delicious meal. Then they anchored in 49&deg; 30' in a
+beautiful harbour, where Magellan resolved to winter, and which
+received the name of St. Julian's Bay. The Spaniards had been two
+months there, when one day they perceived a man who seemed to them
+to be of gigantic stature. At sight of them he began dancing and
+singing and throwing dust upon his head. This was a Patagonian, who
+allowed himself without resistance to be taken on board the vessels.
+He showed the greatest surprise at all he saw around him, but
+nothing astonished him so much as a large steel mirror which was
+presented to him. "The giant, who had not the least idea of the use
+of this piece of furniture, and who, no doubt, now saw his own face
+for the first time, drew back in such terror, that he threw to the
+ground four of our people who were behind him." He was taken back on
+shore loaded with presents, and the kind welcome which he had
+received induced eighteen of his companions, thirteen women and five
+men, to come on board. They were tall, and had broad faces, painted
+red except the eyes, which were encircled with yellow; their hair
+was whitened with lime, they were wrapped in enormous fur cloaks,
+and wore those large leather boots from which was given to them the
+name of Large-feet or Patagonians. Their stature was not, however,
+so gigantic as it appeared to our simple narrator, for it varies
+from 5ft. 10in. to 5ft. 8in., being somewhat above the middle height
+among Europeans. For arms they had a short massive bow, and arrows
+made of reed, of which the point was formed of a sharp pebble.</p>
+
+<p>The captain, to retain two of these savages whom he wished to take
+to Europe, used a stratagem, which we should characterize as hateful
+in the present day, but which had nothing revolting about it for the
+sixteenth century, when Indians and negroes were universally
+considered to be a kind of brute beasts. Magellan loaded these
+Indians with presents, and when he saw them embarrassed with the
+quantity, he offered to each of them one of those iron rings used
+for chaining captives. They would have desired to carry them away,
+for they valued iron above everything, but their hands were full. It
+was then proposed to fasten the rings to their legs, to which they
+agreed without suspicion. The sailors then closed the rings, so that
+the savages found themselves in fetters. Nothing can give an idea of
+their fury when they discovered this stratagem, worthy rather of
+savages than of civilized men. The capture of others was attempted,
+but in vain, and in the chase one of the Spaniards was wounded by a
+poisoned arrow, which caused his death almost instantaneously.
+Intrepid hunters, these people wander about perpetually in pursuit
+of guanaquis and other game; they are endowed with such wonderful
+voracity "that what would suffice for the nourishment of twenty
+sailors, can scarcely satisfy seven or eight of them." Magellan,
+foreseeing that the stay here was likely to be prolonged, and
+perceiving that the country only presented meagre resources, gave
+orders to economize the provisions, and to put the men on fixed
+rations, that they might not experience too great privations before
+the spring, when they might reach a country where there was more
+game. But the Spaniards, discontented at the sterility of the place,
+and at the length and rigour of the winter, began to murmur. This
+land seemed to stretch southwards as far as the Antarctic pole, they
+said; there did not seem to be any strait; already several had died
+from the privations they had endured; lastly it was time to return
+to Spain, if the commander did not wish to see all his men perish in
+this place.</p>
+
+<p>Magellan, fully resolved to die, or else to bring the enterprise he
+commanded to a successful issue, replied that the Emperor had
+assigned him the course which the voyage was to take, and he neither
+could nor would depart from it under any pretext, and that in
+consequence, he should go straight forward to the end of this land,
+or until he met with some strait. As to provisions, if they found
+them insufficient, his men might add to their rations the produce of
+their fishing or hunting. Magellan thought that so firm a
+declaration would impose silence on the malcontents, and that he
+would hear no more of privations, from which he suffered equally
+with his crews. He deceived himself completely. Certain of the
+captains, and Juan de Carthagena in particular, were interested in
+causing a revolt to break out. These rebels therefore began by
+reminding the Spaniards of their old animosity against the
+Portuguese. The captain-general being one of the latter nation, had
+never, according to them, tendered a whole-hearted allegiance to the
+Spanish flag. In order to be able to return to his own country and
+to gain pardon for what he had done wrong, he wished to commit some
+heinous crime, and nothing could be more advantageous to Portugal
+than the destruction of this fine fleet. Instead of leading them to
+the Archipelago of the Moluccas, of the riches of which he had
+boasted to them, he wished to take them into frozen regions, the
+dwelling-place of eternal snow, where he could easily manage that
+they should all perish; then with the help of the Portuguese on
+board the squadron, he would take back to his own country the
+vessels which he had seized.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the reports and accusations that the partisans of Juan de
+Carthagena, Luis de Mendoza, and Gaspar de Quesada had disseminated
+among the sailors, when on Palm Sunday, the 1st of April, 1520,
+Magellan summoned the captains, officers, and pilots, to hear mass
+on board his vessel and to dine with him afterwards. Alvaro de la
+Mesquita, a cousin of the captain-general, accepted this invitation
+with Antonio de Coca and his officers, but neither Mendoza nor
+Quesada, nor Juan de Carthagena, who was Quesada's prisoner,
+appeared. The next night the malcontents boarded the <i>Sant'-Antonio</i>
+with thirty of the men of the <i>Concepcion</i>, and desired to have La
+Mesquita given up to them. The pilot, Juan de Eliorraga, while
+defending his captain, received four stabs from a poniard in the arm.
+Quesada cried out at the same time, "You will see that this fool
+will make our business fail." The three vessels, the <i>Concepcion</i>,
+<i>Sant'-Antonio</i>, and <i>Santiago</i>, fell without difficulty into the
+hands of the rebels, who reckoned more than one accomplice among the
+crews. In spite of this success, the three captains did not dare
+openly to attack the commander-in-chief, and sent to him some
+proposals for a reconciliation. Magellan ordered them to come on
+board the <i>Trinidad</i> to confer with him; but this they stoutly
+refused to do, whereupon Magellan, having no further need of caution,
+had the boat seized which had brought him this answer, and choosing
+six strong and brave men from amongst his crew, he sent them on
+board the <i>Victoria</i> under the command of the <i>alguazil</i> Espinosa.
+He carried a letter from Magellan to Mendoza enjoining him to come
+on board the <i>Trinidad</i>, and when Mendoza smiled in a scornful
+manner, Espinosa stabbed him in the throat with a poniard, while a
+sailor struck him on the head with a cutlass. While these events
+were taking place, another boat, laden with fifteen armed men, came
+alongside the <i>Victoria</i>, and took possession of her without any
+resistance from the sailors, surprised by the rapidity of the action.
+On the next day, the 3rd of April, the two other rebel vessels were
+taken, not however without bloodshed. Mendoza's body was divided
+into quarters, while a clerk read in a loud voice the sentence that
+blasted his memory. Three days afterwards, Quesada was beheaded and
+cut in pieces by his own servant, who undertook this sad task to
+save his own life. As to Carthagena, the high rank which the royal
+edict had conferred upon him in the expedition saved him from death,
+but with Gomez de la Reina, the chaplain, he was left behind on the
+shore, where some months afterwards he was found by Estevam Gomez.
+Forty sailors convicted of rebellion were pardoned because their
+services were considered indispensable. After this severe lesson
+Magellan might well hope that the mutinous spirit was really subdued.</p>
+
+<p>When the temperature became milder the anchors were weighed; the
+squadron put to sea on the 24th of August, following the coast, and
+carefully exploring all the gulfs to find that strait which had been
+so persistently sought. At the level of Cape St. Croix, one of the
+vessels, the <i>Santiago</i>, was lost on the rocks during a violent gale
+from the east. Happily both the men and merchandise on board were
+saved, and they succeeded also in taking from the wrecked vessel the
+rigging and appurtenances of the ship, which they divided among the
+four remaining vessels.</p>
+
+<p>At last on the 21st of October, according to Pigafetta, the 27th of
+November according to Maximilian Transylvain, the flotilla
+penetrated by a narrow entrance into a gulf, at the bottom of which
+a strait opened, which as they soon saw passed into the sea to the
+south. First they called this the Strait of the <i>Eleven Thousand
+Virgins</i>, because this was the day dedicated to them. On each side
+of the strait rose high land covered with snow, on which they saw
+numerous fires, especially to the left, but they were unable to
+obtain any communication with the natives. The details which
+Pigafetta and Martin Transylvain have given with regard to the
+topographical and hydrographical dispositions of this strait are
+rather vague, and as we shall have to mention it again when we speak
+of De Bougainville's expedition, we shall not dilate upon it now.
+After sailing for twenty-two days across this succession of narrow
+inlets and arms of the sea, in some places three miles wide, in some
+twelve, which extends for a distance of 440 miles and has received
+the name of Magellan's Strait, the flotilla emerged upon a sea of
+immense extent and great depth.</p>
+
+<p>The rejoicings were general when at last the sailors found
+themselves at the long-wished-for end of their efforts. Henceforward
+the route was open and Magellan's clever conjectures were realized.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is more extraordinary than the navigation of Magellan upon
+this ocean, which he called Pacific, because for four months no
+storm assailed him upon it. The privations endured by the crews
+during this long space of time were excessive. The biscuit was
+nothing more than dust mixed with worms, while the water had become
+bad and gave out an unbearable smell. The sailors were obliged to
+eat mice and sawdust to prevent themselves from dying of hunger, and
+to gnaw all the leather that it was possible to find. As it was easy
+to foresee under these circumstances, the crews were decimated by
+scurvy. Nineteen men died, and thirty were seized with violent pains
+in their arms and legs, which caused prolonged sufferings. At last,
+after having sailed over more than 12,000 miles without meeting with
+a single island, in a sea where so many and such populous
+archipelagos were destined to be discovered, the fleet came upon two
+desert and sterile islands, called for that reason the Unfortunate
+Islands, but of which the position is indicated in much too
+contradictory a manner, for it to be possible to recognize them.</p>
+
+<p>In 12&deg; north latitude and 146&deg; longitude, on Wednesday
+the 6th of March, the navigators discovered successively three
+islands, at which they greatly desired to stop to recruit, and take
+in fresh provisions; but the islanders who came on board stole so
+many things, without the possibility of preventing them, that the
+sailors were obliged to give up the idea of remaining there. The
+natives contrived even to carry off a long boat. Magellan, indignant
+at such daring, made a descent with forty armed men, burned some
+houses and boats, and killed seven men. These islanders had neither
+chief, king, nor religion. Their heads were covered with palm-leaf
+hats, they wore beards, and their hair descended to their waists.
+Generally of an olive tint, they thought they embellished themselves
+by colouring their teeth black and red, while their bodies were
+anointed with cocoa-nut oil, no doubt in order to protect themselves
+from the heat of the sun. Their canoes of curious construction,
+carried a very large matting sail, which might have easily capsized
+the boat if the precaution had not been taken of giving a more
+stable trim by means of a long piece of wood kept at a certain
+distance by two poles; this is what is called the "balance." These
+islanders were very industrious, but had a singular aptitude for
+stealing, which has gained for their country the name of the
+<i>Islands of Thieves</i> (Ladrone Islands).</p>
+<a name="fax35"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 35">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581">
+			<img src="images/080.jpg" alt="The Ladrone Islands">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581" align="center">
+			The Ladrone Islands.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>On the 16th of March was seen, at about 900 miles from the Ladrones,
+some high ground; this was soon discovered to be an island which now
+goes by the name of Samar Island. There Magellan, resolving to give
+his exhausted crews some rest, caused two tents to be pitched on
+land for the use of the sick. The natives quickly brought bananas,
+palm wine, cocoa-nuts, and fish; for which mirrors, combs, bells,
+and other similar trifles were offered in exchange. The cocoa-nut, a
+tree which is valuable beyond all others, supplied these natives
+with their bread, wine, oil, and vinegar, and besides they obtained
+from it their clothing and the necessary wood for building and
+roofing in their huts.</p>
+
+<p>The natives soon became familiar with the Spaniards, and told them
+that their archipelago produced cloves, cinnamon, pepper, nutmegs,
+ginger, maize or Indian-corn, and that even gold was found there.
+Magellan gave this archipelago the name of the St. Lazarus Islands,
+afterwards changed to that of the Philippines from the name of
+Philip of Austria, son of Charles V.</p>
+
+<p>This archipelago is formed of a great number of islands which extend
+in Malaysia, between 5&deg; 32' and 19&deg; 38'
+north latitude, and 114&deg; 56' and 123&deg; 43'
+longitude east of the meridian of Paris. The most important
+are Luzon, Mindoro, Leyte, the Ceylon of Pigafetta, Samar, Panay,
+Negros, Zebu, Bohol, Palawan, and Mindanao.</p>
+
+<p>When they were a little restored, the Spaniards put to sea again, in
+order to explore the archipelago. They saw in succession the islands
+of Cenalo, Huinaugan, Ibusson, and Abarien, as well as another
+island called Massava, of which the king Colambu could make himself
+understood by a slave a native of Sumatra, whom Magellan had taken
+to Europe from India, and who by his knowledge of Malay rendered
+signal service in several instances. The king came on board with six
+or eight of his principal subjects. He brought with him presents for
+the captain-general, and in exchange he received a vest of red and
+yellow cloth, made in Turkish fashion, and a cap of fine scarlet,
+while mirrors and knives were given to the members of his suite. The
+Spaniards showed him all their fire-arms and fired some shots from
+the cannon in his presence, at which he was much terrified. "Then
+Magellan caused one of our number to be fully armed," says Pigafetta,
+"and ordered three men to give him blows with the sword and stiletto,
+to show the king that nothing could wound a man armed in this manner,
+which surprised him greatly, and turning to the interpreter he said
+to the captain through him, 'that a man thus armed, could fight
+against a hundred.' 'Yes,' replied the interpreter, in the name of
+the commandant, 'and each of the three vessels carries 200 men armed
+in this manner.'" The king, astonished by all that he had seen, took
+leave of the captain, begging him to send two of his men with him,
+to let them see something of the island. Pigafetta was chosen, and
+was much satisfied with the welcome that he received. The king told
+him "that in this island they found pieces of gold as large as nuts,
+and even eggs, mixed with the earth which they passed through a
+sieve to find them; all his vessels and even some of the ornaments
+of his house were of this metal. He was very neatly dressed,
+according to the custom of the country, and was the finest man that
+I have seen among these people. His black hair fell upon his
+shoulders; a silk veil covered his head, and he wore two rings in
+his ears. From his waist to his knees, he was covered with a cotten
+cloth embroidered in silk. On each of his teeth there were three
+spots of gold, arranged in such a manner that one would have said
+all his teeth were fastened together with this metal. He was
+perfumed with storax and benzoin. His skin was painted, but its
+natural tint was olive."</p>
+
+<p>On Easter Day, the Europeans went on shore to celebrate mass in a
+kind of little church which they had constructed on the sea-shore
+with sails and branches of trees. An altar had been set up, and
+during the whole time that the religious ceremony lasted, the king
+with a large concourse of people, listened in silence and imitated
+all the motions of the Spaniards. Then a cross having been planted
+on a hill with great solemnity, they weighed anchor and made for the
+port of Zebu, as being the best for revictualling the vessels and
+trading. They arrived there on Sunday, the 7th of April. Magellan
+sent one of his officers on shore at once with the interpreter, as
+ambassador to the king of Zebu. The envoy explained that the chief
+of the squadron was under the orders of the greatest king in the
+world. The object of the voyage, he added, was the wish to pay him a
+visit, and at the same time to take in some fresh provisions in
+exchange for merchandise, and then to go to the Molucca Islands.
+Such were the motives which caused them to tarry in a country where
+they came as friends.</p>
+
+<p>"They are welcome," replied the king; "but if they intend to trade
+they should pay a duty to which all vessels are subject that enter
+my port, as did, not four days since, a junk from Siam, which came
+to seek for slaves and gold, to which a Moorish merchant who has
+remained in this country can testify."</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniard replied that his master was too great a king to submit
+to such an unreasonable demand. They had come with pacific
+intentions; but if war were declared, it would be seen with whom
+they had to deal.</p>
+
+<p>The king of Zebu, warned by the Moorish merchant, of the power of
+those who stood before him, and whom he took for Portuguese, at
+length consented to forego his claims. Moreover the king of Massava,
+who had continued to serve as pilot to the Spaniards, so altered the
+inclinations of his brother sovereign, that the Spaniards obtained
+the exclusive privilege of trading in the island, and a loyal
+friendship was sealed between the king of Zebu and Magellan by an
+exchange of blood which each drew from his right arm.</p>
+
+<p>From this moment, provisions were brought and cordial relations
+established. The nephew of the king came with a numerous suite to
+visit Magellan on board his ship, and the latter took this
+opportunity to relate to his visitors the wonderful history of the
+creation of the world, and of the redemption of the human race, and
+to invite him and his people to become converts to Christianity.
+They showed no repugnance to being baptized, and on the 14th of
+April the kings of Zebu and Massava, and the Moorish merchant, with
+500 men and as many women received baptism. But what was only a
+fashion at first, for it cannot be said that the natives knew the
+religion which they embraced or were persuaded of its truth, became
+a real frenzy, after a wonderful cure had been effected by Magellan.
+Having learnt that the father of the king had been ill for two years
+and was on the point of death, the captain-general promised, that if
+he consented to be baptized and the natives would burn their idols,
+he would find himself cured. "He added that he was so convinced of
+what he said," relates Pigafetta&mdash;for it is as well to quote the
+author verbatim in such a matter&mdash;"that he agreed to lose his head
+if what he promised did not happen immediately. We then made a
+procession, with all possible pomp, from the place where we were to
+the sick man's house, whom we found really in a very sad state in
+that he could neither speak nor move. We baptized him with two of
+his wives and ten daughters. The captain asked him directly after
+his baptism how he found himself, and he suddenly replied that
+thanks to our Lord he was well. We were all witnesses of this
+miracle. The captain above all rendered thanks to God for it. He
+gave the prince a refreshing drink, and continued to send him some
+of it every day till he was quite restored. On the fifth day the
+invalid found himself quite cured and got up. His first care was to
+have burned, in the presence of the king and all the people, an idol
+for which he had great veneration, and which some old women guarded
+carefully in his house. He also caused some temples which stood on
+the sea-shore, and in which the people assembled to eat the meat
+consecrated to their old divinities, to be thrown down. All the
+inhabitants applauded these acts, and proposed themselves to go and
+destroy all the idols, even those which were in use in the king's
+house, crying at the same time '<i>Vive la Castille!</i>' in honour of
+the king of Spain."</p>
+
+<p>Near to the Island of Zebu is another island called Matan which had
+two chiefs, one of whom had recognized the authority of Spain, while
+the other having energetically resisted it, Magellan resolved to
+impose it upon him by force. On Friday, the 26th of April, three
+long boats left for the Island of Matan containing sixty men wearing
+cuirasses and helmets, and armed with muskets; and thirty
+<i>balangais</i> bearing the king of Zebu, his son-in-law, and a number
+of warriors.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards waited for day and then to the number of forty-nine
+leapt into the water, for the boats could not approach the land on
+account of the rocks and shallow water. More than 1500 natives
+awaited them, and at once threw themselves upon them, and attacked
+them in three troops, both in front and flank. The musketeers and
+the crossbow-men fired on the multitude of warriors from a distance,
+without doing them much harm, they being protected by their bucklers.
+The Spaniards, assailed by stones, arrows, javelins, and lances, and
+overwhelmed by numbers, set fire to some huts to disperse and
+intimidate the natives. But these, made more furious by the sight of
+the fire, redoubled their efforts, and pressed the Spaniards on all
+sides, who had the greatest difficulty in resisting them, when a sad
+event took place which compromised the issue of the combat. The
+natives were not slow in remarking that all the blows which they
+directed towards those parts of their enemies' bodies which were
+protected by armour, caused no wounds; they set themselves therefore
+to hurl their arrows and javelins against the lower part of the body,
+which was undefended. Magellan, wounded in the leg by a poisoned
+arrow, gave the order for retreat, which, begun in good order, soon
+changed into such a flight, that seven or eight Spaniards alone
+remained at his side. With much difficulty they kept moving
+backwards, fighting as they went, in order to reach the boats. They
+were already knee-deep in the water when several islanders rushed
+all together upon Magellan, who, wounded in the arm, was unable to
+draw his sword; they gave him such a sabre-cut upon his leg that he
+immediately fell down in the water, where he was speedily despatched.
+His remaining companions, and among them Pigafetta, every one of
+whom had been hit, hastily regained the boats. Thus perished the
+illustrious Magellan on the 27th of April, 1521. "He was adorned
+with every virtue," says Pigafetta, "and ever exhibited an unshaken
+constancy in the midst of the greatest adversity. At sea he always
+condemned himself to greater privations than the rest of his crew.
+Better versed than any one else in the knowledge of nautical charts,
+he was perfect in the art of navigation, as he proved by making the
+tour of the world, which none before him had ventured to do."
+Pigafetta's funeral eulogy, though a little hyperbolical, is not
+untrue in the main. Magellan had need of singular constancy and
+perseverance to penetrate, despite the fears of his companions, into
+regions peopled by the superstitious spirit of the time with
+fantastic dangers. Peculiar nautical science was also necessary to
+achieve the discovery at the extremity of that long coast of the
+strait which so justly bears his name. He was obliged to give
+unceasing attention to avoid all untoward accidents while exploring
+those unknown parts without any exact instruments. That one of the
+vessels was lost must be imputed to pride and a spirit of revolt in
+her own captain, more than to any incapacity or want of caution in
+the captain-general. Let us add with our enthusiastic narrator, "The
+glory of Magellan will survive his death."</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 42">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584">
+			<img src="images/081.jpg" alt="Death of Magellan">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="584" align="center">
+			Death of Magellan.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Duarte Barbosa, Magellan's brother-in-law, and Juan Serrano were
+elected commanders by the Spaniards, who were destined to meet with
+further catastrophes. The slave who had acted as interpreter up to
+this time had been slightly wounded during the battle. From the time
+of his master's death he had kept aloof, not rendering any further
+service to the Spaniards, and remaining extended upon his mat. After
+some rather sharp reproofs from Barbosa, who told him that his
+master's death did not make him a free man, he disappeared all at
+once. He was gone to the newly-baptized king, to whom he declared
+that if he could allure the Spaniards into some trap and then kill
+them, he would make himself master of all their provisions and
+merchandise. Serrano, Barbosa, and twenty-seven Spaniards were
+accordingly invited to a solemn assembly to receive the presents
+destined by the king of Zebu for the Emperor; during the banquet
+they were attacked unexpectedly, and were all massacred except
+Serrano, who was led bound to the sea-shore, where he besought his
+companions to ransom him, for if they did not he would be murdered.
+But Juan de Carvalho and the others, fearing that the insurrection
+would become general, and that they might be attacked during the
+negotiations by a numerous fleet which they would not be able to
+resist, turned a deaf ear to the unfortunate Serrano's supplications.
+The ships set sail and reached the Island of Bohol, which was not
+far distant.</p>
+
+<p>When there, thinking that their numbers were too much reduced to
+navigate three vessels, they burnt the <i>Concepcion</i>, after having
+transshipped all that was most precious on board the other vessels.
+Then, after having coasted along the Island of Panilongon they
+stopped at Butuan, which forms part of Mindanao, a magnificent
+island, with numerous ports, and rivers abounding in fish, to the
+north-west of which lies the Island of Luzon, the most considerable
+of the Archipelago. The ships touched also at Paloan, where they
+found pigs, goats, fowls, different kinds of bananas, cocoa-nuts,
+sugar-canes, and rice, with which they provisioned the ships. This
+was for them, as Pigafetta expresses it, "a promised land." Among
+the things which he thought worthy of notice, the Italian traveller
+mentions the cocks kept by the natives for fighting; a passion which
+after so many years is still deeply-rooted amongst the population of
+the whole Philippine Archipelago. From Paloan, the Spaniards next
+went to the Island of Borneo, the centre of Malay civilization. From
+that time they had no longer to deal with poverty-stricken people,
+but with a rich population, who received them with magnificence.
+Their reception by the rajah is sufficiently curious to warrant a
+few words being devoted to it. At the landing-place they found two
+elephants with silk trappings, who bore the strangers to the house
+of the governor of the town, while twelve men carried the presents
+which were to be offered to the rajah. From the governor's house
+where they slept, to the palace of the king, the streets were kept
+by armed men. Upon descending from their elephants the Spaniards
+were admitted to a room filled with courtiers. At the end of this
+room opened another smaller room, hung with cloth of gold, in which
+were 300 men of the king's guard armed with poniards. Through a door
+they could then see the rajah, sitting by a table with a little
+child, chewing betel-nut. Behind him there were only some women.</p>
+
+<p>Etiquette required that the petition to be made must pass in
+succession through the mouths of three nobles, each of higher rank
+than the last, before being transmitted, by means of a hollow cane
+placed in a hole in the wall, to one of the principal officers, who
+submitted it to the king. Then there was an exchange of presents,
+after which the Spanish Ambassadors were conducted back to their
+vessels with the same ceremony as on their arrival. The capital is
+built on piles in the sea; so that when the tide rises, the women
+who sell provisions go about the town in boats. On the 29th of July
+more than 100 canoes surrounded the two vessels, whilst at the same
+time some junks weighed anchor to approach them more nearly. The
+Spaniards, fearing to be treacherously attacked, took the initiative
+and fired off their artillery, which killed a number of people in
+the canoes, upon which the king excused himself, saying that his
+fleet had not been directed against them, but against the Gentiles
+with whom the Mussulmen had daily combats. This island produces
+arrack (the alcohol of rice), camphor, cinnamon, ginger, oranges,
+citrons, sugar-canes, melons, radishes, onions, &amp;c. The articles of
+exchange are copper, quicksilver, cinnabar, glass, woollen cloths,
+and canvas, and above all iron and spectacles, without mentioning
+porcelain, and diamonds, some of which were of extraordinary size
+and value. The <i>fauna</i> comprises elephants, horses, buffaloes, pigs,
+goats, and domestic poultry. The money in use is of bronze, it is
+called <i>sapèque</i> and consists of small coins which are perforated
+with holes, that they may be strung together.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving Borneo the travellers sought for a suitable spot in which
+to repair their vessels, which were in such great need of it that
+the men were not less than forty-two days over the work. "The oddest
+things which I have found in this island," says Pigafetta, "are the
+trees of which all the leaves are animated. These leaves resemble
+those of the mulberry, but are not so long; the stalk is short and
+pointed, and near the stalk on both sides there are two feet. If you
+touch the leaves, they escape; but when crushed no blood comes from
+them. I have kept one of them in a box for nine days; when I opened
+the box, the leaf was walking about in it; I believe they must live
+upon air." These very curious animals are well known at the present
+day, and are commonly called leaf-flies (<i>mouches-feuille</i>); they
+are of a grey-brown, which makes them more easily mistaken for dead
+leaves, which they exactly resemble in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>It was while in these parts that the Spanish expedition, which,
+during Magellan's life had preserved its scientific character, began
+perceptibly to become piratical. Thus, on several occasions, junks
+were seized upon, and their crews forced by their Spanish captors to
+pay large ransoms.</p>
+
+<p>The ships next passed by the Archipelago of the Sooloo Islands, the
+haunt of Malay pirates, who have even now only lately submitted to
+the Spanish arms; then by Mindanao, which had been already visited,
+for it was known that the eagerly sought-for Moluccas must be in its
+neighbourhood, whether more or less remote. At last, after having
+seen a number of islands, of which the names would not convey much
+idea to us, on Wednesday, the 6th of November the Spaniards
+discovered the Archipelago, about which the Portuguese had related
+such terrifying fables, and two days later they landed at Tidor.
+Thus the object of the voyage was attained.</p>
+
+<p>The king came to meet the Spaniards, and invited them to go on board
+his canoe. "He was seated under a silk parasol which covered him
+entirely. In front of him were placed one of his sons who carried
+the royal sceptre, two men who had each a golden vase full of water
+for washing the king's hands, and two others holding small gilt
+boxes filled with betel." Then the Spaniards made the king come on
+board the vessels, where they showed him much respect, at the same
+time loading him and those who accompanied him with presents, which
+seemed to them very precious. "This king is a Moor, that is to say,
+an Arab," Pigafetta affirms; "he is nearly forty-five years of age,
+tolerably well made, and with a fine physiognomy. His clothing
+consisted of a very fine shirt, the cuffs of which were embroidered
+in gold; drapery descended from his waist to his feet; a silk veil
+(no doubt a turban) covered his head, and upon this veil there was a
+garland of flowers. His name is Rajah-sultan Manzor."</p>
+
+<p>The next day, in a long interview which he had with the Spaniards,
+Manzor declared his intention of placing himself with the Islands of
+Ternate and Tidor under the protection of the king of Spain.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 43">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581">
+			<img src="images/082.jpg" alt="The Sultan Manzor">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581" align="center">
+			The Sultan Manzor.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This is the place to give some details about the Archipelago of the
+Moluccas, drawn from Pigafetta's narrative, which we are following
+step by step in the version that M. Ed. Charton has given, and to
+which he has added such valuable notes.</p>
+
+<p>This Archipelago properly speaking, comprises the Islands of Gilolo,
+Ternate, Tidor, Mornay, Batchian, and Misal; but the Banda and
+Amboyna groups are also often comprehended under the general name of
+Molucca. Formerly convulsed by repeated volcanic commotions, this
+Archipelago contains a great number of craters almost all extinct,
+or in repose during a long succession of years. The air there is
+burning, and would be almost unfit to breathe, if frequent rains did
+not fall and refresh the atmosphere. The natural productions are
+extremely valuable. In the first rank must be placed the sago-tree,
+of which the pith called sago takes, with yams, the place of cereals
+throughout Malacca. As soon as the tree is cut down, the pith is
+extracted, which is then grated, passed through a sieve, and
+afterwards cut up in the form of small rolls, which are dried in the
+shade. There are also the mulberry, the clove, the nutmeg, the
+camphor, and pepper-trees; in fact all the spice-trees and all the
+tropical fruits. The forests contain some valuable kinds of wood,
+ebony, iron-wood, teak, famous for its strength and employed from
+the most ancient times in costly buildings, and the Calilaban laurel,
+which yields an aromatic essential oil that is highly prized. At
+this period domestic animals were not numerous in the Moluccas, but
+among the wild animals the most curious were the <i>babiroussa</i>, an
+enormous wild boar with long tusks bent backwards; the opossum, a
+kind of didelphis a little larger than our squirrel; the phalanger,
+a marsupial which lives in thick, dark forests, where it feeds upon
+leaves and fruit; and the tarsier, a kind of jerboa, a very harmless,
+inoffensive little animal with reddish-coloured hair, about the size
+of a rat, but whose body bears some resemblance to that of an ape.
+Among the birds, the most remarkable were the parroquets and
+cockatoos, the birds of Paradise of which so many fabulous accounts
+were given, and which until then had been believed to be without
+legs, the king-fishers, and the cassowaries, great wading-birds
+almost as large as ostriches.</p>
+
+<p>A Portuguese named Lorosa had been long settled in the Moluccas, and
+to him the Spaniards forwarded a letter, in the hope that he would
+betray his country and attach himself to Spain. They obtained the
+most curious information from him with regard to the expeditions
+which the king of Portugal had despatched to the Cape of Good Hope,
+to the Rio de la Plata and to the Moluccas; but from various
+circumstances these latter expeditions had not been able to take
+place. He himself had been sixteen years in this Archipelago; the
+Portuguese had been installed there for ten years, but upon this
+fact they preserved the most complete silence. When Lorosa saw the
+Spaniards making their preparations for departure, he came on board
+with his wife and his goods to return to Europe. On the 12th of
+November all the merchandise destined for barter was landed, it
+being chiefly derived from the four junks which had been seized in
+Borneo. Certainly the Spaniards traded to great advantage, but
+nevertheless not to so great an extent as they might have done, for
+they were in haste to return to Spain. Some vessels from Gilolo and
+Batchian came also to trade with them, and a few days later they
+received a considerable stock of cloves from the king of Tidor. This
+king invited them to a great banquet which he said it was his custom
+to give when a vessel or junk was loaded with the first cloves. But
+the Spaniards, remembering what had happened to them in the
+Philippines, refused the invitation while presenting compliments and
+excuses to the king. When their cargo was completed, they set sail.
+Scarcely had the <i>Trinidad</i> put to sea before it was perceived that
+she had a serious leak, and the return to Tidor as fast as possible
+was unavoidable. The skilful divers whom the king placed at the
+disposal of the Spaniards, were unable to discover the hole, and it
+became necessary to partly unload the ship to make the necessary
+repairs. The sailors who were on board the <i>Victoria</i> would not wait
+for their companions, and the ship's officers seeing clearly that
+the <i>Trinidad</i> would not be fit for the voyage to Spain, decided
+that she should go to Darien, where her valuable cargo would be
+discharged and transported across the Isthmus to the Atlantic, where
+a vessel would be sent to fetch it. But neither the unfortunate
+vessel nor her crew was destined ever to return to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Trinidad</i>, commanded by the alguazil Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosa,
+who had Juan de Carvalho as pilot, was in so bad a state that after
+leaving Tidor, she was obliged to anchor at Ternate, in the port of
+Talangomi, where her crew consisting of seventeen men was
+immediately imprisoned by the Portuguese. The only reply given to
+Espinosa's remonstrances was a threat to hang him to the yard of a
+vessel; and the unfortunate alguazil, after having been transferred
+to Cochin, was sent to Lisbon, where for seven months he remained
+shut up in the prison of the Limoeiro with two Spaniards, the sole
+survivors of the crew of the <i>Trinidad</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As to the <i>Victoria</i>, she left Tidor richly laden under the command
+of Juan Sebastian del Cano, who, after having been simply a pilot on
+board one of Magellan's ships, had taken the command of the
+<i>Concepcion</i> on the 27th of April, 1521, and who succeeded to Juan
+Lopez de Carvalho, when the latter was superseded in his command for
+incapacity. The crew of the <i>Victoria</i> was composed of only
+fifty-three Europeans and thirteen Indians. Fifty-four Europeans
+remained at Tidor on board the <i>Trinidad</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After passing amidst the islands of Caioan, Laigoma, Sico, Giofi,
+Cafi, Laboan, Toliman, Batchian, Mata, and Batu, the <i>Victoria</i> left
+this latter island to the west, and steering west-south-west,
+stopped during the night at the island of Xulla or Zulla. At thirty
+miles from thence the Spaniards anchored at Booro, (the Boero of
+Bougainville), where the ship was revictualled. They stopped 105
+miles further on, at Banda, where mace and nutmegs are found, then
+at Solor, where a great trade in white sandal-wood is carried on.
+They spent a fortnight there to repair their ship, which had
+suffered much, and there they laid in an ample provision of wax and
+pepper; then they anchored at Timor, where they could only obtain
+provisions by retaining by stratagem the chief of the village and
+his son, who had come on board the ship. This island was frequented
+by junks from Luzon, and by the "praos," from Malacca and Java,
+which traded largely there in sandal-wood and pepper. A little
+further on the Spaniards touched at Java, where, as it appears,
+<i>suttee</i> was practised at this time, as it has been in India until
+quite recently.</p>
+
+<p>Among the stories which Pigafetta relates, without entirely
+believing them, is one which is most curious. It concerns a gigantic
+bird the Epyornis, of which the bones and the enormous eggs were
+discovered in Madagascar about the year 1850. It is an instance
+proving the caution needed before rejecting as fictitious many
+apparently fabulous legends, but which on examination may prove to
+possess a substratum of truth. "To the north of Greater Java," says
+Pigafetta, "in the gulf of China, there is a very large tree called
+<i>campanganghi</i> inhabited by certain birds called <i>garula</i>, which are
+so large and strong that they can bear away a buffalo and even an
+elephant, and carry it as they fly to the place where the tree
+<i>puzathaer</i> is." This legend has been current ever since the ninth
+century, among the Persians and Arabs, and this bird plays a
+wonderful part in Arabian tales under the name of the <i>roc</i>. It is
+not surprising, therefore, that Pigafetta found an analogous
+tradition among the Malays.</p>
+
+<p>After leaving greater Java, the <i>Victoria</i> rounded the peninsula of
+Malacca, which had been subjugated to Portugal by the great
+Albuquerque ten years before. In the immediate neighbourhood are
+Siam and Cambodia, and Tchiampa, where rhubarb grows. This substance
+is discovered in the following manner. "A company of from twenty to
+five-and-twenty men go into the wood, where they pass the night in
+the trees, to protect themselves from lions (note here, that there
+are no lions in this country), and other ferocious beasts, and also
+that they may better perceive the odour of the rhubarb, which the
+wind wafts towards them. In the morning they go towards the place
+whence came the odour, and search there for the rhubarb until they
+find it. Rhubarb is the putrefied wood of a great tree, and acquires
+its odour even from its putrefaction, the best part of the tree is
+the root, nevertheless the trunk, which they call <i>calama</i>, has the
+same medicinal virtue."</p>
+
+<p>Decidedly it is not from Pigafetta that we should seek to acquire
+botanical knowledge; we should run a great risk of deceiving
+ourselves if we took in earnest the nonsense that the Moor told him
+from whom he drew his information. The Lombard traveller gives us
+also fantastic details about China with the greatest seriousness,
+and falls into the grave errors, which his contemporary Duarte
+Barbosa had avoided. It is to the latter we owe the information that
+the trade in <i>anfiam</i> or opium has existed from this period. When
+once the <i>Victoria</i> had left the shores of Malacca, Sebastian del
+Cano took great care to avoid the coast of Zanguebar, where the
+Portuguese had been established since the beginning of the century.
+He kept to the open sea as far as 42&deg; south latitude, and for
+nine weeks he was obliged to keep the sails furled, on account of
+the constant west and north-west winds, which ended in a fearful
+storm. To keep to this course required great perseverance on the
+part of the captain, with a settled desire on his part to carry his
+enterprise to a successful issue. The vessel had several leaks, and
+a number of the sailors demanded an anchorage at Mozambique, for the
+provisions which were not salted having become bad, the crew had
+only rice and water for food and drink. At last on the 6th of May,
+the Cape of Tempests was doubled and a favourable issue to the
+voyage might be hoped for. Nevertheless, many vexatious accidents
+still awaited the navigator. In two months, twenty-one men,
+Europeans and Indians, died from privations, and if on the 9th July
+they had not landed at Santiago, one of the Cape de Verd Islands,
+the whole crew would have died of hunger. As this archipelago
+belonged to Portugal, the sailors took care to say that they came
+from America, and carefully concealed the route which they had
+discovered. But one of the sailors having had the imprudence to say
+that the <i>Victoria</i> was the only vessel of Magellan's squadron which
+had returned to Europe, the Portuguese immediately seized the crew
+of a long-boat, and prepared to attack the Spanish vessel. However,
+Del Cano on board his vessel was watching all the movements of the
+Portuguese, and suspecting, by the preparations which he saw, that
+there was an intention of seizing the <i>Victoria</i>, he set sail,
+leaving thirteen men of his crew in the hands of the Portuguese.
+Maximilian Transylvain assigns a different motive from the one given
+by Pigafetta, for the anchorage at the Cape de Verd Islands. He
+asserts that the fatigued state of the crew, who were reduced by
+privations, and who in spite of everything had not ceased to work
+the pumps, had decided the captain to stop and buy some slaves to
+aid them in this work. Having no money the Spaniards would have paid
+with some of their spices, which would have opened the eyes of the
+Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>"To see if our journals were correctly kept," says Pigafetta, "we
+inquired on shore what day of the week it was. They replied that it
+was Thursday, which surprised us, because according to our journals
+it was as yet only Wednesday. We could not be persuaded that we had
+made the mistake of a day; I was more astonished myself than the
+others were, because having always been sufficiently well to keep my
+journal, I had uninterruptedly marked the days of the week, and the
+course of the months. We learnt afterwards, that there was no error
+in our calculation, for having always travelled towards the west,
+following the course of the sun, and having returned to the same
+point, we must have gained twenty-four hours upon those who had
+remained stationary; one has only need of reflection to be convinced
+of this fact."</p>
+
+<p>Sebastian del Cano rapidly made the coast of Africa, and on the 6th
+of September entered the Bay of San Lucar de Barrameda, with a crew
+of seventeen men, almost all of whom were ill. Two days later he
+anchored before the mole at Seville, after having accomplished a
+complete circuit of the world.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as he arrived, Sebastian del Cano went to Valladolid, where
+the court was, and received from Charles V. the welcome which was
+merited after so many difficulties had been courageously overcome.
+The bold mariner received permission to take as his armorial
+bearings, a globe with this motto, <i>Primus circumdedisti me</i>, and he
+also received a pension of 500 ducats.</p>
+
+<p>The rich freight of the <i>Victoria</i>, decided the Emperor to send a
+second fleet to the Moluccas. The supreme command of it was not,
+however, given to Sebastian del Cano; it was reserved for the
+commander Garcia de Loaisa, whose only claim to it was his grand
+name. However, after the death of the chief of the expedition, which
+happened as soon as the fleet had passed the Strait of Magellan, Del
+Cano found himself invested with the command, but he did not hold it
+long, for he died six days afterwards. As for the ship <i>Victoria</i>,
+she was long preserved in the port of Seville, but in spite of all
+the care that was taken of her, she at length fell to pieces from
+old age.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c3"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER III.</h4>
+<center>T<small>HE</small> P<small>OLAR</small> E<small>XPEDITIONS AND THE</small> S<small>EARCH FOR THE</small> N<small>ORTH-WEST</small> P<small>ASSAGE</small>.<br>
+<br>
+I.</center>
+
+<blockquote>The Northmen&mdash;Eric the Red&mdash;The Zenos&mdash;John Cabot&mdash;Cortereal&mdash;Sebastian
+Cabot&mdash;Willoughby&mdash;Chancellor.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>Pytheas had opened up the road to the north to the Scandinavians by
+discovering Iceland (the famous Thule) and the <i>Cronian</i> Ocean, of
+which the mud, the shallow-water, and the ice render the navigation
+dangerous, and where the nights are as light as twilight. The
+traditions of the voyages undertaken by the ancients to the Orkneys,
+the Faröe Islands, and even to Iceland, were treasured up among the
+Irish monks, who were learned men, and themselves bold mariners, as
+their successive establishments in these archipelagos clearly prove.
+They were also the pilots of the Northmen, a name given generally to
+the Scandinavian pirates, both Danish and Norwegian, who rendered
+themselves so formidable to the whole of Europe during the Middle
+Ages. But if all the information that we owe to the ancients, both
+Greeks and Romans, with regard to these hyperborean countries be
+extremely vague and so to speak fabulous, it is not so with that
+which concerns the adventurous enterprises of the "Men of the
+North." The Sagas, as the Icelandic and Danish songs are called, are
+extremely precise, and the numerous data which we owe to them are
+daily confirmed by the archæological discoveries made in America,
+Greenland, Iceland, Norway, and Denmark. This is a source of
+valuable information which was long unknown and unexplored, and of
+which we owe the revelation to the learned Dane, C. C. Rafn, who has
+furnished us with authentic facts of the greatest interest bearing
+on the pre-Columbian discovery of America.</p>
+
+<p>Norway was poor and encumbered with population. Hence arose the
+necessity for a permanent emigration, which should allow a
+considerable portion of the inhabitants to seek in more favoured
+regions the nourishment which a frozen soil denied them. When they
+had found some country rich enough to yield them an abundant spoil,
+they then returned to their own land, and set out the following
+spring accompanied by all those who could be enticed either by the
+love of lucre, the desire for an easy life, or by the thirst for
+strife. Intrepid hunters and fishermen, accustomed to a dangerous
+navigation between the continent and the mass of islands which
+border it and appear to defend it against the assaults of the ocean,
+and across the narrow, deep <i>fiords</i>, which seem as though they were
+cut into the soil itself by some gigantic sword, they set out in
+those oak vessels, the sight of which made the people tremble who
+lived on the shores of the North Sea and British Channel. Sometimes
+decked, these vessels, long or short, large or small, were usually
+terminated in front by a spur of enormous size, above which the prow
+sometimes rose to a great height, taking the form of an <i>S</i>. The
+<i>hällristningar</i>, for so they call the graphic representations so
+often met with on the rocks of Sweden and Norway, enable us to
+picture to ourselves these swift vessels, which could carry a
+considerable crew. Such was the <i>Long-serpent</i> of Olaf Tryggvason,
+which had thirty-two benches of rowers and held ninety men, Canute's
+vessel, which carried sixty, and the two vessels of Olaf the Saint,
+which carried sometimes 200 men. The Sea-kings, as they often called
+these adventurers, lived on the ocean, never settling on shore,
+passing from the pillage of a castle to the burning of an abbey,
+devastating the coasts of France, ascending rivers, especially the
+Seine, as far as Paris, sailing over the Mediterranean as far as
+Constantinople, establishing themselves later in Sicily, and leaving
+traces of their incursions or their sojourn in all the regions of
+the known world.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 44">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581">
+			<img src="images/083.jpg" alt="Norman Ships">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="581" align="center">
+			Norman Ships.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Piracy, far from being, as at the present day, an act falling under
+the ban of the law, was not only encouraged in that barbarous or
+half-civilized society, but was celebrated in the songs of the
+<i>Skalds</i>, who reserved their most enthusiastic eulogies for
+celebrating chivalrous struggles, adventurous privateering, and all
+exhibitions of strength. From the eighth century, these formidable
+sea-rovers frequented the groups of the Orkney, the Hebrides, the
+Shetland, and Faröe Islands, where they met with the Irish monks,
+who had settled themselves there nearly a century earlier, to
+instruct the idolatrous population.</p>
+
+<p>In 861 a Norwegian pirate, named Naddod, was carried by a storm
+towards an island covered with snow, which he named Snoland (land of
+snow), a name changed later to that of Iceland (land of ice). There
+again the Northmen found the Irish monks under the name of Papis, in
+the cantons of Papeya and Papili.</p>
+
+<p>Ingolf installed himself some years afterwards in the country, and
+founded Reijkiavik. In 885 the triumph of Harold Haarfager, who had
+just subjugated the whole of Norway by force of arms, brought a
+considerable number of malcontents to Iceland. They established
+there the republican form of government, which had just been
+overthrown in their own country, and which subsisted till 1261, the
+epoch when Iceland passed under the dominion of the kings of Norway.</p>
+
+<p>When established in Iceland, these bold fellows, lovers of adventure
+and of long hunts in pursuit of seals and walrus, retained their
+wandering habits and pursued their bold plans in the west, where
+only three years after the arrival of Ingolf, Guunbjorn discovered
+the snowy peaks of the mountains of Greenland. Five years later,
+Eric the Red, banished from Iceland for murder, rediscovered the
+land in latitude 64&deg; north, of which Guunbjorn had caught a
+glimpse. The sterility of this ice-bound coast made him decide to
+seek a milder climate with a more open country, and one producing
+more game, in the south. So he rounded Cape Farewell at the
+extremity of Greenland, established himself on the west coast, and
+built some vast dwellings for himself and his companions, of which M.
+Jorgensen has discovered the ruins. This country was worthy at that
+period of the name of Green-Land (Groenland) which the Northmen gave
+to it, but the annual and great increase of the glaciers, has
+rendered it since that epoch a land of desolation.</p>
+
+<p>Eric returned to Iceland to seek his friends, and in the same year
+that he returned to Brattahalida (for so he called his settlement),
+fourteen vessels laden with emigrants came to join him. It was a
+veritable exodus. These events took place in the year 1000. As
+quickly as the resources of the country allowed of it, the
+population of Greenland increased, and in 1121, Gardar, the capital
+of the country, became the seat of a bishopric, which existed until
+after the discovery of the Antilles by Christopher Columbus.</p>
+
+<p>In 986 Bjarn Heriulfson, who had come from Norway to Iceland to
+spend the winter with his father, learnt that the latter had joined
+Eric the Red in Greenland. Without hesitation, the young man again
+put to sea, seeking at haphazard for a country of which he did not
+even know the exact situation, and was cast by currents on coasts
+which we think must have been those of New Scotland, Newfoundland,
+and Maine. He ended, however, by reaching Greenland, where Eric, the
+powerful Norwegian <i>jarl</i>, reproached him for not having examined
+with more care countries of which he owed his knowledge to a happy
+accident of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Eric had sent his son Leif to the Norwegian court, so close at this
+time was the connexion between the metropolis and the colonies. The
+king, who had been converted to Christianity, had just despatched a
+mission to Iceland charged to overthrow the worship of Odin. He
+committed to Leif's care some priests who were to instruct the
+Greenlanders; but scarcely had the young adventurer returned to his
+own country, when he left the holy men to work out the
+accomplishment of their difficult task and hearing of the discovery
+made by Bjarn, he fitted out his vessels and went to seek for the
+lands which had been only imperfectly seen. He landed first on a
+desolate and stony plain, to which he gave the name of <i>Helluland</i>,
+and which we have no hesitation in recognizing as Newfoundland, and
+afterwards on a flat sandy shore behind which rose an immense screen
+of dark forests, cheered by the songs of innumerable birds. A third
+time he put to sea and steering towards the south he arrived at the
+Bay of Rhode Island, where the mild climate and the river teeming
+with salmon induced him to settle, and where he constructed vast
+buildings of planks, which he called <i>Leifsbudir</i> (Leif's house).
+Then he sent some of his companions to explore the country, and they
+returned with the good news that the wild vine grows in the country,
+to which it owes the name of <i>Vinland</i>. In the spring of the year
+1001, Leif, having laded his ship with skins, grapes, wood, and
+other productions of the country, set out for Greenland; he had made
+the valuable observation that the shortest day in <i>Vinland</i> lasted
+nine hours, which places the site of Leifsbudir at 41&deg; 24'
+10". This fortunate voyage and the salvage of a
+Norwegian vessel carrying fifteen men, gained for Leif the surname
+of the Fortunate.</p>
+
+<p>This expedition made a great stir, and the account of the wonders of
+the country in which Leif had settled, induced his brother Thorvald,
+to set out with thirty men. After passing the winter at Leifsbudir,
+Thorvald explored the coasts to the south, returning in the autumn
+to Vinland, and in the following year 1004, he sailed along the
+coast to the north of Leifsbudir. During this return voyage, the
+Northmen met with the Esquimaux for the first time, and without any
+provocation, slaughtered them without mercy. The following night
+they found themselves all at once surrounded by a numerous flotilla
+of <i>Kayacs</i>, from which came a cloud of arrows. Thorvald alone, the
+chief of the expedition, was mortally wounded; he was buried by his
+companions on a promontory, to which they gave the name of the
+promontory of the Cross.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in the Gulf of Boston in the eighteenth century, a tomb of
+masonry was discovered, in which, with the bones, was found a
+sword-hilt of iron. The Indians not being acquainted with this metal,
+it could not be one of their skeletons; it was not either, the
+remains of one of the Europeans who had landed after the fifteenth
+century, for their swords had not this very characteristic form.
+This tomb has been thought to be that of a Scandinavian, and we
+venture to say, that of Thorvald, son of Eric the Red.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1007, three vessels carrying 160 men and some
+cattle, left Eriksfjord; the object in view was the foundation of a
+permanent colony. The emigrants after sighting Helluland, Markland,
+and Vinland, landed in an island, upon which they constructed some
+barracks and began the work of cultivation. But they must either
+have laid their plans badly, or have been wanting in foresight, for
+the winter found them without provisions, and they suffered cruelly
+from hunger. They had, however, the good sense to regain the
+continent, where in comparative ease, they could await the end of
+the winter.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of 1008, they set out to seek for Leifsbudir, and
+settled themselves at Mount-Hope Bay, on the opposite shore to the
+old settlement of Leif. There, for the first time, some intercourse
+was held with the natives, called <i>Skrellings</i> in the sagas, and
+whom, from the manner in which they are portrayed, it is easy to
+recognize as Esquimaux. The first meeting was peaceable, and barter
+was carried on with them until the day when the desire of the
+Esquimaux to acquire iron hatchets, always prudently refused them by
+the Northmen, drove them to acts of aggression, which decided the
+new-comers, after three years of residence, to return to their own
+country, which they did without leaving behind them any lasting
+trace of their stay in the country.</p>
+
+<p>It will be easily understood that we cannot give any detailed
+account of all the expeditions, which set out from Greenland, and
+succeeded each other on the coasts of Labrador and the United States.
+Those of our readers who wish for circumstantial details, should
+refer to M. Gabriel Gravier's interesting publication, the most
+complete work on the subject, and from which we have borrowed all
+that relates to the Norman expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>The same year as Erik the Red landed in Greenland (983), a certain
+Hari Marson, being driven out of the ordinary course by storms, was
+cast upon the shores of a country known by the name of "White man's
+land," which extended according to Rafn from Chesapeake Bay to
+Florida.</p>
+
+<p>What is the meaning of this name "White man's land"? Had some
+compatriots of Marson's already settled there? There is some reason
+to suppose so even from the words used in the chronicle. We can
+understand how interesting it would be, to be able to determine the
+nationality of these first colonists. However, the Sagas have not as
+yet revealed all their secrets. There are probably, some of them
+still unknown, and as those which have been successively discovered,
+have confirmed facts already admitted, there is every reason to hope
+that our knowledge of Icelandic navigation may become more precise.</p>
+
+<p>Another legend, of which great part is mere romance, but which
+nevertheless, contains a foundation of truth, relates that a certain
+Bjorn, who was obliged to quit Iceland in consequence of an
+unfortunate passion, took refuge in the countries beyond Vinland,
+where in 1027, he was found by some of his countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>In 1051, during another expedition, an Icelandic woman was killed by
+some <i>Skrellings</i>, and in 1867, a tomb was exhumed, bearing a
+<i>runic</i> inscription, and containing bones, and some articles of the
+toilet, which are now preserved in the museum at Washington. This
+discovery was made at the exact spot indicated in the Saga which
+related these events, and which was not itself discovered until 1863.</p>
+
+<p>But the Northmen, established in Iceland and Greenland, were not the
+only people who frequented the coast of America about the year 1000,
+which is proved by the name of "Great Ireland," which was given to
+White man's land. As the history of Madoc-op-Owen proves, the Irish
+and Welsh founded colonies there, regarding which we have but little
+information, but vague and uncertain as it is, MM. d'Avezac and
+Gaffarel agree in recognizing its probability.</p>
+
+<p>Having now said a few words upon the travels and settlements of the
+Northmen in Labrador, Vinland, and the more southern countries, we
+must return to the north. The colonies first founded in the
+neighbourhood of Cape Farewell, had not been slow in stretching
+along the western coast, which at this period was infinitely less
+desolate than it is at the present day, as far as northern latitudes,
+which were not again reached until our own day. Thus at this time
+they caught seals, walrus, and whales in the bay of Disco; there
+were 190 towns counted then in Westerbygd and eighty-six in
+Esterbygd, while at the present day, there are far fewer Danish
+settlements on these icy shores. These towns were probably only
+inconsiderable groups of those houses in stone and wood, of which so
+many ruins have been found from Cape Farewell, as far as Upernavik
+in about 72&deg; 50'. At the same time numerous runic
+inscriptions, which have now been deciphered, have given a degree of
+absolute certainty to facts so long unknown. But how many of these
+vestiges of the past still remain to be discovered! how many of
+these valuable evidences of the bravery and spirit of enterprise of
+the Scandinavian race are for ever buried under the glaciers!</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 45">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="580">
+			<img src="images/084.jpg" alt="The Glaciers of Greenland">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="580" align="center">
+			The Glaciers of Greenland.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We have also obtained evidence that Christianity had been brought
+into America, and especially into Greenland. To this country,
+according to the instructions of Pope Gregory IV., there were
+pastoral visits made to strengthen the newly-converted Northmen in
+the faith, and to evangelize the Esquimaux and the Indian tribes.
+Besides this, M. Riant in 1865, has proved incontrovertibly that the
+Crusades were preached in Greenland in the bishopric of Gardar, as
+well as in the <i>islands and neighbouring lands</i>, and that up to 1418,
+Greenland paid to the Holy See tithes and St. Peter's pence, which
+for that year consisted of 2600 lbs. of walrus tusks.</p>
+
+<p>The Norwegian colonies owe their downfall and ruin to various
+causes: to the very rapid extension of the glaciers,&mdash;Hayes has
+proved that the glacier of Friar John moves at the rate of about
+thirty-three yards annually;&mdash;to the bad policy of the mother
+country, which prevented the recruiting of the colonies; to the
+black plague, which decimated the population of Greenland from 1347
+to 1351; lastly, to the depredations of the pirates, who ravaged
+these already enfeebled countries in 1418, and in whom some have
+thought they recognized certain inhabitants of the Orkney and Faröe
+Islands, of which we are now about to speak.</p>
+
+<p>One of the companions of William the Conqueror, named Saint-Clair or
+Sinclair, not thinking that the portion of the conquered country
+allotted to him was proportioned to his merits, went to try his luck
+in Scotland, where he was not long in rising to fortune and honours.
+In the latter half of the fourteenth century, the Orkney Islands
+passed into the hands of his descendants.</p>
+
+<p>About 1390, a certain Nicolo Zeno, a member of one of the most
+ancient and noble Venetian families, who had fitted out a vessel at
+his own expense, to visit England and Flanders as a matter of
+curiosity, was wrecked in the archipelago of the Orkneys whither he
+had been driven by a storm. He was about to be massacred by the
+inhabitants, when the Earl, Henry Sinclair took him under his
+protection. The history of this wreck, and the adventures and
+discoveries which followed it, published in the collection of
+Ramusio had been written by Antonio Zeno, says Clements Markham, the
+learned geographer, in his "Threshold of the Unknown Region."
+Unfortunately one of his descendants named Nicolo Zeno, born in 1515,
+when a boy, not knowing the value of these papers, tore them up,
+"but some of the letters surviving, he was able from them
+subsequently to compile the narrative as we now have it, and which
+was printed in Venice in 1558. There was also found in the palace an
+old map, rotten with age, illustrative of his voyages. Of this he
+made a copy, unluckily supplying from his own reading of the
+narrative what he thought was requisite for its illustration. By
+doing this in a blundering way, unaided by the geographical
+knowledge which enables us to see where he goes astray, he threw the
+whole of the geography which he derived from the narrative into the
+most lamentable confusion, while those parts of the map which are
+not thus sophisticated, and which are consequently original, present
+an accuracy far in advance by many generations of the geography even
+of Nicolo Zeno's time, and confirm in a notable manner the site of
+the old Greenland colony. In these facts we have not only the
+solution of all the discussions which have arisen on the subject,
+but the most indisputable proof of the authenticity of the
+narrative; for it is clear that Nicolo Zeno, junior, could not
+himself have been the ingenious concocter of a story the
+straightforward truth of which he could thus ignorantly distort upon
+the face of the map."</p>
+
+<p>The name of Zichmni, in which writers of the present day, and chief
+among them Mr. H. Major, who has rescued these facts from the domain
+of fable, recognize the name of Sinclair&mdash;appears to be in fact only
+applicable to this earl of the Orkneys.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the seas of the north of Europe were infected by
+Scandinavian pirates. Sinclair, who had recognized in Zeno a clever
+mariner, attached him to himself, and with him conquered the country
+of Frisland, the haunt of pirates, who ravaged all the north of
+Scotland. In the maps at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of
+the sixteenth century this name is applied to the archipelago of the
+Faröe Islands, a reasonable indication, for Buache has recognized in
+the present names of the harbours and islands of this archipelago a
+considerable number of those given by Zeno; finally the facts which
+we owe to the Venetian navigator about the waters,&mdash;abounding in
+fish and dangerous from shallows,&mdash;which divide this archipelago,
+are still true at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Satisfied with his position, Zeno wrote to his brother Antonio to
+come and join him. While Sinclair was conquering the Faröe Islands,
+the Norwegian pirates desolated the Shetland Islands, then called
+Eastland. Nicolo set sail to give them battle, but was himself
+obliged to fly before their fleet, much more numerous than his own,
+and to take refuge on a small island on the coast of Iceland.</p>
+
+<p>After wintering in this place Zeno must have landed the following
+year on the eastern coast of Greenland at 69&deg; north latitude,
+in a place "where was a monastery of the order of preaching friars,
+and a church dedicated to St. Thomas. The cells were warmed by a
+natural spring of hot water, which the monks used to prepare their
+food and to bake their bread. The monks had also gardens covered
+over in the winter season, and warmed by the same means, so that
+they were able to produce flowers, fruits, and herbs as well as if
+they had lived in a mild climate." There would seem to be some
+confirmation of these narratives in the fact that between the years
+1828-1830 a captain of the Danish navy met with a population of 600
+individuals at 69&deg; north latitude, of a purely European type.</p>
+
+<p>But these adventurous travels in countries of which the climate was
+so different from that of Venice, proved fatal to Zeno, who died a
+short time after his return to Frisland.</p>
+
+<p>An old sailor, who had returned with the Venetian, and who said he
+had been for many long years a prisoner in the countries of the
+extreme west, gave to Sinclair such precise and tempting details of
+the fertility and extent of these regions, that the latter resolved
+to attempt their conquest with Antonio Zeno who had rejoined his
+brother. But the inhabitants showed themselves everywhere so hostile,
+and opposed such resistance to the strangers landing, that Sinclair
+after a long and dangerous voyage was obliged to return to Frisland.</p>
+
+<p>These are all the details that have been left to us, and they make
+us deeply regret the loss of those that Antonio should have
+furnished in his letters to his father Carlo, on the subject of the
+countries which Forster and Malto-Brun have thought may be
+identified with Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<p>Who knows, if in his voyage to England and during his wanderings as
+far as Thule, Christopher Columbus may not have heard mentioned the
+ancient expeditions of the Northmen and the Zeni, and if this
+information may not have appeared to him a strange confirmation of
+the theories which he held, and of the ideas for whose realization
+he came to claim the protection of the King of England?</p>
+
+<p>From the collection of facts which have been here briefly given, it
+follows that America was known to Europeans and had been colonized
+before the time of Columbus. But in consequence of various
+circumstances, and foremost among these must be placed the rarity of
+communication between the people in the north of Europe and those in
+the south, the discoveries made by the Northmen were only vaguely
+known in Spain and Portugal. Judging by appearances, we of the
+present day know much more on this subject than did the
+fellow-countrymen and contemporaries of Columbus. If the Genoese
+mariner had been informed of the existence of some rumours, he
+classed them with the information he had collected in the Cape de
+Verd Islands and with his classical recollections of the famous
+Island of Antilia and the Atlantides of Plato. From this information,
+which came from so many different sides, the certainty awoke within
+him that the east could be reached by the western route. However it
+may be, his glory remains whole and entire; he is really the
+discoverer of America, and not those who were carried thither in
+spite of themselves by chances of wind and storm, without their
+having any intention of reaching the shores of Asia, which
+Christopher Columbus would have done, had not the way been barred by
+America.</p>
+
+<p>The information that we are about to give on the family of Cortereal,
+although it may be much more complete than that which can be met
+with in biographical Dictionaries, is still extremely vague.
+Nevertheless we must content ourselves with it, for up to this time
+history has not collected further details concerning this race of
+intrepid navigators.</p>
+
+<p>Joao Vaz Cortereal was the natural son of a gentleman named Vasco
+Annes da Costa, who had received the soubriquet of Cortereal from
+the King of Portugal, on account of the magnificence of his house
+and followers. Devoted like so many other gentlemen of this period
+to sea-faring adventure, Joao Vaz had carried off in Gallicia a
+young girl named Maria de Abarca, who became his wife. After having
+been gentleman-usher to the Infante don Fernando, he was sent by the
+king to the North Atlantic, with Alvaro Martins Homem. The two
+navigators saw an island known from this time by the name of <i>Terra
+dos Bacalhaos</i>&mdash;the land of cod-fish&mdash;which must really have been
+Newfoundland. The date of this discovery is approximately fixed by
+the fact that on their return, they landed at Terceira and finding
+the captainship vacant by the death of Jacome de Bruges, they went
+to ask for it from the Infanta Doña Brites, the widow of the Infante
+Don Fernando; she bestowed it upon them on condition that they would
+divide it between them, a fact which is confirmed by a deed of gift
+dated from Evora the 2nd of April, 1464. Though one cannot guarantee
+the authenticity of this discovery of America, it is nevertheless an
+ascertained fact that Cortereal's voyage must have been signalized
+by some extraordinary event; donations of such importance as this
+were only made to those who had rendered some great service to the
+crown.</p>
+
+<p>When Vaz Cortereal was settled at Terceira from 1490 to 1497, he
+caused a fine palace to be built in the town of Angra, where he
+lived with his three children. His third son, Gaspard, after having
+been in the service of King Emmanuel, when the latter was only Duke
+de Beja had felt himself attracted while still young to the
+enterprises of discovery which had rendered his father illustrious.
+By an act dated from Cintra the 12th of March, 1500, King Emmanuel
+made a gift to Gaspard Cortereal of any islands or <i>terra firma</i>
+which he might discover, and the king added this valuable
+information, that "already and at other times he had sought for them
+on his own account and at his own expense."</p>
+
+<p>For Gaspard Cortereal this was not his first essay. Probably, his
+researches may have been directed to the parts where his father had
+discovered the Island of Cod. At his own expense, although with the
+assistance of the king, Gaspard Cortereal fitted out two vessels at
+the commencement of the summer of 1500, and after having touched at
+Terceira, he sailed towards the north-west. His first discovery was
+of a land of which the fertile and verdant aspect seems to have
+charmed him. This was Canada. He saw there a great river bearing ice
+along with it on its course&mdash;the St. Lawrence&mdash;which some of his
+companions mistook for an arm of the sea, and to which he gave the
+name of <i>Rio Nevado</i>. "Its volume is so considerable that it is not
+probable that this country is an island, besides, it must be
+completely covered with a very thick coating of snow to produce such
+a stream of water."</p>
+
+<p>The houses in this country were of wood and covered with skins and
+furs. The inhabitants were unacquainted with iron, but used swords
+made of sharpened stones, and their arrows were tipped with
+fish-bones or stones. Tall and well-made, their faces and bodies
+were painted in different colours according to taste, they wore
+golden and copper bracelets, and dressed themselves in garments of
+fur. Cortereal pursued his voyage and arrived at the Cape of
+<i>Bacalhaos</i>, "fishes which are found in such great quantities upon
+this coast that they hinder the advance of the caravels." Then he
+followed the shore for a stretch of 600 miles, from 56&deg; to 60&deg;,
+or even more, naming the islands, the rivers, and the gulfs
+that he met with, as is proved by <i>Terra do Labrador, Bahia de
+Conceiçao</i>, &amp;c., and landing and holding intercourse with the
+natives. Severe cold, and a veritable river of gigantic blocks of
+ice prevented the expedition from going farther north, and it
+returned to Portugal bringing back with it fifty-seven natives. The
+very year of his return, on the 15th of May, 1501, Gaspard Cortereal,
+in pursuance of an order of the 15th of April, received provisions,
+and left Lisbon in the hope of extending the field of his
+discoveries. But from this time he is never again mentioned. Michael
+Cortereal, his brother, who was the first gentleman-usher to the
+king, then requested and obtained permission to go and seek his
+brother, and to pursue his enterprise. By an act of the 15th of
+January, 1502, a deed of gift conveyed to him the half of the terra
+firma and islands which his brother might have discovered. Setting
+out on the 10th of May of this year with three vessels, Michael
+Cortereal reached Newfoundland, where he divided his little squadron,
+so that each of the vessels might explore the coasts separately,
+while he fixed the place of rendezvous. But at the time fixed, he
+did not reappear, and the two other vessels, after waiting for him
+till the 20th of August, set out on their return to Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>In 1503, the king sent two caravels to try to obtain news of the two
+brothers, but the search was in vain, and they returned without
+having acquired any information. When Vasco Annes, the last of the
+brothers Cortereal, who was captain and governor of the Islands of
+St. George and Terceira, and alcaide mõr of the town of Tavilla,
+became acquainted with these sad events, he resolved to fit out a
+vessel at his own cost, and to go and search for his brothers. The
+king, however, would not allow him to go, fearing to lose the last
+of this race of good servants.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the maps of this period, Canada is often indicated by the name
+of Terra dos Cortereales, a name which is sometimes extended much
+further south, embracing a great part of North America.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>All that concerns John and Sebastian Cabot has been until recently
+shrouded by a mist which is not even now completely dissipated,
+notwithstanding the conscientious labours of Biddle the American in
+1831, and of our compatriot M. d'Avezac; as also those of Mr.
+Nicholls the Englishman, who taking advantage of the discoveries
+made among the English, Spanish, and Venetian archives, has built up
+an imposing monument, of which some parts, however, are open to
+discussion. It is from the two last-named works that we shall draw
+the materials for this rapid sketch, but principally from Mr.
+Nicholls' book, which has this advantage over the smaller volume of
+M. d'Avezac, that it relates the whole life of Sebastian Cabot.</p>
+<a name="fax36"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 36">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="589">
+			<img src="images/085.jpg" alt="Sebastian Cabot">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="589" align="center">
+			Sebastian Cabot.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It has been found impossible to determine with certainty either the
+name or the nationality of John Cabot, and still less to settle the
+period of his birth. John Cabota, Caboto or Cabot must have been
+born, if not in Genoa itself, as M. d'Avezac asserts, at least in
+the neighbourhood of that town, possibly at Castiglione, about the
+first quarter of the fifteenth century. Some historians have
+considered that he was an Englishman, and perhaps Mr. Nicholls from
+national considerations is inclined to adopt this opinion; at least
+this seems to be the meaning of the expressions used by him. What we
+do know without room for doubt, is that John Cabot came to London to
+occupy himself with commerce, and that he soon settled at Bristol,
+then the second town in the kingdom, in one of the suburbs which had
+received the name of Cathay, probably from the number of Venetians
+who resided there, and the trade carried on by them with the
+countries of the extreme East. It was at Bristol that Cabot's two
+youngest children were born, Sebastian and Sancho, if we may rely
+upon the following account given by the old chronicler Eden.
+"Sebastian Cabot told me that he was born at Bristol, and that at
+four years of age he went with his father to Venice, returning with
+him to England some years later; this made people imagine that he
+was born at Venice." In 1476, John Cabot was at Venice, and there on
+the 29th of March, he received letters of naturalization, which
+prove that he was not a native of this city, and that he must have
+merited the honour by some service rendered to the Republic. M.
+d'Avezac is inclined to think that he devoted himself to the study
+of cosmography and navigation, perhaps even in company with the
+celebrated Florentine, Paul Toscanelli, with whose theories upon the
+distribution of land and sea on the surface of the globe, he would
+certainly be acquainted at this time. He may also have heard mention
+made of the islands situated in the Atlantic, and known by the names
+of Antilia, the Land of the Seven Cities, or Brazil. What seems more
+certain is, that his business affairs took him to the Levant, and,
+it is said, to Mecca, and that while there he would learn from what
+country came the spices, which then constituted the most important
+branch of Venetian commerce.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever value we may attach to these speculative theories, it is at
+least certain that John Cabot founded an important mercantile house
+at Bristol. His son Sebastian, who in these first voyages had
+acquired an inclination for the sea, studied navigation, as far as
+it was then known, and made some excursions on the sea, to render
+himself as familiar with the practice of this art, as he already was
+with its theory. "For seven years past," says the Spanish Ambassador
+in a despatch of the 25th of July, 1498, speaking of an expedition
+commanded by Cabot, "the people of Bristol have fitted out two,
+three, or four caravels every year, to go in search of the Island of
+Brazil, and of the Seven Cities, according to the ideas of the
+Genoese." At this time the whole of Europe resounded with the fame
+of the discoveries of Columbus. "It awoke in me," says Sebastian
+Cabot, in a narrative preserved by Ramusio, "a great desire and a
+kind of ardour in my heart to do myself also something famous, and
+knowing by examining the globe, that if I sailed by the west wind I
+should reach India more rapidly, I at once made my project known to
+His Majesty, who was much satisfied with it." The king to whom Cabot
+addressed himself was the same Henry VII. who some years before had
+refused all support to Christopher Columbus. It is evident that he
+received with favour the project which John and Sebastian Cabot had
+just submitted to him; and though Sebastian, in the fragment which
+we have just quoted, attributes to himself alone all the honour of
+the project, it is not less true that his father was the promoter of
+the enterprise, as the following charter shows, which we translate
+in an abridged form.</p>
+
+<p>"We Henry ... permit our well-beloved Jehan Cabot, citizen of Venice,
+and Louis, Sebastian, and Sancho, his sons, under our flag and with
+five vessels of the tonnage and crew which they shall judge suitable,
+to discover at their own expense and charge ... we grant to them as
+well as to their heirs and assigns, licence to occupy, possess ...
+at the charge of, by them, upon the profits, benefits, and
+advantages, accruing from this navigation, to pay us in merchandise
+or in money the fifth part of the profit thus obtained, for each of
+their voyages, every time that they shall return to the port of
+Bristol (at which port they shall be compelled to land).... We
+promise and guarantee to them, their heirs and assigns, that they
+shall be exempt from all custom-house duties on the merchandise
+which they shall bring from the countries thus discovered.... We
+command and direct all our subjects, as well on land as on the sea,
+to render assistance to the said Jehan, and to his sons.... Given
+at ... the 5th day of March, 1495."</p>
+
+<p>Such was the charter that was granted to John Cabot and his sons
+upon their return from the American continent, and not as certain
+authors have pretended, anterior to this voyage. From the time that
+the news of the discovery made by Columbus had reached England, that
+is to say, probably in 1493, John and Sebastian Cabot prepared the
+expedition at their own expense, and set out at the beginning of the
+year 1494, with the idea of reaching Cathay, and finally the Indies.
+There can be no doubt upon this point, for in the Bibliothèque
+Nationale in Paris is preserved an unique copy of the map engraved
+in 1544, that is to say, in the lifetime of Sebastian Cabot, which
+mentions this voyage, and the precise and exact date of the
+discovery of Cape Breton.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that we must attribute to the intrigues of the
+Spanish Ambassador, the delay which occurred in Cabot's expedition,
+for the whole of the year 1496 passed without the voyage being
+accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>The following year he set out at the beginning of summer. After
+having again sighted the <i>Terra Bona-vista</i>, he followed the coast,
+and was not long in perceiving to his great disappointment that it
+trended towards the north. "Then, sailing along it to make sure if I
+could not find some passage, I could not perceive any, and having
+advanced as far as 56&deg;, and seeing that at this point the
+land turned towards the east, I despaired of finding any passage,
+and I put about to examine the coast in this direction towards the
+equinoctial line, always with the same object of finding a passage
+to the Indies, and in the end, I reached the country now called
+Florida, where as provisions were beginning to run short, I resolved
+to return to England." This narrative, of which we have given the
+commencement above, was related by Cabot to Fracastor, forty or
+fifty years after the event. Also, is it not astonishing that Cabot
+mixes up in it two perfectly distinct voyages, that of 1494, and
+that of 1497? Let us add some reflections on this narrative. The
+first land seen was, without doubt, the North Cape, the northern
+extremity of the island of Cape Breton, and the island which is
+opposite to it is that of Prince Edward, long known by the name of
+St. John's Island. Cabot, probably penetrated into the estuary of
+the St. Lawrence, which he took for an arm of the sea, near to the
+place where Quebec now stands, and coasted along the northern shore
+of the gulf, so that he did not see the coast of Labrador stretching
+away in the east. He took Newfoundland for an archipelago, and
+continued his course to the south, not doubtless, as far as Florida
+as he states himself, the time occupied by the voyage making it
+impossible that he can have descended so low, but as far as
+Chesapeake Bay. These were the countries which the Spaniards
+afterwards called "Terra de Estevam Gomez."</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd of February, 1498, King Henry VII. signed at Westminster
+some new letters patent. He empowered John Cabot or his
+representative,&mdash;being duly authorized&mdash;to take in English ports six
+vessels of 200 tons' burden, and to procure all that should be
+required for their equipment, at the same price as if it were for
+the crown. He was allowed to take on board such master-mariners,
+pages, and other subjects as might of their own accord wish to go,
+and pass with him to the recently discovered land and islands. John
+Cabot bore the expense of the equipment of two vessels, and three
+others were fitted out at the cost of the merchants of Bristol.</p>
+
+<p>In all probability it was death&mdash;a sudden and unexpected
+death&mdash;which prevented John Cabot from taking the command of this
+expedition. His son Sebastian then assumed the direction of the
+fleet, which carried 300 men and provisions for a year. After having
+sighted land at 45&deg;, Sebastian Cabot followed the coast as
+far as 58&deg;, perhaps even higher, but then it became so cold,
+and although it was the month of July, there was so much floating
+ice about, that, it would have been impossible to go further
+northwards. The days were very long, and the nights excessively
+light, an interesting detail by which to fix the latitude reached,
+for we know that below the 60th parallel of latitude the longest
+days are eighteen hours. These various reasons made Sebastian Cabot
+decide to put about, and he touched at the Bacalhaos Islands, of
+which the inhabitants, who were clothed in the skins of animals,
+were armed with bow and arrows, lance, javelin, and wooden sword.
+The navigators here caught a great number of cod-fish; they were
+even so numerous, says an old narrative, that they hindered ships
+from advancing. After having sailed along the coast of America as
+far as 38&deg;, Cabot set out for England, where he arrived at
+the beginning of autumn. This voyage had indeed a threefold object,
+that of discovery, commerce, and colonization, as is shown by the
+number of vessels which took part in it and the strength of the
+crews. Nevertheless it does not appear that Cabot landed any one, or
+that he made any attempts at forming a settlement, either in
+Labrador, or in Hudson's Bay&mdash;which he was destined to explore more
+completely in 1517, in the reign of Henry VIII.&mdash;or even to the
+south of the Bacalhaos, known by the general name of Newfoundland.
+At the close of this expedition, which was almost entirely
+unproductive, we lose sight of Sebastian Cabot, if not completely,
+at least so as to be insufficiently informed about his deeds and
+voyages until 1517. The traveller Hojeda, whose various enterprises
+we have related above, had left Spain in the month of May, 1499. We
+know that in this voyage he met with an Englishman at Caquibaco, on
+the coast of America. Can this have been Cabot? Nothing has come to
+light to enable us to settle this point; but we may believe that
+Cabot did not remain idle, and that he would be likely to undertake
+some fresh expedition: what we do know is, that in spite of the
+solemn engagements that he had made with Cabot, the King of England
+granted certain privileges of trading in the countries which he had
+discovered, to the Portuguese and to the merchants of Bristol. This
+ungenerous manner of recognizing his services wounded the navigator,
+and decided him to accept the offers which had been made to him on
+different occasions, to enter the Spanish service. From the death of
+Vespucius, which happened in 1512, Cabot was the navigator held in
+most renown. To attach him to himself, Ferdinand wrote on the 13th
+of September, 1512, to Lord Willoughby, commander in chief of the
+troops which had been transported to Italy, to treat with the
+Venetian navigator.</p>
+<a name="fax37"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 37">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="769">
+			<img src="images/086.jpg" alt="Discoveries of John and Sebastian Cabot">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="769" align="center">
+			Discoveries of John and Sebastian Cabot.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>As soon as he arrived in Castille, Cabot received the rank of
+captain, by an edict dated the 20th of October, 1512, with a salary
+of 5000 maravédis. Seville was fixed upon for his residence, until
+an opportunity might arise of turning his talents and experience to
+account. There was a plan on foot for his taking the command of a
+very important expedition, when Ferdinand the Catholic died, on the
+23rd of January, 1516. Cabot returned at once to England, having
+probably obtained leave of absence. Eden tells us that the following
+year Cabot was appointed with Sir Thomas Pert to the command of a
+fleet which was to reach China by the north-west. On the 11th of
+June, he was in Hudson's Bay at 67&frac12;&deg; of latitude; the sea
+free from ice spread itself out before him so far that he reckoned
+upon success in his enterprise, when the faintheartedness of his
+companion, together with the cowardice and mutinous spirit of the
+crews, who refused to go any further, obliged him to return to
+England. In his <i>Theatrum orbis terrarum</i>, Ortelius traces the shape
+of Hudson's Bay as it really is; he even indicates at its northern
+extremity a strait leading northwards. How can the geographer have
+attained to such exactness? "Who," says Mr. Nicholls, "can have
+given him the information set forth in his map, if not Cabot?"</p>
+
+<p>On his return to England, Cabot found the country ravaged by a
+horrible plague, which put a stop even to commercial transactions.
+Soon, either because the time of his leave had expired, or that he
+wished to escape from the pestilence, or that he was recalled to
+Spain, the Venetian navigator returned to that country. In 1518, on
+the 5th of February, Cabot was made pilot-major, with a salary which,
+added to that which he already had, made a total of 125,000
+maravédis, say, 300 ducats. He did not actually exercise the
+functions of his office till Charles V. returned from England. His
+principal duty consisted in examining pilots, who were not allowed
+to go to the Indies until after having passed this examination.</p>
+
+<p>This epoch was by no means favourable to great maritime expeditions.
+The struggle between France and Spain absorbed all the resources
+both in men and money, of these two countries&mdash;Cabot too, who seems
+to have adopted science for his fatherland, much more than any
+particular country, made some overtures to Contarini, the Ambassador
+of Venice, to take service on board the fleets of the Republic; but
+when the favourable answer of the Council of Ten arrived, he had
+other projects in his head, and did not carry his attempt any
+further.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 46">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="583">
+			<img src="images/087.jpg" alt="Cabot presides over a Conference of Cosmographers">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="583" align="center">
+			Cabot presides over a Conference of Cosmographers.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the month of April, 1524, Cabot presided at a conference of
+mariners and cosmographers, which met at Badajoz, to discuss the
+question whether the Moluccas belonged, according to the celebrated
+treaty of Tordesillas, to Spain or Portugal. On the 31st of May, it
+was decided that the Moluccas were within the Spanish waters, by 20&deg;.
+Perhaps this resolution of the junta of which Cabot was
+president, and which again placed in the hands of Spain a great part
+of the spice trade, was not without its influence upon the
+resolutions of the council of the Indies. However this may be, in
+the month of September of the same year Cabot was authorized to take
+the command of three vessels of 100 tons, and a small caravel,
+carrying together 150 men, with the title of captain-general.</p>
+
+<p>The declared aim of this voyage was to pass through the Strait of
+Magellan, carefully to explore the western coast of America, and to
+reach the Moluccas, where they would take in on their return a cargo
+of spices. The month of August, 1525, had been fixed upon as the
+date of departure, but the intrigues of Portugal succeeded in
+delaying it until April, 1526.</p>
+
+<p>Different circumstances seem from this moment to have augured ill
+for the voyage. Cabot had only a nominal authority, and the
+association of merchants who had defrayed the expenses of the
+equipment not accepting him willingly as chief, had found means to
+oppose all the plans of the Venetian sailor. Thus it was that in
+place of the man whom he had appointed as second in command, another
+was imposed upon him, and that instructions destined to be unsealed
+when at sea were delivered to each captain. They contained this
+absurd arrangement, that in case of the death of the captain-general,
+eleven individuals were to succeed him each in his turn. Was not
+this an encouragement given to assassination?</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely was the fleet out of sight of land, when discontent
+appeared. The rumour spread that the captain-general was not equal
+to his task; then as they saw that these calumnies did not affect
+him, they pretended that the flotilla was already short of
+provisions. The mutiny broke out as soon as land was reached, but
+Cabot was not the man to allow himself to be annihilated by it; he
+had suffered too much from Sir Thomas Pert's cowardice to bear such
+an insult. In order to nip the evil in the bud, he had the mutinous
+captains seized, and notwithstanding their reputation and the
+brilliancy of their past services, he made them get into a boat, and
+abandoned them on the shore. Four months afterwards they had the
+good luck to be picked up by a Portuguese expedition, which seems to
+have had orders to thwart the plans of Cabot.</p>
+
+<p>The Venetian navigator then penetrated into the Rio de la Plata, the
+exploration of which had been commenced by his predecessor the
+Pilot-major de Solis. The expedition was not then composed of more
+than two vessels, one having been lost during the voyage. Cabot
+sailed up the Argent River, and discovered an island which he called
+Francis Gabriel, and upon which he built the fort of San Salvador,
+entrusting the command of it to Antonio de Grajeda. Cabot had the
+keel removed from one of his caravels, and with it, being towed by
+his small boats, entered the Parana, built a new fort at the
+confluence of the Carcarama and Terceiro, and after having thus
+secured his line of retreat he pursued the course of these rivers
+farther into the interior. Arriving at the confluence of the Parana
+and Paraguay, he followed the second, the direction of which agreed
+best with his project of reaching the region of the west where
+silver was to be obtained. But it was not long before the aspect of
+the country changed, and the attitude of the inhabitants altered
+also. Until now, they had collected in crowds, astonished at the
+sight of the vessels; but upon the cultivated shores of the Paraguay
+they courageously opposed the strangers' landing, and three
+Spaniards having tried to knock down the fruit from a palm-tree, a
+struggle took place, in which 300 natives lost their lives. This
+victory had disabled twenty-five Spaniards. It was too much for
+Cabot, who rapidly removed his wounded to the fort San Spirito and
+retired, still presenting a bold front to the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Cabot had already sent two of his companions to the Emperor, to
+acquaint him with the attempt at revolt of the captains, to explain
+to him the motives which obliged him to modify the course marked out
+for his voyage, and to request aid from him, both in men and
+provisions. The answer arrived at last. The Emperor approved of what
+Cabot had done, and ordered him to colonize the country in which he
+had just made a settlement, but did not send him either one man or a
+single maravédi. Cabot tried to procure the resources which he
+needed in the country, and caused some attempts at cultivation to be
+commenced. At the same time, to keep his troops in exercise, he
+reduced the neighbouring nations to obedience, had some forts built,
+and again sailing up the Paraguay he reached Potosi, and the
+water-courses of the Andes which feed the basin of the Atlantic. At
+last he prepared to enter Peru, from whence came the gold and silver
+which he had seen in the possession of the natives; but it needed
+more troops than he could muster, to attempt the conquest of this
+vast region. The Emperor, however, was quite unable to send him any.
+His European wars absorbed all his resources, the Cortez refused to
+vote new subsidies and the Moluccas had just been pledged to
+Portugal. In this state of affairs, after having occupied the
+country for five years, and waited all this time for the assistance
+which never came, Cabot decided to evacuate a part of his
+settlements, and he returned with some of his people to Spain. The
+rest, amounting to 120, men who were left to guard the fort of San
+Spirito, after many vicissitudes which cannot be related here,
+perished by the hands of the Indians, or were obliged to take refuge
+in the Portuguese settlements on the coast of Brazil. It is to the
+horses imported by Cabot that is due the wonderful race of wild
+horses which may be seen in large troops on the pampas of La Plata
+at the present day; this was the only result of the expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Some time after his return to Spain, Cabot resigned his office, and
+went to Bristol, where he settled about 1548, that is to say at the
+beginning of the reign of Edward VI. What were the motives of this
+fresh change? Was Cabot discontented at having been left to his own
+resources during his expedition? Was he hurt at the manner in which
+his services were recompensed? It is impossible to say. But Charles
+V. took advantage of Cabot's departure to deprive him of his pension,
+which Edward VI. hastened to replace, causing him to receive 250
+marks annually, about 116<i>l.</i> and a fraction, which was a
+considerable sum for that period.</p>
+
+<p>The post which Cabot occupied in England seems to be best expressed
+by the name of Intendant of the Navy; under the authority of the
+king and council, he appears to have superintended all maritime
+affairs. He issues licences, he examines pilots, he frames
+instructions, he draws maps, a varied and complicated function for
+which he possessed the rare gift of both practical and theoretical
+knowledge. At the same time he instructed the young king in
+cosmography, explained to him the variation of the compass, and was
+successful in interesting him in nautical matters, and in the glory
+resulting from maritime discoveries. It was a high and almost unique
+situation. Cabot used it to put into execution a project which he
+had long cherished.</p>
+
+<p>At this period, we may almost say there was no trade in England. All
+commerce was in the hands of the Hanseatic towns, Antwerp, Hamburg,
+Bremen, &amp;c. These companies of merchants had, on various occasions,
+obtained considerable reductions in import duties, and had ended by
+monopolizing the English trade. Cabot held that Englishmen possessed
+as good qualifications as these merchants for becoming manufacturers,
+and that the already powerful navy which England possessed might
+assist marvellously in the export of the products of the soil and of
+the manufactures. What was the use of having recourse to strangers
+when people could do their own business? If they had been unable up
+to this time to reach Cathay and India by the north-west, might they
+not endeavour to reach it by the north-east. And if they did not
+succeed, would they not find in this direction more commercial, and
+more civilized people than the miserable Esquimaux on the coast of
+Labrador and Newfoundland?</p>
+
+<p>Cabot assembled some leading London merchants, laid his projects
+before them, and formed them into an association, of which on the
+14th of December, 1551, he was named president for life. At the same
+time he exerted himself most vigorously with the king, and having
+made him understand the wrong which the monopoly enjoyed by
+strangers did to his own subjects, he obtained its abolition on the
+23rd of February, 1551, and inaugurated the practice of free trade.</p>
+
+<p>The Association of English Merchants, under the name of "Merchant
+Adventurers," hastened to have some vessels built, adapted to the
+difficulties to be encountered in the navigation of the Arctic
+regions. The first improvement which the English marine owed to
+Cabot was the sheathing of the keels, which he had seen done in
+Spain, but which had not hitherto been practised in England.</p>
+
+<p>A flotilla of three vessels was assembled at Deptford. They were the
+<i>Buona-Speranza</i>, of which the command was given to Sir Hugh
+Willoughby, a brave gentleman who had earned a high reputation in
+war; the <i>Buona-Confidencia</i>, Captain Cornil Durforth; and the
+<i>Bonaventure</i>, Captain Richard Chancellor, a clever sailor, and a
+particular friend of Cabot's; he received the title of pilot-major.
+The sailing-master of the <i>Bonaventure</i> was Stephen Burrough, an
+accomplished mariner, who was destined to make numerous voyages in
+the North seas, and later to become pilot in chief for England.</p>
+
+<p>Although age and his important duties prevented Cabot from placing
+himself at the head of the expedition, he wished at least, to
+preside over all the details of the equipment. He himself wrote out
+the instructions, which have been preserved, and which prove the
+prudence and skill of this distinguished navigator. He there
+recommends the use of the log-line, an instrument intended to
+measure the speed of the vessel, and he desires that the journal of
+the events happening at sea may be kept with regularity, and that
+all information as to the character, manners, habits, and resources
+of the people visited, and the productions of the country, may be
+recorded in writing. The sailors were to offer no violence to the
+natives, but to act towards them with courtesy. All blasphemy and
+swearing was to be punished with severity, and also drunkenness. The
+religious exercises are prescribed, prayers are to be said morning
+and evening, and the Holy Scriptures are to be read once in the day.
+Cabot ends by recommending union and concord above all, and reminds
+the captains of the greatness of their enterprise, and the honour
+which they might hope to gain; finally he promises them to add his
+prayers to theirs for the success of their common work.</p>
+
+<p>The squadron set sail on the 20th of May, 1558, in presence of the
+court assembled at Greenwich, amid an immense concourse of people,
+after fêtes and rejoicings, at which the king, who was ill, could
+not be present. Near the Loffoden Islands, on the coast of Norway at
+the bearing of Wardhous, the squadron was separated from the
+<i>Bonaventure</i>. Carried away by the storm, Willoughby's two vessels
+touched, without doubt, at Nova Zembla, and were forced by the ice
+to return southwards. On the 18th of September, they entered the
+port formed by the mouth of the River Arzina in East Lapland. Some
+time afterwards, the <i>Buona-Confidencia</i>, separated from Willoughby
+by a fresh tempest, returned to England. As to the latter, some
+Russian fishermen found his vessel the following year, in the midst
+of the ice. The whole crew had died of cold. This, at least, is what
+we are led to suppose from the journal kept by the unfortunate
+Willoughby up to the month of January, 1554.</p>
+
+<p>Chancellor, after having waited in vain for his two consorts at the
+rendezvous which had been agreed upon in case of separation, thought
+they must have outsailed him, and rounding the North Cape, he
+entered a vast gulf which was none other than the White Sea; he then
+landed at the mouth of the Dwina, near the monastery of St. Nicholas,
+on the spot upon which the town of Archangel was soon to stand. The
+inhabitants of these desolate places told him that the country was
+under the dominion of the Grand Duke of Russia. Chancellor resolved
+at once to go to Moscow, in spite of the enormous distance which
+separated him from it. The Czar then on the throne was Ivan IV.
+Wassiliewitch, called the Terrible. For some time before this, the
+Russians had shaken off the Tartar yoke, and Ivan had united all the
+petty rival principalities in one body politic, of which the power
+was already becoming considerable. The situation of Russia,
+exclusively continental, far from any frequented sea, isolated from
+the rest of Europe, of which it did not yet form part, so much were
+its habits and manners still Asiatic, promised success to Chancellor.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 47">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578">
+			<img src="images/088.jpg" alt="Chancellor received by the Czar">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578" align="center">
+			Chancellor received by the Czar.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Czar, who up to this time, had not been able to procure European
+merchandise, except by way of Poland, and who wished to gain access
+to the German seas, saw with pleasure the attempts of the English to
+establish a trade which would be beneficial to both parties. He not
+only received Chancellor courteously, but he made him most
+advantageous offers, granted him great privileges and encouraged him,
+by the kindness of his reception, to repeat his voyage. Chancellor
+sold his merchandise to great advantage, and after taking on board
+another cargo of furs, of seal and whale oils, copper, and other
+products, returned to England, carrying a letter from the Czar. The
+advantages which the Company of Merchant Adventurers had derived
+from this first voyage, encouraged them to attempt a second. So
+Chancellor the following year, made a fresh voyage to Archangel, and
+took two of the Company's agents to Russia, who concluded an
+advantageous treaty with the Czar. Then he set out again for England
+with an ambassador and his suite, sent by Ivan to Great Britain. Of
+the four vessels which composed the flotilla, one was lost on the
+coast of Norway, another as it left Drontheim, and the <i>Bonaventure</i>,
+on board of which were Chancellor and the ambassador, foundered in
+the Bay of Pitsligo, on the east coast of Scotland on the 10th of
+November, 1556. Chancellor was drowned in the wreck, being less
+fortunate than the Muscovite ambassador, who had the good luck to
+escape; but the presents and merchandise which he was carrying to
+England were lost.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 48">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579">
+			<img src="images/089.jpg" alt="Wreck of the Bonaventure">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579" align="center">
+			Wreck of the <i>Bonaventure</i>.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Such was the commencement of the Anglo-Russian Company. A goodly
+number of expeditions succeeded each other in those parts, but it
+would be beside our purpose to give an account of them. Let us now
+return to Cabot.</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1554 that Queen Mary of England was married to Philip II.,
+King of Spain. When the latter came to England he showed himself
+very ill-disposed towards Cabot, who had abandoned the service of
+Spain, and who, at this very moment was procuring for England a
+commerce which would soon immensely increase the maritime power of
+an already formidable country. Thus we are not surprised to learn
+that eight days after the landing of the King of Spain, Cabot was
+forced to resign his office and his pension, both of which had been
+bestowed upon him for life by Edward VI. Worthington was nominated
+in his place. Mr. Nicholls thinks that this dishonourable man, who
+had had some quarrels with the law, had a secret mission to seize
+among Cabot's plans, maps, instructions, and projects, those which
+could be of use to Spain. The fact is that all these documents are
+now lost, at least unless they may yet be discovered among the
+archives of Simancas.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of this period, history completely loses sight of the old
+mariner. The same mystery which hangs over his birth, also envelopes
+the place and date of his death. His immense discoveries, his
+cosmographical works, his study of the variations of the magnetic
+needle, his wisdom, his humane disposition, and his honourable
+conduct, place Sebastian Cabot in the foremost rank among
+discoverers. A figure lost in the shadow and vagueness of legends
+until our own day, Cabot owes it to his biographers, to Biddle,
+D'Avezac, and Nicholls, that he is now better known, more highly
+appreciated, and for the first time really placed in the light.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c32"></a>
+<center>II.<br>
+P<small>OLAR</small> E<small>XPEDITIONS</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>John Verrazzano&mdash;Jacques Cartier and his three voyages to Canada&mdash;The
+town of Hochelaga&mdash;Tobacco&mdash;The scurvy&mdash;Voyage of Roberval&mdash;Martin
+Frobisher and his voyages&mdash;John Davis&mdash;Barentz and
+Heemskerke&mdash;Spitzbergen&mdash;Winter season at Nova Zembla&mdash;Return to
+Europe&mdash;Relics of the Expedition.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>From 1492 to 1524, France had stood aloof, officially at least, from
+enterprises of discovery and colonization. But Francis I. could not
+look on quietly while the power of his rival Charles V. received a
+large addition by the conquest of Mexico. He therefore ordered John
+Verrazzano, a Venetian who was in his service, to make a voyage of
+exploration. We will pause here for a short time, although the
+various places may have already been visited on several occasions,
+because for the first time the banner of France floats over the
+shores of the New World. This exploration besides, was to prepare
+the way for those of Jacques Cartier and of Champlain in Canada, as
+well as for the unlucky experiments in colonization of Jean Ribaut,
+and of Laudonnière, the sanguinary voyage of reprisals of Gourgues,
+and Villegagnon's attempt at a settlement in Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>We possess no biographical details with regard to Verrazzano. Under
+what circumstances did he enter the service of France? What was his
+title to the command of such an expedition? Nothing is known of the
+Venetian traveller, for all we possess of his writings is the
+Italian translation of his report to Francis I. published in the
+collection of Ramusio. The French translation of this Italian
+translation exists in an abridged form in Lescarbot's work on New
+France and in the <i>Histoire des Voyages</i>. For our very rapid epitome
+we shall make use of the Italian text of Ramusio, except in some
+passages where Lescarbot's translation has appeared to give an idea
+of the rich, original, and marvellously modulated language of the
+sixteenth century.</p>
+<a name="fax38"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 38">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="1191">
+			<img src="images/090.jpg" alt="Map of Newfoundland and of the Mouth of the St. Lawrence">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Having set out with four vessels to make discoveries in the ocean,
+says Verrazzano in a letter written from Dieppe to Francis I. on the
+8th July, 1524, he was forced by a storm to take refuge in Brittany
+with two of his vessels, the <i>Dauphine</i> and the <i>Normande</i>, there to
+repair damages. Thence he set sail for the coast of Spain, where he
+seems to have given chase to some Spanish vessels. We see him leave
+with the <i>Dauphine</i> alone on the 17th of January, 1524, a small
+inhabited island in the neighbourhood of Madeira, and launch himself
+upon the ocean with a crew of fifty men, well furnished with
+provisions and ammunition for an eight months' voyage.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-five days later he has made 1500 miles to the west, when he
+is assailed by a fearful storm; and twenty-five days afterwards,
+that is to say on the 8th or 9th of March, having made about 1200
+miles, he discovers land at 30&deg; north latitude, which he
+thought had never been previously explored. "When we arrived, it
+seemed to us to be very low, but on approaching within a quarter of
+a league we saw by the great fires which were lighted along the
+harbours and borders of the sea, that it was inhabited, and in
+taking trouble to find a harbour in which to land and make
+acquaintance with the country, we sailed more than 150 miles in vain,
+so that seeing the coast trended ever southwards, we decided to turn
+back again." The Frenchmen finding a favourable landing-place,
+perceived a number of natives who came towards them, but who fled
+away when they saw them land. Soon recalled by the friendly signs
+and demonstrations of the French, they showed great surprise at
+their clothes, their faces, and the whiteness of their skin. The
+natives were entirely naked, except that the middle of the body was
+covered with sable-skins, hung from a narrow girdle of prettily
+woven grasses, and ornamented with tails of other animals, which
+fell to their knees. Some wore crowns of birds' feathers. "They have
+brown skins," says the narrative, "and are exactly like the
+Saracens; their hair is black, not very long, and tied at the back
+of the head in the form of a small tail. Their limbs are well
+proportioned, they are of middle height, although a little taller
+than ourselves, and have no other defect beyond their faces being
+rather broad; they are not strong, but they are agile, and some of
+the greatest and quickest runners in the world." It was impossible
+for Verrazzano to collect any details about the manners and mode of
+life of these people, on account of the short time that he remained
+among them. The shore at this place was composed of fine sand
+interspersed here and there with little sandy hillocks, behind which
+were scattered "groves and very thick forests which were wonderfully
+pleasant to look upon." There were in this country, as far as we
+could judge, abundance of stags, fallow deer and hares, numerous
+lakes, and streams of sparkling water, as well as a quantity of
+birds.</p>
+
+<p>This land lies at 34&deg;. It is therefore the part of the United
+States which now goes by the name of Carolina. The air there is pure
+and salubrious, the climate temperate, the sea is entirely without
+rocks, and in spite of the want of harbours it is not unfavourable
+for navigators.</p>
+
+<p>During the whole month of March the French sailed along the coast,
+which seemed to them to be inhabited by a numerous population. The
+want of water forced them to land several times, and they perceived
+that the savages were most pleased with mirrors, bells, knives, and
+sheets of paper. One day they sent a long-boat ashore with
+twenty-five men in it. A young sailor jumped into the water "because
+he could not land on account of the waves and currents, in order to
+give some small articles to these people, and having thrown them to
+them from a distance because he was distrustful of the natives, he
+was cast violently on shore by the waves. The Indians seeing him in
+this condition, take him and carry him far away from the sea, to the
+great dismay of the poor sailor, who expected they were about to
+sacrifice him. Having placed him at the foot of a little hill, in
+the full blaze of the sun, they stripped him quite naked and
+wondered at the whiteness of his skin; then lighting a large fire
+they made him come to it and recover his strength, and it was then
+that the poor young man as well as those who were in the boat,
+thought that the Indians were about to massacre and immolate him,
+roasting his flesh in this large brazier and then eating their
+victim, as do the cannibals. But it happened quite differently; for
+having shown a desire to return to the boat they reconducted him to
+the edge of the sea, and having kissed him very lovingly, they
+retired to a hill to see him re-enter the boat."</p>
+
+<p>Continuing to follow the shore northwards for more than 150 miles,
+the Frenchmen reached a land which seemed to them more beautiful,
+being covered with thick woods. Into these forests, twenty men
+penetrated for more than six miles and only returned to the shore
+from the fear of losing themselves. In this walk, having met two
+women, one young and the other old, with some children, they seized
+one of the latter who might be about eight years old, with the idea
+of taking him away to France; but they could not do the same with
+the young woman, who began to cry with all her might, calling for
+aid from her compatriots, who were hidden in the wood. In this place
+the savages were whiter than any of those hitherto met with; they
+snared birds and used a bow of very hard wood, and arrows tipped
+with fish-bones. Their canoes, twenty feet long and four feet wide,
+were hollowed by fire out of a trunk of a tree. Wild vines abounded
+and climbed over the trees in long festoons as they do in Lombardy.
+With a little cultivation they would no doubt produce excellent
+wine&mdash;"for the fruit is sweet and pleasant like ours, and we thought
+that the natives were not insensible to it, for in all directions
+where these vines grew, they had taken care to cut away the branches
+of the surrounding trees so that the fruit might ripen." Wild roses,
+lilies, violets, and all kinds of odoriferous plants and flowers,
+new to the Europeans, carpeted the ground everywhere, and filled the
+air with sweet perfumes.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 49">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="569">
+			<img src="images/091.jpg" alt="Canadian Landscape">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="569" align="center">
+			Canadian Landscape.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After remaining for three days in this enchanting place, the
+Frenchmen continued to follow the coast northwards, sailing by day
+and casting anchor at night. As the land trended towards the east,
+they went 150 miles further in that direction, and discovered an
+island of triangular shape about thirty miles distant from the
+continent, similar in size to the Island of Rhodes, and upon which
+they bestowed the name of the mother of Francis I., Louisa of Savoy.
+Then they reached another island forty-five miles off, which
+possessed a magnificent harbour and of which the inhabitants came in
+crowds to visit the strange vessels. Two kings, especially, were of
+fine stature and great beauty. They were dressed in deer-skins, with
+the head bare, the hair carried back and tied in a tuft, and they
+wore on the neck a large chain ornamented with coloured stones. This
+was the most remarkable nation which they had until now met with.
+"The women are graceful," says the narrative published by Ramusio.
+"Some wore the skins of the lynx on their arms; their head was
+ornamented with their plaited hair and long plaits hung down on both
+sides of the chest; others had headdresses which recalled those of
+the Egyptian and Syrian women; only the elderly women, and those who
+were married, wore pendants in their ears of worked copper." This
+land is situated on the same parallel as Rome, in 41&deg; 40',
+but its climate is much colder.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 50">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="575">
+			<img src="images/092.jpg" alt="Two Canadian Kings">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="575" align="center">
+			Two Canadian Kings.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>On the 5th of May, Verrazzano left this port and sailed along the
+sea-shore for 450 miles. At last he reached a country of which the
+inhabitants resembled but little any of those whom he had hitherto
+met with. They were so wild that it was impossible to carry on any
+trade with them, or any sustained intercourse. What they appeared to
+esteem above everything else were fish-hooks, knives, and all
+articles in metal, attaching no value to all the trifling baubles
+which up to this time had served for barter. Twenty-five armed men
+landed and advanced from four to six miles into the interior of the
+country. They were received by the natives with flights of arrows,
+after which the latter retired into the immense forests which
+appeared to cover the whole country.</p>
+
+<p>One hundred and fifty miles further on spreads out a vast
+archipelago composed of thirty-two islands, all near the land,
+separated by narrow canals, which reminded the Venetian navigator of
+the archipelagos which in the Adriatic border the coasts of
+Sclavonia and Dalmatia. At length, 450 miles further on, in latitude
+50&deg;, the French came to lands which had been previously
+discovered by the Bretons. Finding themselves then short of
+provisions, and having reconnoitred the coast of America for a
+distance of 2100 miles, they returned to France, and disembarked
+safely at Dieppe in the month of July, 1524.</p>
+
+<p>Some historians relate that Verrazzano was made prisoner by the
+savages who inhabit the coast of Labrador, and was eaten by them. A
+fact which is simply impossible, since he addressed from Dieppe to
+Francis I. the account of his voyage which we have just abridged.
+Besides, the Indians of these regions were not anthropophagi.
+Certain authors, but we have not been able to discover on the
+authority of what documents, nor under what circumstances this
+happened, relate that Verrazzano having fallen into the power of the
+Spaniards, had been taken to Spain and there hanged. It is wiser to
+admit that we know nothing certain about Verrazzano, and that we are
+totally ignorant what rewards his long voyage procured for him.
+Perhaps when some learned man shall have looked through our archives
+(of which the abstract and inventory are far from being finished),
+he may recover some new documents; but for the present we must
+confine ourselves to the narrative of Ramusio.</p>
+<a name="fax39"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 39">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="585">
+			<img src="images/093.jpg" alt="Jacques Cartier">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="585" align="center">
+			Jacques Cartier.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Ten years later a captain of St. Malo, named Jacques Cartier, born
+on the 21st of December, 1484, conceived the project of establishing
+a colony in the northern part of America. Being favourably received
+by Admiral Philippe de Chabot, and by Francis I., who asked to see
+the clause in Adam's will which disinherited him of the New World in
+favour of the kings of Spain and Portugal, Cartier left St. Malo
+with two vessels on the 20th of April, 1534. The vessel which
+carried him weighed only sixty tons and carried a crew of sixty-one
+men. At the end of only twenty days, so favourable was the voyage,
+Cartier discovered Newfoundland at Cape Bonavista. He then went
+northwards as far as Bird Island, which he found surrounded by ice,
+all broken up and melting, but on which he was able, nevertheless,
+to lay in a stock of five or six tons of guillemots, puffins, and
+penguins, without reckoning those which were eaten fresh. He then
+explored all the coast of the island, which at this time bore a
+number of Breton names, thus proving the assiduous manner in which
+the French frequented these shores. Then penetrating into the Strait
+of Belle-Isle, which separates the continent from the Island of
+Newfoundland, Cartier arrived at the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Along the
+whole of this coast the harbours are excellent: "If the land only
+corresponded to the goodness of the harbours," says the St. Malo
+sailor, "it would be a great blessing; but one ought not to call it
+<i>land</i>; it is rather pebbles and savage rocks and places fit for
+wild beasts: as for all the land towards the north, I never saw as
+much earth there as would fill a tumbrel." After having coasted
+along the continent, Cartier was cast by a tempest upon the west
+coast of Newfoundland, where he explored Cape Royal and Cape Milk,
+the Columba Islands, Cape St. John, the Magdalen Islands, and the
+Bay of Miramichi on the continent. In this place he had some
+intercourse with the savages, who showed "a great and marvellous
+eagerness in the acquisition of iron tools and other things, always
+dancing and performing various ceremonies, among others throwing
+sea-water on their heads with their hands; so well did they receive
+us that they gave us all that they had, keeping back nothing." The
+next day the number of the savages was even greater, and our French
+sailors made an ample harvest of furs and skins of animals.</p>
+
+<p>After having explored the Bay of Chaleurs, Cartier arrived at the
+entrance of the estuary of the St. Lawrence, where he saw some
+natives, who possessed neither the appearance nor the language of
+the first. "The latter may truly be called savages, for no poorer
+people can be found in the world, and I think that all put together,
+excepting their boats and their nets, they could not have had the
+value of two pence half-penny. They have the head entirely shaved,
+with the exception of a lock of hair on the very top, which they
+allow to grow as long as a horse's tail, and which they fasten upon
+the head with some small copper needles. Their only dwelling is
+underneath their boats, which they overturn and then stretch
+themselves on the ground beneath them without any covering."</p>
+
+<p>After having planted a large cross in this place, Jacques Cartier
+obtained the chief's permission to take away with him two of his
+children, whom he was to bring back again on his next voyage. Then
+he set out again for France, and landed at St. Malo on the 5th of
+September, 1534.</p>
+
+<p>The following year, on the 19th of May, Cartier left St. Malo at the
+head of a fleet composed of three vessels called the <i>Grande</i> and
+the <i>Petite Hermine</i> and the <i>Emerillon</i> on board of which some
+gentlemen of high rank had taken passages, among whom may be named
+Charles de la Pommeraye, and Claude de Pont-Briant, son of the Sieur
+de Moncevelles and cup-bearer to the Dauphin.</p>
+
+<p>Very soon the squadron was dispersed by the storm, and could not be
+brought together again until it reached Newfoundland. After having
+landed at Bird Island, in Whitesand harbour, which is in Castle Bay,
+Cartier penetrated into the Bay of St. Lawrence. He discovered there
+the Island of Natiscotec which we call Anticosti, and entered a
+great river called Hochelaga, which leads to Canada. On the banks of
+this river lies the country called Saguenay, whence comes the red
+copper, to which the two savages whom he had taken on his first
+voyage gave the name of <i>caquetdazé</i>. But before entering the St.
+Lawrence, Cartier wished to explore the whole gulf, to see if no
+passage existed to the north. He afterwards returned to the Bay of
+the Seven Islands, went up the river, and soon reached the river
+Saguenay, which falls into the St. Lawrence on its northern bank. A
+little further on, after passing by fourteen islands, he entered the
+Canadian territories, which no traveller before him had ever visited.</p>
+
+<p>"The next day the lord of Canada, called Donnacona, with twelve
+boats and accompanied by sixteen men, approached the ships. When
+abreast of the smallest of our vessels he began to make a palaver or
+preachment in their fashion, while moving his body and limbs in a
+marvellous manner, which is a sign of joy and confidence, and when
+he arrived at the flag-ship where were the two Indians who had been
+brought back from France, the said chief spoke to them and they to
+him. And they began to relate to him what they had seen in France
+and the good treatment which they had received, at which the said
+chief was very joyful, and begged the captain to give him his arms
+that he might kiss and embrace them, which is their mode of welcome
+in this country. The country of Stadaconé, or St. Charles, is
+fertile and full of very fine trees of the same nature and kind as
+in France, such as oaks, elms, plum-trees, yews, cedars, vines,
+hawthorns&mdash;which bear fruit as large as damsons&mdash;and other trees;
+beneath them grows hemp as good as that of France." Cartier
+succeeded afterwards in reaching with his boats and his galleon a
+place which is the Richelieu of the present day, next, a great lake
+formed by the river&mdash;St. Peter's Lake&mdash;and at last he arrived at
+Hochelaga or Montreal, which is 630 miles from the mouth of the St.
+Lawrence. In this place are "ploughed lands and large and beautiful
+plains full of the corn of the country, which is like the millet of
+Brazil, as large or larger than peas, on which they live as we do on
+wheat. And among these plains is placed and seated the said town of
+Hochelaga near to and joining on to some high ground which is around
+the town; and which is well cultivated and quite small; from the top
+of it one can see very far. We named this mountain the <i>Mount
+Royal</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The welcome given to Jacques Cartier could not have been more
+cordial. The chief or Agouhanna, who was crippled in all his limbs,
+begged the captain to touch them, as if he had asked him for a cure.
+Then the blind, and those who were blind in one eye, the lame, and
+the impotent came and sat down near Jacques Cartier, that he might
+touch them, so thoroughly were they persuaded that he was a god
+descended to heal them. "The said captain, seeing the faith and
+piety of this people, recited the Gospel of St. John, namely: <i>In
+principio</i>, making the sign of the cross over the poor sick people,
+praying G<small>OD</small> that he would give them the knowledge of our holy faith
+and grace to accept Christianity and baptism. Then the said captain
+took a book of Hours and read aloud the Passion of our Saviour, so
+well that all those present could hear it, all the poor people being
+quite silent, looking up to heaven and using the same ceremonies as
+they saw us use." After making themselves acquainted with the
+country, which could be seen for ninety miles around from the top of
+Mount Royal, and having collected some information about the
+water-falls and rapids of the St. Lawrence, Jacques Cartier returned
+towards Canada, where he did not delay to rejoin his ships. We owe
+to him the first information on tobacco for smoking, which does not
+seem to have been in use throughout the whole extent of the New
+World. "They have a herb," he says, "of which they collect great
+quantities during the summer for the winter; they esteem it highly,
+and the men alone use it in the following manner: they dry it in the
+sun and carry it on their necks in a small skin of an animal in the
+shape of a bag, with a horn of stone or of wood, then constantly
+they make the said herb into powder, and put it into one of the ends
+of the said horn; they then place a live coal upon it and blow
+through the other end, and so fill their body with smoke that it
+issues from the mouth and nostrils, as if from the shaft of a
+chimney. We have tried the said smoke, but after having put it into
+our mouths, it seemed as if there were ground pepper in them, so hot
+is it." In the month of December the inhabitants of Stadaconé were
+attacked by an infectious disease which proved to be the scurvy.
+"This malady spread so rapidly in our vessels that by the middle of
+February out of our 110 men there were but ten in good health."
+Neither prayers, nor orisons, nor vows to our Lady of Roquamadour
+brought any relief. Twenty-five Frenchmen perished up to the 18th of
+April, and there were not four amongst them who were not attacked by
+the malady. But at this time a savage chief informed Jacques Cartier
+that a decoction of the leaves and sap of a certain tree, probably
+either the Canadian fir-tree or the barberry, was very salutary. As
+soon as two or three had experienced its beneficial effects "there
+was a crowding as if they would have killed each other to be the
+first to get the medicine; and one of the tallest and largest trees
+I ever saw was used in less than eight days, which had such an
+effect that if all the doctors of Louvain and Montpellier had been
+there with all the drugs of Alexandria, they had not done as much in
+a year as the said tree accomplished in eight days."</p>
+
+<p>Some time after, Cartier, having noticed that Donnacona was trying
+to excite sedition against the French, caused him to be seized, as
+well as nine other savages, that he might take them to France, where
+they died. He set sail from the harbour of St. Croix on the 6th of
+May, descended the St. Lawrence, and after a voyage which was not
+marked by any incident, he landed at St. Malo on the 16th of July,
+1536.</p>
+
+<p>Francis I., in consequence of the report of this voyage which the St.
+Malo captain made to him, resolved to take effective possession of
+the country. After having appointed François de la Roque, Sieur de
+Roberval, viceroy of Canada, he caused five vessels to be fitted out,
+which being laden with provisions and ammunition for two years, were
+to transport Roberval and a certain number of soldiers, artizans,
+and gentlemen to the new colony, which they were about to establish.
+The five vessels set sail on the 23rd of May, 1541. They met with
+such contrary winds that it took them three months to reach
+Newfoundland. Cartier did not arrive at the harbour of St. Croix
+till the 23rd of August. As soon as he had landed his provisions, he
+sent back two of his vessels to France with letters for the king,
+telling him what had been done, also that the Sieur de Roberval had
+not yet appeared, and that they did not know what had happened to
+him. Then he had works commenced to clear the land, to build a fort,
+and to lay the first foundations of the town of Quebec. He next set
+out for Hochelaga, taking with him Martin de Paimpont and other
+gentlemen, and went to examine the three waterfalls of Sainte Marie,
+La Chine, and St. Louis; on his return to St. Croix, he found
+Roberval had just arrived. Cartier returned to St. Malo in the month
+of October, 1542, where, probably ten years later, he died. As to
+the new colony, Roberval having perished in a second voyage, it
+vegetated, and was nothing more than a factory until 1608, the date
+of the foundation of Quebec by M. de Champlain, of whom we shall
+relate the services and discoveries a little further on.</p>
+
+<p>We have just seen how Cartier, who had set out first to seek for the
+north-west passage, had been led to take possession of the country
+and to lay the foundations of the colony of Canada. In England a
+similar movement had begun, set on foot by the writings of Sir
+Humphrey Gilbert and of Richard Wills. They ended by carrying public
+opinion with them, and demonstrating that it was not more difficult
+to find this passage than it had been to discover the Strait of
+Magellan. One of the most ardent partizans of this search was a bold
+sailor, called Martin Frobisher, who after having many times applied
+to rich ship-owners, at last found in Ambrose Dudley, Earl of
+Warwick, the favourite of Queen Elizabeth, a patron, whose pecuniary
+help enabled him to equip a pinnace and two poor barks of from
+twenty to twenty-five tons' burden. It was with means thus feeble,
+that the intrepid navigator went to encounter the ice in localities
+which had never been visited since the time of the Northmen. Setting
+out from Deptford on the 8th of June, 1576, he sighted the south of
+Greenland, which he took for the Frisland of Zeno. Soon stopped by
+the ice, he was obliged to return to Labrador without being able to
+land there, and he entered Hudson's Straits. After having coasted
+along Savage and Resolution Islands, he entered a strait which has
+received his name, but which is also called by some geographers,
+Lunley's inlet. He landed at Cumberland, took possession of the
+country in the name of Queen Elizabeth, and entered into some
+relations with the natives. The cold increased rapidly, and he was
+obliged to return to England. Frobisher only brought back some
+rather vague scientific and geographical details about the countries
+which he had visited; he received, however, a most flattering
+welcome when he showed a heavy black stone in which a little gold
+was found. At once all imaginations were on fire. Several lords and
+the Queen herself contributed to the expense of a new armament,
+consisting of a vessel of 200 tons, with a crew of 100 men, and two
+smaller barks, which carried six months' provision both for war and
+for nourishment. Frobisher had some experienced sailors&mdash;Fenton,
+York, George Best, and C. Hall, under his command. On the 31st of
+May, 1577, the expedition set sail, and soon sighted Greenland, of
+which the mountains were covered with snow, and the shores defended
+by a rampart of ice. The weather was bad. Exceedingly dense
+fogs,&mdash;as thick as pease-soup, said the English sailors,&mdash;islands of
+ice a mile and a half in circumferance, floating mountains which
+were sunk seventy or eighty fathoms in the sea, such were the
+obstacles which prevented Frobisher from reaching before the 9th of
+August, the strait which he had discovered during his previous
+campaign. The English took possession of the country, and pursued
+both upon land and sea some poor Esquimaux, who, wounded "in this
+encounter, jumped in despair from the top of the rocks into the
+sea," says Forster in his <i>Voyages in the North</i>, "which would not
+have happened if they had shown themselves more submissive, or if we
+could have made them understand that we were not their enemies." A
+great quantity of stones similar to that which had been brought to
+England were soon discovered. They were of gold marcasite, and 200
+tons of this substance was soon collected. In their delight, the
+English sailors set up a memorial column on a peak to which they
+gave the name of Warwick Mount, and performed solemn acts of
+thanksgiving. Frobisher afterwards went ninety miles further on in
+the same strait, as far as a small island, which received the name
+of Smith's Island. There the English found two women, of whom they
+took one with her child, but left the other on account of her
+extreme ugliness. Suspecting, so much did superstition and ignorance
+flourish at this time, that this woman had cloven feet, they made
+her take the coverings off her feet, to satisfy themselves that they
+really were made like their own. Frobisher, now perceiving that the
+cold was increasing, and wishing to place the treasures which he
+thought he had collected, in a place of safety, resolved to give up
+for the present any farther search for the north-west passage. He
+then set sail for England, where he arrived at the end of September,
+after weathering a storm which dispersed his fleet. The man, woman,
+and child who had been carried off were presented to the Queen. It
+is said with regard to them, that the man, seeing at Bristol
+Frobisher's trumpeter on horseback wished to imitate him, and
+mounted with his face turned towards the tail of the animal. These
+savages were the objects of much curiosity, and obtained permission
+from the Queen to shoot all kinds of birds, even swans, on the
+Thames, a thing which was forbidden to every one else under the most
+severe penalties. They did not long survive, and died before the
+child was fifteen months old.</p>
+
+<p>People were not slow in discovering that the stones brought back by
+Frobisher really contained gold. The nation, but above all the
+higher classes, were immediately seized with a fever bordering on
+delirium. They had found a Peru, an Eldorado. Queen Elizabeth, in
+spite of her practical good sense, yielded to the current. She
+resolved to build a fort in the newly discovered country, to which
+she gave the name of <i>Meta incognita</i>, (unknown boundary) and to
+leave there, with 100 men as garrison, under the command of Captains
+Fenton, Best, and Philpot, three vessels which should take in a
+cargo of the auriferous stones. These 100 men were carefully chosen;
+there were bakers, carpenters, masons, gold-refiners, and others
+belonging to all the various handicrafts. The fleet was composed of
+fifteen vessels, which set sail from Harwich on the 31st of May,
+1578. Twenty days later the western coasts of Frisland were
+discovered. Whales played round the vessels in innumerable troops.
+It is related even that one of the vessels propelled by a favourable
+wind, struck against a whale with such force that the violence of
+the shock stopped the ship at once, and that the whale after
+uttering a loud cry, made a spring out of the water and then was
+suddenly swallowed up. Two days later, the fleet met with a dead
+whale which they thought must be the one struck by the <i>Salamander</i>.
+When Frobisher came to the entrance of the strait which has received
+his name, he found it blocked up with floating ice. "The barque
+<i>Dennis</i>, 100 tons," says the old account of George Best, "received
+such a shock from an iceberg that she sank in sight of the whole
+fleet. Following upon this catastrophe, a sudden and horrible
+tempest arose from the south-east, the vessels were surrounded on
+all sides by the ice; they left much of it, between which they could
+pass, behind them, and found still more before them through which it
+was impossible for them to penetrate. Certain ships, either having
+found a place less blocked with ice, or one where it was possible to
+proceed, furled sails and drifted; of the others, several stopped
+and cast their anchors upon a great island of ice. The latter were
+so rapidly enclosed by an infinite number of islets of ice and
+fragments of icebergs, that the English were obliged to resign
+themselves and their ships to the mercy of the ice, and to protect
+the ships with cables, cushions, mats, boards, and all kinds of
+articles which were suspended to the sides, in order to defend them
+from the fearful shocks and blows of the ice." Frobisher himself was
+thrown out of his course. Finding the impossibility of rallying his
+squadron, he sailed along the west coast of Greenland, as far as the
+strait which was soon to be called Davis' Strait, and penetrated as
+far as the Countess of Warwick Bay. When he had repaired his vessels
+with the wood which was to have been used in the building of a
+dwelling, he loaded the ships with 500 tons of stones similar to
+those which he had already brought home. Judging the season to be
+then too far advanced, and considering also that the provisions had
+been either consumed, or lost in the <i>Dennis</i>, that the wood for
+building had been used for repairing the vessels, and having lost 40
+men, he set out on his return to England on the 31st of August.
+Tempests and storms accompanied him to the shores of his own country.
+As to the results of his expedition they were almost none as to
+discoveries, and the stones, which he had put on board in the midst
+of so many dangers, were valueless.</p>
+
+<p>This was the last Arctic voyage in which Frobisher took part. In
+1585 we meet with him again as vice-admiral, under Drake; in 1588 he
+distinguished himself against the <i>Invincible Armada</i>; in 1590 he
+was with Sir Walter Raleigh's fleet on the coast of Spain; finally
+in a descent on the coast of France, he was so seriously wounded
+that he had only time to bring his squadron back to Portsmouth
+before he died. If Frobisher's voyages had only gain for their
+motive, we must put this down not to the navigator himself, but to
+the passions of the period, and it is not the less true that in
+difficult circumstances, and with means the insufficiency of which
+makes us smile, he gave proof of courage, talent, and perseverance.
+To Frobisher is due, in one word, the glory of having shown the
+route to his countrymen, and of having made the first discoveries in
+the localities where the English name was destined to render itself
+illustrious.</p>
+
+<p>If it became necessary to abandon the hope of finding in these
+circumpolar regions countries in which gold abounded as it did in
+Peru, this was no ground for not continuing to seek there for a
+passage to China; an opinion supported by very skilful sailors, and
+one which found many adherents among the merchants of London. By the
+aid of several high personages, two ships were equipped; the
+<i>Sunshine</i>, of fifty tons' burden and carrying a crew of
+twenty-three in number, and the <i>Moonshine</i>, of thirty-five tons.
+They quitted Portsmouth on the 7th of June, 1585, under the command
+of John Davis.</p>
+
+<p>Davis discovered the entrance of the strait which received his name,
+and was obliged to cross immense fields of drifting ice, after
+having reassured his crew, who were frightened while in the midst of
+a dense fog, by the dash of the icebergs, and the splitting of the
+blocks of ice. On the 20th July, Davis discovered the Land of
+Desolation, but without being able to disembark upon it. Nine days
+later he entered Gilbert Bay, where he found a peaceable population,
+who gave him sealskins and furs in exchange for some trifling
+articles. These natives, some days afterwards, arrived in such
+numbers, that there were not less than thirty-seven canoes around
+Davis' vessels. In this place, the navigator perceived an enormous
+quantity of drift wood, amongst which he mentions an entire tree,
+which could not have been less than sixty feet in length. On the 6th
+of August, he cast anchor in a fine bay called Tottness; near a
+mountain of the colour of gold, which received the name of Raleigh,
+at the same time, he gave the names of Dyer and Walsingham to two
+capes of that land of Cumberland.</p>
+
+<p>During eleven days, Davis still sailed northwards on a very open sea,
+free from ice, and of which the water had the colour of the Ocean.
+Already he believed himself at the entrance of the sea, which
+communicated with the Pacific, when all at once the weather changed,
+and became so foggy, that he was forced to return to Yarmouth, where
+he landed on the 30th of September.</p>
+
+<p>Davis had the skill to make the owners of his ships partake in the
+hope which he had conceived. Thus on the 7th of May (1586), he set
+out again with the two ships which had made the previous voyage. To
+them were added the <i>Mermaid</i> of 120 tons, and the pinnace <i>North
+Star</i>. When, on the 25th of June, he arrived at the southern point
+of Greenland, Davis despatched the <i>Sunshine</i> and the <i>North Star</i>
+towards the north, in order to search for a passage upon the eastern
+coast, whilst he pursued the same route as in the preceding year,
+and penetrated into the strait which bears his name as far as 69&deg;.
+But there was a much greater quantity of ice this year, and
+on the 17th of July, the expedition fell in with an "icefield" of
+such extent that it took thirteen days to coast along it. The wind
+after passing over this icy plain was so cold, that the rigging and
+sails were frozen, and the sailors refused to go any further. It was
+needful, therefore, to descend again to the east-south-east. There
+Davis explored the land of Cumberland, without finding the strait he
+was seeking, and after a skirmish with the Esquimaux, in which three
+of his men were killed, and two wounded, he set out on the 19th of
+September, on his return to England.</p>
+
+<p>Although once more his researches had not been crowned with success,
+Davis still had good hope, as is witnessed by a letter, which he
+wrote to the Company, in which he said that he had reduced the
+existence of the passage to a species of certainty. Foreseeing,
+however, that he would have more trouble in obtaining the despatch
+of a new expedition, he added that the expenses of the enterprise
+would be fully covered by the profit arising from the fishery of
+walrus, seals, and whales, which were so numerous in those parts,
+that they appeared to have there established their head-quarters. On
+the 15th of May, 1587, he set sail with the <i>Sunshine</i>, the
+<i>Elizabeth</i> of Dartmouth, and the <i>Helen</i> of London. This time he
+went farther north than he had ever done before, and reached 72&deg;
+12', that is to say, nearly the latitude of Upernavik,
+and he descried Cape Henderson's Hope. Stopped by the ice, and
+forced to retrace his way, he sailed in Frobisher's Strait, and
+after having crossed a large gulf, he arrived, in 61&deg; 10'
+latitude, in sight of a cape to which he gave the name of
+Chudleigh. This cape is a part of the Labrador coast, and forms the
+southern entrance to Hudson's Bay. After coasting along the American
+shores as far as 52&deg;, Davis set out for England, which he
+reached on the 15th of September.</p>
+
+<p>Although the solution of the problem had not been found, yet
+nevertheless, precious results had been obtained, but results to
+which people at that period did not attach any great value. Nearly
+the half of Baffin's Bay had been explored, and clear ideas had been
+obtained of its shores, and of the people inhabiting them. These
+were considerable acquisitions, from a geographical point of view,
+but they were scarcely those which would greatly affect the
+merchants of the city. In consequence, the attempts at finding a
+north-west passage were abandoned by the English for a somewhat long
+period.</p>
+
+<p>A new nation was just come into existence. The Dutch&mdash;while scarcely
+delivered from the Spanish yoke,&mdash;inaugurated that commercial policy,
+which was destined to make the greatness and prosperity of their
+country, by the successive despatch of several expeditions to seek
+for a way to China by the north-east; the same project formerly
+conceived by Sebastian Cabot, and which had given to England the
+Russian trade. With their practical instinct, the Dutch had
+acquainted themselves with English navigation. They had even
+established factories at Kola, and at Archangel, but they wished to
+proceed further in their search for new markets. The Sea of Kara
+appearing to them too difficult, they resolved, acting on the advice
+of the cosmographer Plancius, to try a new way by the north of Nova
+Zembla. The merchants of Amsterdam applied therefore, to an
+experienced sailor, William Barentz, born in the island of
+Terschelling, near the Texel. This navigator set out from the Texel
+in 1594, on board the <i>Mercure</i>, doubled the North Cape, saw the
+island of Waigatz, and found himself, on the 4th of July, in sight
+of the coast of Nova Zembla, in latitude 73&deg; 25'. He
+sailed along the coast, doubled Cape Nassau on the 10th of July, and
+three days later he came in contact with the ice. Until the 3rd of
+August, he attempted to open a passage through the pack, testing the
+mass of ice on various sides, going up as far as the Orange Islands
+at the north-western extremity of Nova Zembla, sailing over 1700
+miles of ground, and putting his ship about no less than eighty-one
+times. We do not imagine that any navigator had hitherto displayed
+such perseverance. Let us add that he turned this long cruise to
+account, to fix astronomically, and with remarkable accuracy, the
+latitude of various points. At last, wearied with the fruitless
+boxing about along the edge of the pack, the crew cried for mercy,
+and it became necessary to return to the Texel.</p>
+
+<p>The results obtained were judged so important, that the following
+year, the Dutch States-General entrusted to Jacob van Heemskerke,
+the command of a fleet of seven vessels, of which Barentz was named
+chief pilot. After touching at various points upon the coasts of
+Nova Zembla and of Asia, this squadron was forced by the pack to go
+back without having made any important discovery, and it returned to
+Holland on the 18th of September.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule governments do not possess as much perseverance as
+do private individuals. The large fleet of the year 1595, had cost a
+great sum of money, and had produced no results; this was sufficient
+to discourage the States-General. The merchants of Amsterdam
+therefore, substituting private enterprise for the action of the
+government, which merely promised a reward to the man who should
+first discover the north-east passage&mdash;fitted out two vessels, of
+which the command was given to Heemskerke and to Jan Corneliszoon
+Rijp, while Barentz, who had only the title of pilot, was virtually
+the leader of the expedition. The historian of the voyage, Gerrit de
+Veer, was also on board as second mate.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutchmen sailed from Amsterdam on the 10th of May, 1596, passed
+by the Shetland and Faröe Islands, and on the 5th of June, saw the
+first masses of ice, "whereat we were much amazed, believing at
+first that they were white swans." They soon arrived to the south of
+Spitzbergen, at Bear Island, upon which they landed on the 11th of
+June. They collected there a great number of sea-gulls' eggs, and
+after much trouble killed at some distance inland a white bear,
+destined to give its name to the land which Barentz had just
+discovered. On the 19th of June, they disembarked upon some
+far-spreading land, which they took to be a part of Greenland, and
+to which on account of the sharp-pointed mountains, they gave the
+name of Spitzbergen; of this they explored a considerable portion of
+the western coast. Forced by the Polar pack to go southwards again
+to Bear Island, they separated there from Rijp, who was once more to
+endeavour to find a way by the north. On the 11th of July,
+Heemskerke and Barentz were in the parts of Cape Kanin, and five
+days later they had reached the western coast of Nova Zembla, which
+was called Willoughby's Land. They then altered their course, and
+again going northwards, they arrived on the 19th at the Island of
+Crosses, where the ice which was still attached to the shore, barred
+their passage. They remained in this place until the 4th of August,
+and two days later they doubled Cape Nassau. After several changes
+of course, which it would take too long to relate, they reached the
+Orange Islands at the northern extremity of Nova Zembla. They began
+to descend the eastern coast, but were soon obliged to enter a
+harbour, where they found themselves completely blocked in by the
+pack-ice, and in which "they were forced in great cold, poverty,
+misery, and grief, to stay all the winter." This was on the 26th of
+August. "On the 30th the masses of ice began to pile themselves one
+upon another against the ship, with snow falling. The ship was
+lifted up and surrounded in such a manner, that all that was about
+her and around her began to crack and split. It seemed as if the
+ship must break into a thousand pieces, a thing most terrible to see
+and to hear, and fit to make one's hair stand on end. The ship was
+afterwards in equal danger, when the ice formed beneath, raising her
+and bearing her up as though she had been lifted by some
+instrument." Soon the ship cracked to such a degree, that prudence
+dictated the debarkation of some of the provisions, sails, gunpowder,
+lead, the arquebuses as well as other arms, and the erection of a
+tent or hut, in which the men might be sheltered from the snow and
+from any attacks by bears. Some days later, some sailors who had
+advanced from four to six miles inland, found near a river of fresh
+water, a quantity of drift-wood; they discovered there also the
+traces of wild goats and of reindeer. On the 11th of September,
+seeing that the bay was filled with enormous blocks of ice piled one
+upon the other, and welded together, the Dutchmen perceived that
+they would be obliged to winter in this place, and resolved, "in
+order to be better defended against the cold, and armed against the
+wild beasts," to build a house there, which might be able to contain
+them all, while they would leave to itself the ship, which became
+each day less safe and comfortable. Fortunately, they found upon the
+shore whole trees, coming doubtless from Siberia, and driven here by
+the current, and in such quantity that they sufficed not only for
+the construction of their habitation, but also for firewood
+throughout the winter.</p>
+<a name="fax40"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 40">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="598">
+			<img src="images/094.jpg" alt="Barentz's Ship">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="598" align="center">
+			Barentz's Ship.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Never yet had any European wintered in these regions, in the midst
+of that slothful and immovable sea, which according to the very
+false expressions used by Tacitus, forms the girdle of the world,
+and in which is heard the uproar caused by the rising of the sun.
+The Dutchmen, therefore, were unable to picture to themselves the
+sufferings which threatened them. They bore them, however, with
+admirable patience, without a single murmur, and without the least
+want of discipline or attempt at mutiny. The conduct of these brave
+seamen, quite ignorant of what so apparently dark a future might
+have in reserve for them, but who with wonderful faith had "placed
+their affairs in the hands of God," may be always proposed as an
+example even to the sailors of the present day. It may well be said
+that they had really in their heart the <i>æs triplex</i> of which Horace
+speaks. It was owing to the skill, knowledge, and foresight of their
+leader Barentz, as much as to their own spirit of obedience, that
+the Dutch sailors ever came forth from Nova Zembla, which threatened
+to be their tomb, and again saw the shores of their own country.</p>
+<a name="fax41"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 41">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="592">
+			<img src="images/095.jpg" alt="Interior view of the house">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="592" align="center">
+			Interior view of the house.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The bears, which were extremely numerous at that period of the year,
+made frequent visits to the crew. More than one was killed, but the
+Dutchmen contented themselves with skinning them for the sake of
+their fur, and did not eat them, probably because they believed the
+flesh to be unwholesome. It would have been, however, a considerable
+addition to their food, and would have saved them from using their
+salted meat, and thus they might longer have escaped the attacks of
+scurvy. But that we may not anticipate, let us continue to follow
+the journal of Gerrit de Veer.</p>
+
+<p>On the 23rd September, the carpenter died, and was interred the next
+day in the cleft of a mountain, it being impossible to put a spade
+into the ground, on account of the severity of the frost. The
+following days were devoted to the transport of driftwood and the
+building of the house. To cover it in, it was necessary to demolish
+the fore and aft cabins of the ship; the roof was put on, on the 2nd
+October, and a piece of frozen snow was set up like a May pole. On
+the 31st September, there was a strong wind from the north-west, and
+as far as the eye could reach, the sea was entirely open and without
+ice. "But we remained as though taken and arrested in the ice, and
+the ship was raised full two or three feet upon the ice, and we
+could imagine nothing else but that the water must be frozen quite
+to the bottom, although it was three fathoms and a half in depth."</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th October, they began to sleep in the house, although it
+was not completed. On the 21st, the greater part of the provisions,
+furniture, and everything which might be wanted was withdrawn from
+the ship, for they felt certain that the sun was about to disappear.
+A chimney was fixed in the centre of the roof, inside a Dutch clock
+was hung up, bed-places were formed along the walls, and a wine-cask
+was converted into a bath, for the surgeon had wisely prescribed to
+the men frequent bathing as a preservative of health. The quantity
+of snow which fell during this winter, was really marvellous. The
+house disappeared entirely beneath this thick covering, which,
+however, sensibly raised the temperature within. Every time that
+they wished to go forth, the Dutchmen were obliged to hollow out a
+long corridor beneath the snow. Each night they first heard the
+bears, and then the foxes, which walked upon the top of the dwelling,
+and tried to tear off some planks from the roof, that they might get
+into the house. So the sailors were accustomed to climb into the
+chimney, whence, as from a watch-tower they could shoot the animals
+and drive them off. They had manufactured a great number of snares,
+into which fell numbers of blue foxes, the valuable fur of which
+served as a protection against cold, while their flesh enabled the
+sailors to economize their provisions. Always cheerful and good
+tempered, they bore equally well the ennui of the long polar night,
+and the severity of the cold, which was so extreme, that during two
+of three days, when they had not been able to keep so large a fire
+as usual, on account of the smoke being driven back again by the
+wind, it froze so hard in the house, that the walls and the floor
+were covered with ice to the depth of two fingers, even in the cots
+where these poor people were sleeping. It was necessary to thaw the
+sherry, when it was served out, as was done every two days, at the
+rate of half a pint.</p>
+
+<p>"On the 7th of December, the rough weather continued, with a violent
+storm coming from the north-east, which produced horrible cold. We
+knew no means of guarding ourselves against it, and while we were
+consulting together, what we could do for the best, one of our men
+in this extreme necessity proposed to make use of the coal which we
+had brought from the ship into our house, and to make a fire of it,
+because it burns with great heat and lasts a long time. In the
+evening we lighted a large fire of this coal, which threw out a
+great heat, but we did not provide against what might happen, for as
+the heat revived us completely, we tried to retain it for a long
+time. To this end we thought it well to stop up all the doors and
+the chimney, to keep in the delightful warmth. And thus, each went
+to repose in his cot, and animated by the acquired warmth, we
+discoursed long together. But in the end, we were seized with a
+giddiness in the head, some however, more than others; this was
+first perceived to be the case with one of our men who was ill, and
+who for this reason, had less power of resistance. And we also
+ourselves were sensible of a great pain which attacked us, so that
+several of the bravest came out of their cots and began by
+unstopping the chimney, and afterwards opening the door. But the man
+who opened the door fainted, and fell senseless upon the snow, on
+perceiving which, I ran to him and found him lying on the ground in
+a fainting fit. I went in haste to seek for some vinegar, and with
+it I rubbed his face until he recovered from his swoon. Afterwards,
+when we were somewhat restored, the captain gave to each a little
+wine, in order to comfort our hearts...."</p>
+
+<p>"On the 11th, the weather continued fine, but so extremely cold,
+that no one who had not felt it could imagine it; even our shoes,
+frozen to our feet, were as hard as horn, and inside they were
+covered with ice in such a manner that we could no longer use them.
+The garments which we wore were quite white with frost and ice."</p>
+
+<p>On Christmas Day, the 25th December, the weather was as rough as on
+the preceding days. The foxes made havoc upon the house, which one
+of the sailors declared to be a bad omen, and upon being asked why
+he said so, answered, "Because we cannot put them in a pot, or on
+the spit, which would have been a good omen."</p>
+
+<p>If the year 1596, had closed with excessive cold, the commencement
+of 1597 was not more agreeable. Most violent storms of snow, and
+hard frost prevented the Dutchmen from leaving the house. They
+celebrated Twelfth Night with gaiety, as is related in the simple
+and touching narrative of Gerrit de Veer. "For this purpose, we
+besought the captain to allow us a little diversion in the midst of
+our sufferings, and to let us use a part of the wine which was
+destined to be served out to us every other day. Having two pounds
+of flour we made some pancakes with oil, and each one brought a
+white biscuit, which we soaked in the wine and eat. And it seemed to
+us that we were in our own country, and amongst our relations and
+friends; and we were as much diverted as if a banquet had been given
+in our honour, so much did we relish our entertainment. We also made
+a Twelfth-Night king, by means of paper, and our master gunner was
+king of Nova Zembla, which is a country enclosed between two seas,
+and of the great length of six hundred miles."</p>
+
+<p>After the 21st January, the foxes became less numerous, the bears
+reappeared, and daylight began to increase, which enabled the
+Dutchmen, who had been so long confined to the house, to go out a
+little. On the 24th, one of the sailors, who had been long ill, died,
+and was buried in the snow at some distance from the house. On the
+28th, the weather being very fine, the men all went out, walking
+about, running for exercise, and playing at bowls, to take off the
+stiffness of their limbs, for they were extremely weak, and nearly
+all suffering from scurvy. They were so much enfeebled that they
+were obliged to go to work several times before they could carry to
+their house the wood which was needful. At length in the first days
+of March, after several tempests and driving snowstorms, they were
+able to verify the fact that there was no ice in the sea.
+Nevertheless, the weather was still rough and the cold glacial. It
+was not feasible as yet to put to sea again, the rather because the
+ship was still embedded in the ice. On the 15th of April, the
+sailors paid a visit to her and found her in fairly good condition.</p>
+<a name="fax42"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 42">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="602">
+			<img src="images/096.jpg" alt="Exterior view of the house">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="602" align="center">
+			Exterior view of the house.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>At the beginning of May the men became somewhat impatient, and asked
+Barentz if he were not soon intending to make the necessary
+preparations for departure. But Barentz answered that he must wait
+until the end of the month, and then, if it should be impossible to
+set the ship free, he would take measures to prepare the long-boats
+and the launch, and to render them fit for a sea voyage. On the 20th
+of the month the preparations for departure commenced; with what joy
+and ardour it is easy to imagine. The launch was repaired, the sails
+were mended, and both boats were dragged to the sea, and provisions
+put on board. Then, seeing that the water was free, and that a
+strong wind was blowing, Heemskerke went to seek Barentz, who had
+been long ill, and declared to him "that it seemed good to him to
+set out from thence, and in God's name to commence the voyage and
+abandon Nova Zembla."</p>
+
+<p>"William Barentz had before this written a paper setting forth how
+we had started from Holland to go towards the kingdom of China, and
+all that had happened, in order that, if by chance, some one should
+come after us, it might be known what had befallen us. This note he
+enclosed in the case of a musket which he hung up in the chimney."</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th June, 1597, the Dutchmen abandoned the ship, which had
+not stirred from her icy prison, and commending themselves to the
+protection of God, the two open boats put to sea. They reached the
+Orange Islands, and again descended the western coast of Nova Zembla
+in the midst of ceaselessly recurring dangers.</p>
+
+<p>"On the 20th of June Nicholas Andrieu became very weak, and we saw
+clearly that he would soon expire. The lieutenant of the governor
+came on board our launch, and told us that Nicholas Andrieu was very
+much indisposed, and that it was very evident that his days would
+soon end. Upon which, William Barentz said, 'It appears to me that
+my life also will be very short.' We did not imagine that Barentz
+was so ill, for we were chatting together, and William Barentz was
+looking at the little chart which I had made of our voyage, and we
+had various discourses together. Finally, he laid down the chart,
+and said to me, 'Gerard, give me something to drink.' After he had
+drunk, such weakness supervened that his eyes turned in his head,
+and he died so suddenly that we had not time to call the captain,
+who was in the other boat. This death of William Barentz saddened us
+greatly, seeing that he was our principal leader, and our sole pilot,
+in whom we had placed our whole trust. But we could not oppose the
+will of God, and this thought quieted us a little." Thus died the
+illustrious Barentz, like his successors Franklin and Hall, in the
+midst of his discoveries. In the measured and sober words of the
+short funeral oration of Gerrit de Veer may be perceived the
+affection, sympathy, and confidence which this brave sailor had been
+able to inspire in his unfortunate companions. Barentz is one of the
+glories of Holland, so prolific in brave and skilful navigators. We
+shall mention presently what has been done to honour his memory.</p>
+<a name="fax43"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 43">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="795">
+			<img src="images/097.jpg" alt="Map of Nova Zembla">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After having been forced several times to haul the boats out of the
+water when they were on the point of being crushed between the
+blocks of ice; after having seen on various occasions the sea open,
+and again close before them; after having suffered both from thirst
+and hunger, the Dutchmen reached Cape Nassau. One day, being obliged
+to draw up the long-boat, which was in danger of being stove in upon
+an iceberg, the sailors lost a part of their provisions and were all
+deluged with water, for the ice broke away under their feet. In the
+midst of so much misery they sometimes met with good windfalls. Thus,
+when they were upon the ice on the Island of Crosses they found
+there seventy eggs of the mountain-duck. "But they did not know what
+they should put them in to carry them. At length one man took off
+his breeches, tying them together by the ends, and having put the
+eggs into them, they carried them on a pike between two, while the
+third man carried the musket. The eggs were very welcome, and we eat
+them like lords." From the 19th July, the Dutchmen sailed over a sea,
+which, if not altogether free from ice, was at least clear of those
+great fields of ice which had given them so much trouble to avoid.
+On the 28th July, when entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence, they met
+with two Russian vessels, which at first they dared not approach.
+But when they saw the sailors come to them unarmed and with friendly
+demonstrations, they put aside all fear, the rather as they
+recognized in the Russians some people whom they had met with the
+year before in the neighbourhood of Waigatz. The Dutchmen received
+some assistance from them, and then continued their voyage, still
+keeping along the coast of Nova Zembla, and as close in shore as the
+ice would allow. Upon one occasion when they landed, they discovered
+the cochlearia (scurvy-grass), a plant of which the leaves and seeds
+form one of the most powerful of known anti-scorbutics. They eat
+them, therefore, by handfuls, and immediately experienced great
+relief. Their provisions were, however, nearly exhausted; they had
+only a little bread remaining and scarcely any meat. They decided
+therefore to take to the open sea, in order to shorten the distance
+which separated them from the coast of Russia, where they hoped to
+fall in with some fishermen's boats, from which they might obtain
+assistance. In this hope they were not deceived, although they had
+still many trials to undergo. The Russians were much touched by
+their misfortunes, and consented on several occasions to bestow
+provisions upon them, which prevented the Dutch sailors from dying
+of hunger. In consequence of a thick fog the two boats were
+separated from each other, and did not come together again until
+some distance beyond Cape Kanin on the further side of the White Sea,
+at Kildyn Island, where some fishermen informed the Dutchmen that at
+Kola there were three ships belonging to their nation, which were
+ready to put to sea on their return to their own country. They
+therefore despatched thither one of their men accompanied by a
+Laplander, who returned three days afterwards with a letter signed
+<i>Jan Rijp</i>. Great was the astonishment of the Dutch at the sight of
+this signature. It was only on comparing the letter just received
+with several others which Heemskerke had in his possession, that
+they were convinced that it really came from the captain who had
+accompanied them the preceding year. Some days later, on the 30th
+September, Rijp himself arrived with a boat laden with provisions,
+to seek them out and take them to the Kola River, in which his ship
+was at anchor.</p>
+
+<p>Rijp was greatly astonished at all that they related to him, and at
+the terrible voyage of nearly 1200 miles which they had made, and
+which had not taken less than 104 days&mdash;namely, from the 13th June
+to the 25th September. Some days of repose accompanied by wholesome
+and abundant food sufficed to clear off the last remains of scurvy,
+and to refresh the sailors after their fatigues. On the 17th
+September, Jan Rijp left the Kola River, and on the 1st November the
+Dutch crew arrived at Amsterdam. "We had on," says Gerrit de Veer,
+"the same garments which we wore in Nova Zembla, having on our heads
+caps of white fox-skin, and we repaired to the house of Peter
+Hasselaer, who had been one of the guardians of the town of
+Amsterdam charged with presiding over the fitting out of the two
+ships of Jan Rijp and of our own captain. Arrived at this house, in
+the midst of general astonishment, because that we had been long
+thought to be dead, and this report had been spread throughout the
+town, the news of our arrival reached the palace of the prince,
+where there were then at table the Chancellor, and the Ambassador of
+the high and mighty King of Denmark and Norway, of the Goths and the
+Vandals. We were then brought before them by M. l'Écoutets and two
+lords of the town, and we gave to the said lord Ambassador, and to
+their lordships the burgomasters, a narrative of our voyage.
+Afterwards each of us retired to his own house. Those who had not
+dwellings in the town, were lodged in an inn until such time as we
+had received our money, when each went his own way. These are the
+names of the men who returned from this voyage: Jacob Heemskerke,
+clerk and captain, Peter Peterson Vos, Gerrit de Veer, mate, Jan Vos,
+surgeon, Jacob Jansen Sterrenburg, Leonard Henry, Laurence William,
+Jan Hillebrants, Jacob Jansen Hoochwout, Peter Corneille, Jacob de
+Buisen, and Jacob Everts."</p>
+
+<p>Of all these brave sailors we have nothing further to record except
+that De Veer published the following year the narrative of his
+voyage, and that Heemskerke after having made several cruises to
+India, received in 1607 the command of a fleet of twenty-six vessels,
+at the head of which, on the 25th of April, he had a severe battle
+with the Spaniards under the guns of Gibraltar, in which battle,
+although the Dutch were the conquerers, Heemskerke lost his life.</p>
+
+<p>The spot where the unfortunate Barentz and his companions had
+wintered was not revisited until 1871, nearly three hundred years
+after their time. The first to double the northern point of Nova
+Zembla, Barentz had remained alone in the achievement until this
+period. On the 7th September, 1871, the Norwegian Captain, Elling
+Carlsen, well known by his numerous voyages in the North Sea and the
+Frozen Ocean, arrived at the ice haven of Barentz, and on the 9th he
+discovered the house which had sheltered the Dutchmen. It was in
+such a wonderful state of preservation that it seemed to have been
+built but a day, and everything was found in the same position as at
+the departure of the shipwrecked crew. Bears, foxes, and other
+creatures inhabiting these inhospitable regions had alone visited
+the spot. Around the house were standing some large puncheons and
+there were heaps of seal, bear, and walrus bones. Inside, everything
+was in its place. It was the faithful reproduction of the curious
+engraving of Gerrit de Veer. The bed-places were arranged along the
+partition as they are shown in the drawing, as well as the clock,
+the muskets, and the halberd. Amongst the household utensils, the
+arms, and the various objects brought away by Captain Carlsen, we
+may mention two copper cooking-pans, some goblets, gun-barrels,
+augers and chisels, a pair of boots, nineteen cartridge-cases, of
+which some were still filled with powder, the clock, a flute, some
+locks and padlocks, twenty-six pewter candlesticks, some fragments
+of engravings, and three books in Dutch, one of which, the last
+edition of Mendoza's "History of China" shows the goal which Barentz
+sought in this expedition, and a "Manual of Navigation" proves the
+care taken by the pilot to keep himself well up in all professional
+matters.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his return to the port of Hammerfest, Captain Carlsen met with
+a Dutchman, Mr. Lister Kay, who purchased the Barentz relics, and
+forwarded them to the authorities of the Netherlands. These objects
+have been placed in the Naval Museum at the Hague, where a house,
+open in front, has been constructed precisely similar to the one
+represented in the drawing of Gerrit de Veer, and each object or
+instrument brought back has been placed in the very position which
+it occupied in the house in Nova Zembla. Surrounded by all the
+respect and affection which they merit, these precious witnesses of
+a maritime event so important as the first wintering in the Arctic
+regions, these touching reminiscences of Barentz, Heemskerke, and
+their rough companions, constitute one of the most interesting
+monuments in the Museum. Beside the clock is placed a copper dial,
+through the middle of which a meridian is drawn. This curious dial,
+invented by Plancius, which served without doubt to determine the
+variations of the compass, is now the only example extant of a
+nautical instrument which has never been in very general use. For
+this reason it is as precious as, from another point of view, are
+the flute used by Barentz, and the shoes of the poor sailor who died
+during the winter sojourn. It is impossible to behold this curious
+collection without experiencing poignant emotion.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c4"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER IV.</h4>
+<center>V<small>OYAGES OF</small> A<small>DVENTURE AND</small> P<small>RIVATEERING</small> W<small>ARFARE</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Drake&mdash;Cavendish&mdash;De Noort&mdash;Walter Raleigh.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>A very poor cottage at Tavistock in Devonshire was the birthplace in
+1540, of Francis Drake, who was destined to gain millions by his
+indomitable courage, which however, he lost with as much facility as
+he had obtained them. Edmund Drake his father, was one of those
+clergy who devote themselves to the education of the people. His
+poverty was only equalled by the respect which was felt for his
+character. Burdened with a family as he was, the father of Francis
+Drake found himself obliged from necessity to allow his son to
+embrace the maritime profession, for which he had an ardent longing,
+and to serve as cabin-boy on board a coasting vessel which traded
+with Holland. Industrious, active, self-reliant, and saving, the
+young Francis Drake had soon acquired all the theoretical knowledge
+needed for the direction of a vessel. When he had realized a small
+sum, which was increased by the sale of a vessel bequeathed to him
+by his first master, he made more extended voyages; he visited the
+Bay of Biscay and the Gulf of Guinea, and laid out all his capital
+in purchasing a cargo which he hoped to sell in the West Indies. But
+no sooner had he arrived at Rio de la Hacha, than both ship and
+cargo were confiscated, we know not under what frivolous pretext.
+All the remonstrances of Drake, who thus saw himself ruined, were
+useless. He vowed to avenge himself for such a piece of injustice,
+and he kept his word.</p>
+
+<p>In 1567, two years after this adventure, a small fleet of six
+vessels, of which the largest was of 700 tons' burden, left Plymouth
+with the sanction of the Queen, to make an expedition to the Coasts
+of Mexico. Drake was in command of a ship of fifty tons. At first
+starting they captured some negroes on the Cape de Verd Islands, a
+sort of rehearsal of what was destined to take place in Mexico. Then
+they besieged La Mina, where some more negroes were taken, which
+they sold at the Antilles. Hawkins, doubtless by the advice of Drake,
+captured the town of Rio de la Hacha; after which he reached St.
+Jean d'Ulloa, having encountered a fearful storm. But the harbour
+contained a numerous fleet, and was defended by formidable artillery.
+The English fleet was defeated, and Drake had much difficulty in
+regaining the English coast in January, 1568.</p>
+
+<p>Drake afterwards made two expeditions to the West Indies for the
+purpose of studying the country. When he considered himself to have
+acquired the necessary information, he fitted out two vessels at his
+own expense: the <i>Swan</i>, of twenty-five tons, commanded by his
+brother John, and the <i>Pasha</i> of Plymouth, of seventy tons. The two
+vessels had as crew seventy-three jack-tars, who could be thoroughly
+depended on. From July, 1572, to August, 1573, sometimes alone,
+sometimes in concert with a certain Captain Rawse, Drake made a
+lucrative cruise upon the coasts of the Gulf of Darien, attacked the
+towns of Vera Cruz and of Nombre de Dios, and obtained considerable
+spoil. Unfortunately these enterprises were not carried out without
+much cruelty and many acts of violence which would make men of the
+present day blush. But we will not dwell upon the scenes of piracy
+and barbarity which are only too frequently met with in the
+sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>After assisting in the suppression of the rebellion in Ireland,
+Drake, whose name was beginning to be well known, was presented to
+Queen Elizabeth. He laid before her his project of going to ravage
+the western coasts of South America, by passing through the Strait
+of Magellan, and he obtained, with the title of admiral, a fleet of
+six vessels, on board of which were 160 picked sailors.</p>
+
+<p>Francis Drake started from Plymouth on the 15th November, 1577. He
+had some intercourse with the Moors of Mogador, of which he had no
+reason to boast, made some captures of small importance before
+arriving at the Cape de Verd Islands, where he took in fresh
+provisions, and then was fifty-six days in crossing the Atlantic and
+reaching the coast of Brazil, which he followed as far as the
+estuary of La Plata, where he laid in a supply of water. He
+afterwards arrived at Seal Bay in Patagonia, where he traded with
+the natives, and killed a great number of penguins and sea-wolves
+for the nourishment of his crew. "Some of the Patagonians who were
+seen on the 13th May a little below Seal Bay," says the original
+narrative, "wore on the head a kind of horn, and nearly all had many
+beautiful birds' feathers by way of hats. They also had the face
+painted and diversified by several kinds of colours, and they each
+held a bow in the hand, from which every-time they drew it, they
+discharged two arrows. They were very agile, and as far as we could
+see, well instructed in the art of making war, for they kept good
+order in marching and advancing, and for so few men as they were,
+they made themselves appear a large number." M. Charton, in his
+<i>Voyageurs Anciens et Modernes</i>, notices that Drake does not mention
+the extraordinary stature which Magellan had attributed to the
+Patagonians. For this there is more than one good reason. There
+exists in Patagonia more than one tribe, and the description here
+given by Drake of the savages whom he met, does not at all resemble
+that given by Pigafetta of the Patagonians of Port St. Julian. If
+there exist, as seems now to be proved, a race of men of great
+stature, their habitat appears fixed upon the shores of the Strait
+at the southern extremity of Patagonia, and not at fifteen days'
+sail from Port Desire, at which Drake arrived on the 2nd June. On
+the following day he reached the harbour of St. Julian, where he
+found a gibbet erected of yore by Magellan for the punishment of
+some rebellious members of his crew. Drake in his turn, chose this
+spot to rid himself of one of his captains, named Doughty, who had
+been long accused of treason and underhand dealing, and who on
+several occasions had separated himself from the fleet. Some sailors
+having confessed that he had solicited them to join with him in
+frustrating the voyage, Doughty was convicted of the crimes of
+rebellion, and of tampering with the sailors, and according to the
+laws of England, he was condemned by a court martial to be beheaded.
+This sentence was immediately executed, although Doughty until the
+last moment vehemently declared his innocence. Was his guilt
+thoroughly proved? If Drake were accused upon his return to
+England&mdash;in spite of the moderation which he always evinced towards
+his men,&mdash;of having taken advantage of the opportunity to get rid of
+a rival whom he dreaded, it is difficult to conceive that the forty
+judges who pronounced the sentence should have concerted together to
+further the secret designs of their admiral and condemn an innocent
+man.</p>
+
+<p>On the 20th of August, the fleet, now reduced to three vessels&mdash;two
+of the ships having been so much damaged that they were at once
+destroyed by the admiral&mdash;entered the strait, which had not been
+traversed since the time of Magellan. Although he met with fine
+harbours, Drake found that it was difficult to anchor in them, on
+account both of the depth of the water close to the shore, and of
+the violence of the wind, which, blowing as it did in sudden squalls,
+rendered navigation dangerous. During a storm which was encountered
+at the point where the strait opens into the Pacific, Drake beheld
+one of his ships founder, while his last companion was separated
+from him a few days afterwards, nor did he see her again until the
+end of the campaign. Driven by the currents to the south of the
+strait as far as 55&deg; 40', Drake had now only his own
+vessel; but by the injury which he did to the Spaniards, he showed
+what ravages he would have committed if he had had still under his
+command the fleet with which he left England. During a descent upon
+the island of Mocha, the English had two men killed and several
+wounded, while Drake himself, hit by two arrows on the head, found
+himself utterly unable to punish the Indians for their perfidy. In
+the harbour of Valparaiso he captured a vessel richly laden with the
+wines of Chili, and with ingots of gold valued at 37,000 ducats;
+afterwards he pillaged the town, which had been precipitately
+abandoned by its inhabitants. At Coquimbo, the people were
+forewarned of his approach, so that he found there a strong force,
+which obliged him to re-embark. At Arica he plundered three small
+vessels, in one of which he found fifty-seven bars of silver valued
+at 2006<i>l.</i> In the harbour of Lima, where were moored twelve ships
+or barks, the booty was considerable. But what most rejoiced the
+heart of Drake was to learn that a galleon named the <i>Cagafuego</i>,
+very richly laden, was sailing towards Paraca. He immediately went
+in pursuit, capturing on the way a bark carrying 80 lbs. of gold,
+which would be worth 14,080 French crowns, and in the latitude of
+San Francisco he seized without any difficulty the <i>Cagafuego</i>, in
+which he found 80 lbs. weight of gold. This caused the Spanish pilot
+to say, laughing, "Captain, our ship ought no longer to be called
+<i>Cagafuego</i> (spit-fire), but rather <i>Caga-Plata</i> (spit money), it is
+yours which should be named <i>Caga-Fuego</i>." After making some other
+captures more or less valuable, upon the Peruvian coast, Drake,
+learning that a considerable fleet was being prepared to oppose him,
+thought it time to return to England. For this, there were three
+different routes open to him: he might again pass the Strait of
+Magellan, or he might cross the Southern Sea, and doubling the Cape
+of Good Hope might so return to the Atlantic Ocean, or he could sail
+up the coast of China and return by the Frozen Sea and the North
+Cape. It was this last alternative, as being the safest of the three,
+which was adopted by Drake. He therefore put out to sea, reached the
+38&deg; of north latitude, and landed on the shore of the Bay of
+San Francisco, which had been discovered three years previously by
+Bodega. It was now the month of June, the temperature was very low,
+and the ground covered with snow. The details given by Drake of his
+reception by the natives, are curious enough: "When we arrived, the
+savages manifested great admiration at the sight of us, and thinking
+that we were gods, they received us with great humanity and
+reverence."</p>
+
+<p>"As long as we remained, they continued to come and visit us,
+sometimes bringing us beautiful plumes made of feathers of divers
+colours, and sometimes petun (tobacco) which is a herb in general
+use among the Indians. But before presenting these things to us,
+they stopped at a little distance, in a spot where we had pitched
+our tents. Then they made a long discourse after the manner of a
+harangue, and when they had finished, they laid aside their bows and
+arrows in that place, and approached us to offer their presents."</p>
+
+<p>"The first time they came their women remained in the same place,
+and scratched and tore the skin and flesh of their cheeks, lamenting
+themselves in a wonderful manner, whereat we were much astonished.
+But we have since learnt that it was a kind of sacrifice which they
+offered to us."</p>
+
+<p>The facts given by Drake with regard to the Indians of California
+are almost the only ones which he furnishes upon the manners and
+customs of the nations which he visited. We would draw the reader's
+attention here, to that custom of long harangues which the traveller
+especially remarks, just as Cartier had observed upon it forty years
+earlier, and which is so noticeable amongst the Canadian Indians at
+the present day. Drake did not advance farther north and gave up his
+project of returning by the Frozen Sea. When he again set sail, it
+was to descend towards the Line, to reach the Moluccas, and to
+return to England by the Cape of Good Hope. As this part of the
+voyage deals with countries already known, and as the observations
+made by Drake are neither numerous nor novel, our narrative here
+shall be brief.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th of October, 1579, Drake arrived in latitude 8&deg;
+north, at a group of islands of which the inhabitants had their ears
+much lengthened by the weight of the ornaments suspended to them;
+their nails were allowed to grow, and appeared to serve as defensive
+weapons, while their teeth, "black as ship's pitch," contracted this
+colour from the use of the betel-nut. After resting for a time,
+Drake passed by the Philippines, and on the 14th of November arrived
+at Ternate. The king of this island came alongside, with four canoes
+bearing his principal officers dressed in their state costumes.
+After an interchange of civilities and presents, the English
+received some rice, sugar-canes, fowls, <i>figo</i>, cloves, and sago. On
+the morrow, some of the sailors who had landed, were present at a
+council. "When the king arrived, a rich umbrella or parasol all
+embroidered in gold was borne before him. He was dressed after the
+fashion of his country, but with extreme magnificence, for he was
+enveloped from the shoulders with a long cloak of cloth of gold
+reaching to the ground. He wore as an ornament upon the head, a kind
+of turban made of the same stuff, all worked in fine gold and
+enriched with jewels and tufts. On his neck there hung a fine gold
+chain many times doubled, and formed of broad links. On his fingers,
+he had six rings of very valuable stones, and his feet were encased
+in shoes of morocco leather."</p>
+
+<p>After remaining some time in the country to refresh his crew, Drake
+again put to sea, but his ship on the 9th of January, 1580, struck
+on a rock, and to float her off it was necessary to throw overboard
+eight pieces of ordnance and a large quantity of provisions. A month
+later, Drake arrived at Baratena Island where he repaired his ship.
+This island afforded much silver, gold, copper, sulphur, spices,
+lemons, cucumbers, cocoa-nuts, and other delicious fruits. "We
+loaded our vessels abundantly with these, being able to certify that
+since our departure from England we have not visited any place where
+we have found more comforts in the way of food and fresh provisions
+than in this island and that of Ternate."</p>
+
+<p>After quitting this richly endowed island, Drake landed at Greater
+Java, where he was very warmly welcomed by the five kings amongst
+whom the island was partitioned, and by the inhabitants. "These
+people are of a fine degree of corpulence, they are great
+connoisseurs in arms, with which they are well provided, such as
+swords, daggers, and bucklers, and all these arms are made with much
+art." Drake had been some little time at Java when he learnt that
+not far distant there was a powerful fleet at anchor, which he
+suspected must belong to Spain; to avoid it he put to sea in all
+haste. He doubled the Cape of Good Hope during the first days of
+June, and after stopping at Sierra Leone to take in water, he
+entered Plymouth harbour on the 3rd November, 1580, after an absence
+of three years all but a few days.</p>
+
+<p>The reception which awaited him in England was at first extremely
+cold. His having fallen by surprise both upon Spanish towns and
+ships, at a time when the two nations were at peace, rightly caused
+him to be regarded by a portion of society as a pirate, who tramples
+under foot the rights of nations. For five months the Queen herself,
+under the pressure of diplomatic proprieties, pretended to be
+ignorant of his return. But at the end of that time, either because
+circumstances had altered, or because she did not wish to show
+herself any longer severe towards the skilful sailor, she repaired
+to Deptford where Drake's ship was moored, went on board, and
+conferred the honour of knighthood upon the navigator.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 51">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578">
+			<img src="images/098.jpg" alt="Elizabeth knighting Drake">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="578" align="center">
+			Elizabeth knighting Drake.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>From this period Drake's part as a discoverer is ended, and his
+after-life as a warrior and as the implacable enemy of the Spaniards
+does not concern us. Loaded with honours, and invested with
+important commands, Drake died at sea on the 28th January, 1596,
+during an expedition against the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>To him pertains the honour of having been the second to pass through
+the Strait of Magellan, and to have visited Tierra del Fuego as far
+as the parts about Cape Horn. He also ascended the coast of North
+America to a point higher than any his predecessors had attained,
+and he discovered several islands and archipelagos. Being a very
+clever navigator, he made the transit through the Strait of Magellan
+with great rapidity. If there are but very few discoveries due to
+him, this is probably either because he neglected to record them in
+his journal, or because he often mentions them in so inaccurate a
+manner that it is scarcely possible to recognize the places. It was
+he who inaugurated that privateering warfare by which the English,
+and later on the Dutch, were destined to inflict much injury upon
+the Spaniards. And the large profits accruing to him from it,
+encouraged his contemporaries, and gave birth in their minds to the
+love for long and hazardous voyages.</p>
+
+<p>Among all those who took example by Drake, the most illustrious was
+undoubtedly Thomas Cavendish or Candish. Cavendish joined the
+English marine service at a very early age; and passed a most stormy
+youth, during which he rapidly dissipated his modest fortune. That
+which play had robbed him of, he resolved to recover from the
+Spaniards. Having in 1585 obtained letters of mark, he made a cruise
+to the East Indies and returned with considerable booty. Encouraged
+by his easy success as a highwayman on the great maritime roads, he
+thought that if he could acquire some honour and glory while engaged
+in making his fortune, so much the better would it be for him. With
+this idea he bought three ships, the <i>Desire</i>, of twenty tons, the
+<i>Content</i>, of sixty tons, and the <i>Hugh Gallant</i>, of forty tons,
+upon which he embarked one hundred and twenty-three soldiers and
+sailors. Setting sail on the 22nd July, 1586, he passed by the
+Canaries, and landed at Sierra Leone, which town he attacked and
+plundered; then, sailing again, he crossed the Atlantic, sighted
+Cape Sebastian in Brazil, sailed along the coast of Patagonia, and
+arrived on the 27th November at Port Desire. He found there an
+immense quantity of dog-fish, very large, and so strong that four
+men could with difficulty kill them, and numbers of birds, which,
+having no wings, could not fly, and which fed upon fish. They are
+classed under the general names of auks and penguins. In this very
+secure harbour, the ships were drawn up on shore to be repaired.
+During his stay at this place Cavendish had some skirmishes with the
+Patagonians,&mdash;"men of gigantic size, and having feet eighteen inches
+long"&mdash;who wounded two of the sailors with arrows tipped with
+sharpened flints.</p>
+
+<p>On the 7th January, 1587, Cavendish entered the Strait of Magellan,
+and in the narrowest part of it received on board his ships
+one-and-twenty Spaniards and two women, the sole survivors of the
+colony founded three years previously, under the name of
+Philippeville, by Captain Sarmiento. This town, which had been built
+to bar the passage through the strait, had possessed no fewer than
+four forts as well as several churches. Cavendish could discern the
+fortress, then deserted and already falling into ruins. Its
+inhabitants, who had been completely prevented by the continual
+attacks of the savages from gathering in their harvests, had died
+of hunger, or had perished in endeavouring to reach the Spanish
+settlements in Chili. The Admiral, upon hearing this lamentable tale,
+changed the name of Philippeville into that of Port Famine, under
+which appellation the place is known at the present day. On the 21st
+the ships entered a beautiful bay, which received the name of
+Elizabeth, and in which was buried the carpenter of the <i>Hugh
+Gallant</i>. Not far from thence a fine river fell into the sea, on the
+banks of which dwelt the anthropophagi who had fought so fiercely
+with the Spaniards, and who endeavoured, but in vain, to entice the
+Englishmen into the interior of the country.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th February, as the little squadron came forth from the
+strait, it encountered a violent storm, which dispersed it. The
+<i>Hugh Gallant</i>, left alone, and letting in water in all directions,
+was only kept afloat with the greatest trouble. Rejoined on the 15th
+by his consorts, Cavendish tried in vain to land on Mocha Island,
+where Drake had been so maltreated by the Araucanians. This country,
+rich in gold and silver, had hitherto successfully resisted all
+Spanish attempts to subjugate it, and its inhabitants, fully
+determined to maintain their liberty, repulsed by force of arms
+every attempt to land. It was necessary therefore to go to the
+island of St. Maria, where the Indians, who took the Englishmen for
+Spaniards, furnished them with abundance of maize, fowls, sweet
+potatoes, pigs, and other provisions.</p>
+
+<p>On the 30th March, Cavendish dropped anchor in 32&deg; 50'
+in the Bay of Quintero. A party of thirty musketeers advanced into
+the country and met with oxen, cows, wild horses, hares, and
+partridges in abundance. The little troop was attacked by the
+Spaniards, and Cavendish was obliged to return to his ships after
+losing twelve of his men. He afterwards ravaged, plundered, or burnt
+the towns of Paraca, Cincha, Pisca, and Païta, and devastated the
+island of Puna, where he obtained a booty in coined money of the
+value of 25,760<i>l.</i> After having scuttled the <i>Hugh Gallant</i>, which
+was totally unfit any longer to keep the water, Cavendish continued
+his profitable cruising, burnt, in the latitude of New Spain, a ship
+of 120 tons, plundered and burnt Aguatulio, and captured, after six
+hours of fighting, a vessel of 708 tons, laden with rich stuffs, and
+with 122,000 gold pesos. Then, "victorious and contented," Cavendish
+wished to secure the great spoils which he was conveying against any
+chance of danger. He touched at the Ladrones, the Philippines, and
+Greater Java, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, recruited himself at St.
+Helena, and on the 9th September, 1588, anchored at Plymouth, after
+two years of sailing, privateering, and fighting. At the end of two
+years after his return, of all the great fortune which he had
+brought back with him, there remained only a sum sufficient for the
+fitting out of a third, and as it proved, a last expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Cavendish started on the 6th August, 1591, with five vessels, but a
+storm on the coast of Patagonia scattered the flotilla, which could
+not be collected again until the arrival at Port Desire. Assailed by
+fearful hurricanes in the Strait of Magellan, Cavendish was obliged
+to go back, after having seen himself deserted by three of his ships.
+The want of fresh provisions, the cold, and the privations of all
+kinds which he underwent, and which had decimated his crew, forced
+him to return northwards along the coast of Brazil, where the
+Portuguese opposed every attempt at landing. He was therefore
+obliged to put to sea again without having been able to revictual.
+Cavendish died, from grief perhaps as much as from hardships, before
+he reached the English coast.</p>
+
+<p>One year after the return of the companions of Barentz, two ships,
+the <i>Mauritius</i> and the <i>Hendrik Fredrik</i>, with two yachts, the
+<i>Eendracht</i> and <i>Espérance</i>, having on board a crew of 248 men,
+quitted Amsterdam on the 2nd July, 1598. The commander-in-chief of
+this squadron was Oliver de Noort, a man at that time about thirty
+or thereabouts, and well known as having made several long cruising
+voyages. His second in command and vice-admiral was Jacob Claaz
+d'Ulpenda, and as pilot there was a certain Melis, a skilful sailor
+of English origin. This expedition, fitted out by the merchants of
+Amsterdam with the concurrence and aid of the States-General of
+Holland, had a double purpose; at once commercial and military.
+Formerly the Dutch had contented themselves with fetching from
+Portugal the merchandise which they distributed by means of their
+coasting vessels throughout Europe; but now they were reduced to the
+necessity of going to seek the commodities in the scene of their
+production. For this object, De Noort was to show his countrymen the
+route inaugurated by Magellan, and on the way to inflict as much
+injury as he could upon the Spaniards and Portuguese. At this period
+Philip II., whose yoke the Dutch had shaken off, and who had just
+added Portugal to his possessions, had forbidden his subjects to
+have any commercial intercourse with the rebels of the Low Countries.
+It was thus a necessity for Holland if she did not wish to be ruined,
+and as a consequence, to fall anew under Spanish rule, to open up
+for herself a road to the Spice Islands. The route which was the
+least frequented by the enemy's ships was that by the Strait of
+Magellan, and this was the one which De Noort was ordered to follow.</p>
+
+<p>After touching at Goree, the Dutch anchored in the Gulf of Guinea,
+at the Island <i>do Principe</i>. Here the Portuguese pretended to give a
+friendly welcome to the men who went on shore, but they took
+advantage of a favourable opportunity, to fall upon and massacre
+them without mercy. Among the dead were Cornille de Noort, brother
+of the admiral, Melis, Daniel Goerrits, and John de Bremen&mdash;the
+captain, Peter Esias, being the only man who escaped. It was a
+sorrowful commencement for a campaign, a sad presage which was
+destined not to remain unfulfilled. De Noort, who was furious over
+this foul play, landed from his ships 120 men; but he found the
+Portuguese so well entrenched, that after a brisk skirmish in which
+seventeen more of his men were either killed or wounded, he was
+obliged to weigh anchor without having been able to avenge the
+wicked and cowardly perfidy to which his brother and twelve of his
+companions had fallen victims. On the 25th December, one of the
+pilots named Jan Volkers, was abandoned on the African coast as a
+punishment for his disloyal intrigues, for endeavouring to foment a
+spirit of despondency amongst the crews, and for his well-proved
+rebellion. On the 5th January, the island of Annobon, situated in
+the Gulf of Guinea, a little below the Line, was sighted, and the
+course of the ships was changed for crossing the Atlantic. De Noort
+had scarcely cast anchor in the Bay of Rio Janeiro before he sent
+some sailors on shore to obtain water and buy provisions from the
+natives; but the Portuguese opposed the landing, and killed eleven
+men. Afterwards, repulsed from the coast of Brazil by the Portuguese
+and the natives, driven back by contrary winds, having made vain
+efforts to reach the island of St. Helena, where they had hoped to
+obtain the provisions of which they were in the most pressing want,
+the Dutchmen, deprived of their pilot, toss at random upon the ocean.
+They land upon the desert islands of Martin Vaz, again reach the
+coast of Brazil at Rio Doce, which they mistake for Ascension Island,
+and are finally obliged to winter in the desert island of Santa
+Clara. The putting into port at this place was marked by several
+disagreeable events. The flag-ship struck upon a rock with so much
+violence that had the sea been a little rougher, she must have been
+lost. There were also some bloody and barbarous executions of
+mutinous sailors, notably that of a poor man, who having wounded a
+pilot with a knife thrust, was condemned to have his hand nailed to
+the mainmast. The invalids, of whom there were many on board the
+fleet, were brought on shore, and nearly all were cured by the end
+of a fortnight. From the 2nd to the 21st of June, De Noort remained
+in this island, which was not more than three miles from the
+mainland. But before putting to sea he was obliged to burn the
+<i>Eendracht</i>, as he had not sufficient men to work her. It was not
+until the 20th December, after having been tried by many storms,
+that he was able to cast anchor in Port Desire, where the crew
+killed in a few days a quantity of dog-fish and sea-lions, as well
+as more than five thousand penguins. "The general landed," says the
+French translation of De Noort's narrative, published by De Bry,
+"with a party of armed men, but they saw nobody, only some graves
+placed on high situations among the rocks, in which the people bury
+their dead, putting upon the grave a great quantity of stones, all
+painted red, having besides adorned the graves with darts, plumes of
+feathers, and other singular articles which they use as arms."</p>
+<a name="fax44"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 44">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588">
+			<img src="images/099.jpg" alt="A Sea-lion Hunt">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="588" align="center">
+			A Sea-lion Hunt.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Dutch saw also, but at too great a distance to shoot them,
+buffalos, stags, and ostriches, and from a single nest they obtained
+ten ostrich eggs. Captain Jacob Jansz Huy de Cooper, died during the
+stay at this place, and was interred at Port Desire. On the 23rd
+November, the fleet entered the Strait of Magellan. During a visit
+to the shore three Dutchmen were killed by some Patagonians, and
+their death was avenged by the massacre of a whole tribe of Enoos.
+The long navigation through the narrows and the lakes of the Strait
+of Magellan was signalized by the meeting with two Dutch ships,
+under the command of Sebald de Weerdt, who had wintered not far from
+the Bay of Mauritius, and by the abandoning of Vice-admiral Claaz,
+who, as it would appear, had been several times guilty of
+insubordination. Are not these acts, which we see so frequently
+committed by English, Dutch, and Spanish navigators, a true sign of
+the times? A deed which we should regard now-a-days as one of
+terrible barbarity seemed, doubtless, a relatively mild punishment
+in the eyes of men so accustomed to set but little value upon human
+life. Nevertheless, could anything be more cruel than to abandon a
+man in a desert country, without arms and without provisions, to put
+him on shore in a country peopled by ferocious cannibals, prepared
+to make a repast on his flesh; what was it but condemning him to a
+horrible death?</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th of February, 1600, De Noort, after having been
+ninety-nine days in passing through the strait, came out on to the
+Pacific Ocean. A fortnight later, a storm separated him from the
+<i>Hendrik Fredrik</i>, which was never again heard of. As for De Noort,
+who had now with him only one yacht besides his own vessel, he cast
+anchor at the island of Mocha, and, unlike the experience of his
+predecessors, he was very well received by the natives. Afterwards
+he sailed along the coast of Chili, where he was able to obtain
+provisions in abundance in exchange for Nuremberg knives, hatchets,
+shirts, hats, and other articles of no great value. After ravaging,
+plundering, and burning several towns on the Peruvian coast, after
+sinking all the vessels that he met with, and amassing a
+considerable booty, De Noort, hearing that a squadron commanded by
+the brother of the viceroy, Don Luis de Velasco, had been sent in
+pursuit of him, judged it time to make for the Ladrone Islands,
+where he anchored on the 16th of September. "The inhabitants came
+around our ship with more than 200 canoes, there being three, four,
+or five men in each canoe, crying out all together: 'Hierro, hierro'
+(iron, iron), which is greatly in request amongst them. They are as
+much at home in the water as upon land, and are very clever divers,
+as we perceived when we threw five pieces of iron into the sea,
+which a single man went to search for." De Noort could testify
+unfortunately, that these islands well deserved their name. The
+islanders tried even to drag the nails out of the ship, and carried
+off everything upon which they could lay their hands. One of them,
+having succeeded in climbing along a part of the rigging, had the
+audacity to enter a cabin and seize upon a sword, with which he
+threw himself into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th October following, De Noort traversed the Philippine
+Archipelago, where he made several descents, and burnt, plundered,
+or sunk a number of Spanish or Portuguese vessels, and some Chinese
+junks. While cruising in the Strait of Manilla he was attacked by
+two large Spanish vessels, and in the battle which followed the
+Dutch had five men killed, and twenty-five wounded and lost their
+brigantine, which was captured with her crew of twenty-five men. The
+Spaniards lost more than 200 men, for their flag-ship caught fire
+and sank. Far from picking up the wounded and the able-bodied men,
+who were trying to save themselves by swimming, the Dutch, "making
+way with sails set on the foremast, across the heads which were to
+be seen in the water, pierced some with lances, and also discharged
+their cannon over them." After this bloody and fruitless victory, De
+Noort went to recruit at Borneo, captured a rich cargo of spices at
+Java, and having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, landed at Rotterdam
+on the 26th of August, having only one ship and forty-eight men
+remaining. If the merchants who had defrayed the expenses of the
+expedition approved of the conduct of De Noort, who brought back a
+cargo which more than reimbursed them for their expenditure, and who
+had taught his countrymen the way to the Indies, it behoves us,
+while extolling his qualities as a sailor, to take great exception
+to the manner in which he exercised the command, and to mete out
+severe blame for the barbarity which has left a stain of blood upon
+the first Dutch voyage of circumnavigation.</p>
+<a name="fax45"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 45">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586">
+			<img src="images/100.jpg" alt="Battle of Manilla">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586" align="center">
+			Battle of Manilla.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We have now to speak of a man who, endowed with eminent qualities
+and with at least equal defects, carried on his life's work in
+divers, sometimes even in opposing directions, and who after having
+reached the highest summit of honour to which a gentleman could
+aspire, at last laid his head upon a scaffold, accused of treason
+and felony. This man is Sir Walter Raleigh. If he have any claim to
+a place in this portrait gallery of great sailors, it is neither as
+founder of any English colony nor as a sailor; it is as a discoverer,
+and what we have to say of him is not to his credit. Walter Raleigh
+passed five years in France fighting against the League, in the
+midst of all those Gascons who formed the basis of the armies of
+Henry of Navarre, and in such society he perfected the habits of
+boasting and falsehood which belonged to his character. In 1577,
+after a campaign in the Low Countries against the Spaniards, he
+returns to England and takes a deep interest in the questions so
+passionately debated among his three brothers by the mother's side,
+John, Humphrey, and Adrian Gilbert. At this period England was
+passing through a very grave economic crisis. The practice of
+agriculture was undergoing a transformation; in all directions
+grazing was being substituted for tillage, and the number of
+agricultural labourers was greatly reduced by the change. From
+thence arose general distress, and also such a surplussage of
+population as was fast becoming a matter of anxious concern. At the
+same time, to long wars succeeds a peace, destined to endure
+throughout the reign of Elizabeth, so that a great number of
+adventurers know not how to find indulgence for their love of
+violent emotions. At this moment, therefore, arises the necessity
+for such an emigration as may relieve the country of its population,
+may permit all the miserable people dying of hunger to provide for
+their own wants in a new country, and by that means may increase the
+influence and prosperity of the mother country. All the more
+thoughtful minds in England, who follow the course of public
+opinion&mdash;Hakluyt, Thomas Hariot, Carlyle, Peckham, and the brothers
+Gilbert&mdash;are struck with this need. But it is to the last named that
+belongs the credit of indicating the locality suitable for the
+establishing of colonies. Raleigh only joined with his brothers in
+the scheme, following their lead, but he neither conceived nor began
+the carrying into execution&mdash;as he has been too often credited with
+doing&mdash;of this fruitful project, the colonization of the American
+shores of the Atlantic. If Raleigh, all-powerful with Queen
+Elizabeth, fickle and nevertheless jealous in her affections as she
+was, encourage his brothers; if he expend himself 40,000<i>l.</i>
+sterling in his attempts at colonization, he still takes good care
+not to quit England, for the life of patience and self-devotion of
+the founder of a colony would have no attractions for him. He gives
+up and sells his patent as soon as he perceives the inutility of his
+efforts, while he does not forget to reserve for himself the fifth
+part of any profit arising eventually from the colony.</p>
+<a name="fax46"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 46">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="585">
+			<img src="images/101.jpg" alt="Sir Walter Raleigh">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="585" align="center">
+			Sir Walter Raleigh.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>At the same time Raleigh fits out some vessels against the Spanish
+possessions; and himself soon takes part in the strife and the
+battles which saved England from the Invincible Armada, afterwards
+proceeding to support the claims of the Prior de Crato, to the
+throne of Portugal. It is a short time after his return to England
+that he falls into disgrace with his royal mistress, and after his
+release from prison, while he is confined to his princely mansion of
+Sherborne, he conceives the project of his voyage to Guiana. To his
+mind, this is a gigantic enterprise of which the marvellous results
+are destined to draw upon him the attention of the whole world, and
+to restore to him the favour of his sovereign. Would not the
+discovery and conquest of El Dorado, of the country in which
+according to Orellana, the temples are roofed with plates of gold,
+where all the tools, even those for the meanest purposes, are made
+of gold, where one walks upon precious stones, "procure for him
+greater glory," these are the very words which Raleigh employs in
+his account, "than Cortès had gained in Mexico, or Pizarro in Peru.
+He will have under him more golden towns and nations than the King
+of Spain, the Sultan of the Turks, and no matter what Emperor!" We
+have already spoken of the fables which Orellana had invented in
+1539, and which had been the fruitful source of more than one legend.
+Humboldt discloses what had given them birth when he describes to us
+the nature of the soil and the rocks which surround Lake Parima,
+between the Essequibo and the Branco. "They are," says this great
+traveller, "rocks of micaceous slate, and of sparkling talc, which
+are resplendent in the midst of a sheet of water, which acts as a
+reflector beneath the burning tropical sun." So are explained those
+massive domes of gold, those obelisks of silver, and all those
+marvels of which the boastful and enthusiastic minds of the
+Spaniards afforded them a glimpse. Did Raleigh believe really in the
+existence of this city of gold, for the conquest of which he was
+about to sacrifice so many lives? Was he thoroughly convinced
+himself, or did he not yield to the illusions of a mind eager for
+glory? It is impossible to say, but this at least is indisputable,
+that, to borrow the just expressions of M. Philarète Chasles, "at
+the moment even of his embarkation men did not believe in his
+promises, they were suspicious of his exaggerations, and dreaded the
+results of an expedition directed by a man so fool-hardy, and of a
+morality so equivocal."</p>
+<a name="fax47"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 47">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586">
+			<img src="images/102.jpg" alt="Raleigh seizes Berreo">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="586" align="center">
+			Raleigh seizes Berreo.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, it seemed that Raleigh had foreseen everything needful
+for this undertaking, and that he had made the necessary studies.
+Not only did he speak of the nature of the soil of Guiana, of its
+productions, and its inhabitants with imperturbable assurance, but
+he had taken care to send, at his own expense, a ship commanded by
+Captain Whiddon, to prepare the way for the fleet which he intended
+to conduct in person to the banks of the Orinoco. What he took good
+care, however, not to confide to the public, was that all the
+information he received from his emissary was unfavourable to the
+enterprise. Raleigh himself started from Plymouth on the 9th
+February, 1595, with a small fleet of five vessels, and 100 soldiers,
+without reckoning marines, officers, and volunteers. After stopping
+four days at Fortaventura, one of the Canaries, to take in wood and
+water there, he reached Teneriffe, where Captain Brereton ought to
+have rejoined him. Having waited for him in vain for eighty days,
+Raleigh sailed for Trinidad, where he met Whiddon. The island of
+Trinidad was at that time governed by Don Antonio de Berreo, who, it
+is said, had obtained accurate information concerning Guiana. The
+arrival of the English did not please him, and he immediately
+despatched emissaries to Cumana and to Margarita, with orders to
+gather together the troops to attack the Englishmen, while at the
+same time he forbade any Indians or Spaniards to hold intercourse
+with them under pain of death. Raleigh, forewarned, determined to be
+beforehand with him. At nightfall he landed in secret with 100 men,
+captured the town of St. Joseph, to which the Indians set fire,
+without a blow, and carried off Berreo and the principal personages
+to the ships. At the same time arrived Captains Gifford and Knynin,
+from whom he had been separated upon the Spanish Coasts. Raleigh at
+once sailed for the Orinoco, entered Capuri Bay with a large galley
+and three boats carrying 100 sailors and soldiers, became entangled
+in the inextricable labyrinth of islands and canals which form the
+mouth of the river, and ascended the Orinoco for a distance of 330
+miles. The account which Raleigh gives of his campaign is so
+fabulous, with the coolness of a Gascon transported to the banks of
+the Thames, he so heaps one falsehood upon the top of another, that
+one is almost tempted to class his narrative amongst the number of
+imaginary voyages. He says that some Spaniards who had seen the town
+of Manoa, called El Dorado, told him that this town exceeds in size
+and wealth all the towns in the world, and everything which the
+"conquistadores" had seen in America. "There is no winter there," he
+says; "a soil dry and fertile, with game, and birds of every species
+in great abundance, who filled the air with hitherto unknown notes;
+it was a real concert for us. My captain, sent to search for mines,
+perceived veins both of gold and silver; but as he had no tool but
+his sword, he was unable to detach these metals to examine them in
+detail; however, he carried away several bits of them which he
+reserved for future examination. A Spaniard of Caracas called this
+mine <i>Madre del Oro</i> (mother of gold)." Then, as Raleigh well knows
+that the public is on its guard against his exaggerations, he adds,
+"It will be thought perchance, that I am the sport of a false and
+cheating delusion, but why should I have undertaken a voyage thus
+laborious, if I had not entertained the conviction that there is not
+a country upon earth which is richer in gold than Guiana? Whiddon
+and Milechappe, our surgeon, brought back several stones which
+resembled sapphires. I showed these stones to several inhabitants of
+Orinoco, who have assured me that there exists an entire mountain of
+them." An old cacique of the age of 110, who nevertheless could
+still walk ten miles without fatigue, came to see Raleigh, boasted
+to him of the formidable power of the Emperor of Manoa, and proved
+to him that his forces were insufficient. He depicted these people
+as much civilized, as wearing clothes, and possessing great riches,
+especially in plates of gold; finally, he spoke to him of a mountain
+of pure gold. Raleigh relates that he wished to approach this
+mountain, but, sad mischance, it was at that moment half submerged.
+"It had the form of a tower, and appeared to me rather white than
+yellow. A torrent which precipitated itself from the mountain,
+swollen by the rains, made a tremendous noise, which could be heard
+at the distance of many miles, and which deafened our people. I
+recollected the description which Berreo had given of the brilliancy
+of the diamonds and of the other precious stones scattered over the
+various parts of the country. I had, however, some doubt as to the
+value of these stones; their extraordinary whiteness, nevertheless
+surprised me. After a short time of repose on the banks of the
+Vinicapara, and a visit to the village of the cacique, the latter
+promised to conduct me to the foot of the mountain by a circuitous
+route; but at the sight of the numerous difficulties which presented
+themselves, I preferred to return to the mouth of the Cumana, where
+the caciques of the neighbourhood came to bring various presents,
+consisting of the rare productions of the country." We will spare
+the reader the description of people three times taller than
+ordinary men, of cyclops, of natives who had their eyes upon the
+shoulders, their mouth in the chest, and the hair growing from the
+middle of the back&mdash;all affirmations seriously related, but which
+give to Raleigh's narrative a singular resemblance to a fairy tale.
+One fancies while reading it that it must be a page taken out of the
+<i>Thousand and one Nights</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If we put on one side all these figments of an imagination run mad,
+what gain has been derived for geography? There was certainly no
+pains spared in announcing with much noise, and very great puffing,
+this fantastic expedition, and we may well say with the
+fable-writer,&mdash;</p>
+
+<table align="center" summary="poem 2">
+	<tr><td><small>"In fancy free I an author see,<br>
+			&nbsp;Who says, 'The awful war I'll sing<br>
+			&nbsp;Of Titans with the Thunder-King:'<br>
+			&nbsp;Of this grand promise the result, we find,<br>
+			&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+			&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+			&nbsp;Is often wind."</small></td></tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c5"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER V.</h4>
+<center>M<small>ISSIONARIES AND</small> S<small>ETTLERS</small>. M<small>ERCHANTS AND</small> T<small>OURISTS</small>.<br>
+<br>
+I.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Distinguishing characteristics of the Seventeenth Century&mdash;The more
+thorough exploration of regions previously discovered&mdash;To the thirst
+for gold succeeds Apostolic zeal&mdash;Italian missionaries in Congo&mdash;Portuguese
+missionaries in Abyssinia&mdash;Brue in Senegal and Flacourt
+in Madagascar&mdash;The Apostles of India, of Indo-China, and of Japan.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>The seventeenth century has a distinctive character of its own,
+differing from that of the preceding century in the fact that nearly
+all the great discoveries have been already made, and that the work
+of this whole period consists almost exclusively in perfecting the
+information already acquired. It contrasts equally with the century
+which is to succeed it, because scientific methods are not yet
+applied by astronomers and sailors, as they are to be 100 years
+later. It appears in fact, that the narratives of the first
+explorers&mdash;who were only able, so to speak, to obtain a glimpse of
+the regions which they traversed while waging their wars,&mdash;may have
+in some degree exercised a baneful influence upon the public mind.
+Curiosity, in the narrowest sense of the word, is carried to an
+extreme. Men travel over the world to gain an idea of the manners
+and customs of each nation, of the productions and manufactures of
+each country, but there is no real study. They do not seek to trace
+what they see to its source, and to reason scientifically upon the
+why and wherefore of facts. They behold, curiosity is satisfied, and
+they pass on. The observations made do not penetrate beneath the
+surface, and the great object appears to be to visit, as rapidly as
+may be, all the regions which the sixteenth century has brought to
+light.</p>
+
+<p>Besides, the abundance of the wealth diffused on a sudden over the
+whole of Europe has caused an economic crisis. Commerce, like
+industry, is transformed and altered. New ways are opened, new
+mediums arise, new wants are created, luxury increases, and the
+eagerness to make a fortune rapidly by speculation, turns the heads
+of many. If Venice from a commercial point of view be dead, the
+Dutch are about to constitute themselves, to use a happy expression
+of M. Leroy-Beaulieu, "the carriers and agents of Europe," and the
+English are preparing to lay the foundations of their vast colonial
+empire.</p>
+
+<p>To the merchants succeed the missionaries. They alight in large
+numbers upon the newly-discovered countries, preaching the Gospel,
+civilizing the barbarous nations, studying and describing the
+country. The development of Apostolic zeal is one of the dominant
+features of the seventeenth century, and it behoves us to recognize
+all that geography and historic science owe to these devoted,
+learned, and unassuming men. The traveller only passes through a
+country, the missionary dwells in it. The latter has evidently much
+greater facilities for acquiring an intimate knowledge of the
+history and civilization of the nations which he studies. It is
+therefore very natural that we should owe to them narratives of
+journeys, descriptions, and histories, which are still consulted
+with advantage, and which have served as a basis for later works.</p>
+
+<p>If there be any country to which these reflections more particularly
+apply, it is to Africa, and especially to Abyssinia. How much of
+this vast triangular continent of Africa was known in the
+seventeenth century? Nothing but the coasts, it will be said. A
+mistake. From the earliest times the two branches of the Nile, the
+Astapus and the Bahr-el-Abiad, had been known to the ancients. They
+had even advanced&mdash;if the lists of countries and nations discovered
+at Karnak by M. Mariette may be believed&mdash;as far as the great Lakes
+of the interior. In the twelfth century, the Arab geographer Edrisi
+writes an excellent description of Africa for Roger II. of Sicily,
+and confirms these data. Later on, Cadamosto and Ibn Batuta travel
+over Africa, and the latter goes as far as Timbuctoo. Marco Polo
+affirms that Africa is only united to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez,
+and he visits Madagascar. Lastly, when the Portuguese, led by Vasco
+da Gama, have completed the circumnavigation of Africa, some of them
+remain in Abyssinia, and in a short time diplomatic relations are
+established between that country and Portugal. We have already said
+something of Francesco Alvarez; in his train several Portuguese
+missionaries settle in the country, amongst whom must be named
+Fathers Paez and Lobo.</p>
+
+<p>Father Paez left Goa in 1588 to preach Christianity upon the eastern
+coast of North Africa. After long and sad mishaps, he landed at
+Massowah in Abyssinia, traversed the country, and in 1618 pushed on
+as far as the sources of the Blue Nile,&mdash;a discovery the
+authenticity of which Bruce was hereafter to dispute, but of which
+the narrative differs only in some unimportant particulars from that
+of the Scotch traveller. In 1604, Paez, arrived at the court of the
+king Za Denghel, had preached with such success that he had
+converted the king and all his court. He had even soon acquired so
+great an influence over the Abyssinian monarch, that the latter, in
+writing to the Pope and to the King of Spain to offer them his
+friendship, asked them to send him men fitted to teach his people.</p>
+
+<p>Father Geronimo Lobo landed in Abyssinia with Alfonzo Meneses,
+patriarch of Ethiopia, in 1625. But times were greatly changed. The
+king converted by Paez had been murdered, and his successor, who had
+summoned the Portuguese missionaries, died after a short time. A
+violent revulsion of feeling ensued against the Christians, and the
+missionaries were driven away, imprisoned, or given up to the Turks.
+Lobo was charged with the mission of obtaining the sum necessary for
+the ransom of his companions. After many wanderings, which led him
+to Brazil, Carthagena, Cadiz, and Seville, to Lisbon and to Rome,
+where he gave the Pope and the King of Spain numerous and accurate
+details upon the Church of Ethiopia and the manners of the
+inhabitants, he made a last journey in India, and returned to Lisbon
+to die, in 1678.</p>
+
+<p>Christianity had been introduced into Congo, upon the Atlantic coast,
+in 1489, the year of its discovery by the Portuguese. At first
+Dominicans were sent; but as they made scarce any progress, the Pope,
+with the consent of the King of Portugal, despatched thither some
+Italian Capuchins. These were Carli de Placenza in 1667, Giovanni
+Antonio Cavazzi, from 1654 to 1668, afterwards Antonio Zucchelli and
+Gradisca, from 1696 to 1704. We shall mention these missionaries
+only, because they have published accounts of their journeys.
+Cavazzi explored in succession Angola, the country of Matumba, and
+the islands of Coanza and Loana. In the ardour of his apostolic zeal,
+he could devise no better means of converting the blacks than by
+burning their idols, rebuking the kings for the time-honoured custom
+of polygamy, and subjecting to torture, or to being torn with whips,
+those who relapsed into idolatry. Notwithstanding all this, he
+gained considerable ascendancy over the natives, which, if it had
+been well directed, might have produced very useful results in the
+development of civilization and the progress of religion. The same
+reproach is due also to Father Zucchelli and to the other
+Missionaries in Congo. The narrative of Cavazzi, published at Rome
+in 1687, asserted that Portuguese influence extended from 200 to 300
+miles from the coast, and that in the interior there existed a very
+important town, known by the name of San Salvador, which possessed
+twelve churches, a Jesuit college, and a population of 50,000 souls.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the fourteenth century Pigafetta published the
+account of the journey of Duarte Lopez, ambassador from the King of
+Congo to the Courts of Rome and Lisbon. A map which accompanies this
+narrative presents to us a Lake Zambré, in the very place occupied
+by Lake Tanganyika, and more to the west, Lake Acque Lunda, from
+whence issued the Congo River; south of the equator two lakes are
+indicated, one the Lake of the Nile, the other, more to the east,
+bears the name of Colué; they appear to be the Albert and the
+Victoria Nyanza. This most curious information was rejected by the
+geographers of the nineteenth century, who left blank the whole
+interior of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the West Coast of Africa at the mouth of the Senegal, the
+French had established settlements which, under the skilful
+administration of Andrew Brue, speedily received considerable
+extension. Brue, <i>Commandant for the King and Director-general of
+the Royal French Company upon the Senegal Coast and in other parts
+of Africa</i>&mdash;so ran his official title&mdash;although he may be little
+known, and the article which treats of him may be one of the most
+curtailed in the great collections of biography, deserves to occupy
+one of the most prominent positions among colonizers and explorers.
+Not content with extending the colony as far as its present limits,
+he explored countries which have been only lately revisited by
+Lieutenant Mage, or which have not been visited at all since Brue's
+time. He carried the French outposts eastwards above the junction of
+the Senegal and the Faleme, northwards as far as Arguin, which we
+have since abandoned, although reserving our rights, and southwards
+as far as the island of Bissao. He explored in the interior Galam
+and Bambouk, so rich in gold, and collected the earliest documents
+concerning the Pouls, Peuls or Fouls, the Yoloffs and the Mussulmen,
+who coming from the north, attempted the religious conquest of all
+the black nations of the country. The information thus collected by
+Brue about the history and migrations of these various people, is of
+the greatest value, affording clear light, even in the present day,
+to the geographer and the historian. Not only has Brue left us the
+narrative of deeds of which he was witness and the description of
+the places which he visited, but we also owe to him much information
+about the productions of the countries, the plants, the animals, and
+all the objects which would give occasion for commercial or
+industrial enterprise. These most curious documents, put together
+very maladroitly it must be confessed, by Father Labat, formed the
+subject, a few years ago, of a very interesting work by M. Berlioux.</p>
+
+<p>To the south-east of Africa, during the first half of the
+seventeenth century, the French founded some commercial settlements
+in Madagascar, an island long known under the name of St. Lawrence.
+They build Fort Dauphin under the administration of M. de Flacourt;
+several unknown districts of the island are explored as well as the
+neighbouring islands upon the coast; the Mascarene Islands are
+occupied in 1649. Although firm and moderate towards his countrymen,
+De Flacourt did not use the same self-control towards the natives;
+he even brought about a general revolt, as a consequence of which he
+was recalled. Expeditions into the interior of Madagascar were
+henceforth very rare, and it is not until the present day that we
+find a thorough exploration carried out.</p>
+
+<p>Of Indo-China and Thibet the only information which reached Europe
+during the whole of the seventeenth century was due to the
+missionaries. Such names as Father Alexandre de Rhodes, Ant.
+d'Andrada, Avril, Benedict Goes, may not be passed over in silence.
+In their <i>Annual Letters</i> is to be found a quantity of information,
+which even in the present day retains a real interest, as concerning
+regions so long closed against Europeans. In Cochin China and Tonkin,
+Father Tachard devoted himself to astronomical observations, of
+which the result was to prove by the most conclusive evidence the
+great errors in the longitudes given by Ptolemy. This called the
+attention of the learned world to the necessity of a reform in the
+graphic representation of the countries of the extreme east, and for
+attaining this end, to the absolute need of close observations made
+by specially qualified scientific men, or by navigators familiar
+with astronomical calculations. The country which especially
+attracted the missionaries was China, that enormous and populous
+empire, which ever since the arrival of Europeans in India, had
+persevered with the greatest strictness in the absurd policy of
+abstention from any intercourse whatsoever with foreigners. It was
+not until the close of the sixteenth century that the missionaries
+obtained the permission, so often demanded before in vain, to
+penetrate into the Middle Empire. Their knowledge of mathematics and
+astronomy facilitated their settlement and enabled them to gather,
+as well from the ancient annals of the country, as during their
+journies, a prodigious quantity of most valuable information
+concerning the history, ethnography, and geography of the Celestial
+Empire. Fathers Mendoza, Ricci, Trigault, Visdelou, Lecomte,
+Verbiest, Navarrete, Schall, and Martini, deserve especial mention
+for having carried to China the arts and sciences of Europe, while
+they diffused in the west the first accurate and precise information
+upon the unprogressive civilization of the Flowery Land.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c52"></a>
+<center>II.<br>
+M<small>ISSIONARIES AND</small> S<small>ETTLERS</small>. M<small>ERCHANTS AND</small> T<small>OURISTS</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>The Dutch in the Spice Islands&mdash;Lemaire and
+Schouten&mdash;Tasman&mdash;Mendana&mdash;Queiros and Torrès&mdash;Pyrard de
+Laval&mdash;Pietro della Valle&mdash;Tavernier&mdash;Thévenot&mdash;Bernier&mdash;Robert
+Knox&mdash;Chardin&mdash;De Bruyn&mdash;Kæmpfer.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>The Dutch were not slow in perceiving the weakness and decadence of
+the Portuguese power in Asia. They felt with how much ease a clever
+and prudent nation might in a short time become possessed of the
+whole commerce of the extreme East. After a considerable number of
+private expeditions and voyages of reconnaissance they had founded
+in 1602 that celebrated Company of the Indies which was destined to
+raise to so high a pitch the wealth and prosperity of the metropolis.
+Equally in its strife with the Portuguese as in its dealing with the
+natives, the Company pursued a very skilful policy of moderation.
+Far from founding colonies, or repairing and occupying the
+fortresses which they took from the Portuguese, the Dutch bore
+themselves as simple traders, exclusively occupied with their
+commerce. They avoided building any fortified factory, except at the
+intersection of the great commercial roads. Thus they were able in a
+short time to seize all the carrying trade between India, China,
+Japan, and Oceania. The one fault committed by the all-powerful
+Company was the concentrating in its own hands a monopoly of the
+trade in spices. It drove away the foreigners who had settled in the
+Moluccas or in the Islands of Sunda, or who came thither to obtain a
+cargo of spices; it even went the length, in order to raise the
+price of this valuable commodity, of proscribing the cultivation of
+certain species in a large number of islands, and of forbidding,
+under pain of death, the exportation and sale of seeds and cuttings
+of the spice-producing trees. In a few years the Dutch were
+established in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Moluccas, and at the Cape
+of Good Hope, harbours the best placed for ships returning to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this time that a rich merchant of Amsterdam, Jacob Lemaire,
+in concert with a skilful mariner, named Wilhem Cornelis Schouten,
+conceived a project for reaching the Indies by a new route. The
+Dutch States-General had in fact forbidden any subject of the United
+Provinces, not in the pay of the Company of the Indies, from going
+to the Spice Islands by way of the Cape of Good Hope or of the
+Strait of Magellan. Schouten, according to some, Lemaire, according
+to others, had formed the idea of eluding this interdict by seeking
+a passage to the south of Magellan's Strait. This much is certain,
+that Lemaire bore one half of the expense of the expedition, while
+Schouten, by the aid of several merchants whose names have been
+handed down to us, and who filled the chief offices in the town of
+Hoorn, provided the other half. They fitted out the <i>Concorde</i>, a
+vessel of 360 tons, and a yacht, carrying together a crew of
+sixty-five men, and twenty-nine cannon. This was certainly an
+equipment but little in accordance with the magnitude of the
+enterprise. But Schouten was a skilful mariner, the crew had been
+carefully chosen, and the vessels were abundantly furnished with
+provisions and spare rigging. Lemaire was commissioner, and Schouten
+the captain of the ship. The destination was kept secret, and
+officers and crew entered into an unlimited engagement to go
+wherever they might be led. On the 25th June, 1615, eleven days
+after quitting the Texel, and when there was no longer anything to
+be feared from indiscretion, the crews were assembled to listen to
+the reading of an order which ran as follows: "The two vessels would
+seek another passage than that of Magellan, by which to enter the
+South Sea, and to discover there certain southern countries, in the
+hope of obtaining enormous profits from them, and if heaven should
+not favour this design, they would repair by means of the same sea
+to the East Indies." This declaration was received with enthusiasm
+by the whole crew, who were animated, like all Dutchmen of that
+period, with a love for great discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>The route then usually pursued for reaching South America&mdash;as may
+perhaps have been already observed&mdash;followed the African coasts as
+far as below the equator. The <i>Concorde</i> did not try to deviate from
+it; she reached the shores of Brazil, Patagonia, and Port Desire, at
+300 miles to the north of the Strait of Magellan, but was for
+several days hindered by storms from entering the harbour. The yacht
+even remained for the space of one whole tide, aground and lying on
+her side, but high water set her afloat again; only for a short time
+however, for whilst some repairs were being done to her keel, her
+rigging took fire, and she was consumed in spite of the energetic
+efforts of the two crews. On the 13th January, 1616, Lemaire and
+Schouten arrived at the Sebaldine Islands, discovered by Sebald de
+Weerdt, and followed the coast of Tierra del Fuego at a short
+distance from land. The coast ran east-quarter-south-east, and was
+skirted by high mountains covered with snow. On the 24th of January
+at mid-day, they sighted its extreme point, but eastward stretched
+some more land, which also appeared to be of great elevation. The
+distance between these two islands, according to the general opinion,
+appeared to be about twenty-four miles, and Schouten entered the
+strait which divided them. It was so encumbered with whales that the
+ship was obliged to tack more than once to avoid them. The island to
+the east received the name of Staten Island, and that to the west
+the name of Maurice of Nassau.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 52">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="572">
+			<img src="images/103.jpg" alt="The sea was so encumbered with whales">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="572" align="center">
+			The sea was so encumbered with whales.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Twenty-four hours after entering this strait, which received the
+name of Lemaire, the ship emerged from it, and to an archipelago of
+small islands situated to starboard was given the name of Barneveldt,
+in honour of the Grand Pensionary of Holland. In 58&deg; Lemaire
+doubled Cape Horn&mdash;so named in remembrance of the town where the
+expedition had been fitted out&mdash;and entered the South Sea. Lemaire
+afterwards went northwards as far as the parallel of the Juan
+Fernandez Islands, where he judged it wise to stop, in order to
+recruit his men who were suffering from scurvy. As Magellan had done,
+Lemaire and Schouten passed without perceiving them amongst the
+principal Polynesian archipelagos, and cast anchor on the 10th April,
+at the Island of Dogs, where it was only possible to procure a
+little fresh water and some herbs. They hoped to reach the Solomon
+Islands, but in the north the Dangerous Archipelago was entered, in
+which were discovered Waterland Island&mdash;so named on account of its
+containing a great lake&mdash;and Fly Island, because a cloud of these
+insects settled upon the vessel, and it was impossible to get rid of
+them until at the end of four days there was a change of wind.
+Afterwards Lemaire crossed the Friendly Archipelago, and entered
+that of the Navigators, or of Samoa, of which four small islands
+still retain the names which were then given to them: Goed Hoep,
+Cocoa, Horn, and Traitors' Islands. The inhabitants of these parts
+showed themselves extremely addicted to stealing; they tried to draw
+out the bolts from the ship and to break the chains. Scurvy
+continued to prevail among the crew, and it was therefore a great
+boon to receive from the king a present of a black boar and some
+fruits. The sovereign, who was named Latou, speedily arrived in a
+large canoe with sails, in shape like the Dutch sledges (<i>trainaux</i>),
+escorted by a flotilla of five and twenty boats. The king did not
+venture himself to go on board the <i>Concorde</i>, but his son was of a
+bolder spirit, and inquired the reason of everything he saw with the
+most lively curiosity. The next day the number of canoes was greatly
+augmented, and the Dutch perceived by certain indications that an
+attack was impending. Accordingly, a shower of stones falls on a
+sudden upon the ship, the canoes approach nearer, become annoying,
+and the Dutch to free themselves from them are forced to resort to a
+discharge of musketry. This island was rightly named Traitors'
+Island.</p>
+
+<p>It was now the 18th of May, and Lemaire ordered the course to be
+changed, that the Moluccas might be reached by the north of New
+Guinea. He probably passed within sight of the Solomon Archipelago,
+the Admiralty Islands, and the Thousand Islands (Mille Iles),
+coasting afterwards along New Guinea from 143&deg; to Geelwink
+Bay. He frequently landed, and gave names to a number of points: the
+twenty-five islands which form a part of the Admiralty Archipelago,
+the High Corner, the High Mountain (Hoogberg)&mdash;which seems to
+correspond to a portion of the neighbouring coast of Kornelis-Kinerz
+Bay&mdash;Moa and Arimoa, two islands again seen later on by Tasman, the
+island to which was given the name of Schouten, but which is now
+called Mysore and which must not be confounded with some other
+Schouten Islands situated upon the Coast of Guinea but much farther
+to the west, and finally the Cape Goede-Hoep, which appears to be
+Cape Saavedra at the western extremity of Mysore. After sighting the
+country of Papua, Schouten and Lemaire reached Gilolo, one of the
+Moluccas, where they received an eager welcome from their
+compatriots.</p>
+
+<p>When they were thoroughly rested from their fatigues and cured of
+scurvy, the Dutch went to Batavia, arriving there on the 23rd
+October, 1616, only thirteen months after quitting the Texel, and
+having lost only thirteen men during the long voyage. But the
+Company of the Indies did not at all understand their privileges
+being infringed upon, and a possibility discovered of reaching the
+colonies by a way not foreseen in the letters patent which had been
+granted to the Company at the time of its establishment. The
+Governor caused the <i>Concorde</i> to be seized, and arrested her
+officers and sailors, whom he sent off to Holland, there to be tried.
+Poor Lemaire, who had expected a totally different recompense for
+his toils and fatigues, and for the discoveries which he had made,
+could not bear up under the blow which had fallen so unexpectedly
+upon him; he fell ill of grief and died in the latitude of the
+island of Mauritius. As for Schouten, he appears not to have been
+molested upon his return to his own country, and to have made
+several voyages to the Indies, which were not distinguished by any
+fresh discovery. He was returning to Europe in 1625, when he was
+forced by bad weather to enter Antongil Bay, upon the east coast of
+Madagascar, where he died.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the history of this important expedition, which by means of
+Strait Lemaire opened up a shorter and less dangerous route than
+that by Magellan's Strait, an expedition signalized by several
+discoveries in Oceania, and by a more attentive exploration of
+points already seen by Spanish or Portuguese navigators. But it is
+often a matter of difficulty to settle with accuracy to which of
+these nations the discovery of certain islands, countries, or
+archipelagos in the neighbourhood of Australia, may be due.</p>
+
+<p>Since we are speaking of the Dutch, we shall put the chronological
+order of discoveries a little on one side, that we may relate as
+well as those of Mendana and Quiros, the expeditions of Jan Abel
+Tasman.</p>
+
+<p>What was the early history of Tasman, by what concurrence of
+circumstances did he embrace the profession of a sailor, by what
+means did he acquire the nautical skill and science of which he gave
+so many proofs, and which conducted him to his important
+discoveries? From ignorance we cannot answer these questions, all we
+know of his biography commences with his departure from Batavia on
+2nd June, 1639. After passing the Philippines, he would seem during
+this first voyage to have visited in company with Matthew Quast the
+Bonin Islands, then known by the fantastic title of "the Gold and
+Silver Islands."</p>
+
+<p>In a second expedition, composed of two vessels of which he had the
+chief command, and which sailed from Batavia on the 14th of August,
+1642, he reached the Mauritius on the 5th September, and afterwards
+sailed to the south-east, seeking for the Australian Continent. On
+the 24th November in latitude 42&deg; 25' south, he
+discovered land, to which he gave the name of Van-Diemen, after the
+Governor of the Sunda Islands, but which is now with much greater
+justice called Tasmania. He anchored there in Fredrik Hendrik Bay,
+and ascertained that the country was inhabited, although he could
+not see a single native.</p>
+
+<p>After following this coast for a certain time, he sailed eastwards,
+with the intention of afterwards making once more for the north, to
+reach the Solomon Archipelago. On the 13th December, in latitude 42&deg;
+10', he came in sight of a mountainous country which
+he followed towards the north, until the 18th December, when he cast
+anchor in a bay; but even the boldest of the savages whom he met
+with there, did not approach the ship within a stone's throw. Their
+voices were rough, their stature tall, their colour brown inclining
+to yellow, and their black hair, which was nearly as long as that of
+the Japanese, was worn drawn up to the crown of the head. On the
+morrow they summoned courage to go on board one of the vessels and
+carry on traffic by means of barter. Tasman, upon seeing these
+pacific dispositions, despatched a boat for the purpose of obtaining
+a more accurate knowledge of the shore. Of the sailors who manned it,
+three were killed without provocation by the natives, while the
+others escaped by swimming, and were picked up by the ships' boats,
+but by the time they were in readiness to fire upon the assailants,
+these had disappeared. The spot where this sad event happened,
+received the name of Assassins' (Moordenaars) Bay. Tasman, who felt
+convinced that he could not carry on any intercourse with such
+fierce people, weighed anchor and sailed up the coast as far as its
+extreme point, which he named Cape Maria Van-Diemen, in honour of
+his "lady," for a legend states that having had the audacity to
+pretend to the hand of the daughter of the governor of the East
+Indies, the latter had sent him to sea with two dilapidated ships,
+the <i>Heemskerke</i> and the <i>Zeechen</i>.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 53">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="577">
+			<img src="images/104.jpg" alt="Three were killed by the natives without provocation">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="577" align="center">
+			Three were killed by the natives without provocation.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The land thus discovered received the name of Staaten Land, soon
+changed into that of New Zealand. On the 21st January, 1643, Tasman
+discovered the islands of Amsterdam and Rotterdam, upon which he
+found a great quantity of pigs, fowls, and fruit. On the 6th
+February, the ships entered an archipelago, consisting of a score of
+islands, which were called Prince William Islands, and after
+sighting Anthong-Java, Tasman followed the coast of New Guinea from
+Cape Santa Maria, passed by the various points previously discovered
+by Lemaire and Schouten, and anchored off Batavia on the 15th June
+following, after a ten months' voyage.</p>
+
+<p>In a second expedition, Tasman, in obedience to his orders dated
+1664, was to visit Van Diemen's Land, and to make a careful
+examination of the western coast of New Guinea, as far as 17&deg;
+south latitude, in order to ascertain whether that island belonged
+to the Australian Continent. It does not appear that Tasman carried
+out this programme, but the loss of his journals causes complete
+uncertainty as to the route which he followed, and the discoveries
+which he may have made. From this time there is no record of the
+events which marked the close of his career, nor of the place and
+date of his death.</p>
+
+<p>From the period of the taking of Malacca by Albuquerque, the
+Portuguese conceived that a new world extended to the south of Asia.
+Their ideas were soon shared by the Spaniards, and henceforward a
+series of voyages were made on the Pacific Ocean, to search for a
+southern continent, of which the existence appeared geographically
+necessary to counterbalance the immense extent of the lands already
+known. Java the Great, designated later by the names of New Holland
+and Australia, had been seen by the French perhaps, or as is more
+probable by Saavedra, from 1530 to 1540, and it was sought for by a
+crowd of navigators, amongst whom we may mention the Portuguese,
+Serrao and Meneses, and the Spaniards, Saavedra, Hernando de
+Grijalva, Alvarado, and Inigo Ortiz de Retes, who explored the
+greater part of the islands to the north of New Guinea, as well as
+that great island itself. Afterwards come Mendana, Torrès, and
+Quiros, upon whose deeds we shall pause a little, on account of the
+importance and authenticity of the discoveries which we owe to them.</p>
+
+<p>Alvaro Mendana de Neyra was nephew to the Governor of Lima, Don
+Pedro de Castro, who warmly advocated with the home government his
+nephew's project of searching for new countries in the Pacific Ocean.
+Mendana was one-and-twenty when he took the command of two ships and
+one hundred and twenty-five soldiers and sailors. He sailed from
+Callao, the port of Lima, on the 19th November, 1567. After sighting
+the small Island of Jesus, he discovered on the 7th February between
+7&deg; and 8&deg; south latitude, the Island of Santa Isabella,
+where the Spaniards built a brigantine, with which they explored the
+archipelago of which this island was a part. "The inhabitants," says
+the narrative of a companion of Mendana, "are anthropophagi, they
+devour those whom they can make their prisoners in war, and even
+without being in open hostility, those whom they can succeed in
+taking by treachery." One of the chiefs in the island sent to
+Mendana as a delicacy, a quarter of a child, but the Spanish
+commander caused it to be buried in the presence of the natives, who
+appeared much hurt by an act which they could not understand. The
+Spaniards explored the Island las Palmas (Palm Island), los
+Ramos&mdash;so named because it was discovered on Palm Sunday&mdash;Galley
+Island, and Buena-Vista, of which the inhabitants, under the
+appearance of friendship concealed hostile intentions, which were
+not long in displaying themselves. The same reception awaited the
+Spaniards at the Island San Dimas, at Sesarga, and at Guadalcanar,
+upon which ginger was found for the first time. In the return voyage
+to Santa Isabella, the Spaniards pursued a course which enabled them
+to discover St. George Island, where they found bats as large as
+kites. Scarcely had the crew of the brigantine cast anchor in the
+harbour of Santa Isabella, than they were obliged again to weigh it,
+for the place was so unhealthy that five soldiers died and a great
+number of others were taken ill. Mendana stopped at the Island of
+Guadalcanar, where out of ten men who had landed to fetch water, one
+negro alone escaped from the attacks of the natives, who were
+extremely angry at one of their fellows having been carried off by
+the Spaniards. The punishment was terrible; twenty men were killed
+and a number of houses burnt. Mendana afterwards visited several
+islands of the Solomon archipelago, amongst others the Three Maries
+and San Juan. Upon the latter island, whilst the ships were being
+repaired and calked, several affrays with the natives occurred, in
+which some prisoners were made. After this checkered rest, Mendana
+again put to sea, and visited the islands of San Christoval, Santa
+Catalina, and Santa Anna. But as by this time the number of invalids
+was considerable, the provisions and ammunition nearly exhausted,
+and the rigging become rotten, the flotilla now set out to return to
+Peru. The separation of the flagship, the discovery of certain
+islands which it is difficult to identify, and probably of the
+Sandwich Islands; violent storms, during which the sails were
+carried away; the sickness caused by the insufficiency and
+putrefaction of the water and biscuit on board, were all incidents
+signalizing this long and trying return voyage, which was ended by
+the arrival of the ships at the port of Colima in California after
+five months of navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The narrative of Mendana excited no enthusiasm, in spite of the name
+of Solomon which he gave to the archipelago discovered by him, to
+make it believed that from thence came the treasures of the Jewish
+King. Marvellous recitals had no longer any fascination for men
+glutted with the riches of Peru. Proofs were what they demanded; the
+smallest nugget of gold, or the least grain of silver would have
+been more satisfactory to them.</p>
+
+<p>Mendana had twenty-seven years to wait before he was able to
+organize another expedition, but then his fleet was a large one, it
+being proposed to found a colony in the island of San Christoval
+which Alvaro de Mendana had seen during his first voyage. Thus four
+ships carrying nearly four hundred people sailed from the port of
+Lima on the 11th April, 1595. Amongst those on board may be named
+Doña Isabella, wife of Mendana, the three brothers-in-law of the
+general, and the pilot Pedro Fernandez Quiros, who later on
+distinguished himself as commander-in-chief of another expedition.
+The fleet did not finally leave the Peruvian coast, where its
+equipment had been completed, until the 16th April. At the end of a
+month's navigation, not distinguished by any remarkable incident, an
+island was discovered, which according to custom received the name
+of the saint whose day it was, and was called Magdalena. Immediately
+the fleet was surrounded by a crowd of canoes bearing more than four
+hundred Indians, of fine stature and nearly white, and who while
+presenting cocoa-nuts and other fruits to the sailors, appeared to
+entreat them to disembark. The natives no sooner came on board than
+they began to pilfer, and it was necessary to fire a cannon to get
+rid of them; a wound which one of the natives received in the fray
+soon changed their disposition, and a discharge of musketry was the
+reply to the shower of arrows which they let fly from their boats.
+Not far from this island three others were discovered, San Pedro,
+Dominica, and Santa Christina, and the name of <i>las Marquezas de
+Mendoça</i> was given to the group, in honour of the governor of Peru.
+So friendly had been the intercourse at the beginning, that an
+Indian woman upon seeing the beautiful fair hair of Doña Isabella de
+Mendana had begged her by signs to give her a curl of it; but by the
+fault of the Spaniards the mutual relations speedily became hostile,
+and so continued until the day when the natives, becoming conscious
+of the great inferiority of their arms, begged for peace.</p>
+
+<p>On the 5th August the Spanish flotilla again put to sea and made
+1200 miles west-north-west. On the 20th August were discovered the
+St. Bernard, since called Dangerous Islands, and afterwards Queen
+Charlotte's Islands, upon which notwithstanding the scarcity of
+provisions, no landing was made. After Solitary Island&mdash;a name which
+explains its situation&mdash;the Santa Cruz archipelago was reached. But
+at this time, during a storm, the flagship became separated from the
+fleet, and although search was made several times, no tidings of her
+were obtained. Fifty canoes, carrying a crowd of natives of a tawny
+complexion, or of a lustrous black, immediately approached the ships.
+"All had frizzled hair, black, red, or some other colour (for it was
+dyed); their teeth also were dyed red; the head was half shaven, the
+body was naked, except a small veil of fine linen, the face and the
+arms painted black, glittering and striped with various colours; the
+neck and limbs loaded with several strings of small beads, of gold,
+or of black wood, of fishes' teeth, or of a species of medals made
+of mother of pearl, or of pearls." For arms they carried bows,
+poisoned arrows with sharp points hardened in the fire, or tipped
+with bone and steeped in the juice of a herb, great stones, heavy
+wooden swords made of stiff wood, with three harpoon points, each
+more than a handbreadth long. Slung over their shoulders they had
+haversacks exceedingly well made out of palm leaves, and filled with
+biscuits made from certain roots which serve them for food.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 54">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="574">
+			<img src="images/105.jpg" alt="Doña Isabella consults the officers">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="574" align="center">
+			Doña Isabella consults the officers.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>At first Mendana thought he recognized in these natives the
+inhabitants of the islands he was seeking, but he was quickly
+undeceived. The vessels were received with a shower of arrows, which
+was the more vexatious because Mendana, seeing that he could not
+find the Solomon Islands, had determined to establish his colony in
+this archipelago. At this juncture, discord reigned among the
+Spaniards; a revolt fomented against the general was almost
+immediately suppressed, and the guilty were executed. But these
+sorrowful events and the fatigues of the voyage had so completely
+undermined the health of the head of the expedition, that he died on
+the 17th October, after having had time to indicate his wife as his
+successor in the conduct of the enterprise. After the death of
+Mendana the hostilities with the natives redoubled, and many of the
+Spaniards were so exhausted by sickness and hardships, that a score
+of thoroughly determined natives might easily have gained the
+mastery over them. To persist in the intention of founding a
+settlement under such conditions would have been folly; all agreed
+in this, and the anchor was raised on the 18th November. Doña
+Isabella de Mendana's project was to go to Manilla, and there to
+obtain recruits from amongst the colonists, with whom she would
+return to found a settlement. She consulted the officers, who all
+gave their approval in writing; and she found in Quiros a devotion
+and skill which were speedily to be put to a severe proof. They at
+once steered away from New Guinea, in order to avoid being entangled
+amongst the numerous archipelagos surrounding it, and also to enable
+them sooner to reach the Philippines, which the dilapidated state of
+the ships rendered necessary. After passing within sight of several
+islands surrounded by reefs of madrepore, upon which the crews
+wished to land, a permission which Quiros with great prudence always
+refused, after having been separated from one of the ships of the
+squadron, which could not or would not follow, the flotilla arrived
+at the Ladrone&mdash;soon to be called the Marianne&mdash;Islands. The
+Spaniards went on shore several times to buy some provisions; the
+natives did not desire either their silver or gold, but set the
+highest value upon iron and all tools made of that metal. The
+narrative contains here some details upon the veneration shown by
+the natives towards their ancestors, which are curious enough to
+warrant our reproducing them verbatim: "They take out the bones from
+the bodies of their relations, burn the flesh, and mixing the ashes
+with <i>tuba</i>, a wine made from the cocoa palm, swallow them. They
+weep for the dead every year for a whole week; there are a great
+number of female mourners, who are to be hired for the purpose.
+Besides that, all the neighbours come to weep in the house of the
+deceased; the compliment being returned to them when the turn comes
+for the feast to take place at their house. These anniversaries are
+much frequented, all those assisting at them being liberally regaled.
+They weep all day and drink to intoxication all night. They recite
+in the midst of tears, the life and deeds of the dead, beginning
+with the moment of his birth, and dealing with the whole course of
+his life, recounting his strength, his height, his beauty, in a word,
+all that can in any way do him honour. If some amusing action occur
+in the recital, the company begin to laugh as if they would split
+their sides; then on a sudden they drink and are again drowned in
+tears. There are sometimes two hundred persons present at these
+absurd anniversaries." When the Spanish crew arrived at the
+Philippines, it was scarcely more than a company of skeletons,
+emaciated and half dead with hunger. Doña Isabella landed at Manilla
+on the 11th February, 1596, under a salute from the guns, and was
+solemnly received in the midst of the troops drawn up under arms.
+The rest of the crew, fifty having died since the departure from
+Santa Cruz, were housed and fed at the public expense, and the women
+all found husbands in Manilla, except four or five who embraced the
+religious life. As for Doña Isabella, she was escorted back to Peru
+some time afterwards by Quiros, who lost no time in submitting to
+the viceroy a project for a fresh voyage. But Luis de Velasco, who
+had succeeded Mendoza, referred the navigator to the King of Spain
+and the Council of the Indies, under the pretext that such a
+decision would overstep the limits of his authority. Quiros
+therefore went to Spain and thence to Rome, where he received a
+kindly welcome from the Pope, who recommended him warmly to Philip
+III. At length in 1605, after numberless applications and
+solicitations, he was empowered to fit out at Lima the two vessels
+which he should judge the most suitable for the investigation of the
+Australian continent and for continuing the discoveries of Mendana.
+With two ships and one light vessel, Quiros set out from Callao on
+the 21st December, 1605. At 3000 miles from Peru he had as yet
+discovered no land. In latitude 25&deg; south he observed a group of
+small islands belonging to the Dangerous archipelago. These were the
+<i>Convercion de San Pablo</i>, the <i>Osnabrugh</i> of Wallis, and <i>Decena</i>,
+so named because it was the tenth island seen. Although this island
+was defended by rocks, intercourse was carried on with the natives,
+whose dwellings were scattered about amongst palm-trees on the sea
+shore. The natives were strong and well proportioned, and their
+chief wore on his head a kind of crown made of small black feathers
+so fine and supple that they might have been taken for silk. His
+fair hair, which descended to the waist, excited the wonder of the
+Spaniards, who, not being able to understand how a man with so
+tawny coloured a face could have such light yellow hair, "chose to
+think that he was married, and that he wore his wife's hair." This
+singular colour was only due to the habitual use of powdered lime,
+which burns the hair and causes it to turn yellow.</p>
+
+<p>This island to which Quiros gave the name of Sagittaria, is,
+according to Fleurieu, Tahiti, one of the principal of the group of
+Society Islands. On the succeeding days Quiros sighted several other
+islands, upon which he did not land, and to which he gave names
+taken from the Calendar, according to a practice which has changed
+all the native nomenclature of Oceania into a veritable litany. One
+island visited may be especially noticed; it was named the island of
+<i>la Gente Hermosa</i> on account of the beauty of its inhabitants, and
+of the fair colour and coquetry of its women, who, as the Spaniards
+declared, even bore away the palm for grace and attractiveness from
+their own fellow-countrywomen of Lima, whose beauty is proverbial.
+This island, according to Quiros, was situated upon the same
+parallel as Santa Cruz, to which he intended to go. He therefore
+sailed westward and reached an island called by the natives Taumaco,
+in 10&deg; south latitude and 240 miles east of Santa Cruz. This
+must have been one of the Duff Islands, and here Quiros was told
+that if he directed his course southwards, he would discover a great
+land, of which the inhabitants were whiter than those whom he had
+hitherto seen. This information determined him to abandon his scheme
+of going to Santa Cruz. He steered in a south-westerly direction,
+and after having sighted several small islands, he arrived on the
+1st May, 1606, in a bay more than twenty-four miles broad. He gave
+to this island the name which it still bears, of Espiritu Santo. It
+was one of the New Hebrides group. What events happened during the
+stay of the ships here? The narrative is silent upon this subject,
+but we know from other sources that the crew mutinied, made Quiros
+prisoner, and abandoning the second ship and the brigantine, set out
+on the 11th June to return to America, where they arrived on the 3rd
+October, 1606, after a nine months' voyage. M. Ed. Charton throws no
+light upon this incident. He is silent upon the mutiny of the crew,
+and even throws all the blame of the separation upon the commander
+of the second vessel, Luis Vaes de Torrès, who abandoned his chief
+in quitting Espiritu Santo. Now it is known by a letter from Torrès
+himself to the King of Spain&mdash;published by Lord Stanley at the end
+of his English edition of Antoine de Morga's <i>History of the
+Philippines</i>&mdash;that he remained "fifteen" days waiting for Quiros in
+the Bay of Saint Philip and Saint James. The officers met in council,
+resolved to weigh anchor on the 26th June, and to continue the
+search for the Australian continent. Hindered by bad weather, which
+prevents him from sailing round Espiritu Santo Island, assailed by
+the demands of a crew over whom prevails a slight breath of mutiny,
+Torrès decides to steer to the north-east to reach the Spanish
+Islands. In 11&deg; 30' he discovers land, which he
+imagines must be the commencement of New Guinea. "All this land is
+part of New Guinea," says Torrès, "it is peopled by Indians who are
+not very white, and who go naked, although their middles are covered
+with the bark of trees.... They fight with javelins, bucklers, and
+certain clubs of stone, the whole adorned with beautiful feathers.
+All along this land there are other inhabited islands. Upon the
+whole of this coast there are numerous and vast harbours, with very
+broad rivers and great plains. Outside these islands stretch reefs
+and shallows; the islands are between these dangers and the mainland,
+and a channel runs between. We took possession of these harbours in
+your Majesty's name. Having pursued this coast for 900 miles, and
+seen our latitude decrease from 2&frac12;&deg; until we found
+ourselves in 9&deg;, at this point commenced a shoal of from
+three to nine fathoms deep, which stretched along the coast to 7&frac12;&deg;.
+Not being able to proceed farther on account of the
+numerous shallows and powerful currents which we encountered, we
+decided to alter our course to the south-west, by the deep channel
+which has been mentioned, as far as about 11&deg;. There is there,
+from one end to the other, an archipelago of innumerable islands, by
+which I passed. At the end of the eleventh degree the bottom became
+deeper. There were some very large islands there, and there appeared
+to be more of them towards the south; they were inhabited by a black
+population, very robust and quite naked, bearing for arms, strong
+and long spears, arrows, and stone clubs roughly fashioned."</p>
+
+<p>Modern geographers are agreed in recognizing in the localities thus
+described, that portion of the Australian Coast which ends in York
+Peninsula, and the extremity of New Guinea recently visited by
+Captain Moresby. It was known that Torrès had entered the strait
+which has been named after him, and which divides New Guinea from
+Cape York; but the very recent exploration of the south-eastern
+portion of New Guinea, of which the population has been discovered
+to be of a comparatively light colour and differing much from the
+Papous, has just furnished an unexpected confirmation of the
+discoveries of Quiros. It is for this reason that we have dwelt at
+some length upon them, referring for the purpose to a very learned
+work of M. E. T. Hamy, which appeared in the <i>Bulletin de la Société
+de Géographie</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It behoves us now to say a few words about some travellers who
+explored some unfrequented countries, and furnished their
+contemporaries with more exact knowledge of a world until then
+almost unknown. The first of these travellers is François Pyrard, of
+Laval. Having embarked in 1601 on board a St. Malo ship to go to the
+Indies to trade, he was wrecked in the Maldive Archipelago. These
+islets or atolls (detached coral reefs,) to the number of at least
+12,000, descend into the Indian Ocean from Cape Comorin as far as
+the equator. The worthy Pyrard relates his shipwreck, the flight of
+a portion of his companions in captivity in the archipelago, and his
+long sojourn of seven years upon the Maldive Islands, a stay
+rendered almost agreeable by the pains which he took to acquire the
+native language. He had plenty of time to learn the manners, customs,
+religion, and industries of the inhabitants, as well as to study the
+productions and climate of the country. Thus his narrative is filled
+with details of all kinds, and had retained its attractions until
+recent years, because travellers do not voluntarily frequent this
+unhealthy archipelago, the isolated situation of which had kept away
+foreigners and conquerors. Pyrard's narrative therefore, is still
+instructive and agreeable reading.</p>
+
+<p>In 1607, a fleet was sent to the Maldives by the King of Bengal, in
+order to carry off the 100 or 120 cannon which the Maldive sovereign
+owed to the wreck of numerous Portuguese vessels. Pyrard,
+notwithstanding all the liberty allowed him, and that he had become
+a landholder, was desirous to behold his beloved Brittany once more.
+He therefore eagerly embraced this opportunity of quitting the
+Archipelago with the three companions who out of the whole crew
+alone remained with him. But the eventful travels of Pyrard were not
+yet concluded. Taken first to Ceylon, he was carried afterwards to
+Bengal, and endeavoured to reach Cochin. Before reaching this town
+he was captured by the Portuguese and carried prisoner to Cochin; he
+afterwards fell ill and was nursed in the Hospital of Goa which he
+only quitted to serve for two years as a soldier, at the end of
+which time he was again thrown into prison, and it was not until
+1611, that he was able to revisit the good town of Laval. After so
+many trials, Pyrard must doubtless have felt the need of repose, and
+we are justified in imagining, from the silence of history as to the
+close of his life, that he was privileged at length to find
+happiness.</p>
+
+<p>While the honest burgess François Pyrard, was, so to speak, in spite
+of himself, and from having indulged the desire of making a fortune
+too rapidly, launched into adventures in which he had to pass much
+of his life, circumstances of a different and romantic kind caused
+Pietro della Valle to determine upon travelling. Descendant of an
+ancient and noble family, he is by turns a soldier of the Pope, and
+a sailor chasing Barbary corsairs. Upon his return to Rome he finds
+that a rival, profiting by his absence, has taken his place with a
+young girl whom he was to have married. So great a misfortune
+demands an heroic remedy, and Della Valle makes a vow of pilgrimage
+to the Holy Sepulchre. But if, as saith the proverb, there is no
+road which does not lead to Rome, so there is no circuit so long as
+not to lead to Jerusalem, and of this Della Valle was to make proof.
+He embarks at Venice in 1614, passes thirteen months at
+Constantinople, reaches Alexandria by sea, afterwards Cairo, and
+joins a caravan which at length brings him to Jerusalem. But while
+en route, Delia Valle had no doubt imbibed a taste for a traveller's
+life, for he visits in succession Baghdad, Damascus, Aleppo, and
+even pushes on as far as the ruins of Babylon. We must believe that
+Della Valle was marked out as an easy prey to love, for upon his
+return he becomes enamoured of a young Christian woman of Mardin, of
+wondrous beauty, whom he marries. One would imagine that here at
+length is fixed the destiny of this indefatigable traveller. Nothing
+of the kind. Della Valle contrives to accompany the Shah in his war
+against the Turks, and to traverse during four consecutive years the
+provinces of Iran. He quits Ispahan in 1621, loses his wife in the
+month of December of the same year, causes her to be embalmed, and
+has her coffin carried about in his train for four years longer,
+which he devotes to exploring Ormuz, the western coasts of India,
+the Persian Gulf, Aleppo, and Syria, landing at length at Naples in
+1626.</p>
+
+<p>The countries which this singular character visited, urged on as he
+was by an extraordinary enthusiasm, are described by him in a shrewd,
+gay, and natural style, and even with some degree of fidelity. But
+he inaugurates the pleiad of amateur, curious, and commercial
+travellers. He is the first of that prolific race of tourists who
+each year encumber geographical literature with numerous volumes,
+from which the savant finds nothing to glean beyond meagre details.</p>
+
+<p>Tavernier is a specimen of insatiable curiosity. At two-and-twenty
+he has traversed France, England, the Low Countries, Germany,
+Switzerland, Poland, Hungary, and Italy. Then when Europe no longer
+offers any food for his curiosity, he starts for Constantinople,
+where he remains for a year, and then arrives in Persia, where the
+opportunity and</p>
+
+<center><small>Quelque diable, aussi, le poussant,</small></center>
+
+<p>he sets to work to purchase carpets, stuffs, precious stones, and
+those thousand trifles of which lovers of curiosities soon became
+passionately fond, and for which they were ready to pay fabulous
+sums. The profit which Tavernier realized from his cargo induced him
+to resume his travels. But like a wise and prudent man, before
+starting he learnt from a jeweller the art of knowing precious
+stones. During four successive journeys from 1638 to 1663, he
+travelled over Persia, the Mogul Empire, the Indies as far as the
+frontier of China, and the Islands of Sunda. Dazzled by the immense
+fortune which his traffic had obtained for him, Tavernier would play
+the lord, and soon saw himself on the verge of ruin, which he hoped
+to avert by sending one of his nephews to the east with a
+considerable venture, but instead, his ruin was consummated by this
+young man, who, judging it best to appropriate the goods which had
+been confided to him, settled down at Ispahan. Tavernier, who was a
+well-educated man, made a number of interesting observations upon
+the history, manners and customs, of the countries which he visited.
+His narrative certainly contributed to give his contemporaries a
+much more correct idea of the countries of the east than they
+previously possessed.</p>
+
+<p>All travellers during the reign of Louis XIV. take the route to the
+East Indies, whatever may be the end they have in view. Africa is
+entirely deserted, and if America be the theatre of any real
+exploration, it is carried out without aid from government.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst Tavernier was accomplishing his last and distant excursions,
+a distinguished archæologist, Jean de Thévenot, nephew of
+Melchisedec Thévenot&mdash;a learned man to whom we owe an interesting
+series of travels&mdash;journeyed through Europe, and visited Malta,
+Constantinople, Egypt, Tunis, and Italy. He brought back in 1661 an
+important collection of medals and monumental inscriptions,
+recognized nowadays as so important a help to the historian and the
+philologist. In 1664, he set out anew for the Levant, and visited
+Persia, Bassorah, Surat, and India, where he saw Masulipatam,
+Burhampur, Aurungabad, and Golconda. But the fatigues which he had
+experienced prevented his return to Europe, and he died in Armenia
+in 1667. The success of his narratives was considerable, and was
+well deserved by the care and exactitude of a traveller whose
+scientific attainments in history, geography, and mathematics, far
+surpassed the average level of his contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>We must now speak of the amiable Bernier, the "pretty philosopher,"
+as he was entitled in his polite circle, in which were found Ninon
+and La Fontaine, Madame de la Sablière, St. Evremont, and Chapelle,
+without reckoning many other good and gay spirits, refractories from
+the stiff solemnity which then weighed upon the entourage of Louis
+XIV. Bernier could not escape from the fashion of travelling. After
+having taken a rapid survey of Syria and Egypt, he resided for
+twelve years in India, where his good knowledge of medicine
+conciliated the favour of Aurung-Zebe, and gave him the opportunity
+of beholding in detail, and with profit, an empire then in the full
+bloom of its prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>To the south of Hindostan, Ceylon had more than one surprise in
+reserve for its explorers. Robert Knox, taken prisoner by the
+natives, owed to this sad circumstance his long residence in the
+country and the collection of the first authentic documents relating
+to the forests and the savage natives of Ceylon, the Dutch, with a
+commercial jealousy which they were not singular in evincing, having
+until now kept secret all the information which had come to light
+concerning an island of which they were endeavouring to make a
+colony.</p>
+<a name="fax48"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 48">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="587">
+			<img src="images/106.jpg" alt="Jean Chardin">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="587" align="center">
+			Jean Chardin.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Another merchant, Jean Chardin, the son of a rich Parisian jeweller,
+jealous of the successes of Tavernier, desired, like him, to make
+his fortune by trading in diamonds. The countries which attract
+these merchants are those of which the fame for wealth and
+prosperity is become proverbial; these are Persia and India, where
+rich costumes sparkle with jewels and gold, and where there are
+mines of diamonds of a fabulous size. The moment is well chosen for
+visiting these countries. Thanks to the Mogul Emperors, civilization
+and art have been developed; mosques, palaces, temples have been
+built, and towns have risen suddenly. Their taste&mdash;that curious
+taste, so distinctly characterized, so different from our own,&mdash;is
+displayed in the construction of gigantic edifices, quite as much as
+in jewellery and goldsmith's work, and in the manufacture of those
+costly trifles of which the east was beginning to be passionately
+fond. Like a wise man, Chardin takes a partner, as good a
+connoisseur as himself. At first Chardin only traversed Persia in
+order to reach Ormuz and to embark for the Indies. The following
+year he returns to Ispahan, and applies himself to learn the
+language of the country, in order to be able to transact business
+directly and without any intermediary agent. He has the good fortune
+to please the Shah, Abbas II. From that time his fortune is made,
+for it is at once genteel and also the part of a prudent courtier to
+employ the same purveyor as his sovereign. But Chardin had another
+merit besides that of making a fortune. He was able to collect so
+considerable a mass of information concerning the government,
+manners, creeds, customs, towns, and populations of Persia, that his
+narrative has remained to our own days the <i>vade-mecum</i> of the
+traveller. This guide is so much the more precious because Chardin
+took care to engage at Constantinople a clever draughtsman named
+Grelot, by whom were reproduced the monuments, cities, scenes,
+costumes, and ceremonies which so well portray what Chardin called,
+"the every day of a people."</p>
+
+<p>When Chardin returned to France in 1670, the Revocation of the Edict
+of Nantes, with the barbarous persecutions which resulted from it,
+had chased from their country great numbers of artisans, who, taking
+refuge in foreign countries enriched them with our arts and
+manufactures. Chardin, being a protestant, clearly perceived that
+his religion would hinder him from attaining "to what are termed
+honours and advancement." As, to use his own words, "one is not free
+to believe what one will," he resolved to return to the Indies
+"where, without being urged to a change of religion," he could not
+fail of attaining an honourable position. Thus liberty of conscience
+was at that period greater in Persia than in France. Such an
+assertion on the part of a man who had made the comparison, is but
+little flattering to the grandson of Henry IV.</p>
+
+<p>This time, however, Chardin did not follow the same route as before.
+He passed by Smyrna and Constantinople, and from thence, crossing
+the Black Sea, he landed in the Crimea, in the garb of a religious.
+Whilst passing through the region of the Caucasus he had the
+opportunity of studying the Abkasians and Circassians. He afterwards
+penetrated into Mingrelia, where he was robbed of his goods and
+papers, and of a portion of the jewels which he was taking back to
+Europe. He could not have escaped himself had it not been for the
+devotion to him of the theatines, from whom he had received
+hospitality, but he escaped only to fall into the hands of the Turks,
+who, in their turn, accepted a ransom for him. After further
+misadventures he arrived at Tiflis on the 17th of December, 1672,
+and as Georgia was then governed by a prince who was a tributary of
+the Shah of Persia, it was easy for Chardin to reach Erivan, Tauriz,
+and finally Ispahan.</p>
+
+<p>After a stay of four years in Persia, and a concluding journey to
+India, during which he realized a considerable fortune, Chardin
+returned to Europe and settled in England, his own country on
+account of his religion, being forbidden ground to him.</p>
+
+<p>The journal of his travels forms a large work, in which everything
+that concerns Persia is especially developed. The long stay he made
+in the country and his intimate acquaintance with the highest
+personages of the state enabled him to collect numerous and
+authentic documents. It may fairly be said that in this way Persia
+was better known in the seventeenth century than it was 100 years
+later.</p>
+
+<p>The countries which Chardin had just explored were visited again
+some years later by a Dutch painter, Cornelius de Bruyn, or Le Brun.
+The great value of his work consists in the beauty and accuracy of
+the drawings which illustrate it, for as far as the text is
+concerned, it contains nothing which was not known before, except in
+what relates to the Samoyedes, whom he was the first to visit.</p>
+<a name="fax49"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 49">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="592">
+			<img src="images/107.jpg" alt="Japanese Warrior">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="592" align="center">
+			Japanese Warrior.<br>
+			<small><i>From an old print</i>.</small>
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We must now speak of the Westphalian, Kæmpfer, almost a naturalized
+Swede in consequence of his long sojourn in Scandinavian countries.
+He refused the brilliant position which was there offered him in
+order to accompany as secretary, an ambassador who was going to
+Moscow. He was thus enabled to see the principal cities of Russia, a
+country which at that period had scarcely entered upon the path of
+western civilization; afterwards he went to Persia, where he quitted
+the Ambassador Fabricius, in order to enter the service of the Dutch
+Company of the Indies, and to continue his travels. He thus visited
+in the first place Persepolis, Shiraz, Ormuz upon the Persian Gulf,
+where he was extremely ill, and whence he embarked in 1688 for the
+East Indies. Arabia Felix, India, the Malabar Coast, Ceylon, Java,
+Sumatra, and Japan were afterwards all visited by him. The object of
+these journeys was exclusively scientific. Kæmpfer was a physician,
+but was more especially devoted to the various branches of Natural
+History, and collected, described, drew, or dried, a considerable
+number of plants then unknown in Europe, gave new information upon
+their use in medicine or manufactures, and collected an immense
+herbarium, which is now preserved with the greater part of his
+manuscripts in the British Museum in London. But the most
+interesting portion of his narrative, now-a-days indeed quite
+obsolete and very incomplete since the country has been opened up to
+our scientific men,&mdash;was for a long time that relating to Japan. He
+had contrived to procure books treating of the history, literature,
+and learning of the country, when he had failed in obtaining from
+certain personages to whom he had rendered himself very acceptable,
+information which was not usually imparted to foreigners.</p>
+
+<p>To conclude, if all the travellers of whom we have just spoken are
+not strictly speaking discoverers, if they do not explore countries
+unknown before, they all have, in various degrees and according to
+their ability or their studies, the merit of having rendered the
+countries which they visited better known. Besides they were able to
+banish to the domain of fable, many of the tales which others less
+learned had naïvely accepted, and which had for long become so
+completely public property that nobody dreamed of disputing them.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to these travellers, something is known of the history of the
+east, the migrations of nations began to be dimly suspected, and
+accounts to be given of the changes in those great empires of which
+the very existence had been long problematical.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c6"></a>
+<h4>CHAPTER VI.</h4>
+
+<center>I.<br>
+T<small>HE</small> G<small>REAT</small> C<small>ORSAIR</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>William Dampier; or a Sea-King of the Seventeenth Century.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>William Dampier was born in 1612 at East Coker, and by the death of
+his parents was from his childhood left to his own control. Not
+possessing any great taste for study, he preferred running wild in
+the woods, and fighting with his companions, to remaining in his
+place on the school benches. While still young he was sent to sea as
+cabin-boy on board merchant ships. After a voyage to Newfoundland
+and a campaign in the East Indies, he took service in the Naval
+Marine, and being wounded in a battle, returned to Greenwich to be
+nursed. Free from any prejudices, Dampier forgot his engagement when
+he left the Military Hospital, and started for Jamaica in the
+position of manager of a plantation. It did not require a long trial
+to discover that this occupation was not to his taste. So he
+abandoned his negroes at the end of six months, and went on board a
+ship bound for the Bay of Campeachy, where he worked for three years
+at gathering in woods for dyeing.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of that period he is again found in London, but the laws
+and the officers charged with compelling their observance are too
+strict for his comfort. He goes back to Jamaica, where he speedily
+puts himself into communication with those famous buccaneers and
+corsairs, who at that time did so much harm to the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>These English or French adventurers, established in the Island of
+Tortuga, off the coast of San Domingo, had sworn implacable hatred
+to Spain. Their ravages were not confined to the Gulf of Mexico:
+they crossed the Isthmus of Panama and devastated the coast of the
+Pacific Ocean from the Strait of Magellan to California. Terror
+exaggerated the exploits of these pirates, which however presented
+something of the marvellous.</p>
+
+<p>It was amongst these adventurers, then commanded by Harris, Sawkins,
+and Shays, that Dampier enrolled himself. In 1680 we find him in
+Darien, where he pillages Santa Maria, endeavours in vain to
+surprise Panama, and with his companions, on board of some wretched
+canoes stolen from the Indians, captures eight vessels well armed,
+which were at anchor not far from the town. In this affair the
+losses of the corsairs are so great in the fight, and the spoil is
+so poor, that they separate from each other. Some go back to the
+Gulf of Mexico, while others establish themselves upon the island of
+Juan Fernandez, whence shortly after they attack Arica. But here
+again they were so roughly handled that a new secession takes place,
+and Dampier is sent to Virginia, where his captain hoped to make
+some recruits. There Captain Cook was fitting out a vessel, with the
+intention of reaching the Pacific by the Strait of Magellan, and
+Dampier joins the expedition. It begins by privateering upon the
+African coast, in the Cape de Verd Islands, at Sierra Leone, and in
+the River Scherborough, for this is the route habitually taken by
+the ships going to South America. In 36&deg; south latitude,
+Dampier, who notes in his journal every interesting fact, remarks
+that the sea is become white or rather pale, but of this he cannot
+explain the reason, which he might easily have done had he made use
+of the microscope. The Sebaldine Islands are passed without incident,
+the Strait of Le Maire is traversed, Cape Horn is doubled on the 6th
+February, 1684, and as soon as he can escape from the storms which
+usually assail ships entering the Pacific, Captain Cook arrives at
+the island of Juan Fernandez, where he hopes to revictual. Dampier
+wondered if he would find a Nicaraguan Indian there, who had been
+left behind in 1680 by Captain Sharp. "This Indian had remained
+alone upon the island for more than three years. He had been in the
+woods hunting goats when the English captain had ordered his men to
+re-embark, and they had set sail without perceiving his absence. He
+had only his gun and his knife, with a small horn of powder and a
+little lead; when his powder and lead were exhausted he had
+contrived to saw the barrel of his gun into small pieces with his
+knife, and out of them to make harpoons, spears, fish hooks and a
+long knife. With these instruments he obtained all the supplies
+which the island afforded: goats and fish. At the distance of half a
+mile from the sea, he had a small hut covered with goat skins. He
+had no clothes left, but an animal's skin covered his loins." We
+have dwelt at some length upon this involuntary hermit because he
+served Daniel de Foe as the original of his "Robinson Crusoe," a
+romance which has formed the delight of every child.</p>
+
+<p>We shall not relate minutely all the expeditions in which Dampier
+participated. Suffice it to mention that in this campaign he visited
+the Gallapagos Islands. In 1686, Dampier was serving on board of
+Captain Swan's ship, who, seeing that the greater part of his
+enterprises failed, went to the East Indies, where the Spaniards
+were less upon their guard, and where the corsairs reckoned upon
+seizing the Manilla galleon. But when our adventurers arrived at
+Guaham, they had only three days' provisions, and the sailors had
+plotted if the voyage should be prolonged, to eat in turn all those
+who had declared themselves in favour of the voyage, and to begin
+with the captain who had proposed it. Dampier's turn would have come
+next. "Thus it came to pass," says he very humourously, "that after
+having cast anchor at Guaham, Swan embraced him and said: 'Ah
+Dampier, you would have made them but a sorry meal.' He was right,"
+he adds, "for I was as thin and lean, as he was fat and plump."
+Mindanao, Manilla, certain parts of the Chinese coasts, the Moluccas,
+New Holland, and the Nicobar Islands, were the places visited and
+plundered by Dampier in this campaign. In the last-named archipelago
+he became separated from his companions, and was discovered half
+dead upon the coast of Sumatra.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 54">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="574">
+			<img src="images/108.jpg" alt="'Ah! Dampier, you would have afforded them but a sorry meal.'">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="574" align="center">
+			"Ah! Dampier, you would have afforded them but a sorry meal."
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>During this voyage, Dampier had discovered several hitherto unknown
+islands, and especially the Baschi group. Like the thorough
+adventurer he was, immediately he recovered his health he travelled
+over the south of Asia, Malacca, Tonkin, Madras, and Bencoolen,
+where he enrolled himself as an artilleryman in the English service.
+Five months afterwards he deserted and returned to London. The
+narrative of his adventures and his privateering obtained for him a
+certain amount of sympathy amongst the higher classes, and he was
+presented to the Earl of Oxford, Lord High Admiral. He speedily
+received the command of the ship <i>Roebuck</i> to attempt a voyage of
+discovery in the seas which he had already explored. He left England
+on the 14th January, 1699, with the intention of passing through the
+Strait of Magellan, or of making the tour of Tierra del Fuego, so as
+to commence his discoveries on the coasts of the Pacific, which had
+hitherto received the visits of a comparatively small number of
+travellers. After crossing the line on the 10th March, he sailed for
+Brazil, where the ship was revictualled. Far from being able again
+to descend the coast of Patagonia, he beheld himself driven by the
+wind to forty-eight miles south of the Cape of Good Hope, whence he
+steered east-south-east towards New Holland, a long passage which
+was not signalized by any adventure. On the 1st August, Dampier saw
+land, and at once sought for a harbour in which to land. Five days
+later he entered the Bay of Sea-Dogs upon the western coast of
+Australia; but he only found there a sterile soil, and met with
+neither water nor vegetation. Until the 31st August, he sailed along
+this coast without discovering what he sought. Once when he landed,
+he had a slight skirmish with some of the inhabitants, who seemed to
+be very thinly scattered over the country. Their chief was a young
+man of middle height, but quick and vigilant; his eyes were
+surrounded by a single ring of white paint, while a stripe of the
+same colour descended from the top of his forehead to the end of his
+nose; his chest and arms were likewise striped with white. His
+companions were black, fierce in aspect, their hair woolly, and in
+shape they were tall and slender.</p>
+
+<p>For five weeks Dampier hovered near land, and found neither water
+nor provisions; however, he would not give in, and intended to
+continue to ascend the coast northwards, but the shallows which he
+incessantly encountered, and the monsoon from the north-west which
+was soon due, obliged him to give up the enterprise, after having
+discovered more than 900 miles of the Australian continent. He
+afterwards steered towards Timor, where he intended to repose and
+recruit his crew, exhausted by the long voyage. But he knew little
+of these parts, and his charts were quite insufficient. He was
+therefore obliged to make a reconnaissance of it, as if the Dutch
+had not already been long settled there. Thus he discovered a
+passage between Timor and Anamabao, in a locality in which his map
+only indicated a bay. The arrival of Dampier in a port known only to
+themselves, astonished and greatly displeased the Dutch. They
+imagined that the English could only have reached it by means of
+charts taken on board a ship of their own. However, in the end they
+recovered from their fright and received the strangers with kindness.</p>
+
+<p>Although the precursors of the monsoon were making themselves felt,
+Dampier again put to sea, and steered towards the western coast of
+New Guinea, where he arrived on the 4th February, 1700, near to Cape
+Maho of the Dutch. Amongst the things which struck him, Dampier
+notices the prodigious quantities of a species of pigeon, bats of
+extraordinary size, and scallops, a kind of shell fish, of which the
+empty shell weighed as much as 258 lbs. On the 7th of February he
+approaches King William's Island and runs to the east, where he soon
+sights the Cape of Good Hope of Schouten, and the island named after
+that navigator. On the 24th the crew witnessed a curious spectacle:
+"Two fish, which had accompanied the vessel for five or six days,
+perceived a great sea serpent, and began to pursue it. They were
+about the shape and size of mackerel, but yellow and green in colour.
+The serpent, who fled from them with great swiftness, carried his
+head out of the water, and one of them attempted to seize his tail.
+As soon as he turned round, the first fish remained in the rear, and
+the other took his place. They retained their wind for a long time,
+always heedful to defend themselves by flight, until they were lost
+to view."</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th, Dampier gave the name of Saint Matthias to a
+mountainous island, thirty miles long, situated above and to the
+east of the Admiralty Islands. Further on at the distance of
+twenty-one or twenty-four miles, he discovered another island, which
+received the name of Squally Island, on account of violent
+whirlwinds which prevented him from landing upon it. Dampier
+believed himself to be on the coast of New Guinea, while he was in
+reality sailing along that of New Ireland. He endeavoured to land
+there, but he was surrounded by canoes carrying more than 200
+natives, and the shore was covered by a large crowd. Seeing that it
+would be imprudent to send a boat on shore, Dampier ordered the ship
+to be put about. Scarcely was the order given, when the ship was
+assailed by showers of stones, which the natives hurled from a
+machine of which Dampier could not discover the shape, but which
+caused the name of Slingers' Bay to be given to this locality. A
+single discharge of cannon stupefied the natives, and put an end to
+hostilities. A little further on, at some distance from the coast of
+New Ireland, the English discover the Islands of Denis and St. John.
+Dampier is the first to pass through the strait which separates New
+Ireland from New Britain, and discovers Vulcan, Crown, G. Rook, Long
+Reach and Burning Islands.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 55">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="561">
+			<img src="images/109.jpg" alt="Battle in Slingers' Bay">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="561" align="center">
+			Battle in Slingers' Bay.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After this long cruise, distinguished by important discoveries,
+Dampier again steered towards the west, reached Missory Island, and
+at length arrived at the Island of Ceram, one of the Moluccas, where
+he made a somewhat long stay. He went afterwards to Borneo, passed
+through the Strait of Macassar, and on the 23rd of June anchored at
+Batavia, in the Island of Java. He remained there until the 17th of
+October, when he set out for Europe. On arriving at the Island of
+Ascension on the 23rd of February, 1701, his vessel had so
+considerable a leak that it was impossible to stop it. It was
+necessary to run the ship aground and to put the crew and cargo on
+shore. Happily there was no want of water, turtles, goats, and
+land-crabs, which prevented any fear of dying of hunger before some
+ship should call at the island, and transport the shipwrecked
+sailors to their country. For this they had not long to wait, for on
+the 2nd of April an English vessel took them on board and carried
+them to England. We shall have occasion again to speak of Dampier
+with relation to the voyages of Wood Rodgers.</p>
+<br>
+<br><a name="p2c62"></a>
+<center>II.<br>
+T<small>HE</small> P<small>OLE AND</small> A<small>MERICA</small>.</center>
+
+<blockquote>Hudson and Baffin&mdash;Champlain and La Sale&mdash;The English upon the coast
+of the Atlantic&mdash;The Spaniards in South America&mdash;Summary of the
+information acquired at the close of the 17th century&mdash;The measure
+of the terrestrial degree&mdash;Progress of cartography&mdash;Inauguration of
+Mathematical Geography.</blockquote>
+
+<br>
+<p>Although the attempts to find a passage by the north-west had been
+abandoned by the English for twenty years, they had not, however,
+given up the idea of seeking by that way, for a passage which was
+only to be discovered in our own days, and of which the absolute
+impracticability was then to be ascertained. A clever sailor, Henry
+Hudson, of whom Ellis says, "that never did any one better
+understand the seafaring profession, that his courage was equal to
+any emergency, and that his application was indefatigable,"
+concluded an agreement with a company of merchants to search for the
+passage by the north-west. On the 1st of May, 1607, he sailed from
+Gravesend in the <i>Hopewell</i>, a craft about the size of one of the
+smallest of modern collier brigs, and having on board a crew of
+twelve men; and on the 13th of June, reached the eastern coast of
+Greenland at 73&deg;, and gave it a name answering to the hopes
+he entertained, in calling it Cape Hold with Hope. The weather here
+was finer and less cold than it had been ten degrees southwards. By
+the 27th of June, Hudson had advanced 5&deg; more to the north,
+but on the 2nd of July, by one of the sudden changes which so
+frequently occur in those countries, the cold became severe. The sea,
+however, remained free, the air was still, and drift wood floated
+about in large quantity. On the 14th of the same month, in 33&deg;
+23', the master's mate and the boatswain of the
+vessel landed upon a shore which formed the northern part of
+Spitzbergen. Traces of musk oxen, and foxes, great abundance of
+aquatic birds, two streams of fresh water, one of them being warm,
+proved to our navigators that it was possible to live in these
+extreme latitudes at this period of the year. Hudson, who had
+re-embarked without delay, found himself arrested at the height of
+82&deg;, by thick pack ice, which he endeavoured in vain to
+penetrate or sail round. He was compelled to return to England,
+where he arrived on September 15th, after having discovered an
+island, which is probably that of Jan Mayen. The route followed in
+this first voyage having had no result towards the north, Hudson
+would try another, and accordingly set sail on April 21st in the
+following year, and advanced between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla;
+but he could only follow for a certain distance the coast of that
+vast land, without being able to attain as high an elevation as he
+had wished. The failure of this second attempt was more complete
+than that of the voyage of 1607. In consequence, the English Company,
+which had defrayed the expenses of both attempts, declined to
+proceed further. This was doubtless the reason which decided Hudson
+to take service in Holland.</p>
+
+<p>The Company of Amsterdam gave him, in 1609, the command of a vessel,
+with which he set sail from the Texel at the beginning of the year.
+Having doubled the North Cape, he advanced along the coasts of Nova
+Zembla; but his crew, composed of English and Dutch, who had made
+voyages to the East Indies, were soon disheartened by the cold and
+ice. Hudson found himself forced to change his route, and to propose
+to his sailors, who were in open mutiny, to seek for a passage,
+either by Davis' Strait, or the coasts of Virginia, where, according
+to the information of Captain Smith, who had frequently visited them,
+an outlet must surely be found. The choice of this crew, little
+accustomed to discipline, could not be doubtful. In order not to
+render the outlay of the Company completely abortive, Hudson was
+obliged to make for the Faröe Islands, to descend southward as low
+as 44&deg;, and to search on the coast of America for the strait,
+of the existence of which he had been assured. On July 18th, he
+disembarked on the continent, in order to replace his foremast,
+which had been broken in a storm; and he took the opportunity of
+bartering furs with the natives. But his undisciplined sailors,
+having by their exactions roused the indignation of the poor and
+peaceable natives, compelled him again to set sail. He continued to
+follow the coast until August 3rd, and then landed a second time. At
+40&deg; 30', he discovered a great bay which he explored
+in a canoe for more than 150 miles. In the meantime, his provisions
+began to run short, and it was impossible to procure supplies on
+land. The crew, which appears to have imposed its wishes on its
+captain during this whole voyage, assembled; some proposed to winter
+in Newfoundland, in order to resume the search for the passage in
+the following year; others wished to make for Ireland. This latter
+proposition was adopted; but when they approached the shores of
+Great Britain, the land proved so attractive to his men, that Hudson
+was obliged, on November 7th, to cast anchor at Dartmouth.</p>
+
+<p>The following year, 1610, notwithstanding all the mortifications
+which he had experienced, Hudson tried to renew his engagement with
+the Dutch company. But the terms which they named as the price of
+their concurrence compelled him to renounce the project, and induced
+him to submit to the requirements of the English Company. This
+company imposed on Hudson as a condition, that he should carry on
+board, rather as an assistant than as a subordinate, a clever seaman,
+named Coleburne, in whom they had full confidence. It is easy to
+understand how mortifying this condition was to Hudson. Accordingly,
+he took the earliest opportunity of ridding himself of the
+superintendent who had been imposed upon him. He had not yet left
+the Thames when he sent Coleburne back to shore with a letter for
+the Company, in which he endeavoured to palliate and justify this
+certainly very strange proceeding.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of May, when the ship had cast anchor in one of the
+ports of the island, the crew formed on the subject of Coleburne,
+its first conspiracy, which was repressed without difficulty, and
+when Hudson quitted the island on June 1st, he had re-established
+his authority. After having passed Frobisher's Strait, he sighted
+the land of Desolation of Davis, entered the strait which has
+received his name, and speedily penetrated into a wide bay, the
+entire western coast of which he examined until the beginning of
+September. At this epoch, one of the inferior officers, continuing
+to excite revolt against his chief, was superseded; but this act of
+justice only exasperated the sailors. In the early part of November,
+Hudson, having arrived at the extremity of the bay, sought for an
+appropriate spot to winter in, and having soon found one, drew up
+the ship on dry land. It is difficult to understand such a
+resolution. On the one hand, Hudson had left England with provisions
+for six months only, which had already been largely reduced, and he
+could scarcely reckon, considering the barrenness of the country,
+upon procuring a further supply of nourishment; on the other, the
+crew had exhibited such numerous signs of mutiny, that he could
+hardly rely upon its discipline and good will. Nevertheless,
+although the English were often obliged to content themselves with
+scanty rations, they did not, owing to the arrival of great numbers
+of birds, pass a very distressing winter. But, on the return of
+spring, as soon as the ship was prepared to resume her route to
+England, Hudson found that his fate was decided. He made his
+arrangements accordingly, distributed to each his share of biscuit,
+paid the wages due, and awaited the course of events. He had not
+long to wait. The conspirators seized their captain, his son, a
+volunteer, the carpenter, and five sailors, put them on board a boat,
+without arms, provisions, or instruments, and abandoned them to the
+mercy of the ocean. The culprits reached England again, but not all;
+two were killed in an encounter with the Indians, another died of
+sickness, while the others were sorely tried by famine. Eventually,
+no prosecution was commenced against them. Only, the Company, in
+1674, procured employment, on board a vessel, for the son of Henry
+Hudson, "lost in the discovery of the North-west," the son being
+entirely destitute of resources.</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 56">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579">
+			<img src="images/110.jpg" alt="Hudson abandoned by his crew">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="579" align="center">
+			Hudson abandoned by his crew.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The expeditions of Hudson were followed by those of Button and of
+Gibbons, to whom we owe, if not new discoveries, important
+observations on the tides, the variation of the weather and the
+temperature, and on a number of natural phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>In 1615, the English Company entrusted to Byleth, who had taken part
+in the last voyages, the command of a vessel of fifty tons. Her name,
+the <i>Discovery</i>, was of good augury. She carried, as pilot, the
+famous William Baffin, whose renown has eclipsed that of his captain.
+Setting sail from England on April 13th, the English explorers
+sighted Cape Farewell by the 6th of May, passed from the Island of
+Desolation to the Savage Islands, where they met with a great number
+of natives, and ascended north-westward as high as 64&deg;. On
+July 10th, land appeared on the starboard, and the tide flowed from
+the north; from which they conceived so much hope of the passage
+sought for, that they gave to the cape, discovered on this spot, the
+name of Comfort. It was probably Cape Walsingham, for they
+ascertained, after doubling it, that the land inclined towards the
+north-east, and the east. It was at the entry of Davis' Strait, that
+their discoveries came to an end for this year. They returned to
+Plymouth on September 9th, without having lost a single man.</p>
+
+<p>So strong were the hopes entertained by Byleth and Baffin, that they
+obtained permission to put to sea again in the same vessel the
+following year. On May 14th, 1616, after a voyage in which nothing
+worthy of remark occurred, the two captains penetrated into Davis'
+Strait, sighted Cape Henderson's Hope, the extreme point formerly
+reached by Davis, and ascended as high as 72&deg; 40' to
+the Women's Island, thus named after some Esquimaux females whom
+they met with. On June 12th, Byleth and Baffin were forced by the
+ice to enter a bay on the coast. Some Esquimaux brought them a great
+quantity of horns, without doubt tusks of walruses, or horns of musk
+oxen; from which they named the bay Horn Sound. After remaining some
+days in this place, they were able to put to sea again. On setting
+out from 75&deg; 40', they encountered a vast expanse of
+water free from ice, and penetrated, without much danger, beyond the
+78&deg; of latitude, to the entrance of the strait, which
+prolonged northwards the immense bay which they had just traversed,
+and which received the name of Baffin. Then turning to the west, and
+afterwards to the south-west, Byleth and Baffin discovered the Carey
+Islands, Jones Strait, Coburg Island, and Lancaster Strait, and
+afterwards they descended along the entire western shore of Baffin's
+Bay as far as Cumberland Land. Despairing then of being able to
+carry his discoveries further, Byleth, who had several men among his
+crew afflicted with scurvy, found himself obliged to return to the
+shores of England, where he disembarked at Dover, on August 30th.</p>
+
+<p>If this expedition terminated again in failure, in the sense that
+the north-west passage was not discovered, the results obtained were
+nevertheless considerable. Byleth and Baffin had prodigiously
+increased the knowledge of the seas and coasts in the quarters of
+Greenland. The captain and the pilot, in writing to the Director of
+the Company, assured him that the bay which they had visited was an
+excellent spot for fishing, in which thousands of whales, seals, and
+walruses, disported themselves. The event could not be long in amply
+proving the correctness of this information.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now descend again upon the coast of America, as far as Canada,
+and see what had happened since the time of Jacques Cartier. This
+latter, we may remember, had made an attempt at colonization, which
+had not produced any important results. Nevertheless, some Frenchmen
+had remained in the country, had married there, and founded families
+of colonists. From time to time, they received reinforcements
+brought by fishing vessels from Dieppe or St. Malo. But it was
+difficult to establish a current of emigration. It was under these
+circumstances that a gentleman, named Samuel de Champlain, a veteran
+of the wars of Henry IV., and who, for two years and a half, had
+frequented the East Indies, was engaged by the Commander of Chastes
+with the Sieur de Pontgravé, to continue the discoveries of Jacques
+Cartier, and to choose the situations most favourable for the
+establishment of towns and centres of population. This is not the
+place for us to consider the manner in which Champlain understood
+the business of a colonizer, nor his great services, which might
+well entitle him to be called the father of Canada. We will,
+therefore, advisedly leave this aspect of his undertaking, not the
+least brilliant, in order simply to occupy ourselves with the
+discoveries which he effected in the interior of the continent.</p>
+
+<p>Setting sail from Honfleur, on March 15th, 1603, the two chiefs of
+the enterprise first ascended the St. Lawrence, as far as the
+harbour of Tadoussac, 240 miles from its mouth. They were welcomed
+by the populations, which had, however, "neither faith, nor law, and
+lived without God, and without religion, like brute beasts." At this
+place they quitted their ships, which could not have advanced
+further without danger, and reached in a boat the Fall of St. Louis,
+where Jacques Cartier had been stopped; they even penetrated a
+little into the interior, and then returned to France, where
+Champlain printed a narrative of the voyage for the king.</p>
+
+<p>Henry IV. resolved to continue the enterprise. In the meantime M. de
+Chastes having died, his privilege was transferred to M. de Monts,
+with the title of Vice-admiral and Governor of Acadia. Champlain
+accompanied M. de Monts to Canada, and passed three whole years,
+whether in aiding by his counsels and his exertions the efforts of
+colonization, or in exploring the coasts of Acadia, the bearings of
+which he took beyond Cape Cod, or in making excursions into the
+interior and visiting the savage tribes which it was important to
+conciliate. In 1607, after a new voyage to France to recruit
+colonists, Champlain returned again to New France, and founded, in
+1608, a town which was to become Quebec. The following year was
+devoted to again ascending the St. Lawrence, and ascertaining its
+course. On board of a pirogue, with two companions only, Champlain
+penetrated, with some Algonquins, to the Iroquois, and remained
+conqueror in a great battle fought on the borders of a lake which
+has received his name; he then descended the river Richelieu, as far
+as the St. Lawrence. In 1610, he made a fresh incursion into the
+territory of the Iroquois, at the head of his allies, the Algonquins,
+whom he had the greatest possible difficulty in making observe the
+European discipline. In this campaign he employed instruments of
+warfare which greatly astonished the savages, and easily secured him
+the victory. For the attack of a village, he constructed a cavalier
+of wood, which 200 of the most powerful men "carried before this
+village to within a pike's length, and displayed three arquebusiers
+well protected from the arrows and stones which might be shot or
+launched at them." A little later, we see him exploring the river
+Ottawa, and advancing, in the north of the continent, to within 225
+miles of Hudson's Bay. After having fortified Montreal, in 1615, he
+twice ascended the Ottawa, explored Lake Huron, and arrived by land
+at Lake Ontario, which he crossed.</p>
+<a name="fax50"></a>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Facsimile 50">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="768">
+			<img src="images/111.jpg" alt="Siege of a village by Champlain">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="768" align="center">
+			Siege of a village by Champlain.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It is very difficult to divide into two parts a life so occupied as
+Champlain's. All his excursions, all his reconnaissances, had but
+one object, the development of the work to which he had consecrated
+his existence. Thus detached from what gives them their interest,
+they appear to us unimportant; and yet if the colonial policy of
+Louis XIV. and his successor had been different, we should possess
+in America a colony which assuredly would not yield in prosperity to
+the United States. Notwithstanding our abandonment, Canada has
+preserved a fervent love for the mother country.</p>
+
+<p>We must now leap over a period of forty years, to arrive at Robert
+Cavelier de la Sale. During this time, the French establishments
+have acquired some importance in Canada, and have extended
+themselves over a great part of North America. Our hunters and
+trappers scour the woods, and bring, every year, with their load of
+furs, new information respecting the interior of the continent. In
+this latter task they are powerfully seconded by the missionaries,
+in the first rank of whom we must place Father Marquette, whom the
+extent of his voyages on the great lakes and as far as the
+Mississippi marks out for special acknowledgment. Two men, besides,
+deserve to be mentioned for the encouragements and facilities which
+they afforded to the explorers, viz., M. de Frontenac, Governor of
+New France, and Talon, intendant of justice and police. In 1678,
+there arrived in Canada, without any settled purpose, a young man
+named Cavelier de la Sale. "He was born at Rouen," says Father
+Charlevoix, "of a family in easy circumstances; but having passed
+some years with the Jesuits, he had had no share in the inheritance
+of his parents. He had a cultivated mind, he wished to distinguish
+himself, and he felt within himself sufficient genius and courage to
+ensure success. In reality, he was not deficient in resolution to
+enter upon, nor in perseverance to follow up, an undertaking, nor in
+firmness in contending against obstacles, nor in resource to repair
+his losses; but he knew not how to make himself loved, nor how to
+manage those of whom he stood in need, and when he had attained
+authority, he exercised it with harshness and arrogance. With such
+defects he could not be happy, and in fact he was not."</p>
+
+<p>Father Charlevoix's portrait appears to us somewhat too black, and
+he does not seem to estimate at its true value the great discovery
+which we owe to Cavelier de la Sale; a discovery, which has nothing
+like it, we do not say equal to it, except that of the river Amazon,
+by Orellana, in the 16th century, and that of the Congo, by Stanley,
+in the 19th. However this may be, no sooner had he arrived in the
+country, than he set himself, with extraordinary application, to
+study the native idioms, and to associate with the savages in order
+to render himself familiar with their manners and habits. At the
+same time he gathered from the trappers a mass of information on the
+situation of the rivers and lakes. He communicated his projects of
+exploration to M. de Frontenac, who encouraged him, and gave him the
+command of a fort constructed at the outlet of the lake into the St.
+Lawrence. In the meantime, one Jolyet arrived at Quebec. He brought
+the news that in company with Father Marquette and four other
+persons, he had reached a great river called the Mississippi,
+flowing towards the south. Cavelier de la Sale very soon understood
+what advantage might be derived from an artery of this importance,
+especially if the Mississippi had, as he believed, its mouth in the
+Gulf of Mexico. By the lakes and the Illinois, an affluent of the
+Mississippi, it was easy to effect a communication between the St.
+Lawrence, and the Sea of the Antilles. What marvellous profit would
+France derive from this discovery! La Sale explained the project
+which he had conceived to the Count of Frontenac, and obtained from
+him very pressing letters of recommendation to the Minister of
+Marine. On arriving in France, La Sale learned the death of Colbert;
+but he remitted to his son, the Marquis of Seignelay, who had
+succeeded him, the despatches of which he was the bearer. This
+project, which appeared to rest upon solid foundations, could not
+fail to please a young minister. Accordingly, Seignelay presented La
+Sale to the king, who caused letters of nobility to be prepared for
+him, granted him the Seignory of Catarocouy, and the government of
+the fort which he had built, with the monopoly of commerce in the
+countries which he might discover.</p>
+
+<p>La Sale had also found means to procure the patronage of the Prince
+de Conti, who asked him to take with him the Chevalier Tonti, son of
+the inventor of the Tontine, in whom he felt an interest. He was for
+La Sale a precious acquisition. Tonti, who had made a campaign in
+Sicily, where his hand had been carried off by the explosion of a
+grenade, was a brave and skilful officer, who always showed himself
+extremely devoted.</p>
+
+<p>La Sale and Tonti embarked at Rochelle, on July 14th, 1678, carrying
+with them about thirty men, workmen and soldiers, and a Recollet
+(monk), Father Hennepin, who accompanied them in all their voyages.</p>
+
+<p>Then La Sale, being conscious that the execution of his project
+required more considerable resources than those which were at his
+disposal, constructed a boat upon the Lake Erie, and devoted a whole
+year to scouring the country, visiting the Indians, and carrying on
+an active trade in furs, which he stored in his fort of Niagara,
+while Tonti pursued the same course in other directions. At length,
+towards the middle of August, of the year 1679, his boat, the
+<i>Griffon</i>, being prepared for sailing, he embarked on the Lake Erie,
+with thirty men, and three Fathers, Recollets, for Machillimackinac.
+In crossing the lakes St. Clair and Huron, he experienced a violent
+storm, which caused the desertion of some of his people, whom,
+however, Tonti brought back to him. La Sale arrived at
+Machillimackinac, and very soon entered the Green Bay. But during
+this time his creditors at Quebec had sold all that he possessed,
+and the <i>Griffon</i>, which he had despatched, laden with furs, to the
+fort of Niagara, was either lost or pillaged by the Indians; which
+of these took place has never been precisely ascertained. For
+himself, although the departure of the <i>Griffon</i> had displeased his
+companions, he continued his route, and reached the river St. Joseph,
+where he found an encampment of Miamis, and where Tonti speedily
+rejoined him. Their first care was to construct a fort on this spot.
+Then they crossed the dividing line of the water between the basin
+of the great lakes, and that of the Mississippi; they subsequently
+reached the river of the Illinois, an affluent on the left of that
+great river. With his small band of followers, upon whose fidelity
+he could not entirely depend, the situation of La Sale was critical,
+in the midst of an unknown country, and among a powerful nation, the
+Illinois, who, at first allies of France, had been prejudiced and
+excited against us by the Iroquois and the English, jealous of the
+progress of the Canadian colony.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, it was necessary, at all cost, to attach to himself
+these Indians, who from their situation, were able to hinder all
+communication between La Sale and Canada. In order to strike their
+imagination, Cavelier de la Sale proceeds to their encampment, where
+more than 3000 men are assembled. He has but twenty men, but he
+traverses their village haughtily, and stops at some distance. The
+Illinois, who have not yet declared war, are surprised. They advance
+towards him, and overwhelm him with pacific demonstrations. So
+versatile is the spirit of the savages! Such an impression does
+every mark of courage make upon them! Without delay, La Sale takes
+advantage of their friendly dispositions, and erects upon the very
+site of their camp, a small fort, which he calls Crèvecoeur, in
+allusion to the troubles which he has already experienced. There he
+leaves Tonti with all his people, and he himself, anxious about the
+fate of the <i>Griffon</i>, returns with three Frenchmen and one Indian,
+to the fort of Catarocouy, separated by 500 leagues from Crèvecoeur.
+Before setting out, he had detached with Father Hennepin, one of his
+companions named Dacan, on a mission to reascend the Mississippi
+beyond the river of the Illinois, and if possible, to its source.
+"These two travellers," says Father Charlevoix, "set out from the
+fort of Crèvecoeur, on February 28th, and having entered the
+Mississippi, ascended it as far as 46&deg; of north latitude.
+There they were stopped by a considerable waterfall, extending quite
+across the river, to which Father Hennepin gave the name of St.
+Anthony of Padua. Then they fell, I know not by what mischance, into
+the hands of the Sioux, who kept them for a long time prisoners."</p>
+
+<p>On his journey back to Catarocouy, La Sale, having discovered a new
+site appropriate to the construction of a fort, summoned Tonti
+thither, who immediately set to work, while La Sale continued his
+route. This is Fort St. Louis. On his arrival at Catarocouy, La Sale
+learned news which would have broken down a man of a less hardy
+temperament. Not only had the <i>Griffon</i>, on board of which he had
+furs of the value of 10,000 crowns, been lost, but a vessel which
+was bringing him from France a cargo worth 880<i>l.</i> had been
+shipwrecked, and his enemies had spread a report of his death.
+Having no further business at Catarocouy, and having proved by his
+presence that the reports of his disappearance were all false, he
+arrived again at the fort of Crèvecoeur, where he was much
+astonished to find no one.</p>
+
+<p>This is what had happened. While the Chevalier Tonti was employed in
+the construction of Fort St. Louis, the garrison of Fort Crèvecoeur
+had mutinied, had pillaged the magazines, had done the same at Fort
+Miami, and then fled to Machillimackinac. Tonti, almost alone in
+face of the Illinois, who were roused against him by the
+depredations of his men, and judging that he could not resist in his
+fort of Crèvecoeur, had left it on September 11th, 1680, with the
+five Frenchmen who composed his garrison, and had retired as far as
+the bay of the Lake Michigan. After having placed a garrison at
+Crèvecoeur and at Fort St. Louis, La Sale came to Machillimackinac,
+where he rejoined Tonti, and together they set out again from thence
+towards the end of August for Catarocouy, whence they embarked on
+the Lake Erie with fifty-five persons, on August 28th, 1681. After a
+journey of 240 miles along the frozen river of the Illinois, they
+reached Fort Crèvecoeur, where the water, free from ice, permitted
+the use of their canoes. On February 6th, 1682, La Sale arrived at
+the confluence of the Illinois and the Mississippi. He descended the
+river, sighted the mouth of the Missouri, and that of the Ohio,
+where he raised a fort, penetrated into the country of the Arkansas,
+of which he took possession in the name of France, crossed the
+country of the Natchez, with whom he made a treaty of friendship,
+and finally passed out into the Gulf of Mexico on April 9th, after a
+navigation of 1050 miles in a mere bark. The anticipations so
+skilfully conceived by Cavelier de la Sale, were realized. He
+immediately took formal possession of the country, to which he gave
+the name of Louisiana, and called the immense river which he had
+just discovered the St. Louis.</p>
+
+<p>La Sale's return to Canada occupied not less than one year and a
+half. There is no ground for astonishment, when all the obstacles
+scattered in his path are considered. What energy, what strength of
+mind were requisite in one of the greatest travellers of whom France
+has reason to be proud, to succeed in such an enterprise!</p>
+
+<p>Unhappily, a man, otherwise well intentioned, but who allowed
+himself to be prejudiced against La Sale by his numerous enemies, M.
+Lefèvre de la Barre, who had succeeded M. de Frontenac as governor
+of Canada, wrote to the Minister of Marine, that the discoveries of
+La Sale were not to be regarded as of much importance. "This
+traveller," he said "was actually, with about twenty French
+vagabonds and savages, at the extremity of the bay, where he played
+the part of sovereign, plundered and ransomed those of his own
+nation, exposed the people to the incursions of the Iroquois, and
+covered all these acts of violence with the pretext of the
+permission, which he had from His Majesty, to carry on commerce
+alone in the countries which he might be able to discover."</p>
+
+<p>Cavelier de la Sale could not allow himself to remain exposed to
+these calumnious imputations. On the one side, honour prompted him
+to return to France to exculpate himself; on the other, he would not
+leave others to reap the profit of his discoveries. He set out,
+therefore, and received from Seignelay a kindly welcome. The
+minister had not been much influenced by the letters of M. de la
+Barre; he was aware that men could not accomplish great achievements
+without wounding much self-love, nor without making numerous enemies.
+La Sale took the opportunity to explain to him his project of
+discovering the mouth of the Mississippi by sea, in order to open a
+way for French vessels, and to found an establishment there. The
+minister entered into these views, and gave him a commission which
+placed Frenchmen and savages under his orders, from Fort St. Louis
+to the sea. At the same time the commandant of the squadron which
+was to transport him to America, was to be under his authority, and
+to furnish him on his disembarkation with all the succours which he
+might require, provided that nothing was done to the prejudice of
+the king. Four vessels, one of them a frigate of forty guns,
+commanded by M. de Beaujeu were to carry 280 persons, including the
+crews, to the mouth of the Mississippi, to form the nucleus of the
+new colony. Soldiers and artisans had been very badly chosen, as was
+perceived when too late, and no one knew his business. Setting sail
+from La Rochelle, on July 24th, 1684, the little squadron was almost
+immediately obliged to return to port, the bowsprit of the frigate
+having broken suddenly in the very finest weather. This inexplicable
+accident was the commencement of misunderstanding between M. de
+Beaujeu and M. de la Sale. The former could scarcely be pleased to
+see himself subordinated to a private individual, and did not
+forgive Cavelier this. Nothing however would have been more easy
+than to decline the command. La Sale had not the gentleness of
+manner and the politeness necessary to conciliate his companions.
+The disagreement did but gather force during the voyage by reason of
+the obstacles raised by M. de Beaujeu to the rapidity and secrecy of
+the expedition. The annoyances of La Sale had indeed become so great
+when he arrived at St. Domingo, that he fell seriously ill. He
+recovered, however, and the expedition set sail again on November
+25th. A month later, it was off Florida; but, as "La Sale had been
+assured that in the Gulf of Mexico, all the currents bore eastwards,
+he did not doubt that the mouth of the Mississippi must be far to
+the west; an error which was the source of all his misfortunes."</p>
+
+<p>La Sale then steered to the west, and passed by, without perceiving
+it, without deigning even to attend to certain signs which he was
+asked to observe, the mouth of the Mississippi. When he perceived
+his mistake, and entreated M. de Beaujeu to turn back, the latter
+would no longer consent. La Sale, seeing that he could make no
+impression upon the contradictory mind of his companion, decided to
+disembark his men and his provisions in the Bay of St. Bernard. Yet,
+in this very last act, Beaujeu manifested an amount of culpable
+ill-will, which did as little honour to his judgment as to his
+patriotism. Not only was he unwilling to land all the provisions,
+under the pretext that certain of them being at the bottom of the
+hold, he had no time to change his stowage, but further he gave
+shelter on board his own ship to the master and crew of the
+transport, laden with the stores, utensils, and implements necessary
+for a new establishment, people whom everything seems to convict of
+having purposely cast their vessel upon shore. At the same time, a
+number of savages took advantage of the disorder caused by the
+shipwreck of the transport, to plunder everything on which they
+could lay their hands. Nevertheless, La Sale, who had the talent of
+never appearing depressed by misfortune, and who found in his own
+genius resources adapted to the circumstances of the case, ordered
+the works of the establishment to be begun. In order to give courage
+to his companions, he more than once took part with his own hands in
+the work; but very slow progress was made, in consequence of the
+ignorance of the workmen. Struck with the resemblance of the
+language and habits of the Indians of these parts to those of the
+Mississippi, La Sale was very soon persuaded that he was not far
+distant from that river, and made several excursions in order to
+approach it. But, if he found a country beautiful and fertile, he
+did not make progress towards what he was in search of. He returned
+each time to the fort more gloomy and more harsh; and this was not
+the way to restore calm to spirits embittered by sufferings and the
+inutility of their efforts. Grain had been sown; but scarcely any
+came up for want of rain, and what had sprung up was soon laid waste
+by the savages and the deer. The hunters who wandered far from the
+camp were massacred by the Indians, and sickness found an easy prey
+in men overwhelmed with ennui, disappointment, and misery. In a
+short time, the number of the colonists fell to thirty-seven. At
+length, La Sale resolved to try a last effort to reach the
+Mississippi, and in descending the river to seek help from the
+nations with which he had made alliance. He set out on January 12th,
+1687, with his brother, his two nephews, two missionaries, and
+twelve colonists. He was approaching the country of the Shawnees,
+when, in consequence of an altercation between one of his nephews
+and three of his companions, these latter assassinated the young man
+and his servant during their sleep, and resolved immediately to do
+the same with the chief of the enterprise. De la Sale, uneasy at not
+seeing his nephew return, set out to seek him on the morning of the
+19th, with Father Anastase. The assassins, seeing him approach, lay
+in ambush in a thicket, and one of them shot him in the head, and
+stretched him on the ground stark dead. Thus perished Cavelier de la
+Sale, "a man of a capacity," says Father Charlevoix, "of a largeness
+of mind, of a courage and firmness of soul, which might have led him
+to the achievement of something great, if with so many great
+qualities, he had known how to master his gloomy and atrabilious
+disposition, and to soften the severity or rather the harshness of
+his nature...." Many calumnies had been spread abroad against him;
+but it is necessary so much the more to be on our guard against all
+these malevolent reports "as it is only too common to exaggerate the
+defects of the unfortunate, to impute to them even some which they
+had not, especially when they have given occasion for their
+misfortune, and have not known how to make themselves beloved. What
+is sadder for the memory of this celebrated man, is that he has been
+regretted by few persons, and that the ill-success of his
+undertakings&mdash;only of his last&mdash;has given him the air of an
+adventurer, among those who judge only by appearances. Unhappily,
+these are usually the most numerous, and in some degree the voice of
+the public."</p>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Illustration 57">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="576">
+			<img src="images/112.jpg" alt="Assassination of La Sale">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td width="576" align="center">
+			Assassination of La Sale.
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We have but little to add to these last wise words. La Sale knew not
+how to obtain pardon for his first success. We have related
+subsequently by what concurrence of circumstances his second
+enterprise miscarried. He died, the victim it may be said, of the
+jealousy and malevolence of the Chevalier de Beaujeu. It is to this
+slight cause that we owe the failure to found in America a powerful
+colony, which would very soon have been found in a condition to
+compete with the English establishments.</p>
+
+<p>We have narrated the beginning of the English colonies. The events
+which took place in England were highly favourable to them. The
+religious persecutions, the revolutions of 1648 and 1688, furnished
+numerous recruits, who, animated by an excellent spirit, set
+themselves to work, and transported to the other side of the
+Atlantic the arts, the industry, and in a short time the prosperity,
+of the mother country. Very soon, the immense forests which covered
+Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Carolina, fell beneath the hatchet of
+the "Squatter," and the soil became cleared, while the hunters of
+the woods, driving back the Indians, made the interior of the
+country better known, and prepared the work of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>In Mexico, in the whole of Central America, in Peru, in Chili, and
+on the shores of the Atlantic, a different state of things prevailed.
+The Spaniards had extended their conquests; but, far from acting
+like the English, they had reduced the Indians to slavery. Instead
+of applying themselves to the cultivation appropriate to the variety
+of the climates and of the countries of which they had made
+themselves masters, they sought only in the produce of the mines the
+resources and prosperity which they should have endeavoured to
+obtain from the land. If a country can thus rapidly attain
+prodigious wealth, yet this factitious system cannot last long. With
+the mines a prosperity which does not renew itself, must ere long
+become exhausted. The Spaniards could not fail to experience the sad
+result.</p>
+
+<p>Thus then, at the end of the seventeenth century, a great part of
+the new world was known. In North America, Canada, the shores of the
+Atlantic and of the Gulf of Mexico, the valley of the Mississippi,
+the coasts of California and of New Mexico, were discovered or
+colonized. All the central part of the continent, from Rio del Norte,
+as far as Terra Firma, was subject, at least nominally, to the
+Spaniards. In the south, the savannahs and the forests of Brazil,
+the pampas of the Argentine, and the interior of Patagonia, escaped
+the observation of the explorers, as they were destined to do for a
+long time yet.</p>
+
+<p>In Africa, the long line of coasts, which are washed by the Atlantic
+and the Indian Oceans, had been patiently followed and observed by
+navigators. At some points only, colonists and missionaries had
+tried to penetrate the mystery of this vast continent. Senegal,
+Congo, the valley of the Nile, and Abyssinia, were all that were
+known with some degree of detail and of certainty.</p>
+
+<p>If many of the countries of Asia, surveyed by the travellers of the
+middle ages, had not been revisited since that epoch, we had
+carefully explored the whole anterior part of that continent, India
+had been revealed to us, we had even founded some establishments
+there, China had been touched by our missionaries, and Japan, that
+famous Cipango which had exercised so great an attraction for our
+travellers of the preceding age, was at length known to us. Only
+Siberia and the whole north-east angle of Asia had escaped our
+investigations, and it was not yet known whether America was not
+connected with Asia, a mystery which was before long to be cleared
+up.</p>
+
+<p>In Oceania, a number of archipelagos, of islands and separate islets,
+remained still to be discovered, but the islands of Sunda were
+colonized, the coasts of Australia and of New Zealand had been
+partially revealed, and the existence of that great continent which,
+according to Tasman, extended from Tierra del Fuego to New Zealand,
+began to be doubted; but it still required the long and careful
+researches of Cook to banish definitely into the domain of fable a
+chimera so long cherished.</p>
+
+<p>Geography was on the point of transforming itself. The great
+discoveries made in astronomy were about to be applied to geography.
+The labours of Fernel and above all of Picard, upon the measure of a
+terrestrial degree between Paris and Amiens, had made it clear that
+the globe is not a sphere, but a spheroid, that is to say, a ball
+flattened at the poles and swollen at the equator, and thus were
+found at one stroke the form and the dimensions of the world which
+we inhabit. At length the labours of Picard, continued by La Hire
+and Cassini, were completed at the commencement of the following
+century. The astronomical observations, rendered possible by the
+calculation of the satellites of Jupiter, enabled us to rectify our
+maps. If this rectification had been already effected with regard to
+certain places, it became indispensable when the number of points of
+which the astronomical position had been observed, had been
+considerably increased; and this was to be the work of the next
+century. At the same time, historical geography was more studied; it
+began to take for its foundation the study of inscriptions, and
+archæology was about to become one of the most useful instruments of
+comparative geography.</p>
+
+<p>In a word, the seventeenth century is an epoch of transition and of
+progress; it seeks and it finds the powerful means which its
+successor, the eighteenth century, was destined to put into
+operation. The era of the sciences has already opened, and with it
+the modern world commences.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<center><small>END OF THE SECOND PART.</small></center>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<center><hr width="80%"></center>
+<center><small>GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, ST. JOHN'S SQUARE, LONDON.</small></center>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Back Cover">
+	<tr>
+		<td width="793">
+			<img src="images/113.jpg" alt="End of Part 1 of Celebrated Travels and Travellers">
+		</td>
+	</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Celebrated Travels and Travellers, by Jules Verne
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+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's Celebrated Travels and Travellers, by Jules Verne
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Celebrated Travels and Travellers
+       Part I. The Exploration of the World
+
+Author: Jules Verne
+
+Illustrator: Léon Benett
+             Paul Philippoteaux
+
+Translator: Dora  Leigh
+
+Release Date: March 7, 2008 [EBook #24777]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ron Swanson (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian
+Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS.
+THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.
+
+
+
+
+[Frontispiece: TRANSLATED BY DORA LEIGH]
+
+
+
+
+CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS.
+THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.
+
+BY JULES VERNE
+
+
+
+
+WITH 59 ILLUSTRATIONS BY L. BENETT AND P. PHILIPPOTEAUX,
+AND 50 FAC-SIMILES OF ANCIENT DRAWINGS.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH._]
+
+
+
+
+London:
+SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,
+CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
+1882.
+[_All rights reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+Celebrated Travels and Travellers,
+BY JULES VERNE.
+
+_In Three Vols., demy 8vo, each containing 400 pages and upwards of
+100 Illustrations, price 12s. 6d. each; cloth extra, gilt edges,
+14s._
+
+Part I. The Exploration of the World.
+Part II. The Great Navigators of the Eighteenth Century.
+Part III. The Great Navigators of the Nineteenth Century.
+
+
+
+
+EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+REPRODUCED IN FAC-SIMILE FROM THE ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS,
+GIVING THE SOURCES WHENCE THEY ARE DERIVED.
+
+
+FIRST PART.
+
+Map of the World as known to the Ancients.
+
+Approach to Constantinople. Anselmi Banduri Imperium orientale, tome
+II., p. 448. 2 vols. folio. Parisiis, 1711.
+
+Map of the World according to Marco Polo's ideas. Vol. I., p. 134 of
+the edition of Marco Polo published in London by Colonel Yule, 2
+vols. 8vo.
+
+Plan of Pekin in 1290. Yule's edition. Vol. I., p. 332.
+
+Portrait of Jean de Bethencourt. "The discovery and conquest of the
+Canaries." Page 1, 12mo. Paris, 1630.
+
+Plan of Jerusalem. "Narrative of the journey beyond seas to the Holy
+Sepulchre of Jerusalem," by Antoine Regnant, p. 229, 4to. Lyons,
+1573.
+
+Prince Henry the Navigator. From a miniature engraved in "The
+Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator," by H. Major. 8vo. London,
+1877.
+
+Christopher Columbus. Taken from "Vitae illustrium virorum," by Paul
+Jove. Folio. Basileae, Perna.
+
+Imaginary view of Seville. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, pl. I., part
+IV.
+
+Building of a caravel. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americae, part
+IV., plate XIX.
+
+Christopher Columbus on board his caravel. Th. de Bry. Grands
+Voyages, Americae, part IV., plate VI.
+
+Embarkation of Christopher Columbus. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages,
+Americae, part IV., plate VIII.
+
+Map of the Antilles and the Gulf of Mexico. Th. de Bry. Grands
+Voyages, Americae, part V.
+
+Fishing for Pearl oysters. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americae,
+part IV., plate XII.
+
+Gold-mines in Cuba. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americae, part V.,
+plate I.
+
+Vasco da Gama. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes of the
+Bibl. Nat.
+
+La Mina. "Histoire generale des Voyages," by the Abbe Prevost. Vol.
+III., p. 461, 4to. 20 vols. An X. 1746.
+
+Map of the East Coast of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to the
+Cape del Gado. From the French map of the Eastern Ocean, published
+in 1740 by order of the Comte de Maurepas.
+
+Map of Mozambique. Bibl. Nat. Estampes.
+
+Interview with the Zamorin. "Hist. Gen. des Voyages," by Prevost.
+Vol. I., p. 39. 4to. An X. 20 vols. 1746.
+
+View of Quiloa. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes.
+Topography. (Africa).
+
+Map of the Coasts of Persia, Guzerat, and Malabar. From the French
+Map of the Eastern Ocean, pub. in 1740 by order of the Comte de
+Maurepas.
+
+The Island of Ormuz. "Hist. Gen. des Voyages." Prevost. Vol. II., p.
+98.
+
+
+SECOND PART.
+
+Americus Vespucius. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes of
+the Bibliotheque Nationale.
+
+Indians devoured by dogs. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americae, part
+IV., plate XXII.
+
+Punishment of Indians. Page 17 of Las Casas' "Narratio regionum
+indicarum per Hispanos quosdam devastatarum," 4to. Francofurti,
+sumptibus Th. de Bry, 1698.
+
+Portrait of F. Cortes. From an engraving after Velasquez in the
+Cabinet des Estampes of the Bibliotheque Nationale.
+
+Plan of Mexico. From Clavigero and Bernal Diaz del Castillo.
+Jourdanet's translation, 2nd Edition.
+
+Portrait of Pizarro. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes
+of the Bib. Nat.
+
+Map of Peru. From Garcilasso de la Vega. History of the Incas. 4to.
+Bernard, Amsterdam, 1738.
+
+Atahualpa taken prisoner. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americae, part
+VI., plate VII.
+
+Assassination of Pizarro. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americae, part
+VI., plate XV.
+
+Magellan on board his caravel. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Americae,
+part IV., plate XV.
+
+Map of the Coast of Brazil. From the map called Henry 2nd's. Bibl.
+Nat., Geographical collections.
+
+The Ladrone Islands. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Occidentalis Indiae,
+pars VIII., p. 50.
+
+Portrait of Sebastian Cabot. From a miniature engraved in "The
+remarkable Life, adventures, and discoveries of Sebastian Cabot," by
+Nicholls. 8vo. London, 1869.
+
+Fragment of Cabot's map. Bibl. Nat., Geographical collections.
+
+Map of Newfoundland and of the Mouth of the St. Lawrence. Lescarbot,
+"Histoire de la Nouvelle France." 12mo. Perier, Paris, 1617.
+
+Portrait of Jacques Cartier. After Charlevoix. "History and general
+description of New France," translated by John Gilmary Shea, p. III.
+6 vols. 4to. Shea, New York, 1866.
+
+Barentz' ship fixed in the ice. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia
+pars Indiae Orientales, plate XLIV.
+
+Interior of Barentz' house. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia pars
+Indiae Orientalis, plate XLVII.
+
+Exterior view of Barentz' house. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia
+pars Indiae Orientalis, plate XLVIII.
+
+Map of Nova Zembla. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Tertia pars Indiae
+Orientalis, plate LIX.
+
+A sea-lion hunt. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages, Occidentalis Indiae,
+pars VIII., p. 37.
+
+A fight between the Dutch and the Spaniards. Th. de Bry. Grands
+Voyages, "Historiarum novi orbis;" part IX., book II., page 87.
+
+Portrait of Raleigh. From an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes
+of the Bibl. Nat.
+
+Berreo seized by Raleigh. Th. de Bry. Grands Voyages. Occid. Indiae,
+part VIII., p. 64.
+
+Portrait of Chardin. "Voyages de M. le Chevalier Chardin en Perse."
+Vol. I. 10 vols. 12mo. Ferrand, Rouen, 1723.
+
+Japanese Archer. From a Japanese print engraved by Yule, vol. II., p.
+206.
+
+Attack upon an Indian Town. "Voyages du Sieur de Champlain," p. 44.
+12mo. Collet, Paris, 1727.
+
+
+
+
+NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL TRAVELLERS
+OF WHOM THE HISTORY AND TRAVELS ARE RELATED IN THIS VOLUME.
+
+
+FIRST PART.
+
+HANNO--HERODOTUS--PYTHEAS--NEARCHUS--EUDOXUS--CAESAR--STRABO--
+PAUSANIAS--FA-HIAN--COSMOS INDICOPLEUSTES--ARCULPHE--WILLIBALD--
+SOLEYMAN--BENJAMIN OF TUDELA--PLAN DE CARPIN--RUBRUQUIS--MARCO
+POLO--IBN BATUTA--JEAN DE BETHENCOURT--CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS--
+COVILHAM AND PAIVA--VASCO DA GAMA--ALVARES CABRAL--JOAO DA NOVA--
+DA CUNHA--ALMEIDA--ALBUQUERQUE.
+
+
+SECOND PART.
+
+HOJEDA--AMERICUS VESPUCIUS--JUAN DE LA COSA--YANEZ PINZON--DIAZ DE
+SOLIS--PONCE DE LEON--BALBOA--GRIJALVA--CORTES--PIZARRO--ALMAGRO--
+ALVARADO--ORELLANA--MAGELLAN--ERIC THE RED--THE ZENI--THE
+CORTEREALS--THE CABOTS--WILLOUGHBY--CHANCELLOR--VERRAZZANO--JACQUES
+CARTIER--FROBISHER--JOHN DAVIS--BARENTZ AND HEEMSKERKE--DRAKE--
+CAVENDISH--DE NOORT--W. RALEIGH--LEMAIRE AND SCHOUTEN--TASMAN--
+MENDANA--QUIROS AND TORRES--PYRARD DE LAVAL--PIETRO DELLA VALLE--
+TAVERNIER--THEVENOT--BERNIER--ROBERT KNOX--CHARDIN--DE BRUYN--
+KAEMPFER--WILLIAM DAMPIER--HUDSON AND BAFFIN--CHAMPLAIN AND LA SALE.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This narrative will comprehend not only all the explorations made in
+past ages, but also all the new discoveries which have of late years
+so greatly interested the scientific world. In order to give to this
+work--enlarged perforce by the recent labours of modern
+travellers,--all the accuracy possible, I have called in the aid of
+a man whom I with justice regard as one of the most competent
+geographers of the present day: M. Gabriel Marcel, attached to the
+Bibliotheque Nationale.
+
+With the advantage of his acquaintance with several foreign
+languages which are unknown to me, we have been able to go to the
+fountain-head, and to derive all information from absolutely
+original documents. Our readers will, therefore, render to M. Marcel
+the credit due to him for his share in a work which will demonstrate
+what manner of men the great travellers have been, from the time of
+Hanno and Herodotus down to that of Livingstone and Stanley.
+
+JULES VERNE.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+FIRST PART.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA.
+
+HANNO, 505; HERODOTUS, 484; PYTHEAS, 340; NEARCHUS, 326; EUDOXUS,
+146; CAESAR, 100; STRABO, 50.
+
+                                                                PAGE
+Hanno, the Carthaginian--Herodotus visits Egypt, Lybia, Ethiopia,
+Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylon, Persia, India, Media, Colchis, the
+Caspian Sea, Scythia, Thrace, and Greece--Pytheas explores the
+coasts of Iberia and Gaul, the English Channel, the Isle of
+Albion, the Orkney Islands, and the land of Thule--Nearchus
+visits the Asiatic coast, from the Indus to the Persian Gulf--
+Eudoxus reconnoitres the West Coast of Africa--Caesar conquers
+Gaul and Great Britain--Strabo travels over the interior of
+Asia, and Egypt, Greece, and Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS FROM THE FIRST TO THE NINTH CENTURY.
+
+PAUSANIAS, 174; FA-HIAN, 399; COSMOS INDICOPLEUSTES, 500; ARCULPHE,
+700; WILLIBALD, 725; SOLEYMAN, 851.
+
+Pliny, Hippalus, Arian, and Ptolemy--Pausanias visits Attica,
+Corinth, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Achaia, Arcadia, Boeotia, and
+Phocis--Fa-Hian explores Kan-tcheou, Tartary, Northern India,
+the Punjaub, Ceylon, and Java--Cosmos Indicopleustes, and the
+Christian Topography of the Universe--Arculphe describes
+Jerusalem, the valley of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives,
+Bethlehem, Jericho, the river Jordan, Libanus, the Dead Sea,
+Capernaum, Nazareth, Mount Tabor, Damascus, Tyre, Alexandria,
+and Constantinople--Willibald and the Holy Land--Soleyman
+travels through Ceylon, and Sumatra, and crosses the Gulf of
+Siam and the China Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BETWEEN THE TENTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, 1159-1173; PLAN DE CARPIN, OR CARPINI,
+1245-1247; RUBRUQUIS, 1253-1254.
+
+The Scandinavians in the North, Iceland and Greenland--Benjamin
+of Tudela visits Marseilles, Rome, Constantinople, the
+Archipelago, Palestine, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Damascus, Baalbec,
+Nineveh, Baghdad, Babylon, Bassorah, Ispahan, Shiraz, Samarcand,
+Thibet, Malabar, Ceylon, the Red Sea, Egypt, Sicily, Italy,
+Germany, and France--Carpini explores Turkestan--Manners and
+customs of the Tartars--Rubruquis and the Sea of Azov, the
+Volga, Karakorum, Astrakhan, and Derbend . . . . . . . . . . . .  26
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+MARCO POLO, 1253-1324.
+
+I.
+
+The interest of the Genoese and Venetian merchants in
+encouraging the exploration of Central Asia--The family of Polo,
+and its position in Venice--Nicholas and Matteo Polo, the two
+brothers--They go from Constantinople to the Court of the
+Emperor of China--Their reception at the Court of Kublai-Khan--
+The Emperor appoints them his ambassadors to the Pope--Their
+return to Venice--Marco Polo--He leaves his father Nicholas and
+his uncle Matteo for the residence of the King of Tartary--The
+new Pope Gregory X.--The narrative of Marco Polo is written in
+French from his dictation, by Rusticien of Pisa  . . . . . . . .  43
+
+II.
+
+Armenia Minor--Armenia--Mount Ararat--Georgia--Mosul, Baghdad,
+Bussorah, Tauris--Persia--The Province of Kirman--Comadi--
+Ormuz--The Old Man of the Mountain--Cheburgan--Balkh--Cashmir--
+Kashgar--Samarcand--Kotan--The Desert--Tangun--Kara-Korum--
+Signan-fu--The Great Wall--Chang-tou--The residence of
+Kublai-Khan--Cambaluc, now Pekin--The Emperor's fetes--His
+hunting--Description of Pekin--Chinese Mint and bank-notes--The
+system of posts in the Empire  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
+
+III.
+
+Tso-cheu--Tai-yen-fou--Pin-yang-fou--The Yellow River--
+Signan-fou--Szu-tchouan--Ching-tu-fou--Thibet--Li-kiang-fou--
+Carajan--Yung-tchang--Mien--Bengal--Annam--Tai-ping--Cintingui--
+Sindifoo--Te-cheu--Tsi-nan-fou--Lin-tsin-choo--Lin-sing--Mangi--
+Yang-tcheu-fou--Towns on the coast--Quin-say or
+Hang-tcheou-foo--Fo-kien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  59
+
+IV.
+
+Japan--Departure of the three Venetians with the Emperor's
+daughter and the Persian ambassadors--Sai-gon--Java--Condor--
+Bintang--Sumatra--The Nicobar Islands--Ceylon--The Coromandel
+coast--The Malabar coast--The Sea of Oman--The island of
+Socotra--Madagascar--Zanzibar and the coast of Africa--
+Abyssinia--Yemen--Hadramaut and Oman--Ormuz--The return to
+Venice--A feast in the household of Polo--Marco Polo a Genoese
+prisoner--Death of Marco Polo about 1323 . . . . . . . . . . . .  67
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+IBN BATUTA, 1328-1353.
+
+Ibn Batuta--The Nile--Gaza, Tyre, Tiberias, Libanus, Baalbec,
+Damascus, Meshid, Bussorah, Baghdad, Tabriz, Mecca and Medina--
+Yemen--Abyssinia--The country of the Berbers--Zanguebar--Ormuz--
+Syria--Anatolia--Asia Minor--Astrakhan--Constantinople--
+Turkestan--Herat--The Indus--Delhi--Malabar--The Maldives--
+Ceylon--The Coromandel coast--Bengal--The Nicobar Islands--
+Sumatra--China--Africa--The Niger--Timbuctoo . . . . . . . . . .  77
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+JEAN DE BETHENCOURT, 1339-1425.
+
+I.
+
+The Norman cavalier--His ideas of conquest--What was known of
+the Canary Islands--Cadiz--The Canary Archipelago--Graciosa--
+Lancerota--Fortaventura--Jean de Bethencourt returns to Spain--
+Revolt of Berneval--His interview with King Henry III.--Gadifer
+visits the Canary Archipelago--Canary Island or "Gran Canaria"--
+Ferro Island--Palma Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  84
+
+II.
+
+The return of Jean de Bethencourt--Gadifer's jealousy--
+Bethencourt visits his archipelago--Gadifer goes to conquer Gran
+Canaria--Disagreement of the two commanders--Their return to
+Spain--Gadifer blamed by the King--Return of Bethencourt--The
+natives of Fortaventura are baptized--Bethencourt revisits
+Caux--Returns to Lancerota--Lands on the African coast--Conquest
+of Gran Canaria, Ferro, and Palma Islands--Maciot appointed
+Governor of the archipelago--Bethencourt obtains the Pope's
+consent to the Canary Islands being made an Episcopal See--His
+return to his country and his death  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  92
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, 1436-1506.
+
+I.
+
+Discovery of Madeira, Cape de Verd Islands, the Azores, Congo,
+and Guinea--Bartholomew Diaz--Cabot and Labrador--The
+geographical and commercial tendencies of the middle ages--The
+erroneous idea of the distance between Europe and Asia--Birth of
+Christopher Columbus--His first voyages--His plans rejected--His
+sojourn at the Franciscan convent--His reception by Ferdinand
+and Isabella--Treaty of the 17th of April, 1492--The brothers
+Pinzon--Three armed caravels at the port of Palos--Departure on
+the 3rd of August, 1492  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
+
+II.
+
+First voyage: The Great Canary--Gomera--Magnetic variation--
+Symptoms of revolt--Land, land--San Salvador--Taking
+possession--Conception--Fernandina or Great Exuma--Isabella, or
+Long Island--The Mucaras--Cuba--Description of the island--
+Archipelago of Notre-Dame--Hispaniola or San Domingo--Tortuga
+Island--The cacique on board the _Santa-Maria_--The caravel of
+Columbus goes aground and cannot be floated off--Island of
+Monte-Christi--Return--Tempest--Arrival in Spain--Homage
+rendered to Christopher Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
+
+III.
+
+Second Voyage: Flotilla of seventeen vessels--Island of Ferro--
+Dominica--Marie-Galante--Guadaloupe--The Cannibals--Montserrat--
+Santa-Maria-la-Rodonda--St. Martin and Santa Cruz--Archipelago
+of the Eleven Thousand Virgins--The island of St. John Baptist,
+or Porto Rico--Hispaniola--The first Colonists massacred--
+Foundation of the town of Isabella--Twelve ships laden with
+treasure sent to Spain--Fort St. Thomas built in the Province of
+Cibao--Don Diego, Columbus' brother, named Governor of the
+Island--Jamaica--The Coast of Cuba--The Remora--Return to
+Isabella--The Cacique made prisoner--Revolt of the Natives--
+Famine--Columbus traduced in Spain--Juan Aguado sent as
+Commissary to Isabella--Gold-mines--Departure of Columbus--His
+arrival at Cadiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
+
+IV.
+
+Third Voyage: Madeira--Santiago in the Cape Verd Archipelago--
+Trinidad--First sight of the American Coast in Venezuela, beyond
+the Orinoco, now the Province of Cumana--Gulf of Paria--The
+Gardens--Tobago--Grenada--Margarita--Cubaga--Hispaniola during
+the absence of Columbus--Foundation of the town of San Domingo--
+Arrival of Columbus--Insubordination in the Colony--Complaints
+in Spain--Bovadilla sent by the king to inquire into the conduct
+of Columbus--Columbus sent to Europe in fetters with his two
+brothers--His appearance before Ferdinand and Isabella--Renewal
+of royal favour  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
+
+V.
+
+Fourth Voyage: A Flotilla of four vessels--Canary Islands--
+Martinique--Dominica--Santa-Cruz--Porto-Rico--Hispaniola--
+Jamaica--Cayman Island--Pinos Island--Island of Guanaja--Cape
+Honduras--The American Coast of Truxillo on the Gulf of Darien--
+The Limonare Islands--Huerta--The Coast of Veragua--Auriferous
+Strata--Revolt of the Natives--The Dream of Columbus--
+Porto-Bello--The Mulatas--Putting into port at Jamaica--
+Distress--Revolt of the Spaniards against Columbus--Lunar
+Eclipse--Arrival of Columbus at Hispaniola--Return of Columbus
+to Spain--His death, on the 20th of March, 1506  . . . . . . . . 150
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+THE CONQUEST OF INDIA, AND OF THE SPICE COUNTRIES.
+
+I.
+
+Covilham and Paiva--Vasco da Gama--The Cape of Good Hope is
+doubled--Escales at Sam-Braz--Mozambique, Mombaz, and Melinda--
+Arrival at Calicut--Treason of the Zamorin--Battles--Return to
+Europe--The scurvy--Death of Paul da Gama--Arrival at Lisbon . . 164
+
+II.
+
+Alvares Cabral--Discovery of Brazil--The coast of Africa--
+Arrival at Calicut, Cochin, Cananore--Joao da Nova--Gama's
+second expedition--The King of Cochin--The early life of
+Albuquerque--The taking of Goa--The siege and capture of
+Malacca--Second expedition against Ormuz--Ceylon--The Moluccas--
+Death of Albuquerque--Fate of the Portuguese empire of the
+Indies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
+
+
+SECOND PART.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+THE CONQUERORS OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+I.
+
+Hojeda--Americus Vespucius--The New World named after him--Juan
+de la Cosa--Vincent Yanez Pinzon--Bastidas--Diego de Lepe--Diaz
+de Solis--Ponce de Leon and Florida--Balboa discovers the
+Pacific Ocean--Grijalva explores the coast of Mexico . . . . . . 207
+
+II.
+
+Ferdinand Cortes--His character--His appointment--Preparations
+for the expedition, and attempts of Velasquez to stop it--
+Landing at Vera-Cruz--Mexico and the Emperor Montezuma--The
+republic of Tlascala--March upon Mexico--The Emperor is made
+prisoner--Narvaez defeated--The _Noche Triste_--Battle of
+Otumba--The second siege and taking of Mexico--Expedition to
+Honduras--Voyage to Spain--Expeditions on the Pacific Ocean--
+Second Voyage of Cortes to Spain--His death  . . . . . . . . . . 224
+
+III.
+
+The triple alliance--Francisco Pizarro and his brothers--Don
+Diego d'Almagro--First attempts--Peru, its extent, people, and
+kings--Capture of Atahualpa, his ransom and death--Pedro
+d'Alvarado--Almagro in Chili--Strife among the conquerors--Trial
+and execution of Almagro--Expeditions of Gonzalo Pizarro and
+Orellana--Assassination of Francisco Pizarro--Rebellion and
+execution of his brother Gonzalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+THE FIRST VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD.
+
+Magellan--His early history--His disappointment--His change of
+nationality--Preparations for the expedition--Rio de Janeiro--
+St. Julian's Bay--Revolt of a part of the squadron--Terrible
+punishment of the guilty--Magellan's Strait--Patagonia--The
+Pacific--The Ladrone Islands--Zebu and the Philippine Islands--
+Death of Magellan--Borneo--The Moluccas and their Productions--
+Separation of the _Trinidad_ and _Victoria_--Return to Europe by
+the Cape of Good Hope--Last misadventures  . . . . . . . . . . . 279
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+THE POLAR EXPEDITIONS AND THE SEARCH FOR THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE.
+
+I.
+
+The Northmen--Eric the Red--The Zenos--John Cabot--Cortereal--
+Sebastian Cabot--Willoughby--Chancellor  . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
+
+II.
+
+John Verrazzano--Jacques Cartier and his three voyages to
+Canada--The town of Hochelaga--Tobacco--The scurvy--Voyage of
+Roberval--Martin Frobisher and his voyages--John Davis--Barentz
+and Heemskerke--Spitzbergen--Winter season at Nova Zembla--
+Return to Europe--Relics of the Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . 334
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+VOYAGES OF ADVENTURE AND PRIVATEERING WARFARE.
+
+Drake--Cavendish--De Noort--Walter Raleigh . . . . . . . . . . . 362
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+MISSIONARIES AND SETTLERS. MERCHANTS AND TOURISTS.
+
+I.
+
+Distinguishing characteristics of the Seventeenth Century--The
+more thorough exploration of regions previously discovered--To
+the thirst for gold succeeds Apostolic zeal--Italian Missionaries
+in Congo--Portuguese Missionaries in Abyssinia--Brue in Senegal
+and Flacourt in Madagascar--The Apostles of India, of Indo-China,
+and of Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
+
+II.
+
+The Dutch in the Spice Islands--Lemaire and Schouten--Tasman--
+Mendana--Queiros and Torres--Pyrard de Laval--Pietro della
+Valle--Tavernier--Thevenot--Bernier--Robert Knox--Chardin--De
+Bruyn--Kaempfer  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+I.
+THE GREAT CORSAIR.
+
+William Dampier; or a Sea-King of the Seventeenth Century  . . . 409
+
+II.
+THE POLE AND AMERICA.
+
+Hudson and Baffin--Champlain and La Sale--The English upon the
+coast of the Atlantic--The Spaniards in South America--Summary
+of the information acquired at the close of the 17th century--
+The measure of the terrestrial degree--Progress of cartography--
+Inauguration of Mathematical Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD. PART I.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA.
+
+HANNO, 505; HERODOTUS, 484; PYTHEAS, 340; NEARCHUS, 326; EUDOXUS,
+146; CAESAR, 100; STRABO, 50.
+
+Hanno, the Carthaginian--Herodotus visits Egypt, Lybia, Ethiopia,
+Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylon, Persia, India, Media, Colchis, the
+Caspian Sea, Scythia, Thrace, and Greece--Pytheas explores the
+coasts of Iberia and Gaul, the English Channel, the Isle of Albion,
+the Orkney Islands, and the land of Thule--Nearchus visits the
+Asiatic coast, from the Indus to the Persian Gulf--Eudoxus
+reconnoitres the West Coast of Africa--Caesar conquers Gaul and
+Great Britain--Strabo travels over the interior of Asia, and Egypt,
+Greece, and Italy.
+
+
+The first traveller of whom we have any account in history, is Hanno,
+who was sent by the Carthaginian senate to colonize some parts of
+the Western coast of Africa. The account of this expedition was
+written in the Carthaginian language and afterwards translated into
+Greek. It is known to us now by the name of the "Periplus of Hanno."
+At what period this explorer lived, historians are not agreed, but
+the most probable account assigns the date B.C. 505 to his
+exploration of the African coast.
+
+Hanno left Carthage with a fleet of sixty vessels of fifty oars each,
+carrying 30,000 persons, and provisions for a long voyage. These
+emigrants, for so we may call them, were destined to people the new
+towns that the Carthaginians hoped to found on the west coast of
+Libya, or as we now call it, Africa.
+
+The fleet successfully passed the Pillars of Hercules, the rocks of
+Gibraltar and Ceuta which command the Strait, and ventured on the
+Atlantic, taking a southerly course. Two days after passing the
+Straits, Hanno anchored on the coast, and laid the foundation of the
+town of Thumiaterion.
+
+Then he put to sea again, and doubling the cape of Solois, made
+fresh discoveries, and advanced to the mouth of a large African
+river, where he found a tribe of wandering shepherds camping on the
+banks. He only waited to conclude a treaty of alliance with them,
+before continuing his voyage southward. He next reached the Island
+of Cerne, situated in a bay, and measuring five stadia in
+circumference, or as we should say at the present day, nearly 925
+yards. According to Hanno's own account, this island should be
+placed, with regard to the Pillars of Hercules, at an equal distance
+to that which separates these Pillars from Carthage.
+
+They set sail again, and Hanno reached the mouth of the river
+Chretes, which forms a sort of natural harbour, but as they
+endeavoured to explore this river, they were assailed with showers
+of stones from the native negro race, inhabiting the surrounding
+country, and driven back, and after this inhospitable reception they
+returned to Cerne. We must not omit to add that Hanno mentions
+finding large numbers of crocodiles and hippopotami in this river.
+Twelve days after this unsuccessful expedition, the fleet reached a
+mountainous region, where fragrant trees and shrubs abounded, and it
+then entered a vast gulf which terminated in a plain. This region
+appeared quite calm during the day, but after nightfall it was
+illumined by tongues of flame, which might have proceeded from fires
+lighted by the natives, or from the natural ignition of the dry
+grass when the rainy season was over.
+
+In five days, Hanno doubled the Cape, known as the Hespera Keras,
+there, according to his own account, "he heard the sound of fifes,
+cymbals, and tambourines, and the clamour of a multitude of people."
+The soothsayers, who accompanied the party of Carthaginian explorers,
+counselled flight from this land of terrors, and, in obedience to
+their advice, they set sail again, still taking a southerly course.
+They arrived at a cape, which, stretching southwards, formed a gulf,
+called Notu Keras, and, according to M. D'Avezac, this gulf must
+have been the mouth of the river Ouro, which falls into the Atlantic
+almost within the Tropic of Cancer. At the lower end of this gulf,
+they found an island inhabited by a vast number of gorillas, which
+the Carthaginians mistook for hairy savages. They contrived to get
+possession of three female gorillas, but were obliged to kill them
+on account of their great ferocity.
+
+This Notu Keras must have been the extreme limit reached by the
+Carthaginian explorers, and though some historians incline to the
+belief that they only went to Bojador, which is two degrees North of
+the tropics, it is more probable that the former account is the true
+one, and that Hanno, finding himself short of provisions, returned
+northwards to Carthage, where he had the account of his voyage
+engraved in the temple of Baal Moloch.
+
+After Hanno, the most illustrious of ancient travellers, was
+Herodotus, who has been called the "Father of History," and who was
+the nephew of the poet Panyasis, whose poems ranked with those of
+Homer and Hesiod. It will serve our purpose better if we only speak
+of Herodotus as a traveller, not an historian, as we wish to follow
+him so far as possible through the countries that he traversed.
+
+Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus, a town in Asia Minor, in the
+year B.C. 484. His family were rich, and having large commercial
+transactions they were able to encourage the taste for explorations
+which he showed. At this time there were many different opinions as
+to the shape of the earth: the Pythagorean school having even then
+begun to teach that it must be round, but Herodotus took no part in
+this discussion, which was of the deepest interest to learned men of
+that time, and, still young, he left home with a view of exploring
+with great care all the then known world, and especially those parts
+of it of which there were but few and uncertain data.
+
+He left Halicarnassus in 464, being then twenty years of age, and
+probably directed his steps first to Egypt, visiting Memphis,
+Heliopolis, and Thebes. He seems to have specially turned his
+attention to the overflow of the banks of the Nile, and he gives an
+account of the different opinions held as to the source of this
+river, which the Egyptians worshipped as one of their deities. "When
+the Nile overflows its banks," he says, "you can see nothing but the
+towns rising out of the water, and they appear like the islands in
+the AEgean Sea." He tells of the religious ceremonies among the
+Egyptians, their sacrifices, their ardour in celebrating the feasts
+in honour of their goddess Isis, which took place principally at
+Busiris (whose ruins may still be seen near Bushir), and of the
+veneration paid to both wild and tame animals, which were looked
+upon almost as sacred, and to whom they even rendered funeral
+honours at their death. He depicts in the most faithful colours, the
+Nile crocodile, its form, habits, and the way in which it is caught,
+and the hippopotamus, the momot, the phoenix, the ibis, and the
+serpents that were consecrated to the god Jupiter. Nothing can be
+more life-like than his accounts of Egyptian customs, and the
+notices of their habits, their games, and their way of embalming the
+dead, in which the chemists of that period seem to have excelled.
+Then we have the history of the country from Menes, its first king,
+downwards to Herodotus' time, and he describes the building of the
+Pyramids under Cheops, the Labyrinth that was built a little above
+the Lake Moeris (of which the remains were discovered in A.D. 1799),
+Lake Moeris itself, whose origin he ascribes to the hand of man, and
+the two Pyramids which are situated a little above the lake. He
+seems to have admired many of the Egyptian temples, and especially
+that of Minerva at Sais, and of Vulcan and Isis at Memphis, and the
+colossal monolith that was three years in course of transportation
+from Elephantina to Sais, though 2000 men were employed on the
+gigantic work.
+
+After having carefully inspected everything of interest in Egypt,
+Herodotus went into Lybia, little thinking that the continent he was
+exploring, extended thence to the tropic of Cancer. He made special
+inquiries in Lybia as to the number of its inhabitants, who were a
+simple nomadic race principally living near the sea-coast, and he
+speaks of the Ammonians, who possessed the celebrated temple of
+Jupiter Ammon, the remains of which have been discovered on the
+north-east side of the Lybian desert, about 300 miles from Cairo.
+Herodotus furnishes us with some very valuable information on Lybian
+customs; he describes their habits; speaks of the animals that
+infest the country, serpents of a prodigious size, lions, elephants,
+bears, asps, horned asses (probably the rhinoceros of the present
+day), and cynocephali, "animals with no heads, and whose eyes are
+placed on their chest," to use his own expression; foxes, hyenas,
+porcupines, wild zarus, panthers, etc. He winds up his description
+by saying that the only two aboriginal nations that inhabit this
+region are the Lybians and Ethiopians.
+
+According to Herodotus the Ethiopians were at that time to be found
+above Elephantina, but commentators are induced to doubt if this
+learned explorer ever really visited Ethiopia, and if he did not, he
+may easily have learnt from the Egyptians the details that he gives
+of its capital, Meroe, of the worship of Jupiter and Bacchus, and
+the longevity of the natives. There can be no doubt, however, that
+he set sail for Tyre in Phoenicia, and that he was much struck with
+the beauty of the two magnificent temples of Hercules. He next
+visited Tarsus and took advantage of the information gathered on the
+spot, to write a short history of Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine.
+
+We next find that he went southward to Arabia, and he calls it the
+Ethiopia of Asia, for he thought the southern parts of Arabia were
+the limits of human habitation. He tells us of the remarkable way in
+which the Arabs kept any vow that they might have made; that their
+two deities were Uranius and Bacchus, and of the abundant growth of
+myrrh, cinnamon and other spices, and he gives a very interesting
+account of their culture and preparation.
+
+We cannot be quite sure which country he next visited, as he calls
+it both Assyria and Babylonia, but he gives a most minute account of
+the splendid city of Babylon (which was the home of the monarchs of
+that country, after the destruction of Nineveh), and whose ruins are
+now only in scattered heaps on either side of the Euphrates, which
+flowed a broad, deep, rapid river, dividing the city into two parts.
+On one side of the river the fortified palace of the king stood, and
+on the other the temple of Jupiter Belus, which may have been built
+on the site of the Tower of Babel. Herodotus next speaks of the two
+queens, Semiramis and Nitocris, telling us of all the means taken by
+the latter to increase the prosperity and safety of her capital, and
+passing on to speak of the natural products of the country, the
+wheat, barley, millet, sesame, the vine, fig-tree and palm-tree. He
+winds up with a description of the costume of the Babylonians, and
+their customs, especially that of celebrating their marriages by the
+public crier.
+
+[Illustration: The Marriage Ceremony.]
+
+After exploring Babylonia he went to Persia, and as the express
+purpose of his travels was to collect all the information he could
+relating to the lengthy wars that had taken place between the
+Persians and Grecians, he was most anxious to visit the spots where
+the battles had been fought. He sets out by remarking upon the
+custom prevalent in Persia, of not clothing their deities in any
+human form, nor erecting temples nor altars where they might be
+worshipped, but contenting themselves with adoring them on the tops
+of the mountains. He notes their domestic habits, their disdain of
+animal food, their taste for delicacies, their passion for wine, and
+their custom of transacting business of the utmost importance when
+they had been drinking to excess; their curiosity as to the habits
+of other nations, their love of pleasure, their warlike qualities,
+their anxiety for the education of their children, their respect for
+the lives of all their fellow-creatures, even of their slaves, their
+horror both of debt and lying, and their repugnance to the disease
+of leprosy which they thought proved that the sufferer "had sinned
+in some way against the sun." The India of Herodotus, according to M.
+Vivien de St. Martin, only consisted of that part of the country
+that is watered by the five rivers of the Punjaub, adjoining
+Afghanistan, and this was the region where the young traveller
+turned his steps on leaving Persia. He thought that the population
+of India was larger than that of any other country, and he divided
+it into two classes, the first having settled habitations, the
+second leading a nomadic life. Those who lived in the eastern part
+of the country killed their sick and aged people, and ate them,
+while those in the north, who were a finer, braver, and more
+industrious race, employed themselves in collecting the auriferous
+sands. India was then the most easterly extremity of the inhabited
+world, as he thought, and he observes, "that the two extremities of
+the world seem to have shared nature's best gifts, as Greece enjoyed
+the most agreeable temperature possible," and that was his idea of
+the western limits of the world.
+
+Media is the next country visited by this indefatigable traveller,
+and he gives the history of the Medes, the nation which was the
+first to shake off the Assyrian yoke. They founded the great city of
+Ecbatana, and surrounded it with seven concentric walls. They became
+a separate nation in the reign of Deioces. After crossing the
+mountains that separate Media from Colchis, the Greek traveller
+entered the country, made famous by the valour of Jason, and studied
+its manners and customs with the care and attention that were among
+his most striking characteristics.
+
+Herodotus seems to have been well acquainted with the geography of
+the Caspian Sea, for he speaks of it as a Sea "quite by itself" and
+having no communication with any other. He considered that it was
+bounded on the west by the Caucasian Mountains and on the east by a
+great plain inhabited by the Massagetae, who, both Arian and
+Diodorus Siculus think, may have been Scythians. These Massagetae
+worshipped the Sun as their only deity, and sacrificed horses in its
+honour. He speaks here of two large rivers, one of which, the Araxes,
+would be the Volga, and the other, that he calls the Ista, must be
+the Danube. The traveller then went into Scythia, and he thought
+that the Scythians were the different tribes inhabiting the country
+that lay between the Danube and the Don, in fact a considerable
+portion of European Russia. He found the barbarous custom of putting
+out the eyes of their prisoners was practised among them, and he
+notices that they only wandered from place to place without caring
+to cultivate their land. Herodotus relates many of the fables that
+make the origin of the Scythian nation so obscure, and in which
+Hercules plays a prominent part. He adds a list of the different
+tribes that composed the Scythian nation, but he does not seem to
+have visited the country lying to the north of the Euxine, or Black
+Sea. He gives a minute description of the habits of these people,
+and expresses his admiration for the Pontus Euxinus. The dimensions
+that he gives of the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, of the Propontis, the
+Palus Maeotis and of the AEgean Sea, are almost exactly the same as
+those given by geographers of the present day. He also names the
+large rivers that flow into these seas. The Ister or Danube, the
+Borysthenes or Dnieper, the Tanais, or Don; and he finishes by
+relating how the alliance, and afterwards the union between the
+Scythians and Amazons took place, which explains the reason why the
+young women of that country are not allowed to marry before they
+have killed an enemy and established their character for valour.
+
+After a short stay in Thrace, during which he was convinced that the
+Getae were the bravest portion of this race, Herodotus arrived in
+Greece, which was to be the termination of his travels, to the
+country where he hoped to collect the only documents still wanting
+to complete his history, and he visited all the spots that had
+become illustrious by the great battles fought between the Greeks
+and Persians. He gives a minute description of the Pass of
+Thermopylae, and of his visit to the plain of Marathon, the
+battlefield of Plataea, and his return to Asia Minor, whence he
+passed along the coast on which the Greeks had established several
+colonies. Herodotus can only have been twenty-eight years of age
+when he returned to Halicarnassus in Caria, for it was in B.C. 456
+that he read the history of his travels at the Olympic Games. His
+country was at that time oppressed by Lygdamis, and he was exiled to
+Samos; but though he soon after rose in arms to overthrow the tyrant,
+the ingratitude of his fellow-citizens obliged him to return into
+exile. In 444 he took part in the games at the Pantheon, and there
+he read his completed work, which was received with enthusiasm, and
+towards the end of his life he retired to Thurium in Italy, where he
+died, B.C. 406, leaving behind him the reputation of being the
+greatest traveller and the most celebrated historian of antiquity.
+
+After Herodotus we must pass over a century and a half, and only
+note, in passing, the Physician Ctesias, a contemporary of Xenophon,
+who published the account of a voyage to India that he really never
+made; and we shall come in chronological order to Pytheas, who was
+at once a traveller, geographer, and historian, one of the most
+celebrated men of his time. It was about the year B.C. 340 that
+Pytheas set out from the columns of Hercules with a single vessel,
+but instead of taking a southerly course like his Carthaginian
+predecessors, he went northwards, passing by the coasts of Iberia
+and Gaul to the furthest points which now form the Cape of
+Finisterre, and then he entered the English Channel and came upon
+the English coast--the British Isles--of which he was to be the
+first explorer. He disembarked at various points on the coast and
+made friends with the simple, honest, sober, industrious inhabitants,
+who traded largely in tin.
+
+Pytheas ventured still further north, and went beyond the Orcades
+Islands to the furthest point of Scotland, and he must have reached
+a very high latitude, for during the summer the night only lasted
+two hours. After six days further sailing, he came to lands which he
+calls Thule, probably the Jutland or Norway of the present day,
+beyond which he could not pass, for he says, "there was neither land,
+sea, nor air there." He retraced his course, and changing it
+slightly, he came to the mouth of the Rhine, to the country of the
+Ostians, and, further inland, to Germany. Thence he visited the
+mouth of the Tanais, that is supposed to be the Elbe or the Oder,
+and he retuned to Marseilles, just a year after leaving his native
+town. Pytheas, besides being such a brave sailor, was a remarkably
+scientific man: he was the first to discover the influence that the
+moon exercises on the tides, and to notice that the polar star is
+not situated at the exact spot at which the axis of the globe is
+supposed to be. Some years after the time of Pytheas, about B.C. 326
+a Greek traveller made his name famous. This was Nearchus, a native
+of Crete, one of Alexander's admirals, and he was charged to visit
+all the coast of Asia from the mouth of the Indus to that of the
+Euphrates. When Alexander first resolved that this expedition should
+take place, which had for its object the opening up of a
+communication between India and Egypt, he was at the upper part of
+the Indus. He furnished Nearchus with a fleet of thirty-three
+galleys, of some vessels with two decks, and a great number of
+transport ships, and 2000 men. Nearchus came down the Indus in about
+four months, escorted on either bank of the river by Alexander's
+armies, and after spending seven months in exploring the Delta, he
+set sail and followed the west line of what we call Beloochistan in
+the present day.
+
+He put to sea on the second of October, a month before the winter
+storms had taken a direction that was favourable to his purpose, so
+that the commencement of his voyage was disastrous, and in forty
+days he had scarcely made eighty miles in a westerly direction. He
+touched first at Stura and at Corestis, which do not seem to answer
+to any of the now-existing villages on the coast; then at the Island
+of Crocala, which forms the bay of Caranthia. Beaten back by
+contrary winds, after doubling the cape of Monze, the fleet took
+refuge in a natural harbour that its commander thought that he could
+fortify as a defence against the attacks of the barbarous natives,
+who, even at the present day, keep up their character as pirates.
+
+After spending twenty-four days in this harbour, Nearchus put to sea
+again on the 3rd of November. Severe gales often obliged him to keep
+very near the coast, and when this was the case he was obliged to
+take all possible precautions to defend himself from the attacks of
+the ferocious Beloochees, who are described by eastern historians
+"as a barbarous nation, with long dishevelled hair, and long flowing
+beards, who are more like bears or satyrs than human beings." Up to
+this time, however, no serious disaster had happened to the fleet,
+but on the 10th of November in a heavy gale two galleys and a ship
+sank. Nearchus then anchored at Crocala, and there he was met by a
+ship laden with corn that Alexander had sent out to him, and he was
+able to supply each vessel with provisions for ten days.
+
+After many disasters and a skirmish with some of the natives,
+Nearchus reached the extreme point of the land of the Orites, which
+is marked in modern geography by Cape Morant. Here, he states in his
+narrative that the rays of the sun at mid-day are vertical, and
+therefore there are no shadows of any kind; but this is surely a
+mistake, for at this time in the Southern hemisphere the sun is in
+the Tropic of Capricorn; and, beyond this, his vessels were always
+some degrees distant from the Tropic of Cancer, therefore even in
+the height of summer this phenomenon could not have taken place, and
+we know that his voyage was in winter.
+
+Circumstances seemed now rather more in his favour; for the time of
+the eastern monsoon was over, when he sailed along the coast which
+is inhabited by a tribe called Ichthyophagi, who subsist solely on
+fish, and from the failure of all vegetation are obliged to feed
+even their sheep upon the same food. The fleet was now becoming very
+short of provisions; so after doubling Cape Posmi Nearchus took a
+pilot from those shores on board his own vessel, and with the wind
+in their favour they made rapid progress, finding the country less
+bare as they advanced, a few scattered trees and shrubs being
+visible from the shore. They reached a little town, of the name of
+which we have no record, and as they were almost without food
+Nearchus surprised and took possession of it, the inhabitants making
+but little resistance. Canasida, or Churbar as we call it, was their
+next resting-place, and at the present day the ruins of a town are
+still visible in the bay. But their corn was now entirely exhausted,
+and though they tried successively at Canate, Trois, and Dagasira
+for further supplies, it was all in vain, these miserable little
+towns not being able to furnish more than enough for their own
+consumption. The fleet had neither corn nor meat, and they could not
+make up their minds to feed upon the tortoises that abound in that
+part of the coast.
+
+Just as they entered the Persian Gulf they encountered an immense
+number of whales, and the sailors were so terrified by their size
+and number, that they wished to fly; it was not without much
+difficulty that Nearchus at last prevailed upon them to advance
+boldly, and they soon scattered their formidable enemies.
+
+[Illustration: Nearchus leading on his followers against the
+monsters of the deep.]
+
+Having changed their westerly course for a north-easterly one, they
+soon came upon fertile shores, and their eyes were refreshed by the
+sight of corn-fields and pasture-lands, interspersed with all kinds
+of fruit-trees except the olive. They put into Badis or Jask, and
+after leaving it and passing Maceta or Mussendon, they came in sight
+of the Persian Gulf, to which Nearchus, following the geography of
+the Arabs, gave the misnomer of the Red Sea.
+
+They sailed up the gulf, and after one halt reached Harmozia, which
+has since given its name to the little island of Ormuz. There he
+learnt that Alexander's army was only five days' march from him, and
+he disembarked at once, and hastened to meet it. No news of the
+fleet having reached the army for twenty-one weeks, they had given
+up all hope of seeing it again, and great was Alexander's joy when
+Nearchus appeared before him, though the hardships he had endured
+had altered him almost beyond recognition. Alexander ordered games
+to be celebrated and sacrifices offered up to the gods; then
+Nearchus returned to Harmozia, as he wished to go as far as Susa
+with the fleet, and set sail again, having invoked Jupiter the
+Deliverer.
+
+He touched at some of the neighbouring islands, probably those of
+Arek and Kismis, and soon afterwards the vessels ran aground, but
+the advancing tide floated them again, and after passing Bestion,
+they arrived at the island of Keish, that is sacred to Mercury and
+Venus. This was the boundary-line between Karmania and Persia. As
+they advanced along the Persian coast, they visited different places,
+Gillam, Indarabia, Shevou, &c., and at the last-named was found a
+quantity of wheat which Alexander had sent for the use of the
+explorers.
+
+Some days after this they came to the mouth of the river Araxes,
+that separates Persia from Susiana, and thence they reached a large
+lake situated in the country now called Dorghestan, and finally
+anchored near the village of Degela, at the source of the Euphrates,
+having accomplished their project of visiting all the coast lying
+between the Euphrates and Indus. Nearchus returned a second time to
+Alexander, who rewarded him magnificently, and placed him in command
+of his fleet. Alexander's wish, that the whole of the Arabian coast
+should be explored as far as the Red Sea, was never fulfilled, as he
+died before the expedition was arranged.
+
+It is said that Nearchus became governor of Lysia and Pamphylia, but
+in his leisure time he wrote an account of his travels, which has
+unfortunately perished, though not before Arian had made a complete
+analysis of it in his Historia Indica. It seems probable that
+Nearchus fell in the battle of Ipsu, leaving behind him the
+reputation of being a very able commander; his voyage may be looked
+upon as an event of no small importance in the history of navigation.
+
+We must not omit to mention a most hazardous attempt made in B.C.
+146, by Eudoxus of Cyzicus, a geographer living at the court of
+Euergetes II, to sail round Africa. He had visited Egypt and the
+coast of India, when this far greater project occurred to him, one
+which was only accomplished sixteen hundred years later by Vasco da
+Gama. Eudoxus fitted out a large vessel and two smaller ones, and
+set sail upon the unknown waters of the Atlantic. How far he took
+these vessels we do not know, but after having had communication
+with some natives, whom he thought were Ethiopians, he returned to
+Mauritania. Thence he went to Tiberia, and made preparations for
+another attempt to circumnavigate Africa, but whether he ever set
+out upon this voyage is not known; in fact some learned men are even
+inclined to consider Eudoxus an impostor.
+
+We have still to mention two names of illustrious travellers, living
+before the Christian era; those of Caesar and Strabo. Caesar, born
+B.C. 100, was pre-eminently a _conqueror_, not an _explorer_, but we
+must remember, that in the year B.C. 58, he undertook the conquest
+of Gaul, and during the ten years that were occupied in this vast
+enterprise, he led his victorious Legions to the shores of Great
+Britain, where the inhabitants were of German extraction.
+
+As to Strabo, who was born in Cappadocia B.C. 50, he distinguished
+himself more as a geographer than a traveller, but he travelled
+through the interior of Asia, and visited Egypt, Greece, and Italy,
+living many years in Rome, and dying there in the latter part of the
+reign of Tiberius. Strabo wrote a Geography in seventeen Books, of
+which the greater part has come down to us, and this work, with that
+of Ptolemy, are the two most valuable legacies of ancient to modern
+Geographers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS FROM THE FIRST TO THE NINTH CENTURY.
+
+PAUSANIAS, 174; FA-HIAN, 399; COSMOS INDICOPLEUSTES, 500; ARCULPHE,
+700; WILLIBALD, 725; SOLEYMAN, 851.
+
+Pliny, Hippalus, Arian, and Ptolemy--Pausanias visits Attica,
+Corinth, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Achaia, Arcadia, Boeotia, and
+Phocis--Fa-Hian explores Kan-tcheou, Tartary, Northern India, the
+Punjaub, Ceylon, and Java--Cosmos Indicopleustes, and the Christian
+Topography of the Universe--Arculphe describes Jerusalem, the valley
+of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives, Bethlehem, Jericho, the river
+Jordan, Libanus, the Dead Sea, Capernaum, Nazareth, Mount Tabor,
+Damascus, Tyre, Alexandria, and Constantinople--Willibald and the
+Holy Land--Soleyman travels through Ceylon, and Sumatra, and crosses
+the Gulf of Siam and the China Sea.
+
+
+In the first two centuries of the Christian era, the study of
+geography received a great stimulus from the advance of other
+branches of science, but travellers, or rather explorers of new
+countries were very few in number. Pliny in the year A.D. 23,
+devoted the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth books of his Natural
+History to geography, and in A.D. 50, Hippalus, a clever navigator,
+discovered the laws governing the monsoon in the Indian Ocean, and
+taught sailors how they might deviate from their usual course, so as
+to make these winds subservient to their being able to go to and
+return from India in one year. Arian, a Greek historian, born A.D.
+105, wrote an account of the navigation of the Euxine or Black Sea,
+and pointed out as nearly as possible, the countries that had been
+discovered by explorers who had lived before his time; and Ptolemy
+the Egyptian, about A.D. 175, making use of the writings of his
+predecessors, published a celebrated geography, in which, for the
+first time, places and cities were marked in their relative latitude
+and longitude on a mathematical plan.
+
+The first traveller of the Christian era, whose name has been handed
+down to us, was Pausanias, a Greek writer, living in Rome in the
+second century, and whose account of his travels bears the date of
+A.D. 175. Pausanias did for ancient Greece what Joanne, the
+industrious and clever Frenchman did for the other countries of
+Europe, in compiling the "Traveller's Guide." His account, a most
+reliable one on all points, and most exact even in details, was one
+upon which travellers of the second century might safely depend in
+their journeys through the different parts of Greece.
+
+Pausanias gives a minute description of Attica, and especially of
+Athens and its monuments, tombs, temples, citadel, academy, columns,
+and of the Areopagus.
+
+From Attica Pausanias went to Corinth, and then explored the Islands
+of AEgina and Methana, Sparta, the Island of Cerigo, Messene, Achaia,
+Arcadia, Boeotia, and Phocis. The roads in the provinces and even
+the streets in the towns, are mentioned in his narrative, as well as
+the general character of the country through which he passed;
+although we can scarcely say that he added any fresh discoveries to
+those already made, he was one of those careful travellers whose
+object was more to obtain exact information, than to make new
+discoveries. His narrative has been of the greatest use to all
+geographers and writers upon Greece and the Peloponnesus, and an
+author of the sixteenth century has truly said that this book is "a
+most ancient and rare specimen of erudition."
+
+[Illustration: World as known to the Ancients.]
+
+It was about a hundred and thirty years after the Greek historian,
+in the fourth century, that a Chinese monk undertook the exploration
+of the countries lying to the west of China. The account of his
+travels is still extant, and we may well agree with M. Charton when
+he says that "this is a most valuable work, carrying us beyond our
+ordinarily narrow view of western civilization."
+
+Fa-Hian, the traveller, was accompanied by several monks; wishing to
+leave China by the west, they crossed more than one chain of
+mountains, and reached the country now called Kan-tcheou, which is
+not far from the great wall. They crossed the river Cha-ho, and a
+desert that Marco Polo was to explore eight hundred years later.
+After seventeen days' march they reached the Lake of Lobnor in
+Turkestan. From this point all the countries that the monks visited
+were alike as to manners and customs, the languages alone differing.
+Being dissatisfied with the reception that they met with in the
+country of the Ourgas, who are not a hospitable people, they took a
+south-easterly course towards a desert country, where they had great
+difficulty in crossing the rivers; and, after a thirty-five days'
+march, the little caravan reached Tartary in the kingdom of Khotan,
+which contained, according to Fa-Hian, "Many times ten thousand holy
+men." Here they met with a cordial welcome, and after a residence of
+three months were allowed to assist at the "Procession of the
+Images," a great feast, in which both Brahmins and Buddhists join,
+when all the idols are placed upon magnificently decorated cars, and
+paraded through streets strewn with flowers, amid clouds of incense.
+
+The feast over, the monks left Khotan for Koukonyar, and after
+resting there fifteen days, we find them further south in the
+Balistan country of the present day, a cold and mountainous district,
+where wheat was the only grain cultivated, and where Fa-Hian found
+in use the curious cylinders on which prayers are written, and which
+are turned by the faithful with the most extraordinary rapidity.
+Thence they went to the eastern part of Afghanistan; it took them
+four weeks to cross the mountains, in the midst of which, and the
+never-melting snow they are said to have found venomous dragons.
+
+On the further side of this rocky chain the travellers found
+themselves in Northern India, where the country is watered by the
+streams which, further on, form the Sinde or Indus. After traversing
+the kingdoms of On-tchang, Su-ho-to, and Kian-tho-wei, they arrived
+at Fo-loo-cha, which must be the town of Peshawur, standing between
+Cabul and the Indus, and twenty-four leagues farther west, they came
+to the town of Hilo, built on the banks of a tributary of the river
+Kabout. In these towns Fa-Hian specially notices the feasts and
+religious ceremonies practised in the worship of Fo or Buddha.
+
+[Illustration: One of Fa-Hian's companions falls.]
+
+When the monks left Kito, they were obliged to cross the
+Hindoo-Koosh mountains, lying between Turkestan and the Gandhara,
+the cold being so intense that one of their party sank under it.
+After enduring great hardships they reached Banoo, a town that is
+still standing, and then, after again crossing the Indus, they
+entered the Punjaub. Thence, descending towards the south-east, with
+a view of crossing the northern part of the Indian Peninsula, they
+reached Mathura, a town in the province of Agra, and crossing the
+great salt desert which lies to the east of the Indus, travelled
+through a country that Fa-Hian calls "a happy kingdom, where the
+inhabitants are good and honest, needing neither laws nor
+magistrates, and indebted to none for their support; without markets
+or wine merchants, and living happily, with plenty of all that they
+required, where the temperature was neither hot nor cold." This
+happy kingdom was India. Fa-Hian followed a south-easterly route,
+and came to Feroukh-abad, where Buddha is said to have alighted as
+he came down from heaven, the Chinese traveller dwelling much upon
+the Buddhist Creed. Thence he visited the town of Kanoji, standing
+on the right bank of the Ganges, that he calls Heng, and this is the
+very centre of Buddhism. Wherever Buddha is supposed to have rested,
+his followers have erected high towers in his honour. The travellers
+visited the temple of Tchihouan, where for twenty-five years Fo
+practised the most severe mortifications, and where he is said to
+have given sight to five hundred blind men. They are said to have
+been much moved by the sight of this temple.
+
+They set out again, passing Kapila and Goruckpoor, on the frontier
+of Nepaul, all made famous by Fo's miracles, and then reached the
+celebrated town of Palian-foo, in the delta of the Ganges, in the
+kingdom of Magadha. This was a fertile tract of country inhabited by
+a civilized, upright people, who loved all philosophic researches.
+After climbing the peak of Vautour, which stands at the source of
+the Dyardanes and Banourah rivers, Fa-Hian descended the Ganges,
+visited the temple of Issi-paten that was frequented by magicians
+and astrologers, reached Benares, "the kingdom of splendours," and a
+little lower down, the town of Tomo-li-ti, situated at the mouth of
+the river, a short distance from the site of Calcutta in the present
+day.
+
+Fa-Hian found a party of merchants just preparing to put to sea with
+the intention of going to Ceylon; he sailed with them, and in
+fourteen days landed on the shores of the ancient Taprobana, of
+which the Greek merchant, Jamboulos, had given a curious account
+some centuries previously. Here the Chinese monk found all the
+traditions and legends regarding the god Fo, and passed two years in
+searching ancient manuscripts. He left Ceylon for Java, where he
+landed after a very rough voyage, in the course of which, when the
+sky was overclouded, he says, "we saw nothing but great waves
+dashing one against another, lightning, crocodiles, tortoises, and
+monsters of the deep."
+
+He spent five months in Java, and then set sail for Canton; but the
+winds were again unfavourable, and after undergoing great hardships
+he landed at the town of Chantoung of the present day; then having
+spent some time at Nankin he returned to Fi-an-foo, his native town,
+after an absence of eighteen months. Such is the account of
+Fa-Hian's travels, which have been well translated by M. Abel de
+Remusat, and which give very interesting details of Indian and
+Tartar customs, especially those relating to their religious
+ceremonies.
+
+The next traveller to the Chinese monk, in chronological order, is
+an Egyptian called Cosmos Indicopleustes, a name that M. Charton
+renders as "Cosmographic traveller in India." He lived in the sixth
+century, and was a merchant of Alexandria, who, on his return from
+visiting Ethiopia and part of Asia, entered a monastery.
+
+His narrative is called the "Christian Topography of the Universe."
+It gives no details of its author's voyages, but begins with
+cosmographic discussions, to prove that the world is square, and
+enclosed in a great oblong coffer with all the other planets. This
+is followed by some dissertations on the function of the angels, and
+a description of the dress of the Jewish Priests. Cosmos also gives
+the natural history of the animals of India and Ceylon, and notices
+the rhinoceros and buffalo, which can be made of use for domestic
+purposes, the giraffe, the wild ox, the musk that is hunted for its
+"perfumed blood," the unicorn, which he considers a real animal and
+not a myth, the wild boar, the hippopotamus, the phoca, the dolphin,
+and the tortoise. Afterwards, Cosmos describes the pepper-plant, as
+a frail and delicate shrub, like the smallest tendrils of the vine,
+and the cocoa-tree, whose fruit has a fragrance "equal to that of a
+nut."
+
+From the earliest times of the Christian era there has been a great
+love for visiting the Holy Land, the cradle of the new religion.
+These pilgrimages became more and more frequent, and we have many
+names left to us of those who visited Palestine during the first
+centuries of Christianity.
+
+One of these pilgrims, the French Bishop Arculphe, who lived towards
+the end of the seventh century, has left us an account of his
+travels.
+
+He sets out by giving a topographical description of the site of
+Jerusalem, and describes the wall that surrounds the holy city, then
+the circular church built over the Holy Sepulchre, the tomb of our
+Lord Jesus Christ, and the stone that closed it, the church
+dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the church built upon Calvary, and the
+basilica of Constantine on the site of the place where the real
+cross was found. These various churches are united in one building,
+which also encloses the Tomb of Christ, and Calvary, where our Lord
+was crucified.
+
+Arculphe then descended into the Valley of Jehoshaphat, which is
+situated to the east of the city, and contains the church that
+covers the tomb of the Virgin; he also saw that of Absalom, which he
+calls the Tower of Jehoshaphat. He describes the Mount of Olives
+that faces the city beyond the valley, and he prayed in the cave
+where Jesus prayed. He also went to Mount Zion, which stands outside
+the town on the south side; he notices the gigantic fig-tree, on
+which, according to tradition, Judas Iscariot hanged himself, and he
+visited the church of the guest-chamber, now destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: Absalom's Tomb.]
+
+After making the tour of the city by the Valley of Siloam, and
+ascending by the brook Cedron, the bishop returned to the Mount of
+Olives, which was covered with waving wheat and barley, grass and
+wild flowers, and he describes the place where Christ ascended from
+the summit of the mountain. On this spot a large church has been
+built, with three arched porticoes that are not roofed over or
+covered in any way, but are open to the sky. "They have not roofed
+in this church," says the bishop, "because it was the place whence
+our Saviour ascended upon a cloud, and the space open to heaven
+allows the prayers of the faithful to ascend thither. For when they
+paved this church they could not lay the pavement over the place
+where our Lord's feet had rested, as, when the stones were laid upon
+that spot, the earth, as though impatient of anything not divine
+resting upon it, threw them up again before the workmen. Beyond this,
+the dust bears the impress of the divine feet, and though, day by
+day, the faithful who visit the spot efface the marks, they
+immediately reappear and may be seen perpetually."
+
+After having explored the neighbourhood of Bethany in the midst of
+the grove of olives, where the grave of Lazarus is said to be, and
+where the church, standing on the right hand is supposed to mark the
+spot where our Lord usually conversed with His disciples, Arculphe
+went to Bethlehem, which is a short distance from the holy city. He
+describes the birthplace of our Lord, a natural cave, hollowed out
+of the rock at the eastern end of the village, the church, built by
+St. Helena, the tombs of the three shepherds, upon whom the heavenly
+light shone at the birth of our Saviour, the burial-places of the
+patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and that of Rachel, and he
+visited the oak of Mamre, under which Abraham received the visit of
+the angels. Thence, Arculphe went to Jericho, or rather the place
+where the town once stood, whose walls fell at the sound of Joshua's
+trumpets. He explored the place where the children of Israel first
+rested in the land of Canaan after crossing the river Jordan, and he
+speaks of the church of Galgala, where the twelve stones are placed,
+which the children of Israel took from the river when they entered
+the promised land. He followed the course of the Jordan, and found
+near one of the bends of the river on the right bank, and among the
+most beautiful scenery, about an hour's walk from the Dead Sea, the
+place where our Lord was baptized by St. John the Baptist. A cross
+is placed to mark the spot, but when the river is swollen, it is
+covered by the water.
+
+After examining the banks of the Dead Sea and tasting its brackish
+water, he viewed the source of the Jordan, at the foot of Libanus,
+and explored the greater part of the Lake of Tiberias, visiting the
+well where the woman of Samaria gave our Lord the water He so much
+needed, seeing the fountain in the desert of which St. John the
+Baptist drank, and the great plain of Gaza, where our Lord blessed
+the five loaves and two fishes, and fed the multitude. Next he went
+down to Capernaum, of which there are now no remains; then visited
+Nazareth, where our Lord spent His childhood, and ended his journey
+at Mount Tabor in Galilee.
+
+The bishop's narrative contains both geographical and historical
+accounts of other places, beyond those immediately connected with
+our Lord's life on earth. He visited the royal city of Damascus,
+which is watered by four large rivers. Also Tyre, the chief town of
+Phoenicia, which, though once separated from the mainland, was
+joined to it again by the jetty or pier made by the orders of
+Nabuchodonosor. He speaks of Alexandria, once the capital of Egypt,
+which he reached forty days after leaving Jaffa, and lastly, of
+Constantinople, where he often visited the large church in which
+"the wood of the cross is preserved, upon which the Saviour suffered
+for the salvation of the human race."
+
+The account of this journey was written by the Abbe de St. Columban
+at the dictation of the bishop, and not many years afterwards the
+same journey was undertaken by an English pilgrim, and accomplished
+in much the same way. The name of this pilgrim was Willibald, a
+member of a rich family living at Southampton, who, on his recovery
+from a long illness, dedicated him to God's service. All his early
+life was spent in holy exercises in the monastery of Woltheim; when
+he was grown up he had the most intense wish to see St. Peter's at
+Rome, and was so set upon this, that it induced his father, brother,
+and young sister to wish to go there also; they embarked at
+Southampton in the spring of 721, and making their way up the Seine,
+they landed at Rouen. We have but few details of the journey to Rome,
+but Willibald mentions that after passing through Cortona and Lucca,
+at which latter place his father sank under the fatigue of the
+journey and died, he reached Rome in safety with his brother and
+sister, and passed the winter there, but they were all in turn
+attacked with fever. When Willibald regained his health, he
+determined to continue his journey to the Holy Land. He sent his
+brother and sister back to England, while he joined some monks who
+were going in the same direction as himself. They went by Terracina
+and Gaeta to Naples, and set sail for Reggio in Calabria, and
+Catania and Syracuse in Sicily, whence they again embarked, and,
+after touching at Cos and Samos, landed at Ephesus in Asia Minor,
+where they visited the tombs of St. John the Evangelist, of Mary
+Magdalene, and of the seven sleepers of Ephesus, that is, seven
+Christians martyred in the time of the Emperor Decius.
+
+They made some stay at Patara and at Mitylene, and then went to
+Cyprus and Paphos; we next find the party, seven in number, at
+Edessa, visiting the tomb of St. Thomas the Apostle. Here they were
+arrested as spies, and thrown into prison by the Saracens, but the
+king, on the petition of a Spaniard, set them at liberty. As soon as
+they were set free they left the town in great haste, and from that
+time their route is almost the same as that of the Bishop Arculphe;
+they visited Damascus, Nazareth, Cana, where they saw a wonderful
+amphora on Mount Tabor, where our Lord was transfigured, and the
+Lake of Tiberias, where St. Peter walked upon the water; Magdala,
+where Lazarus and his sister dwelt; Capernaum, where our Lord raised
+to life the son of the nobleman; Bethsaida in Galilee, the native
+place of St. Peter and St. Andrew; Chorazin, where our Lord cured
+those possessed with devils; Caesarea, and the spot where our Lord
+was baptized, as well as Jericho and Jerusalem.
+
+They also went to the Valley of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives,
+and to Bethlehem, the scene of the murder of the Innocents by Herod,
+and Gaza. While they were at Gaza, Willibald tells us that he
+suddenly became blind, while he was in the church of St. Matthias,
+and only recovered his sight two months afterwards, as he entered
+the church of the Holy Cross at Jerusalem. He went through the
+valley of Diospolis or Lydda, ten miles from Jerusalem, and then
+went to Tyre and Sidon, and thence, by Libanus, Damascus, Caesarea,
+and Emmaus, back to Jerusalem, where the travellers spent the winter.
+
+This was not to be the limit of their exploration, for we hear of
+them at Ptolemais, Emesa, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Samaria, where St.
+John the Baptist is said to have been buried, and at Tyre, where it
+must be confessed that Willibald defrauded the revenue of that time
+by smuggling some balsam that was very celebrated, and on which a
+duty was levied. On quitting Tyre they went to Constantinople and
+lived there for two years before returning by Sicily, Calabria,
+Naples, and Capua. The English pilgrim reached the monastery of
+Monte Cassino, just ten years after his first setting out on his
+travels; but his time of rest had not yet come, as he was appointed
+to a bishopric in Franconia by Pope Gregory III. He was forty-one
+years of age when he was made bishop, and he lived forty years
+afterwards. In 938 he was canonized by Leo VII.
+
+We will conclude the list of celebrated travellers living between
+the first and ninth centuries, by giving a short account of Soleyman,
+a merchant of Bassorah, who, starting from the Persian Gulf, arrived
+eventually on the shores of China. This narrative is in two distinct
+parts, one written in 851, by Soleyman himself, who was the
+traveller, and the other in 878 by a geographer named Abou-Zeyd
+Hassan with the view of completing the first. Renaud, the
+orientalist, is of opinion that this narrative "has thrown quite a
+new light on the commercial transactions that existed in the ninth
+century between Egypt, Arabia, and the countries bordering on the
+Persian Gulf on one side, and the vast provinces of India and China
+on the other."
+
+Soleyman, as we have said, started from the Persian Gulf after
+having taken in a good supply of fresh water at Muscat, and visited
+first, the second sea, or that of Oman. He noticed a fish of
+enormous size, probably a spermaceti whale, which the seamen
+endeavoured to frighten away by ringing a bell, then a shark, in
+whose stomach they found a smaller shark, enclosing in its turn one
+still smaller, "both alive," says the traveller, which is manifestly
+an exaggeration; then, after describing the remora, the dactyloptera,
+and the porpoise, he speaks of the sea near the Maldive Islands in
+which he counted an enormous number of islands, among them he
+mentions Ceylon by its Arabian name, with its pearl fisheries;
+Sumatra, inhabited by cannibals, and rich in gold-mines; Nicobar,
+and the Andaman Islands, where cannibalism still exists even at the
+present day. "This sea," he says, "is subject to fearful
+water-spouts which wreck the ships, and throw on its shores an
+immense number of dead fish and sometimes even large stones. When
+these tempests are at their height the sea seethes and boils."
+Soleyman imagined it to be infested by a sort of monster who preyed
+upon human beings; this is thought to have been a kind of dog-fish.
+
+[Illustration: Soleyman noticed a shark in whose stomach they found
+a smaller shark.]
+
+Arrived at Nicobar, Soleyman traded with the inhabitants, bartering
+some iron for cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane, bananas, &c.; he then crossed
+the sea, and seems to have made for Singapore, and northwards by the
+Gulf of Siam. Soleyman put into a harbour, near Cape Varella, to
+revictual his ships, and thence he went by the China Sea to
+Jehan-fou the port of the present town of Tche-kiang. The remainder
+of the account of Soleyman's travels, written by Abou-Zeyd Hassan,
+contains a detailed account of the manners and customs of the
+Indians and Chinese; but it is not the traveller himself who is
+speaking, and we shall find the same subjects spoken of in a more
+interesting manner by later authors.
+
+We must add, in reviewing the discoveries made by travellers sixteen
+centuries before, and nine centuries after, the Christian era, that
+from Norway to the extreme boundaries of China, taking a line
+through the Atlantic ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the
+Indian Ocean, and the Sea of China, the immense extent of coast
+bordering these seas had been in a great measure visited. Some
+explorations had been attempted in the interior of these countries;
+for instance, in Egypt as far as Ethiopia, in Asia Minor to the
+Caucasus, in India and China; and if these old travellers may not
+have quite understood mathematical precision, as to some of the
+points they visited, at all events the manners and customs of the
+inhabitants, the productions of the different countries, the mode of
+trading with them, and their religious customs, were quite
+sufficiently understood. Ships could sail with more safety when the
+change of winds was no longer a subject of mere speculation, the
+caravans could take a more direct route in the interior of the
+countries, and the great increase of trade which took place in the
+middle ages is surely owing to the facilities afforded by the
+writings of travellers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BETWEEN THE TENTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, 1159-1173; PLAN DE CARPIN, OR CARPINI,
+1245-1247; RUBRUQUIS, 1253-1254.
+
+The Scandinavians in the North, Iceland and Greenland--Benjamin of
+Tudela visits Marseilles, Rome, Constantinople, the Archipelago,
+Palestine, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Damascus, Baalbec, Nineveh, Baghdad,
+Babylon, Bassorah, Ispahan, Shiraz, Samarcand, Thibet, Malabar,
+Ceylon, the Red Sea, Egypt, Sicily, Italy, Germany, and France--
+Carpini explores Turkestan--Manners and customs of the Tartars--
+Rubruquis and the Sea of Azov, the Volga, Karakorum, Astrakhan, and
+Derbend.
+
+
+In the course of the tenth, and at the beginning of the eleventh
+century, a considerable amount of ardour for exploration had arisen
+in Northern Europe. Some Norwegians and adventurous Gauls had
+penetrated to the Northern seas, and, if we may trust to some
+accounts, they had gone as far as the White Sea and visited the
+country of the Samoyedes. Some documents say that Prince Madoc may
+have explored the American continent.
+
+At all events we may be tolerably certain that Iceland was
+discovered about A.D. 861 by some Scandinavian adventurers, and that
+it was soon after colonized by Normans. About this same time a
+Norwegian had taken refuge on a newly discovered land, and surprised
+by its verdure he gave it the name of Greenland.
+
+The communication with this portion of the American continent was
+difficult and uncertain, and one geographer says "it took five years
+for a vessel to go from Norway to Greenland, and to return from
+Greenland to Norway." Sometimes in severe winters the Northern Ocean
+was completely frozen over, and a certain Hollur-Geit, guided by a
+goat, was able to cross on foot from Norway to Greenland. We should
+keep in mind that the period of which we are speaking is the time
+when legends and traditions were very plentiful, and gained ready
+credence.
+
+Let us return to well-authenticated facts, and relate the journey of
+a Spanish Jew, whose truthfulness is beyond question.
+
+This Jew was the son of a rabbi of Tudela, a town in Navarre, and he
+was called Benjamin of Tudela. It seems probable that the object of
+his voyage was to make a census of his brother Jews scattered over
+the surface of the Globe, but whatever may have been his motive, he
+spent thirteen years, from 1160-1173, exploring nearly all the known
+world, and his narrative was considered the great authority on this
+subject up to the sixteenth century.
+
+Benjamin of Tudela left Barcelona, and travelling by Tarragona,
+Gironde, Narbonne, Beziers, Montpellier, Sunel, Pousquiers, St.
+Gilles, and Arles, reached Marseilles. Here he visited the two
+synagogues in the town and the principal Jews, and then set sail for
+Genoa, arriving there in four days. The Genoese were masters of the
+sea at that time, and were at war with the people of Pisa, a brave
+people, who, like the Genoese, says the traveller, "owned neither
+kings nor princes, but only the judges whom they appointed at their
+own pleasure."
+
+After visiting Lucca, Benjamin of Tudela went to Rome. Alexander III.
+was Pope at that time, and according to this traveller, he included
+some Jews among his ministers. Among the monuments of special
+interest in the eternal city, he mentions St. Peter's and St. John
+Lateran, but his descriptions are not interesting. From Rome by
+Capua, and Pozzuoli, then partly inundated, he went to Naples, where
+he seems to have seen nothing but the five hundred Jews living
+there; then by Salerno, Amalfi, Benevento, Ascoli, Trani, St.
+Nicholas of Bari, and Brindisi, he arrived at Otranto, having
+crossed Italy and yet found nothing interesting to relate of this
+splendid country.
+
+The list of the places Benjamin of Tudela visited, is not
+interesting, but we must not omit to mention one of them, for his
+narrative is most precise, and it is useful to follow his route by
+the maps specially prepared for this purpose by Lelewel. From
+Otranto to Zeitun, his halting-places were Corfu, the Gulf of Arta,
+Achelous, an ancient town in AEtolia, Anatolia in Greece, on the
+Gulf of Patras, Patras, Lepanto, Crissa, at the foot of Mount
+Parnassus, Corinth, Thebes, whose two thousand Jewish inhabitants
+were the best makers of silk and purple in Greece, Negropont and
+Zeitoun. Here, according to the Spanish traveller, is the
+boundary-line of Wallachia; he says the Wallachians are as nimble
+as goats, and come down from the mountains to pillage the
+neighbouring Greek towns.
+
+Benjamin of Tudela went on to Constantinople by way of Gardiki, a
+small township on the Gulf of Volo, Armyros, a port much frequented
+by the Venetians and Genoese, Bissina, a town of which no traces are
+left, Salonica, the ancient Thessalonica, and Abydos. He gives us
+some details of Constantinople; the Emperor Emmanuel Comnenus was
+reigning at that time and lived in a palace that he had built upon
+the sea-shore, containing columns of pure gold and silver, and "the
+golden throne studded with precious stones, above which a golden
+crown is suspended by a chain of the same precious metal, which
+rests upon the monarch's head as he sits upon the throne." In this
+crown are many precious stones, and one of priceless worth: "so
+brilliant are they," says this traveller, "that at night, there is
+no occasion for any further light than that thrown back by these
+jewels." He adds that there is a large population in the city, and
+for the number of merchants from all countries who assemble there,
+it can only be compared to Baghdad. The inhabitants are principally
+dressed in embroidered silk robes enriched with golden fringes, and
+to see them thus attired and mounted upon their horses, one would
+take them for princes, but they are not brave warriors, and they
+keep mercenaries from all nations to fight for them. One regret he
+expresses, and that is, that there are no Jews left in the City, and
+that they have all been transported to Galata, near the entrance of
+the port, where are nearly two thousand five hundred of the sects
+(Rabbinites and Caraites), and among them many rich merchants and
+silk manufacturers, but the Turks have a bitter hatred for them, and
+treat them with great severity. Only one of these rich Jews was
+allowed to ride on horseback, he was the Emperor's physician,
+Solomon, the Egyptian. As to the remarkable buildings of
+Constantinople, he mentions the Mosque of St. Sophia, in which the
+number of altars answers to the number of days in a year, and the
+columns and gold and silver candlesticks, are too numerous to be
+counted; also the Hippodrome, which at the present day is used as a
+horse-market, but was then the scene of combats between "lions,
+bears, tigers, other wild beasts, and even birds."
+
+[Illustration: The approach to Constantinople.]
+
+When Benjamin of Tudela left Constantinople, he visited Gallipoli
+and Kilia, a port on the Eastern coast, and went to the islands in
+the Archipelago, Mitylene, Chios, whence there was much trade in the
+juice of the pistachio-tree, Samos, Rhodes, and Cyprus. As he sailed
+towards the land of Aram, he passed by Messis, by Antioch, where he
+admired the arrangements for supplying the city with water, and by
+Latakia on his way to Tripoli, which he found had been recently
+shaken by an earthquake, that had been felt for miles round. We next
+hear of him at Beyrout, at Sidon, and Tyre, celebrated for its glass
+manufactory, at Acre, at Jaffa near Mount Carmel, at Capernaum, at
+the beautiful town of Caesarea, at Samaria, which is built in the
+midst of a fertile tract, where are vineyards, gardens, orchards,
+and olive-yards, at Nablous, at Gibeon, and then at Jerusalem.
+
+In the holy city, it was but natural that the Jew could see nothing
+that would have interested a Christian visitor. For him, Jerusalem
+appeared only a small town, defended by three walls and peopled with
+Jews, Syrians, Greeks, Georgians, and Franks of all languages and
+nations. He found four hundred horse-soldiers in the city ready for
+war at any moment, a great temple in which is the tomb of "that
+man," as the Talmud styles our Saviour, and a house in which the
+Jews had the privilege of carrying on the work of dyeing; but they
+were few in number, scarcely two hundred, and they lived under the
+tower of David at one corner of the city. Outside Jerusalem, the
+traveller mentions the tomb of Absalom, the sepulchre of Osias, the
+pool of Siloam, near the brook Cedron, the valley of Jehoshaphat,
+and the Mount of Olives, from whose summit one can see the Dead Sea.
+Two leagues from it stands the pillar of Lot's wife, and the
+traveller adds, "that though the flocks and herds which pass this
+pillar of salt are continually licking it, yet it never diminishes
+in size." From Jerusalem, Benjamin of Tudela went to Bethlehem, and
+inscribed his name on Rachel's tomb, as it was customary for all
+Jews to do who passed by it; and from Bethlehem, after counting
+twelve Jewish dyeing establishments, he went on to Hebron, which is
+now deserted and in ruins.
+
+After visiting, in the plain of Machpelah, the tombs of Abraham,
+Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, and Leah, and passing by Beth-Jairim,
+Scilo, Mount Moriah, Beth-Nubi, Ramah, Joppa, Jabneh, Azotus,
+Ascalon, built by Esdras, Lud, Tiberias, where are some hot springs,
+Gish and Merom, which is still a spot visited by Jewish pilgrims,
+Kedesh and Laish, near the cavern, where the Jordan takes its rise,
+the traveller left the land of Israel, and entered Damascus.
+
+The following is his description of this city, where the Turkish
+rule begins. "It is a very large and beautiful city, walled round,
+and outside the walls for fifteen miles are gardens and orchards,
+and of all the surrounding country, this is the most fertile spot.
+The town stands at the foot of Mount Hermon, whence rise the two
+rivers, Abana and Pharpar; the first passes through the city, and
+its waters are taken into the larger houses by means of aqueducts,
+as well as through the streets and markets. This town trades with
+all the world. The river Pharpar fertilizes the orchards and gardens
+outside the town. There is an Ishmaelitish mosque, called
+Goman-Dammesec, meaning the synagogue of Damascus, and this building
+has not its equal; it is said to have been Benhadad's palace, and it
+contains a glass wall, built apparently by magic. This wall has 365
+holes in it, answering to the days of the year; as the sun rises and
+sets it shines through one or other of these holes, so that the hour
+of the day may thus always be known. Inside the palace or mosque are
+gold and silver houses, large enough to hold two or three persons at
+a time, if they wish to wash or bathe in them."
+
+After going to Galad and Salkah, which are two days' journey from
+Damascus, Benjamin reached Baalbec, the Heliopolis of the Greeks and
+Romans, built by Solomon, in the valley of the Libanus, then to
+Tadmor, which is Palmyra, also built entirely of great stones. Then
+passing by Cariatin, he stopped at Hamah, which was partially
+destroyed by an earthquake in 1157, which overthrew many of the
+Syrian towns.
+
+Now comes in the narrative a list of names, which are of no great
+interest: we may mention among them, Nineveh, whence the traveller
+returned towards the Euphrates; and finally that he reached Baghdad,
+the residence of the Caliph.
+
+Baghdad was of great interest to the Jewish traveller; he says it is
+a large town three miles in circumference, containing a hospital
+both for Jews and sick people of any nation. It is the centre for
+learned men, philosophers, and magicians from all parts of the world.
+It is the residence of the Caliph, who at this time was probably
+Mostaidjed, whose dominion included western Persia and the banks of
+the Tigris. He had a vast palace, standing in a park watered by a
+tributary of the Tigris and filled with wild beasts, he may be taken
+as a model sovereign on some points; he was a good and very truthful
+man, kind and considerate to all with whom he came in contact. He
+lived on the produce of his own toil, and made blankets, which,
+marked with his own seal, were sold in the market by the princes of
+his court, to defray the expense of his living. He only left his
+palace once a year, at the feast of Ramadan, when he went to the
+mosque near the Bassorah gate, and there acting as Iman, he
+explained the law to his people. He returned to his palace by a
+different route which was carefully guarded all the rest of the year,
+so that no other passer by might profane the marks of his footsteps.
+All the brothers of the Caliph inhabit the same palace as he does;
+they are all treated with much respect, and have the government of
+provinces and towns in their hands, the revenues from them enabling
+them to pass a pleasant life; only, as they once rebelled against
+their sovereign, they are now all fettered with chains of iron, and
+have guards mounted before their houses.
+
+Benjamin of Tudela visited that part of Turkey in Asia which is
+watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, and saw the ruined city of
+Babylon, passing by what is said to be the furnace into which
+Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego were thrown, and the tower of Babel,
+which he describes as follows. "The tower built by the tribes that
+were dispersed is of bricks; its largest ground work must be two
+miles in circumference; its length is two hundred and forty cubits.
+At every ten cubits there is a passage leading to a spiral staircase,
+which goes to the upper part of the building; from the tower there
+is a view of the surrounding country for twenty miles; but the wrath
+of God fell upon it and it is now only a heap of ruins."
+
+[Illustration: The Tower of Babel.]
+
+From Babel the traveller went to the Synagogue of Ezekiel, situated
+on the Euphrates, a real sanctuary where believers congregate to
+read the book written by the prophet. Then traversing Alkotzonath,
+&c., to Sura, once the site of a celebrated Jewish college, and
+Shafjathib, whose synagogue is built with stones from Jerusalem, and
+crossing the desert of Yemen he passed Themar, Tilimar, and Chaibar
+which contained a great number of Jewish inhabitants, to Waseth; and
+thence to Bassorah on the Tigris, nearly at the end of the Persian
+Gulf.
+
+He gives no account of this important town; and thence he seems to
+have gone to Karna, to visit the tomb of the prophet Esdras; then he
+entered Persia and sojourned at Chuzestan, a large town, partly in
+ruins, which the river Tigris divides into two parts, one rich the
+other poor, joined by a bridge, over which hangs the coffin of
+Daniel the prophet. He went to Amaria, which is the boundary of
+Media, where he says the impostor David-el-roi appeared, the worker
+of false miracles, who is none other than our Lord Jesus Christ, but
+called among the Jews of that part by the former name. Then he went
+to Hamadan, where the tombs of Mordecai and Esther are found, and by
+Dabrestan he reached Ispahan, the capital of the kingdom, a city
+measuring twelve miles in circumference. At this point the narrative
+of the traveller becomes somewhat obscure; according to his notes we
+find him at Shiraz, then at Samarcand, then at the foot of the
+mountains in Thibet. This seems to have been his farthest point
+towards the north-east; he must have come back to Nizapur and
+Chuzestan on the banks of the Tigris; thence after a sea voyage of
+two days to El-Cachif, an Arabian town on the Persian Gulf, where
+the pearl fishery is carried on. Then, after another voyage of seven
+days and crossing the Sea of Oman, he seems to have reached Quilon
+on the coast of Malabar.
+
+He was at last in India, the kingdom of the worshippers of the Sun
+and of the descendants of Cush. This country produces pepper, ginger,
+and cinnamon. Twenty days after leaving Quilon he was among the
+fire-worshippers in Ceylon, and thence, perhaps, he went to China.
+He thought this voyage a very perilous one, and says that many
+vessels are lost on it, giving the following singular expedient for
+averting the danger. "You should take on board with you several
+skins of oxen, and, if the wind rises and threatens the vessel with
+danger, all who wish to escape envelope themselves each in a skin,
+sew up this skin so as to make it as far as possible water-tight,
+then throw themselves into the sea, and flocks of the great eagles
+called griffins, thinking that they are really oxen, will descend
+and bear them on their wings to some mountain or valley, there to
+devour their prey. Immediately on reaching land the man will kill
+the eagle with his knife, and leaving the skin, will walk towards
+the nearest habitation; many people," he adds, "have been saved by
+this means."
+
+We find Benjamin of Tudela again at Ceylon, then at the Island of
+Socotra in the Persian Gulf, and after crossing the Red Sea he
+arrives in Abyssinia, which he styles "the India that is on terra
+firma." Thence he goes down the Nile, crosses the country of Assouan,
+reaches the town of Holvan, and by the Sahara, where the sand
+swallows up whole caravans, he goes to Zairlah, Kous, Faiouna and
+Misraim or Cairo.
+
+This last is a large town containing fine squares and shops. It
+never rains there, but this want is supplied by the overflow of the
+Nile once a year, which waters the country and renders it very
+fertile.
+
+[Illustration: Benjamin of Tudela in the Desert of Sahara.]
+
+He passed Gizeh on leaving Misraim but does not mention the pyramids,
+and just names Ain-Schams, Boutig, Zefita, and Damira; he stopped at
+Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, a city of great commerce,
+frequented by merchants from all parts of the world. Its squares and
+streets are thronged with people, and so long that one cannot see
+from one end to another. A dike or causeway runs out a mile into the
+sea, on which a high tower was built by the conqueror, and on the
+top of it a glass mirror was placed, by which all vessels could be
+seen while still fifty days' sail away, coming from Greece or the
+east on their way to make war upon or otherwise harm the town. "This
+tower," if we may credit the writer, "is still of use as a signal to
+vessels coming to Alexandria, for it can be seen night or day, a
+great flaming torch being kept lighted at night, visible 100 miles
+off!" What are our light-houses when even with the electric light
+they are only visible thirty miles away? From Damietta, the
+traveller visited several neighbouring towns, then returning there
+he embarked on board a vessel and twenty days afterwards landed at
+Messina. He wished to continue the census that he was making, so by
+way of Rome and Lucca he went to St. Bernard. He mentions visiting
+several towns both in Germany and France, where Jews had settled,
+and according to Chateaubriand's account, Benjamin of Tudela's
+computation brought the number of Jews to about 768,165.
+
+In conclusion the traveller speaks of Paris, which he seems to have
+visited; he says, "This great town numbers among its inhabitants
+some remarkably learned men, who are unequalled for learning by any
+in the world; they spend all their time studying law, and at the
+same time are very hospitable to all strangers, but especially to
+all their Jewish brethren." Such is the account of Benjamin of
+Tudela's travels; they form an important part of the geographical
+science of the middle of the twelfth century. As we have used the
+modern names, it is easy to follow the short account of his route
+that we have given, on any atlas of the present day.
+
+Next in order of succession we come to the name of Jean du Plan de
+Carpin, or as some authors render it simply, Carpini. He was a
+Franciscan or Grey Friar, born in 1182, at Perugia in Italy. It is
+well known what inroads the Mongolians had made under Gengis-Khan,
+and in 1206 this chieftain had made Karakorum, an ancient Turkish
+town, his capital. This town was a little north of China. His
+successor Ojadai, extended the Mongolian dominion into the centre of
+China, and, after raising an army of 600,000 men, he even invaded
+Europe. Russia, Georgia, Poland, Moravia, Silesia, and Hungary, all
+became the scenes of sanguinary conflicts which almost always ended
+in favour of the invaders. The Mongols were looked upon as demons
+possessed with superhuman power, and Western Europe was terrified at
+their approach.
+
+Pope Innocent IV. sent an ambassador to the Tartars, but he was
+treated with arrogance; at the same time he sent other ambassadors
+to the Tartars living in North-Eastern Tartary, in the hope of
+stopping the Mongolian invasion, and as chief in this mission, the
+Franciscan Carpini was chosen, being known to be a clever and
+intelligent diplomatist. Carpini was accompanied by Stephen, a
+Bohemian; they set out on the 6th of April, 1245, and went first to
+Bohemia, where the king gave them letters to some relations living
+in Poland, who he hoped might facilitate their entrance into Russia.
+Carpini had no difficulty in reaching the territory of the Archduke
+of Russia, and by his advice they bought beaver and other furs as
+presents for the Tartar chiefs. Thus provided, they took a
+north-easterly route to Kiev, then the chief town of Russia and now
+the seat of Government of that part, but they travelled in fear of
+the Lithuanians, who scoured the country at that time.
+
+The Governor of Kiev advised the Pope's envoys to exchange their own
+for Tartar horses, who were accustomed to seek for their food under
+the snow, and thus mounted they had no difficulty in getting as far
+as Danilisha. There they both were attacked by severe illness; when
+nearly recovered they bought a carriage, and in spite of the intense
+cold set out again. Arrived at Kaniev, on the Dnieper, they found
+themselves in the frontier town of the Mongol empire, and hence they
+were conducted to the Tartar camp by one of the chiefs, whom they
+had made their friend by gifts. In the camp they were badly received
+at first, but being directed to the Duke of Corrensa, who commanded
+an army of 60,000 men forming the advanced guard: this general sent
+them with an escort of three Tartars to Prince Bathy, the next in
+command to the Emperor himself. Relays of horses were prepared for
+them on the road, they travelled night and day, and thus passed
+through the Comans' country lying between the Dnieper, the Tanais,
+the Volga, and the Yaik, frequently having to cross the frozen
+rivers, and finally reaching the court of Prince Bathy on the
+frontiers of the Comans' country. "As we were being conducted to the
+prince," says Carpini, "we were told that we should have to pass
+between two fires, in order to purify us from any infection we might
+carry, and also to do away with any evil designs we might have
+towards the prince, which we agreed to do that we might be freed
+from all suspicion."
+
+The prince was seated on his throne in the midst of his courtiers
+and officers in a magnificent tent made of fine linen. He had the
+reputation of being a just and kind ruler of his people, but very
+cruel in war. Carpini and Stephen were placed on the left of the
+throne, and the papal letters, translated into a language composed
+of Tartar and Arabic, were presented to the prince. He read them
+attentively and then dismissed the envoys to their tents, where
+their only refreshment was a little porringer full of millet.
+
+This interview took place on Good Friday, and the next day Bathy
+sent for the envoys, and told them they must go to the Emperor. They
+set out on Easter-day with two guides; but having lived upon nothing
+but millet, water, and salt, the travellers were but little fit for
+a journey; nevertheless their guides obliged them to travel very
+quickly, changing horses five or six times in a day. They passed
+through almost a desert country, the Tartars having driven away
+nearly all the inhabitants. They came next to the country of the
+Kangites to the east of Comania, where there was a great deficiency
+of water; in this province the people were mostly herdsmen, under
+the hard yoke of the Mongolians.
+
+Carpini was travelling from Easter till Ascension-Day through the
+land of the Kangites, and thence he came into the Biserium country,
+or what we call Turkestan in the present day; on all sides the eye
+rested on towns and villages in ruins. After crossing a chain of
+mountains the envoys entered Kara-Katy on the 1st of July; here the
+governor received them very hospitably, and made his sons and the
+principal officers of his court dance before them for their
+amusement.
+
+On leaving Kara-Katy the envoys rode for some days along the banks
+of a lake lying to the north of the town of Zeman, which must be,
+according to M. de Remusat, the Lake Balkash. There lived Ordu, the
+eldest of the Tartar captains, and here Carpini and Stephen took a
+day's rest before encountering the cold and mountainous country of
+the Maimans, a nomadic people living in tents. After some days the
+travellers reached the country of the Mongols, and on the 22nd of
+July arrived at the place where the Emperor was, or rather he who
+was to be Emperor, the election having not yet taken place.
+
+This future Emperor was named Cunius; he received the envoys in a
+most friendly manner, a letter from Prince Bathy having explained to
+him the object of their visit; not being yet Emperor he could not
+entertain them nor take any part in public affairs, but from the
+time of Ojadai's death, his widow, the mother of Prince Cunius had
+been Regent; she received the travellers in a purple and white tent
+capable of holding 2000 persons. Carpini gives the following account
+of the interview: "When we arrived we saw a large assembly of dukes
+and princes who had come from all parts with their attendants, who
+were on horseback in the neighbouring fields and on the hills. The
+first day they were all dressed in white and purple, on the second
+when Cunius appeared in the tent, in red, on the third day they wore
+violet, and on the fourth, scarlet, or crimson. Outside the tent, in
+the surrounding palisade were two great gates, by one of which the
+Emperor alone might enter; it was unguarded, but none dared to enter
+or leave by it; while the other, which was the general entrance, was
+guarded by soldiers with swords, and bows and arrows; if any one
+approached within the prescribed limits he was beaten, or else shot
+to death with arrows. We noticed several horsemen there, on whose
+harness cannot have been less than twenty marks' worth of silver."
+
+[Illustration: The Tartars.]
+
+A whole month passed away before Cunius was proclaimed Emperor, and
+the envoys were obliged to wait patiently for this before they could
+be received by him. Carpini turned this leisure time to account by
+studying the habits of the people; he has given much interesting
+information on the subject in his account of his travels.
+
+The country seemed to him to be principally very hilly and the soil
+sandy, with but little vegetation. There is scarce any wood; but all
+classes are content with dung for fuel. Though the country is so
+bare, sheep seem to do well. The climate is very changeable; in
+summer, storms are very frequent, many fall victims to the vivid
+lightning, and the wind is often so strong as even to blow over men
+on horseback: during the winter there is no rain, which all falls in
+the summer, and then scarcely enough to lay the dust, while the
+storms of hail are terrible; during Carpini's residence in the
+country they were so severe that once 140 persons were drowned by
+the melting of the enormous mass of hail-stones that had fallen. It
+is a very extensive country, but miserable beyond expression.
+
+Carpini who seems to have been a man of great discernment took a
+very just idea of the Tartars themselves. He says, "Their eyes are
+set very far apart; they have very high cheek-bones, their noses are
+small and flat; their eyes small, and their eye-lashes and eyebrows
+seem to meet; they are of middle height with slender waists, they
+have small beards, some wear moustaches, and what are now called
+imperials. On the top of the head the hair is shaved off like monks,
+and to the width of three fingers between their ears they also shave
+off the hair, letting what is between the tonsure and the back of
+the head grow to some length; in fact it is as long as a woman's in
+many cases, and plaited and tied in two tails behind the ear. They
+have small feet. He says there is but little difference perceptible
+in the dress of the men and women, all alike wearing long robes
+trimmed with fur, and high buckram caps enlarged towards the upper
+part. Their houses are built like tents of rods and stakes, so that
+they can be easily taken down and packed on the beasts of burden.
+Other larger dwellings are sometimes carried whole as they stand, on
+carts, and thus follow their owner about the country.
+
+"The Tartars believe in God as the Creator of the universe and as
+the Rewarder and Avenger of all, but they also worship the sun, moon,
+fire, earth, and water, and idols made in felt, like human beings.
+They have little toleration, and put Michael of Turnigoo and Feodor
+to death for not worshipping the sun at midday at the command of
+Prince Bathy. They are a superstitious people, believing in
+enchantment and sorcery, and looking upon fire as the purifier of
+all things. When one of their chiefs dies he is buried with a horse
+saddled and bridled, a table, a dish of meat, a cup of mare's milk,
+and a mare and foal.
+
+"The Tartars are most obedient to their chiefs, and are truthful and
+not quarrelsome; murders and deeds of violence are rare, there is
+very little robbery, and articles of value are never guarded. They
+bear great fatigue and hunger without complaint, as well as heat and
+cold, singing and dancing under the most adverse circumstances. They
+are much prone to drink to excess; they are very proud and
+disdainful to strangers, and have no respect for the lives of human
+beings."
+
+Carpini completes his sketch of the Tartar character by adding that
+they eat all kinds of animals, dogs, wolves, foxes, horses, and even
+sometimes their fellow-creatures. Their principal beverage is the
+milk of the mare, sheep, goat, cow, and camel. They have neither
+wine, cervisia, (a beverage composed of grain and herbs,) nor mead,
+but only intoxicating liquors. They are very dirty in their habits,
+scarcely ever washing their porringers, or only doing so in their
+broth; they hardly ever wash their clothes, more especially "when
+there is thunder about;" and they eat rats, mice, &c., if they are
+badly off for other food. The men are not brought up to any manual
+labour, their whole occupation consisting in hunting, shooting with
+bow and arrows, watching the flocks, and riding. The women and girls
+are very athletic and very brave, they prepare furs and make clothes,
+drive carts and camels, and as polygamy is practised among them, and
+a man _buys_ as many wives as he can keep, there are enough women
+for all these employments.
+
+Such is the resume of Carpini's observations made during his
+residence at Syra-Orda while he was awaiting the Emperor's election.
+Soon he found that the election was about to take place; he noticed
+that the courtiers always sang before Cunius when he came out of his
+tent, and bowed down before him with beautiful little wands in their
+hands, having small pieces of scarlet wool attached to them. On a
+plain about four leagues from Syra-Orda, beside a stream, a tent was
+prepared for the Coronation, carpeted with scarlet, and supported on
+columns covered with gold. On St. Bartholomew's day a large
+concourse of people assembled, each one fell on his knees as he
+arrived, and remained praying towards the sun; but Carpini and his
+companion refused to join in this idolatrous worship of the sun.
+Then Cunius was placed on the imperial throne, and the dukes and all
+the assembled multitudes having done homage to him, he was
+consecrated.
+
+As soon as this ceremony was over, Carpini and Stephen were
+commanded to appear before the Emperor. They were first searched and
+then entered the imperial presence at the same time as other
+Ambassadors, the bearers of rich presents; the poor papal envoys had
+nothing to present; whether this had anything to do with the length
+of time they had to wait before his Imperial Majesty could attend to
+their affairs we do not know; but days passed slowly by, and they
+were nearly dying of hunger and thirst, before they received a
+summons to appear before the Secretary of the Emperor, and letters
+to the Pope were given to them, ending with these words, "we worship
+GOD, and by His help we shall destroy the whole earth from east to
+west."
+
+The envoys had now nothing to wait for, and during the whole of the
+winter they travelled across icy deserts. About May they again
+arrived at the court of Prince Bathy, who gave them free passes, and
+they reached Kiev about the middle of June, 1247. On the 9th of
+October of the same year the Pope made Carpini Bishop of Antivari in
+Dalmatia, and this celebrated traveller died at Rome about the year
+1251.
+
+Carpini's mission was not of much use, and the Tartars remained much
+as they were before, a savage and ferocious tribe; but six years
+after his return another monk of the minor order of Franciscans,
+named William Rubruquis, of Belgian origin, was sent to the
+barbarians who lived in the country between the Volga and the Don.
+The object of this journey was as follows,--
+
+St. Louis was waging war against the Saracens of Syria at this time,
+and while he was engaging the Infidels, Erkalty, a Mongol prince,
+attacked them on the side nearest to Persia, and thus caused a
+diversion that was in favour of the King of France. The report arose
+that Prince Erkalty had become a Christian, and St. Louis, anxious
+to prove the truth of it, charged Rubruquis to go into the prince's
+own country and there make what observations he could upon the
+subject.
+
+In the month of June 1253, Rubruquis and his companions embarked for
+Constantinople. From thence they reached the mouth of the river Don
+on the Sea of Azov where they found a great number of Goths. On
+their arrival among the Tartars, their reception was at first very
+inhospitable, but after presenting the letters with which they were
+furnished, Zagathal, the governor of that province, gave them
+waggons, horses, and oxen for their journey.
+
+Thus equipped they set out and were much surprised next day by
+meeting a moving village; that is to say, all the huts were placed
+on waggons and were being moved away. During the ten days that
+Rubruquis and his companions were passing through this part of the
+country they were very badly treated, and had it not been for their
+own store of biscuits, they must have died of starvation. After
+passing by the end of the Sea of Azov they went in an easterly
+direction and crossed a sandy desert on which neither tree nor stone
+was visible. This was the country of the Comans that Carpini had
+traversed, but in a more northerly part. Rubruquis left the
+mountains inhabited by the Circassians to the south, and after a
+wearisome journey of two months arrived at the camp of Prince
+Sartach on the banks of the Volga.
+
+This was the court of the prince, the son of Baatu-Khan; he had six
+wives, each of whom possessed a palace of her own, some houses, and
+a great number of chariots, some of them very large, being drawn by
+a team of twenty-two oxen harnessed in pairs.
+
+Sartach received the envoys of the King of France very graciously,
+and seeing their poverty, he supplied them with all that they
+required. They were to be presented to the prince in their
+sacerdotal dress, when, bearing on a cushion a splendid Bible, the
+gift of the King of France, a Psalter given by the Queen, a Missal,
+a crucifix and a censer, they entered the royal presence, taking
+good care not to touch the threshold of the door, which would have
+been considered profanation. Once in the royal presence, they sang
+the "Salve Regina." After the prince and those of the princesses who
+were present at the ceremony had examined the books, &c., that the
+monks had brought with them, the envoys were allowed to retire; it
+being impossible for Rubruquis to form any opinion as to Sartach's
+being a Christian, or not; but his work was not yet finished, the
+prince having pressed the envoys to go to his father's court.
+Rubruquis complied with the request, and crossing the country lying
+between the Volga and the Don, they arrived at their destination.
+There the same ceremonies had to be gone through as at the court of
+Prince Sartach. The monks had to prepare their books, &c., and be
+presented to the Khan, who was seated on a large gilded throne, but
+not wishing to treat with the envoys himself, he sent them to
+Karakorum, to the court of Mangu-khan.
+
+They crossed the country of the Bashkirs and visited Kenchat, Talach,
+passed the Axiartes and reached Equius, a town of which the position
+cannot be accurately ascertained in the present day; then by the
+land of Organum, by the Lake of Balkash, and the territory of the
+Uigurs, they arrived at Karakorum, the capital of the Mongolian
+empire, where Carpini had stopped without entering the town.
+
+This town, says Rubruquis, was surrounded with walls of earth, and
+had four gates in the walls. The principal buildings it contained
+were two mosques and a Christian church. While in this city, the
+monk made many interesting observations on the surrounding people,
+especially upon the Tangurs, whose oxen, of a remarkable race, are
+no other than the Yaks, so celebrated in Thibet. In speaking of the
+Thibetans he notices their most extraordinary custom of eating the
+bodies of their fathers and mothers, in order to secure their having
+an honourable sepulture.
+
+When Rubruquis and his companions reached Karakorum, they found that
+the great khan was not in his capital, but in one of his palaces
+which was situated on the further side of the mountains which rise
+in the northern part of the country. They followed him there, and
+the next day after their arrival presented themselves before him
+with bare feet, according to the Franciscan custom, so securing for
+themselves frozen toes. Rubruquis thus describes the interview:
+"Mangu-Khan is a man of middle height with a flat nose; he was lying
+on a couch clad in a robe of bright fur, which was speckled like the
+skin of a sea-calf." He was surrounded with falcons and other birds.
+Several kinds of beverages, arrack punch, fermented mare's milk, and
+ball, a kind of mead, were offered to the envoys; but they refused
+them all. The khan, less prudent than they, soon became intoxicated
+on these drinks, and the audience had to be ended without any result
+being arrived at. Rubruquis remained several days at Mangu-Khan's
+court; he found there a great number of German and French prisoners,
+mostly employed in making different kinds of arms, or in working the
+mines of Bocol. The prisoners were well treated by the Tartars, and
+did not complain of their lot. After several interviews with the
+great khan, Rubruquis gained permission to leave, and he returned to
+Karakorum.
+
+Near this town stood a magnificent palace, belonging to the khan; it
+was like a large church with nave and double aisles, here the
+sovereign sits at the northern end on a raised platform, the
+gentlemen being seated on his right, and the ladies on his left hand.
+It is at this palace that twice every year splendid fetes are given,
+when all the nobles of the country are assembled round their
+sovereign.
+
+While at Karakorum, Rubruquis collected many interesting documents
+relating to the Chinese, their customs, literature, &c.; then
+leaving the capital of the Mongols, he returned by the same route as
+he had come, as far as Astrakhan; but there he branched to the south
+and went to Syria with a Turkish escort, which was rendered
+necessary by the presence of tribes bent on pillage. He visited
+Derbend, and went thence by Nakshivan, Erzeroum, Sivas, Caesarea,
+and Iconium, to the port of Kertch, whence he embarked for his own
+country. His route was much the same as that of Carpini, but his
+narrative is less interesting, and the Belgian does not seem to have
+been gifted with the spirit of observation which characterized the
+Italian monk.
+
+With Carpini and Rubruquis closes the list of celebrated travellers
+of the thirteenth century, but we have the brilliant career of Marco
+Polo now before us, whose travels extended over part of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+MARCO POLO, 1253-1324.
+
+I.
+
+The interest of the Genoese and Venetian merchants in encouraging
+the exploration of Central Asia--The family of Polo, and its
+position in Venice--Nicholas and Matteo Polo, the two brothers--They
+go from Constantinople to the Court of the Emperor of China--Their
+reception at the Court of Kublai-Khan--The Emperor appoints them his
+ambassadors to the Pope--Their return to Venice--Marco Polo--He
+leaves his father Nicholas and his uncle Matteo for the residence of
+the King of Tartary--The new Pope Gregory X.--The narrative of Marco
+Polo is written in French from his dictation, by Rusticien of Pisa.
+
+
+The Genoese and Venetian merchants could not fail to be much
+interested in the explorations of the brave travellers in Central
+Asia, India, and China, for they saw that these countries would give
+them new openings for disposing of their merchandise, and also the
+great benefit to be derived by the West from being supplied with the
+productions of the East. The interests of commerce stimulated fresh
+explorations, and it was this motive that actuated two noble
+Venetians to leave their homes, and brave all the fatigue and danger
+of a perilous journey.
+
+These two Venetians belonged to the family of Polo, which had come
+originally from Dalmatia, and, owing to successful trading, had
+become so opulent as to be reckoned among the patrician families of
+Venice. In 1260 the two brothers, Nicholas and Matteo, who had lived
+for some years in Constantinople, where they had established a
+branch house, went to the Crimea, with a considerable stock of
+precious stones, where their eldest brother, Andrea Polo, had his
+place of business. Thence, taking a north-easterly direction and
+crossing the country of the Comans, they reached the camp of
+Barkai-Khan on the Volga. This Mongol prince received the two
+merchants very kindly, and bought all the jewels they offered him at
+double their value.
+
+Nicolo and Matteo remained a year in the Mongolian camp, but a war
+breaking out at this time between Barkai, and Houlagou, the
+conqueror of Persia, the two brothers, not wishing to be in the
+midst of a country where war was being waged, went to Bokhara, and
+there they remained three years. But when Barkai was vanquished and
+his capital taken, the partisans of Houlagou induced the two
+Venetians to follow them to the residence of the grand Khan of
+Tartary, who was sure to give them a hearty welcome. This
+Kublai-Khan, the fourth son of Gengis-Khan, was Emperor of China,
+and was then at his summer-palace in Mongolia, on the frontier of
+the Chinese empire.
+
+The Venetian merchants set out, and were a whole year crossing the
+immense extent of country lying between Bokhara and the northern
+limits of China. Kublai-Khan was much pleased to receive these
+strangers from the distant West. He feted them, and asked, with much
+eagerness, for any information that they could give him of what was
+happening in Europe, requiring details of the government of the
+various kings and emperors, and their methods of making war; and he
+then conversed at some length about the Pope and the state of the
+Latin Church. Matteo and Nicolo fortunately spoke the Tartar
+language fluently, so they could freely answer all the emperor's
+questions.
+
+[Illustration: Kublai-Khan's feast on the arrival of the Venetian
+Merchants.]
+
+It had occurred to Kublai-Khan to send messengers to the Pope; and
+he seized the opportunity to beg the two brothers to act as his
+ambassadors to his Holiness. The merchants thankfully accepted his
+proposal, for they foresaw that this new character would be very
+advantageous to them. The emperor had some charters drawn up in the
+Turkish language, asking the Pope to send a hundred learned men to
+convert his people to Christianity; then he appointed one of his
+barons named Cogatal to accompany them, and he charged them to bring
+him some oil from the sacred lamp, which is perpetually burning
+before the tomb of Christ at Jerusalem.
+
+The two brothers took leave of the khan, having been furnished with
+passports by him, which put both men and horses at their disposal
+throughout the empire, and in 1266 they set out on their journey.
+Soon the baron Cogatal fell ill, and the Venetians were obliged to
+leave him and continue their journey; but in spite of all the aid
+that had been given to them, they were three years in reaching the
+port of Laias, in Armenia, now known by the name of Issus. Leaving
+this port, they arrived at Acre in 1269, where they heard of the
+death of Pope Clement IV., to whom they were sent, but the legate
+Theobald lived in Acre and received the Venetians; learning what was
+the object of their mission he begged them to wait for the election
+of the new Pope.
+
+The brothers had been absent from their country for fifteen years,
+so they resolved to return to Venice, and at Negropont they embarked
+on board a vessel that was going direct to their native town.
+
+On landing there, Nicolo was met by news of the death of his wife,
+and of the birth of his son, who had been born shortly after his
+departure in 1254; this son was the celebrated Marco Polo. The two
+brothers waited at Venice for the election of the Pope, but at the
+end of two years, as it had not taken place, they thought they could
+no longer defer their return to the Emperor of the Mongols;
+accordingly they started for Acre, taking Marco Polo with them, who
+could not then have been more than seventeen. At Acre they had an
+interview with the legate Theobald, who authorized them to go to
+Jerusalem and there to procure some of the sacred oil. This mission
+accomplished, the Venetians returned to Acre and asked the legate to
+give them letters to Kublai-Khan, mentioning the death of Pope
+Clement IV.; he complied with their request, and they returned to
+Laias or Issus. There, to their great joy, they learnt that the
+legate Theobald had just been made Pope with the title of Gregory X.,
+on the 1st of September, 1271. The newly-elected Pope sent at once
+for the Venetian envoys, and the King of Armenia placed a galley at
+their disposal to expedite their return to Acre. The Pope received
+them with much affection, and gave them letters to the Emperor of
+China; he added two preaching friars, Nicholas of Vicenza and
+William of Tripoli, to their party, and gave them his blessing on
+their departure. They went back to Laias, but had scarcely arrived
+before they were made prisoners by the soldiers of the Mameluke
+Sultan Bibars, who was then ravaging Armenia. The two preaching
+friars were so discouraged at this outset of the expedition that
+they gave up all idea of going to China, and left the two Venetians
+and Marco Polo to prosecute the journey together as best they could.
+
+Here begins what may properly be called Marco Polo's travels. It is
+a question if he really visited all the places that he describes,
+and it seems probable that he did not; in fact, in the narrative
+written at his dictation by Rusticien of Pisa it is stated
+"Marco-Polo, a wise and noble citizen of Venice, saw nearly all
+herein described with his own eyes, and what he did not see he
+learnt from the lips of truthful and credible witnesses;" but we
+must add that the greater part of the kingdoms and towns spoken of
+by Marco Polo he certainly did visit. We will follow the route he
+describes, simply pointing out what the traveller learnt by hearsay,
+during the important missions with which he was charged by
+Kublai-Khan. During this second journey the travellers did not
+follow exactly the same road as on the first occasion of their visit
+to the Emperor of China. They had lengthened their route by passing
+to the north of the celestial mountains, but now they turned to the
+south of them, and though this route was shorter than the other,
+they were three years and a half in accomplishing their journey,
+being much impeded by the rains and the difficulty of crossing the
+great rivers. Their course may be easily followed with the help of a
+map of Asia, as we have substituted the modern names in place of the
+ancient ones used by Marco Polo in his narrative.
+
+[Illustration: Marco Polo.]
+
+
+II.
+MARCO POLO.
+
+Armenia Minor--Armenia--Mount Ararat--Georgia--Mosul, Baghdad,
+Bussorah, Tauris--Persia--The Province of Kirman--Comadi--Ormuz--The
+Old Man of the Mountain--Cheburgan--Balkh--Cashmir--Kashgar--
+Samarcand--Kotan--The Desert--Tangun--Kara-Korum--Signan-fu--The
+Great Wall--Chang-tou--The residence of Kublai-Khan--Cambaluc, now
+Pekin--The Emperor's fetes--His hunting--Description of Pekin--
+Chinese Mint and bank-notes--The system of posts in the Empire.
+
+
+Marco Polo left the town of Issus; he describes Armenia Minor as a
+very unhealthy place, the inhabitants of which, though once valiant,
+are now cowardly and wretched, their only talent seeming to lie in
+their capacity for drinking to excess. From Armenia Minor he went to
+Turcomania, whose inhabitants, though somewhat of savages, are
+clever in cultivating pastures and breeding horses and mules; and
+the townspeople excel in the manufacture of carpets and silk.
+Armenia Proper, that Marco Polo next visited, affords a good
+camping-ground to the Tartar armies during the summer. There the
+traveller saw Mount Ararat, where Noah's Ark rested after the Deluge.
+He noticed that the lands bordering on the Caspian Sea afford large
+supplies of naphtha, which forms an important item in the trade of
+that neighbourhood.
+
+When he left Armenia he took a north-easterly course towards Georgia,
+a kingdom lying on the south side of the Caucasus, whose ancient
+kings, says the legend, "were born with an eagle traced on their
+right shoulders." The Georgians, he describes as good archers and
+men of war, and also as clever in working in gold and manufacturing
+silk. Here is a celebrated defile, four leagues in length, which
+lies between the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea, that the Turks call
+the Iron Door, and Europeans the Pass of Derbend, and here too is
+the miraculous lake, where fish are said to exist only during Lent.
+Hence the travellers descended towards the kingdom of Mosul, and
+arrived at the town of the same name on the right bank of the Tigris,
+thence going to Baghdad, the residence of the Caliph of all the
+Saracens. Marco Polo gives an account of the taking of Baghdad by
+the Tartars in 1255; mentioning a wonderful story in support of the
+Christian idea of Faith, "that can remove mountains;" he points out
+the route from this town to the Persian Gulf, which may be reached
+in eighteen days by the river, passing Bussorah, the country of
+dates.
+
+From this point to Tauris, a Persian town in the province of
+Adzer-baidjan, Marco Polo's route seems to be doubtful. He takes up
+his narrative at Tauris, which he describes as a large flourishing
+town built in the midst of beautiful gardens and carrying on a great
+traffic in precious stones and other valuable merchandise, but its
+Saracen inhabitants are disloyal and treacherous. Here he seems to
+divide Persia geographically into eight provinces. The natives of
+Persia, according to him, are formidable enemies to the merchants,
+who are obliged to travel armed with bows and arrows. The principal
+trade of the country seems to be in horses and asses, which are sent
+to Kis or Ormuz and thence to India. The natural productions of the
+country are wheat, barley, millet, and grapes, which grow in
+abundance.
+
+Marco Polo went next to Yezd, the most easterly town of Persia
+Proper; on leaving it, after a ride of seven days through
+magnificent forests abounding in game, he came to the province of
+Kirman. Here the mines yield large quantities of turquoise, as well
+as iron and antimony; the manufacture of arms and harness as well as
+embroidery and the training of falcons for hunting occupy a great
+number of the inhabitants. On leaving Kirman Marco Polo and his two
+companions set out on a nine days' journey across a rich and
+populous country to the town of Comadi, which is supposed to be the
+Memaun of the present day, and was even then sinking into decay. The
+country was superb; on all sides were to be seen fine fat sheep,
+great oxen, white as snow, with short strong horns, and thousands of
+domestic fowls and other birds; also there were magnificent date,
+orange, and pistachio trees.
+
+After travelling for five days they entered the beautiful and well
+watered plain of Cormos or Ormuz, and after two days' further march
+they reached the shores of the Persian Gulf and the town of Ormuz,
+which forms the sea-port of the kingdom of Kirman. This country they
+found very warm und unhealthy, but rich in date and spice trees, in
+grain, precious stones, silk and golden stuffs, and elephants' tusks,
+wine made from the date and other merchandise being brought into the
+town ready for shipment on board ships with but one mast, which came
+in numbers to the port; but many were lost on the voyage to India,
+as they were only built with wooden pegs, not iron nails, to fasten
+them together.
+
+From Ormuz, Marco Polo, going up again towards the north-east,
+visited Kirman; then he ventured by dangerous roads across a sandy
+desert, where there was only brackish water to be found, the desert
+across which, 1500 years before, Alexander had led his army to meet
+Nearchus. Seven days afterwards he entered the town of Khabis. On
+leaving this town he crossed for eight days the great plains to
+Tonokan, the capital of the province of Kumis, probably Damaghan. At
+this point of his narrative Marco Polo gives an account of the "Old
+Man of the Mountain," the chief of the Mahometan sect called the
+Hashishins, who were noted for their religious fanaticism and
+terrible cruelty. He next visited the Khorassan town of Cheburgan, a
+city celebrated for its sweet melons, and then the noble city of
+Balkh, situated near the source of the Oxus. Next he crossed a
+country infested by lions to Taikan, a great salt-market frequented
+by a large number of merchants, and to Scasem; this town seems to be
+the Kashme spoken of by Marsden, the Kishin or Krishin of
+Hiouen-Tsang, which Sir Henry Rawlinson has identified with the hill
+of Kharesm of Zend-Avesta, that some commentators think must be the
+modern Koundouz. In this part of the country he says porcupines
+abound, and when they are hunted they curl themselves up, darting
+out the prickles on their sides and backs at the dogs that are
+hunting them. We now know how much faith to put in this pretended
+power of defence said to be possessed by the porcupine.
+
+Marco Polo now entered the rocky mountainous kingdom of the Balkhs,
+whose kings claim descent from Alexander the Great; a cold country,
+producing good fast horses, excellent falcons, and all kinds of game.
+Here, too, are prolific ruby-mines worked by the king and which
+yield large quantities, but they are so strictly enclosed that no
+one on pain of death may set foot on the Sighinan mountain
+containing the mines. In other places silver is found, and many
+precious stones, of which he says "they make the finest azure in the
+world," meaning lapis-lazuli; his stay in this part of the country
+must have been a long one to have enabled him to observe so many of
+its characteristics. Ten days' journey from hence he entered a
+province which must be the Peshawur of the present day, whose
+dark-skinned inhabitants were idolaters; then after seven days'
+further march, about mid-day he came to the kingdom of Cashmere,
+where the temperature is cool, and towns and villages are very
+numerous. Had Marco Polo continued his route in the same direction
+he would soon have reached the territory of India, but instead of
+that he took a northerly course, and in twelve days was in Vaccan, a
+land watered by the Upper Oxus, which runs through splendid pastures,
+where feed immense flocks of wild sheep, called mufflons. Thence he
+went through a mountainous country, lying between the Altai and
+Himalayan ranges to Kashgar. Here Marco Polo's route is the same as
+that of his uncle and his father during their first voyage, when
+from Bokhara they were taken to the residence of the great khan.
+From Kashgar, Marco Polo diverged a little to the west, to Samarcand,
+a large town inhabited by Saracens and Christians, then to Yarkand,
+a city frequented by caravans trading between India and Northern
+Asia; passing by Khotan, the capital of the province of that name,
+and by Pein, a town whose situation is uncertain, but in a part of
+the country where chalcedony and jasper abound. He came to the
+kingdom of Kharachar, which extends along the borders of the desert
+of Jobe; then after five days' further travelling over sandy plains,
+where there was no water fit to drink, he rested for eight days in
+the city of Lob, a place now in ruins, while he prepared to cross
+the desert lying to the east, "so great a desert," he says, "that it
+would require a year to traverse its whole length, a haunted
+wilderness, where drums and other instruments are heard, though
+invisible."
+
+After spending a year crossing this desert, Marco Polo reached
+Tcha-tcheou, in the province of Tangaut, a town built on the western
+limits of the Chinese empire. There are but few merchants here, the
+greater part of the population being agricultural. The custom that
+seems to have struck him the most in the province of Tangaut, was
+that of burning their dead only on a day fixed by the astrologers;
+"all the time that the dead remain in their houses, the relations
+stay there with them, preparing a place at each meal as well as
+providing both food and drink for the corpse, as though it were
+still alive."
+
+Marco Polo and his companions made an excursion to the north-east,
+to the city of Amil, going on as far as Ginchintalas, a town
+inhabited by idolaters, Mahometans, and Nestorian Christians, whose
+situation is disputed. From this town Marco Polo returned to
+Tcha-tcheou, and went eastward across Tangaut, by the town of So-ceu,
+over a tract of country particularly favourable to the cultivation
+of rhubarb, and by Kanpiceon, the Khan-tcheou of the Chinese, then
+the capital of the province of Tangaut, an important town, whose
+numerous chiefs are idolaters and polygamists. The three Venetians
+remained a year in this large city; it is easy to understand, from
+their long halts and deviations, why they required three years for
+their journey across Central Asia.
+
+They left Khan-tcheou, and after riding for twelve days they reached
+the borders of a sandy desert, and entered the city of Etzina. This
+was another detour, as it lay directly north of their route, but
+they wished to visit Kara-Korum, the celebrated capital of Tartary,
+where Rubruquis had been in 1254. Marco Polo was certainly an
+explorer by nature; fatigue was nothing to him if he had any
+geographical studies to complete, which is proved by his spending
+forty days crossing an uninhabited desert without vegetation, in
+order to reach the Tartar town.
+
+When he arrived there, he found a city measuring three miles in
+circumference, which had been for a long time the capital of the
+Empire, before it was conquered by Gengis-Khan, the grandfather of
+the reigning emperor. Here Marco Polo makes an historical digression,
+in which he gives an account of the wars of the Tartar chiefs
+against the famous Prester John who held all this part of the
+country under his dominion.
+
+Marco Polo after returning to Khan-tcheou left it again, marching
+five days towards the east, and arriving at the town of Erginul.
+Thence he went a little to the south to visit Sining-foo, across a
+tract of country where grazed great wild oxen and the valuable
+species of goat which is called the "musk-bearer." Returning to
+Erginul, they went eastward to Cialis, where there is the best
+manufactory of cloth made from camels' hair in the world, to Tenduc,
+a town in the province of the same name, where a descendant of
+Prester John reigned, but who had given in his submission to the
+great khan; this was a busy flourishing town: from hence the
+travellers went to Sinda-tchou, and on beyond the great wall of
+China as far as Ciagannor, which must be Tzin-balgassa, a pretty
+town where the emperor lives when he wishes to hawk; for cranes,
+storks, pheasants, and partridges abound in this neighbourhood.
+
+At last Marco Polo, his father, and his uncle, reached Ciandu or
+Tchan-tchou of the present day, called elsewhere in this narrative
+Clemen-foo. Here Kublai-Khan received the papal envoys, for he was
+occupying his summer palace beyond the great wall, north of Pekin,
+which was then the capital of the empire. The traveller does not
+tell us what reception he met with, but he describes most carefully
+the palace, the grandeur of the building of stone and marble,
+standing in the middle of a park surrounded by walls, enclosing
+menageries and fountains. Also a building made of reeds, so closely
+interlaced as to be impenetrable to water; it was a sort of movable
+kiosk that the great khan inhabited during the fine months of June,
+July, and August. The weather during the emperor's sojourn in this
+summer palace could not but be beautiful, for, according to Marco
+Polo, the astrologers who were attached to the khan's court were
+charged to scatter all rain and fog by their sorcery, and the
+travellers seem to believe in the power of these magicians. "These
+astrologers," he says, "belong to two races, both idolaters; they
+are learned in all magic and enchantments, above any other men, and
+what they do is done by the aid of the devil, but they make others
+believe that they owe their power to the help of God, and their own
+holiness. These people have the following strange custom: when a man
+has been condemned and put to death, they take the body, cook, and
+eat it; but in the case of a natural death they do not eat the body.
+And you must know that these people of whom I am speaking, who know
+so many kinds of enchantments, work the wonder I am about to relate.
+When the great khan is seated at dinner in the principal dining-hall,
+the table of which is eight cubits in length, and the cups are on
+the floor ten paces from the table, filled with wine, milk, and
+other good beverages, these clever magicians, by their arts, make
+these cups rise by themselves, and without any one touching them,
+they are placed before the great khan. This has been done before an
+immense number of people, and is the exact truth; and those skilled
+in necromancy will tell you that it is quite possible to do this."
+
+Marco Polo next gives a history of Kublai, whom he considers to
+possess more lands and treasures than any man since our first father,
+Adam. He tells how the great khan ascended the throne in the year
+1256, being then eighty-five; he was a man of middle height, rather
+stout, but of a fine figure, with a good complexion and black eyes.
+He was a good commander in war, and his talents were put to the
+proof when his uncle Naian, having rebelled against him, wished to
+dispute his power at the head of 400,000 cavalry. Kublai-Khan
+collected (in secret) a force of 300,000 horsemen, and 100,000
+foot-soldiers, and marched against his uncle. The battle was a most
+terrible one, so many men being killed, but the khan was victorious,
+and Naian, as a prince of the blood royal, was condemned to be sewn
+up tightly in a carpet, and died in great suffering. After his
+victory the khan made a triumphal entry into Cathay, capital of
+Cambaluc, or, as it is now called, Pekin. When Marco Polo arrived at
+this city he made a long stay there, remaining until the emperor
+needed his services to undertake various missions into the interior
+of China. The emperor had a splendid palace at Cambaluc, and the
+traveller gives so graphic an account of the riches and magnificence
+of the Mongol sovereigns, that we give it word for word. "The palace
+is surrounded by a great wall, a mile long each way, four miles in
+length altogether, very thick, ten feet in height, all white and
+battlemented. At each corner of this wall is a palace beautiful and
+rich, in which all the trappings of war belonging to the great khan
+are kept; his bows, quivers, the saddles and bridles of the horses,
+the bow-strings, in fact everything that would be wanted in time of
+war; in the midst of each square is another building, like those at
+the corner, so that there are eight in all, and each building
+contains one particular kind of harness or trapping. In the wall on
+the south side are five doors, the middle or large door only being
+opened when the emperor wishes to go in or out; near this great gate
+on either side is a smaller one through which other people may pass,
+and two others for the same purpose. Inside this wall is another,
+having also eight buildings to be used in the same manner."
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Pekin.]
+
+Thus we see that all these buildings constituted the emperor's
+armoury and harness-store; we shall not be surprised that there was
+so much harness to be kept when we know that the emperor possessed a
+race of horses white as snow, and among them ten thousand mares,
+whose milk was reserved for the sole use of princes of the blood
+royal.
+
+[Illustration: The Emperor's palace at Pekin.]
+
+Marco Polo continues his narrative thus:--"The inner wall has five
+gates on the south side, answering to those in the outer wall, but
+on the other sides the walls have only one gate each. In the centre
+of the enclosure made by these walls, stands the palace, the largest
+in the world. It has no second story, but the ground-floor is raised
+about eight feet above the ground. The roof is very high, the walls
+of the rooms are covered with gold and silver, and on this gold and
+silver are paintings of dragons, birds, horses, and other animals,
+so that nothing can be seen but gilding and pictures. The
+dining-hall is large enough to hold 6000 men, and the number of
+other rooms is marvellous, and all is so well arranged that it could
+not be improved. The ceilings are painted vermillion, green, blue,
+yellow, and all kinds of colours, varnished so as to shine like
+crystal, and the roof is so well built that it will last for many
+years. Between the two walls the land is laid out in fields with
+fine trees in them, containing different species of animals, the
+musk-ox, white deer, roe-buck, fallow-deer, and other animals, who
+fill the space between the walls, except the roads reserved for
+human beings. On the north-western side is a great lake, full of
+fishes of divers kinds, for the great khan has had several species
+placed there, and each time that he desires it to be done, he has
+his will in it. A river rises in this lake and flows out from the
+grounds of the palace, but no fish escape in it, there being iron
+and brass nets to prevent their doing so. On the northern side, near
+an arched doorway, the emperor has had a mound made, a hundred feet
+in height and more than a mile in circumference; it is covered with
+evergreen trees, and the emperor, being very fond of horticulture,
+whenever he hears of a fine tree, sends for it and has it brought by
+his elephants, with the roots and surrounding soil, the size of the
+tree being no impediment, and thus he has the finest collection of
+trees in the world. The hill is called 'green hill,' from its being
+covered with evergreen trees and green turf, and on the top of the
+hill is a house. This hill is altogether so beautiful that it is the
+admiration of every one."
+
+After Marco Polo has concluded his description of this palace, he
+gives one of that of the emperor's son and heir; then he speaks of
+the town of Cambaluc, the old town which is separated from the
+modern town of Taidu by a canal, the same which divides the Chinese
+and Tartar quarters of Pekin. The traveller gives many particulars
+of the emperor's habits, and among other things, he says that
+Kublai-Khan has a body-guard of 2000 horse-soldiers; but he adds,
+"it is not fear that causes him to keep this guard." His meals are
+real ceremonies, and etiquette is most rigidly enforced. His table
+is raised above the others, and he always sits on the north side
+with his principal wife on his right, and lower down his sons,
+nephews, and relations; he is waited upon by noble barons, who are
+careful to envelope their mouths and noses in fine cloth of gold,
+"so that their breath and their odour may not contaminate the food
+or drink of their lord." When the emperor is about to drink, a band
+of music plays, and when he takes the cup in his hand, all the
+barons and every one present, fall on their knees.
+
+The principal fetes given by the grand khan were on the anniversary
+of his birth, and on the first day of the year. At the first, 12,000
+barons were accustomed to assemble round the throne, and to them
+were presented annually 150,000 garments made of gold and silk and
+ornamented with pearls, whilst the subjects, idolaters as well as
+Christians, offered up public prayers. At the second of these fetes,
+on the first day of the year, the whole population, men and women
+alike, appeared dressed in white, following the tradition that white
+brings good fortune, and every one brought gifts to the king of
+great value. One hundred thousand richly-caparisoned horses, five
+thousand elephants covered with handsome cloths and carrying the
+imperial plate, as well as a large number of camels, passed in
+procession before the emperor.
+
+During the three winter months of December, January, and February,
+when the khan is living in his winter palace, all the nobles within
+a radius of sixty days' march are obliged to supply him with boars,
+stags, fallow-deer, roes, and bears. Besides, Kublai is a great
+huntsman himself, and his hunting-train is superbly mounted and kept
+up. He has leopards, lynxes and fine lions trained to hunt for wild
+animals, eagles strong enough to chase wolves, foxes, fallow and
+roe-deer, and, as Marco Polo says, "often to take them too," and his
+dogs may be counted by thousands. It is about March when the emperor
+begins his principal hunting in the direction of the sea, and he is
+accompanied by no less than 10,000 falconers, 500 gerfalcons, and
+many goshawks, peregrine, and sacred falcons. During the hunting
+excursion, a portable palace, covered outside with lions' skins and
+inside with cloth of gold, and carried on four elephants harnessed
+together, accompanies the emperor everywhere, who seems to enjoy all
+this oriental pomp and display. He goes as far as the camp of
+Chachiri-Mongou, which is situated on a stream, a tributary of the
+river Amoor, and the tent is set up, which is large enough to hold
+ten thousand nobles. This is his reception-saloon where he gives
+audiences; and when he wishes to sleep he goes into a tent which is
+hung all round with ermine and sable furs of almost priceless value.
+The emperor lives thus till about Easter, hunting cranes, swans,
+hares, stags, roebucks, &c., and then returns to his capital,
+Cambaluc.
+
+Marco Polo now completes his description of this fine city and
+enumerates the twelve quarters it contains, in many of which the
+rich merchants have their palatial houses, for commerce flourishes
+in this town, and more valuable merchandise is brought to it than to
+any other in the world. It is the depot and market for the richest
+productions of India, such as pearls and precious stones, and
+merchants come from long distances round to purchase them. The khan
+has established a mint here for the benefit of trade, and it is an
+inexhaustible source of revenue to him. The bank-notes, sealed with
+the emperor's seal, are made of a kind of card-board manufactured
+from the bark of the mulberry-tree. The card-board thus prepared is
+cut into various thicknesses according to the value of the money it
+is supposed to represent. The currency of this money is enforced,
+none daring to refuse it "on pain of death;" the emperor using it in
+all his payments, and enforcing its circulation throughout his
+dominions. Besides this, several times in the year the possessors of
+precious stones, pearls, gold, or silver, are obliged to bring their
+treasures to the mint and receive in exchange for them these pieces
+of card-board, so that, in fact, the emperor becomes the possessor
+of all the riches in his empire.
+
+According to Marco Polo the system of the Imperial Government was
+wonderfully centralized. "The kingdom is divided into thirty-four
+provinces, and is governed by twelve of the greatest barons living
+in Cambaluc; in the same palace also reside the intendants and
+secretaries, who conduct the business of each province. From this
+central city a great number of roads diverge to the various parts of
+the kingdom, and on these roads are now post-houses stationed at
+intervals of twenty-two miles, where well-mounted messengers are
+always ready to carry the emperor's messages. Besides this, at every
+three miles on the road there is a little hamlet of about fourteen
+houses where the couriers live, who carry messages on foot; these
+men wear a belt round their waists and have a girdle with bells
+attached to it, that are heard at a long distance; they start at a
+gallop, quickly accomplishing the three miles and giving the message
+to the courier who is waiting for it at the next hamlet; thus the
+emperor receives news from places at long distances from the capital
+in a comparatively short time." This mode of communication also
+involved but small expense to Kublai-Khan, as the only remuneration
+he gave these couriers was their exemption from taxation, and as to
+the horses, they were furnished gratuitously by the provinces.
+
+But if the emperor used his power in this manner to lay heavy
+burdens upon his subjects, he exerted himself actively for their
+good, and was always ready to help them; for instance, when their
+crops were damaged by hail-storms, he not only remitted all taxes,
+but gave them corn from his own stores, and when there was any great
+mortality among the flocks and herds in any particular province, he
+always replaced them at his own expense. He was careful to have a
+large quantity of wheat, barley, millet, and rice, stored up in
+years of abundant harvest, so as to keep the price of grain at a
+uniform rate when the harvest failed. He was particularly careful of
+the poor who lived in Cambaluc. "He had a list made of all the
+poorest houses in the town, where they were usually short of food,
+and supplied them liberally with wheat and other grain according to
+the size of their families, and bread was never refused to any
+applying at the palace for it; it is computed that at least 30,000
+persons avail themselves of this daily throughout the year. His
+kindness to his poor subjects makes them almost worship him." The
+whole affairs of the empire are administered with great care, the
+roads well kept up and planted with fine trees, so that from a
+distance their direction can easily be traced. There is no want of
+wood, and in Cathay they work a number of coal-pits which supply
+abundance of coal.
+
+[Illustration: Map of the world according to Marco Polo's ideas.]
+
+Marco Polo remained a long time at Cambaluc, and his intelligence,
+spirit, and readiness in adapting himself, made him a great
+favourite with the emperor. He was intrusted with various missions,
+not only in China, but also to places on the coast of India, Ceylon,
+the Coromandel and Malabar coasts, and a part of Cochin-China near
+Cambogia, and between the years 1277 and 1280 he was made governor
+of Yang-tcheou, and of twenty-seven other towns which were joined
+with it under the same government. Thanks to the missions on which
+he was sent, he travelled over an immense extent of country, and
+gained a great amount of ethnological and geographical knowledge. We
+can now follow him map in hand through some of these journeys, which
+were of the greatest service to science.
+
+
+III.
+MARCO POLO.
+
+Tso-cheu--Tai-yen-fou--Pin-yang-fou--The Yellow River--Signan-fou--
+Szu-tchouan--Ching-tu-fou--Thibet--Li-kiang-fou--Carajan--
+Yung-tchang--Mien--Bengal--Annam--Tai-ping--Cintingui--Sindifoo--
+Te-cheu--Tsi-nan-fou--Lin-tsin-choo--Lin-sing--Mangi--Yang-tcheu-fou--
+Towns on the coast--Quin-say or Hang-tcheou-foo--Fo-kien.
+
+
+When Marco Polo had been at Cambaluc some time, he was sent on a
+mission that kept him absent from the capital for four months. Ten
+miles southwards from Cambaluc, he crossed the fine river Pe-ho-nor
+(which he calls the Pulisanghi), by a stone bridge of twenty-four
+arches, and 300 feet in length, which was then without parallel in
+the world. Thirty miles further on he came to the town of Tso-cheu,
+where a large trade in sandal-wood is carried on; at ten days'
+journey from hence he came to the modern town of Tai-yen-fou, which
+was once the seat of an independent government. All the province of
+Shan-si seemed rich in vines and mulberry-trees; the principal
+industry in the towns was the making of armour for the emperor's use.
+
+[Illustration: A fine bridge of stone built on twenty-four arches.]
+
+Seven days' journey further on they came to the beautiful commercial
+city of Pianfou, now called Pin-yang-foo, where the manufacture of
+silk was carried on. He soon afterwards came to the banks of the
+Yellow River, which he calls Caramoran or Black River, probably on
+account of its waters being darkened by the aquatic plants growing
+in them; at two days' journey from hence he came to the town of
+Cacianfu, whose position is not now clearly defined. He found
+nothing remarkable in this town, and leaving it he rode across a
+beautiful country, covered with towns, country-houses, and gardens,
+and abounding in game.
+
+In eight days he reached the fine city of Quangianfoo, the ancient
+capital of the Tang dynasty, now called Signanfoo, and the capital
+of Shensi; here reigned Prince Mangalai, the emperor's son, an
+upright and amiable prince, much loved by his people. He lived in a
+magnificent palace outside the town, built in the midst of a park,
+of which the battlemented wall cannot have been less than five miles
+in circumference.
+
+From Signanfoo, the traveller went towards Thibet, across the modern
+province of Szu-tchouan, a mountainous country intersected by deep
+valleys, where lions, bears, lynxes, &c., abounded, and after
+twenty-eight days' march he found himself on the borders of the
+great plain of Acmelic-mangi. This is a fertile country and produces
+all kinds of vegetation; ginger is especially cultivated; there is
+sufficient to supply all the province of Cathay, and so fertile is
+the soil that according to a French traveller, M. E. Simon, an acre
+is now worth 15,000 francs, or three francs the metre. In the
+thirteenth century this plain was covered with towns and
+country-houses, and the inhabitants lived upon the fruits of the
+ground, and the produce of their flocks and herds, while the large
+quantity of game furnished hunters with abundant occupation.
+
+Marco Polo next visited the town of Sindafou (now Tching-too-foo),
+the capital of the province of Se-tchu-an, whose population at the
+present day exceeds 1,500,000 souls. Sindafu, measuring at that time
+twenty miles round, was divided into three parts, each surrounded
+with its own wall, and each part had a king of its own before
+Kublai-Khan took possession of the town. The great river Kiang ran
+through the town: it contained large quantities of fish, and from
+its size resembled a sea more than a river; its waters were covered
+by a vast number of vessels. Five days after leaving this busy,
+thriving town Marco Polo reached the province of Thibet, which he
+says "is very desolate, for it has been destroyed by the war."
+
+Thibet abounds in lions, bears, and other savage animals, from which
+the travellers would have much difficulty in defending themselves
+had it not been for the quantity of large thick canes that grow
+there, which are probably bamboos: he says, "the merchants and
+travellers passing through these countries at night collect a
+quantity of these canes and make a large fire of them, for when they
+are burning they make such a noise and crackle so much, that the
+lions, bears, and other wild beasts take flight to a distance, and
+would not approach these fires on any account; thus both men, horses,
+and camels are safe. In another way, too, protection is afforded by
+throwing a number of these canes on a wood fire, and when they
+become heated and split, and the sap hisses, the sound is heard at
+least ten miles off. When any one is not accustomed to this noise,
+it is so terrifying that even the horses will break away from their
+cords and tethers; so their owners often bandage their eyes and tie
+their feet together to prevent their running away." This method of
+burning canes is still used in countries where the bamboo grows, and
+indeed the noise may be compared to the loudest explosion of
+fire-works.
+
+According to Marco Polo, Thibet is a very large province, having its
+own language; and its inhabitants, who are idolaters, are a race of
+bold thieves. A large river, the Khin-cha-kiang, flows over
+auriferous sands through the province; a quantity of coral is found
+in it which is much used for idols, and for the adornment of the
+women. Thibet was at this time under the dominion of the great khan.
+
+The traveller took a westerly direction when he left Sindafou, and
+crossing the kingdom of Gaindu he must have come to Li-kiang-foo,
+the capital of the country that is now called Tsi-mong. In this
+province he visited a beautiful lake which produces pearl-oysters;
+the fishing is the emperor's property; he also found great
+quantities of cinnamon, ginger, cloves, and other spices under
+cultivation.
+
+After leaving the province of Gaindu, and crossing a large river,
+probably the Irrawaddy, Marco Polo took a south-easterly course to
+the province of Carajan, which probably forms the north-western part
+of Yunnan. According to his account all the inhabitants of this
+province, who are mostly great riders, live on the raw flesh of
+fowls, sheep, buffaloes, and oxen; the rich seasoning their raw meat
+with garlic sauce and good spices. This country is infested with
+great adders, and serpents, "hideous to look upon." These reptiles,
+probably alligators, were ten feet long, had two legs armed with
+claws, and with their large heads and great jaws could at one gulp
+swallow a man.
+
+Five days' journey west of Carajan, Marco Polo took a new route to
+the south, and entered the province of Zardandan, whose capital
+Nocian, is the modern town of Yung-chang. All the inhabitants of the
+city had teeth of gold; that is to say, they covered their teeth
+with little plates of gold which they removed before eating. The men
+of this province employed themselves only in hunting, catching birds,
+and making war, the hard work all devolving upon the women and
+slaves. These Zardanians have neither idols nor churches, but they
+each worship their ancestor, the patriarch of the family. Their
+tradesmen carry their goods about on barrows like the bakers in
+France. They have no doctors, but only enchanters, who jump, dance,
+and play musical instruments around the invalid's bed till he either
+dies or recovers.
+
+[Illustration: Marco Polo in the midst of the forests.]
+
+Leaving these people with gilded teeth, Marco Polo took the great
+road which conveys all the traffic between India and Indo-China, and
+passed by Bhamo, where a market is held three times a week, which
+attracts merchants from the most distant countries. After riding for
+fifteen days through forests filled with elephants, unicorns, and
+other wild animals, he came to the great city of Mien; that is to
+say, to that part of Upper Burmah, of which the present capital, of
+recent erection, is called Amarapura. This city of Mien, which may
+be, perhaps, the old town of Ava now in ruins, or the old town of
+Paghan situated on the Irrawaddy, possessed a veritable
+architectural marvel, in two towers, one built of fine stone, and
+entirely covered with a coating of gold about an inch in thickness,
+and the other, also of stone, coated with silver, both intended to
+serve as a tomb for the king of Mien, before his kingdom fell under
+the dominion of the khan. After visiting this province, the
+traveller went to Bangala, the Bengal of the present day, which at
+this time, 1290, did not belong to Kublai-Khan. The emperor's forces
+were then engaged in trying to conquer this fertile country, rich in
+cotton plants, in sugar-canes, &c., and whose magnificent oxen were
+like elephants in height. From thence, the traveller ventured as far
+as the city of Cancigu, in the province of the same name, probably
+the modern town of Kassaye. The natives here tattooed their bodies,
+and with needles drew pictures of lions, dragons, and birds on their
+faces, necks, bellies, hands, legs, and bodies, and he who had the
+greatest number of these pictures they considered the most beautiful
+of human beings.
+
+Cancigu was the most southerly point visited by Marco Polo, during
+this journey. Leaving this city, he went towards the north-east, and
+by the country of Amu, Anam, and Tonkin, he reached Toloman, now
+called Tai-ping, after fifteen days' march. There he found that fine
+race of men, of dark colour, who have crowned their mountains with
+strong castles, and whose ordinary food is the flesh of animals,
+milk, rice, and spices.
+
+On leaving Toloman, he followed the course of a river for twelve
+days, and found numerous towns on its banks. Here, as M. Charton
+truly observes, the traveller is leaving the country known as India
+beyond the Ganges, and returning towards China. In fact, Marco Polo
+after leaving Toloman visited the province of Guigui with its
+capital of the same name, and what struck him most in this country,
+(and we cannot but think that the bold explorer was also a keen
+hunter) was the great number of lions that were to be seen about its
+mountains and plains. Only, commentators are of opinion that the
+lions he speaks of must have been tigers, for no lions are found in
+China, but we will give his own words: he says, "There are so many
+lions in this country, that it is not safe to sleep out of doors for
+fear of being devoured. And when you are on the river and stop for
+the night, you must be careful to anchor far from land, for
+otherwise the lions come to the vessel, seize upon a man, and devour
+him. The inhabitants of this part of the country are well aware of
+this, and so take measures to guard against it. These lions are very
+large and very dangerous, but there are dogs in this country brave
+enough to attack these lions; it requires two dogs and a man to
+overcome each lion."
+
+From this province Marco Polo returned to Sindifu, the capital of
+the province of Se-chuen, whence he had started on his excursion
+into Thibet; and retracing the route by which he had set out, he
+returned to Kublai-Khan, after having brought his mission to
+Indo-China to a satisfactory termination. It was probably at this
+time that the traveller was first entrusted by the emperor with
+another mission to the south-east of China. M. Pauthier, in his fine
+work upon the Venetian traveller, speaks of this south-easterly part
+of China as "the richest and most flourishing quarter of this vast
+empire and that also about which, since the 16th century, Europeans
+have had the most information."
+
+As we return to the route that M. Pauthier has traced on his map, we
+find that Marco Polo went southwards to Ciangli, probably the town
+of Ti-choo, and at six days' journey from thence he came to
+Condinfoo, the present city of Tsi-nan, the capital of the province
+of Shan-tung, the birthplace of Confucius. It was at that time a
+fine town and much frequented by silk-merchants, and its beautiful
+gardens produced abundance of excellent fruit. Three days' march
+from hence, the traveller came to the town of Lin-tsing, standing at
+the mouth of the Yu-ho canal, the principal rendezvous for the
+innumerable boats that carry so much merchandise to the provinces of
+Mangi and Cathay. Eight days afterwards he passed by Ligui, which
+seems to correspond to the modern town of Lin-tsin, and the town of
+Piceu, the first city in the province of Tchang-su; then by the town
+of Cingui, he arrived at Caramoran, the Yellow River, which he had
+crossed higher up when he was on his way to Indo-China; here Marco
+Polo was not more than a league from the mouth of this great river.
+After crossing it he was in the province of Mangi, a territory
+included in the Empire of the Soongs.
+
+Before this province of Mangi belonged to Kublai-Khan it was
+governed by a very pacific king, who shunned war, and was very
+merciful to all his subjects. Marco Polo describes him so well that
+we will quote his own words. "This last emperor of the Soong dynasty
+was most generous, and I will cite but two noble traits to show
+this; every year he had nearly 20,000 infants brought up at the
+royal charge, for it was the custom in these provinces, when a poor
+woman could not bring up a child herself, to cast it away as soon as
+it was born, to die. The king had all these children taken care of,
+and a record kept of the sign and the planet under which each was
+born, and then they were sent to different places to be brought up,
+for there are a quantity of nurses. When a rich man had no sons, he
+came to the king and asked of him some of his wards, who were
+immediately given to him. As the children grew up they intermarried,
+and the king gave them sufficient incomes to live upon. When he went
+through his dominions and saw a small house among several much
+larger ones, he inquired why this house was smaller than those near
+it, and if he found it was on account of the poverty of the owner,
+he immediately had it made as large as the others at his own expense.
+He was always waited upon by a thousand pages and a thousand girls.
+He kept up such rigorous discipline throughout his kingdom that
+there was never any crime; at night, houses and shops remained open,
+and nothing was taken from them, and travelling was as safe by night
+as by day."
+
+Marco Polo came first to the town of Coigangui, now called Hoang-fou,
+on the banks of the Yellow River, where the principal industry is
+the preparation of the salt found in the salt marshes. One day's
+journey from this town he came to Pau-in-chen, famous for its cloth
+of gold, and the town of Caiu, now Kao-yu, whose inhabitants are
+clever fishermen and hunters, then to the city of Tai-cheu, where
+numerous vessels are generally to be found, and at last to the city
+of Yangui.
+
+This town of Yangui, of which Marco Polo was the governor for three
+years, is the modern Yang-tchou; it is a very populous and busy town,
+and cannot be less than two leagues in circumference. It was from
+Yangui that the traveller set out on the various expeditions which
+enabled him to see so much of the inland and sea-coast towns.
+
+First, the traveller went westward to Nan-ghin, which must not be
+confounded with Nan-kin of the present day. Its modern name is
+Ngan-khing, and it stands in the midst of a remarkably fertile
+province. Further on in the same direction he came to Saianfu, which
+is now called Siang-yang, and is built in the northern part of the
+province of Hou-pe. This was the last town in the province of Mangi
+that resisted the dominion of Kublai-Khan; he besieged it for three
+years, and he owed his taking it at last to the help of the three
+Polos, who constructed some powerful balistas and crushed the
+besieged under a perfect hail-storm of stones, some of which weighed
+as much as three hundred pounds. From Saianfu Marco Polo retraced
+his steps that he might visit some of the towns on the sea-coast. He
+visited Kui-kiang on the river Kiang, which is very broad here, and
+upon which 5000 ships can sail at the same moment; Kain-gui, which
+supplies the Emperor's palace with corn; Ching-kiang where are two
+Nestorian Christian churches; Ginguigui, now Tchang-tcheou, a busy
+thriving city; and Singui, now called Soo-choo, a large town, which,
+according to the very exaggerated account of the Venetian traveller,
+has no less than 6000 bridges.
+
+After spending some time at Vugui, probably Hou-tcheou, and at
+Ciangan, now Kia-hing, Marco Polo reached the fine city of Quinsay,
+after three days' march. This name means the "City of Heaven," but
+it is now called Hang-chow-foo. It is six leagues round; the river
+Tsien-tang-kiang flows through it, and by its constant windings,
+makes Quinsay almost a second Venice. This ancient capital of the
+Soongs is almost as populous as Pekin; its streets are paved with
+stones and bricks, and if we may credit Marco Polo's statement, it
+contained "600,000 houses, 4000 bathing establishments, and 12,000
+stone bridges." In this city dwell the richest merchants in the
+world with their wives, who are "beautiful and angelic creatures."
+It is the residence of a viceroy, who has besides, 140 other cities
+under his dominion. Here was to be seen also the palace of the Mangi
+sovereigns surrounded by beautiful gardens, lakes, and fountains,
+the palace itself containing more than a thousand rooms. Kublai-Khan
+draws immense revenues from this town and province, and it is by
+tens of thousands of pounds we must reckon the income derived from
+the sugar, salt, spices, and silk, which form the principal
+productions of this country. At one day's journey south from Quinsay,
+Marco Polo visited Chao-hing, Vugui, or Hou-tcheou, Ghengui or
+Kui-tcheou, Cianscian or Yo-tcheou-fou (according to M. Charton),
+and Soni-tchang-fou (according to M. Pauthier), and Cugui or
+Kiou-tcheou, the last town in the kingdom of Quinsay; thence he
+entered the kingdom of Fugui, whose chief town of the same name is
+now called Fou-tcheou-foo, the capital of the province of Fo-kien.
+According to Marco Polo, the inhabitants of this province are a
+cruel warlike race, never sparing their enemies, of whom, after they
+have killed them, they drink the blood and eat the flesh. After
+passing by Quenlifu, now Kien-ning-foo, and Unguen, the traveller
+entered Fugui, probably the modern town of Kuant-tcheou (called
+Canton amongst us), and the chief town of the province, where a
+large trade in pearls and precious stones was carried on, and in
+five days he reached the port of Zaitem, probably the Chinese town
+of Tsiuen-tcheou, which was the extreme point reached by him in this
+exploration of south-eastern China.
+
+
+IV.
+MARCO POLO.
+
+Japan--Departure of the three Venetians with the Emperor's daughter
+and the Persian ambassadors--Sai-gon--Java--Condor--Bintang--
+Sumatra--The Nicobar Islands--Ceylon--The Coromandel coast--The
+Malabar coast--The Sea of Oman--The island of Socotra--Madagascar--
+Zanzibar and the coast of Africa--Abyssinia--Yemen--Hadramaut and
+Oman--Ormuz--The return to Venice--A feast in the household of
+Polo--Marco Polo a Genoese prisoner--Death of Marco Polo about 1323.
+
+
+Marco Polo returned to the court of Kublai-Khan when he had finished
+the expedition of which we spoke in the last chapter. He was then
+entrusted with several other missions, in which he found his
+knowledge of the Turkish, Chinese, Mongolian, and Mantchorian
+languages of the greatest use. He seems to have taken part in an
+expedition to the islands in the Indian Ocean, and he brought back a
+detailed account of this hitherto little known sea. There is a want
+of clearness as to dates at this part of his life, which makes it
+difficult to give a correct narrative of these voyages in their
+right order. He gives a circumstantial account of the Island of
+Cipango, a name applying to the group of islands which make up
+Japan; but it does not appear that he actually entered that kingdom.
+This country was famous for its wealth, and about 1264, some years
+before Marco Polo arrived at the Tartar court, Kublai-Khan had tried
+to conquer it and sent his fleet there with that purpose. They had
+taken possession of a citadel and put all its valiant defenders to
+the edge of the sword, but just at the moment of apparent victory a
+storm arose and dispersed all the enemy's fleet, and thus the
+expedition was useless. Marco Polo gives a long account of this
+attempt, and adds many curious particulars as to Japanese customs.
+
+Marco Polo, with his father and uncle, had now been seventeen years
+in the service of Kublai-Khan, and even longer absent from their own
+country; they had a great wish to revisit it, but the Emperor had
+become so much attached to them, and valued their services so highly,
+that he could not make up his mind to part with them. He tried in
+every way to shake their resolution, offering them riches and honour
+if only they would remain with him, but they still held to their
+plan of returning to Europe; the Emperor then absolutely refused to
+allow them to go, and Marco Polo could find no means of eluding the
+surveillance of which he was the object, until circumstances arose
+which quite changed Kublai-Khan's resolution.
+
+A Mongol prince, named Arghun, whose dominions were in Persia, had
+sent an ambassador to the Emperor to ask one of the princesses of
+the blood royal, in marriage. Kublai-Khan acceded to his request and
+sent off his daughter Cogatra to Prince Arghun, attended by a
+numerous suite; but the countries by which they endeavoured to
+travel were not safe; the caravan was soon stopped by disturbances
+and rebellions, and after some months was obliged to return to the
+Emperor's palace. The Persian ambassadors had heard Marco Polo
+spoken of as a clever navigator who had had some experience of the
+Indian Ocean, and they begged the Emperor to confide the Princess
+Cogatra to his care, that he might conduct her to her future husband,
+thinking that the voyage by sea would probably be attended by less
+danger than a land journey.
+
+After some demur Kublai-Khan acceded to their request, and equipped
+a fleet of forty four-masted vessels, provisioning them for two
+years. Some of these were very large, having a crew of 250 men, for
+this was an important expedition worthy of the opulent Emperor of
+China. Matteo, Nicolo, and Marco Polo set out with the Chinese
+princess and the Persian ambassadors, and it was during this voyage,
+which lasted eighteen months, that it seems most probable that Marco
+Polo visited the islands of Sunda and other islands in the Indian
+Ocean, as well as Ceylon and the towns on the coast of India. We
+will follow him in his voyage and give his description of the places
+that he visited in this hitherto little known portion of the globe.
+
+[Illustration: Kublai-Khan equips a fleet.]
+
+It must have been about 1291 or 1292 that the fleet left the port of
+Zaitem, under the command of Marco Polo. He steered first for
+Tchampa, a great country situated at the south of Cochin China, and
+which contains the present province of Saigon, belonging to France.
+This was not a new country to Marco Polo, as he had visited it about
+1280, when he was on a mission for the Emperor. At this time,
+Tchampa was under the dominion of the grand khan, and paid him an
+annual tribute in elephants; when Marco Polo visited this country
+before its conquest by Kublai-Khan, he found the reigning king had
+no less than 326 children, of whom 150 were old enough to carry arms.
+
+Leaving the peninsula of Cambodia, the fleet went in the direction
+of Java, the rich island that Kublai-Khan had never been able to
+subjugate, where abundance of pepper, cloves, nutmegs, &c., grew.
+After putting into port at Condor and Sandur, at the extremity of
+the peninsular of Cochin China, they reached the island of Pentam
+(Bintang), situated near the eastern entrance of the straits of
+Malacca, and the island of Sumatra, called Little Java. "This island
+is so much in the south," he says, "that they never see there the
+polar star," which is true as far as the inhabitants of the southern
+part are concerned. It is very fertile, aloes growing most
+luxuriantly; and here wild elephants and rhinoceroses (called by
+Marco Polo unicorns) are found, and apes, too, in large numbers. The
+fleet was detained five months on these shores by contrary winds,
+and the traveller made the most of his time in visiting the
+principal provinces of the island, such as Samara, Dagraian, and
+Labrin (which boasts a great number of men with tails--evidently
+apes), and the island of Fandur or Panchor, where the sago-tree
+grows, from which a kind of flour is obtained that makes very good
+bread.
+
+At last the wind changed, and enabled the vessels to leave Little
+Java, and after touching at Necaran, which must be one of the
+Nicobar Islands, and at the Andaman group, whose inhabitants are
+still cannibals, as they were in the time of Marco Polo, the fleet
+took a south-westerly course and arrived on the coast of Ceylon.
+"This island," says the traveller in his narrative, "was once much
+larger, for according to the map of the world that the pilots of
+these seas carry, it was once 3600 miles in circumference but the
+north wind blows with such force in these parts that it caused a
+part of the island to be submerged." This tradition is still held by
+the inhabitants of Ceylon. Here are collected in abundance, rubies,
+sapphires, topaz, amethysts, and other precious stones, such as
+garnets, opals, agates, and sardonyx. The king of the country was
+the possessor at this time of a most splendid ruby as long as the
+palm of the hand, as thick as a man's arm, and red as fire, which
+excited the envy of the grand khan, who vainly tried to induce its
+possessor to part with it, offering a whole city in exchange, but
+that could not tempt the King to let him have the jewel.
+
+Sixty miles west of Ceylon the travellers came to Maabar, a great
+province on the coast of India. This must not be mistaken for
+Malabar, which is situated on the west coast of the Indian peninsula.
+This Maabar forms the southern part of the Coromandel coast, and is
+celebrated for its pearl fisheries. Here the magicians are at work,
+and are said to render the monsters of the deep harmless to the
+fishermen; they are astrologers whose race is perpetuated even to
+modern times. Marco Polo gives some interesting details of the
+customs of the natives, one is that when a king dies, the nobles
+throw themselves into the fire in his honour; another strange custom
+is that of the religious purifications twice every day, and their
+blind faith in astrologers and diviners; he also speaks of the
+frequency of religious suicides, and the sacrifice of widows whom
+the funeral pile awaits on the death of their husbands. He also
+notices the skill in physiognomy evinced by the natives.
+
+The next resting-place of the fleet was Muftili, of which the
+capital is now called Masulipatam, the chief city of the kingdom of
+Golconda. This country was well governed by a queen, a widow for
+forty years, who desired to remain faithful to the memory of her
+husband. The country contained many valuable diamond mines, but
+these were unfortunately among mountains where serpents abounded;
+the miners had recourse to a strange device when collecting the
+precious stones, to protect themselves from these reptiles, which we
+may believe or not as we choose. Marco Polo says: "They take several
+pieces of meat, and throw them among the pointed rocks, where no man
+can go, and the meat, falling upon the diamonds, they become
+attached to it. Now, among these mountains live a number of white
+eagles, who hunt the serpents, and when they see the meat at the
+foot of the precipices they swoop down and carry it away. At the
+moment the men who have been following the eagles' movements see
+them alight to eat the meat, they raise fearful cries, the meat is
+dropped and the eagles take to flight, and thus the men have no
+difficulty in taking the diamonds that are attached to the meat.
+Diamonds are often found on the mountains, mingled with the
+excrement of the eagles."
+
+After visiting the small town of St. Thomas, situated some miles to
+the south of Madras, where St. Thomas the apostle is said to be
+buried, the travellers explored the kingdom of Maabar and especially
+the province of Lar, from whence spring all the "_Abrahamites_" of
+the world, probably the Brahmins. These men, he says, live to a
+great age, owing to their abstinence and sobriety; some have been
+known to attain 150 and even 200 years of age; their diet is
+principally rice and milk, and they drink a mixture of sulphur and
+quicksilver. These "Abrahamites" are clever merchants, superstitious,
+however, but remarkably sincere, and never guilty of theft of any
+kind; they never kill any living thing, and they worship the ox,
+which is a sacred animal among them.
+
+The fleet now returned to Ceylon, where in 1284 Kublai-Khan had sent
+an ambassador who had brought him back some pretended relics of Adam,
+and among other things two of his molar teeth; for, if we can
+believe the Saracen traditions, the tomb of our first father must
+have been on the summit of one of the precipitous mountains, which
+forms the highest ground in the island. After losing sight of Ceylon,
+Marco Polo went to Cail, a port that we do not find marked on any of
+the modern maps, but a place where all the vessels touched coming
+from Ormuz, Kiss, Aden, and the coasts of Arabia. Thence doubling
+Cape Comorin they came to Coilum, now Quilon, which was a very
+thriving city in the thirteenth century. It is there that a great
+quantity of sandal-wood and indigo is found, and merchants come in
+large numbers from the Levant and from the West to trade in both.
+The country of Malabar produces a great quantity of rice, and wild
+animals are found there, such as leopards, which Marco Polo calls
+"black lions," also peacocks of much greater beauty than those of
+Europe, as well as different kinds of parroquets.
+
+The fleet, leaving Coilum, and advancing northwards along the
+Malabar coast, arrived at the shores of the kingdom of Maundallay,
+which derives its name from a mountain situated on the borders of
+Kanara and Malabar; here pepper, ginger, saffron, and other spices
+abound. To the north of this kingdom extended that country which the
+Venetian traveller calls Melibar, and which is situated to the north
+of Malabar proper. The vessels of the Mangalore merchants came here
+to trade with the natives of this part of India for cargoes of
+spices, a fine kind of cloth called buckram and other valuable
+wares; but their vessels were frequently attacked, and too often
+pillaged by the pirates who infested these seas, and who were justly
+regarded as formidable enemies. These pirates principally inhabit
+the peninsula of Gohourat, now called Gujerat, where the fleet was
+on its way after calling at Tana--a country where is collected the
+frankincense--and Canboat, now Kambay, a town where there is a great
+trade in leather. Visiting Sumenath, a city of the peninsula, whose
+inhabitants are cruel, ferocious, and idolaters, and Kesmacoran, the
+modern city of Kedje, the capital of Makran, situated on the Indus
+near the sea, and the last town in India on the northwest, Marco
+Polo went westward across the sea of Oman, instead of going to
+Persia, which was the destination of the princess.
+
+His insatiable love of exploration led him 500 miles away to the
+shores of Arabia, where he stopped at the Male and Female Islands,
+so called from the men usually living on one island, and their wives
+on the other. Thence they sailed to the south towards the island of
+Socotra, at the entrance of the Gulf of Aden, which, Marco Polo
+partially explored. He speaks of the inhabitants of Socotra as
+clever magicians, who, by their enchantments, obtain the fulfilment
+of all their wishes as well as the power of stilling storms and
+tempests. Then, taking a southerly course of 1000 miles, he arrived
+at the shores of Madagascar. This island appeared to him to be one
+of the grandest in the world. Its inhabitants are very much occupied
+with commerce, especially in elephants' tusks. They live principally
+upon camels' flesh, which is better and more wholesome food than any
+other. The merchants on their way from the coast of India are
+usually only twenty days crossing the Sea of Oman; but when they
+return they are often three months on the voyage on account of the
+opposing currents which take them always southwards. Nevertheless,
+they visit Madagascar very constantly, for there are whole forests
+of sandal-wood, and amber is also found there, from which they can
+obtain great profit by bartering it for gold and silk stuffs. Wild
+animals and game are plentiful; according to Marco Polo, leopards,
+bears, lions, wild boars, giraffes, wild asses, roebucks, deer,
+stags, and cattle were to be found in great numbers; but what seemed
+most marvellous of all to him was the fabulous griffin, the roc, of
+which we hear so much in the "Thousand and one Nights," which is not,
+he says, "an animal, half-lion and half-bird, able to raise and
+carry away an elephant in its claws." It was probably the "_epyornis
+maximus_," for some eggs of this bird are still to be found in
+Madagascar.
+
+[Illustration: This wonderful bird was probably the _epyornis
+maximus_.]
+
+From this island Marco Polo went in a north-westerly direction to
+Zanzibar and the coast of Africa. The inhabitants seemed to him
+remarkably stout, but strong and able to carry the burdens of four
+ordinary men, "which is not strange," he says, "for they each eat as
+much as five other men;" these natives were black and wore no
+clothing, they had large mouths and turned-up noses, thick lips, and
+large eyes, a description that agrees exactly with that of the
+natives of that part of Africa now. They live upon rice, meat, milk,
+and dates, and make a kind of wine of rice, sugar, and spices. They
+are brave warriors and fearless of death; they are usually in war
+mounted on camels and elephants, and armed with a leathern shield, a
+sword, and a lance; they give their animals an intoxicating drink to
+excite them on going into action.
+
+In Marco Polo's time, says M. Charton, the countries comprised under
+the title of India were divided into three parts; Greater India or
+Hindostan, that is, the country lying between the Indus and the
+Ganges; Lesser India, that is, all the country lying beyond the
+Ganges, between the western coast of the peninsula and the coast of
+Cochin China; lastly, Middle India, that is, Abyssinia and the
+Arabian coast to the Persian Gulf. After leaving Zanzibar it was
+Middle India whose coast Marco Polo explored, sailing towards the
+north, and first Abassy or Abyssinia, a fertile country where the
+manufacture of fine cotton cloths and buckram is largely carried on.
+Then the fleet went to Zaila, almost at the entrance of the straits
+of Bab-el-Mandeb, and at last by the coast of Yemen and Hadramaut
+they came to Aden, the port frequented by all the ships trading with
+India and China; then to Escier, whence a great quantity of fine
+horses are exported; Dafar, which produces incense of the finest
+quality, and Galatu, now Kalajate, on the coast of Oman; then to
+Ormuz, that Marco Polo had visited once before when he was on his
+way from Venice to the court of Kublai-Khan. This was the furthest
+point that the fleet had to reach, as the princess was now on the
+borders of Persia, after a voyage of eighteen months. But on their
+arrival they were met by the sad news of the death of Prince Arghun,
+the fiance of the princess, and they found the country involved in
+civil war. The poor princess was put under the care of Prince Ghazan,
+the son of Prince Arghun, who did not ascend the throne until 1295,
+when his uncle, the usurper, was strangled. What became of the
+princess we do not hear, but on parting with Nicolo, Matteo, and
+Marco Polo, she bestowed on them great marks of favour. It was
+probably during Marco Polo's residence in Persia that he collected
+some curious documents upon Turkey in Asia; they are disconnected
+pieces, which he gives at the close of his narrative, and they form
+a genuine history of the Mongol Khans of Persia. His travels for
+exploration were at an end, and after taking leave of the Tartar
+princess, the three Venetians well escorted, and with all expenses
+paid, set out on their way home. They went to Trebizond, then to
+Constantinople, and thence to Negropont, where they embarked for
+Venice.
+
+It was in the year 1295, twenty-four years after leaving it, that
+Marco Polo and his companions returned to their native town. They
+were bronzed by exposure to the air and sun, coarsely clad in Tartar
+costume, and both in manners and language were so much more
+Mongolian than Venetian, that even their nearest relatives failed to
+recognize them. Beyond this, a report had been widely spread that
+they were dead, and it had gained so much credence that their
+friends never expected to see them again. They went to their own
+house in the part of Venice called St. John Chrysostom, and found it
+occupied by different members of the Polo family, who received the
+travellers with every mark of distrust, which their pitiable
+appearance did not tend to lessen, and placed no faith in the
+somewhat marvellous stories related to them by Marco Polo. After
+some persuasion, however, they gained admittance into their own
+house. When they had been a few days in Venice, the three travellers
+gave a magnificent banquet, followed by a splendid fete, to do away
+with any remaining doubts as to their identity. They invited the
+nobility of Venice and all the members of their own family, and when
+all the guests were assembled the three hosts appeared dressed in
+crimson satin robes; the guests then entered the dining-room, and
+the feast began. After the first course was over the three
+travellers retired for a few moments and then reappeared, clad in
+robes of splendid silk damask, which they proceeded to tear, and to
+present each of their guests with a piece. After the second course
+they dressed themselves in even more splendid robes of crimson
+velvet, which they wore until the feast was over, when they appeared
+in simple Venetian costume. The astonished guests marvelled at the
+magnificence of these garments, and wondered what their hosts would
+next show them; then the coarse rough clothes that they had worn on
+the voyage were brought in, and when the linings and seams were
+undone, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, diamonds, and carbuncles of
+great value were poured forth from them; great riches had been
+hidden in these rags. This unexpected sight cleared away all doubt;
+the three travellers were recognized at once as Marco, Nicolo, and
+Matteo Polo, and congratulations upon their return were showered
+upon them.
+
+So celebrated a man as Marco Polo could not escape civic honours. He
+was made first magistrate in Venice, and as he was continually
+speaking of the "millions" of the Grand Khan, who commanded
+"millions" of subjects, he gained the soubriquet of Signor Million.
+
+It was about 1296 that a war broke out between Venice and Genoa. A
+Genoese fleet under the command of Lamba Doria crossed the Adriatic,
+and threatened the sea coast. The Venetian Admiral Andrea Dandolo
+immediately manned a larger fleet and entrusted the command of a
+galley to Marco Polo who was justly considered an able commander.
+The Venetians were beaten in a naval battle on the 8th of September,
+1296, and Marco Polo, badly wounded, fell into the hands of the
+Genoese, who, knowing and appreciating the value of their prisoner,
+treated him with great kindness. He was taken to Genoa, and there
+met with a hearty welcome from the most distinguished people, who
+were anxious to hear the account of his travels. It was during his
+captivity, in 1298, that he made acquaintance with Pisano Rusticien,
+and, tired of repeating his story again and again, dictated his
+narrative to him.
+
+About 1299 Marco Polo was set at liberty; he returned to Venice, and
+there married. From this time we hear no more of the incidents of
+his life, and only know from his will that he left three daughters;
+he is thought to have died about the 9th of January, 1323, at the
+age of seventy.
+
+Such is the life of this celebrated traveller, whose narrative had a
+marked influence on the progress of geographical science. He was
+gifted with great power of observation, and could see and describe
+equally well; and all later explorers have confirmed the truth of
+his statements. Until the middle of the eighteenth century, the
+documents founded on this narrative formed the basis of geographical
+books, and were used as a guide in commercial expeditions to China,
+India, and Central Asia. Posterity will concur in the suitability of
+the title that the first copyists gave to Marco Polo's work, that of
+"The Book of the Wonders of the World."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+IBN BATUTA, 1328-1353.
+
+Ibn Batuta--The Nile--Gaza, Tyre, Tiberias, Libanus, Baalbec,
+Damascus, Meshid, Bussorah, Baghdad, Tabriz, Mecca and Medina--
+Yemen--Abyssinia--The country of the Berbers--Zanguebar--Ormuz--
+Syria--Anatolia--Asia Minor--Astrakhan--Constantinople--
+Turkestan--Herat--The Indus--Delhi--Malabar--The Maldives--
+Ceylon--The Coromandel coast--Bengal--The Nicobar Islands--
+Sumatra--China--Africa--The Niger--Timbuctoo.
+
+
+Marco Polo had returned to his native land now nearly twenty-five
+years, when a Franciscan monk traversed the whole of Asia, from the
+Black Sea to the extreme limits of China, passing by Trebizond,
+Mount Ararat, Babel, and the island of Java; but he was so credulous
+of all that was told him, and his narrative is so confused, that but
+little reliance can be placed upon it. It is the same with the
+fabulous travels of Jean de Mandeville. Cooley says of them, "They
+are so utterly untrue, that they have not their parallel in any
+language."
+
+But we find a worthy successor to the Venetian traveller in an
+Arabian theologian, named Abdallah El Lawati, better known by the
+name of Ibn Batuta. He did for Egypt, Arabia, Anatolia, Tartary,
+India, China, Bengal, and Soudan, what Marco Polo had done for
+Central Asia, and he is worthy to be placed in the foremost rank as
+a brave traveller and bold explorer. In the year 1324, the 725th
+year of the Hegira, he resolved to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, and
+starting from Tangier, his native town, he went first to Alexandria,
+and thence to Cairo. During his stay in Egypt he turned his
+attention to the Nile, and especially to the Delta; then he tried to
+sail up the river, but being stopped by disturbances on the Nubian
+frontier, he was obliged to return to the mouth of the river, and
+then set sail for Asia Minor.
+
+[Illustration: Ibn Batuta in Egypt.]
+
+After visiting Gaza, the tombs of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, Tyre,
+then strongly fortified and unassailable on three sides, and
+Tiberias, which was in ruins, and whose celebrated baths were
+completely destroyed, Ibn Batuta was attracted by the wonders of
+Lebanon, the centre for all the hermits of that day, who had
+judiciously chosen one of the most lovely spots in the whole world
+wherein to end their days. Then passing Baalbec, and going on to
+Damascus, he found the city (in the year 1345) decimated by the
+plague. This fearful scourge devoured "24,000 persons daily," if we
+may believe his report, and Damascus would have been depopulated,
+had not the prayers of all the people offered up in the mosque
+containing the stone with the print of Moses' foot upon it, been
+heard and answered. On leaving Damascus, Ibn Batuta went to Mesjid,
+where he visited the tomb of Ali, which attracts a large number of
+paralytic pilgrims who need only to spend one night in prayer beside
+it, to be completely cured. Batuta does not seem to doubt the
+authenticity of this miracle, well known in the East under the title
+of "the Night of Cure."
+
+From Mesjid, the traveller went to Bussorah, and entered the kingdom
+of Ispahan, and then the province of Shiraz, where he wished to
+converse with the celebrated worker of miracles, Magd Oddin. From
+Shiraz he went to Baghdad, to Tabriz, then to Medina, where he
+prayed beside the tomb of the Prophet, and finally to Mecca, where
+he remained three years. It is well known that from Mecca, caravans
+are continually starting for the surrounding country, and it was in
+company with some of these bold merchants that Ibn Batuta was able
+to visit the towns of Yemen. He went as far as Aden, at the mouth of
+the Red Sea, and embarked for Zaila, one of the Abyssinian ports. He
+was now once more on African ground, and advanced into the country
+of the Berbers, that he might study the manners and customs of those
+dirty and repulsive tribes; he found their diet consisted wholly of
+fish and camels' flesh. But in the town of Makdasbu, there was an
+attempt at comfort and civilization, presenting a most agreeable
+contrast with the surrounding squalor. The inhabitants were very fat,
+each of them, to use Ibn's own expression, "eating enough to feed a
+convent;" they were very fond of delicacies, such as plantains
+boiled in milk, preserved citrons, pods of fresh pepper, and green
+ginger.
+
+After seeing all he wished of the country of the Berbers, chiefly on
+the coast, he resolved to go to Zanguebar, and then, crossing the
+Red Sea and following the coast of Arabia, he came to Zafar, a town
+situated upon the Indian Ocean. The vegetation of this country is
+most luxuriant, the betel, cocoa-nut, and incense-trees forming
+there great forests; still the traveller pushed on, and came to
+Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, and passed through several provinces of
+Persia. We find him a second time at Mecca in the year 1332, three
+years after he had left it.
+
+But this was only to be a short rest for the traveller, for now,
+leaving Asia for Africa, he went to Upper Egypt, a region but little
+known, and thence to Cairo. He next visited Syria, making a short
+stay at Jerusalem and Tripoli, and thence he visited the Turkomans
+of Anatolia, where the "confraternity of young men" gave him a most
+hearty welcome.
+
+After Anatolia, the Arabian narrative speaks of Asia Minor. Ibn
+Batuta advanced as far as Erzeroum, where he was shown an aerolite
+weighing 620 pounds. Then, crossing the Black Sea, he visited the
+Crimea, Kaffa, and Bulgar, a town of sufficiently high latitude for
+the unequal length of day and night to be very marked; and at last
+he reached Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga, where the Khan of
+Tartary lived during the winter months.
+
+The Princess Bailun, the wife of the khan, and daughter of the
+Emperor of Constantinople, was wishing to visit her father, and it
+was an opportunity not to be lost by Ibn Batuta for exploring Turkey
+in Europe; he gained permission to accompany the princess, who set
+out attended by 5000 men, and followed by a portable mosque, which
+was set up at every place where they stayed. The princess's
+reception at Constantinople was very magnificent, the bells being
+rung with such spirit that he says, "even the horizon seemed full of
+the vibration."
+
+The welcome given to the theologian by the princes of the country
+was worthy of his fame; he remained in the city thirty-six days, so
+that he was able to study it in all its details.
+
+This was a time when communication between the different countries
+was both dangerous and difficult, and Ibn Batuta was considered a
+very bold traveller. Egypt, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, the Caucasian
+provinces had all in turn been explored by him. After such hard work
+he might well have taken rest and been satisfied with the laurels
+that he had gained, for he was without doubt the most celebrated
+traveller of the fourteenth century; but his insatiable passion for
+travelling remained, and the circle of his explorations was still to
+widen considerably.
+
+On leaving Constantinople, Ibn Batuta went again to Astrakhan,
+thence crossing the sandy wastes of the present Turkestan, he
+arrived at Khovarezen, a large populous town, then at Bokhara, half
+destroyed by the armies of Gengis-Khan. Some time after we hear of
+him at Samarcand, a religious town which greatly pleased the learned
+traveller, and then at Balkh which he could not reach without
+crossing the desert of Khorassan. This town was all in ruins and
+desolate, for the armies of the barbarians had been there, and Ibn
+Batuta could not remain in it, but wished to go westward to the
+frontier of Afghanistan. The mountainous country, near the Hindoo
+Koosh range, confronted him, but this was no barrier to him, and
+after great fatigue, which he bore with equal patience and
+good-humour, he reached the important town of Herat. This was the
+most westerly point reached by the traveller; he now resolved to
+change his course for an easterly one, and in going to the extreme
+limits of Asia, to reach the shores of the Pacific: if he could
+succeed in this he would pass the bounds of the explorations of the
+celebrated Marco Polo.
+
+He set out, and following the course of the river Kabul and the
+frontiers of Afghanistan, he came to the Sindhu, the modern Indus,
+and descended it to its mouth. From the town of Lahore, he went to
+Delhi, which great and beautiful city had been deserted by its
+inhabitants, who had fled from the Emperor Mohammed.
+
+This tyrant, who was occasionally both generous and magnificent,
+received the Arabian traveller very well, made him a judge in Delhi,
+and gave him a grant of land with some pecuniary advantages that
+were attached to the post, but these honours were not to be of any
+long duration, for Ibn Batuta being implicated in a pretended
+conspiracy, thought it best to give up his place, and make himself a
+fakir to escape the Emperor's displeasure. Mohammed, however,
+pardoned him, and made him his ambassador to China.
+
+Fortune again smiled upon the courageous traveller, and he had now
+the prospect of seeing these distant lands under exceptionally good
+and safe circumstances. He was charged with presents for the Emperor
+of China, and 2000 horse-soldiers were given him as an escort.
+
+But Ibn Batuta had not thought of the insurgents who occupied the
+surrounding countries; a skirmish took place between the escort and
+the Hindoos, and the traveller, being separated from his companions,
+was taken prisoner, robbed, garotted, and carried off he knew not
+whither; but his courage and hopefulness did not forsake him, and he
+contrived to escape from the hands of these robbers. After wandering
+about for seven days, he was received into his house by a negro, who
+at length led him back to the emperor's palace at Delhi.
+
+Mohammed fitted out another expedition, and again appointed the
+Arabian traveller as his ambassador. This time they passed through
+the enemy's country without molestation, and by way of Kanoje, Mersa,
+Gwalior, and Barun, they reached Malabar. Some time after, they
+arrived at the great port of Calicut, an important place which
+became afterwards the chief town of Malabar; here they were detained
+by contrary winds for three months, and made use of this time to
+study the Chinese mercantile marine which frequented this port. Ibn
+speaks with great admiration of these junks which are like floating
+gardens, where ginger and herbs are grown on deck; they are each
+like a separate village, and some merchants were the possessors of a
+great number of these junks.
+
+At last the wind changed; Ibn Batuta chose a small junk well fitted
+up, to take him to China, and had all his property put on board.
+Thirteen other junks were to receive the presents sent by the King
+of Delhi to the Emperor of China, but during the night a violent
+storm arose, and all the vessels sank. Fortunately for Ibn he had
+remained on shore to attend the service at the mosque, and thus his
+piety saved his life, but he had lost everything except "the carpet
+which he used at his devotions." After this second misfortune he
+could not make up his mind to appear before the King of Delhi. This
+catastrophe was enough to weary the patience of a more
+long-suffering emperor than Mohammed.
+
+Ibn soon made up his mind what to do. Leaving the service of the
+emperor, and the advantages attaching to the post of ambassador, he
+embarked for the Maldive Islands, which were governed by a woman,
+and where a large trade in cocoa was carried on. Here he was again
+made a judge, but this was only of short duration, for the vizier
+became jealous of his success, and, after marrying three wives, Ibn
+was obliged to take refuge in flight. He hoped to reach the
+Coromandel coast, but contrary winds drove his vessel towards Ceylon,
+where he was very well received, and gained the king's permission to
+climb the sacred mountain of Serendid, or Adam's Peak. His object
+was to see the wonderful impression of a foot at the summit, which
+the Hindoos call "Buddha's," and the Mahometans "Adam's, foot." He
+pretends, in his narrative, that this impression measures eleven
+hands in length, a very different account from that of an historian
+of the ninth century, who declared it to be seventy-nine cubits
+long! This historian also adds that while one of the feet of our
+forefather rested on the mountain, the other was in the Indian ocean.
+
+Ibn Batuta speaks also of large bearded apes, forming a considerable
+item in the population of the island, and said to be under a king of
+their own, crowned with leaves. We can give what credit we like to
+such fables as these, which were propagated by the credulity of the
+Hindoos.
+
+From Ceylon, the traveller made his way to the Coromandel coast, but
+not without experiencing some severe storms. He crossed to the other
+side of the Indian peninsula, and again embarked.
+
+[Illustration: Ibn Batuta's vessel was seized by pirates.]
+
+But his vessel was seized by pirates, and Ibn Batuta arrived at
+Calicut almost without clothes, robbed, and worn out with fatigue.
+No misfortune could damp his ardour, his was one of those great
+spirits which seem only invigorated by trouble and disasters. As
+soon as he was enabled by the kindness of some Delhi merchants to
+resume his travels, he embarked for the Maldive Islands, went on to
+Bengal, there set sail for Sumatra, and disembarked at one of the
+Nicobar Islands after a very bad passage which had lasted fifty days.
+Fifteen days afterwards he arrived at Sumatra, where the king gave
+him a hearty welcome and furnished him with means to continue his
+journey to China.
+
+A junk took him in seventy-one days to the port Kailuka, capital of
+a country somewhat problematical, of which the brave and handsome
+inhabitants excelled in making arms. From Kailuka, Ibn passed into
+the Chinese provinces, and went first to the splendid town of Zaitem,
+probably the present Tsieun-tcheou of the Chinese, a little to the
+north of Nankin. He passed through various cities of this great
+empire, studying the customs of the people and admiring everywhere
+the riches, industry, and civilization that he found, but he did not
+get as far as the Great Wall, which he calls "The obstacle of Gog
+and Magog." It was while he was exploring this immense tract of
+country that he made a short stay in the city of Tchensi, which is
+composed of six fortified towns standing together. It happened that
+during his wanderings he was able to be present at the funeral of a
+khan, who was buried with four slaves, six of his favourites, and
+four horses.
+
+In the meanwhile, disturbances had occurred at Zaitem, which obliged
+Ibn to leave this town, so he set sail for Sumatra, and then after
+touching at Calicut and Ormuz, he returned to Mecca in 1348, having
+made the tour of Persia and Syria.
+
+But the time of rest had not yet come for this indefatigable
+explorer; the following year he revisited his native place Tangier,
+and then after travelling in the southern countries of Europe he
+returned to Morocco, went to Soudan and the countries watered by the
+Niger, crossed the Great Desert and entered Timbuctoo, thus making a
+journey which would have rendered illustrious a less ambitious
+traveller.
+
+This was to be his last expedition. In 1353, twenty-nine years after
+leaving Tangier for the first time, he returned to Morocco, and
+settled at Fez. He has earned the reputation of being the most
+intrepid explorer of the fourteenth century, and well merits to be
+ranked next after Marco Polo, the illustrious Venetian.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+JEAN DE BETHENCOURT, 1339-1425.
+
+I.
+
+The Norman cavalier--His ideas of conquest--What was known of
+the Canary Islands--Cadiz--The Canary Archipelago--Graciosa--
+Lancerota--Fortaventura--Jean de Bethencourt returns to Spain--
+Revolt of Berneval--His interview with King Henry III.--Gadifer
+visits the Canary Archipelago--Canary Island or "Gran Canaria"--
+Ferro Island--Palma Island.
+
+
+Jean de Bethencourt was born about the year 1339, at Eu in Normandy.
+He was of good family, and Baron of St. Martin-le-Gaillard, and had
+distinguished himself both as a navigator and warrior; he was made
+chamberlain to Charles VI. But his tastes were more for travelling
+than a life at court; he resolved to make himself a still more
+illustrious name by further conquests, and soon an opportunity
+offered for him to carry out his plans.
+
+[Illustration: Jean de Bethencourt.]
+
+On the coast of Africa there is a group of islands called the
+Canaries, which were once known as the Fortunate Islands. Juba, a
+son of one of the Numidian kings, is said to have been their first
+explorer, about the year of Rome 776. In the middle ages, according
+to some accounts, Arabs, Genoese, Portuguese, Spaniards, and
+Biscayans, had partially visited this interesting group of islands.
+In 1393, a Spanish gentleman named Almonaster, who was commanding an
+expedition, succeeded in landing on Lancerota, one of these islands,
+and brought back, with several prisoners, some produce which was a
+sufficient guarantee of the fertility of this archipelago.
+
+The Norman cavalier now found the opening that he sought, and he
+determined to conquer the Canary Islands and try to convert the
+inhabitants to the Catholic faith. He was as intelligent, brave, and
+full of resources as he was energetic; and leaving his house of
+Grainville-la-Teinturiere at Caux, he went to La Rochelle, where he
+met the Chevalier Gadifer de la Salle, and having explained his
+project to him, they decided to go to the Canary Islands together.
+Jean de Bethencourt having collected an army and made his
+preparations, and had vessels fitted out and manned, Gadifer and he
+set sail; after experiencing adverse winds on the way to the Ile de
+Re, and being much harassed by the constant dissensions on board,
+they arrived at Vivero, and then at Corunna. Here they remained
+eight days, then set sail again, and doubling Cape Finisterre,
+followed the Portuguese coast to Cape St. Vincent, and arrived at
+Cadiz, where they made a longer stay. Here Bethencourt had a dispute
+with some Genoese merchants, who accused him of having taken their
+vessel, and he had to go to Seville, where King Henry III. heard his
+complaint and acquitted him from all blame. On his return to Cadiz
+he found part of his crew in open mutiny, and some of his sailors so
+frightened that they refused to continue the voyage, so the
+chevalier sent back the cowardly sailors, and set sail with those
+who were more courageous.
+
+The vessel in which Jean de Bethencourt sailed was becalmed for
+three days, then, the weather improving, he reached the island of
+Graziosa, one of the smaller of the Canary group, in five days, and
+then the larger island of Lancerota, which is nearly the same size
+as the island of Rhodes. Lancerota has excellent pasturage, and
+arable land, which is particularly good for the cultivation of
+barley; its numerous fountains and cisterns are well supplied with
+excellent water. The orchilla, which is so much used in dyeing,
+grows abundantly here. The inhabitants of this island, who as a rule
+wear scarce any clothing, are tall and well-made, and the women, who
+wear leathern great-coats reaching to the ground, are very
+good-looking and honest.
+
+The traveller, prior to disclosing his plans of conquest, wished to
+possess himself of some of the natives, but his ignorance of the
+country made this a difficult matter, so, anchoring under the
+shelter of a small island in the archipelago, he called a meeting of
+his companions to decide upon a plan of action. They all agreed that
+the only thing to be done was to take some of the natives by fair
+means or foul. Guardafia, the king of the island, treated
+Bethencourt more as a friend than a subject. A castle or rather fort
+was built at the south-western extremity of the island, and some men
+left there under the command of Berthin de Berneval, while
+Bethencourt set out with the rest of his followers for the island of
+Erbania or Fortaventura. Gadifer counselled a debarcation by night,
+which was done, and then he took the command of a small body of men
+and scoured the island with them for eight days without meeting one
+native, they having all fled to the mountains. Provisions failing,
+Gadifer was forced to return, and he went to the island of Lobos
+between Lancerota and Fortaventura; but there his chief sailor
+mutinied and it was not without difficulty that Gadifer and
+Bethencourt reached the fort on Lancerota.
+
+Bethencourt resolved to return to Spain to get provisions and a new
+contingent of soldiers, for his crew he could not depend upon; so he
+left Gadifer in command and set sail for Spain in one of Gadifer's
+ships.
+
+It will be remembered that Berthin de Berneval had been left in
+command of the fort on Lancerota Island. Unfortunately he was
+Gadifer's bitter enemy, and no sooner had Bethencourt set out than
+he tried to poison the minds of Gadifer's men against him; he
+succeeded in inducing some, especially the Gascons, to revolt
+against the governor, who, quite innocent of Berneval's base designs,
+was spending his time hunting sea-wolves on the island of Lobos with
+Remonnet de Leveden and several others. Remonnet having been sent to
+Lancerota for provisions, found no Berneval there, he having
+deserted the island with his accomplices for a port on Graziosa,
+where a coxswain, deceived by his promises, had placed his vessel at
+his disposal. From Graziosa, the traitor Berneval returned to
+Lancerota, and put the finishing stroke to his villany by pretending
+to make an alliance with the king of the island. The king, thinking
+that no officer of Bethencourt's, in whom he had implicit confidence,
+could deceive him, came with twenty-four of his subjects to see
+Berneval, who seized them when asleep, had them bound, and then
+carried them off to Graziosa. The king managed to break his bonds,
+set three of his men free, and succeeded in escaping, but the
+remainder of his unfortunate companions were still prisoners, and
+Berneval gave them up to some Spanish thieves, who took them away to
+sell in a foreign land.
+
+Berneval's evil deeds did not stop here. By his order the vessel
+that Gadifer had sent to the fort at Lancerota was seized; Remonnet
+tried resistance, but his numbers were too small, and his
+supplications were useless to prevent Berneval's men, and even
+Berneval himself, from destroying all the arms, furniture, and goods,
+which Bethencourt had placed in the fort at Lancerota. Insults were
+showered upon the governor, and Berneval cried, "I should like
+Gadifer de la Salle to know that if he were as young as I, I would
+kill him, but as he is not, I will spare him. If he is put above me
+I shall have him drowned, and then he can fish for sea-wolves."
+
+Meanwhile, Gadifer and his ten companions were in danger of
+perishing on the island of Lobos for want of food and fresh water,
+but happily the two chaplains of the fort of Lancerota had gone to
+Graziosa, and met the coxswain, who had been the victim of
+Berneval's treason, and he sent one of his men named Ximenes with
+them back to Lancerota. There they found a small boat which they
+filled with provisions, and embarking with four men who were
+faithful to Gadifer, they succeeded in reaching Lobos, four leagues
+off, after a most dangerous passage.
+
+Gadifer and his companions were suffering fearfully from hunger and
+thirst, when Ximenes arrived just in time to save them from
+perishing, and the governor learning Berneval's treachery embarked
+in the boat for Lancerota, as soon as he was a little restored to
+health. He was grieved at Berneval's conduct towards the poor
+islanders whom Bethencourt and he had sworn to protect. No! he never
+could have expected such wickedness in one who was looked upon as
+the most able of the whole band.
+
+But what was Berneval doing meanwhile? After having betrayed his
+master, he did the same to the companions who had aided him in his
+evil deeds; he had twelve of them killed and then he set out for
+Spain to rejoin Bethencourt and make his own case good by
+representing all that had happened in his own way. It was to his
+interest to get rid of inconvenient witnesses, and therefore he
+abandoned his companions. These unfortunate men at first meditated
+imploring the pardon of the governor; they confessed all to the
+chaplains, but then, fearing the consequences of their deeds, they
+seized a boat and fled towards Morocco. The boat reached the coast
+of Barbary, where ten of the crew were drowned and the two others
+taken for slaves.
+
+While all this was happening at Lancerota, Bethencourt arrived at
+Cadiz, where he took strong measures against his mutinous crew, and
+had the ringleaders imprisoned. Then he sent his vessel to Seville,
+where King Henry III. was at that time; but the ship sank in the
+Guadalquiver, a great loss to Gadifer, her owner.
+
+Bethencourt having arrived at Seville, met a certain Francisque
+Calve who had lately come from the Canaries, and who offered to
+return thither with all the things needed by the governor, but
+Bethencourt could not agree to this proposal before he had seen the
+king.
+
+Just at this time, Berneval arrived with some of his accomplices,
+and some islanders whom he intended to sell as slaves. He hoped to
+be able to deceive Bethencourt, but he had not reckoned upon a
+certain Courtille who was with him, who lost no time in denouncing
+the villany of Berneval, and on whose word the traitors were all
+imprisoned at Cadiz. Courtille also told of the treatment that the
+poor islanders had received; as Bethencourt could not leave Seville
+till he had had an audience with the king, he gave orders that they
+should receive every kindness, but while these preliminaries were
+being concluded, the vessel that contained them was taken to Aragon,
+and they were sold for slaves.
+
+Bethencourt obtained the audience that he sought with the king of
+Castille, and after telling him the result of his expedition he said,
+"Sire, I come to ask your assistance and your leave to conquer the
+Canary Islands for the Catholic faith, and as you are king and lord
+of all the surrounding country, and the nearest Christian king to
+these islands, I beg you to receive the homage of your humble
+servant." The king was very gracious to him and gave him dominion
+over these islands, and beyond this, a fifth of all the merchandise
+that should be brought from them to Spain. He gave him 20,000
+maravedis, about 600_l._, to buy all that he needed, and also the
+right to coin money in the Canary Islands. Most unfortunately these
+20,000 maravedis were confided to the care of a dishonest man, who
+fled to France, carrying the money with him.
+
+However, Henry III. gave Bethencourt a well-rigged vessel manned by
+eighty men, and stocked with provisions, arms, &c. He was most
+grateful for this fresh bounty, and sent Gadifer an account of all
+that had happened, and his extreme disappointment and disgust at
+Berneval's conduct, in whom he had so much confidence, announcing at
+the same time the speedy departure of the vessel given by the King
+of Castille.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Jerusalem.]
+
+But meanwhile very serious troubles had arisen on Lancerota. King
+Guardafia was so hurt at Berneval's conduct that he had revolted,
+and some of Gadifer's companions had been killed by the islanders.
+Gadifer insisted upon these subjects being punished, when one of the
+king's relations named Ache, came to him proposing to dethrone the
+king, and put himself in his place. This Ache was a villain, who
+after having betrayed his king, proposed to betray the Normans, and
+to chase them from the country. Gadifer had no suspicion of his
+motives; wishing to avenge the death of his men, he accepted Ache's
+proposal, and a short time afterwards, on the vigil of St.
+Catherine's day, the king was seized, and conveyed to the fort in
+chains.
+
+Some days afterwards, Ache, the new king of the island attacked
+Gadifer's companions, mortally wounding several of them, but the
+following night Guardafia having made his escape from the fort
+seized Ache, had him stoned to death, and his body burnt. The
+governor (Gadifer) was so grieved by these scenes of violence, which
+were renewed daily, that he resolved to kill all the men on the
+island, and save only the women and children, whom he hoped to have
+baptized. But just at this time, the vessel that Bethencourt had
+freighted for the governor arrived, and brought besides the eighty
+men, provisions, &c., a letter which told him among other things
+that Bethencourt had done homage to the King of Castille for the
+Canary Islands. The governor was not well pleased at this news, for
+he thought that he ought to have had his share in the islands; but
+he concealed his displeasure, and gave the new comers a hearty
+welcome.
+
+The arms were at once disembarked, and then Gadifer went on board
+the vessel to explore the neighbouring islands. Remonnet and several
+others joined him in this expedition, and they took two of the
+islanders with them to serve as guides.
+
+They arrived safely at Fortaventura island; a few days after landing
+on the island, Gadifer set out with thirty-five men to explore the
+country; but soon the greater part of his followers deserted him,
+only thirteen men, including two archers, remaining with him. But he
+did not give up his project; after wading through a large stream, he
+found himself in a lovely valley shaded by numberless palm-trees;
+here having rested and refreshed himself, he set out again and
+climbed a hill. At the summit he found about fifty natives, who
+surrounded the small party and threatened to murder them. Gadifer
+and his companions showed no signs of fear, and succeeded in putting
+their enemies to flight; by the evening they were able to regain
+their vessel, carrying away four of the native women as prisoners.
+
+[Illustration: Gadifer found himself in a lovely valley.]
+
+The next day Gadifer left the island and went to the Gran Canaria
+island anchoring in a large harbour lying between Telde and Argonney.
+Five hundred of the natives confronted them, but apparently with no
+hostile intentions; they gave them some fish-hooks and old iron in
+exchange for some of the natural productions of the island, such as
+figs, and dragon's blood, a resinous substance taken from the
+dragon-tree, which has a very pleasant balsamic odour. The natives
+were very much on their guard with the strangers, for twenty years
+before this some of Captain Lopez' men had invaded the island; so
+they would not allow Gadifer to land.
+
+The governor was obliged to weigh anchor without exploring the
+island; he went to Ferro Island, and coasting along it arrived next
+at Gomera; it was night, and the sailors were attracted by the fires
+that the natives had lighted on the shore. When day broke Gadifer
+and his companions wished to land; but the islanders would not allow
+them to proceed when they reached the shore, and drove them back to
+their vessel. Much disappointed by his reception, Gadifer determined
+to make another attempt at Ferro Island; there he found that he
+could land without opposition, and he remained on the island
+twenty-two days. The interior of the island was very beautiful.
+Pine-trees grew in abundance, and clear streams of water added to
+its fertility. Quails were found in large numbers, as well as pigs,
+goats, and sheep.
+
+From this fertile island the party of explorers went to Palma, and
+anchored in a harbour situated to the right of a large river. This
+is the furthest island of the Canary group; it is covered with pine
+and dragon-trees; from the abundance of fresh water the pasturage is
+excellent and the land might be cultivated with much profit. Its
+inhabitants are a tall, robust race, well made, with good features
+and very white skin. Gadifer remained a short time on this island;
+on leaving it he spent two days and two nights sailing round the
+other islands, and then returned to the fort on Lancerota. They had
+been absent three months. In the meantime, those of the party who
+had been left in the fort had waged a petty war with the natives,
+and had made a great number of prisoners. The Canarians, demoralized,
+now came daily to cast themselves on their mercy, and to pray for
+the consecration of baptism. Gadifer was so pleased to hear of this,
+that he sent one of his companions to Spain to inform Bethencourt of
+the state of the colony.
+
+
+II.
+JEAN DE BETHENCOURT.
+
+The return of Jean de Bethencourt--Gadifer's jealousy--Bethencourt
+visits his archipelago--Gadifer goes to conquer Gran Canaria--
+Disagreement of the two commanders--Their return to Spain--Gadifer
+blamed by the King--Return of Bethencourt--The natives of
+Fortaventura are baptized--Bethencourt revisits Caux--Returns to
+Lancerota--Lands on the African coast--Conquest of Gran Canaria,
+Ferro, and Palma Islands--Maciot appointed Governor of the
+archipelago--Bethencourt obtains the Pope's consent to the Canary
+Islands being made an Episcopal See--His return to his country and
+his death.
+
+
+The envoy had not reached Cadiz when Bethencourt landed at the fort
+on Lancerota. Gadifer gave him a hearty welcome, and so did the
+Canary islanders who had been baptized. A few days afterwards, King
+Guardafia came and threw himself on their mercy. He was baptized on
+the 20th of February, 1404, with all his followers. Bethencourt's
+chaplains drew up a very simple form of instruction for their use,
+embracing the principal elements of Christianity, the creation, Adam
+and Eve's fall, the history of Noah, the lives of the patriarchs,
+the life of our Saviour and His crucifixion by the Jews, finishing
+with an exhortation to believe the ten commandments, the Holy
+Sacrament of the Altar, Easter, confession, and some other points.
+
+Bethencourt was an ambitious man. Not content with having explored,
+and so to speak, gained possession of the Canary Islands, he desired
+to conquer the African countries bordering on the ocean. This was
+his secret wish in returning to Lancerota, and meanwhile, he had
+full occupation in establishing his authority in these islands, of
+which he was only the nominal sovereign. He gave himself wholly to
+the task, and first visited the islands which Gadifer had explored.
+
+But before he set out, a conversation took place between Gadifer and
+himself, which we must not omit to notice. Gadifer began boasting of
+all he had done, and asked for the gift of Fortaventura, Teneriffe,
+and Gomera Islands, as a recompense.
+
+"My friend," replied Bethencourt, "the islands that you ask me to
+give you are not yet conquered, but I do not intend you to be at any
+loss for your trouble, nor that you should be unrequited; but let us
+accomplish our project, and meanwhile remain the friends we have
+always been."
+
+"That is all very well," replied Gadifer, "but there is one point on
+which I do not feel at all satisfied, and that is that you have done
+homage to the King of Castille for these islands, and so you call
+yourself absolute master over them."
+
+"With regard to that," said Bethencourt, "I certainly have done
+homage for them, and so I am their rightful master, but if you will
+only patiently wait the end of our affair, I will give you what I
+feel sure will quite content you."
+
+"I shall not remain here," replied Gadifer, "I am going back to
+France, and have no wish to be here any longer."
+
+Upon this they separated, but Gadifer gradually cooled down and
+agreed to accompany Bethencourt in his exploration of the islands.
+
+They set out for Fortaventura well armed and with plenty of
+provisions. They remained there three months, and began by seizing a
+number of the natives, and sending them to Lancerota. This was such
+a usual mode of proceeding at that time that we are less surprised
+at it than we should be at the present day. The whole island was
+explored and a fort named Richeroque built on the slope of a high
+mountain; traces of it may still be found in a hamlet there.
+
+Just at this time, and when he had scarcely had time to forget his
+grievances and ill-humour, Gadifer accepted the command of a small
+band of men who were to conquer Gran Canaria.
+
+He set out on the 25th July, 1404, but this expedition was not fated
+to meet with any good results, winds and waves were against it. At
+last they reached the port of Telde, but as it was nearly dark and a
+strong wind blowing they dared not land, and they went on to the
+little town of Aginmez, where they remained eleven days at anchor;
+the natives, encouraged by their king, laid an ambush for Gadifer
+and his followers; there was a skirmish, blood was shed, and the
+Castilians, feeling themselves outnumbered, went to Telde for two
+days, and thence to Lancerota.
+
+Gadifer was much disappointed at his want of success, and began to
+be discontented with everything around him. Above all, his jealousy
+of Bethencourt increased daily, and he gave way to violent
+recriminations, saying openly that the chief had not done everything
+himself, and that things would not have been in so advanced a stage
+as they were if others had not aided him. This reached Bethencourt's
+ears; he was much incensed, and reproached Gadifer. High words
+followed, Gadifer insisted upon leaving the country, and as
+Bethencourt had just made arrangements for returning to Spain, he
+proposed to Gadifer to accompany him, that their cause of
+disagreement might be inquired into. This proposal being accepted,
+they set sail, but each in his own ship. When they reached Seville,
+Gadifer laid his complaints before the king, but as the king gave
+judgment against him, fully approving of Bethencourt's conduct, he
+left Spain, and returning to France, never revisited the Canary
+Islands which he had so fondly hoped to conquer for himself.
+
+Bethencourt took leave of the king almost at the same time, for the
+new colony demanded his immediate presence there; but before he left,
+the inhabitants of Seville, with whom he was a great favourite,
+showed him much kindness; what he valued more highly than anything
+else was the supply of arms, gold, silver, and provisions that they
+gave him. He went to Fortaventura, where his companions were
+delighted to see him. Gadifer had left his son Hannibal in his place,
+but Bethencourt treated him with much cordiality.
+
+The first days of the installation of Bethencourt were far from
+peaceful; skirmishes were of constant occurrence, the natives even
+destroying the fortress of Richeroque, after burning and pillaging a
+chapel. Bethencourt was determined to overcome them, and in the end
+succeeded. He sent for several of his men from Lancerota, and gave
+orders that the fortress should be rebuilt.
+
+In spite of all this the combats began again, and many of the
+islanders fell, among others a giant of nine feet high, whom
+Bethencourt would have liked to have made prisoner. The governor
+could not trust Gadifer's son nor the men who followed him, for
+Hannibal seemed to have inherited his father's jealousy, but as
+Bethencourt needed his help, he concealed his distrust. Happily,
+Bethencourt's men outnumbered those who were faithful to Gadifer,
+but Hannibal's taunts became so unbearable that Jean de Courtois was
+sent to remind him of his oath of obedience and to advise him to
+keep it.
+
+Courtois was very badly received, he having a crow to pick with
+Hannibal with regard to some native prisoners whom Gadifer's
+followers had kept and would not give up. Hannibal was obliged to
+obey the orders, but Courtois represented his conduct to Bethencourt
+on his return in the very worst light, and tried to excite his
+master's anger against him. "No, sir," answered the upright
+Bethencourt, "I do not wish him to be wronged, we must never carry
+our power to its utmost limits, we should always endeavour to
+control ourselves and preserve our honour rather than seek for
+profit."
+
+In spite of these intestine discords, the war continued between the
+natives and the conquerors, but the latter being well-armed always
+came off victorious. The kings of Fortaventura sent a native to
+Bethencourt saying that they wished to make peace with him, and to
+become Christians. This news delighted the conqueror, and he sent
+word that they would be well received if they would come to him.
+Almost immediately on receiving this reply, King Maxorata, who
+governed the north-westerly part of the island, set out, and with
+his suite of twenty-two persons, was baptized on the 18th of January,
+1405. Three days afterwards twenty-two other natives received the
+sacrament of baptism. On the 25th of January the king who governed
+the peninsula of Handia, the south-eastern part of the island, came
+with twenty-six of his subjects, and was baptized. In a short time
+all the inhabitants of Fortaventura had embraced the Christian
+religion.
+
+[Illustration: The King of Maxorata arrived with his suite.]
+
+Bethencourt was so elated with these happy results, that he arranged
+to revisit his own country, leaving Courtois as governor during his
+absence. He set out on the last day of January amid the prayers and
+blessings of his people, taking with him three native men and one
+woman, to whom he wished to show something of France. He reached
+Harfleur in twenty-one days, and two days later was at his own house,
+where he only intended making a short stay, and then returning to
+the Canary Islands. He met with a very warm reception from everybody.
+One of his chief motives in returning to France was the hope of
+finding people of all classes ready to return with him, on the
+promise of grants of land in the island. He succeeded in finding a
+certain number of emigrants, amongst whom were twenty-eight soldiers,
+of whom twenty-three took their wives. Two vessels were prepared to
+transport the party, and the 6th of May was the day named for them
+to set out. On the 9th of May they set sail, and landed on Lancerota
+just four mouths and a half after Bethencourt had quitted it.
+
+He was received with trumpets, clarionets, tambourines, harps, and
+other musical instruments. Thunder could scarcely have been heard
+above the sound of this music. The natives celebrated his return by
+dancing and singing, and crying out, "Here comes our king." Jean de
+Courtois hastened to welcome his master, who asked him how
+everything was going on; he replied, "Sir, all is going on as well
+as possible."
+
+Bethencourt's companions stayed with him at the fort of Lancerota;
+they appeared much pleased with the country, enjoying the dates and
+other fruits on the island, "and nothing seemed to harm them." After
+they had been a short time at Lancerota, Bethencourt went with them
+to see Fortaventura, and here his reception was as warm as it had
+been at Lancerota, especially from the islanders and their two kings.
+The kings supped with them at the fortress of Richeroque, which
+Courtois had rebuilt.
+
+Bethencourt announced his intention of conquering Gran Canaria
+Island, as he had done Lancerota and Fortaventura; his hope was that
+his nephew Maciot, whom he had brought with him from France, would
+succeed him in the government of these islands, so that the name of
+Bethencourt might be perpetuated there. He imparted his project to
+Courtois, who highly approved of it, and added, "Sir, when you
+return to France, I will go with you. I am a bad husband. It is five
+years since I saw my wife, and, by my troth, she did not much care
+about it."
+
+The 6th of October, 1405, was the day fixed for starting for Gran
+Canaria, but contrary winds carried the ships towards the African
+coast, and they passed by Cape Bojador, where Bethencourt landed. He
+made an expedition twenty-four miles inland, and seized some natives
+and a great number of camels that he took to his vessels. They put
+as many of the camels as possible on board, wishing to acclimatize
+them in the Canary Islands, and the baron set sail again, leaving
+Cape Bojador, which he had the honour of seeing thirty years before
+the Portuguese navigators.
+
+During this voyage from the coast of Africa to Gran Canaria, the
+three vessels were separated in stormy weather, one going to Palma,
+and another to Fortaventura, but finally they all reached Gran
+Canaria. This island is sixty miles long and thirty-six miles broad;
+at the northern end it is flat, but very hilly towards the south.
+Firs, dragon-trees, olive, fig, and date-trees form large forests,
+and sheep, goats, and wild dogs are found here in large numbers. The
+soil is very fertile, and produces two crops of corn every year, and
+that without any means of improving it. Its inhabitants form a large
+body of people, and consider themselves all on an equality.
+
+When Bethencourt had landed he set to work at once to conquer the
+island. Unfortunately his Norman soldiers were so proud of their
+success on the coast of Africa, that they thought they could conquer
+this island with its ten thousand natives, with a mere handful of
+men. Bethencourt seeing that they were so confident of success,
+recommended them to be prudent, but they took no heed of this and
+bitterly they rued their confidence. After a skirmish, in which they
+seemed to have got the better of the islanders, they had left their
+ranks, when the natives surprised them, massacring twenty-two of
+them, including Jean de Courtois and Hannibal, Gadifer's son.
+
+After this sad affair Bethencourt left Gran Canaria and went to try
+to subdue Palma. The natives of this island were very clever in
+slinging stones, rarely missing their aim, and in the encounters
+with these islanders many fell on both sides, but more natives than
+Normans, whose loss, however, amounted to one hundred.
+
+After six weeks of skirmishing, Bethencourt left Palma, and went to
+Ferro for three months, a large island twenty-one miles long and
+fifteen broad. It is a flat table-land, and large woods of pine and
+laurel-trees shade it in many places. The mists, which are frequent,
+moisten the soil and make it especially favourable for the
+cultivation of corn and the vine. Game is abundant; pigs, goats, and
+sheep run wild about the country; there are also great lizards in
+shape like the iguana of America. The inhabitants both men and women
+are a very fine race, healthy, lively, agile and particularly well
+made, in fact Ferro is one of the pleasantest islands of the group.
+
+Bethencourt returned to Fortaventura with his ships after conquering
+Ferro and Palma. This island is fifty-one miles in length by
+twenty-four in breadth, and has high mountains as well as large
+plains, but its surface is less undulating than that of the other
+islands. Large streams of fresh water run through the island; the
+euphorbia, a deadly poison, grows largely here, and date and
+olive-trees are abundant, as well as a plant that is invaluable for
+dyeing and whose cultivation would be most remunerative. The coast
+of Fortaventura has no good harbours for large vessels, but small
+ones can anchor there quite safely. It was in this island that
+Bethencourt began to make a partition of land to the colonists, and
+he succeeded in doing it so evenly that every one was satisfied with
+his portion. Those colonists whom he had brought with him were to be
+exempted from taxes for nine years.
+
+The question of religion, and religious administration could not
+fail to be of the deepest interest to so pious a man as Bethencourt,
+so he resolved to go to Rome and try to obtain a bishop for this
+country, who "would order and adorn the Roman Catholic faith."
+Before setting out he appointed his nephew Maciot as lieutenant and
+governor of the islands. Under his orders two sergeants were to act,
+and enforce justice; he desired that twice a year news of the colony
+should be sent to him in Normandy, and the revenue from Lancerota
+and Fortaventura was to be devoted to building two churches. He said
+to his nephew Maciot, "I give you full authority in everything to do
+whatever you think best, and I believe you will do all for my honour
+and to my advantage. Follow as nearly as possible Norman and French
+customs, especially in the administration of justice. Above all
+things, try and keep peace and unity among yourselves, and care for
+each other as brothers, and specially try that there shall be no
+rivalry among the gentlemen; I have given to each one his share and
+the country is quite large enough for each to have his own sphere. I
+can tell you nothing further beyond again impressing the importance
+of your all living as good friends together, and then all will be
+well."
+
+Bethencourt remained three months in Fortaventura and the other
+islands. He rode about among the people on his mule, and found many
+of the natives beginning to speak Norman-French. Maciot and the
+other gentlemen accompanied him, he pointing out what was best to be
+done and the most honest way of doing it. Then he gave notice that
+he would set out for Rome on the ensuing 15th of December. Returning
+to Lancerota, he remained there till his departure, and ordered all
+the gentlemen he had brought with him, the workmen, and the three
+kings to appear before him two days before his departure, to tell
+them what he wished done, and to commend himself and them to God's
+protection.
+
+None failed to appear at this meeting; they were all received at the
+fort on Lancerota, and sumptuously entertained. When the repast was
+over, he spoke to them, especially impressing the duty of obedience
+to his nephew Maciot upon them, the retention of the fifth of
+everything for himself, and also the exercise of all Christian
+virtues and of fervent love to God. This done, he chose those who
+were to accompany him to Rome, and prepared to set out.
+
+His vessel had scarcely set sail when cries and groans were heard on
+all sides, both Europeans and natives alike regretting this just
+master, who they feared would never return to them. A great number
+waded into the water, and tried to stop the vessel that carried him
+away from them, but the sails were set and Bethencourt was really
+gone. "May God keep him safe from all harm," was the utterance of
+many that day. In a week he was at Seville, from thence he went to
+Valladolid, where the king received him very graciously. He related
+the narrative of his conquests to the king, and requested from him
+letters recommending him to the Pope, that he might have a bishop
+appointed for the islands. The king gave him the letters, and loaded
+him with gifts, and then Bethencourt set out for Rome with a
+numerous retinue.
+
+He remained three weeks in the eternal city, and was admitted to
+kiss Pope Innocent VII.'s foot, who complimented him on his having
+made so many proselytes to the Christian faith, and on his bravery
+in having ventured so far from his native country. When the bulls
+were prepared as Bethencourt had requested, and Albert des Maisons
+was appointed Bishop of the Canary Islands, the Norman took leave of
+the Pope after receiving his blessing.
+
+The new prelate took leave of Bethencourt, and set out at once for
+his diocese. He went by way of Spain, taking with him some letters
+from Bethencourt to the king. Then he set sail for Fortaventura and
+arrived there without any obstacle. Maciot gave him a cordial
+reception, and the bishop at once began to organize his diocese,
+governing with gentleness and courtesy, preaching now in one island,
+now in another, and offering up public prayers for Bethencourt's
+safety. Maciot was universally beloved, but especially by the
+natives. This happy, peaceful time only lasted for five years, for
+later on, Maciot began to abuse his unlimited power, and levied such
+heavy exactions that he was obliged to fly the country to save his
+life.
+
+Bethencourt after leaving Rome went to Florence and to Paris, and
+then to his own chateau, where a great number of people came to pay
+their respects to the king of the Canary Islands, and if on his
+return the first time he was much thought of, his reception this
+second time far exceeded it. Bethencourt established himself at
+Grainville; although he was an old man, his wife was still young. He
+had frequent accounts from Maciot of his beloved islands, and he
+hoped one day to return to his kingdom, but God willed otherwise.
+One day in the year 1425 he was seized with what proved to be fatal
+illness; he was aware that the end was near; and after making his
+will and receiving the last sacraments of the church he passed away.
+"May God keep him and pardon his sins," says the narrative of his
+life; "he is buried in the church of Grainville la Teinturiere, in
+front of the high altar."
+
+[Illustration: Jean de Bethencourt makes his will.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, 1436-1506.
+
+I.
+
+Discovery of Madeira, Cape de Verd Islands, the Azores, Congo, and
+Guinea--Bartholomew Diaz--Cabot and Labrador--The geographical and
+commercial tendencies of the middle ages--The erroneous idea of the
+distance between Europe and Asia--Birth of Christopher Columbus--His
+first voyages--His plans rejected--His sojourn at the Franciscan
+convent--His reception by Ferdinand and Isabella--Treaty of the 17th
+of April, 1492--The brothers Pinzon--Three armed caravels at the
+port of Palos--Departure on the 3rd of August, 1492.
+
+
+The year 1492 is an era in geographical annals. It is the date of
+the discovery of America. The genius of one man was fated to
+complete the terrestrial globe, and to show the truth of Gagliuffi's
+saying,--
+
+    Unus erat mundus; duo sint, ait iste; fuere.
+
+The old world was to be entrusted with the moral and political
+education of the new. Was it equal to the task, with its ideas still
+limited, its tendencies still semi-barbarous, and its bitter
+religious animosities? We must leave the answer to these questions
+to the facts that follow.
+
+Between the year 1405, when Bethencourt had just accomplished the
+colonization of the Canary Islands, and the year 1492, what had
+taken place? We will give a short sketch of the geographical
+enterprise of the intervening years. A considerable impetus had been
+given to science by the Arabs (who were soon to be expelled from
+Spain), and had spread throughout the peninsula. In all the ports,
+but more especially in those of Portugal, there was much talk of the
+continent of Africa, and the rich and wonderful countries beyond the
+sea. "A thousand anecdotes," says Michelet, "stimulated curiosity,
+valour and avarice, every one wishing to see these mysterious
+countries where monsters abounded and gold was scattered over the
+surface of the land." A young prince, Don Henry, duke of Viseu,
+third son of John I., who was very fond of the study of astronomy
+and geography, exercised a considerable influence over his
+contemporaries; it is to him that Portugal owes her colonial power
+and wealth and the expeditions so repeatedly made, which were
+vividly described, and their results spoken of as so wonderful, that
+they may have aided in awakening Columbus' love of adventure. Don
+Henry had an observatory built in the southern part of the province
+of Algarve, at Sagres, commanding a most splendid view over the sea,
+and seeming as though it must have been placed there to seek for
+some unknown land; he also established a naval college, where
+learned geographers traced correct maps and taught the use of the
+mariner's compass. The young prince surrounded himself with learned
+men, and especially gathered all the information he could as to the
+possibility of circumnavigating Africa, and thus reaching India.
+Though he had never taken part in any maritime expedition, his
+encouragement and care for seamen gave him the soubriquet of "the
+Navigator," by which name he is known in history. Two gentlemen
+belonging to Don Henry's court, Juan Gonzales Zarco, and Tristram
+Vaz Teixeira had passed Cape Nun, the terror of ancient navigators,
+when they were carried out to sea and passed near an island to which
+they gave the name of Porto-Santo. Sometime afterwards, as they were
+sailing towards a black point that remained on the horizon, they
+came to a large island covered with splendid forests; this was
+Madeira.
+
+[Illustration: Prince Henry of Portugal--"The Navigator."]
+
+In 1433, Cape Bojador, which had for long been such a difficulty to
+navigators, was first doubled by the two Portuguese sailors,
+Gillianes and Gonzales Baldaya, who passed more than forty leagues
+beyond it.
+
+Encouraged by their example, Antonio Gonzales, and Nuno Tristram, in
+1441, sailed as far as Cape Blanco, "a feat," says Faria y Souza
+"that is generally looked upon as being little short of the labours
+of Hercules," and they brought back with them to Lisbon some
+gold-dust taken from the Rio del Ouro. In a second voyage Tristram
+noticed some of the Cape de Verd Islands, and went as far south as
+Sierra Leone. In the course of this expedition, he bought from some
+Moors off the coast of Guinea, ten negroes, whom he took back with
+him to Lisbon and parted with for a very high price, they having
+excited great curiosity. This was the origin of the slave-trade in
+Europe, which for the next 400 years robbed Africa of so many of her
+people, and was a disgrace to humanity.
+
+In 1441, Cada Mosto doubled Cape Verd, and explored a part of the
+coast below it. About 1446, the Portuguese, advancing further into
+the open sea than their predecessors, came upon the group of the
+Azores. From this time all fear vanished, for the formidable line
+had been passed, beyond which the air was said to scorch like fire;
+expeditions succeeded each other without intermission, and each
+brought home accounts of newly-discovered regions. It seemed as if
+the African continent was really endless, for the further they
+advanced towards the south, the further the cape they sought
+appeared to recede. Some little time before this King John II. had
+added the title of Seigneur of Guinea to his other titles, and to
+the discovery of Congo had been added that of some stars in the
+southern hemisphere hitherto unknown, when Diogo Cam, in three
+successive voyages, went further south than any preceding navigator,
+and bore away from Diaz the honour of being the discoverer of the
+southern point of the African continent. This cape is called Cape
+Cross, and here he raised a monument called a padrao or padron in
+memory of his discovery, which is still standing. On his way back,
+he visited the King of Congo in his capital, and took back with him
+an ambassador and numerous suite of natives, who were all baptized,
+and taught the elements of the Christian religion, which they were
+to propagate on their return to Congo.
+
+A short time after Diogo Cam's return in the month of August, 1487,
+three caravels left the Tagus under the command of Bartholomew Diaz,
+a gentleman attached to the king's household, and an old sailor on
+the Guinea seas. He had an experienced mariner under him, and the
+smallest of the three vessels freighted with provisions, was
+commanded by his brother Pedro Diaz. We have no record of the
+earlier part of this expedition; we only know, from Joao de Barros,
+to whom we owe nearly all we learn of Portuguese navigation, that
+beyond Congo he followed the coast for some distance, and came to an
+anchorage that he named "Das Voltas" on account of the manner in
+which he had to tack to reach it, and there he left the smallest of
+the caravels under the care of nine sailors. After having been
+detained here five days by stress of weather, Diaz stood out to sea,
+and took a southerly course, but for thirteen days his vessels were
+tossed hither and thither by the tempest.
+
+As he went further south the temperature fell and the air became
+very cold; at last the fury of the elements abated, and Diaz took an
+easterly course hoping to sight the land, but after several days had
+passed, and being in about 42 degrees south latitude, he anchored in
+the bay "dos Vaquieros," so named from the numbers of horned animals
+and shepherds, who fled inland at the sight of the two vessels.
+
+At this time Diaz was about 120 miles east of the Cape of Good Hope,
+which he had doubled without seeing it. They then went to Sam Braz
+(now Mossel) bay, and coasted as far as Algoa bay and to an island
+called Da Cruz where they set up a padrao. But here the crews being
+much discouraged by the dangers they had passed through, and feeling
+much the scarcity and bad quality of the provisions, refused to go
+any farther. "Besides," they said, "as the land is now on our left,
+let us go back and see the Cape, which we have doubled without
+knowing it."
+
+Diaz called a council, and decided that they should go forwards in a
+north-easterly direction for two or three days longer. We owe it to
+his firmness of purpose that he was able to reach a river, 75 miles
+from Da Cruz that he called Rio Infante, but then the crew refusing
+to go farther, Diaz was obliged to return to Europe. Barros says,
+"When Diaz left the pillar that he had erected, it was with such
+sorrow and so much bitterness, that it seemed almost as though he
+were leaving an exiled son, and especially when he thought of all
+the dangers that he and his companions had passed through, and the
+long distance which they had come with only this memorial as a
+remembrance: it was indeed painful to break off when the task was
+but half completed." At last they saw the Cape of Good Hope, or as
+Diaz and his followers called it then, the "Cape of Torments," in
+remembrance of all the storms and tempests they had passed through
+before they could double it. With the foresight which so often
+accompanies genius, John II. substituted for the "Cape of Torments,"
+the name of the "Cape of Good Hope," for he saw that now the route
+to India was open at last, and his vast plans for the extension of
+the commerce and influence of his country were about to be realized.
+
+On the 24th of August, 1488, Diaz returned to Angra das Voltas,
+where he had left his smallest caravel. He found six of his nine men
+dead, and the seventh was so overcome with joy at seeing his
+companions again that he died also. No particular incident marked
+the voyage home; they reached Lisbon in December, 1488, after
+staying at Benin, where they traded, and at La Mina to receive the
+money gained by the commerce of the colony.
+
+It is strange but true, that Diaz not only received no reward of any
+kind for this voyage which had been so successful, but he seemed to
+be treated rather as though he had disgraced himself, for he was not
+employed again for ten years. More than this the command of the
+expedition that was sent to double the cape which Diaz had
+discovered, was given to Vasco da Gama, and Diaz was only to
+accompany it to La Mina holding a subordinate position. He was to
+hear of the marvellous campaign of his successful rival in India,
+and to see what an effect such an event would have upon the destiny
+of his country.
+
+He took part in Cabral's expedition which discovered Brazil, but he
+had not the pleasure of seeing the shores to which he had been the
+pioneer, for the fleet had only just left the American shore, when a
+fearful storm arose; four vessels sank, and among them the one that
+Diaz commanded. It is in allusion to his sad fate that Camoens puts
+the following prediction into the mouth of Adamastor, the spirit of
+the Cape of Tempests. "I will make a terrible example of the first
+fleet that shall pass near these rocks, and I will wreak my
+vengeance on him who first comes to brave me in my dwelling."
+
+In fact it was only in 1497, maybe five years after the discovery of
+America, that the southern point of Africa was passed by Vasco da
+Gama, and it may be affirmed that if this latter had preceded
+Columbus, the discovery of the new continent might have been delayed
+for several centuries. The navigators of this period were very
+timorous, and did not dare to sail out into mid-ocean; not liking to
+venture upon seas that were but little known, they always followed
+the coast-line of Africa, rather than go further from land. If the
+Cape of Tempests had been doubled, the sailors would have gone by
+this route to India, and none would have thought of going to the
+"Land of Spices," that is to say Asia, by venturing across the
+Atlantic. Who, in fact, would have thought of seeking for the east
+by the route to the west? But in truth this _was_ the great idea of
+that day, for Cooley says, "The principal object of Portuguese
+maritime enterprise in the fifteenth century was to search for a
+passage to India by the Ocean." The most learned men had not gone so
+far as to imagine the existence of another continent to complete the
+equilibrium and balance of the terrestrial globe. Some parts of the
+American continent had been already discovered, for an Italian
+navigator Sebastian Cabot had landed on Labrador in 1487, and the
+Scandinavians had certainly disembarked on this unknown land. The
+colonists of Greenland, too had explored Winland, but so little
+disposition was there at this time to believe in the existence of a
+new world, that Greenland, Winland, and Labrador were all thought to
+be a continuation of the European continent.
+
+The main question before the navigators of the fifteenth century was
+the opening up of an easier communication with the shores of Asia.
+The route to India, China, and Japan (countries already known
+through the wonderful narrative of Marco Polo), via, Asia Minor,
+Persia, and Tartary, was long and dangerous. The transport of goods
+was too difficult and costly for these "ways terrestrial" ever to
+become roads for commerce. A more practicable means of communication
+must be found. Thus all the dwellers on the coasts, from England to
+Spain, as well as the people living on the shores of the
+Mediterranean, seeing the great Atlantic ocean open to their vessels,
+began to inquire, whether indeed this new route might not conduct
+them to the shores of Asia.
+
+The sphericity of the Globe being established, this reasoning was
+correct, for going always westward, the traveller must necessarily
+at last reach the east, and as to the route across the ocean, it
+would certainly be open. Who could, indeed, have suspected the
+existence of an obstacle 9750 miles in length, lying between Europe
+and Asia, and called America?
+
+We must observe also that the scientific men of the Middle Ages
+believed that the shores of Asia were not more than 6000 miles
+distant from those of Europe. Aristotle supposed the terrestrial
+globe to be smaller than it really is. Seneca said "How far is it
+from the shores of Spain to India? _A very few days' sail_, should
+the wind be favourable." This was also the opinion of Strabo. So it
+seemed that the route between Europe and Asia _must_ be short, and
+there being such places for ships to touch at as the Azores and
+Antilles, of which the existence was known in the fifteenth century,
+the transoceanic communication promised not to be difficult. This
+popular error as to distance had the happy effect of inducing
+navigators to try to cross the Atlantic, a feat which, had they been
+aware of the 15,000 miles of ocean separating Europe from Asia, they
+would scarcely have dared to attempt.
+
+We must in justice allow that certain facts gave, or seemed to give,
+reason to the partisans of Aristotle and Strabo for their belief in
+the proximity of the eastern shores. Thus, a pilot in the service of
+the King of Portugal, while sailing at 1350 miles' distance from
+Cape St. Vincent, the south-western point of the Portuguese province
+of Algarve, met with a piece of wood ornamented with ancient
+sculptures, which he considered must have come from a continent not
+far off. Again, some fishermen had found near the island of Madeira,
+a sculptured post and some bamboos, which in shape resembled those
+found in India. The inhabitants of the Azores also, often picked up
+gigantic pine-trees, of an unknown species, and one day two human
+bodies were cast upon their shores, "corpses with broad faces," says
+the chronicler Herrera, "and not resembling Christians."
+
+These various facts tended to inflame imagination. As in the
+fifteenth century men had no knowledge of that great Gulf-stream,
+which, in nearing the European coasts, brings with it waifs and
+strays from America, so they could only imagine that these various
+debris must come from Asia. Therefore, they argued, Asia could not
+be far off, and the communication between these two extremes of the
+old continent must be easy. One point must be clearly borne in mind,
+no geographer of this period had any notion of the existence of a
+new world; it was not even a desire of adding to geographical
+knowledge which led to the exploration of the western route. It was
+the men of commerce who were the leaders in this movement, and who
+first undertook to cross the Atlantic. Their only thought was of
+traffic, and of carrying it on by the shortest road.
+
+The mariner's compass, invented, according to the generally received
+opinion, about 1302, by one Flavio Gioja of Amalfi, enabled vessels
+to sail at a distance from the coasts, and to guide themselves when
+out of sight of land. Martin Behaim, with two physicians in the
+service of Prince Henry of Portugal, had also added to nautical
+science by discovering the way of directing the voyager's course
+according to the position of the sun in the heavens, and by applying
+the astrolabe to the purposes of navigation. These improvements
+being adopted, the commercial question of the western route
+increased daily in importance in Spain, Portugal, and Italy,
+countries in which three-quarters of the science is made up of
+imagination. There was discussion, there were writings. The excited
+world of commerce disputed with the world of science. Facts, systems,
+doctrines, were grouped together. The time was come when there was
+needed one single intelligence to collect together and assimilate
+the various floating ideas. This intelligence was found. At length
+all the scattered notions were gathered together in the mind of one
+man, who possessed in a remarkable degree genius, perseverance, and
+boldness.
+
+[Illustration: Christopher Columbus.]
+
+This man was no other than Christopher Columbus, born, probably near
+Genoa, about the year 1436. We say "probably," for the towns of
+Cogoreo and Nervi dispute with Savona and Genoa, the honour of
+having given him birth. The date of his birth varies, with different
+biographers, from 1430 to 1445, but the year 1436 would appear to be
+the correct one, according to the most reliable documents. The
+family of Columbus was of humble origin; his father, Domenic
+Columbus, a manufacturer of woollen stuffs, seems, however, to have
+been in sufficiently easy circumstances to enable him to give his
+children a more than ordinarily good education. The young
+Christopher, the eldest of the family, was sent to the University of
+Pavia, there to study Grammar, Latin, Geography, Astronomy, and
+Navigation.
+
+At fourteen years of age Christopher left school and went to sea;
+from this time until 1487, very little is known of his career. It is
+interesting to give the remark of Humboldt on this subject, as
+reported by M. Charton; he said, "that he regretted the more this
+uncertainty about the early life of Columbus when he remembered all
+that the chroniclers have so minutely preserved for us upon the life
+of the dog Becerillo, or the elephant Aboulababat, which
+Haroun-al-Raschid sent to Charlemagne!" The most probable account to
+be gathered from contemporary documents and from the writings of
+Columbus himself, is that the young sailor visited the Levant, the
+west, the north, England several times, Portugal, the coast of
+Guinea, and the islands of Africa, perhaps even Greenland, for, by
+the age of forty "he had sailed to every part that had ever been
+sailed to before." He was looked upon as a thoroughly competent
+mariner, and his reputation led to his being chosen for the command
+of the Genoese galleys, in the war which that Republic was waging
+against Venice. He afterwards made an expedition, in the service of
+Rene, king of Anjou, to the coasts of Barbary, and in 1477, he went
+to explore the countries beyond Iceland.
+
+This voyage being successfully terminated, Christopher Columbus
+returned to his home at Lisbon. He there married the daughter of an
+Italian gentleman, Bartolomeo Munez Perestrello, a sailor like
+himself and deeply interested in the geographical ideas of the day.
+The wife of Columbus, Dona Filippa, was without fortune, and
+Columbus, having none himself, felt he must work for the support of
+himself and his family. The future discoverer, therefore, set to
+work to make picture-books, terrestrial globes, maps, and nautical
+charts, and continued in this employment until 1481, but without at
+the same time abandoning his scientific and literary pursuits. It
+seems probable even, that during this period he studied deeply, and
+attained to knowledge far beyond that possessed by most of the
+sailors of his time. Can it have been that at this time "the Great
+Idea" first arose in his mind? It may well have been so. He was
+following assiduously the discussions relative to the western routes,
+and the facility of communication by the west, between Europe and
+Asia. His correspondence proves that he shared the opinion of
+Aristotle as to the relatively short distance separating the extreme
+shores of the old Continent. He wrote frequently to the most
+distinguished savants of his time. Martin Behaim, of whom we have
+already spoken, was amongst his correspondents, and also the
+celebrated Florentine astronomer, Toscanelli, whose opinions in some
+degree influenced those of Columbus.
+
+[Illustration: A Spanish Port.]
+
+At this time Columbus, according to the portrait of him given by his
+biographer Washington Irving, was a tall man, of robust and noble
+presence. His face was long, he had an aquiline nose, high cheek
+bones, eyes clear and full of fire; he had a bright complexion, and
+his face was much covered with freckles. He was a truly Christian
+man, and it was with the liveliest faith that he fulfilled all the
+duties of the Catholic religion.
+
+At the time when Christopher Columbus was in correspondence with the
+astronomer Toscanelli, he learnt that the latter, at the request of
+Alphonso V., King of Portugal, had sent to the king a learned Memoir
+upon the possibility of reaching the Indies by the western route.
+Columbus was consulted, and supported the ideas of Toscanelli with
+all his influence; but without result, for the King of Portugal, who
+was engaged at the time in war with Spain, died, without having been
+able to give any attention to maritime discoveries. His successor,
+John II., adopted the plans of Columbus and Toscanelli with
+enthusiasm. At the same time, with most reprehensible cunning, he
+tried to deprive these two savants of the benefit of their
+proposition; without telling them, he sent out a caravel to attempt
+this great enterprise, and to reach China by crossing the Atlantic.
+But he had not reckoned upon the inexperience of his pilots, nor
+upon the violence of the storms which they might encounter; the
+result was, that some days after their departure, a hurricane
+brought back to Lisbon the sailors of the Portuguese king. Columbus
+was justly wounded by this unworthy action, and felt that he could
+not reckon upon a king who had so deceived him. His wife being dead,
+he left Spain with his son Diego, towards the end of the year 1484.
+It is thought that he went to Genoa and to Venice, where his
+projects of transoceanic navigation were but badly received.
+
+[Illustration: Columbus knocks at a convent door.]
+
+However it may have been, in 1485 we find him again in Spain. This
+great man was poor, without resources. He travelled on foot,
+carrying Diego his little son of ten years old, in his arms. From
+this period of his life, history follows him step by step; she no
+more loses sight of him, and she has preserved to posterity the
+smallest incidents of this grand existence. We find Columbus arrived
+in Andalusia, only half a league from the port of Palos. Destitute,
+and dying of hunger, he knocked at the door of a Franciscan convent,
+dedicated to Santa Maria de Rabida, and asked for a little bread and
+water for his poor child and for himself. The superior of the
+convent, Juan Perez de Marchena, gave hospitality to the unfortunate
+traveller. He questioned him, and was surprised by the nobleness of
+his language, but still more astonished was he, by the boldness of
+the ideas of Columbus, who made the good Father the confidant of his
+aspirations. For several months the wandering sailor remained in
+this hospitable convent; some of the monks were learned men, and
+interested themselves about him and his projects; they studied his
+plans; they mentioned him to some of the well-known navigators of
+the time; and we must give them the credit of having been the first
+to believe in the genius of Christopher Columbus. Juan Perez showed
+still greater kindness; he offered to take upon himself the charge
+of the education of Diego, and he gave to Columbus a letter of
+recommendation addressed to the confessor of the Queen of Castille.
+
+This confessor, prior of the monastery of Prado, was deep in the
+confidence of Ferdinand and Isabella; but he did not approve of the
+projects of the Genoese navigator, and he rendered him no service
+whatever with his royal penitent. Columbus must still resign himself
+to wait. He went to live at Cordova, where the court was soon to
+come, and for livelihood he resumed his trade of picture-seller. Is
+it possible to quote from the lives of illustrious men an instance
+of a more trying existence than this of the great navigator? Could
+ill-fortune have assailed any man with more cruel blows? But this
+indomitable, indefatigable man of genius, rising up again after each
+trial, did not despair. He felt within him the sacred fire of genius,
+he worked on unceasingly, he visited influential persons, spreading
+his ideas and defending them, and combating all objections with the
+most heroic energy. At length he obtained the protection of the
+great cardinal-archbishop of Toledo, Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, and
+thanks to him, was admitted into the presence of the King and Queen
+of Spain.
+
+Christopher Columbus must have imagined himself now at the end of
+all his troubles. Ferdinand and Isabella received his project
+favourably, and caused it to be submitted for examination to a
+council of learned men, consisting of bishops and monks who were
+gathered together _ad hoc_ in a Dominican convent at Salamanca. But
+the unfortunate pleader was not yet at the end of his vicissitudes.
+In this meeting at Salamanca all his judges were against him. The
+truth was, that his ideas interfered with the intolerant religious
+notions of the fifteenth century. The Fathers of the Church had
+denied the sphericity of the earth, and since the earth was not
+round they declared that a voyage of circumnavigation was absolutely
+contrary to the Bible, and could not therefore, on any logical
+theory, be undertaken. "Besides," said these theologians, "if any
+one should ever succeed in descending into the other hemisphere, how
+could he ever mount up again into this one?" This manner of arguing
+was a very formidable one at this period; for Christopher Columbus
+saw himself, in consequence, almost accused of heresy, the most
+unpardonable crime which could be committed in these intolerant
+countries. He escaped any evil consequences from the hostile
+disposition of the Council, but the execution of his project was
+again adjourned.
+
+[Illustration: Building a caravel.]
+
+Long years passed away. The unfortunate man of genius, despairing of
+success in Spain, sent his brother to England to make an offer of
+his services to the king, Henry VII. But it is probable that the
+king gave no answer. Then Christopher Columbus turned again with
+unabated perseverance to Ferdinand, but Ferdinand was at this time
+engaged in a war of extermination against the Moors, and it was not
+until 1492, when he had chased the Moors from Spain, that he was
+able again to listen to the solicitations of the Genoese sailor.
+
+This time the affair was thoroughly considered, and the king
+consented to the enterprise. But Columbus, as is the manner of proud
+natures, wished to impose his own conditions. They bargained over
+that which should enrich Spain! Columbus, in disgust, was without
+doubt ready to quit, and for ever, this ungrateful country, but
+Isabella, touched by the thought of the unbelievers of Asia, whom
+she hoped to convert to the Catholic faith, ordered Columbus to be
+recalled, and then acceded to all his demands.
+
+Columbus was in the fifty-sixth year of his age when he signed a
+treaty with the King of Spain at Santa-Feta on the 17th of April,
+1492, being eighteen years after he had first conceived his project,
+and seven years from the time of his quitting the monastery of Palos.
+By this solemn convention, the dignity of high admiral was to belong
+to Columbus in all the lands which he might discover, and this
+dignity was to descend in perpetuity to his heirs and successors. He
+was named viceroy and governor of the new possessions which he hoped
+to conquer in the rich countries of Asia, and one-tenth part of the
+pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, provisions, and
+merchandise of whatever kind, which might be acquired in any manner
+whatsoever, within the limits of his jurisdiction, was of right to
+belong to him.
+
+All was arranged, and at length Columbus was to put his cherished
+projects in execution. But let us repeat, he had no thought of
+meeting with the New World, of the existence of which he had not the
+faintest suspicion. His aim was "to explore the East by the West,
+and to pass by the way of the West to the Land whence come the
+spices." One may even aver that Columbus died in the belief that he
+had arrived at the shores of Asia, and never knew himself that he
+had made the discovery of America. But this in no way lessens his
+glory; the meeting with the new Continent was but an accident. The
+real cause of the immortal renown of Columbus was that audacity of
+genius which induced him to brave the dangers of an unknown ocean,
+to separate himself afar from those familiar shores, which, until
+now, navigators had never ventured to quit, to adventure himself
+upon the waves of the Atlantic Ocean in the frail ships of the
+period, which the first tempest might engulf, to launch himself, in
+a word, upon the deep darkness of an unknown sea.
+
+The preparations began, Columbus entering into an arrangement with
+some rich navigators of Palos, the three brothers Pinzon, who made
+the necessary advances for defraying the expenses of fitting out the
+ships. Three caravels, named the _Gallega_, the _Nina_, and the
+_Pinta_, were equipped in the port of Palos. The _Gallega_ was
+destined to carry the admiral, who changed her name to the
+_Santa-Maria_. The _Pinta_ was commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon,
+and the _Nina_ by his two brothers, Francis Martin, and Vincent
+Yanez Pinzon. It was difficult to man the ships, sailors generally
+being frightened at the enterprise, but at last the captains
+succeeded in getting together one hundred and twenty men, and on
+Friday, August 3rd, 1492, the admiral crossing at eight o'clock in
+the morning the bar of Saltez, off the town of Huelva, in Andalusia,
+adventured himself with his three half-decked caravels upon the
+Atlantic waves.
+
+
+II.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
+
+First voyage: The Great Canary--Gomera--Magnetic variation--Symptoms
+of revolt--Land, land--San Salvador--Taking possession--Conception--
+Fernandina or Great Exuma--Isabella, or Long Island--The Mucaras--
+Cuba--Description of the island--Archipelago of Notre-Dame--
+Hispaniola or San Domingo--Tortuga Island--The cacique on board the
+_Santa-Maria_--The caravel of Columbus goes aground and cannot be
+floated off--Island of Monte-Christi--Return--Tempest--Arrival in
+Spain--Homage rendered to Christopher Columbus.
+
+
+During the first day's voyage, the admiral--the title by which he is
+usually known in the various accounts of his exploits--bearing
+directly southwards, sailed forty-five miles before sunset; turning
+then to the south-east, he steered for the Canaries, in order to
+repair the _Pinta_, which had unshipped her rudder, an accident
+caused perhaps by the ill-will of the steersman, who dreaded the
+voyage. Ten days later Columbus cast anchor before the Great Canary
+Island, where the rudder of the caravel was repaired. Nineteen days
+afterwards he arrived before Gomera, where the inhabitants assured
+him of the existence of an unknown land in the west of the
+Archipelago. He did not leave Gomera until the 6th of September. He
+had received warning that three Portuguese ships awaited him in the
+open sea, with the intention of barring his passage; however,
+without taking any heed of this news, he put to sea, cleverly
+avoided meeting his enemies, and steering directly westward, he lost
+all sight of land. During the voyage the admiral took care to
+conceal from his companions the true distance traversed each day; he
+made it appear less than it really was in the daily abstracts of his
+observations, that he might not add to the fear already felt by the
+sailors, by letting them know the real distance which separated them
+from Europe. Each day he watched the compasses with attention, and
+it is to him we owe the discovery of the magnetic variation, of
+which he took account in his calculations. The pilots, however, were
+much disturbed on seeing the compasses all "north-westers," as they
+expressed it.
+
+[Illustration: Christopher Columbus on board his caravel.]
+
+On the 14th of September the sailors saw a swallow and some
+tropic-birds. The sight of these birds was an evidence of land being
+near, for they do not usually fly more than about seventy miles out
+to sea. The temperature was very mild, the weather magnificent; the
+wind blew from the east and wafted the caravels in the desired
+direction. But it was exactly this continuance of east wind which
+frightened the greater part of the sailors, who saw in this
+persistence, so favourable for the outward voyage, the promise of a
+formidable obstacle to their return home. On the 16th of September
+some tufts of seaweed, still fresh, were seen floating on the waves.
+But no land was to be seen, and this seaweed might possibly indicate
+the presence of submarine rocks, and not of the shores of a
+continent. On the 17th, thirty-five days after the departure of the
+expedition, floating weeds were frequently seen, and upon one mass
+of weed was found a live cray-fish, a sure sign this of the
+proximity of land.
+
+During the following days a large number of birds, such as gannets,
+sea-swallows, and tropic-birds, flew around the caravels. Columbus
+turned their presence to account as a means of reassuring his
+companions, who were beginning to be terribly frightened at not
+meeting with land after six weeks of sailing. His own confidence
+never abated, but putting firm trust in God, he often addressed
+energetic words of comfort to those around him, and made them each
+evening chant the _Salve Regina_, or some other hymn to the Virgin.
+At the words of this heroic man, so noble, so sure of himself, so
+superior to all human weaknesses, the courage of the sailors revived,
+and they again went onwards.
+
+We can well imagine how anxiously both officers and men scanned the
+western horizon towards which they were steering. Each one had a
+pecuniary motive for wishing to be the first to descry the New
+Continent, King Ferdinand having promised a reward of 10,000
+maravedis, or 400 pounds sterling, to the first discoverer. The
+latter days of the month of September were enlivened by the presence
+of numerous large birds, petrels, man-of-war birds, and damiers,
+flying in couples, a sign that they were not far away from home. So
+Columbus retained his unshaken conviction that land could not be far
+off.
+
+On the 1st of October, the admiral announced to his companions that
+they had made 1272 miles to the west since leaving Ferro; in reality,
+the distance traversed exceeded 2100 miles, and of this Columbus was
+quite aware, but persisted in his policy of disguising the truth in
+this particular. On the 7th of October, the crews were excited by
+hearing discharges of musketry from the _Nina_, the commanders of
+which, the two brothers Pinzon, thought they had descried the land;
+they soon found, however, that they had been mistaken. Still, on
+their representing that they had seen some parroquets flying in a
+south-westerly direction, the admiral consented to change his route
+so far as to steer some points to the south, a change which had
+happy consequences in the future, for had they continued to run
+directly westward, the caravels would have been aground upon the
+great Bahama Bank, and would probably have been altogether destroyed.
+
+Still the ardently desired land did not appear. Each evening the sun
+as it went down dipped behind an interminable horizon of water. The
+crews who had several times been the victims of an optical illusion,
+now began to murmur against Columbus, "the Genoese, the foreigner,"
+who had enticed them so far away from their country. Some symptoms
+of mutiny had already shown themselves on board the vessels, when,
+on the 10th of October, the sailors openly declared that they would
+go no further. In treating of this part of the voyage, the
+historians would seem to have drawn somewhat upon their imagination;
+they narrate scenes of serious import which took place upon the
+admiral's caravel, the sailors going so far as even to threaten his
+life. They say also, that the recriminations ended by a kind of
+arrangement, granting a respite of three days to Columbus, at the
+end of which time, should land not have been then discovered, the
+fleet was to set out on its return to Europe. All these statements
+we may look upon as pure fiction; there is nothing in the accounts
+given by Columbus himself which lends them the smallest credibility.
+But it has been needful to touch upon them, for nothing must be
+omitted relating to the great Genoese Navigator, and some amount of
+legend mixed up with history does not ill beseem the grand figure of
+Christopher Columbus. Still, it is an undoubted fact that there was
+much murmuring on board the caravels, but it would seem that the
+crews, cheered by the words of the admiral, and by his brave
+attitude in the midst of uncertainty, did not refuse to do their
+duty in working the ships.
+
+On the 11th of October, the admiral noticed alongside of his vessel,
+a reed still green, floating upon the top of a large wave: at the
+same time the crew of the _Pinta_ hoisted on board another reed, a
+small board, and a little stick, which appeared to have been cut
+with an instrument of iron; it was evident that human hands had been
+employed upon these things. Almost at the same moment, the men of
+the _Nina_ perceived a branch of some thorny tree covered with
+blossoms. At all this every one rejoiced exceedingly; there could be
+no doubt now of the proximity of the coast. Night fell over the sea.
+The _Pinta_, the best sailor of the three vessels, was leading.
+Already, Columbus himself, and one Rodrigo Sanchez, comptroller of
+the expedition, had thought they had seen a light moving amidst the
+shadows of the horizon, when a sailor named Rodrigo, on board the
+_Pinta_, cried out, "Land, land."
+
+[Illustration: What must have been the feelings in the breast of
+Columbus at that moment?]
+
+What must have been the feelings in the breast of Columbus at that
+moment? Never had any man, since the first creation of the human
+race experienced a similar emotion to that now felt by the great
+navigator. Perhaps even it is allowable to think that the eye which
+first saw this New Continent, was indeed that of the admiral himself.
+But what matters it? The glory of Columbus consisted not in the
+having arrived, his glory was in the having set out. It was at two
+o'clock in the morning that the land was first seen, when the
+caravels were not two hours' sail away from it. At once all the
+crews deeply moved, joined in singing together the _Salve Regina_.
+With the first rays of the sun they saw a little island, six miles
+to windward of them. It was one of the Bahama group; Columbus named
+it San Salvador, and immediately falling on his knees, he began to
+repeat the hymn of Saint Ambrose and Saint Augustine: "Te Deum
+laudamus, Te Deum confitemur."
+
+At this moment, some naked savages appeared upon the newly
+discovered coast. Columbus had his long boat lowered, and got into
+it with Alonzo and Yanez Pinzon, the comptroller Rodrigo, the
+secretary Descovedo, and some others. He landed upon the shore,
+carrying in his hand the royal banner, whilst the two captains bore
+between them the green banner of the Cross, upon which were
+interlaced, the initials of Ferdinand and Isabella. Then the admiral
+solemnly took possession of the island in the name of the King and
+Queen of Spain, and caused a record of the act to be drawn up.
+During this ceremony the natives came round Columbus and his
+companions. M. Charton gives the account of the scene in the very
+words of Columbus: "Desiring to inspire them (the natives) with
+friendship for us, and being persuaded, on seeing them, that they
+would confide the more readily in us, and be the better disposed
+towards embracing our Holy Faith, if we used mildness in persuading
+them, rather than if we had recourse to force, I caused to be given
+to several amongst them, coloured caps, and also glass beads, which
+they put around their necks. I added various other articles of small
+value; they testified great joy, and showed so much gratitude that
+we marvelled greatly at it. When we were re-embarking, they swam
+towards us, to offer us parroquets, balls of cotton thread, zagayes
+(or long darts), and many other things; in exchange we gave them
+some small glass beads, little bells, and other objects. They gave
+us all they had, but they appeared to me to be very poor. The men
+and women both were as naked as when they were born. Amongst those
+whom we saw, one woman was rather young, and none of the men
+appeared to be more than thirty years of age. They were well made,
+their figures handsome, and their faces agreeable. Their hair,
+coarse as that of a horse's tail, hung down in front as low as their
+eyebrows, behind it formed a long mass, which they never cut. There
+are some who paint themselves with a blackish pigment; their natural
+colour being neither black nor white, but similar to that of the
+inhabitants of the Canary islands; some paint themselves with white,
+some with red, or any other colour, either covering the whole body
+with it, or the whole face, or perhaps only the eyes, or the nose.
+They do not carry arms like our people, and do not even know what
+they are. When I showed them some swords, they laid hold of them by
+the blades, and cut their fingers. They have no iron; their zagayes
+are sticks, the tip is not of iron, but sometimes made of a fish
+tooth, or of some other hard substance. They have much grace in
+their movements. I remarked that several had scars upon their bodies,
+and I asked them by means of signs, how they had been wounded. They
+answered in the same manner, that the inhabitants of the
+neighbouring islands had come to attack them, and make them
+prisoners, and that they had defended themselves. I thought then and
+I still think that they must have come from the mainland to make
+them prisoners for slaves; they would be faithful and gentle
+servants. They seem to have the power of repeating quickly what they
+hear. I am persuaded that they might be converted to Christianity
+without difficulty, for I believe that they belong to no sect."
+
+When Columbus returned on board, several of the savages swam after
+his boat; the next day, the 13th, they came in crowds around the
+ships, on board of enormous canoes shaped out of the trunks of
+trees; they were guided by means of a kind of baker's shovel, and
+some of the canoes were capable of holding forty men. Several
+natives wore little plates of gold hanging from their nostrils; they
+appeared much surprised at the arrival of the strangers, and quite
+believed that these white men must have fallen from the skies. It
+was with a mixture of respect and curiosity that they touched the
+garments of the Spaniards, considering them doubtless, a kind of
+natural plumage. The scarlet coat of the admiral excited their
+admiration above everything, and it was evident they looked upon
+Columbus as a parroquet of a superior species; at once they seemed
+to recognize him as the chief amongst the strangers.
+
+So Columbus and his followers visited this new island of San
+Salvador. They were never tired of admiring the beauty of its
+situation, its magnificent groves, its running streams, and verdant
+meadows. The fauna of the island offered little variety; parroquets
+of radiant plumage abounded amongst the trees, but they appeared to
+be the only species of birds upon the island. San Salvador presented
+an almost flat plateau of which no mountain broke the uniformity; a
+small lake occupied the centre of the island. The explorers imagined
+that San Salvador must contain great mineral riches, since the
+inhabitants were adorned with ornaments of gold. But was this
+precious metal derived from the island itself? Upon this point the
+admiral questioned one of the natives, and succeeded in learning
+from him by means of signs, that in turning the island and sailing
+towards the south, the admiral would find a country of which the
+king possessed great vessels of gold and immense riches. The next
+morning, at daybreak, Columbus gave orders to have the ships
+prepared for sea; he set sail, and steered towards the continent of
+which the natives had spoken, which, as he imagined, could be none
+other than Cipango.
+
+Here an important observation must be made, showing the state of
+geographical knowledge at this period: viz. that Columbus now
+believed himself to have arrived at Asia, Cipango being the name
+given by Marco Polo to Japan. This error of the admiral, shared in
+by all his companions, was not rectified for many years afterwards,
+and thus, as we have already remarked, the great navigator after
+four successive voyages to the islands, died, without knowing that
+he had discovered a new world. It is beyond doubt that the sailors
+of Columbus, and Columbus himself, imagined that they had arrived,
+during that night of the 12th October, 1492, either at Japan, or
+China, or the Indies. This is the reason why America so long bore
+the name of the "Western Indies," and why the aborigines of this
+continent, in Brazil and in Mexico, as well as in the United States,
+are still classed under the general appellation of "Indians."
+
+So Columbus dreamt only of reaching the shores of Japan. He coasted
+along San Salvador, exploring its western side. The natives, running
+down to the shore, offered him water and cassava bread, made from
+the root of a plant called the "Yucca." Several times the admiral
+landed upon the coast at different points, and with a sad want of
+humanity, he carried away some of the natives, that he might take
+them with him to Spain. Poor men! already the strangers began to
+tear them from their country; it would not be long before they began
+to sell them! At last the caravels lost sight of San Salvador, and
+were again upon the wide ocean.
+
+Fortune had favoured Columbus in thus guiding him into the centre of
+one of the most beautiful archipelagos which the world contains.
+These new lands which he discovered were as a casket of precious
+stones, which needed only to be opened, and the hands of the
+discoverer were full of treasures. On the 15th October, at sunset,
+the flotilla came to anchor near the western point of a second
+island, at a distance of only fifteen miles from San Salvador; this
+island was named Conception; on the morrow the admiral landed upon
+the shore, having his men well armed for fear of surprise; the
+natives, however, proved to be of the same race as those of San
+Salvador, and gave a kind welcome to the Spaniards. A south-easterly
+wind having arisen, Columbus soon put to sea again, and twenty-seven
+miles further westward, he discovered a third island, which he
+called Fernandina, but which now goes by the name of the Great Exuma.
+All night they lay-to, and next day, the 17th October, large native
+canoes came off to the vessels. The relations with the natives were
+excellent, the savages peacefully exchanging fruit, and small balls
+of cotton for glass beads, tambourines, needles, which took their
+fancy greatly, and some molasses, of which they appeared very fond.
+These natives of Fernandina wore some clothing, and appeared
+altogether more civilized than those of San Salvador; they inhabited
+houses made in the shape of tents and having high chimneys; the
+interiors of these dwellings were remarkably clean and well kept.
+The western side of the island, with its deeply indented shore,
+formed a grand natural harbour, capable of containing a hundred
+vessels.
+
+But Fernandina did not afford the riches so much coveted by the
+Spaniards as spoils to take back to Europe; there were no gold-mines
+here; the natives who were on board the flotilla always spoke,
+however, of a larger island, situated to the south and called
+Saometo, in which the precious metal was found. Columbus steered in
+the direction indicated, and during the night of Friday, the 19th of
+October, he cast anchor near this Saometo, calling it Isabella; in
+modern maps it goes by the name of Long Island. According to the
+natives of San Salvador, there was a powerful king in this island,
+but the admiral for several days awaited in vain the advent of this
+great personage; he did not show himself. The island of Isabella was
+beautiful of aspect, with its clear lakes, and thick forests; the
+Spaniards were never tired of admiring the new type of nature
+presented to their view, and of which the intense verdure was
+wonderful to European eyes. Parroquets in innumerable flocks were
+flying amongst the thick trees, and great lizards, doubtless iguanas,
+glided with rapid movements in the high grass. The inhabitants of
+the island fled at first at the sight of the foreigners, but soon
+becoming bolder, they trafficked with the Spaniards in the
+productions of their country.
+
+Still Columbus held firmly to the notion of reaching the shores of
+Japan. The natives had mentioned to him a large island a little to
+the west which they called Cuba, and this the admiral supposed must
+form part of the kingdom of Cipango; he felt little doubt but that
+he would soon arrive at the town of Quinsay, or Hang-tchoo-foo,
+formerly the capital of China. With this object, as soon as the
+winds permitted, the fleet weighed anchor. On Thursday, the 25th of
+October, seven or eight islands lying in a straight line were
+sighted, these were probably the Mucaras. Columbus did not stop to
+visit them, and on the Sunday he came in sight of Cuba. The caravels
+were moored in a river, to which the Spaniards gave the name of San
+Salvador; after a short stay, they sailed again towards the west,
+and entered a harbour situated at the mouth of a large river which
+was afterwards called the harbour of Las Nuevitas del Principe.
+
+Numerous palm-trees were growing upon the shores of the island,
+having leaves so broad that only one was required for roofing a
+native hut. The natives had fled at the approach of the Spaniards,
+who found upon the shore idols of female form, tame birds, bones of
+animals, also dumb dogs, and some fishing instruments. The Cuban
+savages, however, were ready to be enticed like the others, and they
+consented to barter their goods with the Spaniards. Columbus
+believed himself to be now on the mainland, and only a few leagues
+from Hang-tchoo-foo; this idea being so rooted in his mind, that he
+even busied himself in despatching some presents to the great Khan
+of China. On the 2nd of November he desired one of the officers of
+his ship, and a Jew who could speak Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, to
+set out to seek this native monarch. The ambassadors, carrying with
+them strings of beads, and having six days given to them for the
+fulfilment of their mission, started, taking a route leading towards
+the interior of this so-called continent.
+
+In the meantime, Columbus explored for nearly six miles a splendid
+river which flowed beneath the shade of woods of odoriferous trees.
+The inhabitants freely bartered their goods with the Spaniards, and
+frequently mentioned to them a place named Bohio, where gold and
+pearls might be obtained in abundance. They added that men lived
+there who had dogs' heads, and who fed upon human flesh.
+
+The admiral's envoys returned to the port on the 6th of November,
+after a four days' absence. Two days had sufficed to bring them to a
+village composed of about fifty huts, where they were received with
+every mark of respect; the natives kissing their feet and hands, and
+taking them for deities descended from the skies. Among other
+details of native customs, they reported that both men and women
+smoked tobacco by means of a forked pipe, drawing up the smoke
+through their nostrils. These savages were acquainted with the
+secret of obtaining fire by rubbing briskly two pieces of wood
+against each other. Cotton was found in large quantities in the
+houses, made up into the form of tents, one of these containing as
+much as 11,000 pounds of the material. As to the grand khan they saw
+no vestige of him.
+
+Another consequence of the error of Columbus must be noticed here,
+one which, according to Irving, changed the whole series of his
+discoveries. He believed himself to be on the coast of Asia, and
+therefore looked upon Cuba as a portion of that continent. In
+consequence, he never thought of making the tour of Cuba, but
+decided on returning towards the east. Now, had he not been deceived
+on this occasion, and had he continued to follow the same direction
+as at first, the results of his enterprise would have been greatly
+modified. He might then have drifted towards Florida at the
+south-eastern point of North America, or he might have run direct to
+Mexico. In this latter case, instead of ignorant and savage natives,
+what would he have found? The inhabitants of the great Aztec Empire,
+of the half-civilized kingdom of Montezuma. There he would have seen
+towns, armies, enormous wealth, and his role would no doubt have
+been the same as that afterwards played by Fernando Cortes. But it
+was not to be thus, and the admiral, persevering in his mistake,
+directed his flotilla towards the east, weighing anchor on the 12th
+of November, 1492.
+
+Columbus tacked in and out along the Cuban coast; he saw the two
+mountains--Cristal and Moa; he explored a harbour to which he gave
+the name of Puerto del Principe, and an archipelago which he called
+the Sea of Nuestra Senora. Each night the fishermen's fires were
+seen upon the numerous islands, the inhabitants of which lived upon
+spiders and huge worms. Several times the Spaniards landed upon
+different points of the coast, and there planted the cross as a sign
+of taking possession of the country. The natives often spoke to the
+admiral about a certain island of Babeque, where gold abounded, and
+thither Columbus resolved to go, but Martin-Alonzo Pinzon, the
+captain of the _Pinta_, the best sailer of the three ships, was
+beforehand with him, and at day-break on the 21st of November, he
+had completely disappeared from sight. The admiral was very angry at
+this separation, his feelings on the subject appearing plainly in
+his narrative, where he says, "Pinzon has said and done to me many
+like things." Continuing his exploration of the coast of Cuba,
+Columbus discovered the Bay of Moa, the Point of Mangle, Point Vaez,
+and the harbour of Barracoa, but nowhere did he meet with cannibals,
+although the huts of the natives were often to be seen adorned with
+human skulls, a sight which appeared to give great satisfaction to
+the islanders on board the fleet. On the following days, they saw
+the Boma River, and the caravels, doubling the point of Los Azules,
+found themselves upon the eastern part of the island, whose coast
+they had now reconnoitred for a distance of 375 miles. But Columbus
+instead of continuing his route to the south turned off to the east,
+and on the 5th of December perceived a large island, called by the
+natives Bohio. This was Hayti, or San Domingo.
+
+In the evening, the _Nina_ by the admiral's orders, entered a
+harbour which was named Port Mary; it is situated at the
+north-western extremity of the island, and, with the cape near which
+it lies, is now called St. Nicholas. The next day the Spaniards
+discovered a number of headlands, and an islet, called Tortuga
+Island. Everywhere on the appearance of the ships, the Indian canoes
+took to flight. The island, along which they were now coasting,
+appeared very large and very high, from which latter peculiarity it
+gained, later on, its name of Hayti, which signifies High Land. The
+coast was explored by the Spaniards as far as Mosquito Bay; its
+natural features, its plains and hills, its plants and the birds
+which fluttered amongst the beautiful trees of the island, all
+recalled to the memory the landscapes of Castille, and for this
+reason Columbus named it Hispaniola, or Spanish Island. The
+inhabitants were extremely timid and distrustful; they fled away
+into the interior and no communication could be held with them. Some
+sailors, however, succeeded in capturing a young woman, whom they
+carried on board with them. She was young and rather pretty. The
+admiral gave her, besides rings and beads, some clothing, of which
+she had great need, and after most generous treatment, he sent her
+back to shore.
+
+This good conduct had the result of taming the natives, and the next
+day, when nine of the sailors, well armed, ventured as far as
+sixteen miles inland, they were received with respect, the savages
+running to them in crowds, and offering them everything which their
+country produced. The sailors returned to the ships enchanted with
+their excursion. The interior of the island they had found rich in
+cotton plants, mastic-trees and aloes, while a fine river, named
+afterwards the Three Rivers, flowed gently along its limpid course.
+On December 15th, Columbus again set sail, and was carried by the
+wind towards Tortuga Island, upon which he saw a navigable stream of
+water, and a valley so beautiful that he called it the Vale of
+Paradise. The day following, having tacked into a deep gulf, an
+Indian was seen who, notwithstanding the violence of the wind, was
+skilfully manoeuvring a light canoe. This Indian was invited to come
+on board, was loaded with presents by the admiral, and then put on
+shore again, at one of the harbours of Hispaniola, now called the
+Puerto de Paz. This kindness tended to attach the natives to the
+admiral, and from that day they came in numbers round the caravels;
+their king came with them, a strong, vigorous, and somewhat stout
+young man of twenty years of age; he was naked, like his subjects of
+both sexes, who showed him much respect, but with no appearance of
+servility. Columbus ordered royal honours to be rendered to him, and
+in return, the king, or rather cacique, informed the admiral that
+the provinces to the east abounded in gold.
+
+[Illustration: Columbus named it the Vale of Paradise.]
+
+Next day another cacique arrived, offering to place all the
+treasures of his country at the service of the Spaniards. He was
+present at a fete in honour of the Virgin Mary, that Columbus caused
+to be celebrated with great pomp on board his vessel, which was
+gaily dressed with flags on the occasion. The cacique dined at the
+admiral's table, apparently enjoying the repast; after he had
+himself tasted of the different viands and beverages, he sent the
+dishes and goblets to the members of his suite; he had good manners,
+spoke little, but showed great politeness. After the feast, he gave
+the admiral some thin leaves of gold, while Columbus, on his side,
+presented him with some coins, upon which were engraved the
+portraits of Ferdinand and Isabella, and after explaining to him by
+signs that these were the representations of the most powerful
+sovereigns in the world, he caused the royal banners of Castille to
+be displayed before the savage prince. When night fell, the cacique
+retired, highly delighted with his visit; and on his departure he
+was saluted with a salvo of artillery. On the day following, the
+crews before quitting this hospitable coast, set up a large cross in
+the middle of the little town. In issuing from the gulf formed by
+Tortuga Island and Hispaniola, they discovered several harbours,
+capes, bays, and rivers; at the point of Limbe, a small island which
+Columbus named St. Thomas, and finally, an enormous harbour safe and
+sheltered, hidden between the island and the Bay of Acul, and to
+which access was given by a canal surrounded by high mountains
+covered with trees.
+
+The admiral often disembarked upon this coast, the natives receiving
+him as an ambassador from heaven, and imploring him to remain among
+them. Columbus gave them quantities of little bells, brass rings,
+glass beads, and other toys, which they eagerly accepted. A cacique
+named Guacanagari, reigning over the province of Marien, sent to the
+admiral a belt adorned with the figure of an animal with large ears,
+of which the nose and tongue were made of beaten gold. Gold appeared
+to be abundant in the island, and the natives soon brought a
+considerable quantity of it to the strangers. The inhabitants of
+this part of Hispaniola seemed to be superior in intelligence and
+appearance to those of that portion of the island which had been
+first visited; in the opinion of Columbus, the paint, red, black, or
+white, with which the natives covered their bodies, served to
+protect them from sunstroke. The huts of these savages were pretty
+and well built. Upon Columbus questioning them as to the country
+which produced gold, they always indicated one towards the east, a
+country which they called Cibao, and which the admiral continued to
+identify with Cipango or Japan.
+
+On Christmas Day a serious accident occurred to the admiral's
+caravel, the first damage sustained in this hitherto prosperous
+voyage. An inexperienced steersman was at the helm of the
+_Santa-Maria_ during an excursion outside the Gulf of St. Thomas;
+night came on, and he allowed the vessel to be caught in some
+currents which threw her upon the rocks; the caravel grounded and
+her rudder stuck fast. The admiral, awakened by the shock, ran upon
+deck; he ordered an anchor to be fastened forward, by which the ship
+might warp herself off and so float again. The master and some of
+the sailors charged with the execution of this order, jumped into
+the long boat, but seized with a sudden panic, they rowed away in
+haste to the _Nina_. Meantime the tide fell, and the _Santa-Maria_
+ran further aground; it became necessary to cut away the masts to
+lighten her, and soon it was evident that everything on board must
+be removed to the other ship. The cacique Guacanagari, quite
+understanding the dangerous situation of the caravel, came with his
+brothers and other relations, accompanied by a great number of the
+Indians, and helped in unlading the ship. Thanks to this prince, not
+a single article of the cargo was stolen, and during the whole night
+armed natives kept watch around the stores of provisions.
+
+The next day Guacanagari went on board the _Nina_, to console the
+admiral, and to place all his own possessions at his disposal, at
+the same time offering him a repast of bread, doe's flesh, fish,
+roots, and fruit. Columbus, much moved by these tokens of friendship,
+formed the design of founding an establishment on this island. With
+this purpose in view, he addressed himself to gain the hearts of the
+Indians by presents and kindness, and wishing also to give them an
+adequate notion of his power, he ordered the discharge of an
+arquebuse and a small cannon, of which the reports frightened the
+poor savages terribly. On December 26th, the Spaniards commenced the
+construction of a fort upon this part of the coast, the intention of
+the admiral being to leave there a certain number of men, with a
+year's provision of bread, wine, and seed, and to give them the long
+boat belonging to the _Santa-Maria_. The works at the fort were
+pushed forward with rapidity. It was also on the 26th that they
+received news of the _Pinta_, which had been separated from the
+flotilla since November 21st. The natives announced that she was at
+anchor in a river at the extreme point of the island, but a canoe
+despatched by Guacanagari returned without having found her. Then
+Columbus, not wishing to continue his explorations under the present
+conditions, since the loss of the _Santa-Maria_, which could not be
+floated again, left him but one caravel, decided to return to Spain,
+and preparations for the departure began.
+
+On the 2nd of January Columbus caused his soldiers to act a mimic
+battle, greatly to the admiration of the cacique and his subjects.
+Afterwards the admiral chose out thirty-nine men to form the
+garrison of the fortress during his absence, naming Rodrigo de
+Escovedo as their commander. The greater part of the cargo of the
+_Santa-Maria_ was to be left behind with them, for their year's
+provision. Amongst these first colonists of the New World were
+included a writer, an alguazil, a cooper, a doctor, and a tailor.
+These Spaniards were charged with the mission of seeking for
+gold-mines, and of choosing a suitable site for the building of a
+town. On the 3rd of January, after solemn leave-takings of the
+cacique and the new colonists, the _Nina_ weighed anchor and sailed
+out of the harbour. An island was soon discovered, having upon it a
+very high mountain; to this was given the name of Monte-Christi.
+Columbus had already sailed for two days along the coast, when he
+was aware of the approach of the _Pinta_, and very soon her captain,
+Martin Alonzo Pinzon, came on board the _Nina_, endeavouring to
+excuse his conduct. The real truth was that Pinzon had taken the
+lead with the view of being the first to reach the pretended island
+of Babeque, of which the riches had been described in glowing
+colours by the natives. The admiral was very ready to accept the bad
+reasons given him by Captain Pinzon, and learnt from him that the
+_Pinta_ had done nothing but coast along the shores of Hispaniola,
+without discovering any new island.
+
+On the 7th of January the ships lay to, to stop a leak which had
+sprung in the hold of the _Nina_. Columbus profited by this delay to
+explore a wide river, situated about three miles from Monte-Christi,
+and which carried so much gold-dust along with it, that he gave it
+the name of the Golden River. The admiral would have desired to
+visit this part of Hispaniola with greater care, but the crews were
+in haste to return home, and under the influence of the brothers
+Pinzon, began to murmur against his authority.
+
+On the 9th of January the caravels set sail and steered towards the
+east-south-east, skirting the coast, and distinguishing by names
+even its smallest sinuosities; of such were point Isabella, the cape
+of La Roca, French Cape, Cape Cabron, and the Bay of Samana,
+situated at the eastern extremity of the island, where was a port,
+in which the fleet, being becalmed, came to anchor. At first the
+relations between the foreigners and the natives were excellent, but
+a change was suddenly perceived, the savages ceasing to barter, and
+making some hostile demonstrations, which left no doubt of the bad
+intentions entertained by them. On the 13th of January the savages
+made a sudden and unexpected attack upon the Spaniards, who, however,
+put a bold face on the matter, and by the aid of their weapons, put
+their enemies to flight after a few minutes' combat. Thus, for the
+first time, the blood of the Indian flowed beneath the hand of the
+European.
+
+On the morrow Columbus again set sail, having on board four young
+natives, whom, notwithstanding their objections, he persisted in
+carrying off with him. His crews, embittered and fatigued, caused
+him great uneasiness, and in his narrative of the voyage, this great
+man, superior though he were to all human weaknesses, and a being
+whom adverse fate could not humble, bemoans himself bitterly over
+this trial. It was on the 16th of January that the homeward voyage
+commenced in good earnest, and Cape Samana, the extreme point of
+Hispaniola, disappeared below the horizon. The passage proved a
+quick one, and no incident is recorded until the 12th of February,
+when the vessels encountered a fearful storm lasting three days,
+with furious wind, enormous waves, and much lightning from the
+north-north-east. Three times did the terrified sailors make a vow
+of pilgrimage to St. Mary of Guadalupe, to our Lady of Loretto, and
+to St. Clara of Moguer, and at length, in extremity of fear, the
+whole crew swore to go and pray in their shirts and with naked feet
+in some church dedicated to the Virgin. But in spite of all, the
+storm raged with redoubled fury, and even the admiral feared for the
+result. In case of a catastrophe, he thought it well hastily to
+write upon a parchment an abstract of his discoveries, with a
+request that who ever should find the document would forward it to
+the King of Spain; wrapping the parchment in oil-cloth, he enclosed
+it in a wooden barrel, which was thrown into the sea.
+
+At sunrise on the 15th of February the hurricane abated, the two
+caravels which had been separated by the storm again joined company,
+and after three days they cast anchor at the island of St. Mary, one
+of the Azores; as soon as they arrived there, the admiral sought to
+further the accomplishment of the vows made during the storm, and
+with this object, sent half of his people on shore; but these were
+unhappily made prisoners by the Portuguese, who did not restore them
+to liberty for five days, notwithstanding the urgent remonstrances
+made by Columbus. The admiral put to sea again on the 23rd of
+February; again the winds were contrary, and again, amidst a violent
+tempest, he took fresh vows in company with all his crew, promising
+to fast on the first Saturday which should follow their arrival in
+Spain. At last, on the 4th of March, the pilots sighted the mouth of
+the Tagus, in which the _Nina_ took refuge, whilst the _Pinta_,
+caught by the wind, was carried away into the Bay of Biscay.
+
+The Portuguese welcomed the admiral kindly, the king even admitting
+him to an audience. Columbus was in haste to return to Spain; as
+soon as the weather permitted, the _Nina_ again set sail, and at
+mid-day on the 15th of March, she cast anchor in the port of Palos,
+after seven months and a half of navigation, during which Columbus
+had discovered the islands of San Salvador, Conception, Great Exuma,
+Long Island, the Mucaras, Cuba, and San Domingo.
+
+The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was then at Barcelona, whither
+the admiral was summoned. He set out immediately, taking with him
+the Indians whom he had brought from the New World. The enthusiasm
+he excited was extreme; from all parts the people ran to look at him
+as he passed, rendering him royal honours. His entry into Barcelona
+was magnificent. The king and queen, with the grandees of Spain,
+received him with great pomp at the palace of the Deputation. He
+there gave an account of his wonderful voyage, and presented the
+specimens of gold which he had brought with him; then all the
+assembly knelt down and chanted the Te Deum. Christopher Columbus
+was afterwards ennobled by letters patent, and the king granted him
+a coat of arms bearing this device: "To Castille and Leon, Columbus
+gives a New World." The fame of the Genoese navigator rang through
+the whole of Europe; the Indians whom he had brought with him were
+baptized in presence of the whole court; and thus, the man of genius,
+so long poor and unknown, had now risen to the highest point of
+celebrity.
+
+
+III.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
+
+Second Voyage: Flotilla of seventeen vessels--Island of Ferro--
+Dominica--Marie-Galante--Guadaloupe--The Cannibals--Montserrat--
+Santa-Maria-la-Rodonda--St. Martin and Santa Cruz--Archipelago of
+the Eleven Thousand Virgins--The island of St. John Baptist, or
+Porto Rico--Hispaniola--The first Colonists massacred--Foundation of
+the town of Isabella--Twelve ships laden with treasure sent to
+Spain--Fort St. Thomas built in the Province of Cibao--Don Diego,
+Columbus' brother, named Governor of the Island--Jamaica--The Coast
+of Cuba--The Remora--Return to Isabella--The Cacique made prisoner--
+Revolt of the Natives--Famine--Columbus traduced in Spain--Juan
+Aguado sent as Commissary to Isabella--Gold-mines--Departure of
+Columbus--His arrival at Cadiz.
+
+
+The narrative of the adventures of the great Genoese navigator had
+over-excited the minds of the hearers. Imagination already caught
+glimpses of golden continents situated beyond the seas. All the
+passions which are engendered by cupidity were seething in the
+people's hearts. The admiral, under pressure of public opinion, must
+set forth again with the most brief delay. He was himself also,
+eager to return to the theatre of his conquests, and to yet enrich
+the maps of the day with more new discoveries. He declared himself,
+therefore, ready to start.
+
+The king and queen placed at his disposal a flotilla composed of
+three large ships and fourteen caravels. Twelve hundred men were to
+sail in them. Several Castilian nobles, with firm faith in the lucky
+star of Columbus, decided to try their fortune with him beyond seas.
+In the holds of the vessels were horses, cattle, instruments of all
+kinds for collecting and purifying gold, grain of various kinds; in
+a word, everything that might be needful in the establishing an
+important colony. Of the ten natives brought to Europe, five
+returned to their country, three, who were ill, remained behind in
+Europe, the other two were dead. Columbus was named captain-general
+of the squadron, with unlimited powers.
+
+On the 25th of September, 1493, the seventeen ships left Cadiz, with
+all sails set, amidst the acclamations of an immense crowd of people
+and on the 1st of October, they cast anchor at the island of Ferro,
+the most westerly of the Canary group. On sailing again, the fleet
+was favoured by wind and sea, and after twenty-three days of
+navigation came in sight of new land. At sunrise on the 3rd of
+November, being the Sunday in the octave of All Saints, the pilot of
+the flag-ship, the _Marie-Galante_, cried out, "Good news, there is
+land." This land proved to be an island covered with trees; the
+admiral, thinking it uninhabited, did not stop; but, after passing
+several scattered islets, he arrived before a second island. The
+first he named Dominica, the second Marie-Galante, names which they
+retain to the present day. The next day a still larger island was in
+sight, and, says the narrative of this voyage given by Peter Martyr,
+the contemporary of Columbus, "When they were arrived, they saw it
+was the island of the infamous cannibals, or Caribbees, of whom they
+had only heard a rumour during the first voyage."
+
+The Spaniards, well armed, landed upon the shore, where they found
+about thirty circular houses built of wood and covered with palm
+leaves. In the interior of the huts were suspended hammocks made of
+cotton. In the centre of the village were placed two trees or posts
+around which were entwined the dead bodies of two serpents. At the
+approach of the strangers the natives fled in haste, leaving behind
+them several prisoners whom they were preparing to devour. The
+sailors searched the houses, and found both leg and arm bones, heads
+so newly cut off that the blood was still moist, and other human
+remains, which left no doubt as to the food consumed by these
+Caribbees. This island, which, with its principal rivers, the
+admiral caused to be partially explored, was named Guadaloupe, on
+account of the resemblance it bore to one of the Spanish provinces.
+Some Indian women were carried off by the sailors, but, after having
+been kindly treated on board the admiral's ship, they were sent back
+to land, Columbus hoping that this conduct towards the females would
+induce the men of the place to come on board, but in this he was
+disappointed.
+
+[Illustration: The sailors find some recently-severed heads.]
+
+On the 8th of November the signal for departure was given, and the
+whole fleet sailed for Hispaniola, the present San Domingo, and the
+island upon which Columbus had left thirty-nine of the companions of
+his first voyage. In turning again towards the north, a large island
+was discovered, to which the natives who had been kept on board
+after having been saved from the jaws of the Caribbees, gave the
+name of Mandanino. They declared that it was inhabited only by women,
+and as Marco Polo had mentioned an Asiatic country which possessed
+an exclusively feminine population, Columbus was confirmed in the
+idea that he was sailing upon the coast of Asia. He felt a great
+desire to explore this island, but the contrary winds completely
+prevented his doing so. Thirty miles from thence an island was seen
+surrounded by high mountains; it received the name of Montserrat; on
+the next day another, which was called Santa-Maria la Rodonda; and
+on the day following two more islands, St. Martin and Santa Cruz.
+
+The squadron anchored before Santa Cruz, to take in water. There
+occurred a scene of grave import, reported by Peter Martyr in such
+expressive words, that we cannot do better than quote them: "The
+admiral," he says, "ordered thirty men from his ship to go ashore
+and explore the island; and these men, being landed on the coast,
+were aware of four dogs and as many young men and women coming
+towards them, extending their arms in supplication, and praying for
+help and deliverance from the cruel people. The cannibals on seeing
+this fled, as in the island of Guadaloupe, and all retired into the
+forests. And our people remained two days on the island to visit it.
+
+"During that time, those who had remained with the boat saw a canoe
+coming towards them from a distance, containing eight men and as
+many women; to these our people made signs; but they on approaching,
+began to transpierce ours with their arrows, before they had time to
+cover themselves with their bucklers, so that one Spaniard was
+killed by a shaft aimed by a woman, who also transfixed another with
+a second arrow. These savages had poisoned arrows, the poison being
+contained in the tip; amongst them was a woman whom all the others
+obeyed, bowing before her. And this was, as they conjectured, a
+queen, having a son of cruel appearance, robust, and with the face
+of a lion, who followed her.
+
+"Ours then, considering that it was better to fight hand to hand,
+than to wait for greater evils in thus fighting at a distance,
+advanced their boat by rowing, and by so great violence did they
+make it move forward, that the stern of the said boat came with such
+velocity, it caused the enemies' canoe to founder.
+
+"But these Indians, being very good swimmers, without moving
+themselves either more slowly or more rapidly, did not cease, both
+men and women, to shoot arrows with all their might, at our people.
+And they succeeded in reaching, by swimming, a rock covered with the
+water, upon which they mounted, and still fought manfully.
+Nevertheless, they were finally taken, and one of them slain, and
+the son of the queen, pierced in two places; when they were taken to
+the admiral's ship they showed no less ferociousness and atrocity of
+mien, than if they had been lions of Libya who felt themselves taken
+in the net. And such were they that no man could have even looked
+upon them without his heart trembling with horror, so greatly was
+their look hideous, terrible, and infernal."
+
+From all this it is clear that the strife between the Indians and
+the Europeans was beginning to be serious. Columbus sailed again
+towards the north, going in the midst of islands "pleasant and
+innumerable," covered with forests overshadowed by mountains of
+various hues. This collection of islands was called the Archipelago
+of the Eleven Thousand Virgins. Soon appeared the island of St. John
+Baptist (now Porto Rico), a place infested by Caribbees, but
+cultivated with care, and appearing truly superb from its immense
+woods. Some sailors landed upon the shore, but only found there a
+dozen uninhabited huts. The admiral put to sea again, and sailed
+along the southern coast of Porto Rico for about one hundred and
+fifty miles.
+
+On Friday, the 12th of November, Columbus at last reached the island
+of Hispaniola. With what emotions must he not have been agitated in
+revisiting the theatre of his first success, in seeking to behold
+that fortress in which he had left his companions! What might not
+have happened in the course of a year to those Europeans left alone
+in this barbarous land? Soon a great canoe, bringing the brother of
+the Cacique Guacanagari, came alongside of the _Marie-Galante_, and
+the Indian prince springing on board, offered two images of gold to
+the admiral. Still Columbus sought for his fortress, but, although
+he had anchored opposite its site, there was no trace whatever to be
+seen of it. With feelings of the deepest anxiety as to the fate of
+his companions, he went on shore. What was his dismay, when he found
+nothing left of the fortress but a few ashes! What could have become
+of his compatriots? Had their lives been the forfeit of this first
+attempt at colonization? The admiral ordered the simultaneous
+discharge of the cannon from all the ships to announce his arrival
+at Hispaniola. But none of his companions appeared. Columbus, in
+despair, immediately despatched messengers to the Cacique
+Guacanagari; who, on their return brought sad news. If Guacanagari
+might be believed, some other caciques, irritated by the presence of
+the foreigners in their island, had attacked the unfortunate
+colonists, and had massacred them to the last man. Guacanagari
+himself had received a wound in endeavouring to defend them, and to
+corroborate his story he showed his leg enveloped in a cotton
+bandage.
+
+Columbus did not believe in this intervention of the cacique, but,
+resolving to dissimulate, he welcomed Guacanagari kindly when he
+came on board the next day; the cacique accepted an image of the
+Virgin, suspending it on his bosom. He appeared astonished at the
+sight of the horses which they showed him, these animals having been
+hitherto quite unknown to himself and his companions. When his visit
+was over, he returned to the shore, regained the region of mountains,
+and was seen no more.
+
+The admiral then despatched one of his captains with three hundred
+men under his orders, to scour the country and carry off the cacique.
+This captain penetrated far into the interior, but found no traces
+of the cacique, nor of the unfortunate colonists. During this
+excursion, a great river was discovered, and also a fine sheltered
+harbour, which was named Port Royal. However, in spite of the bad
+success of his first attempt, Columbus had resolved to found a new
+colony upon this island, which appeared to be rich both in gold and
+silver. The natives constantly spoke of mines situated in the
+province of Cibao, and in the month of January two gentlemen, Alonzo
+de Hojeda and Corvalan, set out accompanied by a numerous escort to
+verify these assertions. They discovered four rivers having
+auriferous sands, and brought back with them a nugget which weighed
+nine ounces. The admiral on seeing these riches was confirmed in his
+idea that Hispaniola was the famous Ophir, spoken of in the Book of
+Kings. After looking for a site upon which to build a town, he laid
+the foundation of Isabella in a spot at the mouth of a river which
+formed a harbour, and at a distance of thirty miles east from Monte
+Christi. On the Feast of the Epiphany, thirteen priests officiated
+in the church in presence of an immense crowd of natives.
+
+Columbus was now anxious to send news of the colony to the King and
+Queen of Spain. Twelve ships laden with gold collected in the island,
+and with various specimens of the produce of the soil, were prepared
+to return to Europe under the command of Captain Torres. This
+flotilla set sail on the 2nd of February, 1494, and a short time
+afterwards Columbus sent back one more of the five ships which
+remained to him, with the Lieutenant Bernard of Pisa, against whom
+he had cause of complaint.
+
+As soon as order was established in the colony of Isabella, the
+admiral, leaving his brother behind as governor, set out,
+accompanied by five hundred men, to visit the mines of Cibao. The
+country they traversed seemed to be splendidly fertile; vegetables
+came to perfection in thirteen days; corn sown in February was in
+full ear in April, and each year yielded two abundant harvests. They
+crossed successively mountains and valleys, where often the pick-axe
+had to be used to clear a way over these still virgin lands; at last
+the Spaniards arrived at Cibao. There the admiral caused a fort to
+be constructed of wood and stone on a hill near the brink of a large
+river; it was surrounded with a deep ditch, and Columbus bestowed
+upon it the name of St. Thomas, in derision of some of his officers
+who were incredulous upon the subject of the gold-mines. It ill
+became them to doubt, for from all parts the natives brought nuggets
+and gold dust, which they were eager to exchange for beads, and
+above all for the hawks' bells, of which the silvery sound excited
+them to dance. This country was not only a land of gold, it was also
+a country rich in spices and aromatic gums, the trees which bore
+them forming quite large forests. The Spaniards considered the
+conquest of this wealthy island a cause of unmixed congratulation.
+
+Columbus left fifty-six men to guard the Fort of St. Thomas, under
+the command of Don Pedro de Margarita, while he returned to Isabella,
+towards the beginning of April, being much hindered on the road by
+excessive rain. On his arrival he found the infant colony in great
+disorder; famine was threatening from the want of flour, which could
+not be obtained, for there were no mills; both soldiers and workmen
+were exhausted with fatigue. Columbus sought to oblige the gentlemen
+to aid them; but these proud Hidalgos, anxious as they were to
+conquer fortune, would not stoop to pick it up, and refused to
+perform any manual labour. The priests upholding them in this
+conduct, Columbus, who was forced to act with vigour, was obliged to
+place the churches under an interdict. He could not spare time to
+remain any longer at Isabella, but was in haste to make further
+discoveries; therefore, having formed a council, composed of three
+gentlemen and the chief of the missionaries, under the presidency of
+Don Diego, to govern the colony, he set out on the 24th of April
+with three vessels, to complete the cycle of his discoveries.
+
+The flotilla sailing towards the south, a new island was soon
+discovered, which was called by the natives Jamaica. The highest
+point of the island was a mountain of which the sides sloped gently
+down. The inhabitants appeared clever, and much given to the
+mechanical arts, but they were far from pacific in character, and
+several times opposed the landing of the Spaniards, who, however,
+repulsed them, and at length the savages were induced to conclude a
+treaty of alliance with the admiral. From Jamaica Columbus pushed
+his researches more towards the west. He imagined himself to be
+arrived at the point where the old geographers placed the golden
+region of the west, Chersonesus. Strong currents carried him towards
+Cuba, along whose coast he sailed for a distance of six hundred and
+sixty-six miles. During this dangerous navigation amongst shallows
+and narrow passages, he named more than seven hundred islands,
+discovered a great number of harbours, and often entered into
+communication with the natives.
+
+[Illustration: Fishermen on the coast of Cuba.]
+
+In the month of May, the look-out-men on board the ships descried a
+large number of grassy islands, fertile and inhabited. Columbus, on
+approaching the shore, entered a river, of which the water was so
+warm that the hand could not remain in it, a fact evidently of
+exaggeration, and one which later researches have not authenticated.
+The fishermen of this coast employed a certain fish called the
+Remora or sucking-fish, "which fulfilled for them the same office as
+the dog does for the hunter. This fish was of an unknown species,
+having a body like a great eel, and upon the back of his head a very
+tenacious skin, in fashion like a purse, wherewith to take the
+fishes. They keep this fish fastened by a cord to the boat, always
+in the water, for it cannot bear the _look_ of the air. And when
+they see a fish or a turtle, which there are larger than great
+bucklers, then they loose the fish by slackening the rope. And when
+he feels himself at liberty, suddenly, and more rapidly than the
+flight of an arrow, he (the remora) assails the said fish or turtle,
+throws over him his skin in the manner of a purse, and holds his
+prey so firmly, be it fish or turtle, by the part visible beyond the
+shell, that none can wrest it from him, if he be not drawn to the
+surface of the water; the cord is therefore pulled up, and gathered
+in little by little; and no sooner does he see the splendour of the
+air, than incontinent he lets go of his prey. And the fishermen
+descend as far as is necessary to take the prey, and they put it on
+board the boat, and fasten the fish-hunter with as much of rope as
+is necessary for him to regain his old position and place; then, by
+means of another rope, they give him for reward a small piece of the
+flesh of his prey."
+
+The exploration of the coasts continued towards the west. The
+admiral visited several countries, in which abounded goslings, ducks,
+herons, and those dumb dogs which the natives eat, as we should kids,
+and which were probably either almigui or racoons. As the ships
+advanced, the sandy channels became narrower and narrower, and
+navigation more and more difficult, but the admiral adhered to his
+resolution of continuing the exploration of these coasts. One day,
+he imagined he saw upon a point of land some men dressed in white,
+whom he took for brothers of the order of Santa Maria de la Merced;
+he sent some sailors to open communication with them, when it proved
+to be simply an optical illusion; these so-called monks turning out
+to be great tropical herons, to whom distance had lent the
+appearance of human beings.
+
+During the first days of June, Columbus was obliged to stop to
+repair the ships, of which the keels were much damaged by the
+shallow water on the coast. On the seventh day of the month he
+caused a solemn mass to be celebrated on the shore: during the
+service an old cacique arrived, who, the ceremony being over,
+offered the admiral some fruits, and then this native sovereign
+pronounced some words which the interpreters thus translated:--
+
+"It hath been told us after what manner thou hast invested and
+enveloped with thy power these lands, which were to you unknown, and
+how thy presence has caused great terror to the people and the
+inhabitants. But I hold it my duty to exhort and to warn thee that
+two roads present themselves before the souls, when they are
+separated from the bodies: the one, filled with shadows and sadness
+destined for those who are harmful and hurtful to the human species;
+the other, pleasant and delightful, reserved for those who in their
+life-time have loved peace and the repose of the people. Therefore,
+if thou rememberest that thou art mortal, and that the future
+retribution will be meted out according to the works of the present
+life, thou wilt take care to do harm to nobody." What philosopher of
+ancient or modern time could have spoken better or in sounder
+language! All the human side of Christianity is expressed in these
+magnificent words, and they came from the mouth of a savage!
+Columbus and the cacique separated, charmed with one another, and
+the more astonished of the two was not, perhaps, the old native. The
+rest of his tribe appeared to live in the practice of the excellent
+precepts indicated by their chief. Land was common property amongst
+the natives, as much so as sun, air, and water. The Meum and Tuum,
+cause of all strife, did not exist amongst them, and they lived
+content with little. "They enjoy the Golden Age," says the narrative,
+"they protect not their possessions with ditches and hedges, they
+leave their gardens open; without laws, without books, without
+judges, they by nature follow what is right, and hold as bad and
+unjust whatever sins against, or causes harm to another."
+
+Leaving Cuba, Columbus returned towards Jamaica, and sailed along
+the whole of the southern coast as far as the eastern extremity of
+the island. His intention was to attack the islands of the Caribbees,
+and destroy that mischievous brood. But the admiral was at this time
+seized with an illness, brought on by watching and fatigue, which
+obliged him to suspend his projects. He was forced to return to
+Isabella, where, under the influence of good air and repose, and the
+care of his brother and his friends, he recovered his health. The
+colony greatly needed his presence. The governor of St. Thomas had
+aroused the indignation of the natives by his cruel exactions, and
+had refused to listen to the remonstrances upon the subject
+addressed to him by Don Diego, the brother of Columbus; he had
+returned to Isabella from St. Thomas during the absence of the
+admiral and he embarked for Spain upon one of the ships which had
+just brought Don Bartolomeo, the second brother of Columbus, to
+Hispaniola. When the admiral regained his health he resolved to
+punish the cacique who had revolted against the governor of St.
+Thomas, feeling that it would be unwise to allow his authority, in
+the person of his delegates, to be set at nought. In the first place
+he sent nine men well armed to take prisoner a bold cacique named
+Caonabo. The leader Hojeda, with an intrepidity of which we shall
+have further instances in the future, carried off the cacique from
+the midst of his own people, and brought him prisoner to Isabella.
+Columbus afterwards sent Caonabo to Europe, but the ship in which he
+sailed was wrecked during the voyage, and he was never heard of more.
+
+In the meantime, Antonio de Torres, sent by the King and Queen of
+Spain to compliment Columbus in their names, arrived at San Domingo
+with four vessels. Ferdinand declared himself highly content with
+the successes of the admiral, and informed him that he was about to
+establish a monthly service of transport between Spain and
+Hispaniola.
+
+The carrying off of Caonabo had excited a general revolt amongst the
+natives, who burned to revenge the chief, so deeply insulted and
+unjustly carried away. The Cacique Guacanagari, notwithstanding the
+share he had had in the murder of the first colonists, alone
+remained faithful to the Spaniards. Columbus, accompanied by his
+brother Bartolomeo and the cacique, marched against the rebels and
+soon met with an army of natives, the numbers of which, with
+manifest exaggeration, he places at 100,000 men. However numerous it
+may have been, this army was quickly routed by a small detachment,
+composed of 200 infantry, twenty-five cavalry, and twenty-five dogs.
+This victory to all appearance re-established the admiral's
+authority. The Indians were condemned to pay tribute to the
+Spaniards, those living near the mines were ordered to furnish every
+three months a small quantity of gold, while the others, more
+distant, were to contribute twenty-five pounds of cotton. But
+rebellion had been only curbed, not extinguished. At the voice of a
+woman, Anacaona, widow of Caonabo, the natives rose a second time;
+and even succeeded in drawing over the hitherto faithful Guacanagari
+to their side; the rebels destroyed all the fields of maize, and
+everything else which had been planted, and then retired into the
+mountains. The Spaniards, seeing themselves thus reduced to all the
+horrors of famine, indulged their anger by terrible reprisals
+against the natives; it is calculated that one-third of the island
+population perished from hunger, sickness, and the weapons of the
+companions of Columbus. These unfortunate Indians paid dearly indeed
+for their intercourse with the conquering Europeans.
+
+The good fortune of Columbus was by this time on the wane. While his
+authority in Hispaniola was continually more and more compromised,
+his reputation and his character were the objects of violent attack
+in Europe. The officers whom he had sent back to the mother country,
+loudly accused him of injustice and cruelty; they even insinuated
+that he sought to render himself independent of the king; and
+against all these attacks, Columbus, being absent, could not defend
+himself. Ferdinand, influenced by this unworthy discourse, chose a
+commissioner, whom he ordered to proceed to the West Indies and to
+examine into the truth of the accusations. This gentleman was named
+Juan d'Aguado, and the choice of such a man to fulfil such a mission,
+possessing as he did a mind both prejudiced and partial, was not a
+happy one. Aguado arrived at Isabella in the month of October, at
+the time when the admiral was absent on an exploring expedition, and
+began at once to treat the brother of Columbus with extreme
+haughtiness, while Diego on his side, relying upon his title of
+governor-general, refused to submit to the commands of the royal
+commissioner. Aguado soon considered himself ready to return to
+Spain, although the examination he had made was a most incomplete
+one, when a fearful hurricane occurred, which sank the vessels which
+had brought him over in the harbour. There now remained only two
+caravels at Hispaniola, but Columbus, who had returned to the colony,
+acting with a greatness of soul which cannot be too much admired,
+placed one of these ships at the disposal of the commissioner, with
+the proviso that he himself would embark in the other, to plead his
+cause in person before the king.
+
+So matters stood, when the news arriving of the discovery of fresh
+gold-mines in Hispaniola, caused the admiral to put off his
+departure. Covetousness was a power strong enough to cut short all
+discussions; there was no longer any mention of the King of Spain,
+nor of the inquiry which he had ordered; officers were sent off to
+the new auriferous ground, finding there nuggets of which some
+weighed as much as twenty ounces, and a lump of amber of the weight
+of 300 pounds. Columbus ordered two fortresses to be erected for the
+protection of the miners, one on the boundary of the province of
+Cibao, the other upon the banks of the River Hayna. Having taken
+this precaution, he set out for Europe, full of eagerness to justify
+himself. The two caravels sailed from the harbour of St. Isabella on
+the 10th of March, 1496. On board of the admiral's ship were 225
+persons and thirty Indians. On the 9th of April he touched at
+Marie-Galante, and on the 10th at Guadaloupe, to take in water; here
+there occurred a sharp skirmish with the natives. On the 20th he
+left this inhospitable island, and for a whole month he had to
+contend with contrary winds. On the 11th of June land was sighted in
+Europe, and on the next day the caravels entered the harbour of
+Cadiz.
+
+This second return of the great navigator was not welcomed, as the
+first had been, by the acclamations of the populace. To enthusiasm
+had succeeded coldness and envy; the companions even of the admiral
+took part against him. Discouraged as they were, with illusions
+destroyed, and not bringing back that wealth, for the acquisition of
+which they had encountered so many dangers, and submitted to so much
+fatigue, they became unjust, and forgot that it was not the fault of
+Columbus if the mines hitherto worked had been a source of expense
+rather than of profit.
+
+However, the admiral was received at court with a certain measure of
+favour, the narrative of his second voyage doing much to reinstate
+him in public opinion. And who could deny that during that
+expedition he had discovered the islands of Dominica, Marie-Galante,
+Guadaloupe, Montserrat, Santa-Maria, Santa Cruz, Porto Rico,
+Jamaica? Had he not also carried out a new survey of Cuba and San
+Domingo? Columbus fought bravely against his adversaries, even
+employing against them the weapon of irony. To those who denied the
+merit of his discoveries, he proposed the experiment of making an
+egg remain upright while resting upon one end, and when they could
+not succeed in doing this, the admiral, breaking the top of the
+shell, made the egg stand upon the broken part. "You had not thought
+of that," said he; "but behold! it is done."
+
+
+IV.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
+
+Third Voyage: Madeira--Santiago in the Cape Verd Archipelago--
+Trinidad--First sight of the American Coast in Venezuela, beyond the
+Orinoco, now the Province of Cumana--Gulf of Paria--The Gardens--
+Tobago--Grenada--Margarita--Cubaga--Hispaniola during the absence of
+Columbus--Foundation of the town of San Domingo--Arrival of
+Columbus--Insubordination in the Colony--Complaints in Spain--
+Bovadilla sent by the king to inquire into the conduct of Columbus--
+Columbus sent to Europe in fetters with his two brothers--His
+appearance before Ferdinand and Isabella--Renewal of royal favour.
+
+
+Columbus had not yet given up the hope of pursuing his conquests on
+the further side of the Atlantic Ocean. No fatigue, no injustice
+from his fellow-men could stop him. After having triumphed, although
+not without difficulty, over the malice of his enemies, he succeeded
+in organizing a third expedition under the auspices of the Spanish
+government. The king granted him eight vessels, forty cavalry
+soldiers, and one hundred infantry, sixty sailors, twenty miners,
+fifty labourers, twenty workmen of various trades, thirty women,
+some doctors, and even some musicians. The admiral obtained the
+concession besides, that all the punishments in use in Spain should
+be changed into transportation to the islands. He was thus the
+precursor of the English in the intelligent idea of peopling new
+colonies with convicts, whom labour was to reform.
+
+[Illustration: Embarkation of Christopher Columbus.]
+
+Columbus put to sea on the 30th of May, 1498, although he was still
+suffering from gout, and from the various mental trials which he had
+experienced since his return. Before starting, he learnt that a
+French fleet was lying in wait off Cape St. Vincent, with the
+purpose of hindering the expedition. To avoid it, Columbus made for
+Madeira, and anchored there; from that island he dispatched all his
+vessels, except three, to Hispaniola under the command of the
+Captains Pedro de Arana, Alonzo Sanchez of Carabajal, and Juan
+Antonio Columbus, one of his own relations, while he, with a large
+ship and two caravels bore down to the south with the intention of
+crossing the equator, and seeking for more southern countries, which,
+according to the general opinion, must be even richer in all kinds
+of productions. On the 27th of June the small flotilla touched at
+the islands of Sel and of Santiago, which form part of the Cape Verd
+group. It sailed again on the 4th of July, and made 360 miles to the
+south-west, experiencing long calms and intense heat; on arriving
+abreast of Sierra Leone, it steered due west, and at mid-day on the
+31st of July, one of the sailors raised the cry of "land." It was an
+island situated at the north-eastern extremity of South America, and
+very near the coast. The admiral gave it the name of Trinidad, and
+all the crews chanted the _Salve Regina_ in sign of thankfulness. On
+the morrow, the 1st of August, at fifteen miles from the part of the
+land which had been first seen, the three vessels were moored near
+to the Point of Alcatraz, and the admiral sent some of his sailors
+ashore to obtain water and wood. The coast appeared to be
+uninhabited, but numerous footprints of animals were observed, made,
+as was thought, by goats.
+
+On the 2nd of August a long canoe, manned by twenty-four natives,
+came towards the ships. These Indians, tall of stature, and paler in
+colour than those of Hispaniola, wore upon the head a turban formed
+of a cotton scarf of brilliant colours, and a small skirt of the
+same material around the body. The Spaniards endeavoured to entice
+them on board, by showing them mirrors and glass trinkets; the
+sailors even executing lively dances, in the hope of inspiring them
+with confidence; but the savages, taking fright at the sound of a
+tambourine, which seemed to them a sign of hostility, discharged a
+flight of arrows, and directed their canoe towards one of the
+caravels, whose pilot endeavoured to reassure them by steering
+towards them; but in vain, the canoe soon made off, and was seen no
+more.
+
+Columbus again set sail, and discovered a new island which he called
+Gracia; but what he imagined to be an island, was, in reality, a
+portion of the American coast, and that part of the shore of
+Venezuela, which, being intersected by the numerous branches of the
+Orinoco, forms the Delta of that river. On this day the Continent of
+America, although unknown to him, was really discovered by
+Christopher Columbus, in that part of Venezuela which goes by the
+name of the Province of Cumana. Between this coast and the Island of
+Trinidad there is a dangerous gulf, the Gulf of Paria, in which a
+ship can with difficulty resist the currents which flow towards the
+west with great rapidity. The admiral, who believed himself to be in
+the open sea, was exposed to great peril in this gulf, where the
+rivers, falling into the sea from the continent, and being swollen
+at that time by an accidental flood, poured great masses of water
+upon the ships. Columbus, in writing to the king and queen,
+describes this incident in the following terms:--
+
+"Being up on deck, at an advanced hour of the night, I heard a kind
+of terrible roaring; I tried to see through the darkness, and all at
+once I beheld a sea like a hill, as high as the ship, advancing
+slowly from the south towards my vessels. Opposing this great wave
+was a current, which met it with a frightful noise. I had no doubt
+then that we should be engulfed, and even now the remembrance causes
+me a feeling of horror. By good fortune, however, the current and
+the wave passed us, going towards the mouth of the canal, where,
+after long strife, they gradually sank to rest."
+
+[Illustration: GULF OF MEXICO AND THE ANTILLES. After the Map of
+Theodore de Bry.]
+
+Notwithstanding the difficulties of the navigation, Columbus
+continued to explore this sea, of which the waters became gradually
+calmer as he sailed northwards; he discovered various headlands, one
+of them was to the east of the Island of Trinidad, and called the
+Cape of Pera Blanca. Another was on the west of the promontory of
+Paria, and named Cape Lapa. Several harbours were also noticed,
+amongst others one situated at the mouth of the Orinoco, to which
+was given the name of the Port of Monkeys. Columbus landed on the
+shore, west of Point Cumana, and received a kindly welcome from the
+numerous inhabitants. Towards the west, beyond the point of Alcatraz,
+the country was magnificent, and there according to the natives,
+much gold and pearls were to be obtained. Here the admiral would
+gladly have remained for some time if he could have found a safe
+anchorage. But as this was impossible, he felt it best to make for
+Port Isabella, especially as his crews were worn down by fatigue,
+and his own health much affected, besides the sufferings he
+experienced from the bad state of his eyesight. So he sailed onwards
+along the Venezuelan coast, making friends as far as possible with
+the natives. These Indians were agreeable in feature, and of
+magnificent physique; their dwellings displayed a certain amount of
+taste, their houses being built with facades in front, and
+containing articles of furniture ingeniously made. The natives wore
+plates of gold as ornaments upon their necks. As to the country, it
+was superb; the rivers, the mountains, the immense forests made it a
+real land of delight. So the admiral gave this beautiful country the
+name of Gracia, and by many arguments he tried to prove that in this
+spot was situated that terrestrial Paradise once inhabited by Adam
+and Eve, being the cradle of the whole human race. To explain to a
+certain degree this idea of the great navigator, we must not forget
+that he imagined himself all this time to be on the shores of Asia.
+This spot which delighted him so much, he called "the Gardens."
+
+On the 23rd of August, after having at the expense of much danger
+and fatigue, overcome the perils of this bay, Columbus issued from
+the Gulf of Paria by the narrow strait to which he gave the name,
+retained to this day, of the Dragon's Mouth. Arrived in the open sea,
+the Spaniards discovered the Island of Tobago situated to the
+north-east of Trinidad, and then, more to the north, the Island of
+Conception, now known as Grenada. They next steered to the
+south-west and returned towards the American coast; after sailing
+along which for 120 miles, they discovered, on the 25th of August,
+the populous Island of Margarita, and afterwards the Island of
+Cubaga, situated very close to the mainland. At this place the
+natives had established a pearl-fishery, and busied themselves in
+collecting this valuable product. Columbus sent a boat on shore,
+when a very profitable traffic was carried on, the natives giving in
+exchange for broken pottery or hawks' bells, pounds' weight of
+pearls, some of which were very large, and of the finest water.
+
+[Illustration: Pearl-fishers.]
+
+The admiral stopped at this point of his discoveries; the temptation
+was strong to explore this country, but both officers and crews were
+exhausted. Orders were therefore given to start for San Domingo,
+where matters of the gravest moment demanded the presence of
+Columbus. Before his departure from Hispaniola he had authorized his
+brother to lay the foundations of a new town. With this end Don
+Bartolomeo had explored the different portions of the island, and
+having discovered at the distance of 150 miles from Isabella a
+magnificent harbour at the mouth of a fine river, he there marked
+out the first streets of a town which became later on the city of
+San Domingo. Here Don Bartolomeo fixed his residence, while Don
+Diego remained as Governor of Isabella. By this arrangement
+Columbus' two brothers had the whole administration of the colony in
+their hands. But there were many malcontents who were ready to
+revolt against their authority, and it was while this bad spirit was
+abroad that the admiral arrived at San Domingo. He approved of all
+that his brothers had done, their administration having been in fact,
+marked by great wisdom, and he published a proclamation recalling to
+their obedience the Spaniards who had revolted. On the 18th of
+October he despatched five ships to Spain, and with them an officer
+commissioned to inform the king of the new discoveries, and of the
+state of the colony, endangered by the fomenters of disorder.
+
+Meanwhile, the affairs of Columbus had taken a bad turn in Europe.
+Since his departure calumnies against himself and his brothers had
+been ever on the increase. Some rebels who had been expelled the
+colony, denounced the encroaching dynasty of the Columbus family,
+thus exciting the jealousy of a vain and ungrateful monarch. Even
+the queen, until now the constant patroness of the Genoese navigator,
+was indignant at the arrival on board the vessels of three hundred
+Indians who had been torn from their country, and who were treated
+as slaves. Isabella did not know that this abuse of power had been
+carried out unknown to Columbus and during his absence; he was held
+responsible for it, and to inquire into his conduct, the Court sent
+to Hispaniola a commander of the order of Calatrava, named Francis
+de Bovadilla, to whom were given the titles of Governor-general, and
+Intendant of Justice. He was in reality meant to supersede Columbus.
+Bovadilla, invested with discretionary powers, set out with two
+caravels towards the end of June, 1500. On the 23rd of August, the
+colonists sighted the two ships, which were then endeavouring to
+enter the harbour of San Domingo.
+
+At this time Christopher Columbus and his brother Bartolomeo were
+absent, engaged in superintending the erection of a fort in the
+province of Xaragua; Don Diego was commanding in their absence.
+Bovadilla landed and went to hear mass, displaying during the
+ceremony a very significant ostentation; then, having summoned Don
+Diego before him, he ordered him to resign his office into his hands.
+The admiral, warned by a messenger of what was occurring, arrived in
+great haste. He examined the letters patent brought by Bovadilla,
+and having read them, he declared his willingness to recognize him
+as intendant of justice, but not as governor-general of the colony.
+
+Then Bovadilla gave him a letter from the king and queen, couched in
+the following terms:--
+
+"Don Christopher Columbus, our Admiral in the ocean,
+
+"We have ordered Commander Don Francis Bovadilla to explain to you
+our intentions. We command you to give credit to, and to execute,
+whatever he shall order on our part.
+
+                                "I, THE KING, I, THE QUEEN."
+
+In this letter, the title of Viceroy appertaining to Columbus by the
+solemn conventions signed by Ferdinand and Isabella, was not even
+mentioned. Columbus, suppressing his just indignation, quietly
+submitted. Then arose against the fallen admiral a whole host of
+false friends. All those who owed their fortune to Columbus turned
+against him; accusing him of having desired to render himself
+independent. Foolish calumnies! How could this idea have occurred to
+the mind of a foreigner, a Genoese, alone in the midst of a Spanish
+colony!
+
+Bovadilla found the moment propitious for harsh measures. Don Diego
+was already imprisoned, and the governor soon ordered Don Bartolomeo
+and Christopher Columbus himself to be put in fetters. The admiral,
+accused of high treason, was placed with his two brothers on board a
+vessel bound for Spain, under the command of Alphonso de Villejo.
+That officer, a man of feeling, and ashamed of the treatment to
+which Columbus was exposed, wished to strike off his chains; but
+Columbus refused. He, the conqueror of a new world, would arrive
+loaded with chains in that kingdom of Spain, which he had so greatly
+enriched!
+
+[Illustration: Columbus bound like a felon.]
+
+The admiral judged rightly in thus acting, for public opinion was
+revolted by the sight of him in this depth of humiliation, bound
+like a felon, and treated as a criminal. Gratitude towards the man
+of genius asserted itself against the bad passions which had been so
+unjustly excited, and there arose a cry of indignation against
+Bovadilla. The king and queen, swayed by the feelings of the people,
+loudly blamed the conduct of the commander, and addressed an
+affectionate letter to Columbus, inviting him to present himself at
+court.
+
+Thus a bright day again dawned for Columbus. He appeared before
+Ferdinand, not as the accused, but as himself the accuser; then, his
+fortitude giving way under the remembrance of the unworthy treatment
+he had experienced, this unfortunate great man wept, and caused
+those around to weep with him. He pointed proudly to the story of
+his life. He showed himself to be almost without resources, he whom
+they accused of ambition, and of enriching himself out of the
+government of the colony! Verily, the man who had made the discovery
+of a world, did not possess a roof to shelter his own head!
+
+Isabella, ever good and compassionate, wept in company with the old
+sailor, and for sometime could not make him any answer, so choked
+was she with her tears. At length she was able to utter some
+affectionate words; in assuring Columbus of her protection, she
+promised to avenge him of his enemies; she excused the bad choice
+they had made in sending this Bovadilla to the islands, and she
+declared he should expiate his guilt by an exemplary punishment. In
+addition, she desired the admiral to allow some time to elapse
+before returning to his government, in order that the minds
+prejudiced against him might return to sentiments of honour and
+justice.
+
+The mind of Christopher Columbus was calmed by the gracious words of
+the queen; he showed himself content with his reception, and
+admitted the necessity of the delay enjoined upon him by Isabella.
+The chief wish of his heart was again to serve his adopted country
+and its sovereigns, and he sketched out grand designs of what still
+remained to be attempted in the way of discovery. His third voyage,
+in spite of its short duration, had not been without fruit, but had
+enriched the map with such new names as Trinidad, the Gulf of Paria,
+the coast of Cumana, the Islands of Tobago, of Grenada, of Margarita,
+and of Cubaga.
+
+
+V.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
+
+Fourth Voyage: A Flotilla of four vessels--Canary Islands--
+Martinique--Dominica--Santa-Cruz--Porto-Rico--Hispaniola--Jamaica--
+Cayman Island--Pinos Island--Island of Guanaja--Cape Honduras--The
+American Coast of Truxillo on the Gulf of Darien--The Limonare
+Islands--Huerta--The Coast of Veragua--Auriferous Strata--Revolt of
+the Natives--The Dream of Columbus--Porto-Bello--The Mulatas--
+Putting into port at Jamaica--Distress--Revolt of the Spaniards
+against Columbus--Lunar Eclipse--Arrival of Columbus at Hispaniola--
+Return of Columbus to Spain--His death, on the 20th of March, 1506.
+
+
+Christopher Columbus saw himself now reinstated in favour, as he
+deserved to be, at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. Perhaps the
+king may have still evinced a certain degree of coldness towards him,
+but the queen was his avowed and enthusiastic protectress. His
+official title as viceroy had not, however, been restored to him,
+but the admiral, with his usual magnanimity, did not demand it. He
+had the satisfaction of seeing Bovadilla deposed, partly for his
+abuse of power, and partly because his conduct towards the Indians
+had become atrocious; his inhuman proceedings towards them being
+pushed to such a length, that under his administration the native
+population of Hispaniola, sensibly decreased.
+
+During this time the island began to fulfil the hopes of Columbus,
+who had prophesied that in three years the crown would derive from
+it a revenue of sixty millions. Gold was obtained in abundance from
+the best worked mines; a slave had dug up on the banks of the Hayna,
+a mass, equal in weight to 3600 golden crowns; it was easy to
+foresee that the new colonies would yield incalculable riches.
+
+The admiral, who could not bear to remain inactive, earnestly
+demanded to be sent on a fourth voyage, although he was by this time
+sixty-six years of age. In support of his request he adduced some
+very plausible reasons. One year before the return of Columbus, the
+Portuguese navigator, Vasco da Gama, had returned from the Indies,
+after having doubled the Cape of Good Hope. Columbus felt certain
+that by sailing to India by the much safer and shorter western route,
+the Spaniards might enter into profitable competition with the
+Portuguese traders. He constantly maintained, believing as he did
+that he had been alongside the Asiatic territory, that the islands
+and continents discovered by him were only separated by a strait
+from the Moluccas. He therefore wished, without even returning to
+Hispaniola and the colonies already settled, to direct his course at
+once to the Indies. It is evident that the ex-Viceroy had again
+become the hardy navigator of his earlier years. The king agreed to
+the admiral's request, and placed him in command of a flotilla
+composed of four vessels, the _Santiago_, _Gallego_, _Vizcaino_, and
+a caravel, as admiral's galley. These ships were of small tonnage,
+the largest being only of seventy tons, and the smallest of fifty;
+they were in fact, little better than coasting-vessels.
+
+Columbus left Cadiz on the 9th of May, 1502, with crews numbering in
+all 150 men. He took with him his brother Bartolomeo, and his son
+Fernando, the child of his second marriage, and at this time
+scarcely thirteen years old. On the 20th of May, the vessels stopped
+at Gran Canaria, and on the 15th of June arrived at Martinique, one
+of the Windward Islands; afterwards they touched at Dominica,
+Santa-Cruz, and Porto-Rico, and at length, after a prosperous voyage,
+reached Hispaniola, on the 29th of June. The intention of Columbus,
+acting on the queen's advice, was not to land upon the island whence
+he had been so unworthily expelled; but his badly-constructed ship
+was scarcely sea-worthy, and repairs to the keel were greatly needed.
+Therefore the admiral demanded permission of the governor to enter
+the harbour.
+
+The new governor, successor to Bovadilla, was a just and moderate
+man, a knight of the order of Alcantara, named Nicholas Ovando. His
+excessive caution, however, made him fear that the presence of
+Columbus in the colony might be a cause of disorder; he therefore
+thought it right to refuse the request. The admiral concealed the
+indignation which such treatment could not but cause him, and
+returned good for evil, by offering wise counsel to the governor in
+the following instance. The fleet which was to take Bovadilla back
+to Europe, and to bear with it, besides the enormous lump of gold
+already mentioned, other treasures of great value, was ready to put
+to sea. But the weather was very threatening, and Columbus, with a
+sailor's penetration, having observed the signs of an approaching
+storm, implored the governor not to expose the ships and passengers
+to such danger. Ovando would not listen to the advice, and the ships
+put to sea; scarcely had they reached the eastern point of the
+island before a terrible hurricane arose, causing twenty-one of the
+ships to founder with all on board. Bovadilla was drowned, and with
+him the greater part of the enemies of Columbus, but by an exception
+which may be called providential, the ship which carried the poor
+remains of the admiral's fortune, escaped destruction. In this storm
+ten millions' worth of gold and precious stones was engulfed by the
+ocean.
+
+Meanwhile, the four caravels of Columbus, denied access to the
+harbour, had been driven before the storm. They were separated one
+from the other, and disabled, but they succeeded in meeting together
+again, and by the 14th of July, the squall had carried them within
+sight of Jamaica. Arrived there, strong currents bore them towards
+the islands called the Queen's Garden, and then in the direction of
+east-south-east. The little flotilla contended for sixty days
+against the wind without making more than 210 miles, and at length
+was driven towards the coast of Cuba, which led to the discovery of
+Cayman and Pinos Islands.
+
+Columbus then steered to the south-west, sailing upon seas hitherto
+unvisited by any European ship, and throwing himself once more into
+the course of discovery with all the passionate ardour of a
+navigator. Chance conducted him towards the southern coast of
+America; he discovered the island of Guanaja, on the 30th of July,
+and on the 14th of August he touched at Cape Honduras, that narrow
+strip of land, which, prolonged by the Isthmus of Panama, unites the
+two continents of America. Thus, for the second time Columbus,
+without being aware of it, approached the real soil of America. For
+more than nine months he followed the windings of these shores, in
+the face of all kinds of perils and difficulties, and succeeded in
+laying down the chart of the coast from the part since named
+Truxillo, as far as the Gulf of Darien. Each night he cast anchor,
+that he might not be driven far from the shore, and at length
+reached that eastern extremity of the coast where it ends abruptly
+in the Cape Gracias a Dios.
+
+This cape was doubled on the 14th of September, but the ships
+encountered contrary winds so violent, that even the admiral,
+himself the oldest sailor of the crews, had never before experienced
+the like. He relates this terrible episode in his letter to the king
+of Spain in the following terms: "During eighty-four days the waves
+continued their assaults, nor did my eyes perceive sun, nor stars,
+nor any planet; the seams of my vessels gaped, my sails were torn;
+tackle, boats, rigging, all were lost; my sailors, ill and
+frightened, devoted themselves to the pious duties of religion; no
+one failed to promise pilgrimages, and all confessed to each other,
+thinking that each moment might prove their last. I have seen many
+tempests, but never have I experienced any of such duration and
+violence. Many of my men who passed for intrepid sailors, lost
+courage; but that which broke my heart, was the pain of my son,
+whose tender age added to my despair, and whom I saw the prey of
+greater suffering, greater torments, than fell to the lot of any one
+amongst us; but it was doubtless no other than God, who bestowed
+upon him such energy, that it was He alone who animated the courage,
+and reawakened the patience of the sailors under their severe toil;
+in a word, looking upon him, one might have fancied him a sailor who
+had grown old in contending with storms, an astonishing fact, almost
+incredible, but one which awakened some gleam of joy amidst the
+sorrows which overwhelmed me. I was ill, and several times I thought
+my last hour was near.... To complete my misery comes the thought
+that twenty years of service, of fatigues and perils, have brought
+me no profit, and I find myself to-day unpossessed of even a roof to
+shelter me in Spain, and forced to betake myself to an inn when I
+would obtain repose or food; and when there I often find myself
+unable to pay my reckoning." Do not these lines indicate clearly the
+intensity of sorrow which overwhelmed the soul of Columbus? In the
+midst of such dangers and anxieties, how could he preserve the
+energy needful to command an expedition?
+
+Throughout the duration of the storm, the ships had been following
+the line of coast which successively bears the names of Honduras,
+Mosquito, Nicaragua, Costa-Rica, Veragua, and Panama, the twelve
+Limonare Islands being also discovered at this time, and at last, on
+the 25th of September, Columbus cast anchor between the small island
+of Huerta and the continent. On the 5th of October he again set sail,
+and after having taken the bearings of the Bay of Almirante, he
+anchored opposite to the village of Cariaz. There he remained until
+the 15th of October, the repairs of the vessels meanwhile going
+actively forward.
+
+Columbus now believed himself to be arrived near the mouth of the
+Ganges, and from the natives speaking of a certain province of
+Ciguare, which was surrounded by the sea, he felt himself confirmed
+in this opinion. They declared that it was a country containing rich
+gold-mines, of which the most important was situated seventy-five
+miles to the south. When the admiral again set sail, he followed the
+wooded coast of Veragua, where the Indians appeared to be very wild.
+On the 26th of November, the flotilla entered the harbour of El
+Retrete, which is now the port of Escribanos. The ships battered by
+the winds, were now in a most miserable plight; it was absolutely
+necessary to repair the damage they had sustained, and for this
+purpose to prolong the stay at El Retrete. Upon quitting this
+harbour Columbus was met by a storm even more dreadful than those
+which had preceded it: "During nine days," he says, "I remained
+without hope of being saved. Never did any man see a more violent or
+terrible sea; it was covered with foam, the wind permitted no ships
+to advance, nor to steer towards any cape; I was kept in that sea,
+of which the waves seemed to be of blood, and the surges boiled as
+though heated by fire. Never have I seen so appalling an aspect of
+the heavens: on fire during one whole day and night like a furnace,
+they sent forth thunder and flame incessantly, and I feared each
+moment that the masts and sails would be carried away. The growling
+of the thunder was so horrible that it appeared sufficient to crush
+our vessels; and during the whole time the rain fell with such
+violence that one could scarcely call it rain, but rather a second
+Deluge. My sailors, overcome by so much trouble and suffering,
+prayed for death as putting a term to their miseries; my ships
+opened in all directions, and boats, anchors, ropes, and sails were
+once again lost."
+
+During this long and painful navigation, the admiral had sailed one
+thousand and fifty miles. His crews were by this time quite
+exhausted; he was therefore obliged to turn back and to regain the
+river of Veragua, but not being able to find safe shelter there for
+his ships, he went a short distance off to the mouth of Bethlehem
+river, now called the Yebra, in which he cast anchor on the feast of
+the Epiphany in the year 1503. On the morrow the tempest was again
+renewed, and on the 24th of January, a sudden increase of water in
+the river caused the cables which held the ships to snap, and the
+vessels were only saved with great trouble.
+
+In spite of all this, the admiral, who never forgot the principal
+object of his mission in these new countries, had succeeded in
+establishing regular intercourse with the natives. The cacique of
+Bethlehem showed a friendly disposition, and pointed out a country
+fifteen miles inland, where he said the gold-mines were very rich.
+On the 6th of February, Columbus despatched a force of seventy men
+to the spot indicated, under the command of his brother Bartolomeo.
+After travelling through a very undulating country, watered by
+rivers so winding that one of them had to be crossed thirty-nine
+times, the Spaniards arrived at the auriferous tracts. They were
+immense, and extended quite out of sight. Gold was so abundant that
+one man alone could collect enough of it in ten days to fill a
+measure. In four hours, Bartolomeo and his men had picked up gold to
+an enormous amount. They returned to the admiral, who, when he heard
+their narrative, resolved to settle upon this coast, and to have
+some wooden barracks constructed.
+
+[Illustration: Gold-mines in Cuba. _From an old print_.]
+
+The mines of this region were indeed of incomparable richness; they
+appeared to be inexhaustible, and quite made Columbus forget Cuba
+and San Domingo. His letter to King Ferdinand evinces his enthusiasm
+on the subject; one may feel some astonishment at reading the
+following sentiment from the pen of this great man, one indeed which
+is neither that of a philosopher nor of a Christian. "Gold! gold!
+excellent thing! It is from gold that spring riches! it is by means
+of gold that everything in the world is done, and its power suffices
+often to place souls in Paradise."
+
+The Spaniards set to work with ardour to store up this gold in their
+ships. Hitherto the relations with the natives had been peaceable,
+although these people were of fierce disposition. But after a time
+the cacique, irritated by the usurpation of the foreigners, resolved
+to murder them and burn their dwellings. One day the natives
+suddenly attacked the Spaniards in considerable force, and a very
+severe battle ensued, ending in the repulse of the Indians. The
+cacique had been taken prisoner with all his family, but he
+succeeded with his children in escaping from custody, and took
+refuge in the mountains in company with a great number of his
+followers. In the month of April, a considerable troop of the
+natives again attacked the Spaniards, who exterminated a large
+proportion of them.
+
+Meanwhile, the health of Columbus became more and more enfeebled;
+the wind failed him for quitting the harbour, and he was in despair.
+One day, exhausted by fatigue, he fell asleep, and heard a pitying
+voice which addressed him as follows:--words which shall be given
+verbatim, for they bear the imprint of that kind of ecstatic
+religious fervour which gives a finishing touch to the picture of
+the great navigator.
+
+"'O foolish man! why such unwillingness to believe in and to serve
+thy God, the God of the Universe? What did He more for Moses His
+servant, and for David? Since thy birth, has He not had for thee the
+most tender solicitude; and when he saw thee of an age in which His
+designs for thee could be matured, has He not made thy name resound
+gloriously through the world? Has He not bestowed upon thee the
+Indies, the richest part of the earth? Has He not set thee free to
+make an offering of them to Him according to thine own will? Who but
+He has lent thee the means of executing His designs? Bounds were
+placed at the entrance of the ocean; they were formed of chains
+which could not be broken through. To thee were given the keys. Thy
+power was recognized in distant lands, and thy glory was proclaimed
+by all Christians. Did God even show Himself more favourable to the
+people of Israel, when He rescued them from Egypt? Did He favour
+David more, when from a shepherd boy He made him king of Judah? Turn
+to Him, confessing thy fault, for His compassion is infinite. Thine
+old age will prove no obstacle in the great actions which await
+thee: He holds in His hands a heritage the most brilliant. Was not
+Abraham a hundred years old, and had not Sarah already passed the
+flower of her youth when Isaac was born? Thou seekest an uncertain
+help. Answer me: who has exposed thee so often to so many dangers?
+Is it God, or the world? God never withholds the blessings promised
+to His servants. It is not His manner after receiving a service to
+pretend that His intentions have not been carried out, and to give a
+new interpretation to His desires; it is not He who seeks to give to
+arbitrary acts a favourable colour. His words are to be taken
+literally; all that He promises He gives with usury. Thus does He
+ever. I have told thee all that the Creator has done for thee; at
+this very moment He is showing thee the prize and the reward of the
+perils and sufferings to which thou hast been exposed in the service
+of thy fellow-men.' And I listened to this voice, overcome though I
+were with suffering; but I could not muster strength to reply to
+these assured promises; I contented myself by deploring my fault
+with tears. The voice concluded with these words:--'Take confidence,
+hope on; the record of thy labours will, with justice, be engraved
+on marble.'"
+
+Columbus, as soon as he recovered, was anxious to leave this coast.
+He had desired to found a colony here, but his crews were not
+sufficiently numerous to justify the risk of leaving a part of them
+on land. The four caravels were full of worm-holes, and one of them
+had to be left behind at Bethlehem. On Easter day the admiral put to
+sea, but scarcely had he gone ninety miles before a leak was
+discovered in one of the ships; it was necessary to steer for the
+coast with all speed, and happily Porto-Bello was reached in safety,
+where the ship was abandoned, her injuries being irreparable. The
+flotilla consisted now of but two caravels, without boats, almost
+without provisions, and with 7000 miles of ocean to traverse. It
+sailed along the coast, passed the port of El Retrete, discovered
+the group of islands called the Mulatas, and at length entered the
+Gulf of Darien. This was the farthest point east reached by Columbus.
+
+On the 1st of May the admiral steered for Hispaniola; by the 10th he
+was in sight of the Cayman Islands, but he found it impossible to
+make head against the winds which drove him to the north-west nearly
+as far as Cuba. There, while in shallow water, he encountered a
+storm, during which anchors and sails were carried away, and the two
+ships came into collision during the night. The hurricane then drove
+them southwards, and the admiral at length reached Jamaica with his
+shattered vessels, casting anchor on the 23rd of June in the harbour
+of San-Gloria, now called the bay of Don Christopher. Columbus
+wished to have gone to Hispaniola, where he would have found the
+stores needful for revictualling the ships, resources which were
+absolutely wanting in Jamaica; but his two caravels, full of
+worm-holes, "like to bee-hives," could not without danger attempt
+the ninety miles' voyage; the question now arose, how to send a
+message to Ovando, the governor of Hispaniola.
+
+[Illustration: The Admiral is obliged to run the caravels aground.]
+
+The caravels let in water in every direction, and the admiral was
+obliged to run them aground; he then tried to organize a life in
+common upon shore. The Indians at first gave him assistance, and
+furnished the crews with the provisions of which they were in need,
+but the miserable and much tried sailors showed resentment against
+the admiral; they were ready for revolt, while the unfortunate
+Columbus, exhausted by illness, was confined to a bed of pain. It
+was in these trying circumstances that two brave officers, Mendez
+and Fieschi, proposed to the admiral to attempt to cross from
+Jamaica to Hispaniola in Indian canoes. This was in reality a voyage
+of six hundred miles, for it was necessary to row along the coast as
+far as the port where the colony was established. But these
+courageous officers were ready to face every peril, when it was a
+question of saving their companions. Columbus, appreciating the
+boldness of a proposal, which under other circumstances he would
+himself have been the first to make, gave the required permission to
+Mendez and Fieschi, who set out, while he, without ships, almost
+without provisions, remained with his crew upon this uncultivated
+island.
+
+[Illustration: Indian Boats. _From an old print_.]
+
+Soon the misery of the shipwrecked people--for so we may fairly call
+them--became so great that a revolt ensued. The admiral's companions,
+blinded by their sufferings, imagined that their chief dared not
+return to the harbour in Hispaniola, to which Ovando had already
+denied him entrance. They thought this proscription applied to them
+equally with the admiral, and said among themselves that the
+governor, in excluding the flotilla from the harbours of the colony,
+must have acted under orders from the king. These absurd reasonings
+irritated minds already badly disposed, and at length on the 2nd of
+January, 1504, two brothers named Porras, one the captain of one of
+the caravels and the other the military treasurer, placed themselves
+at the head of the malcontents. Their wish was to return to Europe,
+and they rushed towards the admiral's tent, crying, "Castille!
+Castille!" Columbus was ill and in bed. His brother and his son
+threw themselves between him and the mutineers to defend him. At the
+sight of the aged admiral, the rebels stopped, and their violence
+abated; but they would not listen to the admiral's remonstrances and
+counsels; they did not understand that nothing could save them but
+general concord, and each, in unselfish forgetfulness, working for
+the public good. No! their decision was taken to quit the island, no
+matter by what means. Porras and his followers ran down to the shore,
+took possession of the canoes of the natives, and steered for the
+eastern extremity of the island. Arrived there, with no respect left
+for anything, and drunk with fury, they pillaged the Indians'
+dwellings--thus rendering the admiral responsible for their deeds of
+violence--and they dragged some unfortunate natives on board of the
+canoes which they had stolen. Porras and his companions continued
+their navigation; but when several leagues from shore, they were
+struck by a gust of wind which placed them in peril: with the object
+of lightening the canoes, they threw their prisoners overboard.
+After this barbarous execution, the canoes endeavoured, following
+the example of Mendez and Fieschi, to gain the island of Hispaniola,
+but in vain, they were continually thrown back upon the coasts of
+Jamaica.
+
+Meanwhile the admiral, left alone with his friends and the sick,
+succeeded in establishing order in his little world. But the
+distress increased, and famine threatened. The natives wearied of
+providing food for these foreigners, whose sojourn upon their island
+was so prolonged; besides, they had seen the Spaniards fighting
+amongst themselves, a sight which had much destroyed their prestige,
+and convinced the Indians that these Europeans were nothing more
+than ordinary mortals; thus, they no longer respected nor feared
+them. The authority of Columbus over the native population was
+diminishing day by day, and an accidental circumstance was needed,
+of which the admiral cleverly took advantage, to bring back a renown
+which was necessary for the safety of his companions.
+
+A lunar eclipse, foreseen and calculated by Columbus, was due on a
+certain day. On the morning of this day, the admiral sent to request
+an interview with the caciques of the island. They accepted the
+invitation, and when they were assembled in the tent of Columbus,
+the latter announced to them that God, desirous of punishing them
+for their inhospitable conduct, and their bad feeling towards the
+Spaniards, would that evening refuse them the light of the moon. All
+came to pass as the admiral had foretold; the shadow of the earth
+began to conceal the moon, whose disc had the appearance of being
+eaten away by some formidable monster. The savages in terror cast
+themselves at the feet of Columbus, praying him to intercede with
+Heaven on their behalf, and promising to place all they had at his
+disposal. Columbus, after some well feigned hesitation, pretended to
+yield to the prayers of the natives. Under pretext of supplicating
+the Deity, he remained in his tent during the whole time of the
+eclipse, only reappearing at the moment when the phenomenon was
+nearly over. Then he told the caciques that God had heard his prayer,
+and extending his arm he commanded the moon to reappear. Soon the
+disc was seen to issue from the cone of the shadow, and the queen of
+night shone forth in all her splendour. From that day forward, the
+grateful and submissive Indians accepted the admiral's authority as
+one manifestly delegated to him by the celestial powers.
+
+While these events were passing at Jamaica, Mendez and Fieschi had
+long ago arrived at their destination. These brave officers had
+reached Hispaniola after a voyage of four days, little short of
+miraculous, accomplished as it was in a frail canoe. They
+immediately made the governor acquainted with the desperate
+condition of Columbus and his companions. Ovando, in a spirit of
+malice and injustice, detained these officers, and after a delay of
+eight months, under pretext of ascertaining the real condition of
+affairs, he despatched to Jamaica one of his own followers, a man
+named Diego Escobar, who was an especial enemy to Columbus. Escobar,
+on his arrival at Jamaica, would not communicate with Columbus; he
+did not even land, but contented himself with putting on shore, for
+the use of the distressed crews, "a side of pork and a barrel of
+wine;" then he again set sail without having allowed a single person
+to come on board. This infamous behaviour is but too real, although
+humanity almost refuses to believe in it.
+
+The admiral was indignant over this cruel mockery; but he showed no
+violence, used no recrimination. The arrival of Escobar somewhat
+reassured the shipwrecked men, for at least it proved that their
+situation was known. Deliverance was therefore only a matter of time,
+and the _morale_ of the Spaniards gradually improved.
+
+The admiral was desirous of bringing about a reconciliation with
+Porras and the rebels, who, since their separation, had incessantly
+ravaged the island, and been guilty of odious cruelties towards the
+unfortunate natives. Columbus proposed to restore them to favour,
+but these foolish people only answered his generous overtures by
+advancing to attack him in his retreat. Those Spaniards who had
+remained faithful to the cause of order, were obliged to take up
+arms, and they valiantly defended the admiral, losing but one man in
+this sad affair. They took both the brothers Porras prisoners, and
+remained masters of the field of battle: then the rebels threw
+themselves on their knees before Columbus, who, in compassion for
+their sufferings, granted them pardon.
+
+At length, just one year after the departure of Mendez and Fieschi,
+a ship appeared, equipped by them at the expense of Columbus, which
+was destined to restore the shipwrecked company to their homes. On
+the 24th of June, 1504, every one went on board, and quitting
+Jamaica, the theatre of accumulated miseries, both moral and
+physical, they set sail for Hispaniola. Arrived in harbour, after a
+prosperous voyage, Columbus, to his no small surprise, found himself
+at first received with much respect, the governor Ovando, as a
+shrewd man not willing to go against public opinion, doing him
+honour. But this happy temper did not last. Soon the quarrels
+recommenced, and then Columbus, unable as well as unwilling to hear
+more, humiliated, and even maltreated, freighted two ships, of which
+he shared the command with his brother Bartolomeo, and on the 12th
+of September, 1504, he for the last time set out for Europe.
+
+His fourth voyage had increased geographical knowledge by the
+discovery of the Cayman Islands, Martinique, Guanaja, the Limonare
+Islands, with the coasts of Honduras, Mosquito, Nicaragua, Veragua,
+Costa-Rica, Porto-Bello, and Panama, the Mulatas Islands, and the
+Gulf of Darien.
+
+During this, his last voyage across the ocean, Columbus was destined
+to be again tried by storms. His own vessel was disabled, and he and
+his crew were obliged to go on board his brother's ship. On the 19th
+of October, another fearful hurricane broke the mast of this vessel,
+which had then to make more than two thousand miles with incomplete
+sails. At last, on the 7th of November, the admiral entered the
+harbour of San-Lucar. Here a sad piece of news was awaiting him.
+Isabella, his generous protectress, was dead. Who was there now to
+take an interest in the old Genoese?
+
+The admiral was coldly received by the ungrateful and jealous king
+Ferdinand, who did not even disdain to use subterfuges and delays,
+hoping thus to evade the solemn treaties given under his sign
+manual; he ended by proposing to Columbus the acceptance of a small
+Castilian town, Camon de los Condes, in exchange for his titles and
+dignities. This ingratitude and faithlessness overwhelmed the aged
+man; his health, already so much impaired, did not improve, and
+grief carried him to the grave. On the 20th of May, at Valladolid,
+at the age of seventy, he rendered up his soul to God with these
+words: "O Lord, into Thy hands I resign my soul and body."
+
+The remains of Columbus were at first laid in the monastery of St.
+Francis; in 1513, they were removed to the Carthusian monastery of
+Seville. But it seemed as if, even after death, repose were to be
+denied to the great navigator, for in 1536 his body was transported
+to the cathedral of San Domingo. Local tradition affirms that when,
+after the Treaty of Basle in 1795, the Spanish government, before
+giving up to France the eastern portion of the island of San Domingo,
+ordered the removal of the ashes of the great sailor to Havana, a
+canon substituted some other remains for those of Christopher
+Columbus, and that the latter were deposited in the choir of the
+cathedral, to the left of the altar. Thanks to this manoeuvre of the
+canon, whether dictated by a sentiment of local patriotism or by
+respect to the last wishes of Columbus who had indicated San Domingo
+as his chosen place of sepulture, it is not the dust of the
+illustrious navigator which Spain possesses at Havana, but probably
+that of his brother Diego. The discovery so lately made in the
+cathedral of San Domingo, on the 10th of September, 1877, of a
+leaden chest containing human bones, and bearing an inscription
+stating that it encloses the remains of the _Discoverer of America_,
+seems to confirm in every particular the tradition which has been
+just mentioned.
+
+But after all, it matters little whether the body of Columbus be at
+San Domingo or at Havana; his name and his glory are everywhere.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+THE CONQUEST OF INDIA AND OF THE SPICE COUNTRIES.
+
+I.
+
+Covilham and Paiva--Vasco da Gama--The Cape of Good Hope is
+doubled--Escales at Sam-Braz--Mozambique, Mombaz, and Melinda--
+Arrival at Calicut--Treason of the Zamorin--Battles--Return to
+Europe--The scurvy--Death of Paul da Gama--Arrival at Lisbon.
+
+
+At the same time that the King of Portugal, John II., despatched
+Diaz to seek in the south of Africa the route to the Indies, he
+ordered two gentlemen of his court to find out if it would not be
+possible to attain the same end by an easier, safer, and more rapid
+means; by way of the isthmus of Suez, the Red Sea, and the Indian
+Ocean.
+
+For carrying out such a mission there was needed a clever,
+enterprising man, well acquainted with the difficulties of a journey
+in those regions, and possessing a knowledge of the Oriental
+languages, or at the very least, of Arabic. This agent must be of a
+versatile disposition, and able to dissemble; capable, in a word, of
+concealing the real meaning of projects which aimed at nothing less
+than withdrawing all the commerce of Asia from the hands of the
+Mussulmans and Arabs, and through them from the Venetians, in order
+to enrich Portugal with it.
+
+There was living at this time an experienced navigator, Pedro de
+Covilham, who had served with distinction under Alonzo V. in the war
+with Castille, and who had made a long stay in Africa. It was upon
+him that John II. cast his eye, and Alonzo de Paiva was given him as
+a colleague. They left Lisbon in the month of May, 1487, furnished
+with detailed instructions, and with a chart drawn according to
+Bishop Calsadilla's map of the World, by the help of which the tour
+of Africa might be made.
+
+The two travellers reached Alexandria and Cairo, where they were
+much gratified at meeting with some Moorish traders from Fez and
+Tlemcen, who conducted them to Tor--the ancient Ezion-geber--at the
+foot of Sinai, where they were able to procure some valuable
+information upon the trade of Calicut. Covilham resolved to take
+advantage of this fortunate circumstance to visit a country which,
+for more than a century, had been regarded by Portugal with covetous
+longing, while Paiva set out to penetrate into those regions then so
+vaguely designated as Ethiopia, in quest of the famous Prester John,
+who, according to old travellers, reigned over a marvellously rich
+and fertile country in Africa. Paiva doubtless perished in his
+adventurous enterprise, being never again heard of.
+
+As for Covilham, he travelled to Aden, whence he embarked for the
+Malabar coast. He visited in succession Cananore, Calicut, and Goa,
+and collected accurate information upon the commerce and productions
+of the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean, without arousing the
+fears of the Hindoos, who could not suspect that the kind and
+friendly welcome they accorded to the traveller would bring about in
+the future the enthralment and ruin of their country. Covilham, not
+considering that he had yet done enough for his country, quitted
+India, and went to the eastern coast of Africa, where he visited
+Mozambique, Sofala--long famous for its gold-mines, of which the
+reputation, by means of the Arabs, had even reached Europe--and
+Zeila, the _Avalites portus_ of the ancients, and the principal town
+of the Adel coast, upon the Gulf of Oman, at the entrance of the
+Arabian Sea. After a somewhat long stay in that country, he returned
+by Aden, then the principal entrepot of the commerce of the east,
+went as far as Ormuz, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and then
+again passing up the Red Sea, he arrived at Cairo.
+
+John II. had sent to Cairo two learned Jews to await the arrival of
+Covilham, and to one of these, the Rabbi Abraham Beja, the traveller
+gave his notes, the itinerary of his journey, and a map of Africa
+given to him by a Mussulman, charging Beja to carry them all to
+Lisbon with the least possible delay. For himself, not content with
+all that he had done hitherto, and wishing to execute the mission
+which death had prevented Paiva from accomplishing, he went into
+Abyssinia, where the "negus" or king, known by the name of Prester
+John, flattered by seeing his alliance sought by one of the most
+powerful sovereigns of Europe, received him with the greatest
+kindness, and gave him a high position at his court, but to make
+sure of retaining his services, he constantly refused him permission
+to leave the country. Although he had married there and had some
+children, Covilham still longed for his native country, and when, in
+1525, a Portuguese embassy, of which Alvares was a member, came into
+Abyssinia, he witnessed the departure of his countrymen with the
+deepest regret, and the chaplain of the expedition has naively
+re-echoed his complaints and his grief.
+
+M. Ferdinand Denis says, "By furnishing precise information upon the
+possibility of circumnavigating Africa, by indicating the route to
+the Indies, by giving more positive and extended ideas upon the
+commerce of these countries, and above all, by describing the
+gold-mines of Sofala, and so exciting the cupidity of the Portuguese,
+Covilham contributed greatly to accelerate the expedition of Gama."
+
+[Illustration: Vasco da Gama. _From an old print_.]
+
+If one may believe an old tradition, but one which is unsupported by
+any authentic document, Gama was descended by an illegitimate line
+from Alphonso III., King of Portugal. His father, Estevam Eanez da
+Gama, grand alcalde of Sines and of Silves, in the kingdom of
+Algarve, and commander of Seizal, occupied a high position at the
+court of John II. He enjoyed great reputation as a sailor, so much
+so, that just at the moment when his own unexpected death occurred,
+King John was thinking of giving Gama the command of the fleet which
+he was desirous of sending to the Indies. By his marriage with Dona
+Isabella Sodre, daughter of Juan de Resende, proveditore of the
+fortifications of Santarem, he had several children, and amongst
+them Vasco, who first reached India by doubling the Cape of Good
+Hope, and Paul, who accompanied him in that memorable expedition. It
+is known that Vasco was born at Sines, but the date of his birth is
+uncertain; the year 1469 is that generally given, but besides the
+fact that if this be the correct date, Gama would have been very
+young--not more than eight and twenty--when the important command of
+the expedition to the Indies was confided to him, there was
+discovered twenty years ago, amongst the Spanish archives, a
+safe-conduct to Tangier granted in 1478 to two persons, Vasco da
+Gama and Lemos. It is scarcely probable that such a passport would
+have been given to a child of nine years of age, so that this
+discovery would appear to carry back the birth of the celebrated
+voyager to an earlier date.
+
+It seems that from an early period of his life, Vasco da Gama was
+destined to follow the career of a sailor, in which his father had
+distinguished himself. The first historian of the Indies, Lopez de
+Castaneda, delights in recalling the fact that he had signalized
+himself upon the African seas. At one time he was ordered to seize
+all the French ships lying in the Portuguese ports, in revenge for
+the capture by French pirates during a time of peace of a rich
+Portuguese galleon returning from Mina. Such a mission would only
+have been confided to an active, energetic and well-tried captain, a
+clear proof that Gama's valour and cleverness were highly
+appreciated by the king.
+
+About this time he married Dona Caterina de Ataide, one of the
+highest ladies about the court, and by her he had several children,
+amongst others Estevam da Gama, who became governor of the Indies,
+and Dom Christovam, who, says Gaucher, by his struggle with Ahmed
+Guerad in Abyssinia, and by his romantic death, deserves to be
+reckoned amongst the famous adventurers of the sixteenth century.
+
+All doubt as to the precise date of Gama's first voyage is now at an
+end, thanks to the document in the public library at Oporto, a paper
+with which Castaneda must have been acquainted, and of which M.
+Ferdinand Denis has published a translation in the _Ancient and
+Modern Travellers_ of M. E. Charton. The date may be fixed with
+certainty for Saturday, the 8th of July, 1497.
+
+This expedition had been long ago determined upon, and all its
+details were minutely arranged. It was to be composed of four
+vessels of medium size, "in order," says Pacheco, "that they may
+enter everywhere and again issue forth rapidly." They were solidly
+constructed, and provided with a triple supply of sails and hawsers;
+all the barrels destined to contain water, oil, or wine had been
+strengthened with iron hoops; large provisions of all kinds had been
+made, such as flour, wine, vegetables, drugs, and artillery; the
+personnel of the expedition consisted of the best sailors, the
+cleverest pilots, and the most experienced captains.
+
+Gama, who had received the title of _Capitam mor_, hoisted his flag
+upon the _Sam-Gabriel_ of 120 tons. His brother Paul da Gama was on
+board the _Sam-Raphael_ of 100 tons. A caravel of 50 tons, the
+_Berrio_, so named in memory of the pilot Berrio, who had sold her
+to Emmanuel I., was commanded by an experienced sailor, Nicolo
+Coelho, while Pedro Nunes was the captain of a large barque, laden
+with provisions and merchandise, destined for exchange with the
+natives of the countries which should be visited. Pero de Alemquer,
+who had been pilot to Bartholomew Diaz, was to regulate the course
+of the vessels. The crews, including ten criminals who were put on
+board to be employed on any dangerous service, amounted to one
+hundred and sixty persons. What feeble means these, what almost
+absurd resources, compared with the grandeur of the mission which
+these men were to accomplish!
+
+On the 8th of July, at sunrise, Gama advanced towards the vessels,
+followed by his officers through an immense crowd of people. Around
+him were a number of monks and religious persons, who chanted sacred
+hymns, and besought Heaven's protection for the voyagers. This
+departure from Rastello must have been a singularly moving scene;
+all, whether actors or spectators, mingling their chants, their
+cries, their adieux and their tears, while the sails, filled by a
+favourable breeze, bore away Gama and the fortune of Portugal
+towards the open sea. A large caravel and a smaller barque, which
+were bound for Mina under the command of Bartholomew Diaz, sailed in
+company with Gama's fleet. On the following Saturday, the ships were
+in sight of the Canaries, and passed the night windward of Lancerota.
+When they arrived parallel with the Rio de Ouro, a thick fog
+separated Paul da Gama, Coelho, and Diaz from the rest of the fleet,
+but they joined again near the Cape de Verd Islands, which were soon
+reached. At Santiago fresh stores of meat, water, and wood were
+taken on board, and the ships were again put into good sailing order.
+
+[Illustration: La Mina. _From an old print_.]
+
+They quitted the shore of Santa Maria on the 3rd of August. The
+voyage was accomplished without any remarkable incidents, and on the
+4th of November, anchors were dropped upon the African Coast in a
+bay which received the name of _Santa-Ellena_. Eight days were spent
+there in shipping wood, and in putting everything in order on board
+the vessels. It was there that they saw for the first time the
+Bushmen, a miserable and degraded race of people who fed upon the
+flesh of sea-wolves and whales, as well as upon roots. The
+Portuguese carried off some of these natives, and treated them with
+kindness. The savages knew nothing of the value of the merchandize
+which was offered to them, they saw the objects for the first time
+and were ignorant of their use. Copper was the only thing which they
+appeared to prize, wearing in their ears small chains of that metal.
+They understood well the use of the zagayes--a kind of javelin, of
+which the point is hardened in the fire--of which three or four of
+the sailors and even Gama himself had unpleasant experience, while
+endeavouring to rescue from their hands a certain Velloso, a man who
+had imprudently ventured into the interior of the country. This
+incident has furnished Camoens with one of the most charming
+episodes of the "Lusiad."
+
+On leaving Santa-Ellena, Pero de Alemquer, formerly pilot to Diaz,
+declared his belief that they were then ninety miles from the Cape,
+but in the uncertainty the fleet stood off to sea; on the 18th of
+November the Cape of Good Hope was seen, and the next day it was
+doubled by the fleet sailing before the wind. On the 25th the
+vessels were moored in the Bay of Sam-Braz, where they remained
+thirteen days, during which time the boat which carried the stores
+was demolished, and her cargo divided amongst the three other
+vessels. During their stay the Portuguese gave the Bushmen some
+hawks' bells and other objects, which, to their surprise, were
+accepted, for in the time of Diaz the negroes had shown themselves
+timid and even hostile, and had thrown stones to prevent the crews
+from procuring water. Now they brought oxen and sheep, and to show
+their pleasure at the visit of the Portuguese, "they began," says
+Nicolas Velho, "to play upon four or five flutes, some set high,
+some low, a wonderful harmony for negroes, from whom one scarcely
+looks for music. They danced also, as dance the blacks, and the
+Capitam mor commanded the trumpets to sound, and we in our boats
+danced too, the Capitam mor himself dancing, as soon as he had
+returned amongst us."
+
+What shall we say to this little fete and this mutual serenade
+between the Portuguese and the negroes? Would any one have expected
+to behold Gama, a grave man, as his portraits represent him,
+initiating the negroes into the charms of the pavane. Unhappily
+these favourable dispositions were transient, and it was found
+necessary to have recourse to some hostile demonstrations by means
+of repeated discharges of artillery.
+
+In this Bay of Sam-Braz Gama erected a padrao, which was thrown down
+as soon as he was gone. The fleet soon passed the Rio Infante, the
+furthest point reached by Diaz. Here the ships experienced the
+effects of a strong current, but of which the violence was
+neutralized thanks to a favourable wind. On the 25th of December,
+Christmas Day, the country of Natal was discovered.
+
+The ships had sustained some damage, and fresh water was needed; it
+was therefore urgent for them to find some harbour, which they
+succeeded in doing on the 10th of January, 1498. The blacks whom the
+Portuguese saw here upon landing were people of greater stature than
+those whom they had hitherto met with. Their arms were a large bow
+with long arrows, and a zagaye tipped with iron. They were Caffres,
+a race very superior to the Bushmen. Such happy relations were
+quickly established with them that Gama gave the country the name of
+the Land of Good People (_Terra da bon Gente_).
+
+[Illustration: Map of the East Coast of Africa, from the Cape of
+Good Hope to the Cape del Gado.]
+
+A little further on, while still sailing up the coast, two Mussulman
+traders, one wearing a turban, the other a hood of green satin, came
+to visit the Portuguese, with a young man who, "from what could be
+understood from their signs, belonged to a very distant country, and
+who said he had already seen ships as large as ours." Vasco da Gama,
+took this as a proof that he was now approaching those Indian lands,
+which had been so long and so eagerly sought. For this reason he
+named the river which flowed into the sea at this place _Rio dos
+Bonis Signaes_ (River of good tokens). Unhappily the first symptoms
+of scurvy appeared at this time amongst the crews, and soon there
+were many sailors upon the sick list.
+
+On the 10th of March the expedition cast anchor before the Island of
+Mozambique, where, as Gama learnt through his Arab interpreters,
+there were several merchants of Mahometan extraction, who carried on
+trade with India. Gold and silver, cloth and spices, pearls and
+rubies, formed the staple of their commerce. Gama at the same time
+was assured that in pursuing the line of the coast, he would find
+numerous cities; "Whereat we were so joyful," says Velho in his
+naive and valuable narrative, "that we wept for pleasure, praying
+God to grant us health that we might see all that which we had so
+much desired."
+
+[Illustration: Mozambique Channel.]
+
+The Viceroy Colyytam, who imagined he was dealing with Mussulmen,
+came on board several times and was magnificently entertained; he
+returned the civility by sending presents, and even furnished Gama
+with two skilful pilots, but when some Moorish merchants who had
+traded in Europe told him that these foreigners, far from being
+Turks, were in reality the worst enemies of the Mahometans, the
+viceroy, disgusted at his mistake, made preparations for seizing the
+Portuguese by treachery, and killing them. Gama was obliged to point
+his artillery at the town and threaten to reduce it to ashes before
+he could obtain the water needed for the prosecution of his voyage.
+Blood flowed, and Paul da Gama captured two barques, whose rich
+cargo was divided amongst the sailors. The ships quitted this
+inhospitable town, on the 29th of March, and the voyage continued, a
+close surveillance being kept over the Arab pilots, whom Gama was
+obliged to cause to be flogged.
+
+On the 4th of April the coast was seen, and on the 8th Mombasa or
+Mombaz was reached, a town, according to the pilots, inhabited by
+Christians and Mussulmen. The fleet dropped anchor outside the
+harbour, and did not enter it, notwithstanding the enthusiastic
+reception given to them. Already the Portuguese were reckoning upon
+meeting at mass the next day with the Christians of the Island, when
+during the night, the flag-ship was approached by a _zacra_, having
+on board a hundred armed men, who endeavoured to enter the ships in
+a body, which was refused them. The king of Mombaz was informed of
+all that had occurred at Mozambique, but pretending ignorance, he
+sent presents to Gama, proposing to him to establish a factory in
+his capital, and assuring him that so soon as he should have entered
+the port, he might take on board a cargo of spices and aromatics.
+The Capitam mor, suspecting nothing, immediately sent two men to
+announce his entry for the morrow; already they were weighing anchor
+when the flag-ship refusing to tack, the anchor was let fall again.
+In graceful and poetic fiction, Camoens affirms that it was the
+Nereids led by Venus, the protectress of the Portuguese, who stayed
+their ships when on the point of entering the port. At this moment
+all the Moors on board the fleet quitted it simultaneously, whilst
+the Mozambique pilots threw themselves into the sea.
+
+Two Moors who were put to the question with a drop of hot oil,
+confessed that the intention was to take all the Portuguese
+prisoners as soon as they should be inside the harbour. During the
+night the Moors endeavoured several times to climb on board and to
+cut the cables in order to run the ships aground, but each time they
+were discovered. Under these circumstances no prolonged stay was
+possible at Mombaz, but it had been long enough for all those ill of
+scurvy to recover their health.
+
+At the distance of four-and-twenty miles from land, the fleet
+captured a barque richly laden with gold, silver, and provisions.
+The next day Gama arrived at Melinda, a rich and flourishing city,
+whose gilded minarets, sparkling in the sunshine, and whose mosques
+of dazzling whiteness, stood out against a sky of the most intense
+blue. The reception of the Portuguese at Melinda was at first very
+cold, the capture of the barque the evening before being already
+known there, but as soon as explanations had been given, the people
+became cordial. The king's son came to visit the admiral,
+accompanied by a train of courtiers splendidly dressed, and a choir
+of musicians, who played upon various instruments. The greatest
+astonishment was shown at the artillery practice, for the invention
+of gunpowder was not yet known on the east coast of Africa. A solemn
+treaty was made, ratified by oaths upon the Gospel and the Koran,
+and cemented by an interchange of presents. From this moment the
+ill-will, the treachery, the difficulties of all kinds which had
+hitherto beset the expedition, ceased as if by magic: this must be
+attributed to the generosity of the King of Melinda, and to the aid
+which he furnished to the Portuguese.
+
+Faithful to the promise which he had made to Vasco da Gama, the king
+sent him a Gujerat pilot named Malemo Cana, a man well instructed in
+navigation, understanding the use of charts, of the compass and the
+quadrant, and who rendered the most important service to the
+expedition. After a stay of nine days the fleet weighed anchor for
+Calicut. The coasting plan hitherto pursued was now to be abandoned,
+and the time was come when, in reliance upon the blessing of God,
+the Portuguese must venture out upon the wide ocean, without other
+guide than an unknown pilot furnished by a king whose kind welcome
+had not sufficed to lull to sleep the suspicions of the foreigners.
+And yet, thanks to the ability and loyalty of this pilot, thanks
+also to the clemency of the sea, and to the wind being constantly in
+its favour, the fleet, after a twenty-three days' voyage, reached
+the land on the 17th May, and the next day anchored at the distance
+of six miles below Calicut. The enthusiasm on board was great. At
+last they had arrived in those rich and wonderful countries.
+Fatigues, dangers, sickness, all were forgotten. The object of their
+long labours was attained! Or rather, it seemed to be so, for there
+was still needed the possession of the treasures and rich
+productions of India.
+
+Scarcely were the anchors dropped when four boats came off from the
+shore, performing evolutions around the fleet, and apparently
+inviting the sailors to disembark. But Gama, rendered cautious by
+the occurrences at Mozambique and Mombaz, sent on shore one of the
+criminals who were on board, to act as a scout; ordering him to walk
+through the town and endeavour to ascertain the temper of its
+inhabitants. Surrounded by an inquisitive crowd, assailed by
+questions to which he could not reply, this man was conducted to the
+house of a Moor named Moucaida, who spoke Spanish, and to whom he
+gave a short account of the voyage of the fleet. Moucaida returned
+with him on board, and his first words on setting foot on the ship
+were "Good luck! good luck! quantities of rubies, quantities of
+emeralds!" Whereupon, Moucaida was at once engaged as interpreter.
+
+The King of Calicut was at this time at a distance of forty-five
+miles from his capital, so the Capitam mor despatched two men to
+announce the arrival of an ambassador from the King of Portugal,
+being the bearer of letters to him from his sovereign. The king at
+once sent a pilot, with orders to take the Portuguese ships into the
+safer roadstead of Pandarany, and promised to return himself on the
+morrow to Calicut; this he did, and ordered his Intendant or Catoual
+to invite Gama to land and open negotiations. In spite of the
+supplications of his brother, Paul da Gama, who represented to him
+the dangers which he might incur, and those to which his death would
+expose the expedition, the Capitam mor set out for the shore, upon
+which an enormous crowd of people were awaiting him.
+
+The idea that they were in the midst of a Christian population was
+so rooted in the minds of all the members of the expedition, that
+Gama, on passing by a pagoda on the way, entered it to perform his
+devotions. One of his companions, however, Juan de Saa, noticing the
+hideous pictures upon the walls, was less credulous, and whilst
+throwing himself upon his knees, said aloud, "If that be a devil, I
+intend nevertheless to adore only the true God!" A mental
+reservation which caused amusement to the admiral.
+
+Near the gates of the town the crowd was even more closely packed.
+Gama and his companions, under the guidance of the Catoual, had some
+difficulty in reaching the palace, where the king, who in the
+narrative is called the "Zamorin," was awaiting them with extreme
+impatience. Ushered into halls splendidly decorated with silken
+stuffs and carpets, and in which burned the most exquisite perfumes,
+the Portuguese found themselves in the presence of the Zamorin. He
+was magnificently attired, and loaded with jewels, the pearls and
+diamonds which he wore being of extraordinary size. The king ordered
+refreshments to be served to the strangers, and permitted them to be
+seated, a peculiar mark of favour in a country where the sovereign
+is usually only addressed with the most lowly prostrations. The
+Zamorin afterwards passed into another apartment, to hear with his
+own ears, as was proudly demanded by Gama, the reasons for the
+embassy and the desire felt by the King of Portugal to conclude a
+treaty of commerce and alliance with the King of Calicut. The
+Zamorin listened to Gama's discourse, and replied that he should be
+happy to consider himself the friend and brother of King Emmanuel,
+and that he would, by the aid of Gama, send ambassadors to Portugal.
+
+[Illustration: Gama's interview with the Zamorin. _From an old
+print_.]
+
+There are certain proverbs of which the force is not affected by
+change of latitude, and the truth of that one which says, "The days
+succeed each other and have no similarity," was proved the next day
+at Calicut. The enthusiasm which had been aroused in the mind of the
+Zamorin by the ingenious discourse of Gama, and the hope it had
+awakened of the establishment of a profitable trade with Portugal,
+vanished at the sight of the presents which were to be given him.
+"Twelve pieces of striped cloth, twelve cloaks with scarlet hoods,
+six hats, and four branches of coral, accompanied by a box
+containing six large basons, a chest of sugar, and four kegs, two
+filled with oil, and two with honey," certainly did not constitute a
+very magnificent offering. At sight of it, the prime minister
+laughed, declaring that the poorest merchant from Mecca brought
+richer presents, and that the king would never accept of such
+ridiculous trifles. After this affront Gama again visited the
+Zamorin, but it was only after long waiting in the midst of a
+mocking crowd, that he was admitted to the presence of the king. The
+latter reproached him in a contemptuous manner for having nothing to
+offer him, while pretending to be the subject of a rich and powerful
+king. Gama replied with boldness, and produced the letters of
+Emmanuel, which were couched in flattering terms, and contained a
+formal promise to send merchandise to Calicut. The Zamorin, pleased
+at this prospect, then inquired with interest about the productions
+and resources of Portugal, and gave permission to Gama to disembark
+and sell his goods.
+
+But this abrupt change in the humour of the Zamorin was not at all
+agreeable to the Moorish and Arab traders, whose dealings made the
+prosperity of Calicut. They could not look on quietly whilst
+foreigners were endeavouring for their own advantage to turn aside
+the commerce which had been hitherto entirely in their hands; they
+resolved, therefore, to leave no stone unturned to drive away once
+for all these formidable rivals from the shores of India. Their
+first care was to gain the ear of the Catoual; then they painted in
+the blackest colours these insatiable adventurers, these bold
+robbers, whose only object was to spy out the strength and resources
+of the town, that they might return in force to pillage it, and to
+massacre those who should venture to oppose their designs.
+
+Upon arriving at the roadstead of Pandarany, Gama found no boat to
+take him off to the ships, and was forced to sleep on shore. The
+Catoual never left him, continually seeking to prove to him the
+necessity of bringing the ships nearer to the land; and when the
+admiral positively refused to consent to this, he declared him to be
+his prisoner. He had very little idea as yet of the firmness of
+Gama's character. Some armed boats were sent to surprise the ships,
+but the Portuguese, having received secret intelligence from the
+admiral of all that had happened, were on their guard, and their
+enemies dared not use open force. Gama, still a prisoner, threatened
+the Catoual with the anger of the Zamorin, whom he imagined could
+never thus have violated the duties of hospitality, but seeing that
+his menaces produced no effect, he tried bribery, presenting the
+minister with several pieces of stuff, who, thereupon at once
+altered his demeanour. "If the Portuguese," said he, "had but kept
+the promise they had made to the king, of disembarking their
+merchandise, the admiral would long ago have returned on board his
+ships." Gama at once sent an order to bring the goods to land,
+opened a shop for their sale, of which the superintendence was given
+to Diego Diaz, brother to the discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope,
+and was then allowed to go back to his ships.
+
+The Mussulmen placed obstacles in the way of the sale of the
+merchandise by depreciating its value; Gama sent his agent Diaz to
+the Zamorin to complain of the perfidy of the Moors and of the bad
+treatment to which he had been subjected, requesting at the same
+time permission to move his place of sale to Calicut, where he hoped
+that the goods would be more easily disposed of. This request was
+favourably received, and friendly relations were maintained, in
+spite of the Moorish intrigues, until the 10th of August, 1498. On
+that day Diaz went to announce Gama's impending departure to the
+king, reminding him of his promise to send an embassy to Portugal,
+and asking him to allow Gama a specimen of each of the productions
+of the country. These were to be paid for on the first sale of goods
+which should take place after the departure of the fleet, it being
+intended that the employes of the factory should remain at Calicut
+during Gama's absence. The Zamorin, instigated by the Arab traders,
+not only refused to execute his promise, but demanded the payment of
+600 _seraphins_ as customs' duty, ordering at the same time the
+seizure of the merchandise, and making prisoners of the men employed
+in the factory.
+
+Such an outrage, such contempt for the rights of nations, called for
+prompt vengeance, but Gama understood the art of dissimulation;
+however, on receiving a visit on board from some rich merchants, he
+detained them, and sent to the Zamorin to demand an exchange of
+prisoners. The king's reply not being sent within the time specified
+by the admiral, the latter set sail and anchored at the distance of
+sixteen miles from Calicut. After another fruitless attack by the
+Hindoos, the two agents returned on board, and a portion of the
+hostages whom Gama had secured were given up. Diaz brought back with
+him a curious letter from the Zamorin to the King of Portugal. It
+was written upon a palm leaf, and shall be quoted in all its strange
+laconicism, so different from the usual grandiloquence of the
+oriental style:--
+
+"Vasco da Gama, a noble of thy palace, is come into my country which
+I have permitted. In my kingdom there is much cinnamon, cloves, and
+pepper, with many precious stones, and what I desire from thy
+country is gold, silver, coral, and scarlet. Adieu."
+
+On the morrow, Moucaida the Moor of Tunis who had served as
+interpreter to the Portuguese, and had been a great assistance to
+them in their negotiations with the Zamorin, came to seek an asylum
+on board the ships. The merchandise had not been brought back on the
+appointed day, and the Capitam mor now resolved to carry away with
+him the men whom he had kept as hostages, but the fleet was becalmed
+at several miles distance from Calicut, and was attacked by twenty
+armed boats, which were with difficulty kept at a distance by the
+artillery, until they were forced by a violent storm to take shelter
+under the coast.
+
+The admiral was sailing along the coast of the Deccan, and had
+permitted some of the sailors to go on shore to gather fruit and
+collect cinnamon bark, when he perceived eight boats, which appeared
+to be coming towards him. Gama recalled the men, and sailed forward
+to meet the Hindoos, who made the greatest haste to flee from him,
+but not without leaving a boat laden with cocoa, and provisions, in
+the hands of the Portuguese. On arriving at the Laccadive
+Archipelago, Gama had the _Berrio_ recalked, and his own ship drawn
+up on shore for repairs. The sailors were busy over this work when
+they were again attacked, but without more success than heretofore.
+The next day witnessed the arrival of an individual forty years of
+age, dressed in Hindoo style, who began to speak to the Portuguese
+in excellent Italian, telling them that he was a native of Venice,
+and had been torn from his country while still young, that he was a
+Christian, but without the possibility of practising his religion.
+He was in a high position at the court of the king of the country,
+who had sent him to them, to place at their disposal all that the
+country contained which could minister to their comfort. These
+offers of service, so different from the welcome accorded to them
+hitherto, excited the suspicions of the Portuguese, and they were
+not long in discovering that this adventurer was in command of the
+boats which had attacked them the day before. Upon this they had him
+scourged until he confessed that he had come to discover whether it
+were possible to attack the fleet with advantage, and he ended by
+affirming that all the inhabitants of the sea-shore were in league
+to destroy the Portuguese. He was retained on board, the work upon
+the ships was hurried forward, and as soon as water and provisions
+had been taken in, sail was made for a return to Europe.
+
+In consequence of dead calms and contrary winds, the expedition was
+three months, all but three days, in reaching the African coast.
+During this long voyage the crews suffered terribly from scurvy, and
+thirty sailors perished. In each ship, only seven or eight men were
+in a condition to work the vessel, and very often the officers
+themselves were forced to lend a hand. "Whence I can affirm," says
+Velho, "that if the time in which we sailed across those seas had
+been prolonged a fortnight, nobody from hence would have navigated
+them after us.... And the captains having held a council upon the
+matter, it was resolved that in case of similar winds catching us
+again, to return towards India, there to take refuge." On the 2nd of
+February, 1499, the Portuguese found themselves at last abreast of a
+great town on the coast of Ajan, called Magadoxo, distant 300 miles
+from Melinda.
+
+Gama, dreading another reception like the one given to him at
+Mozambique, would not stop here, but while passing within sight of
+the town, ordered a general discharge of the guns. A few days
+afterwards the rich and salubrious plains of Melinda came in sight,
+and here they cast anchor. The king hastened to send off fresh
+provisions and oranges for the invalids on board. The reception
+given by him to the Portuguese was in every particular most
+affectionate, and the friendship which had arisen during Gama's
+first visit to Melinda was greatly strengthened. The Sheik of
+Melinda sent for the King of Portugal a horn made of ivory and a
+number of other presents, entreating Gama at the same time to
+receive a young Moor on board his ship, that through him the king
+might learn how earnestly he desired his friendship.
+
+The five days' rest at Melinda was of the greatest benefit to the
+Portuguese, at its expiration they again set sail. Soon after
+passing Mombaz they were obliged to burn the _Sam-Raphael_, the
+crews being too much reduced to be able to work three ships. They
+discovered the Island of Zanzibar, anchored in the Bay of Sam-Braz,
+and on the 20th February, a favourable wind enabled them to double
+the Cape of Good Hope, when they again found themselves upon the
+Atlantic Ocean. The breeze remaining favourable, helped forward the
+return of the mariners, and at the end of twenty-seven days, they
+had arrived in the neighbourhood of the Island of Santiago. On the
+25th of April Nicholas Coelho, captain of the _Berrio_, eager to be
+the first to carry to Emmanuel the news of the discovery of the
+Indies, separated himself from his chief, and without touching, as
+had been arranged, at the Cape de Verd Islands, made sail direct for
+Portugal, arriving there on the 10th of July.
+
+During this time the unfortunate Gama was plunged in the most
+profound sorrow, for his brother, Paul da Gama, who had shared his
+fatigues and sufferings, and who was to be a partaker of his glory,
+seemed to be slowly dying. At Santiago, Vasco da Gama, now returned
+to well known and much frequented seas, gave up the command of his
+ships to Joao da Saa, and chartered a fast-sailing caravel, to
+hasten as much as possible his beloved invalid's return to his
+native country. But all hope was vain, and the caravel only arrived
+at Terceira in time to inter there the body of the brave and
+sympathizing Paul da Gama.
+
+Upon his arrival in Portugal, which must have taken place during the
+early part of September, the admiral was received with stately
+festivals. Of the 160 Portuguese whom he had taken with him,
+fifty-five only returned with him. The loss was great certainly, but
+what was it compared with the great advantages to be hoped for? The
+public realized this, and gave the most enthusiastic reception to
+Gama. The King, Emmanuel II., added to his own titles that of Lord
+of the conquests and of the navigation of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia,
+and the Indies; but he allowed two years to pass before rewarding
+Gama. He then bestowed upon him the title of Admiral of the Indies,
+and authorized him to use the prefix of _Dom_ before his name, a
+privilege then rarely granted. Also, doubtless to make Vasco da Gama
+forget the tardiness with which his services had been rewarded, the
+king gave him 1000 crowns, a considerable sum for that period, and
+also conceded to him certain privileges in connexion with the
+commerce of the Indies, which were likely speedily to make his
+fortune.
+
+
+II.
+THE CONQUEST OF INDIA, AND OF THE SPICE COUNTRIES.
+
+Alvares Cabral--Discovery of Brazil--The coast of Africa--Arrival at
+Calicut, Cochin, Cananore--Joao da Nova--Gama's second expedition--
+The King of Cochin--The early life of Albuquerque--The taking of
+Goa--The siege and capture of Malacca--Second expedition against
+Ormuz--Ceylon--The Moluccas--Death of Albuquerque--Fate of the
+Portuguese empire of the Indies.
+
+
+On the 9th of March, 1500, a fleet of thirteen vessels left Rastello,
+under the command of Pedro Alvares Cabral; on board, as a volunteer,
+was Luiz de Camoens, who in his poem the "Lusiad," was to render
+illustrious the valour and adventurous spirit of his countrymen. But
+little is known of Cabral, and nothing of the reason which had
+gained him the command of this important expedition. Cabral belonged
+to one of the most illustrious families in Portugal, and his father,
+Fernando Cabral, lord of Zurara da Beira, was Alcalde mor of
+Belmonte. Pedro Alvares Cabral had married Isabel de Castro, first
+lady in waiting to the Infanta Dona Maria, daughter of John III. If
+it be asked whether Cabral had made himself famous by some important
+maritime discovery, we answer there is no reason to think so, for in
+that case the historians would have recorded it. But it is difficult
+to believe that he owed to court favour alone the command of an
+expedition in which such men as Bartholomew Diaz, Nicholas Coelho
+the companion of Gama, and Sancho de Thovar sailed under his orders.
+Why had not this mission been confided to Gama, who had been at home
+for six months, and whose knowledge of the countries to be visited
+and of the manners of their inhabitants, seemed to point him out as
+the fittest man for the service? Had he not yet recovered from the
+fatigues of his first voyage? Or had his grief for the loss of a
+brother who had died almost within sight of the coasts of Portugal
+so deeply affected him, that he desired to remain in retirement? May
+it not rather have been that King Emmanuel was jealous of the fame
+of Gama, and did not wish to give him the opportunity of increasing
+his renown? These are problems which perhaps history may be for ever
+unable to solve.
+
+It is easy to believe in the realization of those things which we
+ardently desire. Emmanuel imagined that the Zamorin of Calicut would
+not object to the establishment of Portuguese shops and factories in
+his country, and Cabral, the bearer of presents of such magnificence
+as to obliterate the memory of the shabbiness of those offered by
+Gama, received orders to obtain from the Zamorin an interdict,
+forbidding any Moor to carry on trade in his capital. The new
+Capitam mor was in the first place to visit Melinda, to offer rich
+presents to its king, and to restore to him the Moor who had come to
+Portugal with Gama. Sixteen friars were sent out on board the fleet,
+charged to carry the knowledge of the Gospel to the distant
+countries of Asia.
+
+The fleet had sailed for thirteen days and had passed the Cape de
+Verd Islands, when it was discovered that one of the ships, under
+the command of Vasco d'Ataide, was no longer in company. The rest of
+the ships lay to for some time to await her, but in vain, and the
+twelve vessels then continued their navigation upon the open sea,
+and not, as had been the manner hitherto, steering simply from cape
+to cape along the shores of Africa. Cabral hoped by this means to
+avoid the calms in the Gulf of Guinea, which had proved so great a
+cause of delay to the preceding expeditions. Perhaps even the
+Capitam mor, who must, in common with the rest of his countrymen,
+have been acquainted with the discoveries of Christopher Columbus,
+may have had the secret hope, by keeping to the west, of arriving at
+some region unvisited by the great navigator.
+
+The fact remains, whether it is to be accounted for by a storm or by
+some secret design, that the fleet was out of the right way for
+doubling the Cape of Good Hope when, on the 22nd of April, a high
+mountain was seen, and soon afterwards a long stretch of coast,
+which received the name of Vera Cruz, changed afterwards to that of
+Santa Cruz. This was Brazil, and the point where now stands Porto
+Seguro. On the 28th, after a skilful reconnaissance of the coasts
+had been made by Coelho, the Portuguese sailors landed upon the
+American shores, and became aware of a delicious mildness of
+temperature, with a luxuriance of vegetation greatly exceeding
+anything which they had seen on the coasts of Africa or of Malabar.
+The natives formed themselves in groups around the sailors, without
+showing the least sign of fear. They were almost naked, and bore
+upon the wrist a tame parroquet, after the fashion in which the
+gentlemen of Europe carry their hawks or their gerfalcons.
+
+On Easter Sunday, the 26th of April, a solemn mass was celebrated on
+the shore in sight of the Indians, whose silence and attitude of
+respect excited the admiration of the Portuguese. On the 1st of May
+a large cross and a padrao were erected on the shore, and Cabral
+formally took possession of the country in the name of the King of
+Portugal. His first care after this formality was accomplished was
+to despatch Gaspard de Lemos to Lisbon, to announce the discovery of
+this rich and fertile country. Lemos took with him the narrative of
+the expedition written by Pedro Vaz de Caminha, and an important
+astronomical document, the work of Master Joao, in which was
+doubtless stated the exact situation of the new conquest. Before
+setting out for Asia, Cabral put on land two criminals, whom he
+ordered to ascertain the resources and riches of the country, as
+well as the manners and customs of the inhabitants. These wise and
+far-sighted measures speak much for Cabral's prudence and sagacity.
+
+[Illustration: Cabral takes formal possession of Brazil.]
+
+It was the 2nd of May when the fleet lost sight of Brazil. All on
+board, rejoicing over this happy commencement of the voyage,
+believed in the prospect of an easy and rapid success, when the
+appearance of a brilliant comet on eight consecutive days struck the
+ignorant and simple minds of the sailors with terror; they
+considered it must be a bad omen, and for this once events appeared
+to justify superstition. A fearful storm arose, waves mountains high
+broke over the ships, whilst the wind blew furiously and rain fell
+without ceasing. When the sun at length succeeded in piercing the
+thick curtain of clouds which almost entirely intercepted his rays,
+a horrible scene was disclosed. The water looked thick and black,
+large patches of a livid white colour flecked the foaming, crested
+waves, while during the night phosphorescent lights, streaking the
+immense plain of water, marked out the course of the ships with a
+train of fire. For two-and-twenty days, without truce or mercy, the
+Portuguese ships were battered by the furious elements. The
+terrified sailors were utterly prostrate; they vainly exhausted
+their prayers and vows, and obeyed the orders of their officers only
+from the force of habit; from the first day they had given up any
+hope of their lives being spared, and only awaited the moment when
+they should all be submerged. When light at length returned and the
+billows became calm, each crew, thinking themselves to be perhaps
+the sole survivors, looked eagerly over the sea in search of their
+companions. Three ships met together again with a joy which the sad
+reality soon abated. Eight vessels were missing; four had been
+engulfed by a gigantic water-spout during the last days of the storm.
+One of these had been commanded by Bartholomew Diaz, the discoverer
+of the Cape of Good Hope: he had been drowned by these murderous
+waves, the defenders, according to Camoens, of the empire of the
+east against the nations of the west, who had for so many centuries
+coveted her marvellous riches.
+
+During this long series of storms the Cape had been doubled and the
+fleet was approaching the coast of Africa. On the 20th of July
+Mozambique was signalled. The Moors of this place showed a more
+agreeable disposition than they had done when Gama was there, and
+furnished the Portuguese with two pilots, who conducted them to
+Quiloa, an island famed for the trade in gold-dust which was carried
+on with Sofala. There Cabral found two of the missing ships, which
+had been driven to this island by the wind. A plot was on foot in
+Quiloa for a wholesale massacre of the Europeans, but this was
+frustrated by a prompt departure from the island, and the ships
+arrived at Melinda without any untoward incident. The stay of the
+fleet in this port was the occasion of fetes and rejoicings without
+number, and soon, revictualled, repaired, and furnished with
+excellent pilots, the Portuguese vessels sailed for Calicut, where
+they arrived on the 13th of December, 1500.
+
+[Illustration: View of Quiloa. _From an old print_.]
+
+This time, thanks to the power of their arms as well as to the
+richness of the presents offered to the Zamorin, the reception was
+different, and the versatile prince agreed to all the demands of
+Cabral: namely, a monopoly of the trade in aromatics and spicery,
+and the right of seizure upon all vessels which should infringe this
+privilege. For some time the Moors dissembled their resentment, but
+when they had succeeded in thoroughly exasperating the population
+against the foreigners, they rushed at a given signal into the
+factory which was under the direction of Ayres Correa, and massacred
+fifty of the Portuguese, whom they surprised in it. Vengeance for
+this outrage was not slow; ten boats moored in the port were taken,
+pillaged, and burnt before the eyes of the Hindoos, who were
+powerless to render opposition; afterwards the town was bombarded,
+and was half-buried under its ruins.
+
+When this affair was concluded, Cabral, continuing the exploration
+of the Malabar coast, arrived at Cochin, where the Rajah, a vassal
+of the Zamorin, hastened to conclude an alliance with the Portuguese,
+eagerly seizing this opportunity to declare himself independent.
+Although by this time his fleet was richly laden, Cabral made a
+visit to Cananore, where he entered into a treaty with the Rajah of
+the country; then, being impatient to return home, he set sail for
+Europe. While coasting along that shore of Africa, which is washed
+by the Indian Ocean, he discovered Sofala, a place which had escaped
+the observation of Gama. On the 13th of July, 1501, Cabral arrived
+at Lisbon, where he had the joy of finding the two remaining ships
+which he had imagined to be lost.
+
+It is pleasant to believe that he received the welcome merited by
+the important results obtained in this memorable expedition.
+Although contemporary historians are silent upon the incidents of
+his life after his return, recent research has been rewarded by the
+discovery of his tomb at Santarem, and M. Ferdinand Denis has
+happily proved that, like Vasco da Gama, he received the title of
+_Dom_ as a reward for his glorious deeds.
+
+Whilst he was returning to Europe Alvares Cabral might have
+encountered a fleet of four caravels under the command of Joao da
+Nova, which King Emmanuel had despatched to give fresh vigour to the
+commercial relations which Cabral had been charged to establish in
+the Indies. This new expedition doubled the Cape of Good Hope
+without misadventure, discovered between Mozambique and Quiloa an
+unknown island, which was named after the commander of the fleet,
+and arrived at Melinda, where Da Nova was informed of the events
+which had taken place at Calicut. He felt that he had not forces at
+his disposal sufficient to justify him in going to punish the
+Zamorin, and not wishing to endanger the prestige of Portuguese arms
+by the risk of a reverse, he steered for Cochin and Cananore, of
+which the kings, although tributaries of the Zamorin, had entered
+into alliance with Alvares Cabral. Da Nova had already taken on
+board 1000 hundredweights of pepper, 50 of ginger, and 450 of
+cinnamon, when he received warning that a considerable fleet, coming
+apparently from Calicut, was advancing with hostile intentions. If
+he had hitherto been more concerned with trade than with war, he did
+not the less in these critical circumstances display a bold and
+courageous spirit worthy of his predecessors. He accepted the combat,
+notwithstanding the apparent superiority of the Hindoos, and partly
+by the skilful arrangements which he made, partly by the power of
+his guns, he managed to disperse, to take, or to sink the hostile
+vessels. Perhaps Da Nova ought to have profited by the terror which
+his victory had spread along the coast, and the temporary exhaustion
+of the Moorish resources, to strike a great blow by the taking of
+Calicut. But we are too far removed in time from the events, and
+know too little of their details, to appreciate with impartiality
+the reasons which induced the admiral to return immediately to
+Europe.
+
+It was during this latter part of his voyage that Nova discovered
+the small island of Saint Helena in the midst of the Atlantic. A
+curious story attaches to this discovery. A certain Fernando Lopez
+had followed Gama to the Indies; this man, wishing to marry a Hindoo,
+was forced for this purpose to renounce Christianity and become a
+Mahometan. Upon Nova's visit, having had enough either of his wife
+or of her religion, he begged to be taken back to his country, and
+returned to his old creed. Upon arriving at Saint Helena, Lopez, in
+obedience to a sudden idea, which he regarded as an inspiration from
+on high, requested to be landed there, in order, as he said, to
+expiate his detestable apostasy and to atone for it by his devotion
+to humanity. His will appeared so fixed that Da Nova was forced to
+consent, and he left him there, having given him at his request
+various seeds of fruits and vegetables. It must be added that this
+singular hermit worked for four years at the clearing and planting
+of the island with such success, that ships were soon able to call
+there to revictual during their long passage from Europe to the Cape
+of Good Hope.
+
+The successive expeditious of Gama, Cabral, and Da Nova had
+conclusively proved that an uninterrupted commerce must not be
+reckoned upon, nor a continued exchange of merchandise, with the
+population of the Malabar Coast, who, while their own independence
+and liberty were respected had each time leagued together against
+the Portuguese. That trade with Europeans which they so persistently
+refused, must be forced upon them, and for that purpose permanent
+military establishments must be formed, capable of overawing the
+malcontents, and even in case of necessity of taking possession of
+the country. But to whom should such an important mission be
+entrusted? The choice could scarcely be doubtful, and Vasco da Gama
+was unanimously chosen to take the command of the powerful armament
+which was in preparation.
+
+Vasco had ten ships under his own immediate command, while his
+second brother Stephen da Gama, and his cousin Vincent Sodrez, had
+each five ships under his orders, but they were both to recognise
+Vasco da Gama as their chief. The ceremonies which preceded the
+departure of the fleet from Lisbon were of a particularly grave and
+solemn character. King Emmanuel, followed by the whole court,
+repaired to the cathedral in the midst of an enormous crowd, and
+there called down blessings from heaven upon this expedition, partly
+religious, partly military, while the Archbishop blessed the banner
+which was entrusted to Gama.
+
+The admiral's first care was to visit Sofala and Mozambique, towns
+of which he had had reason to complain in the course of his first
+voyage. Being anxious to establish harbours for refuge, and
+revictualling of ships, he established there merchants' offices, and
+laid the foundations of forts. He also levied a heavy tribute upon
+the Sheik of Quiloa, and then sailed for the coast of Hindostan.
+When Gama had arrived off Calicut, he perceived on the 3rd of
+October a vessel of large tonnage, which appeared to him to be
+richly laden. It was the _Merii_ bringing back from Mecca a great
+number of pilgrims belonging to all the countries of Asia. Gama
+attacked the ship without provocation, captured her and put to death
+more than three hundred men who were on board. Twenty children alone
+were saved and taken to Lisbon, where they were baptized, and
+entered the army of Portugal. This frightful massacre, besides being
+quite in accordance with the ideas of the period, was calculated
+according to Gama, to strike terror into the Hindoo mind: it did
+nothing of the sort. This hateful and useless cruelty has left a
+stain of blood upon the hitherto pure fame of the admiral.
+
+[Illustration: Map of the Coasts of Persia, Guzerat, and Malabar.]
+
+As soon as he arrived at Cananore, Gama obtained an audience of the
+Rajah, who authorized him to establish a counting-house, and to
+build a fort. At the same time a treaty of alliance, offensive and
+defensive was concluded. After setting the labourers to work, and
+installing his agent, the admiral set sail for Calicut, where he
+intended to summon the Zamorin to a reckoning for his disloyalty, as
+well as for the murder of the Portuguese who had been surprised in
+the factory. Although the Rajah of Calicut had been informed of the
+arrival in the Indies of his formidable enemies, he had taken no
+military precautions, and thus, when Gama presented himself before
+the town, he was able to seize some vessels anchored in the port and
+to make a hundred prisoners, without encountering any resistance;
+afterwards he granted the Zamorin a respite of four days, in which
+to make atonement to the Portuguese for the murder of Correa, and to
+refund the value of the merchandise which had been stolen on that
+occasion.
+
+The time specified had scarcely elapsed when the bodies of fifty of
+the prisoners were strung up at the yard-arms of the vessels, where
+they remained exposed to the view of the town during the whole day.
+In the evening the feet and hands of these expiatory victims were
+cut off and taken on shore, with a letter from the admiral,
+declaring that his vengeance would not be limited to this execution.
+Accordingly, under cover of the night, the broadsides of the vessels
+were brought to bear upon the town, which was bombarded for the
+space of three days. It will never be known what was the exact
+number of the slain, but it must have been considerable. Without
+reckoning those killed by the fire of the cannon and the muskets, a
+great number of Hindoos were buried beneath the ruins of the
+buildings, or perished in the conflagration, which destroyed a
+portion of the town of Calicut. The Rajah had been one of the first
+to take flight, and fortunate was it for him that he had done so,
+for his palace was amongst the buildings which were demolished. At
+length, satisfied with having transformed this heretofore rich and
+populous city into a heap of ruins, and considering his vengeance
+satiated, and that the lesson so taught would be profitable, Gama
+set sail for Cochin, leaving behind him Vincent Sodrez, with several
+ships, to continue the blockade.
+
+Triumpara, the sovereign of Cochin, informed the admiral that he had
+been eagerly solicited by the Zamorin to take advantage of the
+confidence reposed in him by the Portuguese, to surprise and seize
+them, in consequence of which intelligence, and to reward the
+integrity of the king whose loyalty had exposed him to the enmity of
+the Rajah of Calicut, Gama, when starting for Lisbon with a valuable
+cargo, left with Triumpara ships sufficient to enable him to await
+in safety the arrival of another squadron. During Gama's return
+voyage the only noteworthy incident that occurred was the defeat of
+another Malabar fleet. The admiral arrived in Europe on the 20th of
+December, 1503.
+
+Once more the eminent services rendered by this great man went
+unrecognised, or rather they were not appreciated as they deserved.
+Gama, who had just laid the foundations of the colonial empire of
+Portugal in India, remained for one and twenty years without
+employment, and it was only through the intercession of the Duke of
+Braganza, that he obtained the title of Count de Vidigueyra. A too
+common instance this of ingratitude, but one which it is never _mal
+a propos_ to stigmatize as it deserves.
+
+Scarcely had Gama set out for Europe, before the Zamorin at the
+instigation of the Musselmen, who saw their commercial supremacy
+more and more compromised, assembled his allies at Pani with the
+object of attacking the King of Cochin and of punishing him for the
+counsel and assistance which he had given to the Portuguese. The
+unfortunate Rajah's fidelity was now put to a hard proof. Besieged
+in his capital by a large force, he saw himself all at once deprived
+of the aid of those for whose advantage he had incurred so great a
+risk. Sodrez and several of his captains had deserted the post,
+where both honour and gratitude required them to remain, and if need
+were, to die in the discharge of their duty; they forsook Triumpara
+to go and cruise in the neighbourhood of Ormuz, and at the entrance
+to the Red Sea, where they calculated that the annual pilgrimage to
+Mecca was likely to ensure them some rich booty. The Portuguese
+agent vainly represented to them the unworthiness of their conduct,
+they set out in haste, to escape from these inconvenient reproaches.
+
+The King of Cochin, betrayed by some of the Nairs (military nobles)
+of his palace, who had been gained over by the Zamorin, soon saw his
+capital carried by assault, and was obliged to seek refuge upon an
+inaccessible rock in the little Island of Viopia, with those
+Portuguese who had remained faithful to him. When he was reduced to
+the last extremity, an emissary was sent to him by the Zamorin, to
+promise him pardon and oblivion of his offences if he would give up
+to him the Portuguese. But Triumpara, whose fidelity cannot be
+sufficiently commended, answered, "that the Zamorin might use his
+rights of victory; that he was not ignorant of the perils by which
+he was menaced, but that it was not in the power of any man to make
+him a traitor and a perjurer." No one could have made a nobler
+return than this for the desertion and cowardice of Sodrez.
+
+Vincent Sodrez had arrived at the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, when a
+fearful tempest occurred, in which his ship split upon the rocks,
+and he and his brother perished. The survivors regarded this event
+as a judgment of Providence for their bad conduct, and they made
+haste, with all sails set to return to Cochin. They were detained by
+contrary winds at the Laccadive Islands, and were there joined by
+another Portuguese squadron under the command of Francisco
+d'Albuquerque, who had sailed from Lisbon almost at the same time as
+his cousin Alfonzo d'Albuquerque the most distinguished captain of
+the period, who with the title of Capitam mor had started from Belem
+at the beginning of April, 1503.
+
+The arrival of Francisco d'Albuquerque placed the Portuguese affairs,
+which had been so gravely compromised by the criminal conduct of
+Sodrez, upon a better footing, and at the same time effected the
+rescue of Triumpara, their sole and faithful ally. The besiegers
+fled at the sight of the Portuguese squadron, without even a show of
+resistance, and the Europeans in conjunction with the troops of the
+King of Cochin ravaged the Malabar Coast. As a consequence of these
+events, Triumpara allowed his allies to construct a second fortress
+in his dominions, and authorised an augmentation of the number and
+importance of their mercantile houses. This was the moment that
+witnessed the arrival of Alfonzo d'Albuquerque, the man destined to
+be the real creator of the Portuguese Empire in the Indies. Diaz,
+Cabral, and Gama, had prepared the way, but Albuquerque was the
+leader of large views who was needed to determine which were the
+principal towns that must be seized in order to place the Portuguese
+dominion upon a solid and lasting basis. Thus every particular of
+the history of this man who showed so great a genius for
+colonisation, is of the deepest interest, and it is well worth while
+to record some particulars of his family, his education, and his
+early exploits.
+
+Alfonzo d'Alboquerque or d'Albuquerque, was born in 1453 at Alhandra,
+eighteen miles from Lisbon. Through his father Gonzalo d'Albuquerque,
+the Lord of Villaverde, he was descended, but illegitimately, from
+King Diniz; and through his mother from the Menezez, the great
+explorers. Brought up at the court of Alphonzo V., he there received
+as liberal and thorough an education as was possible at the period.
+He made an especial study of the great writers of antiquity, whose
+influence may be traced in the majesty and accuracy of his own style,
+and of mathematics of which he knew as much as could be learnt at
+that time. After staying for some years at Arzila, an African town
+which was under the dominion of Alphonzo V., he returned to Portugal,
+and was appointed Master of the Horse to John II., a prince whose
+chief anxiety was to extend the name and power of Portugal beyond
+the seas. It is evident that it was to the constant attendance upon
+the king imposed upon him by the duties of his office, that
+Albuquerque owed the inclination of his mind towards geographical
+studies, and his anxious desire to find the means of giving to his
+country the Empire of the Indies. He had already taken part in an
+expedition sent to the succour of the King of Naples against an
+incursion of the Turks, and in 1489, had been charged with the
+commission of revictualling and defending the fortress of Graciosa,
+upon the coast of Larache.
+
+We must now return from this digression and take up the history of
+Albuquerque, from the time of his arrival in India in 1503. It took
+him but a few days to become thoroughly aware of the position of
+affairs; he perceived that the commerce of Portugal must depend upon
+conquest for its power of development. But his first enterprise was
+proportioned to the feebleness of his resources; he laid siege to
+Raphelim, which he wished to make a military station for his
+countrymen, and then with two ships he undertook a reconnaissance of
+the coast of Hindostan. Being attacked quite unexpectedly both by
+land and sea, he was on the point of yielding when the fortunate
+arrival of his cousin Francisco turned the combat, and put the
+Zamorin's troops to flight. The importance of this victory was
+considerable; the conquerors remained masters of an immense booty
+and quantities of precious stones, which had the result of
+stimulating the Portuguese spirit of covetousness; at the same time
+it confirmed Albuquerque in his designs, for the execution of which
+the consent of the king was needful, and also more considerable
+resources. He therefore set out on his return to Lisbon, where he
+arrived in July, 1504.
+
+This same year, King Emmanuel wishing to organize a regular
+government in the Indies, had made Tristan da Cunha his viceroy, but
+Da Cunha having become temporarily blind was obliged to resign his
+power before he had exercised it. The king's choice next fell upon
+Francisco d'Almeida, who set out with his son in 1505. It will be
+soon seen what were the means which he considered should be employed
+to assure the triumph of his countrymen.
+
+On the 6th of March, 1506, sixteen vessels left Lisbon under the
+command of Tristan da Cunha, who had by that time regained his
+health. With him went Alfonzo Albuquerque, carrying with him, but
+unknown to himself, his patent of Viceroy of India. He was ordered
+not to open the sealed packet until three years should have expired,
+when Almeida would have completed the term of his mission.
+
+This numerous fleet, after having stopped at the Cape de Verd
+Islands and discovered Cape St. Augustine in Brazil, steered
+directly for the unexplored parts of the South Atlantic, and went so
+far south that the old chroniclers assert that several sailors being
+too lightly clad died from cold, while the others were scarcely able
+to work the ships. In 37 degrees 8 minutes south latitude, and 14
+degrees 21 minutes west longitude, Da Cunha discovered three small
+uninhabited islands, of which the largest still bears his name. A
+storm prevented a landing there, and so completely dispersed the
+fleet that the admiral could not get his vessels together again
+before he arrived at Mozambique. In sailing along this African coast
+he explored the island of Madagascar or Sam-Lorenzo, which had just
+been discovered by Soarez, who was in command of eight vessels which
+Almeida was sending back to Europe; it was not thought advisable to
+make a settlement upon the island.
+
+After having wintered at Mozambique, Da Cunha landed three
+ambassadors at Melinda, who were to reach Abyssinia by travelling
+overland, then he anchored at Brava, which Coutinho, one of his
+lieutenants had been unable to subjugate. The Portuguese now laid
+siege to this town, which resisted bravely but which yielded in the
+end, thanks to the courage of the enemy and the perfection of their
+arms. The population was massacred without mercy, and the town
+pillaged and burnt. Upon Magadoxo, another town on the African Coast,
+Cunha tried but in vain, to impose his authority. The strength of
+the town and the stubborn resolution shown by the numerous
+population as well as the approach of winter forced him to raise the
+siege. He then turned his arms against Socotra, at the entrance of
+the Gulf of Aden, where he carried the fortress. The whole of the
+garrison were put to the sword, the only man spared being an old
+blind soldier, who was discovered hidden in a well. When asked how
+he had been able to get down there, he answered,--"The blind only
+see the road which leads to liberty." At Socotra, the two Portuguese
+chiefs constructed the fort of Coco, intended by Albuquerque to
+command the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, by the Strait of
+Bab-el-Mandeb, thus cutting one of the lines of communication with
+the Indies, which was the most used by the Venetians.
+
+Here Da Cunha and Albuquerque separated, the former going to India
+to obtain a cargo of spices, the latter officially invested with the
+title of Capitam mor, and bent on the realization of his vast
+schemes, setting out on the 10th of August, 1507, for Ormuz, having
+left his nephew Alfonzo da Noronha in charge of the new fortress. He
+took in succession, and as if to get his hand in for the work,
+Calayati, where were found immense stores, Curiaty and Mascati,
+which he gave up to pillage, fire, and destruction, in order to
+avenge a series of acts of treachery easily understood by those who
+know the duplicity of these eastern people. The success which he had
+just gained at Mascati, important as it was, did not content
+Albuquerque. He dreamed of other and grander projects, of which the
+execution was, however, much compromised by the jealousy of the
+captains under his orders, and notably of Joao da Nova, who
+contemplated abandoning his chief, and whom Albuquerque was obliged
+to place under arrest on board his own ship. After having suppressed
+these beginnings of disobedience and rebellion, the Capitam mor
+reached Orfacati, which was taken after a vigorous resistance.
+
+It is a curious fact that Albuquerque had long heard Ormuz spoken of,
+but that as yet he was ignorant of its position. He knew that this
+town served as an entrepot for all the merchandise passing from Asia
+into Europe. Its riches and power, the number of its inhabitants and
+the beauty of its monuments were at that time celebrated throughout
+the East, so much so that there was a common saying, "If the world
+be a ring, Ormuz is the precious stone set in it." Albuquerque had
+resolved to take this town, not only because in itself it was a
+prize worth having, but also because it commanded the whole of the
+Persian Gulf, which was the second of the great commercial roads
+between the East and West. Without saying anything to the captains
+of his fleet, who, without doubt, would have rebelled at the idea of
+attacking so strong a town, and the capital of a powerful empire,
+Albuquerque gave orders to double Cape Mussendom, and the fleet soon
+entered the Strait of Ormuz, the door of the Persian Gulf, from
+whence was seen rising in all its magnificence a busy town built
+upon a rocky island, provided with formidable artillery, and
+protected by an army amounting to not less than from fifteen to
+twenty thousand men, while its harbour enclosed a fleet more
+numerous than could have been suspected at first sight. At this
+sight the captains made urgent representations upon the danger that
+Albuquerque would run in attacking so well-prepared a town, and made
+the most of the plea how very bad an influence a reverse would
+exercise. To this discourse Albuquerque answered, that indeed "it
+was a very great affair, but that it was too late to draw back, and
+that he had greater need of determination than of good advice."
+
+[Illustration: Albuquerque before Ormuz.]
+
+Scarcely was the anchor dropped before Albuquerque declared his
+ultimatum. Although the forces under his orders were very
+disproportionate in numbers, the Capitam mor imperiously demanded
+that Ormuz should recognize the suzerainty of the King of Portugal
+and submit to his envoy, if it did not wish to share the same fate
+as Mascati. The King, Seif-Ed-din, who was then reigning over Ormuz,
+was still a child, and his Prime Minister, Kodja-Atar, a skilful and
+cunning diplomatist, governed in the king's name. Without denying in
+principle the pretensions of Albuquerque, the Prime Minister wished
+to gain time, to allow contingents to arrive for the help of the
+capital; but the admiral, who guessed his object, did not hesitate,
+after waiting three days, to attack the formidable fleet at anchor
+under the guns of Ormuz, with his five vessels and the _Flor de la
+Mar_, the finest and largest ship of that time. The combat was
+bloody and long undecided, but when they saw fortune was against
+them the Moors, abandoning their vessels, endeavoured to swim on
+shore. The Portuguese upon this jumped into their boats, pursuing
+the Moors vigorously, and causing horrible carnage. Albuquerque next
+directed his efforts against a large wooden jetty defended by
+numerous guns and by archers, whose well-aimed arrows wounded a
+number of the Portuguese and the general himself, who, however, was
+not hindered thereby from landing and proceeding to burn the suburbs
+of the town. Convinced that resistance would soon be impossible, and
+that their capital was in danger of being destroyed, the Moors
+hoisted a flag of truce, and signed a treaty, by which Seif-Ed-din
+declared himself the vassal of King Emmanuel, promised to pay him an
+annual tribute of 15,000 seraphins or xarafins, and gave to the
+conquerors a site for a fortress, which, in spite of the repugnance
+and reproaches of the Portuguese captains, was soon put into a
+condition of resistance. Unfortunately some deserters quickly
+brought these unworthy dissensions to the knowledge of Kodja-Atar,
+who profited by them to avoid, under various pretexts, fulfilling
+the execution of the articles of the new treaty. Some days
+afterwards Joao da Nova and two other captains, jealous of the
+successes of Albuquerque, and trampling in the dust every sentiment
+of honour, discipline, and patriotism, left him to go to the Indies;
+while Albuquerque was obliged by this cowardly desertion to withdraw
+without being able even to guard the fortress which he had been at
+so much pains to construct. He went to Socotra, where the garrison
+was in need of help, and then returned to cruise before Ormuz, but
+thinking himself too weak to undertake anything, he retired for a
+time to Goa, arriving there at the end of the year 1508.
+
+What had been occurring on the Malabar coast during this long and
+adventurous campaign? The answer may be summed up in a few lines. It
+will be remembered that Almeida had set out from Belem in 1505 with
+a fleet of twenty-two sail, carrying soldiers to the number of 1500
+men. First he seized Quiloa and then Mombaz, of which the "cavaliers,
+as the inhabitants loved to repeat, did not yield as easily as the
+chicken hearts of Quiloa." Out of the enormous booty, which by the
+fall of this town fell into the hands of the Portuguese, Almeida
+only took one arrow as his share of the spoil, thus giving a rare
+example of disinterestedness. After having stopped at Melinda he
+went on to Cochin, where he delivered to the Rajah the golden crown
+sent to him by Emmanuel, whilst he himself, with the presumptuous
+vanity of which he gave so many proofs, assumed the title of viceroy.
+Then, after commencing a fortress at Sofala, destined to overawe the
+Mussulmen of that coast, Almeida and his son, Lorenzo, scoured the
+Indian Seas, destroying the Malabar fleets, capturing some trading
+vessels, and causing great injury to the enemy, whose accustomed
+commercial roads were thus intercepted. But for this cruising
+warfare a numerous fleet of light vessels was needed, for there was
+scarcely any other harbour of refuge except Cochin upon the Asiatic
+coast. How preferable was Albuquerque's system of establishing
+himself in the country in a permanent manner, by constructing
+fortresses in all directions, by seizing upon the most powerful
+cities, whence it was easy to branch off into the interior of the
+country, by rendering himself master of the keys of the straits, and
+thus ensuring with much less risk, and more solidity, the monopoly
+of the Indian commerce.
+
+Meantime the victories of Almeida, and the conquests of Albuquerque
+had much disquieted the Sultan of Egypt. The abandonment of the
+Alexandrian route caused a great diminution in the amount of imposts
+and dues of customs, anchorage, and transit, which were laid upon
+the merchandise of Asia as it passed through his states. Therefore,
+with the help of the Venetians, who furnished him with the wood for
+ship-building as well as with skilful sailors, he fitted out a
+squadron of twelve large ships, which came as far as Cochin, seeking
+the fleet of Lorenzo d'Almeida, and defeating it in a bloody combat
+in which Lorenzo was killed. If the sorrow of the viceroy were great
+at this sad news, at least he did not let it appear outwardly, but
+set to work to make all preparations for taking prompt vengeance
+upon the Roumis,--an appellation which shows the lasting terror
+attaching to the name of the Romans, and commonly used at this time
+upon the Malabar coast, for all Mussulman soldiers coming from
+Byzantium. With nineteen sail Almeida appeared before the fort where
+his son had been killed, and gained a great victory, but one sullied,
+it must be confessed, by most frightful cruelties, so much so that
+it soon became a common saying: "May the anger of the Franks fall
+upon thee as it fell upon Daboul." Not content with this first
+success, Almeida, some weeks later, annihilated the combined forces
+of the Sultan of Egypt, and the Rajah of Calicut, before Diu. This
+victory made a profound impression in India, and put an end to the
+power of the _Mahumetists_ of Egypt.
+
+Joao da Nova and the other captains, who had abandoned Albuquerque
+before Ormuz, had decided to rejoin Almeida; they had excused their
+disobedience by calumnies, in consequence of which a judicial
+process was about to be instituted against Albuquerque, when the
+viceroy received the news of his being replaced in his office by
+Albuquerque. At first Almeida declared that obedience must be
+rendered to this sovereign decree, but afterwards influenced by the
+traitors, who feared that they would be severely punished when the
+power had passed into the hands of Albuquerque, he repaired to
+Cochin in the month of March, 1509, with the fixed determination not
+to give up the command to his successor. There were disagreeable and
+painful disputes between these two great men, in which all the wrong
+done was on the side of Almeida. Albuquerque was about to be sent to
+Lisbon with chains on his feet, when a fleet of fifteen sail entered
+the harbour, under the command of the grand Marshal of Portugal,
+Ferdinand Coutinho. The latter took the part of the prisoner, whom
+he immediately released, notifying again to Almeida the powers held
+by Albuquerque from the king, and threatening him with the great
+anger of Emmanuel if he refused to obey. Almeida could do nothing
+but yield, and he then did it nobly. As for Joao da Nova, the author
+of these sad misunderstandings, he died some time afterwards,
+forsaken by everybody, and had scarcely any one to follow him to the
+grave except the new viceroy, who thus generously forgot the
+injuries done to Alfonzo Albuquerque.
+
+Immediately after the departure of Almeida, the grand Marshal
+Coutinho declared that, having come to India with the intention of
+destroying Calicut, he intended to turn to account the absence of
+the Zamorin from his capital. In vain the new viceroy endeavoured to
+modify his zeal and induce him to take the wise measures recommended
+by experience. Coutinho would listen to nothing, and Albuquerque was
+obliged to follow him. Calicut, taken by surprise, was easily set on
+fire; but the Portuguese, having lingered to pillage the Zamorin's
+palace, were fiercely attacked in rear by the Nairs, who had
+succeeded in rallying their troops. Coutinho, whose impetuous valour
+led him into the greatest danger, was killed, and it required all
+the skill and coolness of the viceroy to effect a re-embarkation of
+the troops under the enemy's fire, and to preserve the soldiers of
+the King of Portugal from total destruction.
+
+On his return to Cintagara, a sea-port which was a dependency of the
+King of Narsingue, with whom the Portuguese had been able to form an
+alliance, Albuquerque learnt that Goa, the capital of a powerful
+kingdom, was a prey to political and religious anarchy. Several
+chiefs were contending there for power. One of them, Melek Cufergugi,
+was just on the point of seizing the throne, and it was important to
+profit by the circumstances of the moment, and attack the town
+before he should have been able to gather a force capable of
+resisting the Portuguese. The viceroy perceived all the importance
+of this counsel. The situation of Goa, giving access as it did to
+the kingdom of Narsingue and to the Deccan, had already struck him
+forcibly. He did not delay, and soon the Portuguese reckoned one
+conquest more. Goa the Golden, a cosmopolitan town, where were
+mingled with all the various sects of Islam Parsees, the worshippers
+of Fire, and even some Christians, submitted to Albuquerque, and
+soon became, under a wise and strict government which understood how
+to conciliate the sympathies of opposing sects, the capital, the
+chief fortress, and the principal seat of trade of the Portuguese
+empire of the Indies.
+
+By degrees and with the course of years the knowledge of these rich
+countries had increased. Much information had been gathered together
+by all those who had ploughed these sunny seas in their gallant
+vessels, and it was now known what was the centre of production of
+those spices which people went so far to seek, and for whose
+acquisition they encountered so many perils. It was already several
+years since Almeida had founded the first Portuguese factories in
+Ceylon, the ancient Taprobane. The Islands of Sunda, and the
+Peninsula of Malacca, were now exciting the desires of King Emmanuel,
+who had already been surnamed "the fortunate." He resolved to send a
+fleet to explore them, for Albuquerque had enough to do in India to
+restrain the trembling Rajahs, and the Mussulmen--Moors as they were
+then called--who were always ready to shake off the yoke. This new
+expedition was under the command of Diego Lopez Sequeira, and
+according to the traditional policy of the Moors, was at first
+amicably received at Malacca; but when the suspicions of Lopez
+Sequeira had been lulled to sleep by reiterated protestations of
+alliance, the whole population suddenly rose against him, and he was
+forced to return on board, but not without leaving thirty of his
+companions in the hands of the Malays. These events had already
+happened some time when the news of the taking of Goa arrived at
+Malacca. The _bendarra_, or Minister of Justice, who exercised regal
+power in the name of his nephew who was still a child, fearing the
+vengeance which the Portuguese would doubtless exact for his
+treachery, resolved to pacify them. He went to visit his prisoners,
+excused himself to them by swearing that all had been done unknown
+to him and against his will, for he desired nothing so much as to
+see the Portuguese establish themselves in Malacca; also he was
+about to order the authors of the treason to be sought out and
+punished. The prisoners naturally gave no credence to these lying
+declarations, but profiting by the comparative liberty which was
+henceforth granted to them, they cleverly succeeded in conveying to
+Albuquerque some valuable information upon the position and strength
+of the town.
+
+Albuquerque with much trouble collected a fleet of nineteen men of
+war, carrying fourteen hundred men, amongst whom there were only
+eight hundred Portuguese. This being the case, ought he to venture
+in obedience to the wish of King Emmanuel to steer for Aden, the key
+of the Red Sea, which it was important to master in preparation for
+opposing the passage of a new squadron, which the Sultan of Egypt
+was intending to send to India? Albuquerque hesitated, when a change
+in the trade-winds occurred which put an end to his irresolution. In
+fact, it was impossible to reach Aden in the teeth of the prevailing
+wind, while it was favourable for a descent upon Malacca. This town,
+at that time in its full splendour, did not contain less than
+100,000 inhabitants. If many of the houses were built of wood, and
+roofed with the leaves of the palm-tree, yet they were equalled in
+number by the more important buildings, such as mosques and towers
+built of stone, which stretched out in a long panorama for the
+distance of three miles. The ships of India, China, and of the Malay
+kingdoms of the Sunda Islands, met in its harbour, where numerous
+vessels coming from the Malabar coast, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea,
+and the coast of Africa traded in merchandise of all kinds and of
+every country.
+
+When the Rajah of Malacca saw the Portuguese fleet arrive in his
+waters, he felt that it was necessary to appear to give satisfaction
+to the foreigners by sacrificing the minister who had excited their
+anger and caused their arrival. His ambassador therefore came to the
+viceroy to announce the death of the _bendarra_, and to find out
+what were the intentions of the Portuguese. Albuquerque answered by
+demanding the prisoners who had remained in the hands of the Rajah,
+but the latter, desirous of gaining time to allow for the expected
+change in the trade-wind,--a change which would force the Portuguese
+to regain the Malabar coast, or else would oblige them to remain at
+Malacca, where he hoped to be able to exterminate them,--invented a
+thousand pretexts for delay, and in the meantime according to the
+old narratives, he prepared a battery of 8000 cannon, and collected
+troops to the number of 20,000. At length Albuquerque lost his
+patience, and ordered some houses and several Gujerat vessels to be
+set on fire, a beginning of execution which speedily brought about
+the restoration of the prisoners; he then claimed 20,000 crusades as
+indemnity for the damage caused to the fleet of Lopez Sequeira, and
+finally he demanded to be allowed to build a fortress within the
+town itself, which should also serve as a counting-house for the
+merchants. This demand could not be complied with as Albuquerque
+well knew; but upon the refusal he resolved to seize the town,
+fixing upon St. James' day for the attack. The town was taken
+quarter by quarter, house by house, after a truly heroic struggle
+and a most vigorous defence, which lasted for nine whole days,
+notwithstanding the employment of extraordinary devices, such as
+elephants of war, poisoned sabres and arrows, barricades, and
+skilfully concealed troops. An enormous booty was divided amongst
+the soldiers, Albuquerque only reserving to himself six lions, of
+gold according to some accounts, of iron according to others, which
+he intended for the adornment of his tomb, to perpetuate the memory
+of his victory.
+
+The door which gave access to Oceania, and to Upper Asia, was
+henceforth open. Many nations unknown till this time would now have
+intercourse with Europeans. The strange manners and fabulous history
+of many people were about to be disclosed to the astonished West. A
+new era had commenced, and these great results were due to the
+unbridled audacity, and indomitable courage of a nation whose
+country was scarcely discernible upon the map of the world!
+
+It was in part owing to the religious toleration which Albuquerque
+displayed, a toleration which contrasts strangely with the cruel
+fanaticism of the Spaniards, and in part to the skilful measures
+which he took, that the prosperity of Malacca resisted the rude
+shock which it had received. In the course of a few months no trace
+remained of the trials which the town had experienced, except the
+sight of the Portuguese banner floating proudly over this great city,
+which had now become the head and vanguard of the colonial empire of
+this people, small in numbers, but rendered great by their courage
+and their spirit of enterprise.
+
+Great and wonderful as this new conquest might be, it had not made
+Albuquerque forget his former projects. If he had appeared to have
+renounced them, it was only because circumstances had not hitherto
+seemed favourable for their execution. With that tenacity of
+determination which formed the basis of his character, while still
+at the southern extremity of the empire which he was founding, his
+thoughts were fixed upon the northern part of it, upon Ormuz, which
+the jealousy and treachery of his subordinates had obliged him to
+abandon at the beginning of his career, at the very moment when
+success was about to crown his persevering efforts; it was Ormuz
+which tempted him still.
+
+[Illustration: The Island of Ormuz.]
+
+The fame of his exploits and the terror inspired by his name had
+decided Kodja-Atar to make some advances to Albuquerque, to ask for
+a treaty, and to send the arrears of the tribute which had been
+formerly imposed. Although the viceroy placed no belief on these
+repeated declarations of friendship--on that Moorish faith which
+deserves to be as notorious as Punic faith,--he nevertheless
+welcomed them, whilst waiting for the power to establish his
+dominion after a permanent manner in these countries. In 1513 or
+1514--the exact date is not ascertained--when his fleet and soldiers
+were set at liberty by the conquest of Malacca and the tranquillity
+of his other possessions, Albuquerque set sail for the Persian Gulf.
+Immediately upon his arrival, although a series of revolutions had
+changed the government of Ormuz and the power was then in the hands
+of a usurper named Rais-Nordim or Noureddin, Albuquerque demanded
+that the fortress, which had been formerly begun, should be
+immediately placed in his hands. After having had it repaired and
+finished, he took part against the pretender Rais Named, in the
+quarrel which was then dividing the town of Ormuz and preparing it
+to fall under the dominion of Persia. He seized upon the town and
+bestowed it upon the aspirant who had accepted his conditions
+beforehand, and who appeared to Albuquerque to present the most
+solid guarantees of submission and fidelity. Besides, it would not
+be difficult in the future to make this certain, for Albuquerque
+left in the new fortress a garrison perfectly able to bring
+Rais-Nordim to repentance for the slightest attempt at revolt, or
+the least desire of independence.
+
+A well-known anecdote is related of this expedition to Ormuz, but
+one which, even from its notoriety, we should be blamed for omitting.
+When the King of Persia sent to Noureddin to demand the tribute
+which the sovereigns of Ormuz had been in the habit of paying to him,
+Albuquerque gave orders that a quantity of bullets, cannon-balls and
+shells, should be brought from his ships, and showing them to the
+ambassadors he told them that such was the coin in which the King of
+Portugal was accustomed to pay tribute. It does not appear that the
+Persian ambassadors repeated their demand.
+
+[Illustration: Albuquerque had a quantity of bullets brought from
+his vessels.]
+
+With his usual wisdom, the viceroy did not wound the feelings of the
+inhabitants, who speedily returned to the town. Far from squeezing
+all he could from them, as his successors were destined soon to do,
+he established an upright system of government which caused the
+Portuguese name to be loved and respected.
+
+At the same time that he was himself accomplishing these marvellous
+labours, Albuquerque had desired some of his lieutenants to explore
+the unknown regions to which access had been given by the taking of
+Malacca. For this purpose he gave to Antonio and Francisco d'Abreu
+the command of a small squadron carrying 220 men, with which they
+explored the whole of the Sunda Archipelago, Sumatra, Java, Anjoam,
+Simbala, Jolor, Galam, &c.; then being not far from the coast of
+Australia they sailed back again to the north and arrived at the
+Islands of Buro and Amboyna, which form part of the Molucca group.
+After having made a voyage of more than 1500 miles amongst dangerous
+archipelagos strewn with rocks and coral reefs, and amidst
+populations often hostile, and after loading their ships there with
+cloves, nutmegs, sandal-wood, mace, and pearls, they set sail for
+Malacca in 1512. This time the veritable land of spices had been
+reached, it now only remained to found establishments there and to
+take possession of it definitely, which was not likely to be long
+postponed.
+
+It has been often remarked that the Tarpeian rock is not far from
+the Capitol; of this Albuquerque was destined to make experience,
+and his last days were to be saddened by unmerited disgrace, the
+result of calumnies and lies, and of a skilfully woven plot, which,
+although it succeeded in temporarily clouding his reputation with
+King Emmanuel, has not availed to obscure the glory of this great
+man in the eyes of posterity. Already there had been an effort made
+to persuade the king that the taking possession of Goa had been a
+grave error; its unhealthy climate must, it was said, decimate the
+European population in a short time, but the king, with perfect
+confidence in the experience and prudence of his lieutenant, had
+refused to listen to his enemies, for which Albuquerque had publicly
+thanked him, saying,--"I think more is owing to King Emmanuel for
+having defended Goa against the Portuguese, than to myself for
+having twice conquered it." But in 1514 Albuquerque had asked the
+king to bestow upon him as a reward for his services the title of
+Duke of Goa, and it was this imprudent step which gave an advantage
+to his adversaries.
+
+Soarez d'Albergavia and Diogo Mendez, whom Albuquerque had sent as
+prisoners to Portugal after they had publicly declared themselves
+his enemies, had succeeded not only in clearing themselves from the
+accusation brought against them by the viceroy, but in persuading
+Emmanuel that he wished to constitute an independent duchy of which
+Goa should be the capital, and they ended by obtaining his disgrace.
+The news of the appointment of Albergavia to the post of
+Captain-General of Cochin, reached Albuquerque as he was issuing
+from the Strait of Ormuz on his return to the Malabar coast, and at
+a time when he was suffering much from disease. "He raised his hands
+towards heaven," says M. F. Denis, in his excellent History of
+Portugal, "and pronounced these few words: Behold I am in disgrace
+with the king on account of my love to men, and with men on account
+of my love to the king. Turn thee, old man, to the Church, and
+prepare to die, for it behoves thine honour that thou shouldest die,
+and never hast thou neglected to do aught which thine honour
+demands." Whereupon, being arrived in the roadstead of Goa, Alfonzo
+Albuquerque set in order the affairs of his conscience with the
+Church, caused himself to be clad in the dress of the Order of St.
+Iago of which he was a commander, and then "on Sunday the 16th of
+December, an hour before daybreak, he rendered up his soul to God.
+Thus ended all his labours, without their having ever brought him
+any satisfaction."
+
+Albuquerque was buried with great pomp. The soldiers who had been
+the faithful companions of his wonderful adventures, and the
+witnesses of his manifold tribulations, disputed amidst their tears
+for the honour of carrying his remains to their last resting-place,
+which their commander had himself chosen. The Hindoos in their grief
+refused to believe that he was dead, declaring that he was gone to
+command the armies of the sky. A letter of King Emmanuel has been
+comparatively lately discovered which proves that, although he were
+deceived for a time by the false reports of the enemies of
+Albuquerque, he soon discovered his mistake, and rendered him full
+and entire justice. Unfortunately this letter of reparation never
+reached the unfortunate second Viceroy of the Indies; it would have
+sweetened his last moments, whereas he had the pain of dying in the
+belief that the sovereign for whose glory and the increase of whose
+power he had consecrated his life, had in the end proved ungrateful
+towards him. "With Albuquerque," says Michelet, "all humanity and
+all justice disappeared from amongst the conquerors. Long years
+after his death the Indians would repair to the tomb of the great
+Albuquerque, to demand justice of him against the oppressions of his
+successors."
+
+Many causes may be adduced as bringing about the rapid decay and
+dismemberment of that great colonial empire with which Albuquerque
+had enriched his country, and which even amidst its ruins has left
+ineffaceable traces upon India. With Michelet we may cite the
+distance and dispersion of the various factories, the smallness of
+the population of Portugal, but little suited to the wide extension
+of her establishments, the love of brigandage, and the exactions of
+a bad government, but beyond all, that indomitable national pride
+which forbade any mingling of the victors with the vanquished.
+
+The fall of the colonial empire was hindered for a time by the
+influence of two heroic men, the first was Juan de Castro, who after
+having had the control of untold riches, remained so poor that he
+had not even the wherewithal to buy a fowl in his last illness; and
+the second, Ataide, who once again gave the corrupt eastern
+populations an example of the most manly virtues, and of the most
+upright administration. But after their time the empire began to
+drop to pieces, and fell by degrees into the hands of the Spaniards
+and the Dutch, who in their turn were unable to preserve it intact.
+All passes away, all is changed. What can be said but to repeat the
+Spanish saw, in applying it to the case of empires, "Life is but a
+dream"?
+
+
+END OF THE FIRST PART.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+THE CONQUERORS OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+I.
+
+Hojeda--Americus Vespucius--The New World named after him--Juan de
+la Cosa--Vincent Yanez Pinzon--Bastidas--Diego de Lepe--Diaz de
+Solis--Ponce de Leon and Florida--Balboa discovers the Pacific
+Ocean--Grijalva explores the coast of Mexico.
+
+
+The letters and narratives of Columbus and his companions,
+especially those dwelling upon the large quantity of gold and pearls
+found in the recently discovered countries, had inflamed the
+imagination of eager traders, and of numbers of gentlemen who loved
+adventure. On the 10th of April, 1495, the Spanish government had
+issued an order allowing any one who might wish to do so, to go and
+discover new countries; but this privilege was so much abused, and
+Columbus complained so bitterly of its trenching upon established
+rights, that the permission was withdrawn on the 2nd of June, 1497,
+and four years later it became necessary to repeat the prohibition
+with more severe penalties attached to its infringement. The effect
+of the royal decree was at once to produce a kind of general rush to
+the Indies, and this was favoured by Bishop Fonseca of Badajoz,
+through whose hands passed all business connected with the Indies,
+and of whom Columbus had had so much reason to complain.
+
+The admiral had but just left San-Lucar on his third voyage, when
+four expeditions of discovery were fitted out almost at the same
+moment, at the cost of some rich ship-owners, foremost among whom we
+find the Pinzons and Americus Vespucius. The first of these
+expeditions, which left the port of Santa-Maria on the 20th of May,
+1499, consisted of four vessels, and was commanded by Alonzo Hojeda.
+Juan de la Cosa sailed with him as pilot; Americus Vespucius was
+also on board, without any very clearly defined duties, but he would
+seem to have been astronomer to the fleet.
+
+[Illustration: Americus Vespucius. _Fac-simile of an old print_.]
+
+Before entering on a brief account of this voyage, we will glance
+for a few moments at the three men whom we have just named; the last
+of the three especially, plays a most important part in the
+discovery of the New World, which received its name from him.
+
+Hojeda, born at Cuenca about 1465, and brought up in the household
+of the Duke of Medina-Celi, had gained his first experience in arms
+in the wars against the Moors. Columbus enrolled him amongst the
+adventurers whom he recruited for his second voyage, when Hojeda
+distinguished himself alike by his cool courage and his readiness in
+surmounting all difficulties. What caused his complete rupture with
+Columbus remains a mystery; it appears still more inexplicable when
+we think of the distinguished services that Hojeda had rendered,
+especially in 1495, at the battle of La Vega, when the Caribbean
+Confederation was annihilated. All we know is, that on Hojeda's
+return to Spain he found shelter and protection with Bishop Fonseca.
+It is said even that the Indian minister supplied him with the
+journal of the admiral's last voyage, and the map of the countries
+which Columbus had discovered.
+
+The first pilot employed by Hojeda was Juan de la Cosa, born
+probably at Santona, in the Biscayan country. He had often sailed
+along the coast of Africa before accompanying Columbus on his first
+voyage, while in the second expedition he filled the post of
+hydrographer (_maestro de hacer cartas_).
+
+As specimens of La Cosa's talent in drawing maps may be mentioned
+two very curious ones still extant; one showing all the territory
+that had been acquired in Africa in 1500, the other on vellum, and
+enriched with colour like the first, giving the discoveries made by
+Columbus and his successors. The second pilot was Bartholomew Roldan,
+who had likewise sailed with Columbus on his voyage to Paria.
+
+As to Americus Vespucius, his duties were not, as we have said, very
+clearly defined, he was there to aid in making discoveries (_per
+ajutare a discoprire_, says the Italian text of his letter to
+Soderini). Born at Florence on the 9th of March, 1451, Amerigo
+Vespucci belonged to a family of distinction and wealth. He had made
+mathematics, natural philosophy, and astrology (as it was then
+called) his special studies. His knowledge of history and literature,
+judging from his letters, appears to have been somewhat vague and
+ill-digested. He left Florence in 1492 without any special aim in
+view, and went to Spain, where he occupied himself at first in
+commercial pursuits. We hear of him in Seville acting as factor in
+the powerful trading house of his fellow countryman, Juanoto Berardi.
+As this house had advanced money to Columbus for his second voyage,
+it is not unlikely that Vespucius had become acquainted with the
+admiral at this period of his career. On Juanoto's death in 1495,
+Vespucius was placed by his heirs at the head of the financial
+department of the house. Whether he may have been tired of a
+situation that he thought below his powers, or been seized in his
+turn with the fever for making new discoveries, or whether he hoped
+to make his fortune rapidly in the new countries reputed to be so
+rich; whatever in short may have been the motive that actuated him,
+at least this we know, that he joined Hojeda's expedition in 1499,
+this fact being so stated in Hojeda's deposition in the law-suit
+instituted by the Treasury with the heirs of Columbus.
+
+The flotilla, consisting of four vessels, set sail on the 20th of
+May from Santa-Maria, taking a south-westerly course, and in
+twenty-seven days the American continent was sighted at the place
+which was named Venezuela, because the houses being built upon piles
+reminded the beholders of Venice. Hojeda, after some ineffectual
+attempts to hold intercourse with the natives, with whom he had
+several skirmishes, next saw the Island of Margarita; after sailing
+about 250 miles to the east of the river Orinoco he reached the Gulf
+of Paria, and entered a bay called the Bay of _Las Perlas_, from the
+natives of that part being employed in the pearl fisheries.
+
+Guided by the maps of Columbus, Hojeda passed by the Dragon's-Mouth,
+which separates Trinidad from the continent, and returned westward
+to Cape _La Vela_. Then, after touching at the Caribbee Islands,
+where he made a number of prisoners, whom he hoped to sell for
+slaves in Spain, he was obliged to cast anchor at Yaquimo, in
+Hispaniola, on the 5th of September, 1499.
+
+Columbus, knowing Hojeda's courage and his restless spirit only too
+well, feared that he would introduce a new element of discord into
+the colony. He therefore despatched Francesco Roldan with two
+caravels to inquire into his motives in coming to the island, and if
+necessary to prevent his landing. The admiral's fears were but too
+well grounded; Hojeda had scarcely landed before he had an interview
+with some of the malcontents, inciting them to a rising at Xaragua,
+and to a determination to expel Columbus. After some skirmishes,
+which had not ended to Hojeda's advantage, a meeting was arranged
+for him with Roldan, Diego d'Escobar, and Juan de la Cosa, when they
+prevailed upon him to leave the island. "He took with him," says Las
+Casas, "a prodigious cargo of slaves, whom he sold in the market at
+Cadiz for enormous sums of money." He returned to Spain in February,
+1500, where he had been preceded by Americus Vespucius and B. Roldan
+on the 18th of October, 1499.
+
+The most southerly point that Hojeda had reached in this voyage was
+4 degrees north latitude, and he had only spent fourteen weeks on
+the voyage of discovery, properly so called. If we appear to have
+dwelt at some length upon this voyage, it is because it was the
+first one made by Vespucius. Some authors, Varnhagen for instance,
+and quite recently, Mr. H. Major, in his history of Prince Henry the
+Navigator, assert that Vespucius' first voyage was in 1497, and
+consequently that he must have seen the American continent before
+Columbus, but we prefer to follow Humboldt, who spent so many years
+in studying the history of the discovery of America, in his opinion
+that 1499 was the right date, also M. Ed. Charton and M. Jules
+Codine, the latter of whom discussed this question in the Report of
+the Geographical Society for 1873, _apropos_ of Mr. Major's book.
+
+"If it were true," says Voltaire, "that Vespucius had discovered the
+American Continent, yet the glory would not be his; it belongs
+undoubtedly to the man who had the genius and courage to undertake
+the first voyage, to Columbus." As Newton says in his argument with
+Leibnitz, "the glory is due only to the inventor." But we agree with
+M. Codine when he says, "How can we allow that there was an
+expedition in 1497 which resulted in the discovery of above 2500
+miles of the coast-line of the mainland, when there is no trace of
+it left either among the great historians of that time, or in the
+legal depositions in connexion with the claims made by the heir of
+Columbus against the Spanish Government, in which the priority of
+the discoveries of each leader of an expedition is carefully
+mentioned, with the part of the coast explored by each?" Finally,
+the authentic documents extracted from the archives of the _Casa de
+contratacion_ make it evident that Vespucius was entrusted with the
+preparation of the vessels destined for the third voyage of Columbus
+at Seville and at San Lucar from the middle of August, 1497, till
+the departure of Columbus on the 30th of May, 1498. The narratives
+of the voyages of Vespucius are very diffuse and wanting in
+precision and order; the information they give upon the places he
+visited is so vague, that it might apply to one part of the coast as
+well as to another; as to the localities treated of, as well as of
+the companions of Vespucius, there are no indications given of a
+nature to aid the historian. Not a single name is given of any
+well-known person, and the dates are contradictory in those famous
+letters which have given endless work to commentators. Humboldt says
+of them "There is an element of discord in the most authentic
+documents relating to the Florentine navigator." We have given an
+account of Hojeda's first voyage, which coincides with that of
+Vespucius according to Humboldt, who has compared the principal
+incidents of the two narratives. Varnhagen asserts that Vespucius,
+having started on the 10th of May, 1497, entered the Gulf of
+Honduras on the 10th of June, coasted by Yucatan and Mexico, sailed
+up the Mississippi, and at the end of February, 1498, doubled the
+Cape of Florida. After anchoring for thirty-seven days at the mouth
+of the St. Lawrence, he returned to Cadiz in October, 1498.
+
+If Vespucius had really made this marvellous voyage, he would have
+far outstripped all the navigators of his time, and would have fully
+deserved that his name should be given to the newly-discovered
+continent, whose coast-line he had explored for so great a distance.
+But nothing is less certain, and Humboldt's opinion has hitherto
+appeared to the best writers to offer the largest amount of
+probability.
+
+Americus Vespucius made three other voyages. Humboldt identifies the
+first with that of Vincent Yanez Pinzon, and M. d'Avezac with that
+of Diego de Lepe (1499-1500). At the close of this latter year,
+Giuliano Bartholomeo di Giocondo induced Vespucius to enter the
+service of Emmanuel, King of Portugal, and he accomplished two more
+voyages at the expense of his new master. On the first of these two
+voyages, he was no higher in command than he had been in his earlier
+ones, and only accompanied the expedition as one whose intimate
+acquaintance with all nautical matters might prove of service under
+certain circumstances. During this voyage the ships coasted along
+the American shores from Cape St. Augustine to 52 degrees of south
+latitude. The fourth voyage of Vespucius was marked by the wreck of
+the flag-ship off the Island of Fernando de Noronha, which prevented
+the other vessels from continuing their voyage towards Malacca by
+way of the Cape of Good Hope, and obliged the crews to land at All
+Saints' Bay, in Brazil.
+
+This fourth voyage was unquestionably made with Gonzalo Coelho, but
+we are quite ignorant as to who was in command on the third voyage.
+These various expeditions had not tended to enrich Vespucius, while
+his position at the Portuguese court was so far from satisfactory
+that he determined to re-enter the service of the King of Spain. By
+him he was made _Piloto Mayor_ on the 22nd of March, 1508. There
+were some valuable emoluments attached for his advantage to this
+appointment, which enabled him to end his days, if not as a rich man,
+at least as one far removed from want. He died at Seville on the
+22nd of February, 1512, with the same conviction as Columbus, that
+he had reached the shores of Asia. Americus Vespucius is especially
+famous from the New World having been named after him, instead of
+being called Columbia, as in all justice it should have been, but
+with this Vespucius had nothing to do. He was for a long time
+charged, though most unjustly, with impudence, falsehood, and deceit,
+it being alleged that he wished to veil the glory of Columbus and to
+arrogate to himself the honour of a discovery which did not belong
+to him. This was an utterly unfounded accusation, for Vespucius was
+both loved and esteemed by Columbus and his contemporaries, and
+there is nothing in his writings to justify this calumnious
+assertion. Seven printed documents exist which are attributed to
+Vespucius; they are--the abridged accounts of his four voyages, two
+narratives of his third and fourth voyages, in the form of letters,
+addressed to Lorenzo de Pier Francesco de Medici, and a letter
+addressed to the same nobleman, relative to the Portuguese
+discoveries in the Indies. These documents, printed and bound up as
+small thin volumes, were soon translated into various languages and
+distributed throughout Europe.
+
+It was in the year 1507 that a certain Hylacolymus, whose real name
+was Martin Waldtzemuller, first proposed to give the name of America
+to the new part of the world. He did so in a book printed at Saint
+Die and called _Cosmographia introductio_. In 1509 a small
+geographical treatise appeared at Strasburg adopting the proposal of
+Hylacolymus; and in 1520 an edition of Pomponius Mela was printed at
+Basle, giving a map of the New World with the name of America. From
+this time the number of works employing the denomination proposed by
+Waldtzemuller increased perpetually.
+
+Some years later, when Waldtzemuller was better informed as to the
+real discoverer of America and of the value to be placed upon the
+voyages of Vespucius, he eliminated from his book all that related
+to the latter, and substituted everywhere the name of Columbus for
+that of Vespucius, but it was too late, the same error has prevailed
+ever since.
+
+As to Vespucius himself, it seems very unlikely that he was at all
+aware of the excitement which prevailed in Europe, nor of what was
+passing at St. Die. The testimony that has been unanimously borne to
+his honourable and upright conduct should surely clear him from the
+unmerited accusations which have for too long a time clouded his
+memory.
+
+Three other expeditions left Spain almost at the same time as that
+of Hojeda. The first of these, consisting of but one vessel, sailed
+from Barra Saltez in June 1499. Pier Alonzo Nino, who had served
+under Columbus in his two last voyages, was its commander, and he
+was accompanied by Christoval Guerra, a merchant of Seville, who
+probably defrayed the expenses of the expedition. This voyage to the
+coast of Paria seems to have been dictated more by the hope of
+lucrative commerce than by the interests of science. No new
+discoveries were made, but the two voyagers returned to Spain in
+April, 1500, bringing with them so large a quantity of valuable
+pearls as to excite the cupidity of their countrymen, who became
+anxious to try their own fortunes in the same direction.
+
+The second expedition was commanded by Vincent Yanez Pinzon, the
+younger brother of Alonzo Pinzon who had been captain of the _Pinta_
+and had shown so much jealousy of Columbus, even adopting the
+following mendacious device:--
+
+   _A Castilla, y a Leon
+    Nuevo Mundo dio Pinzon_.
+
+Yanez Pinzon, whose devotion to the admiral equalled his brother's
+jealousy, had advanced an eighth part of the funds required for the
+expedition of 1492, and had on that occasion been in command of the
+_Nina_.
+
+He set out in December, 1499, with four vessels, of which only two
+returned to Palos at the end of September, 1500. He touched the
+coast of the newly discovered continent at a point near the shore
+visited by Hojeda some months before, and explored the coast for
+some 2400 miles, discovering Cape St. Augustine at 8 degrees 20
+minutes south latitude, following the coast-line in a north-westerly
+direction to _Rio Grande_, which he named _Santa-Maria de la Mar
+dulce_, and continuing in the same direction as far as Cape St.
+Vincent. Diego de Lepe explored the same coasts with two caravels
+from January to June, 1500; there is nothing particular to record of
+this voyage beyond the very important observation that was made on
+the direction of the coast-line of the continent starting from Cape
+St. Augustine. Lepe had but just returned to Spain when two vessels
+left Cadiz, equipped by Rodrigo M. Bastidas, a wealthy and highly
+respectable man, with the view of making some fresh discoveries, but
+above all with the object of collecting as large a quantity of gold
+and pearls as possible, for which were to be bartered glass beads
+and other worthless trifles. Juan de la Cosa, whose talents as a
+navigator were proverbial, and who knew these coasts well from
+having explored them, was really at the head of this expedition. The
+sailors went on shore and saw the Rio Sinu, the Gulf of Urabia, and
+reached the _Puerto del Retrete_ or _de los Escribanos_, in the
+Isthmus of Panama. This harbour was not visited by Columbus till the
+26th of November, 1502; it is situated about seventeen miles from
+the once celebrated, but now destroyed town of _Nombre de Dios_. In
+fact this expedition, which had been organized by a merchant, became,
+thanks to Juan de la Cosa, one of the voyages the most fertile in
+discoveries; but alas! it came to a sad termination; the vessels
+were lost in the Gulf of Xaragua, and Bastidas and La Cosa were
+obliged to make their way by land to St. Domingo. When they arrived
+there, Bovadilla, the upright man and model governor, whose infamous
+conduct to Columbus we have already mentioned, had them arrested, on
+the plea that they had bought some gold from the Indians of Xaragua;
+he sent them off to Spain, which was only reached after a fearfully
+stormy voyage, some of the vessels being lost on the way.
+
+After this expedition, so fruitful in results, voyages of discovery
+became rather less frequent for some years; the Spaniards being
+occupied in asserting their supremacy in the countries in which they
+had already founded colonies.
+
+[Illustration: Indians devoured by Dogs. _From an old print_.]
+
+The colonization of Hispaniola had commenced in 1493, when the town
+of Isabella was built. Two years afterwards Christopher Columbus had
+travelled over the island and had subjugated the poor savages, by
+means of those terrible dogs which had been trained to hunt Indians,
+and unaccustomed as the natives were to any hard work, he had forced
+them to toil in the mines. Both Bovadilla and Ovando treating the
+Indians as a herd of cattle, had divided them among the colonists as
+slaves. The cruelty with which this unfortunate people was treated
+became more and more unbearable. By means of a despicable ambush,
+Ovando seized the Queen of Xaragua and 300 of her principal subjects,
+and at a given signal they were all put to the sword without there
+being any crime adduced against them. "For some years," says
+Robertson, "the gold brought into the royal treasury of Spain
+amounted to about 460,000 _pesos_ (2,400,000 livres of the currency
+of Tours) an enormous sum if we take into consideration the great
+increase in the value of money since the beginning of the sixteenth
+century." In 1511 Diego Velasquez conquered Cuba with 300 men, and
+here again were enacted the terrible scenes of bloodshed and pillage
+which have rendered the Spanish name so sadly notorious. They cut
+off the thumbs of the natives, put out their eyes, and poured
+boiling oil or melted lead into their wounds, even when they did not
+torture them by burning them over a slow fire to extract from them
+the secret of the treasures of which they were believed to be the
+possessors. It was only natural under these circumstances that the
+population rapidly decreased, and the day was not far off when it
+would be wholly exterminated. To understand fully the sufferings of
+this race thus odiously persecuted, the touching and horrible
+narrative of Las Casas must be read, himself the indefatigable
+defender of the Indians.
+
+[Illustration: Indians burnt alive. _From an old print_.]
+
+In Cuba, the Cacique Hattuey was made prisoner and condemned to be
+burnt. When he was tied to the stake, a Franciscan monk tried to
+convert him, promising him that if he would only embrace the
+Christian faith, he would be at once admitted to all the joys of
+Paradise. "Are there any Spaniards in that land of happiness and joy
+of which you speak?" asked Hattuey. "Yes," replied the monk, "but
+only those who have been just and good in their lives." "The very
+best among them can have neither justice nor mercy!" said the poor
+cacique, "I do not wish to go to any place where I should meet a
+single man of that accursed race."
+
+Does not this fact suffice to paint the degree of exasperation to
+which these unfortunate people had been driven? And these horrors
+were repeated wherever the Spaniards set foot! We will throw a veil
+over these atrocities practised by men who thought themselves
+civilized, and who pretended that they wished to convert to
+Christianity, the religion pre-eminently of love and mercy, a race
+who were in reality less savage than themselves.
+
+In 1504 and 1505 four vessels explored the Gulf of Urabia. This was
+the first voyage in which Juan de la Cosa had the supreme command.
+This seems, too, to have been about the date of Hojeda's third
+voyage, when he went to the territory of Coquibacoa, a voyage that
+certainly was made, as Humboldt says, but of which we have no clear
+account.
+
+In 1509 Juan Diaz de Solis, in concert with Vincent Yanez Pinzon,
+discovered a vast province, since known by the name of Yucatan.
+
+"Though this expedition was not a very remarkable one in itself,"
+says Robertson, "it deserves to be noticed as it led to discoveries
+of the utmost importance." For the same reason we must mention the
+voyage of Diego d'Ocampo, who being charged to sail round Cuba, was
+the first to ascertain the fact that it was a large island, Columbus
+having always regarded it as part of the continent. Two years later
+Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Pinzon sailing southwards towards the
+equinoctial line, advanced as far as the 40 degrees of south
+latitude, and found, to their surprise, that the continent extended
+on their right hand even to this immense distance. They landed
+several times, and took formal possession of the country, but could
+not found any colonies there, on account of the small resources they
+had at their command. The principal result of this voyage was the
+more exact knowledge which it gave of the extent of this part of the
+globe.
+
+Alonzo de Hojeda, whose adventures we have narrated above, was the
+first to think of founding a colony on the mainland; although he had
+no means of his own, his courage and enterprising spirit soon gained
+him associates, who furnished him with the funds needed for carrying
+out his plans.
+
+With the same object Diego de Nicuessa, a rich colonist of
+Hispaniola, organized an expedition in 1509.
+
+King Ferdinand, who was always lavish of encouragements which cost
+little, gave both Hojeda and Nicuessa honourable titles and patents
+of nobility, but not a single maravedis (a Spanish coin). He also
+divided the newly-discovered continent into two governments, of
+which one was to extend from Cape _La Vela_ to the Gulf of Darien,
+and the other from the Gulf of Darien to Cape _Gracias a Dios_. The
+first was given to Hojeda, the second to Nicuessa. These two
+"conquistadores" had to deal with a population far less easy to
+manage than that of the Antilles. Determined to resist to the utmost
+the invasion of their country, they adopted means of resistance
+hitherto unknown to the Spaniards. Thus the strife became deadly. In
+a single engagement seventy of Hojeda's companions fell under the
+arrows of the savages, fearful weapons steeped in "curare," so fatal
+a poison that the slightest wound was followed by death. Nicuessa on
+his side, had much difficulty in defending himself, and in spite of
+two considerable reinforcements from Cuba, the greater number of his
+followers perished during the year from wounds, fatigue, privations,
+or sickness. The survivors founded the small colony of Santa-Maria
+el Antigua upon the Gulf of Darien, and placed it under the command
+of Balboa.
+
+Before we speak of Balboa's wonderful expedition, we must notice the
+discovery of a country that forms the most northerly side of that
+arc, cut so deeply into the continent, and which bears the name of
+the Gulf of Mexico. In 1502 Juan Ponce de Leon, a member of one of
+the oldest families in Spain, had arrived in Hispaniola with Ovando.
+He had assisted in its subjugation, and in 1508 had conquered the
+island of San Juan de Porto Rico. Having learnt from the Indians
+that there existed a fountain in the island of Bimini which
+possessed the miraculous power of restoring youth to all who drank
+of its waters, Ponce de Leon resolved to go in search of it.
+Infirmities must have been already creeping on him at fifty years of
+age, or he would scarcely have felt the need of trying this fountain.
+Ponce de Leon equipped three vessels at his own expense, and set out
+from St. Germain in Porto Rico on the 1st of March, 1512. He went
+first to the Lucayan Islands, which he searched in vain, and then to
+the Bahamas. If he did not succeed in finding the fountain of youth
+which he sought so credulously, at least he had the satisfaction of
+discovering an apparently fertile tract of country, which he named
+Florida, either from his landing there on Palm Sunday,
+(Paques-Fleuries), or perhaps from its delightful aspect. Such a
+discovery would have contented many a traveller, but Ponce de Leon
+went from one island to another, tasting the water of every stream
+that he met with, without the satisfaction of seeing his white hair
+again becoming black or his wrinkles disappearing. After spending
+six months in this fruitless search, he was tired of playing the
+dupe, so giving up the business he returned to Porto Rico on the 5th
+of October, leaving Perez de Ortubia and the pilot Antonio de
+Alaminos to continue the search. Pere Charlevoix says, "He was the
+object of great ridicule when he returned in much suffering, and
+looking older than when he set out."
+
+This voyage, so absurd in its motive but so fertile in its results,
+might well be considered to be simply imaginary, were it not vouched
+for by historians of such high repute as Peter Martyr, Oviedo,
+Herrera, and Garcilasso de la Vega.
+
+Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who was fifteen years younger than Ponce de
+Leon, had come to America with Bastidas and had settled in
+Hispaniola. He was only anxious for a safe refuge from his numerous
+creditors, being, as were so many of his fellow-countrymen, deeply
+in debt, in spite of the _repartimiento_ of Indians which had been
+allotted to him. Unfortunately for Balboa a law had been passed
+forbidding any vessels bound for the mainland taking insolvent
+debtors on board, but his ingenuity was equal to this emergency, for
+he had himself rolled in an empty barrel to the vessel which was to
+carry Encisco to Darien. The chief of the expedition had no choice
+but to receive the brave adventurer who had joined him in this
+singular manner, and who never fled except from duns, as he soon
+proved on landing. The Spaniards, accustomed to find but little
+resistance from the natives of the Antilles, could not subjugate the
+fierce inhabitants of the mainland. On account of the dissensions
+that had arisen among themselves, they were obliged to take refuge
+at Santa-Maria el Antigua, a settlement which Balboa, now elected
+commandant in place of Encisco, founded in Darien.
+
+If the personal bravery of Balboa, or the ferocity of Leoncillo his
+blood-hound--who was more dreaded than twenty armed men and received
+the same pay as a soldier,--could have awed the Indians, Balboa
+would have also won their respect by his justice and comparative
+moderation, for he allowed no unnecessary cruelty. In the course of
+some years he collected a great mass of most useful information with
+regard to that El Dorado, that land of gold, which he was destined
+never to reach himself, but the acquisition of which he did much to
+facilitate for his successors.
+
+It was in this way that he learnt the existence six suns away (six
+days' journey), of another sea, the Pacific Ocean, which washed the
+shores of Peru, a country where gold was found in large quantities.
+Balboa's character, which was as grand as those of Cortes and
+Pizarro, but who had not, as they, the time or opportunity to show
+the extraordinary qualities which he possessed, felt convinced that
+this information was most valuable, and that if he could carry out
+such a discovery, it would shed great lustre on his name.
+
+He assembled a body of 190 volunteers, all valiant soldiers, and
+like himself, accustomed to all the chances of war, as well as
+acclimatised to the unhealthy effluvia of a marshy country, where
+fever, dysentery, and complaints of the liver were constantly
+present.
+
+Though the Isthmus of Darien is only sixty miles in width, it is
+divided into two parts by a chain of high mountains; at the foot of
+these the alluvial soil is marvellously fertile, and the vegetation
+far more luxuriant than any European can imagine. It consists of an
+inextricable mass of tropical plants, creepers, and ferns, among
+trees of gigantic size which completely hide the sun, a truly virgin
+forest, interspersed here and there with patches of stagnant water,
+where live multitudes of birds, insects, and animals, never
+disturbed by the foot of man. A warm, moist atmosphere exists here
+which exhausts the strength and speedily saps the energy of any man,
+even the most robust.
+
+With all these obstacles which Nature seemed to have rejoiced in
+placing in Balboa's path, there was yet another no less formidable,
+and this was the resistance which the savage inhabitants of this
+inhospitable shore would offer to his progress. Balboa set out
+without caring for the risk he ran in the event of the guides and
+native auxiliaries proving faithless; he was escorted by a thousand
+Indians as porters, and accompanied by a troop of those terrible
+bloodhounds which had acquired the taste for human flesh in
+Hispaniola.
+
+Of the tribes that he met with on his route, some fled into the
+mountains carrying their provisions with them, and others, taking
+advantage of the difficulties the land presented, tried to fight.
+Balboa marching in the midst of his men, never sparing himself,
+sharing in their privations and rousing their courage, which would
+have failed more than once, was able to inspire them with so much
+enthusiasm for the object that was before them, that after
+twenty-five days of marching and fighting, they could see from the
+top of a mountain that vast Pacific Ocean, of which, four days later,
+Balboa, his drawn sword in one hand and the banner of Castille in
+the other, took possession in the name of the King of Spain. The
+part of the Pacific Ocean which he had reached is situated to the
+east of Panama, and still bears the name of the Gulf of San Miguel,
+given to it by Balboa. The information he obtained from the
+neighbouring caciques, whom he subjugated by force of arms, and from
+whom he obtained a considerable booty, agreed in every particular
+with what he had heard before he set out.
+
+A vast empire lay to the south, they said, "so rich in gold, that
+even the commonest instruments were made of it," where the domestic
+animals were llamas that had been tamed and trained to carry heavy
+burdens, and whose appearance in the native drawings resembled that
+of the camel. These interesting details, and the great quantity of
+pearls offered to Balboa, confirmed him in his idea, that he must
+have reached the Asiatic countries described by Marco Polo, and that
+he could not be far from the empire of Cipango or Japan, of which
+the Venetian traveller had described the marvellous riches which
+were perpetually dazzling the eyes of these avaricious adventurers.
+
+[Illustration: Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean.]
+
+Balboa several times crossed the Isthmus of Darien, and always in
+some fresh direction. Humboldt might well say that this country was
+better known in the beginning of the sixteenth century than in his
+own day. Beyond this Balboa had launched some vessels built under
+his orders on the newly-discovered ocean, and he was preparing a
+formidable armament, with which he hoped to conquer Peru, when he
+was odiously and judicially murdered by the orders of Pedrarias
+Davila, the governor of Darien, who was jealous of the reputation
+Balboa had already gained, and of the glory which would doubtless
+recompense his bravery if he carried out the expedition which he had
+arranged. Thus the conquest of Peru was retarded by at least
+twenty-five years, owing to the culpable jealousy of a man whose
+name has acquired, by Balboa's assassination, almost as wretched a
+celebrity as that of Erostratus.
+
+If we owe to Balboa the first authentic documents regarding Peru,
+another explorer was destined to furnish some not less important
+touching that vast Mexican Empire, which had extended its sway over
+almost the whole of Central America. In 1518, Juan de Grijalva had
+been placed in command of a flotilla, consisting of four vessels,
+armed by Diego Velasquez, the conqueror of Cuba, which were destined
+to collect information upon Yucatan, sighted the year before by
+Hernandez de Cordova. Grijalva, accompanied by the pilot Alaminos,
+who had made the voyage to Florida with Ponce de Leon, had two
+hundred men under his command; amongst the volunteers was Bernal
+Diaz del Castillo, the clever author of a very interesting history
+of the conquest of Mexico, from which we shall borrow freely.
+
+After thirteen days' sailing, Grijalva reached the Island of Cozumel
+on the coast of Yucatan, doubled the Cape of Cotoche, and entered
+the Bay of Campeachy. He disembarked on the 10th of May at Potonchan,
+of which the inhabitants defended the town and citadel vigorously,
+in spite of their astonishment at the vessels, which they took for
+some kind of marine monsters, and their fear of the pale-faced men
+who hurled thunderbolts. Fifty-seven Spaniards were killed in the
+engagement, and many were wounded. This warm reception did not
+encourage Grijalva to make any long stay amongst this warlike people.
+He set sail again after anchoring for four days, took a westerly
+course along the coast of Mexico, and on the 19th of May entered a
+river named by the natives the Tabasco, where he soon found himself
+surrounded by a fleet of fifty native boats filled with warriors
+ready for the conflict, but thanks to Grijalva's prudence and the
+amicable demonstrations which he made, peace was not disturbed.
+
+"We made them understand," writes Bernal Diaz, "that we were the
+subjects of a powerful emperor called Don Carlos, and that it would
+be greatly to their advantage if they also would acknowledge him as
+their master. They replied that they had a sovereign already, and
+were at a loss to understand why we, who had only just arrived, and
+who knew so little of them, should offer them another king." This
+reply was scarcely that of a savage!
+
+In exchange for some worthless European trinkets, the Spaniards
+obtained some Yucca bread, copal gum, pieces of gold worked into the
+shape of fishes or birds, and garments made of cotton, which had
+been woven in the country. As the natives who had been taken on
+board at Cape Cotoche did not perfectly understand the language
+spoken by the inhabitants of Tabasco, the stay here was but of short
+duration, and the ships again put to sea. They passed the mouth of
+the Rio Guatzacoalco, the snowy peaks of the San Martin mountains
+being seen in the distance, and they anchored at the mouth of a
+river which was called _Rio de las Banderas_, from the number of
+white banners displayed by the natives to show their friendly
+feeling towards the new comers.
+
+When Grijalva landed, he was received with the same honour as the
+Indians paid to their gods; they burnt copal incense before him, and
+laid at his feet more than 1500 piastres' worth of small gold jewels,
+as well as green pearls and copper hatchets. After taking formal
+possession of the country, the Spaniards landed on an island called
+_Los Sacrificios_ Island, from a sort of altar which they found
+there placed at the top of several steps, upon which lay the bodies
+of five Indians sacrificed since the preceding evening; their bodies
+were cut open, their hearts torn out, and both legs and arms cut off.
+Leaving this revolting spectacle, they went to another small island,
+which received the name of San Juan, being discovered on St. John's
+Day; to this they added the word _Culua_, which they heard used by
+the natives of these shores. But Culua was the ancient name for
+Mexico, and this Island of San-Juan de Culua is now known as St.
+John d'Ulloa.
+
+Grijalva put all the gold which he had collected on board one of the
+ships and despatched it to Cuba, while he continued his exploration
+of the coast, discovered the Sierras of Tusta and Tuspa, and
+collected a large amount of useful information regarding this
+populous country; on arriving at the _Rio Panuco_, he was attacked
+by a flotilla of native vessels, and had much difficulty in
+defending himself against their attacks.
+
+This expedition was nearly over, for provisions were running short,
+and the vessels were in a very bad state, the volunteers were many
+of them sick and wounded, and even had they been in good health
+their numbers were too small to make it safe to leave them among
+these warlike people, even under the shelter of fortifications.
+Besides, the leaders of the expedition no longer acted in concert,
+so after repairing the largest of the vessels in the Rio Tonala,
+where Bernal Diaz boasts of having sown the first orange-pips which
+were ever brought to Mexico, the Spaniards set out for Santiago in
+Cuba, where they arrived on the 15th of November, after a cruise of
+seven months, not forty-five days, as M. Ferdinand Denis asserts in
+the Biographie Didot, and as M. Ed. Charton repeats in his
+_Voyageurs Anciens et Modernes_.
+
+The results obtained from this voyage were considerable. For the
+first time the long line of coast which forms the peninsula of
+Yucatan, the Bay of Campeachy, and the base of the Gulf of Mexico,
+had been explored continuously from cape to cape. Not only had it
+been proved beyond doubt that Yucatan was not an island as they had
+believed, but much and reliable information had been collected with
+regard to the existence of the rich and powerful empire of Mexico.
+The explorers had been much struck with the marks of a more advanced
+civilization than that existing in the Antilles, with the
+superiority of the architecture, the skilful cultivation of the land,
+the fine texture of the cotton garments, and the delicacy of finish
+of the golden ornaments worn by the Indians. All this combined to
+increase the thirst for riches among the Spaniards of Cuba, and to
+urge them on like modern Argonauts to the conquest of this new
+golden fleece. Grijalva was not destined to reap the fruits of his
+perilous and at the same time intelligent voyage, which threw so new
+a light on Indian civilization. The _sic vos, non vobis_ of the poet
+was once again to find an exemplification in this circumstance.
+
+
+II.
+THE CONQUERORS OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+Ferdinand Cortes--His character--His appointment--Preparations for
+the expedition, and attempts of Velasquez to stop it--Landing at
+Vera-Cruz--Mexico and the Emperor Montezuma--The republic of
+Tlascala--March upon Mexico--The Emperor is made prisoner--Narvaez
+defeated--The _Noche Triste_--Battle of Otumba--The second siege and
+taking of Mexico--Expedition to Honduras--Voyage to Spain--
+Expeditions on the Pacific Ocean--Second Voyage of Cortes to Spain--
+His death.
+
+
+Velasquez had not waited for Grijalva's return before sending off to
+Spain the rich products of the countries discovered by the latter,
+and at the same time soliciting from the council of the Indies, as
+well as from the Bishop of Burgos, an addition to his authority,
+that he might attempt the conquest of these countries. At the same
+time he fitted out a new armament proportioned to the dangers and
+importance of the undertaking that he proposed. But though it was
+comparatively easy for Velasquez to collect the necessary material
+and men, it was far more difficult for him--whom an old writer
+describes as niggardly, credulous, and suspicious in disposition--to
+choose a fit leader. He wished indeed, to find one who should
+combine qualities nearly always incompatible, high courage and great
+talent, without which there was no chance of success, with at the
+same time sufficient docility and submissiveness, to do nothing
+without orders, and to leave to him who incurred no risk, any glory
+and success which might attend the enterprise. Some who were brave
+and enterprising would not be treated as mere machines; others who
+were more docile or more cunning lacked the qualities required to
+insure the success of so vast an enterprise; among the former were
+some of Grijalva's companions who wished that he should be made
+commander, while the latter preferred Augustin Bermudez or
+Bernardino Velasquez. While this was pending, the governor's
+secretary, Andres de Duero, and Amador de Larez, the Controller of
+Cuba, both favourites of Velasquez, made an arrangement with a
+Spanish nobleman named Ferdinand Cortes, that if they could obtain
+the appointment for him, they should be allowed a share in his gains.
+
+Bernal Diaz says, "They praised Cortes so highly, and pointed him
+out in such flattering terms as the very man fitted to fill the
+vacant post, adding that he was brave and certainly very faithful to
+Velasquez (to whom he was son-in-law), that he allowed himself to be
+persuaded, and Cortes was nominated captain-general. As Andres de
+Duero was the governor's secretary, he hastened to formulate the
+powers in a deed, making them very ample, as Cortes desired, and
+brought it to him duly signed." Had Velasquez been gifted with the
+power of looking into the future, Cortes was certainly not the man
+he would have chosen.
+
+[Illustration: Ferdinand Cortes. _From an old print_.]
+
+Cortes was born at Medellin in Estramadura in 1485, of an ancient,
+but slenderly-endowed family; after studying at Salamanca for some
+time, he returned to his native town, but the quiet monotonous life
+there was little suited to his restless and capricious temper, and
+he soon started for America, reckoning upon the protection of his
+relation Ovando, the Governor of Hispaniola.
+
+His expectations were fully realized, and he held several honourable
+and lucrative posts, without counting that between times he joined
+in several expeditions against the natives. If he became in this
+manner initiated into the Indian system of tactics, so also,
+unfortunately, did he grow familiar with those acts of cruelty which
+have too often stained the Castilian name. He accompanied Diego de
+Velasquez in his Cuban expedition in 1511, and here he distinguished
+himself so highly, that notwithstanding certain disagreements with
+his chief, a large grant of land as well as of Indians was made to
+him as a recognition of his services.
+
+Cortes amassed the sum of 3000 castellanos in the course of a few
+years by his industry and frugality, a large sum for one in his
+position, but his chief recommendations in the eyes of Andres de
+Duero and Amador de Sares his two patrons, were his activity, his
+well-known prudence, his decision of character, and the power of
+gaining the confidence of all with whom he was brought into contact.
+In addition to all this, he was of imposing stature and appearance,
+very athletic, and possessed powers of endurance, remarkable even
+among the hardy adventurers who were accustomed to brave all kinds
+of hardships.
+
+As soon as Cortes had received his commission, which he did with
+every mark of respectful gratitude, he set up a banner at the door
+of his house, made of black velvet embroidered in gold, bearing the
+device of a red cross in the midst of blue and white flames, and
+below, this motto in Latin, "Friends, let us follow the Cross, and
+if we have faith, we shall overcome by this sign." He concentrated
+the whole force of his powerful mind upon the means to make the
+enterprise a success; even his most intimate friends were astonished
+at his enthusiasm in preparing for it. He not only gave the whole of
+the money which he possessed towards arming the fleet, but he
+charged part on his estate, and borrowed considerable sums from his
+friends to purchase vessels, provisions, munitions of war, and
+horses. In a few days 300 volunteers had enrolled themselves,
+attracted by the fame of the general, the daring nature of the
+enterprise, and the profit that would probably accrue from it.
+Velasquez, always suspicious, and doubtless instigated by some who
+were jealous of Cortes, tried to put a stop to the expedition at its
+outset. Cortes being warned by his two patrons that Velasquez would
+probably try to take the command from him, acted with his customary
+decision; he collected his men and, in spite of the vessels not
+being completed and of an insufficient armament, he weighed anchor
+and sailed during the night. When Velasquez discovered that his
+plans had been check-mated he concealed his indignation, but at the
+same time, he made every arrangement to stop the man who could thus
+throw off all dependence upon him with such consummate coolness.
+Cortes anchored at Macaca, to complete his stores, and found many of
+those who had accompanied Grijalva now hasten to serve under his
+banner: Pedro de Alvarado and his brothers, Christoval de Olid,
+Alonzo de Avila, Hernandez de Puerto-Carrero, Gonzalo de Sandoval,
+and Bernal Diaz del Castillo, who was to write a valuable account of
+these events "_quorum pars magna fuit_." Trinity Harbour, on the
+south coast of Cuba was the next resting-place, and here a further
+supply of provisions was taken on board, but while Cortes lay at
+anchor for this purpose, Verdugo the governor, received letters from
+Velasquez, desiring him to arrest the captain-general, the command
+of the fleet having been just taken from him. This bold step would
+have endangered the safety of the town, so Verdugo refrained from
+executing the order. Cortes sailed away to Havana in order to enlist
+some new adherents, while his lieutenant Alvarado went over land to
+the port where the last preparations were made. Although Velasquez
+was unsuccessful in his first attempt, he again sent an order to
+arrest Cortes, but Pedro Barba the governor, felt the impossibility
+of executing the order in the midst of soldiers who, as Bernal Diaz
+says, "would willingly have given their lives to save Cortes."
+
+At length, having recalled the volunteers by beat of drum, and taken
+on board all that appeared necessary, Cortes set sail on the 18th
+February, 1519, with eleven ships (the largest being of 100 tons),
+110 sailors, 553 soldiers,--13 of whom were arquebusiers,--200
+Indians from the island, and some women for domestic work. The real
+strength of the armament lay in the ten pieces of artillery, the
+four falconets provided with an ample supply of ammunition, and the
+sixteen horses which had been obtained at great expense. It was with
+these almost miserable means, which, however, had given Cortes much
+trouble to collect, that he prepared to wage war with a sovereign
+whose dominions were of greater extent than those appertaining to
+the King of Spain--an enterprise from which he would have turned
+back if he had foreseen half its difficulties. But long ago a poet
+said, "Fortune smiles on those who dare."
+
+After encountering a very severe storm, the fleet touched at the
+island of Cozumel, where they found that the inhabitants had
+embraced Christianity, either from fear of the Spaniards, or from
+finding the inability of their gods to help them. Just as the fleet
+was about to leave the island, Cortes had the good fortune to meet
+with a Spaniard named Jeronimo d'Aguilar, who had been kept a
+prisoner by the Indians for eight years. During that time he had
+learnt the Indian language perfectly; he was as prudent as he was
+clever, and when he joined the expedition he was of the greatest use
+as an interpreter.
+
+After doubling Cape Catoche, Cortes sailed down the Bay of Campeachy,
+passed Potonchan, and entered the Rio Tabasco, hoping to meet with
+as friendly a reception there as Grijalva had done, and also to
+collect an equally large quantity of gold; but he found a great
+change had taken place in the feelings of the natives, and he was
+obliged to employ force. In spite of the bravery and numerical
+superiority of the Indians, the Spaniards overcame them in several
+engagements, thanks to the terror caused by the reports of their
+fire-arms and the sight of the cavalry, whom the Indians took for
+supernatural beings. The Indians lost a large number of men in these
+engagements, while among the Spaniards two were killed, and fourteen
+men and several horses wounded; the wounds of the latter were
+dressed with fat taken from the dead bodies of the Indians. At last
+peace was made, and the natives gave Cortes provisions, some cotton
+clothing, a small quantity of gold, and twenty female slaves, among
+whom was the celebrated Marina, who rendered such signal services to
+the Spaniards as an interpreter, and who is mentioned by all the
+historians of the conquest of the New World.
+
+[Illustration: Cortes receives provisions, clothing, a little gold,
+and twenty female slaves.]
+
+Cortes continued on a westerly course, seeking a suitable place for
+landing, but he could find none until he reached St. John d'Ulloa.
+The fleet had scarcely cast anchor before a canoe made its way
+fearlessly to the admiral's vessel, and here Marina (who was of
+Aztec origin) was of the greatest use, in telling Cortes that the
+Indians of this part of the country were the subjects of a great
+empire, and that their province was one recently added to it by
+conquest. Their monarch, named Moctheuzoma, better known under the
+name of Montezuma, lived in Tenochtitlan, or Mexico, nearly 210
+miles away in the interior. Cortes offered the Indians some presents,
+assuring them of his pacific intentions, and then disembarked upon
+the torrid and unhealthy shore of Vera-Cruz. Provisions flowed in
+immediately, but the day after the landing, Teutile, governor of the
+province, and ambassador of Montezuma to the Spaniards, had much
+difficulty in answering Cortes when he asked him to conduct him to
+his master without delay, knowing as he did all the anxiety and
+fears which had haunted the mind of the Emperor since the arrival of
+the Spaniards. However, he caused some cotton stuffs, feather cloaks,
+and some articles made of gold to be laid at the feet of the general,
+a sight which simply excited the cupidity of the Europeans. To give
+these poor Indians an adequate idea of his power, Cortes called out
+his soldiers, and put them through their drill, he also ordered the
+discharge of some pieces of artillery, the noise of which froze the
+hearts of the savages with terror. During the whole time of the
+interview, some painters had been employed in sketching upon pieces
+of white cotton, the ships, the troops, and everything which had
+struck their fancy. These drawings very cleverly executed, were to
+be sent to Montezuma.
+
+Before beginning the history of the heroic struggles which shortly
+commenced, it will be useful to give some details as to that Mexican
+empire which, powerful as it appeared, nevertheless contained within
+itself numerous elements of decay and dissolution, which fact
+explains the cause of its conquest by a mere handful of adventurers.
+That part of America which was under the dominion of Montezuma was
+called Anahuac and lay between 14 degrees and 20 degrees north
+latitude. This region presents great varieties of climate on account
+of its difference of altitude; towards the centre, and rather nearer
+to the Pacific than to the Atlantic, there is a huge basin at an
+elevation of 7500 feet above the sea, and about 200 miles in
+circumference, in the hollow of which there were at that time
+several lakes; this depression is called the valley of Mexico,
+taking its name from the capital of the empire. As may be easily
+supposed, we possess very few authentic details about a people whose
+written annals were burnt by the ignorant "conquistadores" and by
+fanatical monks, who jealously suppressed everything which might
+remind the conquered race of their ancient religious and political
+traditions.
+
+Arriving from the north in the seventh century the Toltecs had
+overspread the plateau of Anahuac. They were an intelligent race of
+people, addicted to agriculture and the mechanical arts,
+understanding the working in metals, and to whom is due the
+construction of the greater part of the sumptuous and gigantic
+edifices of which the ruins are found in every direction in New
+Spain. After four centuries of power, the Toltecs disappeared from
+the country as mysteriously as they had come. A century later they
+were replaced by a savage tribe from the north-west, who were soon
+followed by more civilized races, speaking apparently the Toltec
+language. The most celebrated of these tribes were the Aztecs, and
+the Alcolhues or Tezcucans, who assimilated themselves easily with
+the tincture of civilization which remained in the country with the
+last of the Toltecs. The Aztecs, after a series of migrations and
+wars, settled themselves in 1326 in the valley of Mexico, where they
+built their capital Tenochtitlan. A treaty of alliance both
+offensive and defensive was entered into between the states of
+Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tlacopan, and was rigorously observed for a
+whole century; in consequence of this the Aztec civilization, which
+had been at first bounded by the extent of the valley, spread on all
+sides, and soon was limited only by the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
+In a short time these people had reached a higher degree of
+civilization than any other tribe in the New World. The rights of
+property were recognized in Mexico, commerce flourished there, and
+three kinds of coin in circulation provided the ordinary mechanism
+of exchange. There was a well-organized police, and a system of
+relays which worked with perfect regularity, and enabled the
+sovereign to transmit his orders with rapidity from one end of the
+empire to the other. The number and beauty of the towns, the great
+size of the palaces, temples, and fortresses indicated an advanced
+civilization, which presented a singular contrast to the ferocious
+manners of the Aztecs. Their polytheistic religion was in the
+highest degree barbarous and sanguinary; the priests formed a very
+numerous body, and exercised great influence even over political
+affairs. Side by side with rites similar to those of Christians,
+such as baptism and confession, the religion presented a tissue of
+the most absurd and bloody superstitions. The offering up of human
+sacrifices, adopted at the beginning of the 14th century, and used
+at first very sparingly, had soon become so frequent, that the
+number of victims immolated each year, and drawn chiefly from the
+conquered nations, amounted to 20,000, while under certain
+circumstances the number was much larger. Thus in 1486, at the
+inauguration of the temple of Huitzilopchit, 70,000 captives
+perished in a single day.
+
+The Government of Mexico was monarchical; at first the imperial
+power had been carefully limited, but it had increased with the
+various conquests, and had become despotic. The sovereign was always
+chosen out of the same family, and his accession was marked by the
+offering up of numerous human sacrifices. The Emperor Montezuma
+belonged to the sacerdotal caste, and in consequence his power
+received some unwonted development. The result of his numerous wars
+had been the extension of his frontiers, and the subjugation of
+various nations; these latter welcomed the Spaniards with eagerness,
+thinking that their dominion must surely be less oppressive and less
+cruel than that of the Aztecs.
+
+It is certain that if Montezuma, with the large force which he had
+at his disposal, had fallen upon the Spaniards when they were
+occupying the hot and unhealthy shore of Vera-Cruz, they would have
+been unable, in spite of the superiority of their arms and
+discipline, to resist such a shock; they must all have perished, or
+been obliged to re-embark, and the fate of the New World would have
+been completely changed. But the decision which formed the most
+salient point in the character of Cortes, was completely wanting in
+that of Montezuma, a prince who never could at any time adopt a
+resolute policy.
+
+Fresh ambassadors from the emperor had arrived at the Spanish camp,
+bringing to Cortes an order to quit the country, and upon his
+refusal all intercourse between the natives and the invaders had
+immediately ceased. The situation was becoming critical, and this
+Cortes felt. After having overcome some hesitation which had been
+shown by the troops, he laid the foundations of Vera-Cruz, a
+fortress designed to serve as a basis of operations, and a shelter
+in case of a possible re-embarkation. He next organized a kind of
+civil government, a _junta_, as it would be called in the present
+day, to which he resigned the commission which had been revoked by
+Velasquez, and then he made the junta give him one with new
+provisions and more extended powers. After this he received the
+envoys from the town of Zempoalla, who were come to solicit his
+alliance, and his protection against Montezuma, whose dominion they
+bore with impatience. Cortes was indeed fortunate in meeting with
+such allies so soon after landing, and not wishing to allow so
+golden an opportunity to slip, he welcomed the Totonacs kindly, went
+with them to their capital, and after having caused a fortress to be
+constructed at Quiabislan on the sea-shore, he persuaded his new
+friends to refuse the payment of tribute to Montezuma. He took
+advantage of his stay at Zempoalla to exhort these people to embrace
+Christianity, and he threw down their idols, as he had already done
+at Cozumel, to prove to them the powerlessness of their gods.
+
+Meanwhile a plot had been forming in his own camp, and Cortes,
+feeling convinced that as long as there remained any way of
+returning to Cuba, there would be constant lukewarmness and
+discontent among his soldiers, caused all his ships to be run
+aground, under the pretext of their being in too shattered a
+condition to be of any further use. This was an unheard-of act of
+audacity, and one which forced his companions either to conquer or
+to die. Having no longer anything to fear from the want of
+discipline of his troops, Cortes set out for Zempoalla on the 16th
+of August, with five hundred soldiers, fifteen horses, and six field
+cannon, and also two hundred Indian porters, who were intended to
+perform all menial offices. The little army soon reached the
+frontiers of the small republic of Tlascala, of which the fierce
+inhabitants, impatient of servitude, had long been engaged in strife
+with Montezuma. Cortes flattered himself that his oft-proclaimed
+intention of delivering the Indians from the Mexican yoke would
+induce the Tlascalans to become his allies and at once to make
+common cause with him. He therefore asked for leave to cross their
+territory on his way to Mexico; but his ambassadors were detained,
+and as he advanced into the interior of the country, he was harassed
+for fourteen consecutive days and nights by continual attacks from
+several bodies of Tlascalans, amounting in all to 30,000 men, who
+displayed a bravery and determination such as the Spaniards had
+never yet seen equalled in the New World. But the arms possessed by
+these brave men were very primitive. What could they effect with
+only arrows and lances tipped with obsidian or fish-bones, stakes
+hardened in the fire, wooden swords, and above all with an inferior
+system of tactics? When they found that each encounter cost them the
+lives of many of their bravest warriors, while not a single Spaniard
+had been killed, they imagined that these strangers must be of a
+superior order of beings, while they could not tell what opinion to
+form of men who sent back to them the spies taken in their camp,
+with their hands cut off, and who yet after each victory not only
+did not devour their prisoners, as the Aztecs would have done, but
+released them, loading them with presents and proposing peace.
+
+Upon this the Tlascalans declared themselves vassals of the Spanish
+crown, and swore to assist Cortes in all his expeditions, while he
+on his side promised to protect them against their enemies. It was
+time that peace should be made, for many of the Spaniards were
+wounded or ill, and all were worn out with fatigue, but the entry in
+triumph into Tlascala, where they were welcomed as supernatural
+beings, quickly made them forget their sufferings.
+
+After twenty days of repose in this town, Cortes resumed his march
+towards Mexico, having with him an auxiliary army of six thousand
+Tlascalans. He went first to Cholula, a town regarded as sacred by
+the Indians, and as the sanctuary and favoured residence of their
+deities. Montezuma felt much satisfaction in the advance of the
+Spaniards to this town, either from the hope that the gods would
+themselves avenge the desecration of their temples, or that he
+thought a rising, and massacre of the Spaniards might be more easily
+organized in this populous and fanatical town. Cortes had been
+warned by the Tlascalans that he must place no trust in the
+protestations of friendship and devotion made by the Cholulans.
+However, he took up his quarters in the town, considering that he
+would lose his prestige if he showed any signs of fear, but upon
+being informed by the Tlascalans that the women and children were
+being sent away, and by Marina that a considerable body of troops
+was massed at the gates of the city, that pitfalls and trenches were
+dug in the streets, whilst the roofs of the houses were loaded with
+stones and missiles, Cortes anticipated the designs of his enemies,
+gave orders to make prisoners of all the principal men of the town,
+and then organized a general massacre of the population, thus taken
+by surprise and deprived of their leaders. For two whole days the
+unhappy Cholulans were subject to all the horrors which could be
+invented by the rage of the Spaniards, and the vengeance of their
+allies the Tlascalans. A terrible example was made, six thousand
+people being put to the sword, temples burned to the ground, and the
+town half destroyed, a work of destruction well calculated to strike
+terror into the hearts of Montezuma and his subjects.
+
+[Illustration: Lake of Mexico.]
+
+Sixty miles now separated Cortes from the capital, and everywhere as
+he passed along he was received as a liberator. There was not a
+cacique who had not some cause of complaint against the imperial
+despotism, and Cortes felt confirmed in the hope that so divided an
+empire would prove an easy prey. As the Spaniards descended from the
+mountains of Chalco, they beheld with astonishment the valley of
+Mexico, with its enormous lake, deeply sunk and surrounded by large
+towns, the capital city built upon piles, and the well-cultivated
+fields of this fertile region.
+
+Cortes did not trouble himself about the continued tergiversations
+of Montezuma, who could not make up his mind to the last moment
+whether he would receive the Spaniards as friends or enemies. The
+Spanish general advanced along the causeway which leads to Mexico
+across the lake, and was already within a mile of the town, when
+some Indians, who, from their magnificent costume were evidently of
+high rank, came to greet him and to announce to him the approach of
+the emperor. Montezuma soon appeared, borne upon the shoulders of
+his favourites in a kind of litter adorned with gold and feathers,
+while a magnificent canopy protected him from the rays of the sun.
+As he advanced the Indians prostrated themselves before him, with
+their heads downwards, as though unworthy even to look at their
+monarch. This first interview was cordial, and Montezuma himself
+conducted his guests to the abode which he had prepared for them. It
+was a vast palace, surrounded by a stone wall, and defended by high
+towers. Cortes immediately took measures of defence, and ordered the
+cannon to be pointed upon the roads leading to the palace. At the
+second interview, magnificent presents were offered both to the
+general and soldiers. Montezuma related that according to an old
+tradition, the ancestors of the Aztecs had arrived in the country
+under the leadership of a man of white complexion, and bearded like
+the Spaniards. After laying the foundations of their power, he had
+embarked upon the ocean, promising them that one day his descendants
+would come to visit them and to reform their laws--and if, as
+Montezuma said, he now received the Spaniards rather as fathers than
+as foreigners, it was because he felt convinced that in them he
+beheld the descendants of his people's ancient chief, and he begged
+them to regard themselves as the masters of his country.
+
+The following days were employed in visiting the town, which
+appeared to the Spaniards as larger, more populous, and more
+beautiful than any city which they had hitherto seen in America. Its
+distinguishing peculiarity consisted in the causeways which formed a
+means of communication with the land, and which were cut through in
+various places to allow a free passage to vessels sailing on the
+waters of the lake. Across these openings were thrown bridges which
+could be easily destroyed. On the eastern side of the town there was
+no causeway and no means of communication with the land except by
+canoes. This arrangement of the town of Mexico caused some anxiety
+to Cortes, who saw that he might be at any moment blockaded in the
+town, without being able to find means of egress. He determined,
+therefore, to prevent any seditious attempt by securing the person
+of the emperor, and using him as a hostage. The following news which
+he had just received furnished him with an excellent pretext:
+Qualpopoca, a Mexican general, had attacked the provinces which had
+submitted to the Spaniards, and Escalante and seven of his soldiers
+had been mortally wounded; besides this, a prisoner had been
+beheaded and the head carried from town to town, thus proving that
+the invaders could be conquered, and were nothing more than ordinary
+mortals.
+
+Cortes profited by these events to accuse the emperor of perfidy. He
+declared that although Montezuma appeared friendly to him and to his
+soldiers, it was only that he might wait for some favourable
+opportunity to treat them in the same manner as Escalante, a
+proceeding quite unworthy of a monarch, and very different from the
+confidence which Cortes had shown in coming, as he had done, to
+visit him. He went on to say that if the suspicions of the Spaniards
+were not justified, the emperor could easily exonerate himself by
+having Qualpopoca punished, and finally, to prevent the recurrence
+of aggressions which could but destroy the existing harmony, and to
+prove to the Mexicans that he harboured no ill-design against the
+Spaniards, Montezuma could not do otherwise than come to reside
+amongst them. It may be easily imagined that the emperor was not
+very ready to decide upon this course, but was at last obliged to
+give in to the violence and threats of the Spaniards. Upon
+announcing his resolution to his subjects, he was made to assure
+them several times over that he put himself into the hands of the
+Spaniards of his own free will; these words were needed to calm the
+Mexicans, who threatened to make an attack upon the foreigners.
+
+The success of Cortes in this bold scheme was quite beyond his
+expectations. Qualpopoca, with his son and five of the chief
+ringleaders in the revolt, were seized by the Mexicans, and brought
+before a Spanish tribunal, which was at the same time judge and
+prosecutor; the Indians were condemned and burnt alive. Not content
+with having punished men who had committed no crime but that of
+executing the orders of their emperor, and of opposing an armed
+resistance to the invasion of their country, Cortes imposed a new
+humiliation upon Montezuma, in placing fetters upon his feet, under
+the pretext that the culprits in their last moments had made
+accusations against him. For six months the "Conquistador" exercised
+the supreme government in the name of the emperor, now reduced to a
+puppet-show of authority. Cortes changed the governors who
+displeased him, collected the taxes, presided over all the details
+of the administration, and sent Spaniards into the various provinces
+of the empire with orders to examine their productions, and to take
+particular notice of the mining districts and the processes in use
+for collecting gold.
+
+Cortes also turned to account the curiosity evinced by Montezuma to
+see European ships, to have rigging and other appurtenances brought
+from Vera-Cruz, and to order the construction of two brigantines
+destined to ensure his communications with terra-firma by the waters
+of the lake.
+
+Emboldened by receiving so many proofs of submission and humility,
+Cortes took another step in advance, and required that Montezuma
+should declare himself the vassal and tributary of Spain. The act of
+fidelity and homage was accompanied, as may be easily imagined, with
+presents both rich and numerous, as well as by a heavy tax which was
+levied without much difficulty. The opportunity was now taken to
+gather together everything in gold and silver, which had been
+extorted from the Indians, and to melt them down, except certain
+pieces which were kept as they were, on account of the beauty of the
+workmanship. The whole did not amount to more than 600,000 pesos, or
+100,000_l._ Thus, although the Spaniards had made use of all their
+power, and Montezuma had exhausted his treasures to satisfy them,
+the whole product amounted to an absurdly small sum, very little in
+accordance with the idea which the conquerors had formed of the
+riches of the country. After reserving one-fifth of the treasure for
+the king, and one-fifth for Cortes and subtracting enough to
+reimburse the sums which had been advanced for the expenses of the
+expedition, the share of each soldier did not amount to 100 _pesos_,
+and they considered that it would have been more worth their while
+to have remained in Hispaniola, than to have experienced such
+fatigues, encountered such great dangers, and suffered so many
+privations, all for the reward of 100 _pesos_! If the promises of
+Cortes ended in this beggarly result, and if the partition had been
+made with fairness, of which they did not feel certain, they argued
+that it was absurd to remain longer in so poor a country, while
+under a chief less prodigal in promises, but more generous, they
+might go to countries rich in gold and precious stones, where brave
+warriors would find an adequate compensation for their toils. So
+murmured these greedy adventurers; some accepting what fell to their
+share while fuming over its small amount, others disdainfully
+refusing it.
+
+Cortes had succeeded in persuading Montezuma to conform to his will
+in everything which concerned politics, but it was otherwise in
+regard to religion. He could not persuade him to change his creed,
+and when Cortes wished to throw down the idols, as he had done at
+Zempoalla, a tumult arose which would have become very serious, had
+he not immediately abandoned his project. From that time the
+Mexicans, who had offered scarcely any resistance to the subjugation
+and imprisonment of their monarch, resolved to avenge their outraged
+deities, and they prepared a simultaneous rising against the
+invaders. It was at this juncture, when the affairs in the interior
+seemed to be taking a less favourable turn, that Cortes received
+news from Vera-Cruz, that several ships were cruising off the
+harbour. At first he thought this must be a fleet sent to his aid by
+Charles V., in answer to a letter which he had sent to him on the
+16th of July, 1519, by Puerto Carrero and Montejo. But he was soon
+undeceived, and learnt that this expedition was organized by Diego
+Velasquez, who knew by experience how lightly his lieutenant could
+shake off all dependence upon him; he had sent this armament with
+the object of deposing Cortes from his command, of making him a
+prisoner, and of carrying him off to Cuba, where he would be
+speedily placed upon his trial. The fleet thus sent was under the
+command of Pamphilo de Narvaez; it consisted of eighteen vessels,
+and carried eighty horse-soldiers, and 100 infantry (of whom eighty
+were musketeers), 120 cross-bowmen, and twelve cannons.
+
+Narvaez disembarked without opposition, near to the fort of San Juan
+d'Ulloa, but upon summoning the Governor of Vera-Cruz, Sandoval, to
+give up the town to him, Sandoval seized the men who were charged
+with the insolent message, and sent them off to Mexico, where Cortes
+at once released them, and then gained from them circumstantial
+information as to the forces, and the projects of Narvaez. The
+personal danger of Cortes at this moment was great; the troops sent
+by Velasquez were more numerous and better furnished with arms and
+ammunition than were his own, but his deepest cause of anxiety was
+not the possibility of his own condemnation and death, it was the
+fear lest all fruit of his efforts might be lost, and the knowledge
+of the hurtfulness of these dissensions to his country's cause. The
+situation was a critical one, but after mature reflection and the
+careful weighing of arguments for and against the course he
+meditated, Cortes determined to fight, even at a disadvantage,
+rather than to sacrifice his conquests and the interests of Spain.
+Before proceeding to this last extremity, he sent his chaplain
+Olmedo to Narvaez, but he was very ill-received, and saw all his
+proposals for an accommodation disdainfully rejected. Olmedo met
+with more success amongst the soldiers, who most of them knew him,
+and to whom he distributed a number of chains, gold rings, and other
+jewels, which were well calculated to give them a high idea of the
+riches of the conqueror. But when Narvaez heard of what was going on,
+he determined not to leave his troops any longer exposed to
+temptation; he set a price upon the heads of Cortes and his
+principal officers, and advanced to the encounter.
+
+Cortes, however, was too skilful to be enticed into giving battle
+under unfavourable circumstances. He temporized and succeeded in
+tiring out Narvaez and his troops, who retired to Zempoalla. Then
+Cortes, having taken his measures with consummate prudence, and the
+surprise and terror of a nocturnal attack which he organized
+compensating for the inferiority of his troops, he made prisoners of
+his enemy and all his soldiers, his own loss amounting to but two
+men. The conqueror treated the vanquished well, and gave them the
+choice between returning to Cuba, or remaining to share his fortune.
+This latter proposal, backed up as it was by gifts and promises,
+appeared so seductive to the new arrivals, that Cortes found himself
+at the head of 1000 soldiers, the day after he had been in danger of
+falling into the hands of Narvaez. This rapid change of fortune was
+turned to the greatest advantage by the skilful diplomacy of Cortes,
+who hastened to return to Mexico. The troops whom he had left there
+under the command of Alvarado, to guard the emperor and the treasure,
+were reduced to the last extremity by the natives, who had killed or
+wounded a great number of soldiers, and who kept the rest in a state
+of close blockade, while threatening them constantly with a general
+assault. It must be confessed that the imprudent and criminal
+conduct of the Spaniards, and notably the massacre of the most
+distinguished citizens of the empire during a fete, had brought
+about the rising which they dreaded, and which they had hoped to
+prevent. After having been joined by 2000 Tlascalans, Cortes pressed
+forward by forced marches towards the capital, where he arrived in
+safety, and found that the Indians had not destroyed the bridges
+belonging to the causeways and dikes which joined Mexico to the land.
+In spite of the arrival of this reinforcement, the situation did not
+improve. Each day it was necessary to engage in new combats, and to
+make sorties to clear the avenues leading to the palace occupied by
+the Spaniards.
+
+Cortes now saw but too plainly the mistake which he had made in
+shutting himself up in a town where his position might be stormed at
+any moment, and from which it was so difficult to extricate himself.
+In this difficulty he had recourse to Montezuma, who, by virtue of
+his authority and of the prestige which still clung to him, could
+appease the tumult, give the Spaniards some respite, and enable them
+to prepare for their retreat. But when the unfortunate emperor, now
+become a mere toy in the hands of the Spaniards, appeared upon the
+walls decked out with regal ornaments, and implored his subjects to
+cease from hostilities, murmurs of discontent arose, and threats
+were freely uttered. Hostilities began afresh, and before the
+soldiers had time to protect him with their shields, Montezuma was
+pierced with arrows, and hit upon the head by a stone which knocked
+him down. At this sight the Indians, horrified at the crime which
+they had just committed, at once ceased fighting, and fled in all
+directions, while the emperor, understanding but too late all the
+baseness of the part which Cortes had forced him to play, tore off
+the bandages which had been applied to his wounds, and refusing all
+nourishment, he died cursing the Spaniards.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Montezuma.]
+
+After so fatal an event, there was no more room to hope for peace
+with the Mexicans, and it became necessary to retire in haste, and
+at whatever cost, from a town in which the Spaniards were threatened
+with blockade and starvation. For this retreat Cortes was preparing
+in secret. He saw his troops each day more and more closely hemmed
+in, whilst several times he was forced himself to take his sword in
+his hand and to fight like a common soldier. Solis even relates, but
+upon what authority is not known, that during an assault which was
+made upon one of the edifices commanding the Spanish quarter, two
+young Mexicans, recognizing Cortes, who was cheering on his soldiers,
+resolved to sacrifice themselves in the hope of killing the man who
+had been the author of their country's calamities. They approached
+him in a suppliant attitude, as though they would ask for quarter,
+then seizing him round the waist they dragged him towards the
+battlements, over which they threw themselves, hoping to drag him
+over with them. But thanks to his exceptional strength and agility
+Cortes managed to escape from their embrace, and these two brave
+Mexicans perished in their generous but vain attempt to save their
+country.
+
+The retreat being determined upon, it was necessary to decide upon
+whether it should be carried out by night or by day. If in the
+daytime the enemy would be more easily resisted, any ambuscades
+which might be prepared would be more easily avoided, while they
+could better take precautions to repair any bridges broken by the
+Mexicans. On the other hand, it was known that the Indians will
+seldom attack an enemy after sunset, but what really decided Cortes
+in favour of a nocturnal retreat was, that a soldier who dabbled in
+astrology had declared to his comrades that success was certain if
+they acted in the night.
+
+They therefore began their march at midnight. Besides the Spanish
+troops, Cortes had under his orders detachments from Tlascala,
+Zempoalla, and Cholula, which, notwithstanding the serious losses
+which had been sustained, still numbered 7000 men. Sandoval
+commanded the vanguard, and Cortes the centre, where were the cannon,
+baggage, and prisoners, amongst whom were a son and two daughters of
+Montezuma; Alvarado and Velasquez de Leon led the rearguard. With
+the army was carried a flying bridge, which had been constructed to
+throw over any gaps there might be in the causeway. Scarcely had the
+Spaniards debouched upon the dike leading to Tacuba, which was the
+shortest of all, when they were attacked in front, flank, and rear
+by solid masses of the enemy, whilst from a fleet of numberless
+canoes, a perfect hailstorm of stones and missiles fell upon them.
+Blinded and amazed, the allies knew not against whom to defend
+themselves first. The wooden bridge sank under the weight of the
+artillery and fighting men. Crowded together upon a narrow causeway
+where they could not use their fire-arms, deprived of their cavalry
+who had not room to act, mingled with the Indians in a hand-to-hand
+combat, not having strength to kill, and surrounded on all sides,
+the Spaniards and their allies gave way under the ever renewed
+numbers of the assailants. Officers and soldiers, infantry and
+cavalry, Spaniards and Tlascalans were confounded together, each
+defended himself to the best of his ability, without caring about
+discipline or the common safety.
+
+All seemed lost, when Cortes with one hundred men succeeded in
+crossing the breach in the dike upon the mass of corpses which
+filled it up. He drew up his soldiers in order as they arrived, and
+putting himself at the head of those least severely wounded, plunged
+wedge-fashion into the melee, and succeeded in disengaging from it a
+portion of his men. Before day dawned all those who had succeeded in
+escaping from the massacre of the _noche triste_, as this terrible
+night was called, found themselves reunited at Tacuba. It was with
+eyes full of tears that Cortes passed in review his remaining
+soldiers, all covered with wounds, and took account of the losses
+which he had sustained; 4000 Indians, Tlascalans, and Cholulans, and
+nearly all the horses were killed, all the artillery and ammunition,
+as well as the greatest part of the baggage, were lost, and amongst
+the dead were several officers of distinction--Velasquez de Leon,
+Salcedo, Morla, Lares, and many others; one of those most
+dangerously hurt was Alvarado, but not one man, whether officer or
+soldier, was without a wound.
+
+The fugitives did not delay at Tacuba, and by accident they took the
+road to Tlascala, where they did not know what reception might await
+them. Ever harassed by the Mexicans, the Spaniards were again
+obliged to give battle upon the plains of Otumba to a number of
+warriors, whom some historians reckon at two hundred thousand.
+Thanks to the presence of some cavalry soldiers who still remained
+to him, Cortes was able to overthrow all who were in front of him,
+and to reach a troop of persons whose high rank was easily discerned
+by their gilded plumes and luxurious costumes, amongst whom was the
+general bearing the standard. Accompanied by some horsemen, Cortes
+threw himself upon this group and was fortunate enough, or skilful
+enough, to overturn by a lance-thrust the Mexican general, who was
+then despatched by the sword by a soldier named Juan de Salamanca.
+From the moment when the standard disappeared the battle was gained,
+and the Mexicans, panic-stricken, fled hastily from the field of
+battle. "Never had the Spaniards incurred greater danger," says
+Prescott, "and had it not been for the lucky star of Cortes, not one
+would have survived to transmit to posterity the history of the
+sanguinary battle of Otumba." The booty was considerable, and
+sufficed in part, to indemnify the Spaniards for the loss they had
+sustained in leaving Mexico, for this army which they had just
+defeated was composed of the principal warriors of the nation, who,
+having been quite confident of success, had adorned themselves with
+their richest ornaments.
+
+[Illustration: Cortes at the Battle of Otumba.]
+
+The day after the battle the Spaniards entered the territory of
+Tlascala. Bernal Diaz says, "I shall now call the attention of
+curious readers to the fact that when we returned to Mexico to the
+relief of Alvarado, we were in all 1300 men, including in that
+number ninety-seven horsemen, eighty cross-bowmen, and the same
+number armed with carbines; besides, we had more than 2000
+Tlascalans, and much artillery. Our second entry into Mexico took
+place on St. John's Day, 1520; our flight from the city was on the
+10th day of the month of July following, and we fought the memorable
+battle of Otumba on the 14th day of this same month of July. And now
+I would draw attention to the number of men who were killed at
+Mexico during the passage of the causeways and bridges, in the
+battle of Otumba, and in the other encounters upon the route. I
+declare that in the space of five days 860 of our men were massacred,
+including ten of our soldiers and five Castilian women, who were
+killed in the village of Rustepeque; we lost besides 1200 Tlascalans
+during the same time. It is to be noticed also that if the number of
+dead in the troop of Narvaez were greater than in the troop of
+Cortes, it was because the former soldiers set out on the march
+laden with a quantity of gold, the weight of which hindered them
+from swimming, and from getting out of the trenches."
+
+The troops with Cortes were reduced to four hundred and forty men,
+with twenty horses, twelve cross-bowmen, and seven carabineers; they
+had not a single charge of gunpowder, they were all wounded, lame,
+or maimed in the arms. It was the same number of men that had
+followed Cortes when he first entered Mexico, but how great a
+difference was there between that conquering troop, and the
+vanquished soldiers who now quitted the capital.
+
+As they entered the Tlascalan territory Cortes recommended his men,
+and especially those of Narvaez, not to do anything which could vex
+the natives, the common safety depending upon not irritating the
+only allies which remained to them. Happily the fears which had
+arisen as to the fidelity of the Tlascalans proved groundless. They
+gave the Spaniards a most sympathizing welcome, and their thoughts
+seemed to be wholly bent upon avenging the death of their brothers
+massacred by the Mexicans. While in their capital Cortes heard of
+the loss of two more detachments, but these reverses, grave as they
+were, did not discourage him; he had under his orders troops inured
+to war and faithful allies, Vera-Cruz was intact, he might once more
+reckon upon his good fortune. But before undertaking a new campaign
+or entering upon another siege, help must be sought and preparations
+made, and with these objects in view the general set to work. He
+sent four ships to Hispaniola to enrol volunteers and purchase
+powder and ammunition, and meanwhile he caused trees to be cut down
+in the mountains of Tlascala, and with the wood thus obtained twelve
+brigantines were constructed, which were to be carried in pieces to
+the Lake of Mexico, to be launched there at the moment when needed.
+
+After suppressing some attempts at mutiny amongst the soldiers, in
+which those who had come with Narvaez were the most to blame, Cortes
+again marched forwards, and, with the help of the Tlascalans, first
+attacked the people of Tepeaca and of other neighbouring provinces,
+a measure which had the advantage of exercising anew his own troops
+in war, and of training his allies. While this was going on, two
+brigantines bringing ammunition and reinforcements fell into the
+hands of Cortes; these ships had been sent to Narvaez by Velasquez,
+in ignorance of his misadventures; at this time also some Spaniards
+sent by Francis de Garay, governor of Jamaica, joined the army. In
+consequence of these reinforcements the troops with Cortes, after he
+had rid himself of several partisans of Narvaez with whom he was
+dissatisfied, amounted to five hundred infantry, of whom eighty
+carried muskets, and forty horse-soldiers. With this small army, and
+with one thousand Tlascalans, Cortes set out once more for Mexico on
+the 28th of December, 1520, six months after he had been forced to
+abandon the city. This campaign had for its theatre countries
+already described, and must therefore be passed over somewhat
+rapidly here, notwithstanding the interest attaching to it; to enter
+fully into the history of the conquest of Mexico would not be in
+accordance with the primary object of this work.
+
+After the death of Montezuma his brother Quetlavaca was raised to
+the throne, and he adopted all the measures of precaution compatible
+with Aztec strategic science. But he died of the smallpox, the sad
+gift of the Spaniards to the New World, at the very moment when his
+brilliant qualities of foresight and bravery were the most needed by
+his country. His successor was Guatimozin, the nephew of Montezuma,
+a man distinguished by his talents and courage.
+
+Cortes had no sooner entered the Mexican territory than fighting
+began. He speedily captured the town of Tezcuco, which was situated
+at twenty miles' distance, upon the edge of the great central lake,
+that lake upon whose waters the Spaniards were to see an imposing
+flotilla floating three months later. At this time a fresh
+conspiracy, which had for its object the assassination of Cortes and
+his principal officers, was discovered, and the chief culprit
+executed. At this moment fate seemed in every way to smile upon
+Cortes; he had just received the news of the arrival of fresh
+reinforcements at Vera-Cruz, and the greater part of the towns under
+the dominion of Guatimozin had submitted to the force of his arms.
+The actual siege of Mexico began in the month of May, 1521, and
+continued with alternate success and reverse until the day when the
+brigantines were launched upon the water of the lake. The Mexicans
+did not hesitate to attack them; from four to five thousand canoes,
+each bearing two men, covered the lake and advanced to the assault
+of the Spanish vessels, which carried in all nearly three hundred
+men. These nine brigantines were provided with cannon, and soon
+dispersed or sunk the enemy's fleet, who thenceforth left them in
+undisputed possession of the water. But this success and certain
+other advantages gained by Cortes had no very marked consequences,
+and the siege dragged slowly on, until the general made up his mind
+to capture the town by force. Unfortunately the officer who was
+charged with protecting the line of retreat by the causeways while
+the Spaniards were making their way into the town, abandoned his
+post, thinking it unworthy of his valour, and went to join in the
+combat. Guatimozin was informed of the fault which had been
+committed, and at once took advantage of it. His troops attacked the
+Spaniards on all sides with such fury that numbers of them were
+killed in a short time, while sixty-two of the soldiers fell alive
+into the hands of the Mexicans, a fate which Cortes, who was
+severely wounded in the thigh, narrowly escaped sharing. During the
+night following, the great temple of the war-god was illuminated in
+sign of triumph, and the Spaniards listened in profound sadness to
+the beating of the great drum. From the position they occupied they
+could witness the end of the prisoners, their unfortunate countrymen,
+whose breasts were opened and their hearts torn out, and whose dead
+bodies were hurled down the steps; they were then torn in pieces by
+the Aztecs, who quarrelled over the pieces with the object of using
+them for a horrible festival.
+
+This terrible defeat caused the siege to go on slowly, until the day
+came when three parts of the city having been taken or destroyed,
+Guatimozin was obliged by his councillors to quit Mexico and to set
+out for the mainland, where he reckoned upon organizing his
+resistance, but the boat which carried him being seized he was made
+prisoner. In his captivity he was destined to display much greater
+dignity and strength of character than his uncle Montezuma had done.
+From this time all resistance ceased, and Cortes might take
+possession of the half-destroyed capital. After a heroic resistance,
+in which 120,000 Mexicans according to some accounts, but 240,000
+according to others, had perished, after a siege which had lasted
+not less than seventy days, Mexico, and with the city all the rest
+of the empire, succumbed, less indeed to the blows dealt against it
+by the Spaniards than to the long-standing hatred and the revolts of
+the subjugated people, and to the jealousy of the neighbouring
+states, fated soon to regret the yoke which they had so deliberately
+shaken off.
+
+Contempt and rage soon succeeded amongst the Spaniards to the
+intoxication of success; the immense riches upon which they had
+reckoned either had no existence, or they had been thrown into the
+lake. Cortes found it impossible to calm the malcontents, and was
+obliged to allow the emperor and his principal minister to be put to
+the torture. Some historians, and notably Gomara, report that whilst
+the Spaniards were stirring the fire which burnt below the gridiron
+upon which the two victims were extended, the minister turned his
+head towards his master and apparently begged him to speak, in order
+to put an end to their tortures; but that Guatimozin reproved this
+single moment of weakness by these words, "And I, am I assisting at
+some pleasure, or am I in the bath?" an answer which has been
+poetically changed into, "And I, do I lie upon roses?"
+
+[Illustration: The Spaniards stir the fire burning below the
+gridiron.]
+
+The historians of the conquest of Mexico have usually stopped short
+at the taking of Mexico, but it remains for us to speak of some
+other expeditions undertaken by Cortes with different aims, but
+which resulted in casting quite a new light upon some portions of
+Central America; besides we could not leave this hero, who played so
+large a part in the history of the New World and in the development
+of its civilization, without giving some details of the end of his
+life.
+
+With the fall of the capital was involved, properly speaking, that
+of the Mexican empire; if there were still some resistance, as
+notably there was in the province of Oaxaca, it was of an isolated
+character, and a few detachments of troops sufficed to reduce to
+submission the last remaining opponents of the Spaniards, terrified
+as the Mexicans were by the punishments which had been dealt out to
+the people of Panuco, who had revolted. At the same time ambassadors
+were sent by the people of the distant countries of the empire, to
+convince themselves of the reality of that wonderful event, the
+taking of Mexico, to behold the ruins of the abhorred town, and to
+tender their submission to the conquerors.
+
+Cortes was at length confirmed in the position he held after
+incidents which would take too long to relate, and which caused him
+to say, "It has been harder for me to fight against my countrymen
+than against the Aztecs." It now remained to him to organize the
+conquered country, and he began by establishing the seat of
+government at Mexico, which he rebuilt. He attracted Spaniards to
+the city by granting them concessions of lands, and the Indians, by
+allowing them at first to remain under the authority of their native
+chiefs, although he speedily reduced them all, except the Tlascalans,
+to the condition of slaves, by the vicious system of _repartimientos_,
+in vogue in the Spanish colonies. But if it is justifiable to reproach
+Cortes with having held cheaply the political rights of the Indians,
+it must be conceded that he manifested the most laudable solicitude
+for their spiritual well-being. To further this object he brought over
+some Franciscans, who by their zeal and charity in a short time gained
+the veneration of the natives, and in a space of twenty years brought
+about the conversion of the whole population.
+
+At the same time Cortes sent some troops into the state of Mechoacan,
+who penetrated as far as the Pacific Ocean, and as they returned
+visited some of the rich provinces situated in the north. Cortes
+founded settlements in all the parts of the country which appeared
+to him advantageous: at Zacatula upon the shores of the Pacific, at
+Coliman in Mechoacan, at Santesteban near Tampico, at Medellin near
+Vera-Cruz, &c.
+
+Immediately after the pacification of the country, Cortes entrusted
+Christoval de Olid with the command of a considerable force, in
+order to establish a colony in Honduras, and at the same time Olid
+was to explore the southern coast of that province, and to seek for
+a strait which should form a communication between the Atlantic and
+Pacific Oceans. But, carried away by the pride of command, Olid had
+no sooner reached his destination than he declared himself
+independent, whereupon Cortes immediately despatched one of his
+relations to arrest the culprit, and set out himself, accompanied by
+Guatimozin, at the head of one hundred horsemen and fifty
+foot-soldiers, on the 12th of October, 1524. After crossing the
+provinces of Goatzacoalco, Tabasco, and Yucatan, and enduring all
+kinds of privations in the course of a most trying march over marshy
+and shifting ground, and across a perfect ocean of undulating
+forests, the detachment was approaching the province of Aculan, when
+Cortes was told of the existence of a plot, formed, as was said, by
+Guatimozin and the principal Indian chiefs. Its aim was to seize the
+first opportunity to massacre both officers and soldiers, after
+which the march to Honduras was to be continued, the settlements
+were to be destroyed, and then there was to be a return to Mexico,
+where during a general rising there would doubtless be small
+difficulty experienced in getting rid of the invaders. Guatimozin in
+vain protested his innocence, in which there is every reason to
+believe; he was hung, as well as several of the Aztec nobles, upon
+the branches of a _Ceyba_ tree, which shaded the road. Bernal Diaz
+del Castillo says, "The execution of Guatimozin was very unjust, and
+we were all agreed in condemning it." But Prescott says, "If Cortes
+had consulted but his own interest and his renown, he should have
+spared him, for he was the living trophy of his victory, as a man
+keeps gold in the lining of his coat."
+
+At length the Spaniards reached Aculan, a flourishing town, where
+they refreshed themselves after their journey in excellent quarters;
+when they set out again, it was in the direction of the Lake of
+Peten, a part of the country where the population was easily
+converted to Christianity. We shall not dwell upon the sufferings
+and misery which tried the expedition in these sparsely-peopled
+countries, until it arrived at San Gil de Buena-Vista, upon the
+Golfo Dolce, where Cortes, after receiving the news of the execution
+of Olid and the re-establishment of the central authority, embarked
+upon his return to Mexico. At this time he entrusted to Alvarado the
+command of three hundred infantry, one hundred and sixty cavalry,
+and four cannon, with a body of Indian auxiliaries, with which he
+set out for the south of Mexico, to conquer Guatemala. He reduced to
+submission the provinces of Zacatulan, Tehuantepec, Soconusco,
+Utlatlan, and laid the foundations of the town of Guatemala la
+Vieja; when, some time afterwards he made a voyage to Spain, he was
+named by Charles V. governor of the countries which he had conquered.
+
+Three years had not expired after the conquest, before a territory
+1200 miles in length upon the sea-board of the Atlantic, and 1500
+miles upon that of the Pacific, had submitted to the Castilian crown,
+and with but few exceptions, was in a state of perfect tranquillity.
+
+The return of Cortes to Mexico from the useless expedition to
+Honduras--which had wasted so much time and caused almost as great
+sufferings to the Spaniards as the conquest of Mexico--had taken
+place but a few days, when he received the news that he was
+temporarily replaced by another commander, and was invited to repair
+to Spain to exculpate himself from certain charges. He was not in
+any haste to comply with this order, hoping that it might be revoked,
+but his indefatigable calumniators and his implacable enemies, both
+in Spain and Mexico, preferred accusations against him after such a
+manner, that he found himself obliged to go and make his defence, to
+state his wrongs, and boldly to claim the approval of his conduct.
+Cortes therefore started accompanied by his friend Sandoval, as well
+as by Tapia und several Aztec chiefs, amongst whom was a son of
+Montezuma. He disembarked at Palos, in May, 1528, at the same place
+where Columbus had landed thirty-five years before, and he was
+welcomed with the same enthusiasm and rejoicings as the discoverer
+of America had been; here Cortes met with Pizarro, then at the
+outset of his career, who was come to solicit the support of the
+Spanish government. Cortes afterwards set out for Toledo, where the
+court then was. The mere announcement of his return had produced a
+complete change in public opinion. His unexpected arrival at once
+contradicted the idea that he harboured any projects of revolt and
+independence. Charles V. saw that public feeling would be outraged
+at the thought of punishing a man who had added its greatest gem to
+the crown of Castille, and so the journey of Cortes became one
+continual triumph in the midst of crowds of people greater than had
+been ever known before. "The houses and streets of the large towns
+and of the villages," says Prescott, "were filled with spectators
+impatient to contemplate the hero whose single arm might be said, in
+some sort, to have conquered an empire for Spain, and who, to borrow
+the language of an old historian, marched in all the pomp and glory,
+not of a great vassal, but of an independent monarch."
+
+Charles V., after having granted several audiences to Cortes, and
+bestowed upon him those particular marks of favour which are termed
+important by courtiers, deigned to accept from him the empire which
+he had conquered for him, and the magnificent presents which he
+brought. But he considered that he had fully recompensed him when he
+had given Cortes the title of Marquis della Valle de Oajaca, and the
+post of captain-general of New Spain, without, however, restoring to
+him the civil government, a power which had been formerly delegated
+to him by the junta of Vera-Cruz. Cortes, after his marriage with
+the niece of the Duke de Bejar, who belonged to one of the first
+families in Spain, accompanied the emperor, who was on his way to
+Italy, to the port of embarkation; but the general, soon becoming
+tired of the frivolities of a court, so little in accordance with
+the active habits of his past life, set out again for Mexico in 1530,
+and landed at Villa-Rica. After his arrival he underwent some
+annoyance caused by the Audienza, which had exercised the power in
+his absence, and which had instituted law-suits against him, and he
+also found himself in conflict with the new civil junta on the
+subject of military affairs. The Marquis della Valle withdrew
+himself to Cuernavaca, where he had immense estates, and busied
+himself with agriculture. He was the means of introducing the
+sugar-cane and the mulberry into Mexico, he also encouraged the
+cultivation of hemp and flax, and the breeding, on a large scale, of
+merino sheep.
+
+But this peaceable life without adventures could not long satisfy
+the enterprising spirit of Cortes. In 1532 and 1533, he equipped two
+squadrons destined to make voyages of discovery in the north-west of
+the Pacific. The latter expedition reached the southern extremity of
+the peninsula of California without attaining the object sought,
+namely the discovery of a strait uniting the Pacific with the
+Atlantic. Cortes himself met with no better success in 1536 in the
+Vermilion Sea (Gulf of California). Three years later a concluding
+expedition, of which Cortes gave the command to Ulloa, penetrated to
+the farthest extremity of the gulf, and then, sailing along the
+exterior side of the peninsula, reached the 29 degrees of north
+latitude. From thence the chief of the expedition sent back one of
+his ships to Cortes, while the rest proceeded northwards, but from
+that time nothing more is heard of them. Such was the unhappy result
+of the expeditions of Cortes, which, while they did not bring him in
+a single ducat, cost him not less than 300,000 gold castellanos. But
+they at least had the result of making known the coast of the
+Pacific Ocean, from the Bay of Panama as far as Colorado. The tour
+of the Californian Peninsula was made, and it was thus discovered
+that what had been imagined to be an island, was in reality a part
+of the continent. The whole of the Vermilion Sea, or Sea of Cortes,
+as the Spaniards justly named it, was carefully explored, and it was
+ascertained that, instead of having an outlet as was supposed to the
+north, it was in reality only a gulf deeply hollowed into the
+continent.
+
+Cortes had not been able to fit out these expeditions without coming
+into antagonism with the viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza, whom the
+emperor had sent to Mexico, an appointment which had wounded the
+feelings of the Marquis della Valle. Wearied with these continual,
+annoyances, and indignant at finding his prerogative as
+captain-general, if not absolutely ignored, at least perpetually
+questioned, Cortes left Mexico, and once more set out for Spain. But
+this journey was not destined at all to resemble the first. Grown
+old, disgusted with life, and betrayed by fortune, the
+"conquistador" had no longer anything to expect from government. He
+had not to wait long before receiving proof of this; one day he
+pressed through the crowd which surrounded the emperor's coach, and
+mounted upon the step of the door. Charles V. pretended not to
+recognize him, and asked who this man was. Cortes answered proudly,
+"It is the man who has given you more States than your father left
+you Towns." By this time public interest was diverted from Mexico,
+which had not yielded as much as had been expected from it, and was
+centred upon the marvellous riches of Peru. Cortes was, however,
+received with honour by the supreme council of the Indies, and
+permitted to state his complaints before it, but the debates upon
+the subject were endlessly drawn out, and he could obtain no redress.
+In 1541, during the disastrous expedition of Charles V. against
+Algiers, Cortes, who was serving in it as a volunteer, but whose
+counsels had not been listened to, had the misfortune to lose three
+great carved emeralds, jewels which would have sufficed for the
+ransom of an empire. Upon his return he renewed his solicitations,
+but with the same want of success. His grief over this injustice and
+these repeated disappointments was so deep, that his health suffered
+severely; he died far from the scene of his exploits, on the 10th of
+November, 1547, at Castilleja de la Cuesta, at the very moment when
+he was making preparations to return to America.
+
+"He was a true knight errant," says Prescott; "of all that glorious
+troop of adventurers which the Spain of the sixteenth century sent
+forth to a career of discovery and conquest, there was not one more
+deeply imbued with the spirit of romantic enterprise than Fernando
+Cortes. Strife was his delight, and he loved to attempt an
+enterprise by its most difficult side."...
+
+This passion for the romantic might have reduced the conqueror of
+Mexico to the part of a common adventurer, but Cortes was certainly
+a profound politician and a great captain, if one is justified in
+giving this name to a man who accomplished great actions by his own
+unassisted genius. There is no other example in history of so great
+an enterprise having been carried to a successful end with such
+inadequate means. It may be said with truth that Cortes conquered
+Mexico with his own resources alone. His influence over the minds of
+his soldiers was the natural result of their confidence in his
+ability, but it must be attributed also to his popular manners,
+which rendered him eminently fit to lead a band of adventurers. When
+he had attained to a higher rank, if Cortes displayed more of pomp,
+his veterans at least continued on the same terms of intimacy with
+him as before. In finishing this portrait of the "conquistador," we
+shall quote the upright and veracious Bernal Diaz, with whose
+sentiments we fully agree. "He preferred his name of Cortes to all
+the titles by which he might be addressed, and he had good reasons
+for it, for the name of Cortes is as famous in our days as that of
+Cesar amongst the Romans, or Hannibal amongst the Carthaginians."
+The old chronicler ends by a touch which vividly depicts the
+religious spirit of the sixteenth century: "Perhaps he was destined
+to receive his reward only in a better world, and I fully believe it
+to be so; for he was an honest knight, very sincere in his devotions
+to the Virgin, to the Apostle St. Peter, and to all the saints."
+
+
+III.
+THE CONQUERORS OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
+
+The triple alliance--Francisco Pizarro and his brothers--Don Diego
+d'Almagro--First attempts--Peru, its extent, people, and kings--
+Capture of Atahualpa, his ransom and death--Pedro d'Alvarado--
+Almagro in Chili--Strife among the conquerors--Trial and execution
+of Almagro--Expeditions of Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana--
+Assassination of Francisco Pizarro--Rebellion and execution of his
+brother Gonzalo.
+
+
+The information which had been gained by Balboa as to the riches of
+the countries situated to the south of Panama had scarcely become
+known to the Spaniards before several expeditions were organized to
+attempt the conquest of them. But all had failed, either from the
+means used being insufficient, or from the commanders not being
+equal to the greatness of the undertaking. It must be confessed also
+that the localities explored by these first adventurers--these
+pioneers, as they would be called now-a-days--did not at all come up
+to what Spanish greed had expected from them, and for this reason,
+that all the attempts had been hitherto made upon what was then
+called "Terra Firma," a country pre-eminently unhealthy, mountainous,
+marshy, and covered with forests; the inhabitants were few, but of
+so warlike a disposition that they had added another obstacle to all
+those which nature had strewn with so prodigal a hand in the path of
+the invaders. Little by little, therefore, the enthusiasm had cooled,
+and the wonderful narratives of Balboa were mentioned only to be
+turned into ridicule.
+
+[Illustration: Francisco Pizarro. _From an old print_.]
+
+There lived, however, in Panama a man well able to weigh the truth
+of the reports which had been circulated concerning the richness of
+the countries bathed by the Pacific; this man was Francisco Pizarro,
+who had accompanied Munez de Balboa to the southern sea, and who now
+associated with himself two other adventurers, Diego de Almagro and
+Ferdinand de Luque. A few words must be said about the chiefs of the
+enterprise. Francisco Pizarro, born near Truxillo between the years
+1471 and 1478, was the natural son of a certain Captain Gonzalo
+Pizarro, who had taught the boy nothing but to take care of pigs; he
+was soon tired of this occupation, and took advantage of his having
+allowed one of the animals who were in his charge to stray, not to
+return to the paternal roof, where he was accustomed to be cruelly
+beaten for the smallest peccadillo. The young Pizarro enlisted, and
+after passing some years amidst the Italian wars, he followed
+Christopher Columbus to Hispaniola in 1510. He served there with
+distinction, and also in Cuba; afterwards he accompanied Hojeda to
+Darien, discovered, as has been already mentioned, the Pacific, with
+Balboa, and after the execution of the latter, he assisted Pedrarias
+Davila, whose favourite he had become, in the conquest of all the
+country known as Castille d'Or.
+
+While Pizarro was an illegitimate child, Diego de Almagro was a
+foundling, picked up according to some in 1475 at Aldea del Rey, but
+according to others at Almagro, from which circumstance, as they
+maintain, he derived his name. He was educated in the midst of
+soldiers, and while still young went to America, where he had
+succeeded in amassing a small fortune.
+
+Ferdinand de Luque was a rich ecclesiastic of Tobago, who exercised
+the calling of a schoolmaster at Panama. The youngest of these
+adventurers was by this time more than fifty years of age, and
+Garcilasso de la Vega relates that upon their project being known,
+they became the objects of general derision; Ferdinand de Luque was
+the most laughed at, and was called by no other name than _Hernando
+el Loco_, Ferdinand the Fool. The terms of partnership were soon
+agreed upon between these three men, of whom two at least were
+without fear, if they were not all three without reproach. Luque
+furnished money needed for the armament of the vessels and the pay
+of the soldiers, and Almagro bore an equal part in the expense, but
+Pizarro, who possessed nothing but his sword, was to pay his
+contribution in another manner. It was he who took the command of
+the first attempt, upon which we shall dwell in some detail, because
+it was then that the perseverance and inflexible obstinacy of the
+"conquistador" first came fully into sight.
+
+One of the historians of the conquest of Peru, Augustin de Zarate,
+relates as follows:--"Having then asked and obtained the permission
+of Pedro Arias d'Avila, Francisco Pizarro after much trouble
+equipped a vessel upon which he embarked with 140 men. At the
+distance of 150 miles from Panama he discovered a small and poor
+province named Peru, which caused the same name to be henceforward
+improperly bestowed upon all the country which was discovered along
+that coast for the space of more than 3600 miles in length. Passing
+onwards he discovered another country, which the Spaniards called
+_the burnt people_. The Indians slew so many of his men that he was
+constrained to retire in great disorder to the country of Chinchama,
+which is not far distant from the place whence he had started.
+Almagro, however, who had remained at Panama, fitted out a ship
+there, upon which he embarked with seventy Spaniards, and descended
+the coast as far as the River San Juan, 300 miles from Panama. Not
+having met with Pizarro, he went back northwards as far as _the
+burnt people_, where, having ascertained by certain indications that
+Pizarro had been there, he landed his men. But the Indians, puffed
+up by the victory which they had gained over Pizarro, resisted
+bravely, forced the entrenchments with which Almagro had covered his
+position, and obliged him to re-embark. He returned therefore, still
+following the coast-line until he arrived at Chinchama, where he
+found Francisco Pizarro. They were much rejoiced at meeting again,
+and having added to their followers some fresh soldiers whom they
+had levied, they found their troops amounted to 200 Spaniards, and
+once more they descended the coast. They suffered so much from
+scarcity of provisions and from the attacks of the Indians, that Don
+Diego returned to Panama to collect more recruits and to obtain
+provisions. He took back with him eighty men, with whom and with
+those who remained to them, they went as far as the country called
+Catamez, a country moderately peopled and where they found abundance
+of provisions. They noticed that the Indians of these parts who
+attacked them and made war against them, had their faces studded
+with nails of gold inserted in holes which they had made expressly
+for receiving these ornaments. Diego de Almagro returned once again
+to Panama, whilst his companion waited for him and for the
+reinforcements which he was to bring with him, in a small island
+called Cock Island, where he suffered much from the scarcity of all
+the necessaries of life."
+
+[Illustration: The Indians kill many of the Spaniards.]
+
+Upon his arrival in Panama, Almagro could not obtain permission from
+Los Rios, the successor of Avila, to make new levies, for he had no
+right, Los Rios said, to allow a greater number of people to go and
+perish uselessly in a rash enterprise; he even sent a boat to Cock
+Island to bring away Pizarro and his companions. But such a decision
+could not be pleasing to Almagro and De Luque. It meant expense
+thrown away; and it meant the annihilation of the hopes which the
+sight of the ornaments of gold and silver of the inhabitants of
+Catamez had caused them to entertain. They sent therefore a trusty
+person to Pizarro, to recommend him to persevere in his resolution,
+and to refuse to obey the orders of the Governor of Panama. But
+Pizarro in vain held out the most seductive promises; the
+remembrance of the fatigues which had been endured was too recent,
+and all his companions except twelve abandoned him.
+
+With these intrepid men, whose names have been preserved, and
+amongst whom was Garcia de Xeres, one of the historians of the
+expedition, Pizarro retired to an uninhabited island at a greater
+distance from the coast, to which he gave the name of Gorgona. There
+the Spaniards lived miserably on mangles, fish, and shell-fish, and
+awaited for five months the succour that Almagro and De Luque were
+to send them. At length, vanquished by the unanimous protestations
+of the whole colony,--who were indignant that people whose only
+crime was that they had not despaired of success, should be left to
+perish miserably and as though they were malefactors,--Los Rios sent
+to Pizarro a small vessel to bring him back. With the object of
+presenting no temptation to Pizarro to make use of this ship to
+renew his expedition, not a single soldier was placed on board of
+her. At the sight of the help which had arrived, and oblivious of
+all their privations, the thirteen adventurers thought of nothing
+but persuading the sailors who came to seek them to participate in
+their own hopes. Whereupon, instead of starting again on the route
+to Panama, they sailed all together, towards the south-east, in
+spite of contrary winds and currents, until, after having discovered
+the Island of St. Clara, they arrived at the port of Tumbez,
+situated beyond the 3 degrees of south latitude, where they saw a
+magnificent temple and a palace belonging to the Incas, the
+sovereigns of the country.
+
+The country was populous and fairly well-cultivated, but what proved
+beyond all else seductive to the Spaniards, and made them think that
+they had reached the marvellous countries of which so much had been
+said, was the sight of so great an abundance of gold and silver,
+that these metals were employed not only as finery and ornament by
+the inhabitants, but also for making vases and common utensils.
+
+Pizarro caused the interior of the country to be explored by Pietro
+de Candia and Alonzo de Molina, who brought back an enthusiastic
+description of it, and he caused some gold vases to be given up to
+him, as well as some llamas, a quadruped domesticated by the
+Peruvians. He took two natives on board his vessel, to whom he
+proposed to teach the Spanish language, and to use them as
+interpreters when he should return to the country. He anchored
+successively at Payta, Saugarata, and in the Bay of Santa-Cruz, of
+which the sovereign, Capillana, received the strangers with such
+friendly demonstrations, that several of them were unwilling to
+re-embark. After having sailed down the coast as far as Porto Santo,
+Pizarro set out on his return to Panama, where he arrived after
+three whole years spent in dangerous explorations, which had
+completely ruined De Luque and Almagro.
+
+[Illustration: Pizarro received by Charles V.]
+
+Pizarro resolved to apply to Charles V. before undertaking the
+conquest of the country which he had discovered, for he could not
+obtain leave from Los Rios to engage fresh adventurers; so he
+borrowed the sum required for the voyage, and in 1528 he went to
+Spain to inform the emperor of the work which he had undertaken. He
+painted the picture of the countries that were to be conquered in
+the most pleasing light, and as a reward for his labours the titles
+of governor, captain-general, and alguazil-major of Peru were
+bestowed upon him and his heirs in perpetuity. At the same time he
+was ennobled, and a pension of 1000 crowns was bestowed upon him.
+His jurisdiction, independent of the governor of Panama, was to
+extend over a tract of 600 miles along the coast to the south of the
+Santiago river; it was to be called New Castille, and he was to be
+the governor; concessions that cost nothing to Spain, for Pizarro
+had yet to conquer the country. On his side he undertook to raise a
+body of 250 men, and to provide himself with the necessary ships,
+arms, and ammunition. Pizarro then repaired to Truxillo, where he
+persuaded his three brothers Ferdinand, Juan, and Gonzalo to
+accompany him, as well as one of his half-brothers Martin
+d'Alcantara. He took advantage of his stay in his native town, and
+at Caceres, to try to raise recruits, both there and throughout
+Estramadura; they did not, however, come forward in large numbers,
+in spite of the title of _Caballeros de la Espado dorada_ which he
+promised to bestow upon all who would serve under him. Then he
+returned to Panama, where affairs were not going so smoothly as he
+had hoped. He had succeeded in getting De Luque named Bishop
+_protector de los Indios_; but for Almagro, whose talents he knew,
+and whose ambition he feared, he had only asked that he should be
+ennobled and a gratuity of 500 ducats bestowed upon him, with the
+government of a fortress which was to be built at Tumbez. Almagro
+refused to take part in this new expedition; he was not pleased with
+the meagre portion given to him after spending all his money on the
+earlier expeditions; he wished now to organize one on his own
+account. It required all Pizarro's address, aided by the promise to
+give up to Almagro the office of _adelantado_, to appease him and
+make him consent to renew the old partnership.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Peru.]
+
+The resources of the three partners were so limited at this time,
+that they could only get together three small ships and 124 soldiers,
+of whom thirty-six were horse-soldiers; the expedition set out in
+February, 1531, under the command of Pizarro and his four brothers,
+whilst Almagro remained at Panama to organize an expedition of
+supplies. At the end of thirteen days' sailing, and after having
+been carried by a storm 300 miles more to the south than he had
+intended, Pizarro was forced to disembark both men and horses on the
+shores of the Bay of San Mateo, and to follow the line of the coast
+on land. This march was a difficult one in a very mountainous
+country, thinly-peopled, and intersected by rivers which had to be
+crossed at their mouths. At last a place called Coaqui was reached,
+where was found a great booty, which decided Pizarro to send back
+two of his ships. They carried to Panama and Nicaragua spoils to the
+amount of 30,000 _castellanos_, as well as a great number of
+emeralds, a rich booty, which would, according to Pizarro, determine
+many adventurers to come and join him.
+
+Then the conqueror continued his march southwards as far as
+Porto-Viejo, where he was joined by Sebastian Benalcazar and Juan
+Fernandez, who brought him twelve horsemen and thirty foot-soldiers.
+The effect which had been produced in Mexico by the sight of the
+horses and the reports of the fire-arms was repeated in Peru, and
+Pizarro was able to reach the Island of Puna in the Gulf of
+Guayaquil without encountering any resistance. But the islanders
+were more numerous and more warlike than their brothers of the
+mainland, and for six months they valiantly resisted all the attacks
+of the Spaniards. Although Pizarro had received some aid from
+Nicaragua, brought by Ferdinand de Soto, and although he had
+beheaded the cacique Tonalla and sixteen of the principal chiefs, he
+could not overcome their resistance. He was, therefore, obliged to
+regain the continent, where the maladies peculiar to the country
+tried his companions so cruelly, that he was forced to stay three
+months at Tumbez, exposed to the perpetual attacks of the natives.
+From Tumbez he went next to the Rio Puira, discovered the harbour of
+Payta, the best on this coast, and founded the colony of San-Miguel,
+at the mouth of the Chilo, in order that vessels coming from Panama
+might find a safe shelter. It was here that Pizarro received some
+envoys from Huascar, who informed him of the revolt of Atahualpa,
+the brother of Huascar, and asked his aid.
+
+At the period when the Spaniards landed to conquer Peru, it extended
+along the shore of the Pacific Ocean for 1500 miles, and stretched
+into the interior as far as the imposing chain of the Andes.
+Originally the population was divided into savage and barbarous
+tribes, having no idea of civilization, and living in a perpetual
+state of warfare with one another. For many centuries affairs had
+continued in the same state, and there appeared no presage of the
+coming of a better era, when, on the shores of Lake Titicaca, there
+appeared to the Indians a man and woman, who pretended that they
+were the Children of the Sun. They called themselves Manco-Capac and
+Mama-Oello, and were of majestic appearance; according to Garcilasso
+de la Vega, towards the middle of the twelfth century they united
+together a number of wandering tribes, and laid the foundations of
+the town of Cuzco. Manco-Capac had taught the men agriculture and
+mechanical arts, whilst Mama-Oello instructed the women in spinning
+and weaving. When Manco-Capac had satisfied these first needs of all
+societies, he framed laws for his subjects, and constituted a
+regular political state. It was thus that the dominion of the Incas
+or Lords of Peru was established. At first their empire was limited
+to the neighbourhood of Cuzco, but under their successors it rapidly
+increased, and extended from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Pearl
+Islands, a length of thirty degrees. The power of the incas was as
+absolute as that of the ancient Asiatic sovereigns. "Also," says
+Zarate, "there was perhaps no other country in the world where the
+obedience and submission of the subjects was carried further. The
+incas were to them quasi-divinities; they had but to place a thread
+drawn from the royal head-fillet in the hands of any one, and the
+man so distinguished, was certain to be everywhere respected and
+obeyed, and to find such absolute deference paid to the king's order
+which he carried, that he could alone exterminate a whole province
+without any assistance from soldiers, and cause to be put to death
+all the inhabitants, both male and female, because at the mere sight
+of this thread, taken from the royal crown, the people voluntarily
+and without any resistance, offered themselves up to die." However,
+the old chroniclers all agree in saying that this unlimited power
+was always used by the incas for the well-being of their subjects.
+Out of a series of twelve kings, who in succession sat on the throne
+of Peru, there was not one who did not leave behind him the memory
+of a just prince adored by his subjects. Should we not search in
+vain through the annals of any other country in the world for facts
+analogous to these? Must it not be regretted that the Spaniards
+should have brought war with all its attendant horrors, and the
+maladies and vices of a different climate, along with what they in
+their pride called civilization, amongst a rich and happy people,
+whose descendants, impoverished and debased as they are, have not
+even the recollection of their ancient prosperity to console them in
+their irremediable decay?
+
+"The Peruvians," says Michelet in his admirable _Precis d'Histoire
+Moderne_, "handed down the principal facts to posterity by knots,
+which they made in ropes. They had obelisks and exact gnomons to
+mark the equinoxes and solstices. Their year consisted of 365 days.
+They had erected prodigies of architecture, and they carved statues
+with amazing art. They formed the most polished and industrious
+nation of the New World."
+
+The inca Huayna-Capac, father of Atahualpa, under whom this vast
+empire was destroyed, had done much to increase and embellish it.
+This inca, who conquered all the country of Quito, had made, by the
+hands of his soldiers and of the vanquished people, a great road
+1500 miles in length from Cuzco to Quito, across precipices which
+had been filled up and mountains which had been levelled. Relays of
+men, stationed at intervals of a mile and a half from each other,
+carried the emperor's orders throughout the empire. Such was their
+police, and if we wish to judge of Peruvian magnificence, we need
+only instance the fact that the king when he travelled was carried
+on a throne of gold which weighed 25,000 ducats, and the golden
+litter upon which the throne rested was borne by the highest
+personages of the realm.
+
+In 1526, when the Spaniards appeared on the coast for the first time,
+the twelfth inca had lately married--in defiance of the ancient law
+of the kingdom--the daughter of the vanquished king of Quito, and
+had had a son of this marriage named Atahualpa, to whom he left this
+kingdom on his death, which happened about 1529. His eldest son
+Huascar, whose mother was descended from the incas, had the
+remainder of his states. But this partition, so contrary to the
+customs established from time immemorial, caused such great
+discontent at Cuzco, that Huascar, encouraged by his subjects,
+determined to march against his brother, who would not acknowledge
+him for his lord and master. Atahualpa, in his turn, had too lately
+tasted power to be willing to abandon it. He managed by bribes to
+attach to himself the greater part of the warriors who had
+accompanied his father during the conquest of Quito, and when the
+two armies met, fortune favoured the usurper.
+
+Is it not curious to remark how both in Peru and Mexico the
+Spaniards were aided by entirely exceptional circumstances? In
+Mexico some of the people who had recently submitted to the Aztec
+race, being mercilessly trampled upon by their conquerors, welcome
+the Spaniards as deliverers; in Peru the strife between two brothers,
+furious against each other, hinders the Indians from turning all
+their forces against the invaders whom they might easily have
+crushed.
+
+Pizarro upon receiving the envoys sent by Huascar, to ask his aid
+against his brother Atahualpa, whom he represented as a rebel and
+usurper, saw at once all the advantages that might accrue to him
+from these circumstances. He saw that by espousing the cause of one
+of the brothers, he could more easily crush them both, therefore he
+advanced at once into the interior of the country, at the head of a
+very inconsiderable force, consisting of sixty-two cavalry and one
+hundred and twenty foot-soldiers, of whom only twenty were armed
+with arquebuses and muskets; he was obliged to leave part of his
+troops to guard San-Miguel, in which Pizarro reckoned upon finding a
+refuge in case of his being unsuccessful, and where in any case all
+supplies which might arrive could be landed.
+
+Pizarro first made for Caxamalca, a small town situated at about
+twenty days' march from the coast. To reach it he had to cross a
+desert of burning sand, without vegetation and without water, which
+extended for sixty miles in length as far as the province of Motupe,
+and where the slightest attack of the enemy, joined to the
+sufferings endured by the little army, would have been sufficient to
+crush the whole expedition at one blow. Next the troops plunged into
+the mountains and became entangled in narrow defiles where a small
+force might have annihilated them. During this march Pizarro
+received an envoy from Atahualpa bringing him some painted shoes and
+gold bracelets, which he was requested to wear at his approaching
+interview with the inca. Naturally Pizarro was lavish in his
+promises of friendship and devotion, and assured the Indian
+ambassador that he should be only following the orders given him by
+the king his master in respecting the lives and property of the
+inhabitants. From the moment of his arrival at Caxamalca Pizarro
+prudently lodged his soldiers in a temple and a palace belonging to
+the inca, where they were sheltered from any surprise. Then he sent
+one of his brothers with De Soto and twenty horse-soldiers to the
+camp of Atahualpa, which was distant only three miles, to announce
+to him his arrival. The envoys of the governor were received with
+magnificence, and were astonished at the multiplicity of the
+ornaments and vases made of gold and silver which they saw
+throughout the Indian camp. They returned, bringing a promise from
+Atahualpa that he would come on the next day to visit Pizarro, to
+bid him welcome to his kingdom. At the same time the envoys gave an
+account of the wonderful riches they had seen, which confirmed
+Pizarro in the project which he had formed of seizing the
+unfortunate Atahualpa and his treasures by treachery.
+
+Several Spanish authors, and notably Zarate, disguise these facts,
+which no doubt appeared to them too odious, and altogether deny the
+treachery towards Atahualpa. But at the present day there are extant
+many documents which force the historian to believe, with Robertson
+and Prescott, in the perfidy of Pizarro. It was very important for
+him to have the inca in his own hands, and to employ him as a tool,
+just as Cortes had done with Montezuma. He therefore took advantage
+of the honesty and simplicity of Atahualpa, who placed entire
+confidence in Pizarro's protestations of friendship and so was
+thrown off his guard, to arrange an ambuscade into which Atahualpa
+was certain to fall. There was not a scruple in the disloyal soul of
+the conqueror; he was as cool as though he were about to offer
+battle to enemies who had been forewarned of his approach; this
+infamous treason must be an eternal dishonour to his memory. Pizarro
+divided his cavalry into three small squadrons, left all his
+infantry in one body, hid his arquebusiers on the road by which the
+inca must pass, and kept twenty of his most determined companions
+near himself. Atahualpa, wishing to give the Spaniards a great idea
+of his power, advanced with the whole of his army. He himself was
+borne upon a kind of bed, decorated with feathers, covered with
+plates of gold and silver, and ornamented with precious stones. He
+was accompanied by his principal nobles, carried like himself on the
+shoulders of their servants, and he was surrounded by dancers and
+jesters. Such a march was more that of a procession than of an army.
+
+As soon as the inca had nearly reached the Spanish quarters
+(according to Robertson), Father Vincent Valverde, the chaplain of
+the expedition, who was afterwards made a bishop as a reward for his
+conduct, advanced with the crucifix in one hand and his breviary in
+the other. In an interminable discourse he set forth to the monarch
+the doctrine of the creation, the fall of the first man, the
+Incarnation, Passion, and Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, the
+choice made by God of St. Peter to be His vicar upon earth, the
+power transmitted through him to the Popes, and the gift made by
+Pope Alexander to the King of Castille of all the regions of the New
+World. When he had expounded all these doctrines, he called upon
+Atahualpa to embrace the Christian religion, to recognize the
+supreme authority of the Pope, and to submit to the King of Castille
+as his legitimate sovereign. If he submitted immediately, Valverde
+undertook to promise that the king his master would take Peru under
+his protection, and allow him to continue to reign there; but he
+declared war against him and threatened him with fearful vengeance
+if he refused to obey, and persevered in his impiety.
+
+To say the least of it, this was a singular scene and a very strange
+harangue, alluding to facts which were utterly unknown to the
+Peruvians, and of the truth of which a more skilful orator than
+Valverde would not have succeeded in persuading them. If we add that
+the interpreter knew so little of the Spanish language that it was
+almost an impossibility for him to translate what he scarcely
+understood himself, and that the Peruvian language lacked words to
+express ideas so foreign to its genius, we shall not be much
+surprised to learn that Atahualpa understood almost nothing of the
+Spanish monk's discourse. Some sentences, however, which attacked
+his own power, filled him with surprise and indignation. But he was
+none the less moderate in his reply. He said that, as master of his
+own kingdom by right of succession, he could not see how any one had
+the power to dispose of it without his consent; he added that he was
+not at all willing to renounce the religion of his fathers to adopt
+one of which he had only heard that day for the first time; with
+regard to the other points touched upon in the discourse he
+understood nothing, it was a thing entirely new to him, and he would
+much like to know where Valverde had learnt so many wonderful things.
+"In this book," replied Valverde, handing him his breviary.
+Atahualpa received it with eagerness and turned over some of the
+leaves with much curiosity, then, putting it to his ear, he
+exclaimed, "What you show me there does not speak to me, and tells
+me nothing." With this he flung the book upon the ground.
+
+This served as a signal for the combat, or rather for the massacre.
+Cannon and muskets came into play, the cavalry sprang forward, and
+the infantry fell sword in hand upon the stupefied Peruvians. In a
+few moments the confusion was at its height. The Indians fled on all
+sides, without attempting to defend themselves. As to Atahualpa,
+although his principal officers tried to make a rampart of their own
+bodies, while they carried him off, Pizarro sprang upon him,
+dispersed or overthrew his guards, and seizing him by his long hair,
+threw him down from the litter in which he was carried. Only the
+darkness could arrest the carnage. Four thousand Indians were killed,
+a greater number wounded, and 3000 were taken prisoners. An
+incontestable proof that there was no real battle is, that of all
+the Spaniards Pizarro alone was hit, and he received his wound from
+one of his own soldiers who was too precipitately endeavouring to
+seize upon the inca.
+
+[Illustration: Atahualpa is made prisoner. _From an old print_.]
+
+The booty collected in the camp and from the dead exceeded anything
+the Spaniards could have imagined, and their enthusiasm was
+proportioned to the conquest of such riches.
+
+At first Atahualpa bore his captivity with resignation, which may
+have been partly due to Pizarro's doing all he could to soothe him,
+at least by words. But the inca, soon understanding the unbridled
+covetousness of his jailors, made a proposal to Pizarro to pay him
+ransom, and to have a room of twenty-two feet in length by sixteen
+in width filled as high as the hand could reach with vases, utensils,
+and ornaments of gold. Pizarro eagerly agreed to this, and the
+captive inca despatched the necessary orders at once to all the
+provinces; these were carried out promptly and unmurmuringly. Beyond
+this, the Indian troops were disbanded, and Pizarro was able to send
+Soto and five Spaniards to Cuzco, a town situated more than 600
+miles from Caxamalca, while he himself subjugated all the country
+within a circuit of 300 miles.
+
+In the meantime Almagro landed with 200 soldiers. There had been set
+aside for him and his men--with what regrets may easily be
+imagined--100,000 pesos (a Spanish coin); a fifth was reserved for
+the king, and this left 1,528,500 pesos to be divided between
+Pizarro and his companions. This product of pillage and massacre was
+solemnly divided between those entitled to it on the Festival of St.
+James, the patron saint of Spain, after fervent prayer to God. A
+deplorable mixture this of religion and profanity, too common
+unfortunately, in these times of mingled superstition and avarice.
+
+Each horse-soldier received 8000 pesos as his share, and each
+foot-soldier 4000, which would be equivalent to about 1600_l._ and
+800_l._ sterling. This was enough to satisfy the most exacting
+soldier, after a campaign which had been neither long nor difficult.
+Many of the adventurers wished to enjoy this unexpected good fortune
+in a peaceable manner in their own country, and eagerly asked for
+their dismissal. This Pizarro granted without hesitation, for he
+felt sure that the news of their rapidly-acquired wealth would soon
+bring him new recruits. With his brother Ferdinand, who went to
+Spain to give the emperor an account of Pizarro's triumph and some
+splendid presents, went sixty Spaniards, laden heavily indeed with
+money, but lightly with remorse.
+
+As soon as Atahualpa's ransom was paid, he claimed his freedom; but
+Pizarro, who had only saved his life that he might make all the
+treasures of Peru his own, and shelter himself under the prestige
+and authority which the inca still exercised over his subjects, was
+soon wearied by his entreaties. He suspected him also of having for
+some time secretly given orders to levy troops in the distant
+provinces of the empire. Besides, Atahualpa having soon discovered
+that Pizarro was no better educated than one of the lowest of his
+soldiers, felt in consequence a contempt for the governor which,
+unfortunately, he could not conceal. Such were the reasons, all
+trivial as they were, which determined Pizarro to prepare for the
+trial of the inca.
+
+Nothing could have been more hateful than this trial, in which
+Almagro and Pizarro were at the same time both suitors and judges.
+The heads of the accusation were so ridiculous and absurd, that one
+is in doubt whether to be most surprised by the effrontery or the
+wickedness of Pizarro, in subjecting the head of a powerful empire,
+over which he had no jurisdiction, to such an inquiry. Atahualpa,
+being found guilty, was condemned to be burnt alive; but as he had
+at length asked to be baptized, that he might rid himself of the
+importunities of Valverde, his enemies contented themselves with
+strangling him. A worthy counterpart this, of Guatimozin's
+execution! These were amongst the most atrocious and odious deeds
+committed by the Spaniards in America, where, however, they have
+sullied themselves with every imaginable crime.
+
+Among this herd of adventurers there were still some men who had
+retained sentiments of honour and self-respect. They protested
+loudly against this perversion of justice, but their generous
+pleadings were stifled by the selfish declamations of Pizarro and
+his worthy assistants.
+
+The governor now raised one of Atahualpa's sons to the throne, under
+the name of Paul Inca; but the civil war between the two brothers,
+and the events which had occurred since the arrival of the Spaniards,
+had done much to loosen the ties which bound the Peruvians to their
+kings, and this young man, destined soon to die an ignominious death,
+had scarcely more authority than Manco-Capac, the son of Huascar,
+who was acknowledged by the inhabitants of Cuzco. Soon after this,
+some of the principal people in the country even tried to carve for
+themselves kingdoms out of the empire of Peru. Such was Ruminagui,
+the commandant of Quito, who caused the brother and the children of
+Atahualpa to be massacred, and declared himself independent. Discord
+reigned in the Peruvian camp, and the Spaniards resolved to take
+advantage of it. Pizarro advanced rapidly upon Cuzco, the small
+number of his forces having been the only reason which had prevented
+him from doing so sooner. Now that a crowd of adventurers, attracted
+by the treasures which had been brought back to Panama, vied with
+each other in hastening to Peru, now that he could assemble 500
+men--after leaving an important garrison at San-Miguel under
+Benalcazar's command,--Pizarro had no further reason for delay. On
+the way some skirmishes took place with large bodies of troops, but
+they ended as always, with severe loss to the natives, and a very
+insignificant one to the Spaniards. When they entered Cuzco, and
+took possession of the town, the invaders showed surprise at the
+small quantity of gold and precious stones which they found there,
+although it far exceeded Atahualpa's ransom. Was this because they
+were becoming accustomed to the riches of the country, or because
+there was a larger number to share in them?
+
+Meanwhile, Benalcazar, being weary of inaction, took advantage of
+the arrival of a reinforcement from Nicaragua and Panama, to set out
+for Quito, where according to the Peruvians, Atahualpa had left the
+greater part of his treasure. He placed himself at the head of
+eighty horse-soldiers and 120 infantry, defeated on several
+occasions Ruminagui, who disputed his passage, and thanks to his
+prudence and cleverness, he entered Quito victorious; but he did not
+find there what he sought, that is to say, the treasures of
+Atahualpa.
+
+At the same time, Peter d'Alvarado, who had so signally
+distinguished himself under Cortes, and who had been made governor
+of Guatemala, as a reward for his services, pretended to believe
+that the province of Quito was not included in Pizarro's command,
+and organized an expedition consisting of 500 men, 200 of whom were
+cavalry. Landing at Porto-Viejo, he wished to reach Quito without a
+guide, by going up the Guayaquil River and crossing the Andes. This
+road has always been one of the worst and most trying that it is
+possible to choose. Before they had reached the plain of Quito,
+after horrible sufferings from hunger and thirst, without speaking
+of the burning cinders hurled from the crater of Chimborazo, a
+volcano near Quito, and the snow-storms which assailed them, the
+fifth part of the band of adventurers, and half the horses, had
+perished; the remainder were completely discouraged and quite unfit
+for fighting. It was therefore with the greatest surprise, and some
+uneasiness, that they found themselves face to face, not with a body
+of Indians as they had expected, but with a party of Spaniards,
+under the command of Almagro. The latter were preparing to charge,
+when some of the more moderate among the officers caused an
+arrangement to be entered into, by virtue of which Alvarado was to
+withdraw to his own province after receiving 100,000 pesos to defray
+the expenses of the armament.
+
+Ferdinand Pizarro had set sail for Spain, while these events were
+happening in Peru, feeling sure that the immense quantity of gold,
+silver, and precious stones which he took with him, would secure him
+a warm welcome. He obtained for his brother Francisco the
+confirmation of his appointment as governor, with more extended
+powers; he himself was made a knight of the order of St. Iago; as
+for Almagro, he was confirmed in his title of _adelantado_, and his
+jurisdiction was extended 600 miles, without, however, its limits
+being very strictly defined, which left the door open for many
+contests and all kinds of arbitrary interpretations.
+
+Ferdinand Pizarro had not reached Peru again, when Almagro, having
+learnt that a special government had been assigned to him, pretended
+that Cuzco formed part of it, and made preparations for its conquest.
+But Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro had no intention of allowing themselves
+to be robbed, and the parties were on the point of coming to blows
+when Francisco Pizarro, who is often called _the Marquis_ or _the
+great Marquis_, arrived at the capital.
+
+Almagro had never forgiven Francisco Pizarro the duplicity which he
+had displayed in his negotiations with Charles V., nor the coolness
+with which he had claimed for himself, at the expense of his two
+friends, the principal share of authority, and the most extended
+government. But as Almagro met with great opposition to his designs,
+and as he was not the stronger, he concealed his vexation, put a
+good face on the matter, and seemed delighted at a reconciliation.
+"They renewed their partnership, therefore," says Zarate, "on
+condition that Don Diego d'Almagro should go and discover the
+country on the south side, and if he found any that was really good,
+they should ask his Majesty to make him the governor of it; but that
+if he found nothing to suit him, they should share Don Francisco's
+government between them." This arrangement was made very solemnly,
+and they took their oath upon the consecrated wafer, that for the
+future they would undertake nothing against one another. Some say
+that Almagro swore that he would never encroach either upon Cuzco or
+on the surrounding country within 390 miles, even if his Majesty
+should give him the government of it. They add that turning towards
+the holy sacrament, he pronounced these words, "Lord, if I violate
+the oath that I now take, I pray that Thou wilt confound me, and
+punish me both in my body and my soul!"
+
+[Illustration: Pizarro and Almagro take an oath upon the Host.]
+
+After this solemn agreement, which was destined to be observed with
+as little fidelity as the first, Almagro made his preparations for
+departure. Thanks to his well-known liberality, as much as to his
+reputation for courage, he gathered together 570 men, of about equal
+numbers of cavalry and infantry, with which he set out by land for
+Chili. The journey was an extremely trying one, and the adventurers
+suffered severely from intense cold whilst crossing the Andes; they
+had also to deal with very warlike tribes, unsoftened by any
+civilization, who assailed them with a _furia_ of which nothing they
+had seen in Peru had given them any idea. Almagro could make no
+settlement, for he had scarcely been two months in the country when
+he heard that the Indians in Peru had revolted, and massacred the
+greater part of the Spaniards, whereupon he immediately retraced his
+steps.
+
+After the new partnership had been signed between the conquerors
+(1534), Pizarro had returned to the provinces bordering on the sea,
+in which he could establish a regular government, there being no
+longer anything to dread from resistance. For a man who had never
+studied legislation, he had drawn up some very wise rules for the
+administration of justice, for the collection of taxes, the
+apportionment of the Indians, and the working of the mines. Some
+parts of the "conquistador's" character were doubtless very open to
+criticism, but it is only just to recognize that he was not wanting
+in enlarged ideas, and that he was conscientious in playing his part
+as the founder of a great empire. This it was which made him
+hesitate long before choosing the future capital of the Spanish
+possessions. Cuzco had the recommendation of having been the
+residence of the incas; but this town, situated more than 400 miles
+from the sea, was very distant from Quito, of which the importance
+seemed to Pizarro to be extreme. Before long he was struck with the
+beauty and fertility of a great valley, watered by a stream called
+the Rimac, and there in 1536, he established the seat of his
+dominion. Soon, the City of Kings (de Los Reyes), or Lima, as it is
+called by a corruption of the name of the river which flows at its
+feet, assumed the aspect of a great city, owing to the magnificent
+palace and the sumptuous residences for officers, which Pizarro
+caused to be built there. While these cares kept Pizarro far from
+his capital, small bodies of troops, sent in different directions,
+penetrated into the most distant provinces of the empire, with the
+object of extinguishing the last smouldering embers of resistance;
+so many of the soldiers were employed in this way, that there
+remained in Cuzco itself but a very small body of troops. The inca,
+who had remained in the hands of the Spaniards, thought this an
+opportune moment for fomenting a general rising, in which he
+earnestly hoped that the foreign government might be overthrown.
+Although closely guarded, he contrived to take his measures with so
+much skill that he did not arouse the suspicions of his oppressors.
+He obtained permission even to be present at a grand fete, which was
+to be held at several miles' distance from Cuzco, and for which the
+most distinguished persons in the empire had met together. As soon
+as the inca appeared, the standard of revolt was raised. The country
+was soon in arms from the confines of the province of Quito as far
+as Chili, and a number of small detachments of Spaniards were
+surprised and destroyed. Cuzco, defended by the three brothers
+Pizarro with but 170 Spaniards, was exposed for eight consecutive
+months to the incessant attacks of the Peruvians, who had now become
+expert in the use of the arms which they had taken from their
+enemies. The conquerors made a most valiant resistance, but
+experienced some severe losses, especially that of Juan Pizarro.
+Almagro left Chili in the greatest haste, crossed the stony and
+sandy desert of Atacama, where he suffered as severely from heat and
+drought as he had done in the Andes from cold and snow, penetrated
+into the Peruvian territory, defeated Manco-Capac in a great battle,
+and succeeded in approaching the town of Cuzco, after having driven
+away the Indians. He then tried to get the town given up to him, on
+the pretext that it was not included in Pizarro's government, and
+violating a truce, during which the followers of the marquis were
+taking a short rest, he entered Cuzco, seized both Ferdinand and
+Gonzalo Pizarro, and had himself acknowledged as governor.
+
+While this was going on, a considerable body of Indians invested
+Lima, intercepted all communications, and annihilated the various
+small bodies of troops which Pizarro sent at intervals to the aid of
+the Spaniards at Cuzco. At this time he sent away all his vessels to
+Panama to compel his companions to make a desperate resistance; he
+recalled from Truxillo the forces under the command of Alonzo
+d'Alvarado, and entrusted to the latter a column of 500 men, which
+advanced to within several miles of the capital without having the
+slightest suspicion that the town was now in the hands of
+fellow-countrymen, who were fully determined to bar their passage.
+But Almagro desired much rather to attract these new adversaries to
+himself than to destroy them; he arranged therefore, to surprise
+them and make them prisoners. He had now a fine opportunity in his
+hands of ending the war, and making himself master of the two
+governments by a single blow. Several of his officers had observed
+this to him, and especially Orgonos, who proposed that the two
+brothers of the "conquistador" should be put to death, and that
+Almagro should advance by forced marches with his victorious troops
+against Lima, where Pizarro, taken by surprise, would not be able to
+resist him. But as a Latin poet says, "Jupiter makes dotards of
+those whom he means to ruin." Almagro, who in so many other
+instances had thrown aside all scruples, did not wish to put himself
+in the wrong by invading Pizarro's dominions as a rebel, and he
+quietly took the road back to Cuzco.
+
+Looking at it only from the side of Almagro's own interests, he
+evidently committed in this a gross blunder, of which he was soon to
+repent; but if we consider, what we should never lose sight of, the
+interest of the country, he had already committed a capital crime in
+the acts of aggression of which he had been guilty, and in kindling
+civil war in face of an enemy quite ready to take advantage of it.
+His adversaries did not delay to remind him of it. Whereas prompt
+decision would have been necessary for Almagro to make him master of
+the situation, Pizarro had everything to expect from time and
+opportunity. While waiting for the promised reinforcements from
+Darien, he commenced negotiations with his adversary, lasting for
+several months, during which time one of his brothers, as well as
+Alvarado, found means to escape with more than seventy men. Although
+Almagro had been so often duped, he consented again to receive the
+licentiate Espinosa, who was ordered to represent to him, that if
+the emperor knew what was taking place between the two competitors,
+and learnt the condition to which their contests had reduced affairs,
+no doubt he would recall them both, and put some one else in their
+place. At last, after the death of Espinosa, it was decided by the
+friar Francisco de Bovadilla, to whom Pizarro and Almagro had
+referred their differences, that Ferdinand Pizarro should be
+immediately set free, that Cuzco should be given back to the marquis,
+and that they should send several officers on both sides to Spain,
+charged with representing the respective rights of the two parties
+and submitting them to the emperor's decision.
+
+Scarcely had the last of his brothers been set at liberty than
+Pizarro, rejecting all idea of peace and amicable arrangement,
+declared that arms alone should decide whether he or Almagro was to
+be lord of Peru. In a short time he had assembled a body of 700 men,
+of which he entrusted the command to his two brothers. Finding it
+impossible to cross the mountains which would have been the most
+direct road to Cuzco, they followed the line of the sea-coast as far
+as Nasca, and then penetrated into a branch of the Andes, by which
+they could reach the capital in a short time. Possibly Almagro ought
+to have defended the mountain defiles, but he had only 500 men, and
+he reckoned much on his splendid cavalry, whom he could not deploy
+in a confined space; he therefore waited for the enemy in the plain
+of Cuzco. The two parties encountered each other on the 26th of
+April, 1538, with equal animosity; but the victory was decided by
+two companies of musketeers which the emperor had sent to Pizarro
+when he heard of the revolt of the Indians. One hundred and forty
+soldiers perished in this engagement, which received the name of
+_las salinas_. Orgonos and several officers of distinction were
+killed in cold blood after the battle, and Almagro himself, aged and
+ill, could not escape from Pizarro.
+
+The Indians who, assembled in arms on the surrounding mountains, had
+reckoned upon falling on the conqueror, had need instead to fly in
+all haste. "Nothing," says Robertson, "more entirely proves the
+ascendancy gained by the Spaniards over the Americans, than seeing
+that the latter, witnesses of the defeat and dispersion of one of
+the parties, had not the courage to attack the other, even weakened
+and fatigued as they were by their victory, and dared not fall upon
+their oppressors when fortune offered them so favourable an
+opportunity for attacking them with advantage."
+
+At this period a victory not followed by pillage was incomplete, so
+the town of Cuzco was sacked, and all the riches that Pizarro's
+companions found there did not suffice to content them. They had
+such exalted ideas of their merits and of the services which they
+had rendered, that each would have desired an appointment as
+governor. Ferdinand Pizarro therefore dispersed them, and sent them
+to conquer fresh territories with some of the partisans of Almagro
+who had rallied, and whom it was important to send to a distance.
+
+As for Almagro himself, Ferdinand Pizarro, feeling convinced that
+his name constituted a focus of permanent agitation, resolved to get
+rid of him. He caused him therefore to be put upon his trial, which
+ended, as it was easy to foresee, in a sentence of death. When
+Almagro received this news, after giving way for a few moments to a
+very natural grief, pleading his great age and the different way in
+which he had behaved with regard to Ferdinand and Gonzalo Pizarro
+when they were his prisoners, he recovered his calmness and awaited
+his death with a soldier's courage. He was strangled in his prison,
+and afterwards publicly beheaded (1538).
+
+After several successful expeditions, Ferdinand Pizarro set out for
+Spain, to give the Emperor an account of what had taken place. He
+found most minds there strangely prejudiced against him and his
+brothers. Their cruelty, their violence, and their disregard of the
+most sacred engagements had been laid bare without reserve, by some
+friends of Almagro's. Ferdinand Pizarro needed the utmost cleverness
+to win the Emperor round. Charles V. had no means of judging fairly
+on which side the justice of the case lay, for he had only heard of
+it from the interested parties; he could only discern the deplorable
+consequences to his own government of the civil war. He decided,
+therefore, to send a commissioner to the country, to whom he gave
+most extensive powers, and who, after having inquired into all that
+had taken place, should establish whatever form of government he
+thought most advisable. This delicate mission was confided to
+Christoval de Vaca, a judge of _audience_ at Valladolid, who proved
+not unequal to his task. One fact is worthy of notice; he was
+recommended to show the greatest respect towards Francisco Pizarro,
+at the very time when his brother Ferdinand was arrested and thrown
+into a prison, where he was destined to remain forgotten for twenty
+years.
+
+While these events were taking place in Spain, the Marquis portioned
+out the conquered country, keeping for himself and his trustworthy
+friends the most fertile and best situated districts, and giving to
+Almagro's companions, the men of Chili as they were called, only the
+more sterile and distant territories. Next he confided to Pedro de
+Valdivia, one of his aides-de-camp the execution of the project
+which Almagro had only been able to sketch out, the conquest of
+Chili. Valdivia set out on the 28th of January, 1540, with 150
+Spaniards, amongst whom Pedro Gomez, Pedro de Miranda, and Alonzo de
+Monroy were destined especially to distinguish themselves; he
+crossed first the desert of Atacama, which even at the present day
+is considered a most troublesome enterprise, and reached Copiapo,
+standing in the midst of a beautiful valley. Received at first with
+great cordiality, he had to sustain, as soon as harvest was over,
+several combats with the Araucanians, a race of brave, indefatigable
+warriors, very different from the Indians of Peru. In spite of this,
+he laid the foundations of the town of Santiago on the 12th of
+February, 1541. Valdivia spent eight years in Chili, presiding over
+the conquest and organization of the country. Less greedy than the
+other "conquistadores" his contemporaries, he only sought for the
+mineral riches of the country that he might ensure the development
+of the prosperity of his colony, in which he had taken care first of
+all to encourage agriculture. "The best mine that I know of, is one
+of corn and wine with nourishment for livestock. Who has this, has
+money. As for mines, we do not depend upon them for subsistence. And
+often that which looks well outwardly is not really worth much."
+These wise words of Lescarbot, in his _Histoire de la Nouvelle
+France_, might have been used by Valdivia, so exactly do they
+correspond with and express his sentiments. His valour, prudence,
+and humanity, more especially the latter quality, which shines forth
+strangely in contrast with the cruelty of Pizarro, ensures for him a
+distinction all his own among the "conquistadores" of the sixteenth
+century.
+
+[Illustration: The shores of Rio Napo.]
+
+At the time that Valdivia set out for Chili, Gonzalo Pizarro crossed
+the Andes at the head of 340 Spaniards, half of whom were mounted,
+and 4000 Indians, of whom the greater part of the Indians perished
+from cold; then he penetrated eastwards into the interior, seeking
+for a country where spices and cinnamon were said to abound. In
+these vast Savannahs, intersected by marshes and virgin forests, the
+Spaniards encountered torrents of rain, which lasted quite two
+months; they found only a scattered population, who were not
+industrious and also hostile; in consequence, the invaders often
+suffered from hunger in a country where there were then neither
+horses nor oxen, where the largest quadrupeds were tapirs and llamas,
+and even the latter were seldom met with on this slope of the Andes.
+In spite of these difficulties, which would have discouraged any
+less energetic explorers than the _descubridores_ of the sixteenth
+century, they persevered in their attempt and descended the Rio Napo
+or Coca, an affluent on the left of the Maranon, as far as its
+confluence. There, with great difficulty they built a brigantine,
+which was manned by fifty soldiers under the command of Francisco
+Orellana. But either the strength of the current carried him away,
+or else being no longer under the eyes of his chief, he wished in
+his turn to be the leader of an expedition of discovery; he did not
+wait for Gonzalo Pizarro at the appointed rendezvous, but continued
+to descend the river until he reached the ocean. Such a voyage is
+simply marvellous, through nearly 6000 miles of an unknown region,
+without guide, without compass, without provisions, with a crew who
+murmured more than once against the foolish attempt of their leader,
+and in the midst of populations almost invariably hostile. From the
+mouth of the river, which he had just descended in his badly built
+and dilapidated vessel, Orellana succeeded in reaching the Island of
+Cubagua, whence he set sail for Spain. If the proverb "He who comes
+from a distance tells many lies" were not of much earlier date, one
+might have thought it had been coined for Orellana. He invented the
+most preposterous fables as to the wealth of the countries he had
+traversed; the inhabitants were so rich that the roofs of the
+temples were formed of plates of gold; an assertion which gave rise
+to the legend of _El Dorado_. Orellana had heard of the existence of
+a Republic of female warriors who had founded a vast empire, which
+caused the river Maranon to be called the _River of the Amazons_. If,
+however, we strip this narrative of all that is ridiculous and
+grotesque, and calculated to please the imaginations of his
+contemporaries, it remains certain that Orellana's expedition is one
+of the most remarkable of this epoch, so fertile in gigantic
+enterprises; and it furnishes the first information upon the immense
+zone of country lying between the Andes and the Atlantic.
+
+But we must return to Gonzalo Pizarro. His embarrassment and
+consternation had been great, when on arriving at the confluence of
+the Napo and Maranon, he had not found Orellana, who was to have
+been awaiting him. Fearing that some accident might have befallen
+his lieutenant, he had descended the course of the river for 150
+miles, until he met with an unfortunate officer, who had been left
+behind for having addressed some remonstrances to his chief upon his
+perfidy. The bravest among Pizarro's men were discouraged at the
+news of the cowardly way in which they had been abandoned, and at
+the destitute condition in which they were left. Pizarro was obliged
+to yield to their entreaties and to return to Quito, from which they
+were more than 1200 miles away. To give an idea of their sufferings
+on this return journey, it suffices to say that, after having eaten
+horses, dogs, and reptiles, roots, and wild beasts, and after having
+devoured every article made of leather in their accoutrements, the
+unfortunate survivors who reached Quito, lacerated by brambles,
+emaciated and utterly impoverished, numbered only twenty-four. Four
+thousand Indians and two hundred and ten Spaniards had perished in
+this expedition, which had lasted less than two years.
+
+While Gonzalo Pizarro was conducting the unfortunate expedition just
+related, the old partisans of Almagro, who had never frankly joined
+Pizarro, gathered round the son of their old leader, and formed a
+plot for murdering the Marquis. In vain was Francisco Pizarro
+several times warned of what was threatening him, he would pay no
+heed to the report. He said "Keep quiet, I shall be safe as long as
+there is no one in Peru who does not know that I can in a moment
+take the life of any one who should dare to form the project of
+attempting mine."
+
+On Sunday, the 26th of June, 1541, at the hour of siesta, Juan de
+Herrada and eighteen conspirators left the house of Almagro's son
+with drawn swords in their hands and armed from top to toe. They ran
+towards the house of Pizarro, crying out, "Death to the tyrant!
+death to the infamous wretch!" They entered the palace, killed
+Francisco de Chaves, who had appeared in haste on hearing the noise,
+and gained the hall, where was Francisco Pizarro, with his brother
+Francisco-Martin, the doctor Juan Velasquez, and a dozen servants.
+These jumped out of the windows, with the exception of Martin
+Pizarro, two other gentlemen, and two tall pages, who were killed
+while defending the door of the governor's apartment. He himself had
+not had time to put on his cuirass, but he seized his sword and
+buckler and defended himself valiantly, killing four of his
+adversaries and wounding several others. One of his assailants, in a
+spirit of self-devotion, attracted to himself the blows of Pizarro.
+Meanwhile the other conspirators made their way in and attacked him
+with such fury that he could not parry all the blows, being so
+exhausted that he could scarcely wield his sword. "Thus," says
+Zarate, "they made an end, and succeeded in killing him by a thrust
+in the throat. Falling to the ground, he asked in a loud voice that
+he might be allowed to confess, and then not being able any longer
+to speak, he made the sign of the cross on the ground, which he
+kissed, and then yielded up his soul to God." Some negroes carried
+his body to the church, where Juan Barbazan, his old servant, alone
+ventured to come and claim it. This faithful servant secretly
+rendered to it funeral honours, for the conspirators had pillaged
+the house of Pizarro, not leaving enough even to pay for wax tapers.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Pizarro. _From an old print_.]
+
+Thus did Francisco Pizarro come to his end, assassinated even in the
+capital of the vast empire which Spain owed to his valour and
+indefatigable perseverance, but which he bestowed upon his country,
+it must be admitted, ravaged, decimated, and drowned in a deluge of
+blood. Pizarro is often compared with Cortes; the one had as much
+ambition, courage, and military capacity as the other; but the
+cruelty and avarice of the Marquis della Valle were carried to an
+extreme in Pizarro, and united in him to perfidy and duplicity. If
+we are inclined to excuse certain parts of Cortes' character which
+are not estimable, by the times in which he lived, we are at least
+charmed by that grace and nobility of manners, and by that way of a
+gentleman above prejudices, which made him so much beloved by the
+soldier. In Pizarro, on the contrary, we find roughness, and a harsh,
+unsympathizing way of feeling, while his chivalrous qualities
+disappear entirely behind the rapacity and perfidy which are the
+salient features of his character.
+
+If Cortes found brave and resolute adversaries among the Mexicans,
+who opposed almost insurmountable difficulties to his progress,
+Pizarro had no trouble in vanquishing the Peruvians, who were timid
+and enervated, and who never made any serious resistance to his arms.
+Of the conquests of Peru and Mexico, the less difficult produced the
+greater metallurgic advantage to Spain, and thus it was the more
+appreciated.
+
+The civil war was on the point of breaking out again after Pizarro's
+death when the governor arrived, who was delegated by the
+metropolitan government. As soon as he had collected the needful
+troops, he marched towards Cuzco. He seized young Almagro without
+trouble, had him beheaded with forty of his confederates and
+governed the country with firmness, until the viceroy Blasco Nunez
+Vela, arrived. It is not our intention to enter into the detail of
+the disputes which took place between the latter and Gonzalo Pizarro,
+who, profiting by the general discontent, caused by the new
+regulations as to the "repartimientos," revolted against the
+Emperor's representative. After many changes of fortune, for which
+we have not space, the struggle ended by the defeat and execution of
+Gonzalo Pizarro, which took place in 1548. His body was taken to
+Cuzco and buried fully dressed; "No one," says Garcilasso de la Vega,
+"being willing to give even a winding-sheet for it." Thus ended the
+judicial assassin of Almagro. Is not the text appropriate in this
+case: "They that take the sword shall perish with the sword"?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+THE FIRST VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD.
+
+Magellan--His early history--His disappointment--His change of
+nationality--Preparations for the expedition--Rio de Janeiro--St.
+Julian's Bay--Revolt of a part of the squadron--Terrible punishment
+of the guilty--Magellan's Strait--Patagonia--The Pacific--The
+Ladrone Islands--Zebu and the Philippine Islands--Death of
+Magellan--Borneo--The Moluccas and their Productions--Separation of
+the _Trinidad_ and _Victoria_--Return to Europe by the Cape of Good
+Hope--Last misadventures.
+
+
+No one as yet was aware of the immense size of the continent
+discovered by Christopher Columbus. Still was sought perseveringly
+on the coast of America--which was thought to be a collection of
+several islands--the famous strait which should lead at once to the
+Pacific Ocean and to those Spice Islands the possession of which
+would have made the fortune of Spain. While Cortereal and Cabot were
+seeking for it in the Atlantic Ocean, and Cortes in the furthest
+part of the Gulf of California, while Pizarro was coasting along
+Peru, and Valdivia was conquering Chili, the solution of this
+problem was found by a Portuguese in the service of Spain, Ferdinand
+de Magellan.
+
+The son of a gentleman of _Cota e Armas_, Ferdinand de Magellan was
+born either at Oporto, at Lisbon, at Villa de Sabrossa, or at Villa
+de Figueiro, it is not actually known which; the date of his birth
+is unknown, but it took place towards the end of the fifteenth
+century. He had been brought up in the house of King John II., where
+he received as complete an education as could then be given him.
+After having made mathematics and navigation his special study--for
+at this time in Portugal there was an irresistible current which
+drew the whole country towards maritime expeditions and
+discoveries--Magellan early embraced a maritime career, and embarked
+in 1505 with Almeida, who was on his way to the Indies. He took part
+in the sacking of Quiloa, and in all the events of that campaign.
+The following year he accompanied Vaz Pereira to Sofala; then, on
+returning to the Malabar coast, we find him assisting Albuquerque at
+the taking of Malacca, and bearing himself on that occasion with
+equal prudence and bravery. He took part in the expedition sent by
+Albuquerque about 1510, to seek for the famous Spice Islands, under
+the command of Antonio de Abreu and of Francisco Serrao, which
+discovered Banda, Amboyna, Ternate, and Tidor. During this time
+Magellan had landed at the Malaysian Islands, distant 1800 miles
+from Malacca, and in the Archipelago of the Moluccas he had obtained
+the circumstantial information which gave birth in his mind to the
+idea of the voyage which he was destined to accomplish later on.
+
+[Illustration: Magellan on board his caravel. _From an old print_.]
+
+On his return to Portugal, Magellan obtained leave, though not
+without difficulty, to search through the royal archives. He soon
+became certain that the Moluccas were situated in the hemisphere
+which the bull of demarcation adopted at Tordesillas by the kings of
+Spain and Portugal, and confirmed in 1494 by Pope Alexander VI., had
+given to Spain.
+
+In virtue of this line of demarcation, which was destined to give
+rise to so many impassioned debates, all the countries situated at
+360 miles west of the meridian of the Cape de Verd Islands were to
+belong to Spain, and all those lying to the east of the same
+meridian to Portugal. Magellan was of too active a nature to remain
+long without again taking service; he went next to fight in Africa
+at Azamor, a town in Morocco, where he received a slight wound in
+his knee, but one which by injuring a nerve made him lame for the
+remainder of his life, and obliged him to return to Portugal.
+Conscious of the superiority which his theoretical and practical
+knowledge and his services had earned for him above the herd of
+courtiers, Magellan naturally felt more keenly than another would
+have done the unjust treatment he received from Emmanuel with regard
+to certain complaints laid by the people of Azamor against the
+Portuguese officers. King Emmanuel's prejudices soon changed to a
+real dislike. It showed itself by the outrageous imputation that
+Magellan was pretending to suffer from a wound which was really of
+no consequence and was completely cured, that he might escape from
+accusations which he could not refute. Such an assertion was a
+serious matter for the honour of Magellan, so susceptible and
+suspicious; he thereupon came to a desperate determination which
+corresponded moreover with the greatness of the insult which he had
+received. That no one might be ignorant of it, he caused it to be
+legally set forth that he renounced his rights as a Portuguese
+citizen, and changed his nationality, and he then took out letters
+of naturalization in Spain. This was to proclaim, as solemnly as
+could possibly be done, that he intended to be looked upon as a
+subject of the crown of Castille, to which henceforward he would
+consecrate his services and his whole life. This was a serious
+determination, as we can see, which no one blamed, and which even
+the most severe historians, such as Barros and Faria y Sousa, have
+excused.
+
+At the same time as Magellan, the licentiate Rey Faleiro left Lisbon
+with his brother Francisco and a merchant named Christovam de Haro;
+the former was a man deeply versed in cosmographical knowledge, and
+had equally with Magellan fallen under Emmanuel's displeasure.
+Faleiro had entered into a treaty of partnership with Magellan to
+reach the Moluccas by a new way, but one which was not otherwise
+specified, and which remained Magellan's secret. As soon as they
+arrived in Spain, (1517), the two partners submitted their project
+to Charles V., who accepted it in principle; but there remained the
+always delicate question touching the means for putting it into
+execution. Happily, Magellan found in Juan de Aranda, the factor of
+the Chamber of Commerce, an enthusiastic partisan of his theories,
+and one who promised to exert all his influence to make the
+enterprise a success. He had an interview accordingly with the high
+Chancellor, the Cardinal and Bishop of Burgos, Fonseca. He set forth
+with such skill the great advantage that Spain would derive from the
+discovery of a route leading to the very centre of the spice
+production, and the great prejudice which it would cause to the
+trade of Portugal, that an agreement was signed on the 22nd of March,
+1518. The Emperor undertook to pay all the expenses of the
+expedition on condition that the greater part of the profits should
+belong to him.
+
+But Magellan had still many obstacles to surmount before taking to
+the sea. In the first place there were the remonstrances of the
+Portuguese ambassador, Alvaro de Costa, who, seeing that his
+endeavours were in vain, even tried to compass the assassination of
+Magellan, so says Faria y Sousa. Then he encountered the ill-will of
+the employes of the _Casa de contratacion_ at Seville, who were
+jealous of a stranger being entrusted with the command of such an
+important expedition, and envious of the least token of favour which
+had been accorded to Magellan and Rey Faleiro, who had been named
+commanders of the order of St. James. But Charles V. had given his
+consent by a public act, which seemed to be irrevocable. They tried,
+however, to make the Emperor alter his decision by organizing, on
+the 22nd of October, 1518, a disturbance paid for with Portuguese
+gold. It broke out on the pretext that Magellan, who had just had
+one of his ships drawn on shore for repairs and painting, had
+decorated it with the Portuguese arms. This last attempt failed
+miserably, and three statutes of the 30th of March, and 6th and 30th
+of April, fixed the composition of the crews and named the staff;
+while a final official document dated from Barcelona the 26th of
+July, 1519, confided the sole command of the expedition to Magellan.
+
+What had meanwhile been happening to Rey Faleiro? We cannot exactly
+say. But this man, who had up to this time been treated on the same
+footing as Magellan, and who had perhaps first conceived the project,
+now found himself quite excluded from the command of the expedition,
+after some dissensions of which the cause is unknown. His health,
+already shaken, received a last shock from this affront, and poor
+Rey Faleiro, who had become almost childish, having returned to
+Portugal to see his family, was arrested there, and only released
+upon the intercession of Charles V. At last, after having sworn
+fidelity and homage to the crown of Castille, Magellan received in
+his turn the oath of his officers and sailors, and left the port of
+San Lucar de Barrameda on the morning of the 10th of August, 1519.
+
+But before entering on the narrative of this memorable campaign, we
+must give a few particulars of the man who has left us the most
+complete account of it, Francesco Antonio Pigafetta or Jerome
+Pigaphete as he is often called in France. Born at Venice about 1491,
+of a noble family, Pigafetta formed part of the suite of the
+Ambassador Francesco Chiericalco, sent by Leo X. to Charles V., who
+was then at Barcelona. His attention was no doubt aroused by the
+noise which the preparations for the expedition made at that time in
+Spain, and he obtained permission to take part in the voyage. This
+volunteer proved an excellent recruit, for he showed himself in
+every respect as faithful and intelligent an observer as he was a
+brave and courageous companion. He was wounded at the battle of Zebu,
+fighting beside Magellan, which prevented him from being present at
+the banquet during which so many of his companions were destined to
+lose their lives. As to his narrative, with the exception of some
+exaggerations of detail according to the taste of that time, it is
+exact, and the greater part of the descriptions which we owe to him
+have been verified by modern travellers and learned men, especially
+by M. Alcide d'Orbigny.
+
+Upon his return to San Lucar on the 6th of September, 1522, after
+having fulfilled the vow which he had made to go bare-foot to return
+thanks to _Nuesta Senora de la Victoria_, the Lombard (as they
+called him on board the _Victoria_,) presented to Charles V., then
+at Valladolid, a complete journal of the voyage. When he returned to
+Italy, by means of the original as well as of some supplementary
+notes, he wrote a longer narrative of the expedition, at the request
+of Pope Clement VII. and of Villiers de l'Isle Adam, grand-master of
+the Knights of Malta. He sent copies of this work to several
+distinguished personages, and notably to Louisa of Savoy, mother of
+Francis I. But she not understanding, so thinks Harrisse, the very
+learned author of the _Bibliotheca Americana Vetustissima_, the kind
+of patois used by Pigafetta, and which resembles a mixture of
+Italian, Venetian, and Spanish, employed a certain Jacques Antoine
+Fabre to translate it into French. Instead of giving a faithful
+translation, Fabre made a kind of abridgment of it. Some critics,
+however, suppose that this narrative must have been written
+originally in French; they found their opinion upon the existence of
+three French manuscripts of the sixteenth century, which give very
+different readings, and of which two are deposited in the
+Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris.
+
+Pigafetta died at Venice about 1534, in a house in the Rue de la
+Lune, which in 1800 was still to be seen, and which bore the
+well-known device, "No rose without a thorn."
+
+At the same time, not wishing to confine ourselves to Pigafetta's
+narrative entirely, we have compared and completed it with that of
+Maximilian Transylvain, secretary to Charles V., of which there is
+an Italian translation in Ramusio's valuable collection.
+
+The fleet of Magellan consisted of the _Trinidad_, of 120 tons'
+burden, which carried the flag of the commander of the expedition;
+the _Sant'-Antonio_, also of 120 tons, commanded by Juan de
+Carthagena, the second in rank, the _person joined with_ Magellan,
+says the official document; the _Concepcion_, of 90 tons, commanded
+by Gaspar de Quesada; the famous _Victoria_, of 85 tons, commanded
+by Luis de Mendoza; and lastly the _Santiago_, of 75 tons, commanded
+by Joao Serrao, called by the Spaniards Serrano.
+
+Four of these captains and nearly all the pilots were Portuguese.
+Barbosa and Gomez on board the _Trinidad_, Luis Alfonso de Goez and
+Vasco Gallego on the _Victoria_, Serrao, Joao Lopez de Carvalho on
+the _Concepcion_, Joao Rodriguez de Moefrapil on the _Sant'-Antonio_,
+and Joao Serrao on the _Santiago_, with 25 sailors, formed a total
+of 33 Portuguese out of the whole body of 237 individuals whose
+names have all been handed down to us, and amongst whom are found a
+considerable number of Frenchmen.
+
+Of the officers whose names have been mentioned, it is to be
+remembered that Duarte Barbosa was brother-in-law to Magellan and
+that Estavam Gomez, who, by returning to Seville on the 6th of May,
+1521, did not participate in the conclusion of this memorable voyage,
+was afterwards sent by Charles V. to seek for the north-west passage,
+and in 1524 sailed along the coast of America from Florida to Rhode
+Island, and perhaps as far as Cape Cod.
+
+Nothing could have been better arranged than this expedition, for
+the equipment of which the whole resources of the nautical science
+of that epoch had been taxed. At the moment of departure Magellan
+gave his last orders to his pilots and captains, and the code of
+signals which were to ensure unanimity in manoeuvres, and prevent a
+possible separation.
+
+On Monday morning, the 10th of August, 1519, the fleet weighed
+anchor and sailed down the Guadalquiver as far as San Lucar de
+Barrameda, which forms the port of Seville, where the victualling of
+the ships was completed, and it was the 20th of September before
+they were really off. Six days afterwards the fleet anchored at
+Teneriffe in the Canary Archipelago, where both wood and water were
+taken on board. It was on leaving this island that the first
+symptoms appeared of the misunderstanding between Magellan and Juan
+de Carthagena which was to prove so fatal to the expedition. The
+latter claimed to be informed by the commander-in-chief of the route
+which he intended to take, a claim which was at once rejected by
+Magellan, who declared that he was not called upon to give any
+explanation to his subordinate.
+
+After having passed between the Cape de Verd Islands and Africa, the
+ships reached the shores of Sierra Leone, where contrary winds and
+dead calms detained the fleet for twenty days.
+
+[Illustration: Juan de Carthagena placed in the stocks.]
+
+A painful incident now occurred. During a council which was held on
+board the flag-ship, a sharp dispute arose, and Juan de Carthagena,
+who affected to treat the Captain-general with contempt, having
+answered him with pride and insolence, Magellan felt obliged to
+arrest him with his own hand, and to have him put in the stocks, an
+instrument made of two pieces of wood placed one upon the other and
+pierced with holes, in which were placed the legs of the sailor who
+was to be punished. The other captains remonstrated loudly with
+Magellan against a punishment which was too degrading for a superior
+officer, and Carthagena in consequence was simply put under arrest,
+and guarded by one of the captains. To the calms now succeeded rain,
+tempests, and heavy squalls, which obliged the vessels to lie-to.
+During these storms the navigators several times witnessed an
+electric phenomenon of which the cause was not then known, but which
+they considered an undoubted sign of the protection of heaven, and
+which even at the present day is known by the name of St. Elmo's
+fire. Once past the equinoctial line--a passage which does not at
+that time seem to have been celebrated by the grotesque ceremony of
+baptism which is in vogue at the present day--they steered for
+Brazil, where, on the 13th of December, 1519, the fleet cast anchor
+in the magnificent port of Santa Lucia, now known under the name of
+Rio Janeiro. This was not, however, the first time that this bay had
+been seen by Europeans, as was long believed. Since the year 1511 it
+had been known under the name of _Bahia do Cabo Frio_. It had been
+visited also, four years before Magellan's arrival, by Pero Lopez,
+and seems to have been frequented since the commencement of the
+sixteenth century by mariners from Dieppe who, inheritors of the
+passion for adventurous navigation of their ancestors the North-men,
+roamed over the world, and founded small establishments or factories
+in all directions. Here the Spanish expedition procured cheaply, in
+exchange for looking-glasses, pieces of ribbon, scissors, hawks'
+bells or fish-hooks, a quantity of provisions, amongst which
+Pigafetta mentions pine-apples, sugar-canes, sweet potatoes, fowls,
+and the flesh of the _Anta_, which is thought to be the tapir.
+
+The account given in the same narrative of the manners of the
+inhabitants is sufficiently curious to be repeated. "The Brazilians
+are not Christians," he says, "but no more are they idolaters, for
+they worship nothing; natural instinct is their only law." This is
+an interesting fact, and a singular avowal for an Italian of the
+sixteenth century, deeply imbued with superstition; it offers one
+more proof that the idea of the Divinity is not innate, as some
+theologians have imagined. "These natives live to a great age, they
+go entirely naked, and sleep in cotton nets called hammocks,
+suspended by the two ends to beams. As to their boats, called canoes,
+each is hollowed out of the single trunk of a tree and can hold as
+many as forty men. They are anthropophagi (cannibals), but only on
+special occasions, and scarcely ever eat any but their enemies taken
+in battle. Their dress of ceremony is a kind of vest made of
+paroquets' feathers, woven together, and so arranged that the large
+wing and tail-feathers form a sort of girdle round their loins,
+which gives them a whimsical and ridiculous appearance."
+
+We have already said that the feather cloak was in use on the shores
+of the Pacific, among the Peruvians; it is curious to ascertain that
+it was worn equally by the Brazilians. Some specimens of this
+singular garment may be seen at the exhibition of the Ethnographical
+Museum. This was not however the only ornament of these savages;
+they suspended little stone cylinders from three holes pierced in
+the lower lip, a custom which is common among many of the Oceanic
+people, and which may be compared with our fashion of ear-rings.
+These people were extremely credulous and of good disposition and
+thus, as Pigafetta says, they could easily have been converted to
+Christianity, for they assisted in silence, and with gravity, at the
+mass which was said on shore, a remark that Alvarez Cabral had
+already made.
+
+[Illustration: The Coast of Brazil.]
+
+After remaining thirteen days in this place, the squadron continued
+its route to the south, coasting along the shore, and arrived at 34
+degrees 40 minutes of south latitude in a country where flowed a
+large river of fresh water. It was the La Plata. The natives, called
+Charruas, were so frightened at the sight of the vessels that they
+hastily took refuge in the interior of the country, carrying with
+them all their valuables, and it was impossible to overtake any of
+them. It was in this country that four years previously, Juan Diaz
+de Solis had been massacred by a tribe of Charruas, armed with that
+terrible engine which is still in use at the present day among the
+_gauchos_ of the Argentine Republic, the _bolas_, which are metal
+balls fastened to the two ends of a long leather thong, called a
+_lasso_.
+
+A little below the estuary of the La Plata, once thought to be an
+arm of the sea opening into the Pacific, the flotilla anchored at
+Port Desire. Here they obtained an ample supply of penguins for the
+crews of the five vessels--a bird which did not make a very
+delicious meal. Then they anchored in 49 degrees 30 minutes in a
+beautiful harbour, where Magellan resolved to winter, and which
+received the name of St. Julian's Bay. The Spaniards had been two
+months there, when one day they perceived a man who seemed to them
+to be of gigantic stature. At sight of them he began dancing and
+singing and throwing dust upon his head. This was a Patagonian, who
+allowed himself without resistance to be taken on board the vessels.
+He showed the greatest surprise at all he saw around him, but
+nothing astonished him so much as a large steel mirror which was
+presented to him. "The giant, who had not the least idea of the use
+of this piece of furniture, and who, no doubt, now saw his own face
+for the first time, drew back in such terror, that he threw to the
+ground four of our people who were behind him." He was taken back on
+shore loaded with presents, and the kind welcome which he had
+received induced eighteen of his companions, thirteen women and five
+men, to come on board. They were tall, and had broad faces, painted
+red except the eyes, which were encircled with yellow; their hair
+was whitened with lime, they were wrapped in enormous fur cloaks,
+and wore those large leather boots from which was given to them the
+name of Large-feet or Patagonians. Their stature was not, however,
+so gigantic as it appeared to our simple narrator, for it varies
+from 5ft. 10in. to 5ft. 8in., being somewhat above the middle height
+among Europeans. For arms they had a short massive bow, and arrows
+made of reed, of which the point was formed of a sharp pebble.
+
+The captain, to retain two of these savages whom he wished to take
+to Europe, used a stratagem, which we should characterize as hateful
+in the present day, but which had nothing revolting about it for the
+sixteenth century, when Indians and negroes were universally
+considered to be a kind of brute beasts. Magellan loaded these
+Indians with presents, and when he saw them embarrassed with the
+quantity, he offered to each of them one of those iron rings used
+for chaining captives. They would have desired to carry them away,
+for they valued iron above everything, but their hands were full. It
+was then proposed to fasten the rings to their legs, to which they
+agreed without suspicion. The sailors then closed the rings, so that
+the savages found themselves in fetters. Nothing can give an idea of
+their fury when they discovered this stratagem, worthy rather of
+savages than of civilized men. The capture of others was attempted,
+but in vain, and in the chase one of the Spaniards was wounded by a
+poisoned arrow, which caused his death almost instantaneously.
+Intrepid hunters, these people wander about perpetually in pursuit
+of guanaquis and other game; they are endowed with such wonderful
+voracity "that what would suffice for the nourishment of twenty
+sailors, can scarcely satisfy seven or eight of them." Magellan,
+foreseeing that the stay here was likely to be prolonged, and
+perceiving that the country only presented meagre resources, gave
+orders to economize the provisions, and to put the men on fixed
+rations, that they might not experience too great privations before
+the spring, when they might reach a country where there was more
+game. But the Spaniards, discontented at the sterility of the place,
+and at the length and rigour of the winter, began to murmur. This
+land seemed to stretch southwards as far as the Antarctic pole, they
+said; there did not seem to be any strait; already several had died
+from the privations they had endured; lastly it was time to return
+to Spain, if the commander did not wish to see all his men perish in
+this place.
+
+Magellan, fully resolved to die, or else to bring the enterprise he
+commanded to a successful issue, replied that the Emperor had
+assigned him the course which the voyage was to take, and he neither
+could nor would depart from it under any pretext, and that in
+consequence, he should go straight forward to the end of this land,
+or until he met with some strait. As to provisions, if they found
+them insufficient, his men might add to their rations the produce of
+their fishing or hunting. Magellan thought that so firm a
+declaration would impose silence on the malcontents, and that he
+would hear no more of privations, from which he suffered equally
+with his crews. He deceived himself completely. Certain of the
+captains, and Juan de Carthagena in particular, were interested in
+causing a revolt to break out. These rebels therefore began by
+reminding the Spaniards of their old animosity against the
+Portuguese. The captain-general being one of the latter nation, had
+never, according to them, tendered a whole-hearted allegiance to the
+Spanish flag. In order to be able to return to his own country and
+to gain pardon for what he had done wrong, he wished to commit some
+heinous crime, and nothing could be more advantageous to Portugal
+than the destruction of this fine fleet. Instead of leading them to
+the Archipelago of the Moluccas, of the riches of which he had
+boasted to them, he wished to take them into frozen regions, the
+dwelling-place of eternal snow, where he could easily manage that
+they should all perish; then with the help of the Portuguese on
+board the squadron, he would take back to his own country the
+vessels which he had seized.
+
+Such were the reports and accusations that the partisans of Juan de
+Carthagena, Luis de Mendoza, and Gaspar de Quesada had disseminated
+among the sailors, when on Palm Sunday, the 1st of April, 1520,
+Magellan summoned the captains, officers, and pilots, to hear mass
+on board his vessel and to dine with him afterwards. Alvaro de la
+Mesquita, a cousin of the captain-general, accepted this invitation
+with Antonio de Coca and his officers, but neither Mendoza nor
+Quesada, nor Juan de Carthagena, who was Quesada's prisoner,
+appeared. The next night the malcontents boarded the _Sant'-Antonio_
+with thirty of the men of the _Concepcion_, and desired to have La
+Mesquita given up to them. The pilot, Juan de Eliorraga, while
+defending his captain, received four stabs from a poniard in the arm.
+Quesada cried out at the same time, "You will see that this fool
+will make our business fail." The three vessels, the _Concepcion_,
+_Sant'-Antonio_, and _Santiago_, fell without difficulty into the
+hands of the rebels, who reckoned more than one accomplice among the
+crews. In spite of this success, the three captains did not dare
+openly to attack the commander-in-chief, and sent to him some
+proposals for a reconciliation. Magellan ordered them to come on
+board the _Trinidad_ to confer with him; but this they stoutly
+refused to do, whereupon Magellan, having no further need of caution,
+had the boat seized which had brought him this answer, and choosing
+six strong and brave men from amongst his crew, he sent them on
+board the _Victoria_ under the command of the _alguazil_ Espinosa.
+He carried a letter from Magellan to Mendoza enjoining him to come
+on board the _Trinidad_, and when Mendoza smiled in a scornful
+manner, Espinosa stabbed him in the throat with a poniard, while a
+sailor struck him on the head with a cutlass. While these events
+were taking place, another boat, laden with fifteen armed men, came
+alongside the _Victoria_, and took possession of her without any
+resistance from the sailors, surprised by the rapidity of the action.
+On the next day, the 3rd of April, the two other rebel vessels were
+taken, not however without bloodshed. Mendoza's body was divided
+into quarters, while a clerk read in a loud voice the sentence that
+blasted his memory. Three days afterwards, Quesada was beheaded and
+cut in pieces by his own servant, who undertook this sad task to
+save his own life. As to Carthagena, the high rank which the royal
+edict had conferred upon him in the expedition saved him from death,
+but with Gomez de la Reina, the chaplain, he was left behind on the
+shore, where some months afterwards he was found by Estevam Gomez.
+Forty sailors convicted of rebellion were pardoned because their
+services were considered indispensable. After this severe lesson
+Magellan might well hope that the mutinous spirit was really subdued.
+
+When the temperature became milder the anchors were weighed; the
+squadron put to sea on the 24th of August, following the coast, and
+carefully exploring all the gulfs to find that strait which had been
+so persistently sought. At the level of Cape St. Croix, one of the
+vessels, the _Santiago_, was lost on the rocks during a violent gale
+from the east. Happily both the men and merchandise on board were
+saved, and they succeeded also in taking from the wrecked vessel the
+rigging and appurtenances of the ship, which they divided among the
+four remaining vessels.
+
+At last on the 21st of October, according to Pigafetta, the 27th of
+November according to Maximilian Transylvain, the flotilla
+penetrated by a narrow entrance into a gulf, at the bottom of which
+a strait opened, which as they soon saw passed into the sea to the
+south. First they called this the Strait of the _Eleven Thousand
+Virgins_, because this was the day dedicated to them. On each side
+of the strait rose high land covered with snow, on which they saw
+numerous fires, especially to the left, but they were unable to
+obtain any communication with the natives. The details which
+Pigafetta and Martin Transylvain have given with regard to the
+topographical and hydrographical dispositions of this strait are
+rather vague, and as we shall have to mention it again when we speak
+of De Bougainville's expedition, we shall not dilate upon it now.
+After sailing for twenty-two days across this succession of narrow
+inlets and arms of the sea, in some places three miles wide, in some
+twelve, which extends for a distance of 440 miles and has received
+the name of Magellan's Strait, the flotilla emerged upon a sea of
+immense extent and great depth.
+
+The rejoicings were general when at last the sailors found
+themselves at the long-wished-for end of their efforts. Henceforward
+the route was open and Magellan's clever conjectures were realized.
+
+Nothing is more extraordinary than the navigation of Magellan upon
+this ocean, which he called Pacific, because for four months no
+storm assailed him upon it. The privations endured by the crews
+during this long space of time were excessive. The biscuit was
+nothing more than dust mixed with worms, while the water had become
+bad and gave out an unbearable smell. The sailors were obliged to
+eat mice and sawdust to prevent themselves from dying of hunger, and
+to gnaw all the leather that it was possible to find. As it was easy
+to foresee under these circumstances, the crews were decimated by
+scurvy. Nineteen men died, and thirty were seized with violent pains
+in their arms and legs, which caused prolonged sufferings. At last,
+after having sailed over more than 12,000 miles without meeting with
+a single island, in a sea where so many and such populous
+archipelagos were destined to be discovered, the fleet came upon two
+desert and sterile islands, called for that reason the Unfortunate
+Islands, but of which the position is indicated in much too
+contradictory a manner, for it to be possible to recognize them.
+
+In 12 degrees north latitude and 146 degrees longitude, on Wednesday
+the 6th of March, the navigators discovered successively three
+islands, at which they greatly desired to stop to recruit, and take
+in fresh provisions; but the islanders who came on board stole so
+many things, without the possibility of preventing them, that the
+sailors were obliged to give up the idea of remaining there. The
+natives contrived even to carry off a long boat. Magellan, indignant
+at such daring, made a descent with forty armed men, burned some
+houses and boats, and killed seven men. These islanders had neither
+chief, king, nor religion. Their heads were covered with palm-leaf
+hats, they wore beards, and their hair descended to their waists.
+Generally of an olive tint, they thought they embellished themselves
+by colouring their teeth black and red, while their bodies were
+anointed with cocoa-nut oil, no doubt in order to protect themselves
+from the heat of the sun. Their canoes of curious construction,
+carried a very large matting sail, which might have easily capsized
+the boat if the precaution had not been taken of giving a more
+stable trim by means of a long piece of wood kept at a certain
+distance by two poles; this is what is called the "balance." These
+islanders were very industrious, but had a singular aptitude for
+stealing, which has gained for their country the name of the
+_Islands of Thieves_ (Ladrone Islands).
+
+[Illustration: The Ladrone Islands. _From an old print_.]
+
+On the 16th of March was seen, at about 900 miles from the Ladrones,
+some high ground; this was soon discovered to be an island which now
+goes by the name of Samar Island. There Magellan, resolving to give
+his exhausted crews some rest, caused two tents to be pitched on
+land for the use of the sick. The natives quickly brought bananas,
+palm wine, cocoa-nuts, and fish; for which mirrors, combs, bells,
+and other similar trifles were offered in exchange. The cocoa-nut, a
+tree which is valuable beyond all others, supplied these natives
+with their bread, wine, oil, and vinegar, and besides they obtained
+from it their clothing and the necessary wood for building and
+roofing in their huts.
+
+The natives soon became familiar with the Spaniards, and told them
+that their archipelago produced cloves, cinnamon, pepper, nutmegs,
+ginger, maize or Indian-corn, and that even gold was found there.
+Magellan gave this archipelago the name of the St. Lazarus Islands,
+afterwards changed to that of the Philippines from the name of
+Philip of Austria, son of Charles V.
+
+This archipelago is formed of a great number of islands which extend
+in Malaysia, between 5 degrees 32 minutes and 19 degrees 38 minutes
+north latitude, and 114 degrees 56 minutes and 123 degrees 43
+minutes longitude east of the meridian of Paris. The most important
+are Luzon, Mindoro, Leyte, the Ceylon of Pigafetta, Samar, Panay,
+Negros, Zebu, Bohol, Palawan, and Mindanao.
+
+When they were a little restored, the Spaniards put to sea again, in
+order to explore the archipelago. They saw in succession the islands
+of Cenalo, Huinaugan, Ibusson, and Abarien, as well as another
+island called Massava, of which the king Colambu could make himself
+understood by a slave a native of Sumatra, whom Magellan had taken
+to Europe from India, and who by his knowledge of Malay rendered
+signal service in several instances. The king came on board with six
+or eight of his principal subjects. He brought with him presents for
+the captain-general, and in exchange he received a vest of red and
+yellow cloth, made in Turkish fashion, and a cap of fine scarlet,
+while mirrors and knives were given to the members of his suite. The
+Spaniards showed him all their fire-arms and fired some shots from
+the cannon in his presence, at which he was much terrified. "Then
+Magellan caused one of our number to be fully armed," says Pigafetta,
+"and ordered three men to give him blows with the sword and stiletto,
+to show the king that nothing could wound a man armed in this manner,
+which surprised him greatly, and turning to the interpreter he said
+to the captain through him, 'that a man thus armed, could fight
+against a hundred.' 'Yes,' replied the interpreter, in the name of
+the commandant, 'and each of the three vessels carries 200 men armed
+in this manner.'" The king, astonished by all that he had seen, took
+leave of the captain, begging him to send two of his men with him,
+to let them see something of the island. Pigafetta was chosen, and
+was much satisfied with the welcome that he received. The king told
+him "that in this island they found pieces of gold as large as nuts,
+and even eggs, mixed with the earth which they passed through a
+sieve to find them; all his vessels and even some of the ornaments
+of his house were of this metal. He was very neatly dressed,
+according to the custom of the country, and was the finest man that
+I have seen among these people. His black hair fell upon his
+shoulders; a silk veil covered his head, and he wore two rings in
+his ears. From his waist to his knees, he was covered with a cotten
+cloth embroidered in silk. On each of his teeth there were three
+spots of gold, arranged in such a manner that one would have said
+all his teeth were fastened together with this metal. He was
+perfumed with storax and benzoin. His skin was painted, but its
+natural tint was olive."
+
+On Easter Day, the Europeans went on shore to celebrate mass in a
+kind of little church which they had constructed on the sea-shore
+with sails and branches of trees. An altar had been set up, and
+during the whole time that the religious ceremony lasted, the king
+with a large concourse of people, listened in silence and imitated
+all the motions of the Spaniards. Then a cross having been planted
+on a hill with great solemnity, they weighed anchor and made for the
+port of Zebu, as being the best for revictualling the vessels and
+trading. They arrived there on Sunday, the 7th of April. Magellan
+sent one of his officers on shore at once with the interpreter, as
+ambassador to the king of Zebu. The envoy explained that the chief
+of the squadron was under the orders of the greatest king in the
+world. The object of the voyage, he added, was the wish to pay him a
+visit, and at the same time to take in some fresh provisions in
+exchange for merchandise, and then to go to the Molucca Islands.
+Such were the motives which caused them to tarry in a country where
+they came as friends.
+
+"They are welcome," replied the king; "but if they intend to trade
+they should pay a duty to which all vessels are subject that enter
+my port, as did, not four days since, a junk from Siam, which came
+to seek for slaves and gold, to which a Moorish merchant who has
+remained in this country can testify."
+
+The Spaniard replied that his master was too great a king to submit
+to such an unreasonable demand. They had come with pacific
+intentions; but if war were declared, it would be seen with whom
+they had to deal.
+
+The king of Zebu, warned by the Moorish merchant, of the power of
+those who stood before him, and whom he took for Portuguese, at
+length consented to forego his claims. Moreover the king of Massava,
+who had continued to serve as pilot to the Spaniards, so altered the
+inclinations of his brother sovereign, that the Spaniards obtained
+the exclusive privilege of trading in the island, and a loyal
+friendship was sealed between the king of Zebu and Magellan by an
+exchange of blood which each drew from his right arm.
+
+From this moment, provisions were brought and cordial relations
+established. The nephew of the king came with a numerous suite to
+visit Magellan on board his ship, and the latter took this
+opportunity to relate to his visitors the wonderful history of the
+creation of the world, and of the redemption of the human race, and
+to invite him and his people to become converts to Christianity.
+They showed no repugnance to being baptized, and on the 14th of
+April the kings of Zebu and Massava, and the Moorish merchant, with
+500 men and as many women received baptism. But what was only a
+fashion at first, for it cannot be said that the natives knew the
+religion which they embraced or were persuaded of its truth, became
+a real frenzy, after a wonderful cure had been effected by Magellan.
+Having learnt that the father of the king had been ill for two years
+and was on the point of death, the captain-general promised, that if
+he consented to be baptized and the natives would burn their idols,
+he would find himself cured. "He added that he was so convinced of
+what he said," relates Pigafetta--for it is as well to quote the
+author verbatim in such a matter--"that he agreed to lose his head
+if what he promised did not happen immediately. We then made a
+procession, with all possible pomp, from the place where we were to
+the sick man's house, whom we found really in a very sad state in
+that he could neither speak nor move. We baptized him with two of
+his wives and ten daughters. The captain asked him directly after
+his baptism how he found himself, and he suddenly replied that
+thanks to our Lord he was well. We were all witnesses of this
+miracle. The captain above all rendered thanks to God for it. He
+gave the prince a refreshing drink, and continued to send him some
+of it every day till he was quite restored. On the fifth day the
+invalid found himself quite cured and got up. His first care was to
+have burned, in the presence of the king and all the people, an idol
+for which he had great veneration, and which some old women guarded
+carefully in his house. He also caused some temples which stood on
+the sea-shore, and in which the people assembled to eat the meat
+consecrated to their old divinities, to be thrown down. All the
+inhabitants applauded these acts, and proposed themselves to go and
+destroy all the idols, even those which were in use in the king's
+house, crying at the same time '_Vive la Castille!_' in honour of
+the king of Spain."
+
+Near to the Island of Zebu is another island called Matan which had
+two chiefs, one of whom had recognized the authority of Spain, while
+the other having energetically resisted it, Magellan resolved to
+impose it upon him by force. On Friday, the 26th of April, three
+long boats left for the Island of Matan containing sixty men wearing
+cuirasses and helmets, and armed with muskets; and thirty
+_balangais_ bearing the king of Zebu, his son-in-law, and a number
+of warriors.
+
+The Spaniards waited for day and then to the number of forty-nine
+leapt into the water, for the boats could not approach the land on
+account of the rocks and shallow water. More than 1500 natives
+awaited them, and at once threw themselves upon them, and attacked
+them in three troops, both in front and flank. The musketeers and
+the crossbow-men fired on the multitude of warriors from a distance,
+without doing them much harm, they being protected by their bucklers.
+The Spaniards, assailed by stones, arrows, javelins, and lances, and
+overwhelmed by numbers, set fire to some huts to disperse and
+intimidate the natives. But these, made more furious by the sight of
+the fire, redoubled their efforts, and pressed the Spaniards on all
+sides, who had the greatest difficulty in resisting them, when a sad
+event took place which compromised the issue of the combat. The
+natives were not slow in remarking that all the blows which they
+directed towards those parts of their enemies' bodies which were
+protected by armour, caused no wounds; they set themselves therefore
+to hurl their arrows and javelins against the lower part of the body,
+which was undefended. Magellan, wounded in the leg by a poisoned
+arrow, gave the order for retreat, which, begun in good order, soon
+changed into such a flight, that seven or eight Spaniards alone
+remained at his side. With much difficulty they kept moving
+backwards, fighting as they went, in order to reach the boats. They
+were already knee-deep in the water when several islanders rushed
+all together upon Magellan, who, wounded in the arm, was unable to
+draw his sword; they gave him such a sabre-cut upon his leg that he
+immediately fell down in the water, where he was speedily despatched.
+His remaining companions, and among them Pigafetta, every one of
+whom had been hit, hastily regained the boats. Thus perished the
+illustrious Magellan on the 27th of April, 1521. "He was adorned
+with every virtue," says Pigafetta, "and ever exhibited an unshaken
+constancy in the midst of the greatest adversity. At sea he always
+condemned himself to greater privations than the rest of his crew.
+Better versed than any one else in the knowledge of nautical charts,
+he was perfect in the art of navigation, as he proved by making the
+tour of the world, which none before him had ventured to do."
+Pigafetta's funeral eulogy, though a little hyperbolical, is not
+untrue in the main. Magellan had need of singular constancy and
+perseverance to penetrate, despite the fears of his companions, into
+regions peopled by the superstitious spirit of the time with
+fantastic dangers. Peculiar nautical science was also necessary to
+achieve the discovery at the extremity of that long coast of the
+strait which so justly bears his name. He was obliged to give
+unceasing attention to avoid all untoward accidents while exploring
+those unknown parts without any exact instruments. That one of the
+vessels was lost must be imputed to pride and a spirit of revolt in
+her own captain, more than to any incapacity or want of caution in
+the captain-general. Let us add with our enthusiastic narrator, "The
+glory of Magellan will survive his death."
+
+[Illustration: Death of Magellan.]
+
+Duarte Barbosa, Magellan's brother-in-law, and Juan Serrano were
+elected commanders by the Spaniards, who were destined to meet with
+further catastrophes. The slave who had acted as interpreter up to
+this time had been slightly wounded during the battle. From the time
+of his master's death he had kept aloof, not rendering any further
+service to the Spaniards, and remaining extended upon his mat. After
+some rather sharp reproofs from Barbosa, who told him that his
+master's death did not make him a free man, he disappeared all at
+once. He was gone to the newly-baptized king, to whom he declared
+that if he could allure the Spaniards into some trap and then kill
+them, he would make himself master of all their provisions and
+merchandise. Serrano, Barbosa, and twenty-seven Spaniards were
+accordingly invited to a solemn assembly to receive the presents
+destined by the king of Zebu for the Emperor; during the banquet
+they were attacked unexpectedly, and were all massacred except
+Serrano, who was led bound to the sea-shore, where he besought his
+companions to ransom him, for if they did not he would be murdered.
+But Juan de Carvalho and the others, fearing that the insurrection
+would become general, and that they might be attacked during the
+negotiations by a numerous fleet which they would not be able to
+resist, turned a deaf ear to the unfortunate Serrano's supplications.
+The ships set sail and reached the Island of Bohol, which was not
+far distant.
+
+When there, thinking that their numbers were too much reduced to
+navigate three vessels, they burnt the _Concepcion_, after having
+transshipped all that was most precious on board the other vessels.
+Then, after having coasted along the Island of Panilongon they
+stopped at Butuan, which forms part of Mindanao, a magnificent
+island, with numerous ports, and rivers abounding in fish, to the
+north-west of which lies the Island of Luzon, the most considerable
+of the Archipelago. The ships touched also at Paloan, where they
+found pigs, goats, fowls, different kinds of bananas, cocoa-nuts,
+sugar-canes, and rice, with which they provisioned the ships. This
+was for them, as Pigafetta expresses it, "a promised land." Among
+the things which he thought worthy of notice, the Italian traveller
+mentions the cocks kept by the natives for fighting; a passion which
+after so many years is still deeply-rooted amongst the population of
+the whole Philippine Archipelago. From Paloan, the Spaniards next
+went to the Island of Borneo, the centre of Malay civilization. From
+that time they had no longer to deal with poverty-stricken people,
+but with a rich population, who received them with magnificence.
+Their reception by the rajah is sufficiently curious to warrant a
+few words being devoted to it. At the landing-place they found two
+elephants with silk trappings, who bore the strangers to the house
+of the governor of the town, while twelve men carried the presents
+which were to be offered to the rajah. From the governor's house
+where they slept, to the palace of the king, the streets were kept
+by armed men. Upon descending from their elephants the Spaniards
+were admitted to a room filled with courtiers. At the end of this
+room opened another smaller room, hung with cloth of gold, in which
+were 300 men of the king's guard armed with poniards. Through a door
+they could then see the rajah, sitting by a table with a little
+child, chewing betel-nut. Behind him there were only some women.
+
+Etiquette required that the petition to be made must pass in
+succession through the mouths of three nobles, each of higher rank
+than the last, before being transmitted, by means of a hollow cane
+placed in a hole in the wall, to one of the principal officers, who
+submitted it to the king. Then there was an exchange of presents,
+after which the Spanish Ambassadors were conducted back to their
+vessels with the same ceremony as on their arrival. The capital is
+built on piles in the sea; so that when the tide rises, the women
+who sell provisions go about the town in boats. On the 29th of July
+more than 100 canoes surrounded the two vessels, whilst at the same
+time some junks weighed anchor to approach them more nearly. The
+Spaniards, fearing to be treacherously attacked, took the initiative
+and fired off their artillery, which killed a number of people in
+the canoes, upon which the king excused himself, saying that his
+fleet had not been directed against them, but against the Gentiles
+with whom the Mussulmen had daily combats. This island produces
+arrack (the alcohol of rice), camphor, cinnamon, ginger, oranges,
+citrons, sugar-canes, melons, radishes, onions, &c. The articles of
+exchange are copper, quicksilver, cinnabar, glass, woollen cloths,
+and canvas, and above all iron and spectacles, without mentioning
+porcelain, and diamonds, some of which were of extraordinary size
+and value. The _fauna_ comprises elephants, horses, buffaloes, pigs,
+goats, and domestic poultry. The money in use is of bronze, it is
+called _sapeque_ and consists of small coins which are perforated
+with holes, that they may be strung together.
+
+On leaving Borneo the travellers sought for a suitable spot in which
+to repair their vessels, which were in such great need of it that
+the men were not less than forty-two days over the work. "The oddest
+things which I have found in this island," says Pigafetta, "are the
+trees of which all the leaves are animated. These leaves resemble
+those of the mulberry, but are not so long; the stalk is short and
+pointed, and near the stalk on both sides there are two feet. If you
+touch the leaves, they escape; but when crushed no blood comes from
+them. I have kept one of them in a box for nine days; when I opened
+the box, the leaf was walking about in it; I believe they must live
+upon air." These very curious animals are well known at the present
+day, and are commonly called leaf-flies (_mouches-feuille_); they
+are of a grey-brown, which makes them more easily mistaken for dead
+leaves, which they exactly resemble in appearance.
+
+It was while in these parts that the Spanish expedition, which,
+during Magellan's life had preserved its scientific character, began
+perceptibly to become piratical. Thus, on several occasions, junks
+were seized upon, and their crews forced by their Spanish captors to
+pay large ransoms.
+
+The ships next passed by the Archipelago of the Sooloo Islands, the
+haunt of Malay pirates, who have even now only lately submitted to
+the Spanish arms; then by Mindanao, which had been already visited,
+for it was known that the eagerly sought-for Moluccas must be in its
+neighbourhood, whether more or less remote. At last, after having
+seen a number of islands, of which the names would not convey much
+idea to us, on Wednesday, the 6th of November the Spaniards
+discovered the Archipelago, about which the Portuguese had related
+such terrifying fables, and two days later they landed at Tidor.
+Thus the object of the voyage was attained.
+
+The king came to meet the Spaniards, and invited them to go on board
+his canoe. "He was seated under a silk parasol which covered him
+entirely. In front of him were placed one of his sons who carried
+the royal sceptre, two men who had each a golden vase full of water
+for washing the king's hands, and two others holding small gilt
+boxes filled with betel." Then the Spaniards made the king come on
+board the vessels, where they showed him much respect, at the same
+time loading him and those who accompanied him with presents, which
+seemed to them very precious. "This king is a Moor, that is to say,
+an Arab," Pigafetta affirms; "he is nearly forty-five years of age,
+tolerably well made, and with a fine physiognomy. His clothing
+consisted of a very fine shirt, the cuffs of which were embroidered
+in gold; drapery descended from his waist to his feet; a silk veil
+(no doubt a turban) covered his head, and upon this veil there was a
+garland of flowers. His name is Rajah-sultan Manzor."
+
+The next day, in a long interview which he had with the Spaniards,
+Manzor declared his intention of placing himself with the Islands of
+Ternate and Tidor under the protection of the king of Spain.
+
+[Illustration: The Sultan Manzor.]
+
+This is the place to give some details about the Archipelago of the
+Moluccas, drawn from Pigafetta's narrative, which we are following
+step by step in the version that M. Ed. Charton has given, and to
+which he has added such valuable notes.
+
+This Archipelago properly speaking, comprises the Islands of Gilolo,
+Ternate, Tidor, Mornay, Batchian, and Misal; but the Banda and
+Amboyna groups are also often comprehended under the general name of
+Molucca. Formerly convulsed by repeated volcanic commotions, this
+Archipelago contains a great number of craters almost all extinct,
+or in repose during a long succession of years. The air there is
+burning, and would be almost unfit to breathe, if frequent rains did
+not fall and refresh the atmosphere. The natural productions are
+extremely valuable. In the first rank must be placed the sago-tree,
+of which the pith called sago takes, with yams, the place of cereals
+throughout Malacca. As soon as the tree is cut down, the pith is
+extracted, which is then grated, passed through a sieve, and
+afterwards cut up in the form of small rolls, which are dried in the
+shade. There are also the mulberry, the clove, the nutmeg, the
+camphor, and pepper-trees; in fact all the spice-trees and all the
+tropical fruits. The forests contain some valuable kinds of wood,
+ebony, iron-wood, teak, famous for its strength and employed from
+the most ancient times in costly buildings, and the Calilaban laurel,
+which yields an aromatic essential oil that is highly prized. At
+this period domestic animals were not numerous in the Moluccas, but
+among the wild animals the most curious were the _babiroussa_, an
+enormous wild boar with long tusks bent backwards; the opossum, a
+kind of didelphis a little larger than our squirrel; the phalanger,
+a marsupial which lives in thick, dark forests, where it feeds upon
+leaves and fruit; and the tarsier, a kind of jerboa, a very harmless,
+inoffensive little animal with reddish-coloured hair, about the size
+of a rat, but whose body bears some resemblance to that of an ape.
+Among the birds, the most remarkable were the parroquets and
+cockatoos, the birds of Paradise of which so many fabulous accounts
+were given, and which until then had been believed to be without
+legs, the king-fishers, and the cassowaries, great wading-birds
+almost as large as ostriches.
+
+A Portuguese named Lorosa had been long settled in the Moluccas, and
+to him the Spaniards forwarded a letter, in the hope that he would
+betray his country and attach himself to Spain. They obtained the
+most curious information from him with regard to the expeditions
+which the king of Portugal had despatched to the Cape of Good Hope,
+to the Rio de la Plata and to the Moluccas; but from various
+circumstances these latter expeditions had not been able to take
+place. He himself had been sixteen years in this Archipelago; the
+Portuguese had been installed there for ten years, but upon this
+fact they preserved the most complete silence. When Lorosa saw the
+Spaniards making their preparations for departure, he came on board
+with his wife and his goods to return to Europe. On the 12th of
+November all the merchandise destined for barter was landed, it
+being chiefly derived from the four junks which had been seized in
+Borneo. Certainly the Spaniards traded to great advantage, but
+nevertheless not to so great an extent as they might have done, for
+they were in haste to return to Spain. Some vessels from Gilolo and
+Batchian came also to trade with them, and a few days later they
+received a considerable stock of cloves from the king of Tidor. This
+king invited them to a great banquet which he said it was his custom
+to give when a vessel or junk was loaded with the first cloves. But
+the Spaniards, remembering what had happened to them in the
+Philippines, refused the invitation while presenting compliments and
+excuses to the king. When their cargo was completed, they set sail.
+Scarcely had the _Trinidad_ put to sea before it was perceived that
+she had a serious leak, and the return to Tidor as fast as possible
+was unavoidable. The skilful divers whom the king placed at the
+disposal of the Spaniards, were unable to discover the hole, and it
+became necessary to partly unload the ship to make the necessary
+repairs. The sailors who were on board the _Victoria_ would not wait
+for their companions, and the ship's officers seeing clearly that
+the _Trinidad_ would not be fit for the voyage to Spain, decided
+that she should go to Darien, where her valuable cargo would be
+discharged and transported across the Isthmus to the Atlantic, where
+a vessel would be sent to fetch it. But neither the unfortunate
+vessel nor her crew was destined ever to return to Spain.
+
+The _Trinidad_, commanded by the alguazil Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosa,
+who had Juan de Carvalho as pilot, was in so bad a state that after
+leaving Tidor, she was obliged to anchor at Ternate, in the port of
+Talangomi, where her crew consisting of seventeen men was
+immediately imprisoned by the Portuguese. The only reply given to
+Espinosa's remonstrances was a threat to hang him to the yard of a
+vessel; and the unfortunate alguazil, after having been transferred
+to Cochin, was sent to Lisbon, where for seven months he remained
+shut up in the prison of the Limoeiro with two Spaniards, the sole
+survivors of the crew of the _Trinidad_.
+
+As to the _Victoria_, she left Tidor richly laden under the command
+of Juan Sebastian del Cano, who, after having been simply a pilot on
+board one of Magellan's ships, had taken the command of the
+_Concepcion_ on the 27th of April, 1521, and who succeeded to Juan
+Lopez de Carvalho, when the latter was superseded in his command for
+incapacity. The crew of the _Victoria_ was composed of only
+fifty-three Europeans and thirteen Indians. Fifty-four Europeans
+remained at Tidor on board the _Trinidad_.
+
+After passing amidst the islands of Caioan, Laigoma, Sico, Giofi,
+Cafi, Laboan, Toliman, Batchian, Mata, and Batu, the _Victoria_ left
+this latter island to the west, and steering west-south-west,
+stopped during the night at the island of Xulla or Zulla. At thirty
+miles from thence the Spaniards anchored at Booro, (the Boero of
+Bougainville), where the ship was revictualled. They stopped 105
+miles further on, at Banda, where mace and nutmegs are found, then
+at Solor, where a great trade in white sandal-wood is carried on.
+They spent a fortnight there to repair their ship, which had
+suffered much, and there they laid in an ample provision of wax and
+pepper; then they anchored at Timor, where they could only obtain
+provisions by retaining by stratagem the chief of the village and
+his son, who had come on board the ship. This island was frequented
+by junks from Luzon, and by the "praos," from Malacca and Java,
+which traded largely there in sandal-wood and pepper. A little
+further on the Spaniards touched at Java, where, as it appears,
+_suttee_ was practised at this time, as it has been in India until
+quite recently.
+
+Among the stories which Pigafetta relates, without entirely
+believing them, is one which is most curious. It concerns a gigantic
+bird the Epyornis, of which the bones and the enormous eggs were
+discovered in Madagascar about the year 1850. It is an instance
+proving the caution needed before rejecting as fictitious many
+apparently fabulous legends, but which on examination may prove to
+possess a substratum of truth. "To the north of Greater Java," says
+Pigafetta, "in the gulf of China, there is a very large tree called
+_campanganghi_ inhabited by certain birds called _garula_, which are
+so large and strong that they can bear away a buffalo and even an
+elephant, and carry it as they fly to the place where the tree
+_puzathaer_ is." This legend has been current ever since the ninth
+century, among the Persians and Arabs, and this bird plays a
+wonderful part in Arabian tales under the name of the _roc_. It is
+not surprising, therefore, that Pigafetta found an analogous
+tradition among the Malays.
+
+After leaving greater Java, the _Victoria_ rounded the peninsula of
+Malacca, which had been subjugated to Portugal by the great
+Albuquerque ten years before. In the immediate neighbourhood are
+Siam and Cambodia, and Tchiampa, where rhubarb grows. This substance
+is discovered in the following manner. "A company of from twenty to
+five-and-twenty men go into the wood, where they pass the night in
+the trees, to protect themselves from lions (note here, that there
+are no lions in this country), and other ferocious beasts, and also
+that they may better perceive the odour of the rhubarb, which the
+wind wafts towards them. In the morning they go towards the place
+whence came the odour, and search there for the rhubarb until they
+find it. Rhubarb is the putrefied wood of a great tree, and acquires
+its odour even from its putrefaction, the best part of the tree is
+the root, nevertheless the trunk, which they call _calama_, has the
+same medicinal virtue."
+
+Decidedly it is not from Pigafetta that we should seek to acquire
+botanical knowledge; we should run a great risk of deceiving
+ourselves if we took in earnest the nonsense that the Moor told him
+from whom he drew his information. The Lombard traveller gives us
+also fantastic details about China with the greatest seriousness,
+and falls into the grave errors, which his contemporary Duarte
+Barbosa had avoided. It is to the latter we owe the information that
+the trade in _anfiam_ or opium has existed from this period. When
+once the _Victoria_ had left the shores of Malacca, Sebastian del
+Cano took great care to avoid the coast of Zanguebar, where the
+Portuguese had been established since the beginning of the century.
+He kept to the open sea as far as 42 degrees south latitude, and for
+nine weeks he was obliged to keep the sails furled, on account of
+the constant west and north-west winds, which ended in a fearful
+storm. To keep to this course required great perseverance on the
+part of the captain, with a settled desire on his part to carry his
+enterprise to a successful issue. The vessel had several leaks, and
+a number of the sailors demanded an anchorage at Mozambique, for the
+provisions which were not salted having become bad, the crew had
+only rice and water for food and drink. At last on the 6th of May,
+the Cape of Tempests was doubled and a favourable issue to the
+voyage might be hoped for. Nevertheless, many vexatious accidents
+still awaited the navigator. In two months, twenty-one men,
+Europeans and Indians, died from privations, and if on the 9th July
+they had not landed at Santiago, one of the Cape de Verd Islands,
+the whole crew would have died of hunger. As this archipelago
+belonged to Portugal, the sailors took care to say that they came
+from America, and carefully concealed the route which they had
+discovered. But one of the sailors having had the imprudence to say
+that the _Victoria_ was the only vessel of Magellan's squadron which
+had returned to Europe, the Portuguese immediately seized the crew
+of a long-boat, and prepared to attack the Spanish vessel. However,
+Del Cano on board his vessel was watching all the movements of the
+Portuguese, and suspecting, by the preparations which he saw, that
+there was an intention of seizing the _Victoria_, he set sail,
+leaving thirteen men of his crew in the hands of the Portuguese.
+Maximilian Transylvain assigns a different motive from the one given
+by Pigafetta, for the anchorage at the Cape de Verd Islands. He
+asserts that the fatigued state of the crew, who were reduced by
+privations, and who in spite of everything had not ceased to work
+the pumps, had decided the captain to stop and buy some slaves to
+aid them in this work. Having no money the Spaniards would have paid
+with some of their spices, which would have opened the eyes of the
+Portuguese.
+
+"To see if our journals were correctly kept," says Pigafetta, "we
+inquired on shore what day of the week it was. They replied that it
+was Thursday, which surprised us, because according to our journals
+it was as yet only Wednesday. We could not be persuaded that we had
+made the mistake of a day; I was more astonished myself than the
+others were, because having always been sufficiently well to keep my
+journal, I had uninterruptedly marked the days of the week, and the
+course of the months. We learnt afterwards, that there was no error
+in our calculation, for having always travelled towards the west,
+following the course of the sun, and having returned to the same
+point, we must have gained twenty-four hours upon those who had
+remained stationary; one has only need of reflection to be convinced
+of this fact."
+
+Sebastian del Cano rapidly made the coast of Africa, and on the 6th
+of September entered the Bay of San Lucar de Barrameda, with a crew
+of seventeen men, almost all of whom were ill. Two days later he
+anchored before the mole at Seville, after having accomplished a
+complete circuit of the world.
+
+As soon as he arrived, Sebastian del Cano went to Valladolid, where
+the court was, and received from Charles V. the welcome which was
+merited after so many difficulties had been courageously overcome.
+The bold mariner received permission to take as his armorial
+bearings, a globe with this motto, _Primus circumdedisti me_, and he
+also received a pension of 500 ducats.
+
+The rich freight of the _Victoria_, decided the Emperor to send a
+second fleet to the Moluccas. The supreme command of it was not,
+however, given to Sebastian del Cano; it was reserved for the
+commander Garcia de Loaisa, whose only claim to it was his grand
+name. However, after the death of the chief of the expedition, which
+happened as soon as the fleet had passed the Strait of Magellan, Del
+Cano found himself invested with the command, but he did not hold it
+long, for he died six days afterwards. As for the ship _Victoria_,
+she was long preserved in the port of Seville, but in spite of all
+the care that was taken of her, she at length fell to pieces from
+old age.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+THE POLAR EXPEDITIONS AND THE SEARCH FOR THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE.
+
+I.
+
+The Northmen--Eric the Red--The Zenos--John Cabot--Cortereal--
+Sebastian Cabot--Willoughby--Chancellor.
+
+
+Pytheas had opened up the road to the north to the Scandinavians by
+discovering Iceland (the famous Thule) and the _Cronian_ Ocean, of
+which the mud, the shallow-water, and the ice render the navigation
+dangerous, and where the nights are as light as twilight. The
+traditions of the voyages undertaken by the ancients to the Orkneys,
+the Faroe Islands, and even to Iceland, were treasured up among the
+Irish monks, who were learned men, and themselves bold mariners, as
+their successive establishments in these archipelagos clearly prove.
+They were also the pilots of the Northmen, a name given generally to
+the Scandinavian pirates, both Danish and Norwegian, who rendered
+themselves so formidable to the whole of Europe during the Middle
+Ages. But if all the information that we owe to the ancients, both
+Greeks and Romans, with regard to these hyperborean countries be
+extremely vague and so to speak fabulous, it is not so with that
+which concerns the adventurous enterprises of the "Men of the
+North." The Sagas, as the Icelandic and Danish songs are called, are
+extremely precise, and the numerous data which we owe to them are
+daily confirmed by the archaeological discoveries made in America,
+Greenland, Iceland, Norway, and Denmark. This is a source of
+valuable information which was long unknown and unexplored, and of
+which we owe the revelation to the learned Dane, C. C. Rafn, who has
+furnished us with authentic facts of the greatest interest bearing
+on the pre-Columbian discovery of America.
+
+Norway was poor and encumbered with population. Hence arose the
+necessity for a permanent emigration, which should allow a
+considerable portion of the inhabitants to seek in more favoured
+regions the nourishment which a frozen soil denied them. When they
+had found some country rich enough to yield them an abundant spoil,
+they then returned to their own land, and set out the following
+spring accompanied by all those who could be enticed either by the
+love of lucre, the desire for an easy life, or by the thirst for
+strife. Intrepid hunters and fishermen, accustomed to a dangerous
+navigation between the continent and the mass of islands which
+border it and appear to defend it against the assaults of the ocean,
+and across the narrow, deep _fiords_, which seem as though they were
+cut into the soil itself by some gigantic sword, they set out in
+those oak vessels, the sight of which made the people tremble who
+lived on the shores of the North Sea and British Channel. Sometimes
+decked, these vessels, long or short, large or small, were usually
+terminated in front by a spur of enormous size, above which the prow
+sometimes rose to a great height, taking the form of an _S_. The
+_hallristningar_, for so they call the graphic representations so
+often met with on the rocks of Sweden and Norway, enable us to
+picture to ourselves these swift vessels, which could carry a
+considerable crew. Such was the _Long-serpent_ of Olaf Tryggvason,
+which had thirty-two benches of rowers and held ninety men, Canute's
+vessel, which carried sixty, and the two vessels of Olaf the Saint,
+which carried sometimes 200 men. The Sea-kings, as they often called
+these adventurers, lived on the ocean, never settling on shore,
+passing from the pillage of a castle to the burning of an abbey,
+devastating the coasts of France, ascending rivers, especially the
+Seine, as far as Paris, sailing over the Mediterranean as far as
+Constantinople, establishing themselves later in Sicily, and leaving
+traces of their incursions or their sojourn in all the regions of
+the known world.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Ships.]
+
+Piracy, far from being, as at the present day, an act falling under
+the ban of the law, was not only encouraged in that barbarous or
+half-civilized society, but was celebrated in the songs of the
+_Skalds_, who reserved their most enthusiastic eulogies for
+celebrating chivalrous struggles, adventurous privateering, and all
+exhibitions of strength. From the eighth century, these formidable
+sea-rovers frequented the groups of the Orkney, the Hebrides, the
+Shetland, and Faroe Islands, where they met with the Irish monks,
+who had settled themselves there nearly a century earlier, to
+instruct the idolatrous population.
+
+In 861 a Norwegian pirate, named Naddod, was carried by a storm
+towards an island covered with snow, which he named Snoland (land of
+snow), a name changed later to that of Iceland (land of ice). There
+again the Northmen found the Irish monks under the name of Papis, in
+the cantons of Papeya and Papili.
+
+Ingolf installed himself some years afterwards in the country, and
+founded Reijkiavik. In 885 the triumph of Harold Haarfager, who had
+just subjugated the whole of Norway by force of arms, brought a
+considerable number of malcontents to Iceland. They established
+there the republican form of government, which had just been
+overthrown in their own country, and which subsisted till 1261, the
+epoch when Iceland passed under the dominion of the kings of Norway.
+
+When established in Iceland, these bold fellows, lovers of adventure
+and of long hunts in pursuit of seals and walrus, retained their
+wandering habits and pursued their bold plans in the west, where
+only three years after the arrival of Ingolf, Guunbjorn discovered
+the snowy peaks of the mountains of Greenland. Five years later,
+Eric the Red, banished from Iceland for murder, rediscovered the
+land in latitude 64 degrees north, of which Guunbjorn had caught a
+glimpse. The sterility of this ice-bound coast made him decide to
+seek a milder climate with a more open country, and one producing
+more game, in the south. So he rounded Cape Farewell at the
+extremity of Greenland, established himself on the west coast, and
+built some vast dwellings for himself and his companions, of which M.
+Jorgensen has discovered the ruins. This country was worthy at that
+period of the name of Green-Land (Groenland) which the Northmen gave
+to it, but the annual and great increase of the glaciers, has
+rendered it since that epoch a land of desolation.
+
+Eric returned to Iceland to seek his friends, and in the same year
+that he returned to Brattahalida (for so he called his settlement),
+fourteen vessels laden with emigrants came to join him. It was a
+veritable exodus. These events took place in the year 1000. As
+quickly as the resources of the country allowed of it, the
+population of Greenland increased, and in 1121, Gardar, the capital
+of the country, became the seat of a bishopric, which existed until
+after the discovery of the Antilles by Christopher Columbus.
+
+In 986 Bjarn Heriulfson, who had come from Norway to Iceland to
+spend the winter with his father, learnt that the latter had joined
+Eric the Red in Greenland. Without hesitation, the young man again
+put to sea, seeking at haphazard for a country of which he did not
+even know the exact situation, and was cast by currents on coasts
+which we think must have been those of New Scotland, Newfoundland,
+and Maine. He ended, however, by reaching Greenland, where Eric, the
+powerful Norwegian _jarl_, reproached him for not having examined
+with more care countries of which he owed his knowledge to a happy
+accident of the sea.
+
+Eric had sent his son Leif to the Norwegian court, so close at this
+time was the connexion between the metropolis and the colonies. The
+king, who had been converted to Christianity, had just despatched a
+mission to Iceland charged to overthrow the worship of Odin. He
+committed to Leif's care some priests who were to instruct the
+Greenlanders; but scarcely had the young adventurer returned to his
+own country, when he left the holy men to work out the
+accomplishment of their difficult task and hearing of the discovery
+made by Bjarn, he fitted out his vessels and went to seek for the
+lands which had been only imperfectly seen. He landed first on a
+desolate and stony plain, to which he gave the name of _Helluland_,
+and which we have no hesitation in recognizing as Newfoundland, and
+afterwards on a flat sandy shore behind which rose an immense screen
+of dark forests, cheered by the songs of innumerable birds. A third
+time he put to sea and steering towards the south he arrived at the
+Bay of Rhode Island, where the mild climate and the river teeming
+with salmon induced him to settle, and where he constructed vast
+buildings of planks, which he called _Leifsbudir_ (Leif's house).
+Then he sent some of his companions to explore the country, and they
+returned with the good news that the wild vine grows in the country,
+to which it owes the name of _Vinland_. In the spring of the year
+1001, Leif, having laded his ship with skins, grapes, wood, and
+other productions of the country, set out for Greenland; he had made
+the valuable observation that the shortest day in _Vinland_ lasted
+nine hours, which places the site of Leifsbudir at 41 degrees 24
+minutes 10 seconds. This fortunate voyage and the salvage of a
+Norwegian vessel carrying fifteen men, gained for Leif the surname
+of the Fortunate.
+
+This expedition made a great stir, and the account of the wonders of
+the country in which Leif had settled, induced his brother Thorvald,
+to set out with thirty men. After passing the winter at Leifsbudir,
+Thorvald explored the coasts to the south, returning in the autumn
+to Vinland, and in the following year 1004, he sailed along the
+coast to the north of Leifsbudir. During this return voyage, the
+Northmen met with the Esquimaux for the first time, and without any
+provocation, slaughtered them without mercy. The following night
+they found themselves all at once surrounded by a numerous flotilla
+of _Kayacs_, from which came a cloud of arrows. Thorvald alone, the
+chief of the expedition, was mortally wounded; he was buried by his
+companions on a promontory, to which they gave the name of the
+promontory of the Cross.
+
+Now, in the Gulf of Boston in the eighteenth century, a tomb of
+masonry was discovered, in which, with the bones, was found a
+sword-hilt of iron. The Indians not being acquainted with this metal,
+it could not be one of their skeletons; it was not either, the
+remains of one of the Europeans who had landed after the fifteenth
+century, for their swords had not this very characteristic form.
+This tomb has been thought to be that of a Scandinavian, and we
+venture to say, that of Thorvald, son of Eric the Red.
+
+In the spring of 1007, three vessels carrying 160 men and some
+cattle, left Eriksfjord; the object in view was the foundation of a
+permanent colony. The emigrants after sighting Helluland, Markland,
+and Vinland, landed in an island, upon which they constructed some
+barracks and began the work of cultivation. But they must either
+have laid their plans badly, or have been wanting in foresight, for
+the winter found them without provisions, and they suffered cruelly
+from hunger. They had, however, the good sense to regain the
+continent, where in comparative ease, they could await the end of
+the winter.
+
+At the beginning of 1008, they set out to seek for Leifsbudir, and
+settled themselves at Mount-Hope Bay, on the opposite shore to the
+old settlement of Leif. There, for the first time, some intercourse
+was held with the natives, called _Skrellings_ in the sagas, and
+whom, from the manner in which they are portrayed, it is easy to
+recognize as Esquimaux. The first meeting was peaceable, and barter
+was carried on with them until the day when the desire of the
+Esquimaux to acquire iron hatchets, always prudently refused them by
+the Northmen, drove them to acts of aggression, which decided the
+new-comers, after three years of residence, to return to their own
+country, which they did without leaving behind them any lasting
+trace of their stay in the country.
+
+It will be easily understood that we cannot give any detailed
+account of all the expeditions, which set out from Greenland, and
+succeeded each other on the coasts of Labrador and the United States.
+Those of our readers who wish for circumstantial details, should
+refer to M. Gabriel Gravier's interesting publication, the most
+complete work on the subject, and from which we have borrowed all
+that relates to the Norman expeditions.
+
+The same year as Erik the Red landed in Greenland (983), a certain
+Hari Marson, being driven out of the ordinary course by storms, was
+cast upon the shores of a country known by the name of "White man's
+land," which extended according to Rafn from Chesapeake Bay to
+Florida.
+
+What is the meaning of this name "White man's land"? Had some
+compatriots of Marson's already settled there? There is some reason
+to suppose so even from the words used in the chronicle. We can
+understand how interesting it would be, to be able to determine the
+nationality of these first colonists. However, the Sagas have not as
+yet revealed all their secrets. There are probably, some of them
+still unknown, and as those which have been successively discovered,
+have confirmed facts already admitted, there is every reason to hope
+that our knowledge of Icelandic navigation may become more precise.
+
+Another legend, of which great part is mere romance, but which
+nevertheless, contains a foundation of truth, relates that a certain
+Bjorn, who was obliged to quit Iceland in consequence of an
+unfortunate passion, took refuge in the countries beyond Vinland,
+where in 1027, he was found by some of his countrymen.
+
+In 1051, during another expedition, an Icelandic woman was killed by
+some _Skrellings_, and in 1867, a tomb was exhumed, bearing a
+_runic_ inscription, and containing bones, and some articles of the
+toilet, which are now preserved in the museum at Washington. This
+discovery was made at the exact spot indicated in the Saga which
+related these events, and which was not itself discovered until 1863.
+
+But the Northmen, established in Iceland and Greenland, were not the
+only people who frequented the coast of America about the year 1000,
+which is proved by the name of "Great Ireland," which was given to
+White man's land. As the history of Madoc-op-Owen proves, the Irish
+and Welsh founded colonies there, regarding which we have but little
+information, but vague and uncertain as it is, MM. d'Avezac and
+Gaffarel agree in recognizing its probability.
+
+Having now said a few words upon the travels and settlements of the
+Northmen in Labrador, Vinland, and the more southern countries, we
+must return to the north. The colonies first founded in the
+neighbourhood of Cape Farewell, had not been slow in stretching
+along the western coast, which at this period was infinitely less
+desolate than it is at the present day, as far as northern latitudes,
+which were not again reached until our own day. Thus at this time
+they caught seals, walrus, and whales in the bay of Disco; there
+were 190 towns counted then in Westerbygd and eighty-six in
+Esterbygd, while at the present day, there are far fewer Danish
+settlements on these icy shores. These towns were probably only
+inconsiderable groups of those houses in stone and wood, of which so
+many ruins have been found from Cape Farewell, as far as Upernavik
+in about 72 degrees 50 minutes. At the same time numerous runic
+inscriptions, which have now been deciphered, have given a degree of
+absolute certainty to facts so long unknown. But how many of these
+vestiges of the past still remain to be discovered! how many of
+these valuable evidences of the bravery and spirit of enterprise of
+the Scandinavian race are for ever buried under the glaciers!
+
+[Illustration: The Glaciers of Greenland.]
+
+We have also obtained evidence that Christianity had been brought
+into America, and especially into Greenland. To this country,
+according to the instructions of Pope Gregory IV., there were
+pastoral visits made to strengthen the newly-converted Northmen in
+the faith, and to evangelize the Esquimaux and the Indian tribes.
+Besides this, M. Riant in 1865, has proved incontrovertibly that the
+Crusades were preached in Greenland in the bishopric of Gardar, as
+well as in the _islands and neighbouring lands_, and that up to 1418,
+Greenland paid to the Holy See tithes and St. Peter's pence, which
+for that year consisted of 2600 lbs. of walrus tusks.
+
+The Norwegian colonies owe their downfall and ruin to various
+causes: to the very rapid extension of the glaciers,--Hayes has
+proved that the glacier of Friar John moves at the rate of about
+thirty-three yards annually;--to the bad policy of the mother
+country, which prevented the recruiting of the colonies; to the
+black plague, which decimated the population of Greenland from 1347
+to 1351; lastly, to the depredations of the pirates, who ravaged
+these already enfeebled countries in 1418, and in whom some have
+thought they recognized certain inhabitants of the Orkney and Faroe
+Islands, of which we are now about to speak.
+
+One of the companions of William the Conqueror, named Saint-Clair or
+Sinclair, not thinking that the portion of the conquered country
+allotted to him was proportioned to his merits, went to try his luck
+in Scotland, where he was not long in rising to fortune and honours.
+In the latter half of the fourteenth century, the Orkney Islands
+passed into the hands of his descendants.
+
+About 1390, a certain Nicolo Zeno, a member of one of the most
+ancient and noble Venetian families, who had fitted out a vessel at
+his own expense, to visit England and Flanders as a matter of
+curiosity, was wrecked in the archipelago of the Orkneys whither he
+had been driven by a storm. He was about to be massacred by the
+inhabitants, when the Earl, Henry Sinclair took him under his
+protection. The history of this wreck, and the adventures and
+discoveries which followed it, published in the collection of
+Ramusio had been written by Antonio Zeno, says Clements Markham, the
+learned geographer, in his "Threshold of the Unknown Region."
+Unfortunately one of his descendants named Nicolo Zeno, born in 1515,
+when a boy, not knowing the value of these papers, tore them up,
+"but some of the letters surviving, he was able from them
+subsequently to compile the narrative as we now have it, and which
+was printed in Venice in 1558. There was also found in the palace an
+old map, rotten with age, illustrative of his voyages. Of this he
+made a copy, unluckily supplying from his own reading of the
+narrative what he thought was requisite for its illustration. By
+doing this in a blundering way, unaided by the geographical
+knowledge which enables us to see where he goes astray, he threw the
+whole of the geography which he derived from the narrative into the
+most lamentable confusion, while those parts of the map which are
+not thus sophisticated, and which are consequently original, present
+an accuracy far in advance by many generations of the geography even
+of Nicolo Zeno's time, and confirm in a notable manner the site of
+the old Greenland colony. In these facts we have not only the
+solution of all the discussions which have arisen on the subject,
+but the most indisputable proof of the authenticity of the
+narrative; for it is clear that Nicolo Zeno, junior, could not
+himself have been the ingenious concocter of a story the
+straightforward truth of which he could thus ignorantly distort upon
+the face of the map."
+
+The name of Zichmni, in which writers of the present day, and chief
+among them Mr. H. Major, who has rescued these facts from the domain
+of fable, recognize the name of Sinclair--appears to be in fact only
+applicable to this earl of the Orkneys.
+
+At this time the seas of the north of Europe were infected by
+Scandinavian pirates. Sinclair, who had recognized in Zeno a clever
+mariner, attached him to himself, and with him conquered the country
+of Frisland, the haunt of pirates, who ravaged all the north of
+Scotland. In the maps at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of
+the sixteenth century this name is applied to the archipelago of the
+Faroe Islands, a reasonable indication, for Buache has recognized in
+the present names of the harbours and islands of this archipelago a
+considerable number of those given by Zeno; finally the facts which
+we owe to the Venetian navigator about the waters,--abounding in
+fish and dangerous from shallows,--which divide this archipelago,
+are still true at the present day.
+
+Satisfied with his position, Zeno wrote to his brother Antonio to
+come and join him. While Sinclair was conquering the Faroe Islands,
+the Norwegian pirates desolated the Shetland Islands, then called
+Eastland. Nicolo set sail to give them battle, but was himself
+obliged to fly before their fleet, much more numerous than his own,
+and to take refuge on a small island on the coast of Iceland.
+
+After wintering in this place Zeno must have landed the following
+year on the eastern coast of Greenland at 69 degrees north latitude,
+in a place "where was a monastery of the order of preaching friars,
+and a church dedicated to St. Thomas. The cells were warmed by a
+natural spring of hot water, which the monks used to prepare their
+food and to bake their bread. The monks had also gardens covered
+over in the winter season, and warmed by the same means, so that
+they were able to produce flowers, fruits, and herbs as well as if
+they had lived in a mild climate." There would seem to be some
+confirmation of these narratives in the fact that between the years
+1828-1830 a captain of the Danish navy met with a population of 600
+individuals at 69 degrees north latitude, of a purely European type.
+
+But these adventurous travels in countries of which the climate was
+so different from that of Venice, proved fatal to Zeno, who died a
+short time after his return to Frisland.
+
+An old sailor, who had returned with the Venetian, and who said he
+had been for many long years a prisoner in the countries of the
+extreme west, gave to Sinclair such precise and tempting details of
+the fertility and extent of these regions, that the latter resolved
+to attempt their conquest with Antonio Zeno who had rejoined his
+brother. But the inhabitants showed themselves everywhere so hostile,
+and opposed such resistance to the strangers landing, that Sinclair
+after a long and dangerous voyage was obliged to return to Frisland.
+
+These are all the details that have been left to us, and they make
+us deeply regret the loss of those that Antonio should have
+furnished in his letters to his father Carlo, on the subject of the
+countries which Forster and Malto-Brun have thought may be
+identified with Newfoundland.
+
+Who knows, if in his voyage to England and during his wanderings as
+far as Thule, Christopher Columbus may not have heard mentioned the
+ancient expeditions of the Northmen and the Zeni, and if this
+information may not have appeared to him a strange confirmation of
+the theories which he held, and of the ideas for whose realization
+he came to claim the protection of the King of England?
+
+From the collection of facts which have been here briefly given, it
+follows that America was known to Europeans and had been colonized
+before the time of Columbus. But in consequence of various
+circumstances, and foremost among these must be placed the rarity of
+communication between the people in the north of Europe and those in
+the south, the discoveries made by the Northmen were only vaguely
+known in Spain and Portugal. Judging by appearances, we of the
+present day know much more on this subject than did the
+fellow-countrymen and contemporaries of Columbus. If the Genoese
+mariner had been informed of the existence of some rumours, he
+classed them with the information he had collected in the Cape de
+Verd Islands and with his classical recollections of the famous
+Island of Antilia and the Atlantides of Plato. From this information,
+which came from so many different sides, the certainty awoke within
+him that the east could be reached by the western route. However it
+may be, his glory remains whole and entire; he is really the
+discoverer of America, and not those who were carried thither in
+spite of themselves by chances of wind and storm, without their
+having any intention of reaching the shores of Asia, which
+Christopher Columbus would have done, had not the way been barred by
+America.
+
+The information that we are about to give on the family of Cortereal,
+although it may be much more complete than that which can be met
+with in biographical Dictionaries, is still extremely vague.
+Nevertheless we must content ourselves with it, for up to this time
+history has not collected further details concerning this race of
+intrepid navigators.
+
+Joao Vaz Cortereal was the natural son of a gentleman named Vasco
+Annes da Costa, who had received the soubriquet of Cortereal from
+the King of Portugal, on account of the magnificence of his house
+and followers. Devoted like so many other gentlemen of this period
+to sea-faring adventure, Joao Vaz had carried off in Gallicia a
+young girl named Maria de Abarca, who became his wife. After having
+been gentleman-usher to the Infante don Fernando, he was sent by the
+king to the North Atlantic, with Alvaro Martins Homem. The two
+navigators saw an island known from this time by the name of _Terra
+dos Bacalhaos_--the land of cod-fish--which must really have been
+Newfoundland. The date of this discovery is approximately fixed by
+the fact that on their return, they landed at Terceira and finding
+the captainship vacant by the death of Jacome de Bruges, they went
+to ask for it from the Infanta Dona Brites, the widow of the Infante
+Don Fernando; she bestowed it upon them on condition that they would
+divide it between them, a fact which is confirmed by a deed of gift
+dated from Evora the 2nd of April, 1464. Though one cannot guarantee
+the authenticity of this discovery of America, it is nevertheless an
+ascertained fact that Cortereal's voyage must have been signalized
+by some extraordinary event; donations of such importance as this
+were only made to those who had rendered some great service to the
+crown.
+
+When Vaz Cortereal was settled at Terceira from 1490 to 1497, he
+caused a fine palace to be built in the town of Angra, where he
+lived with his three children. His third son, Gaspard, after having
+been in the service of King Emmanuel, when the latter was only Duke
+de Beja had felt himself attracted while still young to the
+enterprises of discovery which had rendered his father illustrious.
+By an act dated from Cintra the 12th of March, 1500, King Emmanuel
+made a gift to Gaspard Cortereal of any islands or _terra firma_
+which he might discover, and the king added this valuable
+information, that "already and at other times he had sought for them
+on his own account and at his own expense."
+
+For Gaspard Cortereal this was not his first essay. Probably, his
+researches may have been directed to the parts where his father had
+discovered the Island of Cod. At his own expense, although with the
+assistance of the king, Gaspard Cortereal fitted out two vessels at
+the commencement of the summer of 1500, and after having touched at
+Terceira, he sailed towards the north-west. His first discovery was
+of a land of which the fertile and verdant aspect seems to have
+charmed him. This was Canada. He saw there a great river bearing ice
+along with it on its course--the St. Lawrence--which some of his
+companions mistook for an arm of the sea, and to which he gave the
+name of _Rio Nevado_. "Its volume is so considerable that it is not
+probable that this country is an island, besides, it must be
+completely covered with a very thick coating of snow to produce such
+a stream of water."
+
+The houses in this country were of wood and covered with skins and
+furs. The inhabitants were unacquainted with iron, but used swords
+made of sharpened stones, and their arrows were tipped with
+fish-bones or stones. Tall and well-made, their faces and bodies
+were painted in different colours according to taste, they wore
+golden and copper bracelets, and dressed themselves in garments of
+fur. Cortereal pursued his voyage and arrived at the Cape of
+_Bacalhaos_, "fishes which are found in such great quantities upon
+this coast that they hinder the advance of the caravels." Then he
+followed the shore for a stretch of 600 miles, from 56 degrees to 60
+degrees, or even more, naming the islands, the rivers, and the gulfs
+that he met with, as is proved by _Terra do Labrador, Bahia de
+Conceicao_, &c., and landing and holding intercourse with the
+natives. Severe cold, and a veritable river of gigantic blocks of
+ice prevented the expedition from going farther north, and it
+returned to Portugal bringing back with it fifty-seven natives. The
+very year of his return, on the 15th of May, 1501, Gaspard Cortereal,
+in pursuance of an order of the 15th of April, received provisions,
+and left Lisbon in the hope of extending the field of his
+discoveries. But from this time he is never again mentioned. Michael
+Cortereal, his brother, who was the first gentleman-usher to the
+king, then requested and obtained permission to go and seek his
+brother, and to pursue his enterprise. By an act of the 15th of
+January, 1502, a deed of gift conveyed to him the half of the terra
+firma and islands which his brother might have discovered. Setting
+out on the 10th of May of this year with three vessels, Michael
+Cortereal reached Newfoundland, where he divided his little squadron,
+so that each of the vessels might explore the coasts separately,
+while he fixed the place of rendezvous. But at the time fixed, he
+did not reappear, and the two other vessels, after waiting for him
+till the 20th of August, set out on their return to Portugal.
+
+In 1503, the king sent two caravels to try to obtain news of the two
+brothers, but the search was in vain, and they returned without
+having acquired any information. When Vasco Annes, the last of the
+brothers Cortereal, who was captain and governor of the Islands of
+St. George and Terceira, and alcaide mor of the town of Tavilla,
+became acquainted with these sad events, he resolved to fit out a
+vessel at his own cost, and to go and search for his brothers. The
+king, however, would not allow him to go, fearing to lose the last
+of this race of good servants.
+
+Upon the maps of this period, Canada is often indicated by the name
+of Terra dos Cortereales, a name which is sometimes extended much
+further south, embracing a great part of North America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+All that concerns John and Sebastian Cabot has been until recently
+shrouded by a mist which is not even now completely dissipated,
+notwithstanding the conscientious labours of Biddle the American in
+1831, and of our compatriot M. d'Avezac; as also those of Mr.
+Nicholls the Englishman, who taking advantage of the discoveries
+made among the English, Spanish, and Venetian archives, has built up
+an imposing monument, of which some parts, however, are open to
+discussion. It is from the two last-named works that we shall draw
+the materials for this rapid sketch, but principally from Mr.
+Nicholls' book, which has this advantage over the smaller volume of
+M. d'Avezac, that it relates the whole life of Sebastian Cabot.
+
+[Illustration: Sebastian Cabot. _From an old print_.]
+
+It has been found impossible to determine with certainty either the
+name or the nationality of John Cabot, and still less to settle the
+period of his birth. John Cabota, Caboto or Cabot must have been
+born, if not in Genoa itself, as M. d'Avezac asserts, at least in
+the neighbourhood of that town, possibly at Castiglione, about the
+first quarter of the fifteenth century. Some historians have
+considered that he was an Englishman, and perhaps Mr. Nicholls from
+national considerations is inclined to adopt this opinion; at least
+this seems to be the meaning of the expressions used by him. What we
+do know without room for doubt, is that John Cabot came to London to
+occupy himself with commerce, and that he soon settled at Bristol,
+then the second town in the kingdom, in one of the suburbs which had
+received the name of Cathay, probably from the number of Venetians
+who resided there, and the trade carried on by them with the
+countries of the extreme East. It was at Bristol that Cabot's two
+youngest children were born, Sebastian and Sancho, if we may rely
+upon the following account given by the old chronicler Eden.
+"Sebastian Cabot told me that he was born at Bristol, and that at
+four years of age he went with his father to Venice, returning with
+him to England some years later; this made people imagine that he
+was born at Venice." In 1476, John Cabot was at Venice, and there on
+the 29th of March, he received letters of naturalization, which
+prove that he was not a native of this city, and that he must have
+merited the honour by some service rendered to the Republic. M.
+d'Avezac is inclined to think that he devoted himself to the study
+of cosmography and navigation, perhaps even in company with the
+celebrated Florentine, Paul Toscanelli, with whose theories upon the
+distribution of land and sea on the surface of the globe, he would
+certainly be acquainted at this time. He may also have heard mention
+made of the islands situated in the Atlantic, and known by the names
+of Antilia, the Land of the Seven Cities, or Brazil. What seems more
+certain is, that his business affairs took him to the Levant, and,
+it is said, to Mecca, and that while there he would learn from what
+country came the spices, which then constituted the most important
+branch of Venetian commerce.
+
+Whatever value we may attach to these speculative theories, it is at
+least certain that John Cabot founded an important mercantile house
+at Bristol. His son Sebastian, who in these first voyages had
+acquired an inclination for the sea, studied navigation, as far as
+it was then known, and made some excursions on the sea, to render
+himself as familiar with the practice of this art, as he already was
+with its theory. "For seven years past," says the Spanish Ambassador
+in a despatch of the 25th of July, 1498, speaking of an expedition
+commanded by Cabot, "the people of Bristol have fitted out two,
+three, or four caravels every year, to go in search of the Island of
+Brazil, and of the Seven Cities, according to the ideas of the
+Genoese." At this time the whole of Europe resounded with the fame
+of the discoveries of Columbus. "It awoke in me," says Sebastian
+Cabot, in a narrative preserved by Ramusio, "a great desire and a
+kind of ardour in my heart to do myself also something famous, and
+knowing by examining the globe, that if I sailed by the west wind I
+should reach India more rapidly, I at once made my project known to
+His Majesty, who was much satisfied with it." The king to whom Cabot
+addressed himself was the same Henry VII. who some years before had
+refused all support to Christopher Columbus. It is evident that he
+received with favour the project which John and Sebastian Cabot had
+just submitted to him; and though Sebastian, in the fragment which
+we have just quoted, attributes to himself alone all the honour of
+the project, it is not less true that his father was the promoter of
+the enterprise, as the following charter shows, which we translate
+in an abridged form.
+
+"We Henry ... permit our well-beloved Jehan Cabot, citizen of Venice,
+and Louis, Sebastian, and Sancho, his sons, under our flag and with
+five vessels of the tonnage and crew which they shall judge suitable,
+to discover at their own expense and charge ... we grant to them as
+well as to their heirs and assigns, licence to occupy, possess ...
+at the charge of, by them, upon the profits, benefits, and
+advantages, accruing from this navigation, to pay us in merchandise
+or in money the fifth part of the profit thus obtained, for each of
+their voyages, every time that they shall return to the port of
+Bristol (at which port they shall be compelled to land).... We
+promise and guarantee to them, their heirs and assigns, that they
+shall be exempt from all custom-house duties on the merchandise
+which they shall bring from the countries thus discovered.... We
+command and direct all our subjects, as well on land as on the sea,
+to render assistance to the said Jehan, and to his sons.... Given
+at ... the 5th day of March, 1495."
+
+Such was the charter that was granted to John Cabot and his sons
+upon their return from the American continent, and not as certain
+authors have pretended, anterior to this voyage. From the time that
+the news of the discovery made by Columbus had reached England, that
+is to say, probably in 1493, John and Sebastian Cabot prepared the
+expedition at their own expense, and set out at the beginning of the
+year 1494, with the idea of reaching Cathay, and finally the Indies.
+There can be no doubt upon this point, for in the Bibliotheque
+Nationale in Paris is preserved an unique copy of the map engraved
+in 1544, that is to say, in the lifetime of Sebastian Cabot, which
+mentions this voyage, and the precise and exact date of the
+discovery of Cape Breton.
+
+It is probable that we must attribute to the intrigues of the
+Spanish Ambassador, the delay which occurred in Cabot's expedition,
+for the whole of the year 1496 passed without the voyage being
+accomplished.
+
+The following year he set out at the beginning of summer. After
+having again sighted the _Terra Bona-vista_, he followed the coast,
+and was not long in perceiving to his great disappointment that it
+trended towards the north. "Then, sailing along it to make sure if I
+could not find some passage, I could not perceive any, and having
+advanced as far as 56 degrees, and seeing that at this point the
+land turned towards the east, I despaired of finding any passage,
+and I put about to examine the coast in this direction towards the
+equinoctial line, always with the same object of finding a passage
+to the Indies, and in the end, I reached the country now called
+Florida, where as provisions were beginning to run short, I resolved
+to return to England." This narrative, of which we have given the
+commencement above, was related by Cabot to Fracastor, forty or
+fifty years after the event. Also, is it not astonishing that Cabot
+mixes up in it two perfectly distinct voyages, that of 1494, and
+that of 1497? Let us add some reflections on this narrative. The
+first land seen was, without doubt, the North Cape, the northern
+extremity of the island of Cape Breton, and the island which is
+opposite to it is that of Prince Edward, long known by the name of
+St. John's Island. Cabot, probably penetrated into the estuary of
+the St. Lawrence, which he took for an arm of the sea, near to the
+place where Quebec now stands, and coasted along the northern shore
+of the gulf, so that he did not see the coast of Labrador stretching
+away in the east. He took Newfoundland for an archipelago, and
+continued his course to the south, not doubtless, as far as Florida
+as he states himself, the time occupied by the voyage making it
+impossible that he can have descended so low, but as far as
+Chesapeake Bay. These were the countries which the Spaniards
+afterwards called "Terra de Estevam Gomez."
+
+On the 3rd of February, 1498, King Henry VII. signed at Westminster
+some new letters patent. He empowered John Cabot or his
+representative,--being duly authorized--to take in English ports six
+vessels of 200 tons' burden, and to procure all that should be
+required for their equipment, at the same price as if it were for
+the crown. He was allowed to take on board such master-mariners,
+pages, and other subjects as might of their own accord wish to go,
+and pass with him to the recently discovered land and islands. John
+Cabot bore the expense of the equipment of two vessels, and three
+others were fitted out at the cost of the merchants of Bristol.
+
+In all probability it was death--a sudden and unexpected
+death--which prevented John Cabot from taking the command of this
+expedition. His son Sebastian then assumed the direction of the
+fleet, which carried 300 men and provisions for a year. After having
+sighted land at 45 degrees, Sebastian Cabot followed the coast as
+far as 58 degrees, perhaps even higher, but then it became so cold,
+and although it was the month of July, there was so much floating
+ice about, that, it would have been impossible to go further
+northwards. The days were very long, and the nights excessively
+light, an interesting detail by which to fix the latitude reached,
+for we know that below the 60th parallel of latitude the longest
+days are eighteen hours. These various reasons made Sebastian Cabot
+decide to put about, and he touched at the Bacalhaos Islands, of
+which the inhabitants, who were clothed in the skins of animals,
+were armed with bow and arrows, lance, javelin, and wooden sword.
+The navigators here caught a great number of cod-fish; they were
+even so numerous, says an old narrative, that they hindered ships
+from advancing. After having sailed along the coast of America as
+far as 38 degrees, Cabot set out for England, where he arrived at
+the beginning of autumn. This voyage had indeed a threefold object,
+that of discovery, commerce, and colonization, as is shown by the
+number of vessels which took part in it and the strength of the
+crews. Nevertheless it does not appear that Cabot landed any one, or
+that he made any attempts at forming a settlement, either in
+Labrador, or in Hudson's Bay--which he was destined to explore more
+completely in 1517, in the reign of Henry VIII.--or even to the
+south of the Bacalhaos, known by the general name of Newfoundland.
+At the close of this expedition, which was almost entirely
+unproductive, we lose sight of Sebastian Cabot, if not completely,
+at least so as to be insufficiently informed about his deeds and
+voyages until 1517. The traveller Hojeda, whose various enterprises
+we have related above, had left Spain in the month of May, 1499. We
+know that in this voyage he met with an Englishman at Caquibaco, on
+the coast of America. Can this have been Cabot? Nothing has come to
+light to enable us to settle this point; but we may believe that
+Cabot did not remain idle, and that he would be likely to undertake
+some fresh expedition: what we do know is, that in spite of the
+solemn engagements that he had made with Cabot, the King of England
+granted certain privileges of trading in the countries which he had
+discovered, to the Portuguese and to the merchants of Bristol. This
+ungenerous manner of recognizing his services wounded the navigator,
+and decided him to accept the offers which had been made to him on
+different occasions, to enter the Spanish service. From the death of
+Vespucius, which happened in 1512, Cabot was the navigator held in
+most renown. To attach him to himself, Ferdinand wrote on the 13th
+of September, 1512, to Lord Willoughby, commander in chief of the
+troops which had been transported to Italy, to treat with the
+Venetian navigator.
+
+[Illustration: Discoveries of John and Sebastian Cabot.]
+
+As soon as he arrived in Castille, Cabot received the rank of
+captain, by an edict dated the 20th of October, 1512, with a salary
+of 5000 maravedis. Seville was fixed upon for his residence, until
+an opportunity might arise of turning his talents and experience to
+account. There was a plan on foot for his taking the command of a
+very important expedition, when Ferdinand the Catholic died, on the
+23rd of January, 1516. Cabot returned at once to England, having
+probably obtained leave of absence. Eden tells us that the following
+year Cabot was appointed with Sir Thomas Pert to the command of a
+fleet which was to reach China by the north-west. On the 11th of
+June, he was in Hudson's Bay at 67-1/2 degrees of latitude; the sea
+free from ice spread itself out before him so far that he reckoned
+upon success in his enterprise, when the faintheartedness of his
+companion, together with the cowardice and mutinous spirit of the
+crews, who refused to go any further, obliged him to return to
+England. In his _Theatrum orbis terrarum_, Ortelius traces the shape
+of Hudson's Bay as it really is; he even indicates at its northern
+extremity a strait leading northwards. How can the geographer have
+attained to such exactness? "Who," says Mr. Nicholls, "can have
+given him the information set forth in his map, if not Cabot?"
+
+On his return to England, Cabot found the country ravaged by a
+horrible plague, which put a stop even to commercial transactions.
+Soon, either because the time of his leave had expired, or that he
+wished to escape from the pestilence, or that he was recalled to
+Spain, the Venetian navigator returned to that country. In 1518, on
+the 5th of February, Cabot was made pilot-major, with a salary which,
+added to that which he already had, made a total of 125,000
+maravedis, say, 300 ducats. He did not actually exercise the
+functions of his office till Charles V. returned from England. His
+principal duty consisted in examining pilots, who were not allowed
+to go to the Indies until after having passed this examination.
+
+This epoch was by no means favourable to great maritime expeditions.
+The struggle between France and Spain absorbed all the resources
+both in men and money, of these two countries--Cabot too, who seems
+to have adopted science for his fatherland, much more than any
+particular country, made some overtures to Contarini, the Ambassador
+of Venice, to take service on board the fleets of the Republic; but
+when the favourable answer of the Council of Ten arrived, he had
+other projects in his head, and did not carry his attempt any
+further.
+
+[Illustration: Cabot presides over a Conference of Cosmographers.]
+
+In the month of April, 1524, Cabot presided at a conference of
+mariners and cosmographers, which met at Badajoz, to discuss the
+question whether the Moluccas belonged, according to the celebrated
+treaty of Tordesillas, to Spain or Portugal. On the 31st of May, it
+was decided that the Moluccas were within the Spanish waters, by 20
+degrees. Perhaps this resolution of the junta of which Cabot was
+president, and which again placed in the hands of Spain a great part
+of the spice trade, was not without its influence upon the
+resolutions of the council of the Indies. However this may be, in
+the month of September of the same year Cabot was authorized to take
+the command of three vessels of 100 tons, and a small caravel,
+carrying together 150 men, with the title of captain-general.
+
+The declared aim of this voyage was to pass through the Strait of
+Magellan, carefully to explore the western coast of America, and to
+reach the Moluccas, where they would take in on their return a cargo
+of spices. The month of August, 1525, had been fixed upon as the
+date of departure, but the intrigues of Portugal succeeded in
+delaying it until April, 1526.
+
+Different circumstances seem from this moment to have augured ill
+for the voyage. Cabot had only a nominal authority, and the
+association of merchants who had defrayed the expenses of the
+equipment not accepting him willingly as chief, had found means to
+oppose all the plans of the Venetian sailor. Thus it was that in
+place of the man whom he had appointed as second in command, another
+was imposed upon him, and that instructions destined to be unsealed
+when at sea were delivered to each captain. They contained this
+absurd arrangement, that in case of the death of the captain-general,
+eleven individuals were to succeed him each in his turn. Was not
+this an encouragement given to assassination?
+
+Scarcely was the fleet out of sight of land, when discontent
+appeared. The rumour spread that the captain-general was not equal
+to his task; then as they saw that these calumnies did not affect
+him, they pretended that the flotilla was already short of
+provisions. The mutiny broke out as soon as land was reached, but
+Cabot was not the man to allow himself to be annihilated by it; he
+had suffered too much from Sir Thomas Pert's cowardice to bear such
+an insult. In order to nip the evil in the bud, he had the mutinous
+captains seized, and notwithstanding their reputation and the
+brilliancy of their past services, he made them get into a boat, and
+abandoned them on the shore. Four months afterwards they had the
+good luck to be picked up by a Portuguese expedition, which seems to
+have had orders to thwart the plans of Cabot.
+
+The Venetian navigator then penetrated into the Rio de la Plata, the
+exploration of which had been commenced by his predecessor the
+Pilot-major de Solis. The expedition was not then composed of more
+than two vessels, one having been lost during the voyage. Cabot
+sailed up the Argent River, and discovered an island which he called
+Francis Gabriel, and upon which he built the fort of San Salvador,
+entrusting the command of it to Antonio de Grajeda. Cabot had the
+keel removed from one of his caravels, and with it, being towed by
+his small boats, entered the Parana, built a new fort at the
+confluence of the Carcarama and Terceiro, and after having thus
+secured his line of retreat he pursued the course of these rivers
+farther into the interior. Arriving at the confluence of the Parana
+and Paraguay, he followed the second, the direction of which agreed
+best with his project of reaching the region of the west where
+silver was to be obtained. But it was not long before the aspect of
+the country changed, and the attitude of the inhabitants altered
+also. Until now, they had collected in crowds, astonished at the
+sight of the vessels; but upon the cultivated shores of the Paraguay
+they courageously opposed the strangers' landing, and three
+Spaniards having tried to knock down the fruit from a palm-tree, a
+struggle took place, in which 300 natives lost their lives. This
+victory had disabled twenty-five Spaniards. It was too much for
+Cabot, who rapidly removed his wounded to the fort San Spirito and
+retired, still presenting a bold front to the enemy.
+
+Cabot had already sent two of his companions to the Emperor, to
+acquaint him with the attempt at revolt of the captains, to explain
+to him the motives which obliged him to modify the course marked out
+for his voyage, and to request aid from him, both in men and
+provisions. The answer arrived at last. The Emperor approved of what
+Cabot had done, and ordered him to colonize the country in which he
+had just made a settlement, but did not send him either one man or a
+single maravedi. Cabot tried to procure the resources which he
+needed in the country, and caused some attempts at cultivation to be
+commenced. At the same time, to keep his troops in exercise, he
+reduced the neighbouring nations to obedience, had some forts built,
+and again sailing up the Paraguay he reached Potosi, and the
+water-courses of the Andes which feed the basin of the Atlantic. At
+last he prepared to enter Peru, from whence came the gold and silver
+which he had seen in the possession of the natives; but it needed
+more troops than he could muster, to attempt the conquest of this
+vast region. The Emperor, however, was quite unable to send him any.
+His European wars absorbed all his resources, the Cortez refused to
+vote new subsidies and the Moluccas had just been pledged to
+Portugal. In this state of affairs, after having occupied the
+country for five years, and waited all this time for the assistance
+which never came, Cabot decided to evacuate a part of his
+settlements, and he returned with some of his people to Spain. The
+rest, amounting to 120, men who were left to guard the fort of San
+Spirito, after many vicissitudes which cannot be related here,
+perished by the hands of the Indians, or were obliged to take refuge
+in the Portuguese settlements on the coast of Brazil. It is to the
+horses imported by Cabot that is due the wonderful race of wild
+horses which may be seen in large troops on the pampas of La Plata
+at the present day; this was the only result of the expedition.
+
+Some time after his return to Spain, Cabot resigned his office, and
+went to Bristol, where he settled about 1548, that is to say at the
+beginning of the reign of Edward VI. What were the motives of this
+fresh change? Was Cabot discontented at having been left to his own
+resources during his expedition? Was he hurt at the manner in which
+his services were recompensed? It is impossible to say. But Charles
+V. took advantage of Cabot's departure to deprive him of his pension,
+which Edward VI. hastened to replace, causing him to receive 250
+marks annually, about 116_l._ and a fraction, which was a
+considerable sum for that period.
+
+The post which Cabot occupied in England seems to be best expressed
+by the name of Intendant of the Navy; under the authority of the
+king and council, he appears to have superintended all maritime
+affairs. He issues licences, he examines pilots, he frames
+instructions, he draws maps, a varied and complicated function for
+which he possessed the rare gift of both practical and theoretical
+knowledge. At the same time he instructed the young king in
+cosmography, explained to him the variation of the compass, and was
+successful in interesting him in nautical matters, and in the glory
+resulting from maritime discoveries. It was a high and almost unique
+situation. Cabot used it to put into execution a project which he
+had long cherished.
+
+At this period, we may almost say there was no trade in England. All
+commerce was in the hands of the Hanseatic towns, Antwerp, Hamburg,
+Bremen, &c. These companies of merchants had, on various occasions,
+obtained considerable reductions in import duties, and had ended by
+monopolizing the English trade. Cabot held that Englishmen possessed
+as good qualifications as these merchants for becoming manufacturers,
+and that the already powerful navy which England possessed might
+assist marvellously in the export of the products of the soil and of
+the manufactures. What was the use of having recourse to strangers
+when people could do their own business? If they had been unable up
+to this time to reach Cathay and India by the north-west, might they
+not endeavour to reach it by the north-east. And if they did not
+succeed, would they not find in this direction more commercial, and
+more civilized people than the miserable Esquimaux on the coast of
+Labrador and Newfoundland?
+
+Cabot assembled some leading London merchants, laid his projects
+before them, and formed them into an association, of which on the
+14th of December, 1551, he was named president for life. At the same
+time he exerted himself most vigorously with the king, and having
+made him understand the wrong which the monopoly enjoyed by
+strangers did to his own subjects, he obtained its abolition on the
+23rd of February, 1551, and inaugurated the practice of free trade.
+
+The Association of English Merchants, under the name of "Merchant
+Adventurers," hastened to have some vessels built, adapted to the
+difficulties to be encountered in the navigation of the Arctic
+regions. The first improvement which the English marine owed to
+Cabot was the sheathing of the keels, which he had seen done in
+Spain, but which had not hitherto been practised in England.
+
+A flotilla of three vessels was assembled at Deptford. They were the
+_Buona-Speranza_, of which the command was given to Sir Hugh
+Willoughby, a brave gentleman who had earned a high reputation in
+war; the _Buona-Confidencia_, Captain Cornil Durforth; and the
+_Bonaventure_, Captain Richard Chancellor, a clever sailor, and a
+particular friend of Cabot's; he received the title of pilot-major.
+The sailing-master of the _Bonaventure_ was Stephen Burrough, an
+accomplished mariner, who was destined to make numerous voyages in
+the North seas, and later to become pilot in chief for England.
+
+Although age and his important duties prevented Cabot from placing
+himself at the head of the expedition, he wished at least, to
+preside over all the details of the equipment. He himself wrote out
+the instructions, which have been preserved, and which prove the
+prudence and skill of this distinguished navigator. He there
+recommends the use of the log-line, an instrument intended to
+measure the speed of the vessel, and he desires that the journal of
+the events happening at sea may be kept with regularity, and that
+all information as to the character, manners, habits, and resources
+of the people visited, and the productions of the country, may be
+recorded in writing. The sailors were to offer no violence to the
+natives, but to act towards them with courtesy. All blasphemy and
+swearing was to be punished with severity, and also drunkenness. The
+religious exercises are prescribed, prayers are to be said morning
+and evening, and the Holy Scriptures are to be read once in the day.
+Cabot ends by recommending union and concord above all, and reminds
+the captains of the greatness of their enterprise, and the honour
+which they might hope to gain; finally he promises them to add his
+prayers to theirs for the success of their common work.
+
+The squadron set sail on the 20th of May, 1558, in presence of the
+court assembled at Greenwich, amid an immense concourse of people,
+after fetes and rejoicings, at which the king, who was ill, could
+not be present. Near the Loffoden Islands, on the coast of Norway at
+the bearing of Wardhous, the squadron was separated from the
+_Bonaventure_. Carried away by the storm, Willoughby's two vessels
+touched, without doubt, at Nova Zembla, and were forced by the ice
+to return southwards. On the 18th of September, they entered the
+port formed by the mouth of the River Arzina in East Lapland. Some
+time afterwards, the _Buona-Confidencia_, separated from Willoughby
+by a fresh tempest, returned to England. As to the latter, some
+Russian fishermen found his vessel the following year, in the midst
+of the ice. The whole crew had died of cold. This, at least, is what
+we are led to suppose from the journal kept by the unfortunate
+Willoughby up to the month of January, 1554.
+
+Chancellor, after having waited in vain for his two consorts at the
+rendezvous which had been agreed upon in case of separation, thought
+they must have outsailed him, and rounding the North Cape, he
+entered a vast gulf which was none other than the White Sea; he then
+landed at the mouth of the Dwina, near the monastery of St. Nicholas,
+on the spot upon which the town of Archangel was soon to stand. The
+inhabitants of these desolate places told him that the country was
+under the dominion of the Grand Duke of Russia. Chancellor resolved
+at once to go to Moscow, in spite of the enormous distance which
+separated him from it. The Czar then on the throne was Ivan IV.
+Wassiliewitch, called the Terrible. For some time before this, the
+Russians had shaken off the Tartar yoke, and Ivan had united all the
+petty rival principalities in one body politic, of which the power
+was already becoming considerable. The situation of Russia,
+exclusively continental, far from any frequented sea, isolated from
+the rest of Europe, of which it did not yet form part, so much were
+its habits and manners still Asiatic, promised success to Chancellor.
+
+[Illustration: Chancellor received by the Czar.]
+
+The Czar, who up to this time, had not been able to procure European
+merchandise, except by way of Poland, and who wished to gain access
+to the German seas, saw with pleasure the attempts of the English to
+establish a trade which would be beneficial to both parties. He not
+only received Chancellor courteously, but he made him most
+advantageous offers, granted him great privileges and encouraged him,
+by the kindness of his reception, to repeat his voyage. Chancellor
+sold his merchandise to great advantage, and after taking on board
+another cargo of furs, of seal and whale oils, copper, and other
+products, returned to England, carrying a letter from the Czar. The
+advantages which the Company of Merchant Adventurers had derived
+from this first voyage, encouraged them to attempt a second. So
+Chancellor the following year, made a fresh voyage to Archangel, and
+took two of the Company's agents to Russia, who concluded an
+advantageous treaty with the Czar. Then he set out again for England
+with an ambassador and his suite, sent by Ivan to Great Britain. Of
+the four vessels which composed the flotilla, one was lost on the
+coast of Norway, another as it left Drontheim, and the _Bonaventure_,
+on board of which were Chancellor and the ambassador, foundered in
+the Bay of Pitsligo, on the east coast of Scotland on the 10th of
+November, 1556. Chancellor was drowned in the wreck, being less
+fortunate than the Muscovite ambassador, who had the good luck to
+escape; but the presents and merchandise which he was carrying to
+England were lost.
+
+[Illustration: Wreck of the _Bonaventure_.]
+
+Such was the commencement of the Anglo-Russian Company. A goodly
+number of expeditions succeeded each other in those parts, but it
+would be beside our purpose to give an account of them. Let us now
+return to Cabot.
+
+It was in 1554 that Queen Mary of England was married to Philip II.,
+King of Spain. When the latter came to England he showed himself
+very ill-disposed towards Cabot, who had abandoned the service of
+Spain, and who, at this very moment was procuring for England a
+commerce which would soon immensely increase the maritime power of
+an already formidable country. Thus we are not surprised to learn
+that eight days after the landing of the King of Spain, Cabot was
+forced to resign his office and his pension, both of which had been
+bestowed upon him for life by Edward VI. Worthington was nominated
+in his place. Mr. Nicholls thinks that this dishonourable man, who
+had had some quarrels with the law, had a secret mission to seize
+among Cabot's plans, maps, instructions, and projects, those which
+could be of use to Spain. The fact is that all these documents are
+now lost, at least unless they may yet be discovered among the
+archives of Simancas.
+
+At the end of this period, history completely loses sight of the old
+mariner. The same mystery which hangs over his birth, also envelopes
+the place and date of his death. His immense discoveries, his
+cosmographical works, his study of the variations of the magnetic
+needle, his wisdom, his humane disposition, and his honourable
+conduct, place Sebastian Cabot in the foremost rank among
+discoverers. A figure lost in the shadow and vagueness of legends
+until our own day, Cabot owes it to his biographers, to Biddle,
+D'Avezac, and Nicholls, that he is now better known, more highly
+appreciated, and for the first time really placed in the light.
+
+
+II.
+POLAR EXPEDITIONS.
+
+John Verrazzano--Jacques Cartier and his three voyages to Canada--
+The town of Hochelaga--Tobacco--The scurvy--Voyage of Roberval--
+Martin Frobisher and his voyages--John Davis--Barentz and
+Heemskerke--Spitzbergen--Winter season at Nova Zembla--Return to
+Europe--Relics of the Expedition.
+
+
+From 1492 to 1524, France had stood aloof, officially at least, from
+enterprises of discovery and colonization. But Francis I. could not
+look on quietly while the power of his rival Charles V. received a
+large addition by the conquest of Mexico. He therefore ordered John
+Verrazzano, a Venetian who was in his service, to make a voyage of
+exploration. We will pause here for a short time, although the
+various places may have already been visited on several occasions,
+because for the first time the banner of France floats over the
+shores of the New World. This exploration besides, was to prepare
+the way for those of Jacques Cartier and of Champlain in Canada, as
+well as for the unlucky experiments in colonization of Jean Ribaut,
+and of Laudonniere, the sanguinary voyage of reprisals of Gourgues,
+and Villegagnon's attempt at a settlement in Brazil.
+
+We possess no biographical details with regard to Verrazzano. Under
+what circumstances did he enter the service of France? What was his
+title to the command of such an expedition? Nothing is known of the
+Venetian traveller, for all we possess of his writings is the
+Italian translation of his report to Francis I. published in the
+collection of Ramusio. The French translation of this Italian
+translation exists in an abridged form in Lescarbot's work on New
+France and in the _Histoire des Voyages_. For our very rapid epitome
+we shall make use of the Italian text of Ramusio, except in some
+passages where Lescarbot's translation has appeared to give an idea
+of the rich, original, and marvellously modulated language of the
+sixteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Newfoundland and of the Mouth of the St.
+Lawrence.]
+
+Having set out with four vessels to make discoveries in the ocean,
+says Verrazzano in a letter written from Dieppe to Francis I. on the
+8th July, 1524, he was forced by a storm to take refuge in Brittany
+with two of his vessels, the _Dauphine_ and the _Normande_, there to
+repair damages. Thence he set sail for the coast of Spain, where he
+seems to have given chase to some Spanish vessels. We see him leave
+with the _Dauphine_ alone on the 17th of January, 1524, a small
+inhabited island in the neighbourhood of Madeira, and launch himself
+upon the ocean with a crew of fifty men, well furnished with
+provisions and ammunition for an eight months' voyage.
+
+Twenty-five days later he has made 1500 miles to the west, when he
+is assailed by a fearful storm; and twenty-five days afterwards,
+that is to say on the 8th or 9th of March, having made about 1200
+miles, he discovers land at 30 degrees north latitude, which he
+thought had never been previously explored. "When we arrived, it
+seemed to us to be very low, but on approaching within a quarter of
+a league we saw by the great fires which were lighted along the
+harbours and borders of the sea, that it was inhabited, and in
+taking trouble to find a harbour in which to land and make
+acquaintance with the country, we sailed more than 150 miles in vain,
+so that seeing the coast trended ever southwards, we decided to turn
+back again." The Frenchmen finding a favourable landing-place,
+perceived a number of natives who came towards them, but who fled
+away when they saw them land. Soon recalled by the friendly signs
+and demonstrations of the French, they showed great surprise at
+their clothes, their faces, and the whiteness of their skin. The
+natives were entirely naked, except that the middle of the body was
+covered with sable-skins, hung from a narrow girdle of prettily
+woven grasses, and ornamented with tails of other animals, which
+fell to their knees. Some wore crowns of birds' feathers. "They have
+brown skins," says the narrative, "and are exactly like the
+Saracens; their hair is black, not very long, and tied at the back
+of the head in the form of a small tail. Their limbs are well
+proportioned, they are of middle height, although a little taller
+than ourselves, and have no other defect beyond their faces being
+rather broad; they are not strong, but they are agile, and some of
+the greatest and quickest runners in the world." It was impossible
+for Verrazzano to collect any details about the manners and mode of
+life of these people, on account of the short time that he remained
+among them. The shore at this place was composed of fine sand
+interspersed here and there with little sandy hillocks, behind which
+were scattered "groves and very thick forests which were wonderfully
+pleasant to look upon." There were in this country, as far as we
+could judge, abundance of stags, fallow deer and hares, numerous
+lakes, and streams of sparkling water, as well as a quantity of
+birds.
+
+This land lies at 34 degrees. It is therefore the part of the United
+States which now goes by the name of Carolina. The air there is pure
+and salubrious, the climate temperate, the sea is entirely without
+rocks, and in spite of the want of harbours it is not unfavourable
+for navigators.
+
+During the whole month of March the French sailed along the coast,
+which seemed to them to be inhabited by a numerous population. The
+want of water forced them to land several times, and they perceived
+that the savages were most pleased with mirrors, bells, knives, and
+sheets of paper. One day they sent a long-boat ashore with
+twenty-five men in it. A young sailor jumped into the water "because
+he could not land on account of the waves and currents, in order to
+give some small articles to these people, and having thrown them to
+them from a distance because he was distrustful of the natives, he
+was cast violently on shore by the waves. The Indians seeing him in
+this condition, take him and carry him far away from the sea, to the
+great dismay of the poor sailor, who expected they were about to
+sacrifice him. Having placed him at the foot of a little hill, in
+the full blaze of the sun, they stripped him quite naked and
+wondered at the whiteness of his skin; then lighting a large fire
+they made him come to it and recover his strength, and it was then
+that the poor young man as well as those who were in the boat,
+thought that the Indians were about to massacre and immolate him,
+roasting his flesh in this large brazier and then eating their
+victim, as do the cannibals. But it happened quite differently; for
+having shown a desire to return to the boat they reconducted him to
+the edge of the sea, and having kissed him very lovingly, they
+retired to a hill to see him re-enter the boat."
+
+Continuing to follow the shore northwards for more than 150 miles,
+the Frenchmen reached a land which seemed to them more beautiful,
+being covered with thick woods. Into these forests, twenty men
+penetrated for more than six miles and only returned to the shore
+from the fear of losing themselves. In this walk, having met two
+women, one young and the other old, with some children, they seized
+one of the latter who might be about eight years old, with the idea
+of taking him away to France; but they could not do the same with
+the young woman, who began to cry with all her might, calling for
+aid from her compatriots, who were hidden in the wood. In this place
+the savages were whiter than any of those hitherto met with; they
+snared birds and used a bow of very hard wood, and arrows tipped
+with fish-bones. Their canoes, twenty feet long and four feet wide,
+were hollowed by fire out of a trunk of a tree. Wild vines abounded
+and climbed over the trees in long festoons as they do in Lombardy.
+With a little cultivation they would no doubt produce excellent
+wine--"for the fruit is sweet and pleasant like ours, and we thought
+that the natives were not insensible to it, for in all directions
+where these vines grew, they had taken care to cut away the branches
+of the surrounding trees so that the fruit might ripen." Wild roses,
+lilies, violets, and all kinds of odoriferous plants and flowers,
+new to the Europeans, carpeted the ground everywhere, and filled the
+air with sweet perfumes.
+
+[Illustration: Canadian Landscape.]
+
+After remaining for three days in this enchanting place, the
+Frenchmen continued to follow the coast northwards, sailing by day
+and casting anchor at night. As the land trended towards the east,
+they went 150 miles further in that direction, and discovered an
+island of triangular shape about thirty miles distant from the
+continent, similar in size to the Island of Rhodes, and upon which
+they bestowed the name of the mother of Francis I., Louisa of Savoy.
+Then they reached another island forty-five miles off, which
+possessed a magnificent harbour and of which the inhabitants came in
+crowds to visit the strange vessels. Two kings, especially, were of
+fine stature and great beauty. They were dressed in deer-skins, with
+the head bare, the hair carried back and tied in a tuft, and they
+wore on the neck a large chain ornamented with coloured stones. This
+was the most remarkable nation which they had until now met with.
+"The women are graceful," says the narrative published by Ramusio.
+"Some wore the skins of the lynx on their arms; their head was
+ornamented with their plaited hair and long plaits hung down on both
+sides of the chest; others had headdresses which recalled those of
+the Egyptian and Syrian women; only the elderly women, and those who
+were married, wore pendants in their ears of worked copper." This
+land is situated on the same parallel as Rome, in 41 degrees 40
+minutes, but its climate is much colder.
+
+[Illustration: Two Canadian Kings.]
+
+On the 5th of May, Verrazzano left this port and sailed along the
+sea-shore for 450 miles. At last he reached a country of which the
+inhabitants resembled but little any of those whom he had hitherto
+met with. They were so wild that it was impossible to carry on any
+trade with them, or any sustained intercourse. What they appeared to
+esteem above everything else were fish-hooks, knives, and all
+articles in metal, attaching no value to all the trifling baubles
+which up to this time had served for barter. Twenty-five armed men
+landed and advanced from four to six miles into the interior of the
+country. They were received by the natives with flights of arrows,
+after which the latter retired into the immense forests which
+appeared to cover the whole country.
+
+One hundred and fifty miles further on spreads out a vast
+archipelago composed of thirty-two islands, all near the land,
+separated by narrow canals, which reminded the Venetian navigator of
+the archipelagos which in the Adriatic border the coasts of
+Sclavonia and Dalmatia. At length, 450 miles further on, in latitude
+50 degrees, the French came to lands which had been previously
+discovered by the Bretons. Finding themselves then short of
+provisions, and having reconnoitred the coast of America for a
+distance of 2100 miles, they returned to France, and disembarked
+safely at Dieppe in the month of July, 1524.
+
+Some historians relate that Verrazzano was made prisoner by the
+savages who inhabit the coast of Labrador, and was eaten by them. A
+fact which is simply impossible, since he addressed from Dieppe to
+Francis I. the account of his voyage which we have just abridged.
+Besides, the Indians of these regions were not anthropophagi.
+Certain authors, but we have not been able to discover on the
+authority of what documents, nor under what circumstances this
+happened, relate that Verrazzano having fallen into the power of the
+Spaniards, had been taken to Spain and there hanged. It is wiser to
+admit that we know nothing certain about Verrazzano, and that we are
+totally ignorant what rewards his long voyage procured for him.
+Perhaps when some learned man shall have looked through our archives
+(of which the abstract and inventory are far from being finished),
+he may recover some new documents; but for the present we must
+confine ourselves to the narrative of Ramusio.
+
+[Illustration: Jacques Cartier. _From an old print_.]
+
+Ten years later a captain of St. Malo, named Jacques Cartier, born
+on the 21st of December, 1484, conceived the project of establishing
+a colony in the northern part of America. Being favourably received
+by Admiral Philippe de Chabot, and by Francis I., who asked to see
+the clause in Adam's will which disinherited him of the New World in
+favour of the kings of Spain and Portugal, Cartier left St. Malo
+with two vessels on the 20th of April, 1534. The vessel which
+carried him weighed only sixty tons and carried a crew of sixty-one
+men. At the end of only twenty days, so favourable was the voyage,
+Cartier discovered Newfoundland at Cape Bonavista. He then went
+northwards as far as Bird Island, which he found surrounded by ice,
+all broken up and melting, but on which he was able, nevertheless,
+to lay in a stock of five or six tons of guillemots, puffins, and
+penguins, without reckoning those which were eaten fresh. He then
+explored all the coast of the island, which at this time bore a
+number of Breton names, thus proving the assiduous manner in which
+the French frequented these shores. Then penetrating into the Strait
+of Belle-Isle, which separates the continent from the Island of
+Newfoundland, Cartier arrived at the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Along the
+whole of this coast the harbours are excellent: "If the land only
+corresponded to the goodness of the harbours," says the St. Malo
+sailor, "it would be a great blessing; but one ought not to call it
+_land_; it is rather pebbles and savage rocks and places fit for
+wild beasts: as for all the land towards the north, I never saw as
+much earth there as would fill a tumbrel." After having coasted
+along the continent, Cartier was cast by a tempest upon the west
+coast of Newfoundland, where he explored Cape Royal and Cape Milk,
+the Columba Islands, Cape St. John, the Magdalen Islands, and the
+Bay of Miramichi on the continent. In this place he had some
+intercourse with the savages, who showed "a great and marvellous
+eagerness in the acquisition of iron tools and other things, always
+dancing and performing various ceremonies, among others throwing
+sea-water on their heads with their hands; so well did they receive
+us that they gave us all that they had, keeping back nothing." The
+next day the number of the savages was even greater, and our French
+sailors made an ample harvest of furs and skins of animals.
+
+After having explored the Bay of Chaleurs, Cartier arrived at the
+entrance of the estuary of the St. Lawrence, where he saw some
+natives, who possessed neither the appearance nor the language of
+the first. "The latter may truly be called savages, for no poorer
+people can be found in the world, and I think that all put together,
+excepting their boats and their nets, they could not have had the
+value of two pence half-penny. They have the head entirely shaved,
+with the exception of a lock of hair on the very top, which they
+allow to grow as long as a horse's tail, and which they fasten upon
+the head with some small copper needles. Their only dwelling is
+underneath their boats, which they overturn and then stretch
+themselves on the ground beneath them without any covering."
+
+After having planted a large cross in this place, Jacques Cartier
+obtained the chief's permission to take away with him two of his
+children, whom he was to bring back again on his next voyage. Then
+he set out again for France, and landed at St. Malo on the 5th of
+September, 1534.
+
+The following year, on the 19th of May, Cartier left St. Malo at the
+head of a fleet composed of three vessels called the _Grande_ and
+the _Petite Hermine_ and the _Emerillon_ on board of which some
+gentlemen of high rank had taken passages, among whom may be named
+Charles de la Pommeraye, and Claude de Pont-Briant, son of the Sieur
+de Moncevelles and cup-bearer to the Dauphin.
+
+Very soon the squadron was dispersed by the storm, and could not be
+brought together again until it reached Newfoundland. After having
+landed at Bird Island, in Whitesand harbour, which is in Castle Bay,
+Cartier penetrated into the Bay of St. Lawrence. He discovered there
+the Island of Natiscotec which we call Anticosti, and entered a
+great river called Hochelaga, which leads to Canada. On the banks of
+this river lies the country called Saguenay, whence comes the red
+copper, to which the two savages whom he had taken on his first
+voyage gave the name of _caquetdaze_. But before entering the St.
+Lawrence, Cartier wished to explore the whole gulf, to see if no
+passage existed to the north. He afterwards returned to the Bay of
+the Seven Islands, went up the river, and soon reached the river
+Saguenay, which falls into the St. Lawrence on its northern bank. A
+little further on, after passing by fourteen islands, he entered the
+Canadian territories, which no traveller before him had ever visited.
+
+"The next day the lord of Canada, called Donnacona, with twelve
+boats and accompanied by sixteen men, approached the ships. When
+abreast of the smallest of our vessels he began to make a palaver or
+preachment in their fashion, while moving his body and limbs in a
+marvellous manner, which is a sign of joy and confidence, and when
+he arrived at the flag-ship where were the two Indians who had been
+brought back from France, the said chief spoke to them and they to
+him. And they began to relate to him what they had seen in France
+and the good treatment which they had received, at which the said
+chief was very joyful, and begged the captain to give him his arms
+that he might kiss and embrace them, which is their mode of welcome
+in this country. The country of Stadacone, or St. Charles, is
+fertile and full of very fine trees of the same nature and kind as
+in France, such as oaks, elms, plum-trees, yews, cedars, vines,
+hawthorns--which bear fruit as large as damsons--and other trees;
+beneath them grows hemp as good as that of France." Cartier
+succeeded afterwards in reaching with his boats and his galleon a
+place which is the Richelieu of the present day, next, a great lake
+formed by the river--St. Peter's Lake--and at last he arrived at
+Hochelaga or Montreal, which is 630 miles from the mouth of the St.
+Lawrence. In this place are "ploughed lands and large and beautiful
+plains full of the corn of the country, which is like the millet of
+Brazil, as large or larger than peas, on which they live as we do on
+wheat. And among these plains is placed and seated the said town of
+Hochelaga near to and joining on to some high ground which is around
+the town; and which is well cultivated and quite small; from the top
+of it one can see very far. We named this mountain the _Mount
+Royal_."
+
+The welcome given to Jacques Cartier could not have been more
+cordial. The chief or Agouhanna, who was crippled in all his limbs,
+begged the captain to touch them, as if he had asked him for a cure.
+Then the blind, and those who were blind in one eye, the lame, and
+the impotent came and sat down near Jacques Cartier, that he might
+touch them, so thoroughly were they persuaded that he was a god
+descended to heal them. "The said captain, seeing the faith and
+piety of this people, recited the Gospel of St. John, namely: _In
+principio_, making the sign of the cross over the poor sick people,
+praying GOD that he would give them the knowledge of our holy faith
+and grace to accept Christianity and baptism. Then the said captain
+took a book of Hours and read aloud the Passion of our Saviour, so
+well that all those present could hear it, all the poor people being
+quite silent, looking up to heaven and using the same ceremonies as
+they saw us use." After making themselves acquainted with the
+country, which could be seen for ninety miles around from the top of
+Mount Royal, and having collected some information about the
+water-falls and rapids of the St. Lawrence, Jacques Cartier returned
+towards Canada, where he did not delay to rejoin his ships. We owe
+to him the first information on tobacco for smoking, which does not
+seem to have been in use throughout the whole extent of the New
+World. "They have a herb," he says, "of which they collect great
+quantities during the summer for the winter; they esteem it highly,
+and the men alone use it in the following manner: they dry it in the
+sun and carry it on their necks in a small skin of an animal in the
+shape of a bag, with a horn of stone or of wood, then constantly
+they make the said herb into powder, and put it into one of the ends
+of the said horn; they then place a live coal upon it and blow
+through the other end, and so fill their body with smoke that it
+issues from the mouth and nostrils, as if from the shaft of a
+chimney. We have tried the said smoke, but after having put it into
+our mouths, it seemed as if there were ground pepper in them, so hot
+is it." In the month of December the inhabitants of Stadacone were
+attacked by an infectious disease which proved to be the scurvy.
+"This malady spread so rapidly in our vessels that by the middle of
+February out of our 110 men there were but ten in good health."
+Neither prayers, nor orisons, nor vows to our Lady of Roquamadour
+brought any relief. Twenty-five Frenchmen perished up to the 18th of
+April, and there were not four amongst them who were not attacked by
+the malady. But at this time a savage chief informed Jacques Cartier
+that a decoction of the leaves and sap of a certain tree, probably
+either the Canadian fir-tree or the barberry, was very salutary. As
+soon as two or three had experienced its beneficial effects "there
+was a crowding as if they would have killed each other to be the
+first to get the medicine; and one of the tallest and largest trees
+I ever saw was used in less than eight days, which had such an
+effect that if all the doctors of Louvain and Montpellier had been
+there with all the drugs of Alexandria, they had not done as much in
+a year as the said tree accomplished in eight days."
+
+Some time after, Cartier, having noticed that Donnacona was trying
+to excite sedition against the French, caused him to be seized, as
+well as nine other savages, that he might take them to France, where
+they died. He set sail from the harbour of St. Croix on the 6th of
+May, descended the St. Lawrence, and after a voyage which was not
+marked by any incident, he landed at St. Malo on the 16th of July,
+1536.
+
+Francis I., in consequence of the report of this voyage which the St.
+Malo captain made to him, resolved to take effective possession of
+the country. After having appointed Francois de la Roque, Sieur de
+Roberval, viceroy of Canada, he caused five vessels to be fitted out,
+which being laden with provisions and ammunition for two years, were
+to transport Roberval and a certain number of soldiers, artizans,
+and gentlemen to the new colony, which they were about to establish.
+The five vessels set sail on the 23rd of May, 1541. They met with
+such contrary winds that it took them three months to reach
+Newfoundland. Cartier did not arrive at the harbour of St. Croix
+till the 23rd of August. As soon as he had landed his provisions, he
+sent back two of his vessels to France with letters for the king,
+telling him what had been done, also that the Sieur de Roberval had
+not yet appeared, and that they did not know what had happened to
+him. Then he had works commenced to clear the land, to build a fort,
+and to lay the first foundations of the town of Quebec. He next set
+out for Hochelaga, taking with him Martin de Paimpont and other
+gentlemen, and went to examine the three waterfalls of Sainte Marie,
+La Chine, and St. Louis; on his return to St. Croix, he found
+Roberval had just arrived. Cartier returned to St. Malo in the month
+of October, 1542, where, probably ten years later, he died. As to
+the new colony, Roberval having perished in a second voyage, it
+vegetated, and was nothing more than a factory until 1608, the date
+of the foundation of Quebec by M. de Champlain, of whom we shall
+relate the services and discoveries a little further on.
+
+We have just seen how Cartier, who had set out first to seek for the
+north-west passage, had been led to take possession of the country
+and to lay the foundations of the colony of Canada. In England a
+similar movement had begun, set on foot by the writings of Sir
+Humphrey Gilbert and of Richard Wills. They ended by carrying public
+opinion with them, and demonstrating that it was not more difficult
+to find this passage than it had been to discover the Strait of
+Magellan. One of the most ardent partizans of this search was a bold
+sailor, called Martin Frobisher, who after having many times applied
+to rich ship-owners, at last found in Ambrose Dudley, Earl of
+Warwick, the favourite of Queen Elizabeth, a patron, whose pecuniary
+help enabled him to equip a pinnace and two poor barks of from
+twenty to twenty-five tons' burden. It was with means thus feeble,
+that the intrepid navigator went to encounter the ice in localities
+which had never been visited since the time of the Northmen. Setting
+out from Deptford on the 8th of June, 1576, he sighted the south of
+Greenland, which he took for the Frisland of Zeno. Soon stopped by
+the ice, he was obliged to return to Labrador without being able to
+land there, and he entered Hudson's Straits. After having coasted
+along Savage and Resolution Islands, he entered a strait which has
+received his name, but which is also called by some geographers,
+Lunley's inlet. He landed at Cumberland, took possession of the
+country in the name of Queen Elizabeth, and entered into some
+relations with the natives. The cold increased rapidly, and he was
+obliged to return to England. Frobisher only brought back some
+rather vague scientific and geographical details about the countries
+which he had visited; he received, however, a most flattering
+welcome when he showed a heavy black stone in which a little gold
+was found. At once all imaginations were on fire. Several lords and
+the Queen herself contributed to the expense of a new armament,
+consisting of a vessel of 200 tons, with a crew of 100 men, and two
+smaller barks, which carried six months' provision both for war and
+for nourishment. Frobisher had some experienced sailors--Fenton,
+York, George Best, and C. Hall, under his command. On the 31st of
+May, 1577, the expedition set sail, and soon sighted Greenland, of
+which the mountains were covered with snow, and the shores defended
+by a rampart of ice. The weather was bad. Exceedingly dense
+fogs,--as thick as pease-soup, said the English sailors,--islands of
+ice a mile and a half in circumferance, floating mountains which
+were sunk seventy or eighty fathoms in the sea, such were the
+obstacles which prevented Frobisher from reaching before the 9th of
+August, the strait which he had discovered during his previous
+campaign. The English took possession of the country, and pursued
+both upon land and sea some poor Esquimaux, who, wounded "in this
+encounter, jumped in despair from the top of the rocks into the
+sea," says Forster in his _Voyages in the North_, "which would not
+have happened if they had shown themselves more submissive, or if we
+could have made them understand that we were not their enemies." A
+great quantity of stones similar to that which had been brought to
+England were soon discovered. They were of gold marcasite, and 200
+tons of this substance was soon collected. In their delight, the
+English sailors set up a memorial column on a peak to which they
+gave the name of Warwick Mount, and performed solemn acts of
+thanksgiving. Frobisher afterwards went ninety miles further on in
+the same strait, as far as a small island, which received the name
+of Smith's Island. There the English found two women, of whom they
+took one with her child, but left the other on account of her
+extreme ugliness. Suspecting, so much did superstition and ignorance
+flourish at this time, that this woman had cloven feet, they made
+her take the coverings off her feet, to satisfy themselves that they
+really were made like their own. Frobisher, now perceiving that the
+cold was increasing, and wishing to place the treasures which he
+thought he had collected, in a place of safety, resolved to give up
+for the present any farther search for the north-west passage. He
+then set sail for England, where he arrived at the end of September,
+after weathering a storm which dispersed his fleet. The man, woman,
+and child who had been carried off were presented to the Queen. It
+is said with regard to them, that the man, seeing at Bristol
+Frobisher's trumpeter on horseback wished to imitate him, and
+mounted with his face turned towards the tail of the animal. These
+savages were the objects of much curiosity, and obtained permission
+from the Queen to shoot all kinds of birds, even swans, on the
+Thames, a thing which was forbidden to every one else under the most
+severe penalties. They did not long survive, and died before the
+child was fifteen months old.
+
+People were not slow in discovering that the stones brought back by
+Frobisher really contained gold. The nation, but above all the
+higher classes, were immediately seized with a fever bordering on
+delirium. They had found a Peru, an Eldorado. Queen Elizabeth, in
+spite of her practical good sense, yielded to the current. She
+resolved to build a fort in the newly discovered country, to which
+she gave the name of _Meta incognita_, (unknown boundary) and to
+leave there, with 100 men as garrison, under the command of Captains
+Fenton, Best, and Philpot, three vessels which should take in a
+cargo of the auriferous stones. These 100 men were carefully chosen;
+there were bakers, carpenters, masons, gold-refiners, and others
+belonging to all the various handicrafts. The fleet was composed of
+fifteen vessels, which set sail from Harwich on the 31st of May,
+1578. Twenty days later the western coasts of Frisland were
+discovered. Whales played round the vessels in innumerable troops.
+It is related even that one of the vessels propelled by a favourable
+wind, struck against a whale with such force that the violence of
+the shock stopped the ship at once, and that the whale after
+uttering a loud cry, made a spring out of the water and then was
+suddenly swallowed up. Two days later, the fleet met with a dead
+whale which they thought must be the one struck by the _Salamander_.
+When Frobisher came to the entrance of the strait which has received
+his name, he found it blocked up with floating ice. "The barque
+_Dennis_, 100 tons," says the old account of George Best, "received
+such a shock from an iceberg that she sank in sight of the whole
+fleet. Following upon this catastrophe, a sudden and horrible
+tempest arose from the south-east, the vessels were surrounded on
+all sides by the ice; they left much of it, between which they could
+pass, behind them, and found still more before them through which it
+was impossible for them to penetrate. Certain ships, either having
+found a place less blocked with ice, or one where it was possible to
+proceed, furled sails and drifted; of the others, several stopped
+and cast their anchors upon a great island of ice. The latter were
+so rapidly enclosed by an infinite number of islets of ice and
+fragments of icebergs, that the English were obliged to resign
+themselves and their ships to the mercy of the ice, and to protect
+the ships with cables, cushions, mats, boards, and all kinds of
+articles which were suspended to the sides, in order to defend them
+from the fearful shocks and blows of the ice." Frobisher himself was
+thrown out of his course. Finding the impossibility of rallying his
+squadron, he sailed along the west coast of Greenland, as far as the
+strait which was soon to be called Davis' Strait, and penetrated as
+far as the Countess of Warwick Bay. When he had repaired his vessels
+with the wood which was to have been used in the building of a
+dwelling, he loaded the ships with 500 tons of stones similar to
+those which he had already brought home. Judging the season to be
+then too far advanced, and considering also that the provisions had
+been either consumed, or lost in the _Dennis_, that the wood for
+building had been used for repairing the vessels, and having lost 40
+men, he set out on his return to England on the 31st of August.
+Tempests and storms accompanied him to the shores of his own country.
+As to the results of his expedition they were almost none as to
+discoveries, and the stones, which he had put on board in the midst
+of so many dangers, were valueless.
+
+This was the last Arctic voyage in which Frobisher took part. In
+1585 we meet with him again as vice-admiral, under Drake; in 1588 he
+distinguished himself against the _Invincible Armada_; in 1590 he
+was with Sir Walter Raleigh's fleet on the coast of Spain; finally
+in a descent on the coast of France, he was so seriously wounded
+that he had only time to bring his squadron back to Portsmouth
+before he died. If Frobisher's voyages had only gain for their
+motive, we must put this down not to the navigator himself, but to
+the passions of the period, and it is not the less true that in
+difficult circumstances, and with means the insufficiency of which
+makes us smile, he gave proof of courage, talent, and perseverance.
+To Frobisher is due, in one word, the glory of having shown the
+route to his countrymen, and of having made the first discoveries in
+the localities where the English name was destined to render itself
+illustrious.
+
+If it became necessary to abandon the hope of finding in these
+circumpolar regions countries in which gold abounded as it did in
+Peru, this was no ground for not continuing to seek there for a
+passage to China; an opinion supported by very skilful sailors, and
+one which found many adherents among the merchants of London. By the
+aid of several high personages, two ships were equipped; the
+_Sunshine_, of fifty tons' burden and carrying a crew of
+twenty-three in number, and the _Moonshine_, of thirty-five tons.
+They quitted Portsmouth on the 7th of June, 1585, under the command
+of John Davis.
+
+Davis discovered the entrance of the strait which received his name,
+and was obliged to cross immense fields of drifting ice, after
+having reassured his crew, who were frightened while in the midst of
+a dense fog, by the dash of the icebergs, and the splitting of the
+blocks of ice. On the 20th July, Davis discovered the Land of
+Desolation, but without being able to disembark upon it. Nine days
+later he entered Gilbert Bay, where he found a peaceable population,
+who gave him sealskins and furs in exchange for some trifling
+articles. These natives, some days afterwards, arrived in such
+numbers, that there were not less than thirty-seven canoes around
+Davis' vessels. In this place, the navigator perceived an enormous
+quantity of drift wood, amongst which he mentions an entire tree,
+which could not have been less than sixty feet in length. On the 6th
+of August, he cast anchor in a fine bay called Tottness; near a
+mountain of the colour of gold, which received the name of Raleigh,
+at the same time, he gave the names of Dyer and Walsingham to two
+capes of that land of Cumberland.
+
+During eleven days, Davis still sailed northwards on a very open sea,
+free from ice, and of which the water had the colour of the Ocean.
+Already he believed himself at the entrance of the sea, which
+communicated with the Pacific, when all at once the weather changed,
+and became so foggy, that he was forced to return to Yarmouth, where
+he landed on the 30th of September.
+
+Davis had the skill to make the owners of his ships partake in the
+hope which he had conceived. Thus on the 7th of May (1586), he set
+out again with the two ships which had made the previous voyage. To
+them were added the _Mermaid_ of 120 tons, and the pinnace _North
+Star_. When, on the 25th of June, he arrived at the southern point
+of Greenland, Davis despatched the _Sunshine_ and the _North Star_
+towards the north, in order to search for a passage upon the eastern
+coast, whilst he pursued the same route as in the preceding year,
+and penetrated into the strait which bears his name as far as 69
+degrees. But there was a much greater quantity of ice this year, and
+on the 17th of July, the expedition fell in with an "icefield" of
+such extent that it took thirteen days to coast along it. The wind
+after passing over this icy plain was so cold, that the rigging and
+sails were frozen, and the sailors refused to go any further. It was
+needful, therefore, to descend again to the east-south-east. There
+Davis explored the land of Cumberland, without finding the strait he
+was seeking, and after a skirmish with the Esquimaux, in which three
+of his men were killed, and two wounded, he set out on the 19th of
+September, on his return to England.
+
+Although once more his researches had not been crowned with success,
+Davis still had good hope, as is witnessed by a letter, which he
+wrote to the Company, in which he said that he had reduced the
+existence of the passage to a species of certainty. Foreseeing,
+however, that he would have more trouble in obtaining the despatch
+of a new expedition, he added that the expenses of the enterprise
+would be fully covered by the profit arising from the fishery of
+walrus, seals, and whales, which were so numerous in those parts,
+that they appeared to have there established their head-quarters. On
+the 15th of May, 1587, he set sail with the _Sunshine_, the
+_Elizabeth_ of Dartmouth, and the _Helen_ of London. This time he
+went farther north than he had ever done before, and reached 72
+degrees 12 minutes, that is to say, nearly the latitude of Upernavik,
+and he descried Cape Henderson's Hope. Stopped by the ice, and
+forced to retrace his way, he sailed in Frobisher's Strait, and
+after having crossed a large gulf, he arrived, in 61 degrees 10
+minutes latitude, in sight of a cape to which he gave the name of
+Chudleigh. This cape is a part of the Labrador coast, and forms the
+southern entrance to Hudson's Bay. After coasting along the American
+shores as far as 52 degrees, Davis set out for England, which he
+reached on the 15th of September.
+
+Although the solution of the problem had not been found, yet
+nevertheless, precious results had been obtained, but results to
+which people at that period did not attach any great value. Nearly
+the half of Baffin's Bay had been explored, and clear ideas had been
+obtained of its shores, and of the people inhabiting them. These
+were considerable acquisitions, from a geographical point of view,
+but they were scarcely those which would greatly affect the
+merchants of the city. In consequence, the attempts at finding a
+north-west passage were abandoned by the English for a somewhat long
+period.
+
+A new nation was just come into existence. The Dutch--while scarcely
+delivered from the Spanish yoke,--inaugurated that commercial policy,
+which was destined to make the greatness and prosperity of their
+country, by the successive despatch of several expeditions to seek
+for a way to China by the north-east; the same project formerly
+conceived by Sebastian Cabot, and which had given to England the
+Russian trade. With their practical instinct, the Dutch had
+acquainted themselves with English navigation. They had even
+established factories at Kola, and at Archangel, but they wished to
+proceed further in their search for new markets. The Sea of Kara
+appearing to them too difficult, they resolved, acting on the advice
+of the cosmographer Plancius, to try a new way by the north of Nova
+Zembla. The merchants of Amsterdam applied therefore, to an
+experienced sailor, William Barentz, born in the island of
+Terschelling, near the Texel. This navigator set out from the Texel
+in 1594, on board the _Mercure_, doubled the North Cape, saw the
+island of Waigatz, and found himself, on the 4th of July, in sight
+of the coast of Nova Zembla, in latitude 73 degrees 25 minutes. He
+sailed along the coast, doubled Cape Nassau on the 10th of July, and
+three days later he came in contact with the ice. Until the 3rd of
+August, he attempted to open a passage through the pack, testing the
+mass of ice on various sides, going up as far as the Orange Islands
+at the north-western extremity of Nova Zembla, sailing over 1700
+miles of ground, and putting his ship about no less than eighty-one
+times. We do not imagine that any navigator had hitherto displayed
+such perseverance. Let us add that he turned this long cruise to
+account, to fix astronomically, and with remarkable accuracy, the
+latitude of various points. At last, wearied with the fruitless
+boxing about along the edge of the pack, the crew cried for mercy,
+and it became necessary to return to the Texel.
+
+The results obtained were judged so important, that the following
+year, the Dutch States-General entrusted to Jacob van Heemskerke,
+the command of a fleet of seven vessels, of which Barentz was named
+chief pilot. After touching at various points upon the coasts of
+Nova Zembla and of Asia, this squadron was forced by the pack to go
+back without having made any important discovery, and it returned to
+Holland on the 18th of September.
+
+As a general rule governments do not possess as much perseverance as
+do private individuals. The large fleet of the year 1595, had cost a
+great sum of money, and had produced no results; this was sufficient
+to discourage the States-General. The merchants of Amsterdam
+therefore, substituting private enterprise for the action of the
+government, which merely promised a reward to the man who should
+first discover the north-east passage--fitted out two vessels, of
+which the command was given to Heemskerke and to Jan Corneliszoon
+Rijp, while Barentz, who had only the title of pilot, was virtually
+the leader of the expedition. The historian of the voyage, Gerrit de
+Veer, was also on board as second mate.
+
+The Dutchmen sailed from Amsterdam on the 10th of May, 1596, passed
+by the Shetland and Faroe Islands, and on the 5th of June, saw the
+first masses of ice, "whereat we were much amazed, believing at
+first that they were white swans." They soon arrived to the south of
+Spitzbergen, at Bear Island, upon which they landed on the 11th of
+June. They collected there a great number of sea-gulls' eggs, and
+after much trouble killed at some distance inland a white bear,
+destined to give its name to the land which Barentz had just
+discovered. On the 19th of June, they disembarked upon some
+far-spreading land, which they took to be a part of Greenland, and
+to which on account of the sharp-pointed mountains, they gave the
+name of Spitzbergen; of this they explored a considerable portion of
+the western coast. Forced by the Polar pack to go southwards again
+to Bear Island, they separated there from Rijp, who was once more to
+endeavour to find a way by the north. On the 11th of July,
+Heemskerke and Barentz were in the parts of Cape Kanin, and five
+days later they had reached the western coast of Nova Zembla, which
+was called Willoughby's Land. They then altered their course, and
+again going northwards, they arrived on the 19th at the Island of
+Crosses, where the ice which was still attached to the shore, barred
+their passage. They remained in this place until the 4th of August,
+and two days later they doubled Cape Nassau. After several changes
+of course, which it would take too long to relate, they reached the
+Orange Islands at the northern extremity of Nova Zembla. They began
+to descend the eastern coast, but were soon obliged to enter a
+harbour, where they found themselves completely blocked in by the
+pack-ice, and in which "they were forced in great cold, poverty,
+misery, and grief, to stay all the winter." This was on the 26th of
+August. "On the 30th the masses of ice began to pile themselves one
+upon another against the ship, with snow falling. The ship was
+lifted up and surrounded in such a manner, that all that was about
+her and around her began to crack and split. It seemed as if the
+ship must break into a thousand pieces, a thing most terrible to see
+and to hear, and fit to make one's hair stand on end. The ship was
+afterwards in equal danger, when the ice formed beneath, raising her
+and bearing her up as though she had been lifted by some
+instrument." Soon the ship cracked to such a degree, that prudence
+dictated the debarkation of some of the provisions, sails, gunpowder,
+lead, the arquebuses as well as other arms, and the erection of a
+tent or hut, in which the men might be sheltered from the snow and
+from any attacks by bears. Some days later, some sailors who had
+advanced from four to six miles inland, found near a river of fresh
+water, a quantity of drift-wood; they discovered there also the
+traces of wild goats and of reindeer. On the 11th of September,
+seeing that the bay was filled with enormous blocks of ice piled one
+upon the other, and welded together, the Dutchmen perceived that
+they would be obliged to winter in this place, and resolved, "in
+order to be better defended against the cold, and armed against the
+wild beasts," to build a house there, which might be able to contain
+them all, while they would leave to itself the ship, which became
+each day less safe and comfortable. Fortunately, they found upon the
+shore whole trees, coming doubtless from Siberia, and driven here by
+the current, and in such quantity that they sufficed not only for
+the construction of their habitation, but also for firewood
+throughout the winter.
+
+[Illustration: Barentz's Ship. _From an old print_.]
+
+Never yet had any European wintered in these regions, in the midst
+of that slothful and immovable sea, which according to the very
+false expressions used by Tacitus, forms the girdle of the world,
+and in which is heard the uproar caused by the rising of the sun.
+The Dutchmen, therefore, were unable to picture to themselves the
+sufferings which threatened them. They bore them, however, with
+admirable patience, without a single murmur, and without the least
+want of discipline or attempt at mutiny. The conduct of these brave
+seamen, quite ignorant of what so apparently dark a future might
+have in reserve for them, but who with wonderful faith had "placed
+their affairs in the hands of God," may be always proposed as an
+example even to the sailors of the present day. It may well be said
+that they had really in their heart the _aes triplex_ of which
+Horace speaks. It was owing to the skill, knowledge, and foresight
+of their leader Barentz, as much as to their own spirit of obedience,
+that the Dutch sailors ever came forth from Nova Zembla, which
+threatened to be their tomb, and again saw the shores of their own
+country.
+
+[Illustration: Interior view of the house. _From an old print_.]
+
+The bears, which were extremely numerous at that period of the year,
+made frequent visits to the crew. More than one was killed, but the
+Dutchmen contented themselves with skinning them for the sake of
+their fur, and did not eat them, probably because they believed the
+flesh to be unwholesome. It would have been, however, a considerable
+addition to their food, and would have saved them from using their
+salted meat, and thus they might longer have escaped the attacks of
+scurvy. But that we may not anticipate, let us continue to follow
+the journal of Gerrit de Veer.
+
+On the 23rd September, the carpenter died, and was interred the next
+day in the cleft of a mountain, it being impossible to put a spade
+into the ground, on account of the severity of the frost. The
+following days were devoted to the transport of driftwood and the
+building of the house. To cover it in, it was necessary to demolish
+the fore and aft cabins of the ship; the roof was put on, on the 2nd
+October, and a piece of frozen snow was set up like a May pole. On
+the 31st September, there was a strong wind from the north-west, and
+as far as the eye could reach, the sea was entirely open and without
+ice. "But we remained as though taken and arrested in the ice, and
+the ship was raised full two or three feet upon the ice, and we
+could imagine nothing else but that the water must be frozen quite
+to the bottom, although it was three fathoms and a half in depth."
+
+On the 12th October, they began to sleep in the house, although it
+was not completed. On the 21st, the greater part of the provisions,
+furniture, and everything which might be wanted was withdrawn from
+the ship, for they felt certain that the sun was about to disappear.
+A chimney was fixed in the centre of the roof, inside a Dutch clock
+was hung up, bed-places were formed along the walls, and a wine-cask
+was converted into a bath, for the surgeon had wisely prescribed to
+the men frequent bathing as a preservative of health. The quantity
+of snow which fell during this winter, was really marvellous. The
+house disappeared entirely beneath this thick covering, which,
+however, sensibly raised the temperature within. Every time that
+they wished to go forth, the Dutchmen were obliged to hollow out a
+long corridor beneath the snow. Each night they first heard the
+bears, and then the foxes, which walked upon the top of the dwelling,
+and tried to tear off some planks from the roof, that they might get
+into the house. So the sailors were accustomed to climb into the
+chimney, whence, as from a watch-tower they could shoot the animals
+and drive them off. They had manufactured a great number of snares,
+into which fell numbers of blue foxes, the valuable fur of which
+served as a protection against cold, while their flesh enabled the
+sailors to economize their provisions. Always cheerful and good
+tempered, they bore equally well the ennui of the long polar night,
+and the severity of the cold, which was so extreme, that during two
+of three days, when they had not been able to keep so large a fire
+as usual, on account of the smoke being driven back again by the
+wind, it froze so hard in the house, that the walls and the floor
+were covered with ice to the depth of two fingers, even in the cots
+where these poor people were sleeping. It was necessary to thaw the
+sherry, when it was served out, as was done every two days, at the
+rate of half a pint.
+
+"On the 7th of December, the rough weather continued, with a violent
+storm coming from the north-east, which produced horrible cold. We
+knew no means of guarding ourselves against it, and while we were
+consulting together, what we could do for the best, one of our men
+in this extreme necessity proposed to make use of the coal which we
+had brought from the ship into our house, and to make a fire of it,
+because it burns with great heat and lasts a long time. In the
+evening we lighted a large fire of this coal, which threw out a
+great heat, but we did not provide against what might happen, for as
+the heat revived us completely, we tried to retain it for a long
+time. To this end we thought it well to stop up all the doors and
+the chimney, to keep in the delightful warmth. And thus, each went
+to repose in his cot, and animated by the acquired warmth, we
+discoursed long together. But in the end, we were seized with a
+giddiness in the head, some however, more than others; this was
+first perceived to be the case with one of our men who was ill, and
+who for this reason, had less power of resistance. And we also
+ourselves were sensible of a great pain which attacked us, so that
+several of the bravest came out of their cots and began by
+unstopping the chimney, and afterwards opening the door. But the man
+who opened the door fainted, and fell senseless upon the snow, on
+perceiving which, I ran to him and found him lying on the ground in
+a fainting fit. I went in haste to seek for some vinegar, and with
+it I rubbed his face until he recovered from his swoon. Afterwards,
+when we were somewhat restored, the captain gave to each a little
+wine, in order to comfort our hearts...."
+
+"On the 11th, the weather continued fine, but so extremely cold,
+that no one who had not felt it could imagine it; even our shoes,
+frozen to our feet, were as hard as horn, and inside they were
+covered with ice in such a manner that we could no longer use them.
+The garments which we wore were quite white with frost and ice."
+
+On Christmas Day, the 25th December, the weather was as rough as on
+the preceding days. The foxes made havoc upon the house, which one
+of the sailors declared to be a bad omen, and upon being asked why
+he said so, answered, "Because we cannot put them in a pot, or on
+the spit, which would have been a good omen."
+
+If the year 1596, had closed with excessive cold, the commencement
+of 1597 was not more agreeable. Most violent storms of snow, and
+hard frost prevented the Dutchmen from leaving the house. They
+celebrated Twelfth Night with gaiety, as is related in the simple
+and touching narrative of Gerrit de Veer. "For this purpose, we
+besought the captain to allow us a little diversion in the midst of
+our sufferings, and to let us use a part of the wine which was
+destined to be served out to us every other day. Having two pounds
+of flour we made some pancakes with oil, and each one brought a
+white biscuit, which we soaked in the wine and eat. And it seemed to
+us that we were in our own country, and amongst our relations and
+friends; and we were as much diverted as if a banquet had been given
+in our honour, so much did we relish our entertainment. We also made
+a Twelfth-Night king, by means of paper, and our master gunner was
+king of Nova Zembla, which is a country enclosed between two seas,
+and of the great length of six hundred miles."
+
+After the 21st January, the foxes became less numerous, the bears
+reappeared, and daylight began to increase, which enabled the
+Dutchmen, who had been so long confined to the house, to go out a
+little. On the 24th, one of the sailors, who had been long ill, died,
+and was buried in the snow at some distance from the house. On the
+28th, the weather being very fine, the men all went out, walking
+about, running for exercise, and playing at bowls, to take off the
+stiffness of their limbs, for they were extremely weak, and nearly
+all suffering from scurvy. They were so much enfeebled that they
+were obliged to go to work several times before they could carry to
+their house the wood which was needful. At length in the first days
+of March, after several tempests and driving snowstorms, they were
+able to verify the fact that there was no ice in the sea.
+Nevertheless, the weather was still rough and the cold glacial. It
+was not feasible as yet to put to sea again, the rather because the
+ship was still embedded in the ice. On the 15th of April, the
+sailors paid a visit to her and found her in fairly good condition.
+
+[Illustration: Exterior view of the house. _From an old print_.]
+
+At the beginning of May the men became somewhat impatient, and asked
+Barentz if he were not soon intending to make the necessary
+preparations for departure. But Barentz answered that he must wait
+until the end of the month, and then, if it should be impossible to
+set the ship free, he would take measures to prepare the long-boats
+and the launch, and to render them fit for a sea voyage. On the 20th
+of the month the preparations for departure commenced; with what joy
+and ardour it is easy to imagine. The launch was repaired, the sails
+were mended, and both boats were dragged to the sea, and provisions
+put on board. Then, seeing that the water was free, and that a
+strong wind was blowing, Heemskerke went to seek Barentz, who had
+been long ill, and declared to him "that it seemed good to him to
+set out from thence, and in God's name to commence the voyage and
+abandon Nova Zembla."
+
+"William Barentz had before this written a paper setting forth how
+we had started from Holland to go towards the kingdom of China, and
+all that had happened, in order that, if by chance, some one should
+come after us, it might be known what had befallen us. This note he
+enclosed in the case of a musket which he hung up in the chimney."
+
+On the 13th June, 1597, the Dutchmen abandoned the ship, which had
+not stirred from her icy prison, and commending themselves to the
+protection of God, the two open boats put to sea. They reached the
+Orange Islands, and again descended the western coast of Nova Zembla
+in the midst of ceaselessly recurring dangers.
+
+"On the 20th of June Nicholas Andrieu became very weak, and we saw
+clearly that he would soon expire. The lieutenant of the governor
+came on board our launch, and told us that Nicholas Andrieu was very
+much indisposed, and that it was very evident that his days would
+soon end. Upon which, William Barentz said, 'It appears to me that
+my life also will be very short.' We did not imagine that Barentz
+was so ill, for we were chatting together, and William Barentz was
+looking at the little chart which I had made of our voyage, and we
+had various discourses together. Finally, he laid down the chart,
+and said to me, 'Gerard, give me something to drink.' After he had
+drunk, such weakness supervened that his eyes turned in his head,
+and he died so suddenly that we had not time to call the captain,
+who was in the other boat. This death of William Barentz saddened us
+greatly, seeing that he was our principal leader, and our sole pilot,
+in whom we had placed our whole trust. But we could not oppose the
+will of God, and this thought quieted us a little." Thus died the
+illustrious Barentz, like his successors Franklin and Hall, in the
+midst of his discoveries. In the measured and sober words of the
+short funeral oration of Gerrit de Veer may be perceived the
+affection, sympathy, and confidence which this brave sailor had been
+able to inspire in his unfortunate companions. Barentz is one of the
+glories of Holland, so prolific in brave and skilful navigators. We
+shall mention presently what has been done to honour his memory.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Nova Zembla.]
+
+After having been forced several times to haul the boats out of the
+water when they were on the point of being crushed between the
+blocks of ice; after having seen on various occasions the sea open,
+and again close before them; after having suffered both from thirst
+and hunger, the Dutchmen reached Cape Nassau. One day, being obliged
+to draw up the long-boat, which was in danger of being stove in upon
+an iceberg, the sailors lost a part of their provisions and were all
+deluged with water, for the ice broke away under their feet. In the
+midst of so much misery they sometimes met with good windfalls. Thus,
+when they were upon the ice on the Island of Crosses they found
+there seventy eggs of the mountain-duck. "But they did not know what
+they should put them in to carry them. At length one man took off
+his breeches, tying them together by the ends, and having put the
+eggs into them, they carried them on a pike between two, while the
+third man carried the musket. The eggs were very welcome, and we eat
+them like lords." From the 19th July, the Dutchmen sailed over a sea,
+which, if not altogether free from ice, was at least clear of those
+great fields of ice which had given them so much trouble to avoid.
+On the 28th July, when entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence, they met
+with two Russian vessels, which at first they dared not approach.
+But when they saw the sailors come to them unarmed and with friendly
+demonstrations, they put aside all fear, the rather as they
+recognized in the Russians some people whom they had met with the
+year before in the neighbourhood of Waigatz. The Dutchmen received
+some assistance from them, and then continued their voyage, still
+keeping along the coast of Nova Zembla, and as close in shore as the
+ice would allow. Upon one occasion when they landed, they discovered
+the cochlearia (scurvy-grass), a plant of which the leaves and seeds
+form one of the most powerful of known anti-scorbutics. They eat
+them, therefore, by handfuls, and immediately experienced great
+relief. Their provisions were, however, nearly exhausted; they had
+only a little bread remaining and scarcely any meat. They decided
+therefore to take to the open sea, in order to shorten the distance
+which separated them from the coast of Russia, where they hoped to
+fall in with some fishermen's boats, from which they might obtain
+assistance. In this hope they were not deceived, although they had
+still many trials to undergo. The Russians were much touched by
+their misfortunes, and consented on several occasions to bestow
+provisions upon them, which prevented the Dutch sailors from dying
+of hunger. In consequence of a thick fog the two boats were
+separated from each other, and did not come together again until
+some distance beyond Cape Kanin on the further side of the White Sea,
+at Kildyn Island, where some fishermen informed the Dutchmen that at
+Kola there were three ships belonging to their nation, which were
+ready to put to sea on their return to their own country. They
+therefore despatched thither one of their men accompanied by a
+Laplander, who returned three days afterwards with a letter signed
+_Jan Rijp_. Great was the astonishment of the Dutch at the sight of
+this signature. It was only on comparing the letter just received
+with several others which Heemskerke had in his possession, that
+they were convinced that it really came from the captain who had
+accompanied them the preceding year. Some days later, on the 30th
+September, Rijp himself arrived with a boat laden with provisions,
+to seek them out and take them to the Kola River, in which his ship
+was at anchor.
+
+Rijp was greatly astonished at all that they related to him, and at
+the terrible voyage of nearly 1200 miles which they had made, and
+which had not taken less than 104 days--namely, from the 13th June
+to the 25th September. Some days of repose accompanied by wholesome
+and abundant food sufficed to clear off the last remains of scurvy,
+and to refresh the sailors after their fatigues. On the 17th
+September, Jan Rijp left the Kola River, and on the 1st November the
+Dutch crew arrived at Amsterdam. "We had on," says Gerrit de Veer,
+"the same garments which we wore in Nova Zembla, having on our heads
+caps of white fox-skin, and we repaired to the house of Peter
+Hasselaer, who had been one of the guardians of the town of
+Amsterdam charged with presiding over the fitting out of the two
+ships of Jan Rijp and of our own captain. Arrived at this house, in
+the midst of general astonishment, because that we had been long
+thought to be dead, and this report had been spread throughout the
+town, the news of our arrival reached the palace of the prince,
+where there were then at table the Chancellor, and the Ambassador of
+the high and mighty King of Denmark and Norway, of the Goths and the
+Vandals. We were then brought before them by M. l'Ecoutets and two
+lords of the town, and we gave to the said lord Ambassador, and to
+their lordships the burgomasters, a narrative of our voyage.
+Afterwards each of us retired to his own house. Those who had not
+dwellings in the town, were lodged in an inn until such time as we
+had received our money, when each went his own way. These are the
+names of the men who returned from this voyage: Jacob Heemskerke,
+clerk and captain, Peter Peterson Vos, Gerrit de Veer, mate, Jan Vos,
+surgeon, Jacob Jansen Sterrenburg, Leonard Henry, Laurence William,
+Jan Hillebrants, Jacob Jansen Hoochwout, Peter Corneille, Jacob de
+Buisen, and Jacob Everts."
+
+Of all these brave sailors we have nothing further to record except
+that De Veer published the following year the narrative of his
+voyage, and that Heemskerke after having made several cruises to
+India, received in 1607 the command of a fleet of twenty-six vessels,
+at the head of which, on the 25th of April, he had a severe battle
+with the Spaniards under the guns of Gibraltar, in which battle,
+although the Dutch were the conquerers, Heemskerke lost his life.
+
+The spot where the unfortunate Barentz and his companions had
+wintered was not revisited until 1871, nearly three hundred years
+after their time. The first to double the northern point of Nova
+Zembla, Barentz had remained alone in the achievement until this
+period. On the 7th September, 1871, the Norwegian Captain, Elling
+Carlsen, well known by his numerous voyages in the North Sea and the
+Frozen Ocean, arrived at the ice haven of Barentz, and on the 9th he
+discovered the house which had sheltered the Dutchmen. It was in
+such a wonderful state of preservation that it seemed to have been
+built but a day, and everything was found in the same position as at
+the departure of the shipwrecked crew. Bears, foxes, and other
+creatures inhabiting these inhospitable regions had alone visited
+the spot. Around the house were standing some large puncheons and
+there were heaps of seal, bear, and walrus bones. Inside, everything
+was in its place. It was the faithful reproduction of the curious
+engraving of Gerrit de Veer. The bed-places were arranged along the
+partition as they are shown in the drawing, as well as the clock,
+the muskets, and the halberd. Amongst the household utensils, the
+arms, and the various objects brought away by Captain Carlsen, we
+may mention two copper cooking-pans, some goblets, gun-barrels,
+augers and chisels, a pair of boots, nineteen cartridge-cases, of
+which some were still filled with powder, the clock, a flute, some
+locks and padlocks, twenty-six pewter candlesticks, some fragments
+of engravings, and three books in Dutch, one of which, the last
+edition of Mendoza's "History of China" shows the goal which Barentz
+sought in this expedition, and a "Manual of Navigation" proves the
+care taken by the pilot to keep himself well up in all professional
+matters.
+
+Upon his return to the port of Hammerfest, Captain Carlsen met with
+a Dutchman, Mr. Lister Kay, who purchased the Barentz relics, and
+forwarded them to the authorities of the Netherlands. These objects
+have been placed in the Naval Museum at the Hague, where a house,
+open in front, has been constructed precisely similar to the one
+represented in the drawing of Gerrit de Veer, and each object or
+instrument brought back has been placed in the very position which
+it occupied in the house in Nova Zembla. Surrounded by all the
+respect and affection which they merit, these precious witnesses of
+a maritime event so important as the first wintering in the Arctic
+regions, these touching reminiscences of Barentz, Heemskerke, and
+their rough companions, constitute one of the most interesting
+monuments in the Museum. Beside the clock is placed a copper dial,
+through the middle of which a meridian is drawn. This curious dial,
+invented by Plancius, which served without doubt to determine the
+variations of the compass, is now the only example extant of a
+nautical instrument which has never been in very general use. For
+this reason it is as precious as, from another point of view, are
+the flute used by Barentz, and the shoes of the poor sailor who died
+during the winter sojourn. It is impossible to behold this curious
+collection without experiencing poignant emotion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+VOYAGES OF ADVENTURE AND PRIVATEERING WARFARE.
+
+Drake--Cavendish--De Noort--Walter Raleigh.
+
+
+A very poor cottage at Tavistock in Devonshire was the birthplace in
+1540, of Francis Drake, who was destined to gain millions by his
+indomitable courage, which however, he lost with as much facility as
+he had obtained them. Edmund Drake his father, was one of those
+clergy who devote themselves to the education of the people. His
+poverty was only equalled by the respect which was felt for his
+character. Burdened with a family as he was, the father of Francis
+Drake found himself obliged from necessity to allow his son to
+embrace the maritime profession, for which he had an ardent longing,
+and to serve as cabin-boy on board a coasting vessel which traded
+with Holland. Industrious, active, self-reliant, and saving, the
+young Francis Drake had soon acquired all the theoretical knowledge
+needed for the direction of a vessel. When he had realized a small
+sum, which was increased by the sale of a vessel bequeathed to him
+by his first master, he made more extended voyages; he visited the
+Bay of Biscay and the Gulf of Guinea, and laid out all his capital
+in purchasing a cargo which he hoped to sell in the West Indies. But
+no sooner had he arrived at Rio de la Hacha, than both ship and
+cargo were confiscated, we know not under what frivolous pretext.
+All the remonstrances of Drake, who thus saw himself ruined, were
+useless. He vowed to avenge himself for such a piece of injustice,
+and he kept his word.
+
+In 1567, two years after this adventure, a small fleet of six
+vessels, of which the largest was of 700 tons' burden, left Plymouth
+with the sanction of the Queen, to make an expedition to the Coasts
+of Mexico. Drake was in command of a ship of fifty tons. At first
+starting they captured some negroes on the Cape de Verd Islands, a
+sort of rehearsal of what was destined to take place in Mexico. Then
+they besieged La Mina, where some more negroes were taken, which
+they sold at the Antilles. Hawkins, doubtless by the advice of Drake,
+captured the town of Rio de la Hacha; after which he reached St.
+Jean d'Ulloa, having encountered a fearful storm. But the harbour
+contained a numerous fleet, and was defended by formidable artillery.
+The English fleet was defeated, and Drake had much difficulty in
+regaining the English coast in January, 1568.
+
+Drake afterwards made two expeditions to the West Indies for the
+purpose of studying the country. When he considered himself to have
+acquired the necessary information, he fitted out two vessels at his
+own expense: the _Swan_, of twenty-five tons, commanded by his
+brother John, and the _Pasha_ of Plymouth, of seventy tons. The two
+vessels had as crew seventy-three jack-tars, who could be thoroughly
+depended on. From July, 1572, to August, 1573, sometimes alone,
+sometimes in concert with a certain Captain Rawse, Drake made a
+lucrative cruise upon the coasts of the Gulf of Darien, attacked the
+towns of Vera Cruz and of Nombre de Dios, and obtained considerable
+spoil. Unfortunately these enterprises were not carried out without
+much cruelty and many acts of violence which would make men of the
+present day blush. But we will not dwell upon the scenes of piracy
+and barbarity which are only too frequently met with in the
+sixteenth century.
+
+After assisting in the suppression of the rebellion in Ireland,
+Drake, whose name was beginning to be well known, was presented to
+Queen Elizabeth. He laid before her his project of going to ravage
+the western coasts of South America, by passing through the Strait
+of Magellan, and he obtained, with the title of admiral, a fleet of
+six vessels, on board of which were 160 picked sailors.
+
+Francis Drake started from Plymouth on the 15th November, 1577. He
+had some intercourse with the Moors of Mogador, of which he had no
+reason to boast, made some captures of small importance before
+arriving at the Cape de Verd Islands, where he took in fresh
+provisions, and then was fifty-six days in crossing the Atlantic and
+reaching the coast of Brazil, which he followed as far as the
+estuary of La Plata, where he laid in a supply of water. He
+afterwards arrived at Seal Bay in Patagonia, where he traded with
+the natives, and killed a great number of penguins and sea-wolves
+for the nourishment of his crew. "Some of the Patagonians who were
+seen on the 13th May a little below Seal Bay," says the original
+narrative, "wore on the head a kind of horn, and nearly all had many
+beautiful birds' feathers by way of hats. They also had the face
+painted and diversified by several kinds of colours, and they each
+held a bow in the hand, from which every-time they drew it, they
+discharged two arrows. They were very agile, and as far as we could
+see, well instructed in the art of making war, for they kept good
+order in marching and advancing, and for so few men as they were,
+they made themselves appear a large number." M. Charton, in his
+_Voyageurs Anciens et Modernes_, notices that Drake does not mention
+the extraordinary stature which Magellan had attributed to the
+Patagonians. For this there is more than one good reason. There
+exists in Patagonia more than one tribe, and the description here
+given by Drake of the savages whom he met, does not at all resemble
+that given by Pigafetta of the Patagonians of Port St. Julian. If
+there exist, as seems now to be proved, a race of men of great
+stature, their habitat appears fixed upon the shores of the Strait
+at the southern extremity of Patagonia, and not at fifteen days'
+sail from Port Desire, at which Drake arrived on the 2nd June. On
+the following day he reached the harbour of St. Julian, where he
+found a gibbet erected of yore by Magellan for the punishment of
+some rebellious members of his crew. Drake in his turn, chose this
+spot to rid himself of one of his captains, named Doughty, who had
+been long accused of treason and underhand dealing, and who on
+several occasions had separated himself from the fleet. Some sailors
+having confessed that he had solicited them to join with him in
+frustrating the voyage, Doughty was convicted of the crimes of
+rebellion, and of tampering with the sailors, and according to the
+laws of England, he was condemned by a court martial to be beheaded.
+This sentence was immediately executed, although Doughty until the
+last moment vehemently declared his innocence. Was his guilt
+thoroughly proved? If Drake were accused upon his return to
+England--in spite of the moderation which he always evinced towards
+his men,--of having taken advantage of the opportunity to get rid of
+a rival whom he dreaded, it is difficult to conceive that the forty
+judges who pronounced the sentence should have concerted together to
+further the secret designs of their admiral and condemn an innocent
+man.
+
+On the 20th of August, the fleet, now reduced to three vessels--two
+of the ships having been so much damaged that they were at once
+destroyed by the admiral--entered the strait, which had not been
+traversed since the time of Magellan. Although he met with fine
+harbours, Drake found that it was difficult to anchor in them, on
+account both of the depth of the water close to the shore, and of
+the violence of the wind, which, blowing as it did in sudden squalls,
+rendered navigation dangerous. During a storm which was encountered
+at the point where the strait opens into the Pacific, Drake beheld
+one of his ships founder, while his last companion was separated
+from him a few days afterwards, nor did he see her again until the
+end of the campaign. Driven by the currents to the south of the
+strait as far as 55 degrees 40 minutes, Drake had now only his own
+vessel; but by the injury which he did to the Spaniards, he showed
+what ravages he would have committed if he had had still under his
+command the fleet with which he left England. During a descent upon
+the island of Mocha, the English had two men killed and several
+wounded, while Drake himself, hit by two arrows on the head, found
+himself utterly unable to punish the Indians for their perfidy. In
+the harbour of Valparaiso he captured a vessel richly laden with the
+wines of Chili, and with ingots of gold valued at 37,000 ducats;
+afterwards he pillaged the town, which had been precipitately
+abandoned by its inhabitants. At Coquimbo, the people were
+forewarned of his approach, so that he found there a strong force,
+which obliged him to re-embark. At Arica he plundered three small
+vessels, in one of which he found fifty-seven bars of silver valued
+at 2006_l._ In the harbour of Lima, where were moored twelve ships
+or barks, the booty was considerable. But what most rejoiced the
+heart of Drake was to learn that a galleon named the _Cagafuego_,
+very richly laden, was sailing towards Paraca. He immediately went
+in pursuit, capturing on the way a bark carrying 80 lbs. of gold,
+which would be worth 14,080 French crowns, and in the latitude of
+San Francisco he seized without any difficulty the _Cagafuego_, in
+which he found 80 lbs. weight of gold. This caused the Spanish pilot
+to say, laughing, "Captain, our ship ought no longer to be called
+_Cagafuego_ (spit-fire), but rather _Caga-Plata_ (spit money), it is
+yours which should be named _Caga-Fuego_." After making some other
+captures more or less valuable, upon the Peruvian coast, Drake,
+learning that a considerable fleet was being prepared to oppose him,
+thought it time to return to England. For this, there were three
+different routes open to him: he might again pass the Strait of
+Magellan, or he might cross the Southern Sea, and doubling the Cape
+of Good Hope might so return to the Atlantic Ocean, or he could sail
+up the coast of China and return by the Frozen Sea and the North
+Cape. It was this last alternative, as being the safest of the three,
+which was adopted by Drake. He therefore put out to sea, reached the
+38 degrees of north latitude, and landed on the shore of the Bay of
+San Francisco, which had been discovered three years previously by
+Bodega. It was now the month of June, the temperature was very low,
+and the ground covered with snow. The details given by Drake of his
+reception by the natives, are curious enough: "When we arrived, the
+savages manifested great admiration at the sight of us, and thinking
+that we were gods, they received us with great humanity and
+reverence."
+
+"As long as we remained, they continued to come and visit us,
+sometimes bringing us beautiful plumes made of feathers of divers
+colours, and sometimes petun (tobacco) which is a herb in general
+use among the Indians. But before presenting these things to us,
+they stopped at a little distance, in a spot where we had pitched
+our tents. Then they made a long discourse after the manner of a
+harangue, and when they had finished, they laid aside their bows and
+arrows in that place, and approached us to offer their presents."
+
+"The first time they came their women remained in the same place,
+and scratched and tore the skin and flesh of their cheeks, lamenting
+themselves in a wonderful manner, whereat we were much astonished.
+But we have since learnt that it was a kind of sacrifice which they
+offered to us."
+
+The facts given by Drake with regard to the Indians of California
+are almost the only ones which he furnishes upon the manners and
+customs of the nations which he visited. We would draw the reader's
+attention here, to that custom of long harangues which the traveller
+especially remarks, just as Cartier had observed upon it forty years
+earlier, and which is so noticeable amongst the Canadian Indians at
+the present day. Drake did not advance farther north and gave up his
+project of returning by the Frozen Sea. When he again set sail, it
+was to descend towards the Line, to reach the Moluccas, and to
+return to England by the Cape of Good Hope. As this part of the
+voyage deals with countries already known, and as the observations
+made by Drake are neither numerous nor novel, our narrative here
+shall be brief.
+
+On the 13th of October, 1579, Drake arrived in latitude 8 degrees
+north, at a group of islands of which the inhabitants had their ears
+much lengthened by the weight of the ornaments suspended to them;
+their nails were allowed to grow, and appeared to serve as defensive
+weapons, while their teeth, "black as ship's pitch," contracted this
+colour from the use of the betel-nut. After resting for a time,
+Drake passed by the Philippines, and on the 14th of November arrived
+at Ternate. The king of this island came alongside, with four canoes
+bearing his principal officers dressed in their state costumes.
+After an interchange of civilities and presents, the English
+received some rice, sugar-canes, fowls, _figo_, cloves, and sago. On
+the morrow, some of the sailors who had landed, were present at a
+council. "When the king arrived, a rich umbrella or parasol all
+embroidered in gold was borne before him. He was dressed after the
+fashion of his country, but with extreme magnificence, for he was
+enveloped from the shoulders with a long cloak of cloth of gold
+reaching to the ground. He wore as an ornament upon the head, a kind
+of turban made of the same stuff, all worked in fine gold and
+enriched with jewels and tufts. On his neck there hung a fine gold
+chain many times doubled, and formed of broad links. On his fingers,
+he had six rings of very valuable stones, and his feet were encased
+in shoes of morocco leather."
+
+After remaining some time in the country to refresh his crew, Drake
+again put to sea, but his ship on the 9th of January, 1580, struck
+on a rock, and to float her off it was necessary to throw overboard
+eight pieces of ordnance and a large quantity of provisions. A month
+later, Drake arrived at Baratena Island where he repaired his ship.
+This island afforded much silver, gold, copper, sulphur, spices,
+lemons, cucumbers, cocoa-nuts, and other delicious fruits. "We
+loaded our vessels abundantly with these, being able to certify that
+since our departure from England we have not visited any place where
+we have found more comforts in the way of food and fresh provisions
+than in this island and that of Ternate."
+
+After quitting this richly endowed island, Drake landed at Greater
+Java, where he was very warmly welcomed by the five kings amongst
+whom the island was partitioned, and by the inhabitants. "These
+people are of a fine degree of corpulence, they are great
+connoisseurs in arms, with which they are well provided, such as
+swords, daggers, and bucklers, and all these arms are made with much
+art." Drake had been some little time at Java when he learnt that
+not far distant there was a powerful fleet at anchor, which he
+suspected must belong to Spain; to avoid it he put to sea in all
+haste. He doubled the Cape of Good Hope during the first days of
+June, and after stopping at Sierra Leone to take in water, he
+entered Plymouth harbour on the 3rd November, 1580, after an absence
+of three years all but a few days.
+
+The reception which awaited him in England was at first extremely
+cold. His having fallen by surprise both upon Spanish towns and
+ships, at a time when the two nations were at peace, rightly caused
+him to be regarded by a portion of society as a pirate, who tramples
+under foot the rights of nations. For five months the Queen herself,
+under the pressure of diplomatic proprieties, pretended to be
+ignorant of his return. But at the end of that time, either because
+circumstances had altered, or because she did not wish to show
+herself any longer severe towards the skilful sailor, she repaired
+to Deptford where Drake's ship was moored, went on board, and
+conferred the honour of knighthood upon the navigator.
+
+[Illustration: Elizabeth knighting Drake.]
+
+From this period Drake's part as a discoverer is ended, and his
+after-life as a warrior and as the implacable enemy of the Spaniards
+does not concern us. Loaded with honours, and invested with
+important commands, Drake died at sea on the 28th January, 1596,
+during an expedition against the Spaniards.
+
+To him pertains the honour of having been the second to pass through
+the Strait of Magellan, and to have visited Tierra del Fuego as far
+as the parts about Cape Horn. He also ascended the coast of North
+America to a point higher than any his predecessors had attained,
+and he discovered several islands and archipelagos. Being a very
+clever navigator, he made the transit through the Strait of Magellan
+with great rapidity. If there are but very few discoveries due to
+him, this is probably either because he neglected to record them in
+his journal, or because he often mentions them in so inaccurate a
+manner that it is scarcely possible to recognize the places. It was
+he who inaugurated that privateering warfare by which the English,
+and later on the Dutch, were destined to inflict much injury upon
+the Spaniards. And the large profits accruing to him from it,
+encouraged his contemporaries, and gave birth in their minds to the
+love for long and hazardous voyages.
+
+Among all those who took example by Drake, the most illustrious was
+undoubtedly Thomas Cavendish or Candish. Cavendish joined the
+English marine service at a very early age; and passed a most stormy
+youth, during which he rapidly dissipated his modest fortune. That
+which play had robbed him of, he resolved to recover from the
+Spaniards. Having in 1585 obtained letters of mark, he made a cruise
+to the East Indies and returned with considerable booty. Encouraged
+by his easy success as a highwayman on the great maritime roads, he
+thought that if he could acquire some honour and glory while engaged
+in making his fortune, so much the better would it be for him. With
+this idea he bought three ships, the _Desire_, of twenty tons, the
+_Content_, of sixty tons, and the _Hugh Gallant_, of forty tons,
+upon which he embarked one hundred and twenty-three soldiers and
+sailors. Setting sail on the 22nd July, 1586, he passed by the
+Canaries, and landed at Sierra Leone, which town he attacked and
+plundered; then, sailing again, he crossed the Atlantic, sighted
+Cape Sebastian in Brazil, sailed along the coast of Patagonia, and
+arrived on the 27th November at Port Desire. He found there an
+immense quantity of dog-fish, very large, and so strong that four
+men could with difficulty kill them, and numbers of birds, which,
+having no wings, could not fly, and which fed upon fish. They are
+classed under the general names of auks and penguins. In this very
+secure harbour, the ships were drawn up on shore to be repaired.
+During his stay at this place Cavendish had some skirmishes with the
+Patagonians,--"men of gigantic size, and having feet eighteen inches
+long"--who wounded two of the sailors with arrows tipped with
+sharpened flints.
+
+On the 7th January, 1587, Cavendish entered the Strait of Magellan,
+and in the narrowest part of it received on board his ships
+one-and-twenty Spaniards and two women, the sole survivors of the
+colony founded three years previously, under the name of
+Philippeville, by Captain Sarmiento. This town, which had been built
+to bar the passage through the strait, had possessed no fewer than
+four forts as well as several churches. Cavendish could discern the
+fortress, then deserted and already falling into ruins. Its
+inhabitants, who had been completely prevented by the continual
+attacks of the savages from gathering in their harvests, had died of
+hunger, or had perished in endeavouring to reach the Spanish
+settlements in Chili. The Admiral, upon hearing this lamentable tale,
+changed the name of Philippeville into that of Port Famine, under
+which appellation the place is known at the present day. On the 21st
+the ships entered a beautiful bay, which received the name of
+Elizabeth, and in which was buried the carpenter of the _Hugh
+Gallant_. Not far from thence a fine river fell into the sea, on the
+banks of which dwelt the anthropophagi who had fought so fiercely
+with the Spaniards, and who endeavoured, but in vain, to entice the
+Englishmen into the interior of the country.
+
+On the 24th February, as the little squadron came forth from the
+strait, it encountered a violent storm, which dispersed it. The
+_Hugh Gallant_, left alone, and letting in water in all directions,
+was only kept afloat with the greatest trouble. Rejoined on the 15th
+by his consorts, Cavendish tried in vain to land on Mocha Island,
+where Drake had been so maltreated by the Araucanians. This country,
+rich in gold and silver, had hitherto successfully resisted all
+Spanish attempts to subjugate it, and its inhabitants, fully
+determined to maintain their liberty, repulsed by force of arms
+every attempt to land. It was necessary therefore to go to the
+island of St. Maria, where the Indians, who took the Englishmen for
+Spaniards, furnished them with abundance of maize, fowls, sweet
+potatoes, pigs, and other provisions.
+
+On the 30th March, Cavendish dropped anchor in 32 degrees 50 minutes
+in the Bay of Quintero. A party of thirty musketeers advanced into
+the country and met with oxen, cows, wild horses, hares, and
+partridges in abundance. The little troop was attacked by the
+Spaniards, and Cavendish was obliged to return to his ships after
+losing twelve of his men. He afterwards ravaged, plundered, or burnt
+the towns of Paraca, Cincha, Pisca, and Paita, and devastated the
+island of Puna, where he obtained a booty in coined money of the
+value of 25,760_l._ After having scuttled the _Hugh Gallant_, which
+was totally unfit any longer to keep the water, Cavendish continued
+his profitable cruising, burnt, in the latitude of New Spain, a ship
+of 120 tons, plundered and burnt Aguatulio, and captured, after six
+hours of fighting, a vessel of 708 tons, laden with rich stuffs, and
+with 122,000 gold pesos. Then, "victorious and contented," Cavendish
+wished to secure the great spoils which he was conveying against any
+chance of danger. He touched at the Ladrones, the Philippines, and
+Greater Java, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, recruited himself at St.
+Helena, and on the 9th September, 1588, anchored at Plymouth, after
+two years of sailing, privateering, and fighting. At the end of two
+years after his return, of all the great fortune which he had
+brought back with him, there remained only a sum sufficient for the
+fitting out of a third, and as it proved, a last expedition.
+
+Cavendish started on the 6th August, 1591, with five vessels, but a
+storm on the coast of Patagonia scattered the flotilla, which could
+not be collected again until the arrival at Port Desire. Assailed by
+fearful hurricanes in the Strait of Magellan, Cavendish was obliged
+to go back, after having seen himself deserted by three of his ships.
+The want of fresh provisions, the cold, and the privations of all
+kinds which he underwent, and which had decimated his crew, forced
+him to return northwards along the coast of Brazil, where the
+Portuguese opposed every attempt at landing. He was therefore
+obliged to put to sea again without having been able to revictual.
+Cavendish died, from grief perhaps as much as from hardships, before
+he reached the English coast.
+
+One year after the return of the companions of Barentz, two ships,
+the _Mauritius_ and the _Hendrik Fredrik_, with two yachts, the
+_Eendracht_ and _Esperance_, having on board a crew of 248 men,
+quitted Amsterdam on the 2nd July, 1598. The commander-in-chief of
+this squadron was Oliver de Noort, a man at that time about thirty
+or thereabouts, and well known as having made several long cruising
+voyages. His second in command and vice-admiral was Jacob Claaz
+d'Ulpenda, and as pilot there was a certain Melis, a skilful sailor
+of English origin. This expedition, fitted out by the merchants of
+Amsterdam with the concurrence and aid of the States-General of
+Holland, had a double purpose; at once commercial and military.
+Formerly the Dutch had contented themselves with fetching from
+Portugal the merchandise which they distributed by means of their
+coasting vessels throughout Europe; but now they were reduced to the
+necessity of going to seek the commodities in the scene of their
+production. For this object, De Noort was to show his countrymen the
+route inaugurated by Magellan, and on the way to inflict as much
+injury as he could upon the Spaniards and Portuguese. At this period
+Philip II., whose yoke the Dutch had shaken off, and who had just
+added Portugal to his possessions, had forbidden his subjects to
+have any commercial intercourse with the rebels of the Low Countries.
+It was thus a necessity for Holland if she did not wish to be ruined,
+and as a consequence, to fall anew under Spanish rule, to open up
+for herself a road to the Spice Islands. The route which was the
+least frequented by the enemy's ships was that by the Strait of
+Magellan, and this was the one which De Noort was ordered to follow.
+
+After touching at Goree, the Dutch anchored in the Gulf of Guinea,
+at the Island _do Principe_. Here the Portuguese pretended to give a
+friendly welcome to the men who went on shore, but they took
+advantage of a favourable opportunity, to fall upon and massacre
+them without mercy. Among the dead were Cornille de Noort, brother
+of the admiral, Melis, Daniel Goerrits, and John de Bremen--the
+captain, Peter Esias, being the only man who escaped. It was a
+sorrowful commencement for a campaign, a sad presage which was
+destined not to remain unfulfilled. De Noort, who was furious over
+this foul play, landed from his ships 120 men; but he found the
+Portuguese so well entrenched, that after a brisk skirmish in which
+seventeen more of his men were either killed or wounded, he was
+obliged to weigh anchor without having been able to avenge the
+wicked and cowardly perfidy to which his brother and twelve of his
+companions had fallen victims. On the 25th December, one of the
+pilots named Jan Volkers, was abandoned on the African coast as a
+punishment for his disloyal intrigues, for endeavouring to foment a
+spirit of despondency amongst the crews, and for his well-proved
+rebellion. On the 5th January, the island of Annobon, situated in
+the Gulf of Guinea, a little below the Line, was sighted, and the
+course of the ships was changed for crossing the Atlantic. De Noort
+had scarcely cast anchor in the Bay of Rio Janeiro before he sent
+some sailors on shore to obtain water and buy provisions from the
+natives; but the Portuguese opposed the landing, and killed eleven
+men. Afterwards, repulsed from the coast of Brazil by the Portuguese
+and the natives, driven back by contrary winds, having made vain
+efforts to reach the island of St. Helena, where they had hoped to
+obtain the provisions of which they were in the most pressing want,
+the Dutchmen, deprived of their pilot, toss at random upon the ocean.
+They land upon the desert islands of Martin Vaz, again reach the
+coast of Brazil at Rio Doce, which they mistake for Ascension Island,
+and are finally obliged to winter in the desert island of Santa
+Clara. The putting into port at this place was marked by several
+disagreeable events. The flag-ship struck upon a rock with so much
+violence that had the sea been a little rougher, she must have been
+lost. There were also some bloody and barbarous executions of
+mutinous sailors, notably that of a poor man, who having wounded a
+pilot with a knife thrust, was condemned to have his hand nailed to
+the mainmast. The invalids, of whom there were many on board the
+fleet, were brought on shore, and nearly all were cured by the end
+of a fortnight. From the 2nd to the 21st of June, De Noort remained
+in this island, which was not more than three miles from the
+mainland. But before putting to sea he was obliged to burn the
+_Eendracht_, as he had not sufficient men to work her. It was not
+until the 20th December, after having been tried by many storms,
+that he was able to cast anchor in Port Desire, where the crew
+killed in a few days a quantity of dog-fish and sea-lions, as well
+as more than five thousand penguins. "The general landed," says the
+French translation of De Noort's narrative, published by De Bry,
+"with a party of armed men, but they saw nobody, only some graves
+placed on high situations among the rocks, in which the people bury
+their dead, putting upon the grave a great quantity of stones, all
+painted red, having besides adorned the graves with darts, plumes of
+feathers, and other singular articles which they use as arms."
+
+[Illustration: A Sea-lion Hunt. _From an old print_.]
+
+The Dutch saw also, but at too great a distance to shoot them,
+buffalos, stags, and ostriches, and from a single nest they obtained
+ten ostrich eggs. Captain Jacob Jansz Huy de Cooper, died during the
+stay at this place, and was interred at Port Desire. On the 23rd
+November, the fleet entered the Strait of Magellan. During a visit
+to the shore three Dutchmen were killed by some Patagonians, and
+their death was avenged by the massacre of a whole tribe of Enoos.
+The long navigation through the narrows and the lakes of the Strait
+of Magellan was signalized by the meeting with two Dutch ships,
+under the command of Sebald de Weerdt, who had wintered not far from
+the Bay of Mauritius, and by the abandoning of Vice-admiral Claaz,
+who, as it would appear, had been several times guilty of
+insubordination. Are not these acts, which we see so frequently
+committed by English, Dutch, and Spanish navigators, a true sign of
+the times? A deed which we should regard now-a-days as one of
+terrible barbarity seemed, doubtless, a relatively mild punishment
+in the eyes of men so accustomed to set but little value upon human
+life. Nevertheless, could anything be more cruel than to abandon a
+man in a desert country, without arms and without provisions, to put
+him on shore in a country peopled by ferocious cannibals, prepared
+to make a repast on his flesh; what was it but condemning him to a
+horrible death?
+
+On the 29th of February, 1600, De Noort, after having been
+ninety-nine days in passing through the strait, came out on to the
+Pacific Ocean. A fortnight later, a storm separated him from the
+_Hendrik Fredrik_, which was never again heard of. As for De Noort,
+who had now with him only one yacht besides his own vessel, he cast
+anchor at the island of Mocha, and, unlike the experience of his
+predecessors, he was very well received by the natives. Afterwards
+he sailed along the coast of Chili, where he was able to obtain
+provisions in abundance in exchange for Nuremberg knives, hatchets,
+shirts, hats, and other articles of no great value. After ravaging,
+plundering, and burning several towns on the Peruvian coast, after
+sinking all the vessels that he met with, and amassing a
+considerable booty, De Noort, hearing that a squadron commanded by
+the brother of the viceroy, Don Luis de Velasco, had been sent in
+pursuit of him, judged it time to make for the Ladrone Islands,
+where he anchored on the 16th of September. "The inhabitants came
+around our ship with more than 200 canoes, there being three, four,
+or five men in each canoe, crying out all together: 'Hierro, hierro'
+(iron, iron), which is greatly in request amongst them. They are as
+much at home in the water as upon land, and are very clever divers,
+as we perceived when we threw five pieces of iron into the sea,
+which a single man went to search for." De Noort could testify
+unfortunately, that these islands well deserved their name. The
+islanders tried even to drag the nails out of the ship, and carried
+off everything upon which they could lay their hands. One of them,
+having succeeded in climbing along a part of the rigging, had the
+audacity to enter a cabin and seize upon a sword, with which he
+threw himself into the sea.
+
+On the 14th October following, De Noort traversed the Philippine
+Archipelago, where he made several descents, and burnt, plundered,
+or sunk a number of Spanish or Portuguese vessels, and some Chinese
+junks. While cruising in the Strait of Manilla he was attacked by
+two large Spanish vessels, and in the battle which followed the
+Dutch had five men killed, and twenty-five wounded and lost their
+brigantine, which was captured with her crew of twenty-five men. The
+Spaniards lost more than 200 men, for their flag-ship caught fire
+and sank. Far from picking up the wounded and the able-bodied men,
+who were trying to save themselves by swimming, the Dutch, "making
+way with sails set on the foremast, across the heads which were to
+be seen in the water, pierced some with lances, and also discharged
+their cannon over them." After this bloody and fruitless victory, De
+Noort went to recruit at Borneo, captured a rich cargo of spices at
+Java, and having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, landed at Rotterdam
+on the 26th of August, having only one ship and forty-eight men
+remaining. If the merchants who had defrayed the expenses of the
+expedition approved of the conduct of De Noort, who brought back a
+cargo which more than reimbursed them for their expenditure, and who
+had taught his countrymen the way to the Indies, it behoves us,
+while extolling his qualities as a sailor, to take great exception
+to the manner in which he exercised the command, and to mete out
+severe blame for the barbarity which has left a stain of blood upon
+the first Dutch voyage of circumnavigation.
+
+[Illustration: Battle of Manilla. _From an old print_.]
+
+We have now to speak of a man who, endowed with eminent qualities
+and with at least equal defects, carried on his life's work in
+divers, sometimes even in opposing directions, and who after having
+reached the highest summit of honour to which a gentleman could
+aspire, at last laid his head upon a scaffold, accused of treason
+and felony. This man is Sir Walter Raleigh. If he have any claim to
+a place in this portrait gallery of great sailors, it is neither as
+founder of any English colony nor as a sailor; it is as a discoverer,
+and what we have to say of him is not to his credit. Walter Raleigh
+passed five years in France fighting against the League, in the
+midst of all those Gascons who formed the basis of the armies of
+Henry of Navarre, and in such society he perfected the habits of
+boasting and falsehood which belonged to his character. In 1577,
+after a campaign in the Low Countries against the Spaniards, he
+returns to England and takes a deep interest in the questions so
+passionately debated among his three brothers by the mother's side,
+John, Humphrey, and Adrian Gilbert. At this period England was
+passing through a very grave economic crisis. The practice of
+agriculture was undergoing a transformation; in all directions
+grazing was being substituted for tillage, and the number of
+agricultural labourers was greatly reduced by the change. From
+thence arose general distress, and also such a surplussage of
+population as was fast becoming a matter of anxious concern. At the
+same time, to long wars succeeds a peace, destined to endure
+throughout the reign of Elizabeth, so that a great number of
+adventurers know not how to find indulgence for their love of
+violent emotions. At this moment, therefore, arises the necessity
+for such an emigration as may relieve the country of its population,
+may permit all the miserable people dying of hunger to provide for
+their own wants in a new country, and by that means may increase the
+influence and prosperity of the mother country. All the more
+thoughtful minds in England, who follow the course of public
+opinion--Hakluyt, Thomas Hariot, Carlyle, Peckham, and the brothers
+Gilbert--are struck with this need. But it is to the last named that
+belongs the credit of indicating the locality suitable for the
+establishing of colonies. Raleigh only joined with his brothers in
+the scheme, following their lead, but he neither conceived nor began
+the carrying into execution--as he has been too often credited with
+doing--of this fruitful project, the colonization of the American
+shores of the Atlantic. If Raleigh, all-powerful with Queen
+Elizabeth, fickle and nevertheless jealous in her affections as she
+was, encourage his brothers; if he expend himself 40,000_l._
+sterling in his attempts at colonization, he still takes good care
+not to quit England, for the life of patience and self-devotion of
+the founder of a colony would have no attractions for him. He gives
+up and sells his patent as soon as he perceives the inutility of his
+efforts, while he does not forget to reserve for himself the fifth
+part of any profit arising eventually from the colony.
+
+[Illustration: Sir Walter Raleigh. _From an old print_.]
+
+At the same time Raleigh fits out some vessels against the Spanish
+possessions; and himself soon takes part in the strife and the
+battles which saved England from the Invincible Armada, afterwards
+proceeding to support the claims of the Prior de Crato, to the
+throne of Portugal. It is a short time after his return to England
+that he falls into disgrace with his royal mistress, and after his
+release from prison, while he is confined to his princely mansion of
+Sherborne, he conceives the project of his voyage to Guiana. To his
+mind, this is a gigantic enterprise of which the marvellous results
+are destined to draw upon him the attention of the whole world, and
+to restore to him the favour of his sovereign. Would not the
+discovery and conquest of El Dorado, of the country in which
+according to Orellana, the temples are roofed with plates of gold,
+where all the tools, even those for the meanest purposes, are made
+of gold, where one walks upon precious stones, "procure for him
+greater glory," these are the very words which Raleigh employs in
+his account, "than Cortes had gained in Mexico, or Pizarro in Peru.
+He will have under him more golden towns and nations than the King
+of Spain, the Sultan of the Turks, and no matter what Emperor!" We
+have already spoken of the fables which Orellana had invented in
+1539, and which had been the fruitful source of more than one legend.
+Humboldt discloses what had given them birth when he describes to us
+the nature of the soil and the rocks which surround Lake Parima,
+between the Essequibo and the Branco. "They are," says this great
+traveller, "rocks of micaceous slate, and of sparkling talc, which
+are resplendent in the midst of a sheet of water, which acts as a
+reflector beneath the burning tropical sun." So are explained those
+massive domes of gold, those obelisks of silver, and all those
+marvels of which the boastful and enthusiastic minds of the
+Spaniards afforded them a glimpse. Did Raleigh believe really in the
+existence of this city of gold, for the conquest of which he was
+about to sacrifice so many lives? Was he thoroughly convinced
+himself, or did he not yield to the illusions of a mind eager for
+glory? It is impossible to say, but this at least is indisputable,
+that, to borrow the just expressions of M. Philarete Chasles, "at
+the moment even of his embarkation men did not believe in his
+promises, they were suspicious of his exaggerations, and dreaded the
+results of an expedition directed by a man so fool-hardy, and of a
+morality so equivocal."
+
+[Illustration: Raleigh seizes Berreo. _From an old print_.]
+
+Nevertheless, it seemed that Raleigh had foreseen everything needful
+for this undertaking, and that he had made the necessary studies.
+Not only did he speak of the nature of the soil of Guiana, of its
+productions, and its inhabitants with imperturbable assurance, but
+he had taken care to send, at his own expense, a ship commanded by
+Captain Whiddon, to prepare the way for the fleet which he intended
+to conduct in person to the banks of the Orinoco. What he took good
+care, however, not to confide to the public, was that all the
+information he received from his emissary was unfavourable to the
+enterprise. Raleigh himself started from Plymouth on the 9th
+February, 1595, with a small fleet of five vessels, and 100 soldiers,
+without reckoning marines, officers, and volunteers. After stopping
+four days at Fortaventura, one of the Canaries, to take in wood and
+water there, he reached Teneriffe, where Captain Brereton ought to
+have rejoined him. Having waited for him in vain for eighty days,
+Raleigh sailed for Trinidad, where he met Whiddon. The island of
+Trinidad was at that time governed by Don Antonio de Berreo, who, it
+is said, had obtained accurate information concerning Guiana. The
+arrival of the English did not please him, and he immediately
+despatched emissaries to Cumana and to Margarita, with orders to
+gather together the troops to attack the Englishmen, while at the
+same time he forbade any Indians or Spaniards to hold intercourse
+with them under pain of death. Raleigh, forewarned, determined to be
+beforehand with him. At nightfall he landed in secret with 100 men,
+captured the town of St. Joseph, to which the Indians set fire,
+without a blow, and carried off Berreo and the principal personages
+to the ships. At the same time arrived Captains Gifford and Knynin,
+from whom he had been separated upon the Spanish Coasts. Raleigh at
+once sailed for the Orinoco, entered Capuri Bay with a large galley
+and three boats carrying 100 sailors and soldiers, became entangled
+in the inextricable labyrinth of islands and canals which form the
+mouth of the river, and ascended the Orinoco for a distance of 330
+miles. The account which Raleigh gives of his campaign is so
+fabulous, with the coolness of a Gascon transported to the banks of
+the Thames, he so heaps one falsehood upon the top of another, that
+one is almost tempted to class his narrative amongst the number of
+imaginary voyages. He says that some Spaniards who had seen the town
+of Manoa, called El Dorado, told him that this town exceeds in size
+and wealth all the towns in the world, and everything which the
+"conquistadores" had seen in America. "There is no winter there," he
+says; "a soil dry and fertile, with game, and birds of every species
+in great abundance, who filled the air with hitherto unknown notes;
+it was a real concert for us. My captain, sent to search for mines,
+perceived veins both of gold and silver; but as he had no tool but
+his sword, he was unable to detach these metals to examine them in
+detail; however, he carried away several bits of them which he
+reserved for future examination. A Spaniard of Caracas called this
+mine _Madre del Oro_ (mother of gold)." Then, as Raleigh well knows
+that the public is on its guard against his exaggerations, he adds,
+"It will be thought perchance, that I am the sport of a false and
+cheating delusion, but why should I have undertaken a voyage thus
+laborious, if I had not entertained the conviction that there is not
+a country upon earth which is richer in gold than Guiana? Whiddon
+and Milechappe, our surgeon, brought back several stones which
+resembled sapphires. I showed these stones to several inhabitants of
+Orinoco, who have assured me that there exists an entire mountain of
+them." An old cacique of the age of 110, who nevertheless could
+still walk ten miles without fatigue, came to see Raleigh, boasted
+to him of the formidable power of the Emperor of Manoa, and proved
+to him that his forces were insufficient. He depicted these people
+as much civilized, as wearing clothes, and possessing great riches,
+especially in plates of gold; finally, he spoke to him of a mountain
+of pure gold. Raleigh relates that he wished to approach this
+mountain, but, sad mischance, it was at that moment half submerged.
+"It had the form of a tower, and appeared to me rather white than
+yellow. A torrent which precipitated itself from the mountain,
+swollen by the rains, made a tremendous noise, which could be heard
+at the distance of many miles, and which deafened our people. I
+recollected the description which Berreo had given of the brilliancy
+of the diamonds and of the other precious stones scattered over the
+various parts of the country. I had, however, some doubt as to the
+value of these stones; their extraordinary whiteness, nevertheless
+surprised me. After a short time of repose on the banks of the
+Vinicapara, and a visit to the village of the cacique, the latter
+promised to conduct me to the foot of the mountain by a circuitous
+route; but at the sight of the numerous difficulties which presented
+themselves, I preferred to return to the mouth of the Cumana, where
+the caciques of the neighbourhood came to bring various presents,
+consisting of the rare productions of the country." We will spare
+the reader the description of people three times taller than
+ordinary men, of cyclops, of natives who had their eyes upon the
+shoulders, their mouth in the chest, and the hair growing from the
+middle of the back--all affirmations seriously related, but which
+give to Raleigh's narrative a singular resemblance to a fairy tale.
+One fancies while reading it that it must be a page taken out of the
+_Thousand and one Nights_.
+
+If we put on one side all these figments of an imagination run mad,
+what gain has been derived for geography? There was certainly no
+pains spared in announcing with much noise, and very great puffing,
+this fantastic expedition, and we may well say with the
+fable-writer,--
+
+   "In fancy free I an author see,
+    Who says, 'The awful war I'll sing
+    Of Titans with the Thunder-King:'
+    Of this grand promise the result, we find,
+                           Is often wind."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+MISSIONARIES AND SETTLERS. MERCHANTS AND TOURISTS.
+
+I.
+
+Distinguishing characteristics of the Seventeenth Century--The more
+thorough exploration of regions previously discovered--To the thirst
+for gold succeeds Apostolic zeal--Italian missionaries in Congo--
+Portuguese missionaries in Abyssinia--Brue in Senegal and Flacourt
+in Madagascar--The Apostles of India, of Indo-China, and of Japan.
+
+
+The seventeenth century has a distinctive character of its own,
+differing from that of the preceding century in the fact that nearly
+all the great discoveries have been already made, and that the work
+of this whole period consists almost exclusively in perfecting the
+information already acquired. It contrasts equally with the century
+which is to succeed it, because scientific methods are not yet
+applied by astronomers and sailors, as they are to be 100 years
+later. It appears in fact, that the narratives of the first
+explorers--who were only able, so to speak, to obtain a glimpse of
+the regions which they traversed while waging their wars,--may have
+in some degree exercised a baneful influence upon the public mind.
+Curiosity, in the narrowest sense of the word, is carried to an
+extreme. Men travel over the world to gain an idea of the manners
+and customs of each nation, of the productions and manufactures of
+each country, but there is no real study. They do not seek to trace
+what they see to its source, and to reason scientifically upon the
+why and wherefore of facts. They behold, curiosity is satisfied, and
+they pass on. The observations made do not penetrate beneath the
+surface, and the great object appears to be to visit, as rapidly as
+may be, all the regions which the sixteenth century has brought to
+light.
+
+Besides, the abundance of the wealth diffused on a sudden over the
+whole of Europe has caused an economic crisis. Commerce, like
+industry, is transformed and altered. New ways are opened, new
+mediums arise, new wants are created, luxury increases, and the
+eagerness to make a fortune rapidly by speculation, turns the heads
+of many. If Venice from a commercial point of view be dead, the
+Dutch are about to constitute themselves, to use a happy expression
+of M. Leroy-Beaulieu, "the carriers and agents of Europe," and the
+English are preparing to lay the foundations of their vast colonial
+empire.
+
+To the merchants succeed the missionaries. They alight in large
+numbers upon the newly-discovered countries, preaching the Gospel,
+civilizing the barbarous nations, studying and describing the
+country. The development of Apostolic zeal is one of the dominant
+features of the seventeenth century, and it behoves us to recognize
+all that geography and historic science owe to these devoted,
+learned, and unassuming men. The traveller only passes through a
+country, the missionary dwells in it. The latter has evidently much
+greater facilities for acquiring an intimate knowledge of the
+history and civilization of the nations which he studies. It is
+therefore very natural that we should owe to them narratives of
+journeys, descriptions, and histories, which are still consulted
+with advantage, and which have served as a basis for later works.
+
+If there be any country to which these reflections more particularly
+apply, it is to Africa, and especially to Abyssinia. How much of
+this vast triangular continent of Africa was known in the
+seventeenth century? Nothing but the coasts, it will be said. A
+mistake. From the earliest times the two branches of the Nile, the
+Astapus and the Bahr-el-Abiad, had been known to the ancients. They
+had even advanced--if the lists of countries and nations discovered
+at Karnak by M. Mariette may be believed--as far as the great Lakes
+of the interior. In the twelfth century, the Arab geographer Edrisi
+writes an excellent description of Africa for Roger II. of Sicily,
+and confirms these data. Later on, Cadamosto and Ibn Batuta travel
+over Africa, and the latter goes as far as Timbuctoo. Marco Polo
+affirms that Africa is only united to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez,
+and he visits Madagascar. Lastly, when the Portuguese, led by Vasco
+da Gama, have completed the circumnavigation of Africa, some of them
+remain in Abyssinia, and in a short time diplomatic relations are
+established between that country and Portugal. We have already said
+something of Francesco Alvarez; in his train several Portuguese
+missionaries settle in the country, amongst whom must be named
+Fathers Paez and Lobo.
+
+Father Paez left Goa in 1588 to preach Christianity upon the eastern
+coast of North Africa. After long and sad mishaps, he landed at
+Massowah in Abyssinia, traversed the country, and in 1618 pushed on
+as far as the sources of the Blue Nile,--a discovery the
+authenticity of which Bruce was hereafter to dispute, but of which
+the narrative differs only in some unimportant particulars from that
+of the Scotch traveller. In 1604, Paez, arrived at the court of the
+king Za Denghel, had preached with such success that he had
+converted the king and all his court. He had even soon acquired so
+great an influence over the Abyssinian monarch, that the latter, in
+writing to the Pope and to the King of Spain to offer them his
+friendship, asked them to send him men fitted to teach his people.
+
+Father Geronimo Lobo landed in Abyssinia with Alfonzo Meneses,
+patriarch of Ethiopia, in 1625. But times were greatly changed. The
+king converted by Paez had been murdered, and his successor, who had
+summoned the Portuguese missionaries, died after a short time. A
+violent revulsion of feeling ensued against the Christians, and the
+missionaries were driven away, imprisoned, or given up to the Turks.
+Lobo was charged with the mission of obtaining the sum necessary for
+the ransom of his companions. After many wanderings, which led him
+to Brazil, Carthagena, Cadiz, and Seville, to Lisbon and to Rome,
+where he gave the Pope and the King of Spain numerous and accurate
+details upon the Church of Ethiopia and the manners of the
+inhabitants, he made a last journey in India, and returned to Lisbon
+to die, in 1678.
+
+Christianity had been introduced into Congo, upon the Atlantic coast,
+in 1489, the year of its discovery by the Portuguese. At first
+Dominicans were sent; but as they made scarce any progress, the Pope,
+with the consent of the King of Portugal, despatched thither some
+Italian Capuchins. These were Carli de Placenza in 1667, Giovanni
+Antonio Cavazzi, from 1654 to 1668, afterwards Antonio Zucchelli and
+Gradisca, from 1696 to 1704. We shall mention these missionaries
+only, because they have published accounts of their journeys.
+Cavazzi explored in succession Angola, the country of Matumba, and
+the islands of Coanza and Loana. In the ardour of his apostolic zeal,
+he could devise no better means of converting the blacks than by
+burning their idols, rebuking the kings for the time-honoured custom
+of polygamy, and subjecting to torture, or to being torn with whips,
+those who relapsed into idolatry. Notwithstanding all this, he
+gained considerable ascendancy over the natives, which, if it had
+been well directed, might have produced very useful results in the
+development of civilization and the progress of religion. The same
+reproach is due also to Father Zucchelli and to the other
+Missionaries in Congo. The narrative of Cavazzi, published at Rome
+in 1687, asserted that Portuguese influence extended from 200 to 300
+miles from the coast, and that in the interior there existed a very
+important town, known by the name of San Salvador, which possessed
+twelve churches, a Jesuit college, and a population of 50,000 souls.
+
+At the close of the fourteenth century Pigafetta published the
+account of the journey of Duarte Lopez, ambassador from the King of
+Congo to the Courts of Rome and Lisbon. A map which accompanies this
+narrative presents to us a Lake Zambre, in the very place occupied
+by Lake Tanganyika, and more to the west, Lake Acque Lunda, from
+whence issued the Congo River; south of the equator two lakes are
+indicated, one the Lake of the Nile, the other, more to the east,
+bears the name of Colue; they appear to be the Albert and the
+Victoria Nyanza. This most curious information was rejected by the
+geographers of the nineteenth century, who left blank the whole
+interior of Africa.
+
+Upon the West Coast of Africa at the mouth of the Senegal, the
+French had established settlements which, under the skilful
+administration of Andrew Brue, speedily received considerable
+extension. Brue, _Commandant for the King and Director-general of
+the Royal French Company upon the Senegal Coast and in other parts
+of Africa_--so ran his official title--although he may be little
+known, and the article which treats of him may be one of the most
+curtailed in the great collections of biography, deserves to occupy
+one of the most prominent positions among colonizers and explorers.
+Not content with extending the colony as far as its present limits,
+he explored countries which have been only lately revisited by
+Lieutenant Mage, or which have not been visited at all since Brue's
+time. He carried the French outposts eastwards above the junction of
+the Senegal and the Faleme, northwards as far as Arguin, which we
+have since abandoned, although reserving our rights, and southwards
+as far as the island of Bissao. He explored in the interior Galam
+and Bambouk, so rich in gold, and collected the earliest documents
+concerning the Pouls, Peuls or Fouls, the Yoloffs and the Mussulmen,
+who coming from the north, attempted the religious conquest of all
+the black nations of the country. The information thus collected by
+Brue about the history and migrations of these various people, is of
+the greatest value, affording clear light, even in the present day,
+to the geographer and the historian. Not only has Brue left us the
+narrative of deeds of which he was witness and the description of
+the places which he visited, but we also owe to him much information
+about the productions of the countries, the plants, the animals, and
+all the objects which would give occasion for commercial or
+industrial enterprise. These most curious documents, put together
+very maladroitly it must be confessed, by Father Labat, formed the
+subject, a few years ago, of a very interesting work by M. Berlioux.
+
+To the south-east of Africa, during the first half of the
+seventeenth century, the French founded some commercial settlements
+in Madagascar, an island long known under the name of St. Lawrence.
+They build Fort Dauphin under the administration of M. de Flacourt;
+several unknown districts of the island are explored as well as the
+neighbouring islands upon the coast; the Mascarene Islands are
+occupied in 1649. Although firm and moderate towards his countrymen,
+De Flacourt did not use the same self-control towards the natives;
+he even brought about a general revolt, as a consequence of which he
+was recalled. Expeditions into the interior of Madagascar were
+henceforth very rare, and it is not until the present day that we
+find a thorough exploration carried out.
+
+Of Indo-China and Thibet the only information which reached Europe
+during the whole of the seventeenth century was due to the
+missionaries. Such names as Father Alexandre de Rhodes, Ant.
+d'Andrada, Avril, Benedict Goes, may not be passed over in silence.
+In their _Annual Letters_ is to be found a quantity of information,
+which even in the present day retains a real interest, as concerning
+regions so long closed against Europeans. In Cochin China and Tonkin,
+Father Tachard devoted himself to astronomical observations, of
+which the result was to prove by the most conclusive evidence the
+great errors in the longitudes given by Ptolemy. This called the
+attention of the learned world to the necessity of a reform in the
+graphic representation of the countries of the extreme east, and for
+attaining this end, to the absolute need of close observations made
+by specially qualified scientific men, or by navigators familiar
+with astronomical calculations. The country which especially
+attracted the missionaries was China, that enormous and populous
+empire, which ever since the arrival of Europeans in India, had
+persevered with the greatest strictness in the absurd policy of
+abstention from any intercourse whatsoever with foreigners. It was
+not until the close of the sixteenth century that the missionaries
+obtained the permission, so often demanded before in vain, to
+penetrate into the Middle Empire. Their knowledge of mathematics and
+astronomy facilitated their settlement and enabled them to gather,
+as well from the ancient annals of the country, as during their
+journies, a prodigious quantity of most valuable information
+concerning the history, ethnography, and geography of the Celestial
+Empire. Fathers Mendoza, Ricci, Trigault, Visdelou, Lecomte,
+Verbiest, Navarrete, Schall, and Martini, deserve especial mention
+for having carried to China the arts and sciences of Europe, while
+they diffused in the west the first accurate and precise information
+upon the unprogressive civilization of the Flowery Land.
+
+
+II.
+MISSIONARIES AND SETTLERS. MERCHANTS AND TOURISTS.
+
+The Dutch in the Spice Islands--Lemaire and Schouten--Tasman--
+Mendana--Queiros and Torres--Pyrard de Laval--Pietro della Valle--
+Tavernier--Thevenot--Bernier--Robert Knox--Chardin--De Bruyn--
+Kaempfer.
+
+
+The Dutch were not slow in perceiving the weakness and decadence of
+the Portuguese power in Asia. They felt with how much ease a clever
+and prudent nation might in a short time become possessed of the
+whole commerce of the extreme East. After a considerable number of
+private expeditions and voyages of reconnaissance they had founded
+in 1602 that celebrated Company of the Indies which was destined to
+raise to so high a pitch the wealth and prosperity of the metropolis.
+Equally in its strife with the Portuguese as in its dealing with the
+natives, the Company pursued a very skilful policy of moderation.
+Far from founding colonies, or repairing and occupying the
+fortresses which they took from the Portuguese, the Dutch bore
+themselves as simple traders, exclusively occupied with their
+commerce. They avoided building any fortified factory, except at the
+intersection of the great commercial roads. Thus they were able in a
+short time to seize all the carrying trade between India, China,
+Japan, and Oceania. The one fault committed by the all-powerful
+Company was the concentrating in its own hands a monopoly of the
+trade in spices. It drove away the foreigners who had settled in the
+Moluccas or in the Islands of Sunda, or who came thither to obtain a
+cargo of spices; it even went the length, in order to raise the
+price of this valuable commodity, of proscribing the cultivation of
+certain species in a large number of islands, and of forbidding,
+under pain of death, the exportation and sale of seeds and cuttings
+of the spice-producing trees. In a few years the Dutch were
+established in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Moluccas, and at the Cape
+of Good Hope, harbours the best placed for ships returning to Europe.
+
+It was at this time that a rich merchant of Amsterdam, Jacob Lemaire,
+in concert with a skilful mariner, named Wilhem Cornelis Schouten,
+conceived a project for reaching the Indies by a new route. The
+Dutch States-General had in fact forbidden any subject of the United
+Provinces, not in the pay of the Company of the Indies, from going
+to the Spice Islands by way of the Cape of Good Hope or of the
+Strait of Magellan. Schouten, according to some, Lemaire, according
+to others, had formed the idea of eluding this interdict by seeking
+a passage to the south of Magellan's Strait. This much is certain,
+that Lemaire bore one half of the expense of the expedition, while
+Schouten, by the aid of several merchants whose names have been
+handed down to us, and who filled the chief offices in the town of
+Hoorn, provided the other half. They fitted out the _Concorde_, a
+vessel of 360 tons, and a yacht, carrying together a crew of
+sixty-five men, and twenty-nine cannon. This was certainly an
+equipment but little in accordance with the magnitude of the
+enterprise. But Schouten was a skilful mariner, the crew had been
+carefully chosen, and the vessels were abundantly furnished with
+provisions and spare rigging. Lemaire was commissioner, and Schouten
+the captain of the ship. The destination was kept secret, and
+officers and crew entered into an unlimited engagement to go
+wherever they might be led. On the 25th June, 1615, eleven days
+after quitting the Texel, and when there was no longer anything to
+be feared from indiscretion, the crews were assembled to listen to
+the reading of an order which ran as follows: "The two vessels would
+seek another passage than that of Magellan, by which to enter the
+South Sea, and to discover there certain southern countries, in the
+hope of obtaining enormous profits from them, and if heaven should
+not favour this design, they would repair by means of the same sea
+to the East Indies." This declaration was received with enthusiasm
+by the whole crew, who were animated, like all Dutchmen of that
+period, with a love for great discoveries.
+
+The route then usually pursued for reaching South America--as may
+perhaps have been already observed--followed the African coasts as
+far as below the equator. The _Concorde_ did not try to deviate from
+it; she reached the shores of Brazil, Patagonia, and Port Desire, at
+300 miles to the north of the Strait of Magellan, but was for
+several days hindered by storms from entering the harbour. The yacht
+even remained for the space of one whole tide, aground and lying on
+her side, but high water set her afloat again; only for a short time
+however, for whilst some repairs were being done to her keel, her
+rigging took fire, and she was consumed in spite of the energetic
+efforts of the two crews. On the 13th January, 1616, Lemaire and
+Schouten arrived at the Sebaldine Islands, discovered by Sebald de
+Weerdt, and followed the coast of Tierra del Fuego at a short
+distance from land. The coast ran east-quarter-south-east, and was
+skirted by high mountains covered with snow. On the 24th of January
+at mid-day, they sighted its extreme point, but eastward stretched
+some more land, which also appeared to be of great elevation. The
+distance between these two islands, according to the general opinion,
+appeared to be about twenty-four miles, and Schouten entered the
+strait which divided them. It was so encumbered with whales that the
+ship was obliged to tack more than once to avoid them. The island to
+the east received the name of Staten Island, and that to the west
+the name of Maurice of Nassau.
+
+[Illustration: The sea was so encumbered with whales.]
+
+Twenty-four hours after entering this strait, which received the
+name of Lemaire, the ship emerged from it, and to an archipelago of
+small islands situated to starboard was given the name of Barneveldt,
+in honour of the Grand Pensionary of Holland. In 58 degrees Lemaire
+doubled Cape Horn--so named in remembrance of the town where the
+expedition had been fitted out--and entered the South Sea. Lemaire
+afterwards went northwards as far as the parallel of the Juan
+Fernandez Islands, where he judged it wise to stop, in order to
+recruit his men who were suffering from scurvy. As Magellan had done,
+Lemaire and Schouten passed without perceiving them amongst the
+principal Polynesian archipelagos, and cast anchor on the 10th April,
+at the Island of Dogs, where it was only possible to procure a
+little fresh water and some herbs. They hoped to reach the Solomon
+Islands, but in the north the Dangerous Archipelago was entered, in
+which were discovered Waterland Island--so named on account of its
+containing a great lake--and Fly Island, because a cloud of these
+insects settled upon the vessel, and it was impossible to get rid of
+them until at the end of four days there was a change of wind.
+Afterwards Lemaire crossed the Friendly Archipelago, and entered
+that of the Navigators, or of Samoa, of which four small islands
+still retain the names which were then given to them: Goed Hoep,
+Cocoa, Horn, and Traitors' Islands. The inhabitants of these parts
+showed themselves extremely addicted to stealing; they tried to draw
+out the bolts from the ship and to break the chains. Scurvy
+continued to prevail among the crew, and it was therefore a great
+boon to receive from the king a present of a black boar and some
+fruits. The sovereign, who was named Latou, speedily arrived in a
+large canoe with sails, in shape like the Dutch sledges (_trainaux_),
+escorted by a flotilla of five and twenty boats. The king did not
+venture himself to go on board the _Concorde_, but his son was of a
+bolder spirit, and inquired the reason of everything he saw with the
+most lively curiosity. The next day the number of canoes was greatly
+augmented, and the Dutch perceived by certain indications that an
+attack was impending. Accordingly, a shower of stones falls on a
+sudden upon the ship, the canoes approach nearer, become annoying,
+and the Dutch to free themselves from them are forced to resort to a
+discharge of musketry. This island was rightly named Traitors'
+Island.
+
+It was now the 18th of May, and Lemaire ordered the course to be
+changed, that the Moluccas might be reached by the north of New
+Guinea. He probably passed within sight of the Solomon Archipelago,
+the Admiralty Islands, and the Thousand Islands (Mille Iles),
+coasting afterwards along New Guinea from 143 degrees to Geelwink
+Bay. He frequently landed, and gave names to a number of points: the
+twenty-five islands which form a part of the Admiralty Archipelago,
+the High Corner, the High Mountain (Hoogberg)--which seems to
+correspond to a portion of the neighbouring coast of Kornelis-Kinerz
+Bay--Moa and Arimoa, two islands again seen later on by Tasman, the
+island to which was given the name of Schouten, but which is now
+called Mysore and which must not be confounded with some other
+Schouten Islands situated upon the Coast of Guinea but much farther
+to the west, and finally the Cape Goede-Hoep, which appears to be
+Cape Saavedra at the western extremity of Mysore. After sighting the
+country of Papua, Schouten and Lemaire reached Gilolo, one of the
+Moluccas, where they received an eager welcome from their
+compatriots.
+
+When they were thoroughly rested from their fatigues and cured of
+scurvy, the Dutch went to Batavia, arriving there on the 23rd
+October, 1616, only thirteen months after quitting the Texel, and
+having lost only thirteen men during the long voyage. But the
+Company of the Indies did not at all understand their privileges
+being infringed upon, and a possibility discovered of reaching the
+colonies by a way not foreseen in the letters patent which had been
+granted to the Company at the time of its establishment. The
+Governor caused the _Concorde_ to be seized, and arrested her
+officers and sailors, whom he sent off to Holland, there to be tried.
+Poor Lemaire, who had expected a totally different recompense for
+his toils and fatigues, and for the discoveries which he had made,
+could not bear up under the blow which had fallen so unexpectedly
+upon him; he fell ill of grief and died in the latitude of the
+island of Mauritius. As for Schouten, he appears not to have been
+molested upon his return to his own country, and to have made
+several voyages to the Indies, which were not distinguished by any
+fresh discovery. He was returning to Europe in 1625, when he was
+forced by bad weather to enter Antongil Bay, upon the east coast of
+Madagascar, where he died.
+
+Such was the history of this important expedition, which by means of
+Strait Lemaire opened up a shorter and less dangerous route than
+that by Magellan's Strait, an expedition signalized by several
+discoveries in Oceania, and by a more attentive exploration of
+points already seen by Spanish or Portuguese navigators. But it is
+often a matter of difficulty to settle with accuracy to which of
+these nations the discovery of certain islands, countries, or
+archipelagos in the neighbourhood of Australia, may be due.
+
+Since we are speaking of the Dutch, we shall put the chronological
+order of discoveries a little on one side, that we may relate as
+well as those of Mendana and Quiros, the expeditions of Jan Abel
+Tasman.
+
+What was the early history of Tasman, by what concurrence of
+circumstances did he embrace the profession of a sailor, by what
+means did he acquire the nautical skill and science of which he gave
+so many proofs, and which conducted him to his important
+discoveries? From ignorance we cannot answer these questions, all we
+know of his biography commences with his departure from Batavia on
+2nd June, 1639. After passing the Philippines, he would seem during
+this first voyage to have visited in company with Matthew Quast the
+Bonin Islands, then known by the fantastic title of "the Gold and
+Silver Islands."
+
+In a second expedition, composed of two vessels of which he had the
+chief command, and which sailed from Batavia on the 14th of August,
+1642, he reached the Mauritius on the 5th September, and afterwards
+sailed to the south-east, seeking for the Australian Continent. On
+the 24th November in latitude 42 degrees 25 minutes south, he
+discovered land, to which he gave the name of Van-Diemen, after the
+Governor of the Sunda Islands, but which is now with much greater
+justice called Tasmania. He anchored there in Fredrik Hendrik Bay,
+and ascertained that the country was inhabited, although he could
+not see a single native.
+
+After following this coast for a certain time, he sailed eastwards,
+with the intention of afterwards making once more for the north, to
+reach the Solomon Archipelago. On the 13th December, in latitude 42
+degrees 10 minutes, he came in sight of a mountainous country which
+he followed towards the north, until the 18th December, when he cast
+anchor in a bay; but even the boldest of the savages whom he met
+with there, did not approach the ship within a stone's throw. Their
+voices were rough, their stature tall, their colour brown inclining
+to yellow, and their black hair, which was nearly as long as that of
+the Japanese, was worn drawn up to the crown of the head. On the
+morrow they summoned courage to go on board one of the vessels and
+carry on traffic by means of barter. Tasman, upon seeing these
+pacific dispositions, despatched a boat for the purpose of obtaining
+a more accurate knowledge of the shore. Of the sailors who manned it,
+three were killed without provocation by the natives, while the
+others escaped by swimming, and were picked up by the ships' boats,
+but by the time they were in readiness to fire upon the assailants,
+these had disappeared. The spot where this sad event happened,
+received the name of Assassins' (Moordenaars) Bay. Tasman, who felt
+convinced that he could not carry on any intercourse with such
+fierce people, weighed anchor and sailed up the coast as far as its
+extreme point, which he named Cape Maria Van-Diemen, in honour of
+his "lady," for a legend states that having had the audacity to
+pretend to the hand of the daughter of the governor of the East
+Indies, the latter had sent him to sea with two dilapidated ships,
+the _Heemskerke_ and the _Zeechen_.
+
+[Illustration: Three were killed by the natives without
+provocation.]
+
+The land thus discovered received the name of Staaten Land, soon
+changed into that of New Zealand. On the 21st January, 1643, Tasman
+discovered the islands of Amsterdam and Rotterdam, upon which he
+found a great quantity of pigs, fowls, and fruit. On the 6th
+February, the ships entered an archipelago, consisting of a score of
+islands, which were called Prince William Islands, and after
+sighting Anthong-Java, Tasman followed the coast of New Guinea from
+Cape Santa Maria, passed by the various points previously discovered
+by Lemaire and Schouten, and anchored off Batavia on the 15th June
+following, after a ten months' voyage.
+
+In a second expedition, Tasman, in obedience to his orders dated
+1664, was to visit Van Diemen's Land, and to make a careful
+examination of the western coast of New Guinea, as far as 17 degrees
+south latitude, in order to ascertain whether that island belonged
+to the Australian Continent. It does not appear that Tasman carried
+out this programme, but the loss of his journals causes complete
+uncertainty as to the route which he followed, and the discoveries
+which he may have made. From this time there is no record of the
+events which marked the close of his career, nor of the place and
+date of his death.
+
+From the period of the taking of Malacca by Albuquerque, the
+Portuguese conceived that a new world extended to the south of Asia.
+Their ideas were soon shared by the Spaniards, and henceforward a
+series of voyages were made on the Pacific Ocean, to search for a
+southern continent, of which the existence appeared geographically
+necessary to counterbalance the immense extent of the lands already
+known. Java the Great, designated later by the names of New Holland
+and Australia, had been seen by the French perhaps, or as is more
+probable by Saavedra, from 1530 to 1540, and it was sought for by a
+crowd of navigators, amongst whom we may mention the Portuguese,
+Serrao and Meneses, and the Spaniards, Saavedra, Hernando de
+Grijalva, Alvarado, and Inigo Ortiz de Retes, who explored the
+greater part of the islands to the north of New Guinea, as well as
+that great island itself. Afterwards come Mendana, Torres, and
+Quiros, upon whose deeds we shall pause a little, on account of the
+importance and authenticity of the discoveries which we owe to them.
+
+Alvaro Mendana de Neyra was nephew to the Governor of Lima, Don
+Pedro de Castro, who warmly advocated with the home government his
+nephew's project of searching for new countries in the Pacific Ocean.
+Mendana was one-and-twenty when he took the command of two ships and
+one hundred and twenty-five soldiers and sailors. He sailed from
+Callao, the port of Lima, on the 19th November, 1567. After sighting
+the small Island of Jesus, he discovered on the 7th February between
+7 degrees and 8 degrees south latitude, the Island of Santa Isabella,
+where the Spaniards built a brigantine, with which they explored the
+archipelago of which this island was a part. "The inhabitants," says
+the narrative of a companion of Mendana, "are anthropophagi, they
+devour those whom they can make their prisoners in war, and even
+without being in open hostility, those whom they can succeed in
+taking by treachery." One of the chiefs in the island sent to
+Mendana as a delicacy, a quarter of a child, but the Spanish
+commander caused it to be buried in the presence of the natives, who
+appeared much hurt by an act which they could not understand. The
+Spaniards explored the Island las Palmas (Palm Island), los
+Ramos--so named because it was discovered on Palm Sunday--Galley
+Island, and Buena-Vista, of which the inhabitants, under the
+appearance of friendship concealed hostile intentions, which were
+not long in displaying themselves. The same reception awaited the
+Spaniards at the Island San Dimas, at Sesarga, and at Guadalcanar,
+upon which ginger was found for the first time. In the return voyage
+to Santa Isabella, the Spaniards pursued a course which enabled them
+to discover St. George Island, where they found bats as large as
+kites. Scarcely had the crew of the brigantine cast anchor in the
+harbour of Santa Isabella, than they were obliged again to weigh it,
+for the place was so unhealthy that five soldiers died and a great
+number of others were taken ill. Mendana stopped at the Island of
+Guadalcanar, where out of ten men who had landed to fetch water, one
+negro alone escaped from the attacks of the natives, who were
+extremely angry at one of their fellows having been carried off by
+the Spaniards. The punishment was terrible; twenty men were killed
+and a number of houses burnt. Mendana afterwards visited several
+islands of the Solomon archipelago, amongst others the Three Maries
+and San Juan. Upon the latter island, whilst the ships were being
+repaired and calked, several affrays with the natives occurred, in
+which some prisoners were made. After this checkered rest, Mendana
+again put to sea, and visited the islands of San Christoval, Santa
+Catalina, and Santa Anna. But as by this time the number of invalids
+was considerable, the provisions and ammunition nearly exhausted,
+and the rigging become rotten, the flotilla now set out to return to
+Peru. The separation of the flagship, the discovery of certain
+islands which it is difficult to identify, and probably of the
+Sandwich Islands; violent storms, during which the sails were
+carried away; the sickness caused by the insufficiency and
+putrefaction of the water and biscuit on board, were all incidents
+signalizing this long and trying return voyage, which was ended by
+the arrival of the ships at the port of Colima in California after
+five months of navigation.
+
+The narrative of Mendana excited no enthusiasm, in spite of the name
+of Solomon which he gave to the archipelago discovered by him, to
+make it believed that from thence came the treasures of the Jewish
+King. Marvellous recitals had no longer any fascination for men
+glutted with the riches of Peru. Proofs were what they demanded; the
+smallest nugget of gold, or the least grain of silver would have
+been more satisfactory to them.
+
+Mendana had twenty-seven years to wait before he was able to
+organize another expedition, but then his fleet was a large one, it
+being proposed to found a colony in the island of San Christoval
+which Alvaro de Mendana had seen during his first voyage. Thus four
+ships carrying nearly four hundred people sailed from the port of
+Lima on the 11th April, 1595. Amongst those on board may be named
+Dona Isabella, wife of Mendana, the three brothers-in-law of the
+general, and the pilot Pedro Fernandez Quiros, who later on
+distinguished himself as commander-in-chief of another expedition.
+The fleet did not finally leave the Peruvian coast, where its
+equipment had been completed, until the 16th April. At the end of a
+month's navigation, not distinguished by any remarkable incident, an
+island was discovered, which according to custom received the name
+of the saint whose day it was, and was called Magdalena. Immediately
+the fleet was surrounded by a crowd of canoes bearing more than four
+hundred Indians, of fine stature and nearly white, and who while
+presenting cocoa-nuts and other fruits to the sailors, appeared to
+entreat them to disembark. The natives no sooner came on board than
+they began to pilfer, and it was necessary to fire a cannon to get
+rid of them; a wound which one of the natives received in the fray
+soon changed their disposition, and a discharge of musketry was the
+reply to the shower of arrows which they let fly from their boats.
+Not far from this island three others were discovered, San Pedro,
+Dominica, and Santa Christina, and the name of _las Marquezas de
+Mendoca_ was given to the group, in honour of the governor of Peru.
+So friendly had been the intercourse at the beginning, that an
+Indian woman upon seeing the beautiful fair hair of Dona Isabella de
+Mendana had begged her by signs to give her a curl of it; but by the
+fault of the Spaniards the mutual relations speedily became hostile,
+and so continued until the day when the natives, becoming conscious
+of the great inferiority of their arms, begged for peace.
+
+On the 5th August the Spanish flotilla again put to sea and made
+1200 miles west-north-west. On the 20th August were discovered the
+St. Bernard, since called Dangerous Islands, and afterwards Queen
+Charlotte's Islands, upon which notwithstanding the scarcity of
+provisions, no landing was made. After Solitary Island--a name which
+explains its situation--the Santa Cruz archipelago was reached. But
+at this time, during a storm, the flagship became separated from the
+fleet, and although search was made several times, no tidings of her
+were obtained. Fifty canoes, carrying a crowd of natives of a tawny
+complexion, or of a lustrous black, immediately approached the ships.
+"All had frizzled hair, black, red, or some other colour (for it was
+dyed); their teeth also were dyed red; the head was half shaven, the
+body was naked, except a small veil of fine linen, the face and the
+arms painted black, glittering and striped with various colours; the
+neck and limbs loaded with several strings of small beads, of gold,
+or of black wood, of fishes' teeth, or of a species of medals made
+of mother of pearl, or of pearls." For arms they carried bows,
+poisoned arrows with sharp points hardened in the fire, or tipped
+with bone and steeped in the juice of a herb, great stones, heavy
+wooden swords made of stiff wood, with three harpoon points, each
+more than a handbreadth long. Slung over their shoulders they had
+haversacks exceedingly well made out of palm leaves, and filled with
+biscuits made from certain roots which serve them for food.
+
+[Illustration: Dona Isabella consults the officers.]
+
+At first Mendana thought he recognized in these natives the
+inhabitants of the islands he was seeking, but he was quickly
+undeceived. The vessels were received with a shower of arrows, which
+was the more vexatious because Mendana, seeing that he could not
+find the Solomon Islands, had determined to establish his colony in
+this archipelago. At this juncture, discord reigned among the
+Spaniards; a revolt fomented against the general was almost
+immediately suppressed, and the guilty were executed. But these
+sorrowful events and the fatigues of the voyage had so completely
+undermined the health of the head of the expedition, that he died on
+the 17th October, after having had time to indicate his wife as his
+successor in the conduct of the enterprise. After the death of
+Mendana the hostilities with the natives redoubled, and many of the
+Spaniards were so exhausted by sickness and hardships, that a score
+of thoroughly determined natives might easily have gained the
+mastery over them. To persist in the intention of founding a
+settlement under such conditions would have been folly; all agreed
+in this, and the anchor was raised on the 18th November. Dona
+Isabella de Mendana's project was to go to Manilla, and there to
+obtain recruits from amongst the colonists, with whom she would
+return to found a settlement. She consulted the officers, who all
+gave their approval in writing; and she found in Quiros a devotion
+and skill which were speedily to be put to a severe proof. They at
+once steered away from New Guinea, in order to avoid being entangled
+amongst the numerous archipelagos surrounding it, and also to enable
+them sooner to reach the Philippines, which the dilapidated state of
+the ships rendered necessary. After passing within sight of several
+islands surrounded by reefs of madrepore, upon which the crews
+wished to land, a permission which Quiros with great prudence always
+refused, after having been separated from one of the ships of the
+squadron, which could not or would not follow, the flotilla arrived
+at the Ladrone--soon to be called the Marianne--Islands. The
+Spaniards went on shore several times to buy some provisions; the
+natives did not desire either their silver or gold, but set the
+highest value upon iron and all tools made of that metal. The
+narrative contains here some details upon the veneration shown by
+the natives towards their ancestors, which are curious enough to
+warrant our reproducing them verbatim: "They take out the bones from
+the bodies of their relations, burn the flesh, and mixing the ashes
+with _tuba_, a wine made from the cocoa palm, swallow them. They
+weep for the dead every year for a whole week; there are a great
+number of female mourners, who are to be hired for the purpose.
+Besides that, all the neighbours come to weep in the house of the
+deceased; the compliment being returned to them when the turn comes
+for the feast to take place at their house. These anniversaries are
+much frequented, all those assisting at them being liberally regaled.
+They weep all day and drink to intoxication all night. They recite
+in the midst of tears, the life and deeds of the dead, beginning
+with the moment of his birth, and dealing with the whole course of
+his life, recounting his strength, his height, his beauty, in a word,
+all that can in any way do him honour. If some amusing action occur
+in the recital, the company begin to laugh as if they would split
+their sides; then on a sudden they drink and are again drowned in
+tears. There are sometimes two hundred persons present at these
+absurd anniversaries." When the Spanish crew arrived at the
+Philippines, it was scarcely more than a company of skeletons,
+emaciated and half dead with hunger. Dona Isabella landed at Manilla
+on the 11th February, 1596, under a salute from the guns, and was
+solemnly received in the midst of the troops drawn up under arms.
+The rest of the crew, fifty having died since the departure from
+Santa Cruz, were housed and fed at the public expense, and the women
+all found husbands in Manilla, except four or five who embraced the
+religious life. As for Dona Isabella, she was escorted back to Peru
+some time afterwards by Quiros, who lost no time in submitting to
+the viceroy a project for a fresh voyage. But Luis de Velasco, who
+had succeeded Mendoza, referred the navigator to the King of Spain
+and the Council of the Indies, under the pretext that such a
+decision would overstep the limits of his authority. Quiros
+therefore went to Spain and thence to Rome, where he received a
+kindly welcome from the Pope, who recommended him warmly to Philip
+III. At length in 1605, after numberless applications and
+solicitations, he was empowered to fit out at Lima the two vessels
+which he should judge the most suitable for the investigation of the
+Australian continent and for continuing the discoveries of Mendana.
+With two ships and one light vessel, Quiros set out from Callao on
+the 21st December, 1605. At 3000 miles from Peru he had as yet
+discovered no land. In latitude 25 degrees south he observed a group
+of small islands belonging to the Dangerous archipelago. These were
+the _Convercion de San Pablo_, the _Osnabrugh_ of Wallis, and
+_Decena_, so named because it was the tenth island seen. Although
+this island was defended by rocks, intercourse was carried on with
+the natives, whose dwellings were scattered about amongst palm-trees
+on the sea shore. The natives were strong and well proportioned, and
+their chief wore on his head a kind of crown made of small black
+feathers so fine and supple that they might have been taken for silk.
+His fair hair, which descended to the waist, excited the wonder of
+the Spaniards, who, not being able to understand how a man with so
+tawny coloured a face could have such light yellow hair, "chose to
+think that he was married, and that he wore his wife's hair." This
+singular colour was only due to the habitual use of powdered lime,
+which burns the hair and causes it to turn yellow.
+
+This island to which Quiros gave the name of Sagittaria, is,
+according to Fleurieu, Tahiti, one of the principal of the group of
+Society Islands. On the succeeding days Quiros sighted several other
+islands, upon which he did not land, and to which he gave names
+taken from the Calendar, according to a practice which has changed
+all the native nomenclature of Oceania into a veritable litany. One
+island visited may be especially noticed; it was named the island of
+_la Gente Hermosa_ on account of the beauty of its inhabitants, and
+of the fair colour and coquetry of its women, who, as the Spaniards
+declared, even bore away the palm for grace and attractiveness from
+their own fellow-countrywomen of Lima, whose beauty is proverbial.
+This island, according to Quiros, was situated upon the same
+parallel as Santa Cruz, to which he intended to go. He therefore
+sailed westward and reached an island called by the natives Taumaco,
+in 10 degrees south latitude and 240 miles east of Santa Cruz. This
+must have been one of the Duff Islands, and here Quiros was told
+that if he directed his course southwards, he would discover a great
+land, of which the inhabitants were whiter than those whom he had
+hitherto seen. This information determined him to abandon his scheme
+of going to Santa Cruz. He steered in a south-westerly direction,
+and after having sighted several small islands, he arrived on the
+1st May, 1606, in a bay more than twenty-four miles broad. He gave
+to this island the name which it still bears, of Espiritu Santo. It
+was one of the New Hebrides group. What events happened during the
+stay of the ships here? The narrative is silent upon this subject,
+but we know from other sources that the crew mutinied, made Quiros
+prisoner, and abandoning the second ship and the brigantine, set out
+on the 11th June to return to America, where they arrived on the 3rd
+October, 1606, after a nine months' voyage. M. Ed. Charton throws no
+light upon this incident. He is silent upon the mutiny of the crew,
+and even throws all the blame of the separation upon the commander
+of the second vessel, Luis Vaes de Torres, who abandoned his chief
+in quitting Espiritu Santo. Now it is known by a letter from Torres
+himself to the King of Spain--published by Lord Stanley at the end
+of his English edition of Antoine de Morga's _History of the
+Philippines_--that he remained "fifteen" days waiting for Quiros in
+the Bay of Saint Philip and Saint James. The officers met in council,
+resolved to weigh anchor on the 26th June, and to continue the
+search for the Australian continent. Hindered by bad weather, which
+prevents him from sailing round Espiritu Santo Island, assailed by
+the demands of a crew over whom prevails a slight breath of mutiny,
+Torres decides to steer to the north-east to reach the Spanish
+Islands. In 11 degrees 30 minutes he discovers land, which he
+imagines must be the commencement of New Guinea. "All this land is
+part of New Guinea," says Torres, "it is peopled by Indians who are
+not very white, and who go naked, although their middles are covered
+with the bark of trees.... They fight with javelins, bucklers, and
+certain clubs of stone, the whole adorned with beautiful feathers.
+All along this land there are other inhabited islands. Upon the
+whole of this coast there are numerous and vast harbours, with very
+broad rivers and great plains. Outside these islands stretch reefs
+and shallows; the islands are between these dangers and the mainland,
+and a channel runs between. We took possession of these harbours in
+your Majesty's name. Having pursued this coast for 900 miles, and
+seen our latitude decrease from 2-1/2 degrees until we found
+ourselves in 9 degrees, at this point commenced a shoal of from
+three to nine fathoms deep, which stretched along the coast to 7-1/2
+degrees. Not being able to proceed farther on account of the
+numerous shallows and powerful currents which we encountered, we
+decided to alter our course to the south-west, by the deep channel
+which has been mentioned, as far as about 11 degrees. There is there,
+from one end to the other, an archipelago of innumerable islands, by
+which I passed. At the end of the eleventh degree the bottom became
+deeper. There were some very large islands there, and there appeared
+to be more of them towards the south; they were inhabited by a black
+population, very robust and quite naked, bearing for arms, strong
+and long spears, arrows, and stone clubs roughly fashioned."
+
+Modern geographers are agreed in recognizing in the localities thus
+described, that portion of the Australian Coast which ends in York
+Peninsula, and the extremity of New Guinea recently visited by
+Captain Moresby. It was known that Torres had entered the strait
+which has been named after him, and which divides New Guinea from
+Cape York; but the very recent exploration of the south-eastern
+portion of New Guinea, of which the population has been discovered
+to be of a comparatively light colour and differing much from the
+Papous, has just furnished an unexpected confirmation of the
+discoveries of Quiros. It is for this reason that we have dwelt at
+some length upon them, referring for the purpose to a very learned
+work of M. E. T. Hamy, which appeared in the _Bulletin de la Societe
+de Geographie_.
+
+It behoves us now to say a few words about some travellers who
+explored some unfrequented countries, and furnished their
+contemporaries with more exact knowledge of a world until then
+almost unknown. The first of these travellers is Francois Pyrard, of
+Laval. Having embarked in 1601 on board a St. Malo ship to go to the
+Indies to trade, he was wrecked in the Maldive Archipelago. These
+islets or atolls (detached coral reefs,) to the number of at least
+12,000, descend into the Indian Ocean from Cape Comorin as far as
+the equator. The worthy Pyrard relates his shipwreck, the flight of
+a portion of his companions in captivity in the archipelago, and his
+long sojourn of seven years upon the Maldive Islands, a stay
+rendered almost agreeable by the pains which he took to acquire the
+native language. He had plenty of time to learn the manners, customs,
+religion, and industries of the inhabitants, as well as to study the
+productions and climate of the country. Thus his narrative is filled
+with details of all kinds, and had retained its attractions until
+recent years, because travellers do not voluntarily frequent this
+unhealthy archipelago, the isolated situation of which had kept away
+foreigners and conquerors. Pyrard's narrative therefore, is still
+instructive and agreeable reading.
+
+In 1607, a fleet was sent to the Maldives by the King of Bengal, in
+order to carry off the 100 or 120 cannon which the Maldive sovereign
+owed to the wreck of numerous Portuguese vessels. Pyrard,
+notwithstanding all the liberty allowed him, and that he had become
+a landholder, was desirous to behold his beloved Brittany once more.
+He therefore eagerly embraced this opportunity of quitting the
+Archipelago with the three companions who out of the whole crew
+alone remained with him. But the eventful travels of Pyrard were not
+yet concluded. Taken first to Ceylon, he was carried afterwards to
+Bengal, and endeavoured to reach Cochin. Before reaching this town
+he was captured by the Portuguese and carried prisoner to Cochin; he
+afterwards fell ill and was nursed in the Hospital of Goa which he
+only quitted to serve for two years as a soldier, at the end of
+which time he was again thrown into prison, and it was not until
+1611, that he was able to revisit the good town of Laval. After so
+many trials, Pyrard must doubtless have felt the need of repose, and
+we are justified in imagining, from the silence of history as to the
+close of his life, that he was privileged at length to find
+happiness.
+
+While the honest burgess Francois Pyrard, was, so to speak, in spite
+of himself, and from having indulged the desire of making a fortune
+too rapidly, launched into adventures in which he had to pass much
+of his life, circumstances of a different and romantic kind caused
+Pietro della Valle to determine upon travelling. Descendant of an
+ancient and noble family, he is by turns a soldier of the Pope, and
+a sailor chasing Barbary corsairs. Upon his return to Rome he finds
+that a rival, profiting by his absence, has taken his place with a
+young girl whom he was to have married. So great a misfortune
+demands an heroic remedy, and Della Valle makes a vow of pilgrimage
+to the Holy Sepulchre. But if, as saith the proverb, there is no
+road which does not lead to Rome, so there is no circuit so long as
+not to lead to Jerusalem, and of this Della Valle was to make proof.
+He embarks at Venice in 1614, passes thirteen months at
+Constantinople, reaches Alexandria by sea, afterwards Cairo, and
+joins a caravan which at length brings him to Jerusalem. But while
+en route, Delia Valle had no doubt imbibed a taste for a traveller's
+life, for he visits in succession Baghdad, Damascus, Aleppo, and
+even pushes on as far as the ruins of Babylon. We must believe that
+Della Valle was marked out as an easy prey to love, for upon his
+return he becomes enamoured of a young Christian woman of Mardin, of
+wondrous beauty, whom he marries. One would imagine that here at
+length is fixed the destiny of this indefatigable traveller. Nothing
+of the kind. Della Valle contrives to accompany the Shah in his war
+against the Turks, and to traverse during four consecutive years the
+provinces of Iran. He quits Ispahan in 1621, loses his wife in the
+month of December of the same year, causes her to be embalmed, and
+has her coffin carried about in his train for four years longer,
+which he devotes to exploring Ormuz, the western coasts of India,
+the Persian Gulf, Aleppo, and Syria, landing at length at Naples in
+1626.
+
+The countries which this singular character visited, urged on as he
+was by an extraordinary enthusiasm, are described by him in a shrewd,
+gay, and natural style, and even with some degree of fidelity. But
+he inaugurates the pleiad of amateur, curious, and commercial
+travellers. He is the first of that prolific race of tourists who
+each year encumber geographical literature with numerous volumes,
+from which the savant finds nothing to glean beyond meagre details.
+
+Tavernier is a specimen of insatiable curiosity. At two-and-twenty
+he has traversed France, England, the Low Countries, Germany,
+Switzerland, Poland, Hungary, and Italy. Then when Europe no longer
+offers any food for his curiosity, he starts for Constantinople,
+where he remains for a year, and then arrives in Persia, where the
+opportunity and
+
+    Quelque diable, aussi, le poussant,
+
+he sets to work to purchase carpets, stuffs, precious stones, and
+those thousand trifles of which lovers of curiosities soon became
+passionately fond, and for which they were ready to pay fabulous
+sums. The profit which Tavernier realized from his cargo induced him
+to resume his travels. But like a wise and prudent man, before
+starting he learnt from a jeweller the art of knowing precious
+stones. During four successive journeys from 1638 to 1663, he
+travelled over Persia, the Mogul Empire, the Indies as far as the
+frontier of China, and the Islands of Sunda. Dazzled by the immense
+fortune which his traffic had obtained for him, Tavernier would play
+the lord, and soon saw himself on the verge of ruin, which he hoped
+to avert by sending one of his nephews to the east with a
+considerable venture, but instead, his ruin was consummated by this
+young man, who, judging it best to appropriate the goods which had
+been confided to him, settled down at Ispahan. Tavernier, who was a
+well-educated man, made a number of interesting observations upon
+the history, manners and customs, of the countries which he visited.
+His narrative certainly contributed to give his contemporaries a
+much more correct idea of the countries of the east than they
+previously possessed.
+
+All travellers during the reign of Louis XIV. take the route to the
+East Indies, whatever may be the end they have in view. Africa is
+entirely deserted, and if America be the theatre of any real
+exploration, it is carried out without aid from government.
+
+Whilst Tavernier was accomplishing his last and distant excursions,
+a distinguished archaeologist, Jean de Thevenot, nephew of
+Melchisedec Thevenot--a learned man to whom we owe an interesting
+series of travels--journeyed through Europe, and visited Malta,
+Constantinople, Egypt, Tunis, and Italy. He brought back in 1661 an
+important collection of medals and monumental inscriptions,
+recognized nowadays as so important a help to the historian and the
+philologist. In 1664, he set out anew for the Levant, and visited
+Persia, Bassorah, Surat, and India, where he saw Masulipatam,
+Burhampur, Aurungabad, and Golconda. But the fatigues which he had
+experienced prevented his return to Europe, and he died in Armenia
+in 1667. The success of his narratives was considerable, and was
+well deserved by the care and exactitude of a traveller whose
+scientific attainments in history, geography, and mathematics, far
+surpassed the average level of his contemporaries.
+
+We must now speak of the amiable Bernier, the "pretty philosopher,"
+as he was entitled in his polite circle, in which were found Ninon
+and La Fontaine, Madame de la Sabliere, St. Evremont, and Chapelle,
+without reckoning many other good and gay spirits, refractories from
+the stiff solemnity which then weighed upon the entourage of Louis
+XIV. Bernier could not escape from the fashion of travelling. After
+having taken a rapid survey of Syria and Egypt, he resided for
+twelve years in India, where his good knowledge of medicine
+conciliated the favour of Aurung-Zebe, and gave him the opportunity
+of beholding in detail, and with profit, an empire then in the full
+bloom of its prosperity.
+
+To the south of Hindostan, Ceylon had more than one surprise in
+reserve for its explorers. Robert Knox, taken prisoner by the
+natives, owed to this sad circumstance his long residence in the
+country and the collection of the first authentic documents relating
+to the forests and the savage natives of Ceylon, the Dutch, with a
+commercial jealousy which they were not singular in evincing, having
+until now kept secret all the information which had come to light
+concerning an island of which they were endeavouring to make a
+colony.
+
+[Illustration: Jean Chardin. _From an old print_.]
+
+Another merchant, Jean Chardin, the son of a rich Parisian jeweller,
+jealous of the successes of Tavernier, desired, like him, to make
+his fortune by trading in diamonds. The countries which attract
+these merchants are those of which the fame for wealth and
+prosperity is become proverbial; these are Persia and India, where
+rich costumes sparkle with jewels and gold, and where there are
+mines of diamonds of a fabulous size. The moment is well chosen for
+visiting these countries. Thanks to the Mogul Emperors, civilization
+and art have been developed; mosques, palaces, temples have been
+built, and towns have risen suddenly. Their taste--that curious
+taste, so distinctly characterized, so different from our own,--is
+displayed in the construction of gigantic edifices, quite as much as
+in jewellery and goldsmith's work, and in the manufacture of those
+costly trifles of which the east was beginning to be passionately
+fond. Like a wise man, Chardin takes a partner, as good a
+connoisseur as himself. At first Chardin only traversed Persia in
+order to reach Ormuz and to embark for the Indies. The following
+year he returns to Ispahan, and applies himself to learn the
+language of the country, in order to be able to transact business
+directly and without any intermediary agent. He has the good fortune
+to please the Shah, Abbas II. From that time his fortune is made,
+for it is at once genteel and also the part of a prudent courtier to
+employ the same purveyor as his sovereign. But Chardin had another
+merit besides that of making a fortune. He was able to collect so
+considerable a mass of information concerning the government,
+manners, creeds, customs, towns, and populations of Persia, that his
+narrative has remained to our own days the _vade-mecum_ of the
+traveller. This guide is so much the more precious because Chardin
+took care to engage at Constantinople a clever draughtsman named
+Grelot, by whom were reproduced the monuments, cities, scenes,
+costumes, and ceremonies which so well portray what Chardin called,
+"the every day of a people."
+
+When Chardin returned to France in 1670, the Revocation of the Edict
+of Nantes, with the barbarous persecutions which resulted from it,
+had chased from their country great numbers of artisans, who, taking
+refuge in foreign countries enriched them with our arts and
+manufactures. Chardin, being a protestant, clearly perceived that
+his religion would hinder him from attaining "to what are termed
+honours and advancement." As, to use his own words, "one is not free
+to believe what one will," he resolved to return to the Indies
+"where, without being urged to a change of religion," he could not
+fail of attaining an honourable position. Thus liberty of conscience
+was at that period greater in Persia than in France. Such an
+assertion on the part of a man who had made the comparison, is but
+little flattering to the grandson of Henry IV.
+
+This time, however, Chardin did not follow the same route as before.
+He passed by Smyrna and Constantinople, and from thence, crossing
+the Black Sea, he landed in the Crimea, in the garb of a religious.
+Whilst passing through the region of the Caucasus he had the
+opportunity of studying the Abkasians and Circassians. He afterwards
+penetrated into Mingrelia, where he was robbed of his goods and
+papers, and of a portion of the jewels which he was taking back to
+Europe. He could not have escaped himself had it not been for the
+devotion to him of the theatines, from whom he had received
+hospitality, but he escaped only to fall into the hands of the Turks,
+who, in their turn, accepted a ransom for him. After further
+misadventures he arrived at Tiflis on the 17th of December, 1672,
+and as Georgia was then governed by a prince who was a tributary of
+the Shah of Persia, it was easy for Chardin to reach Erivan, Tauriz,
+and finally Ispahan.
+
+After a stay of four years in Persia, and a concluding journey to
+India, during which he realized a considerable fortune, Chardin
+returned to Europe and settled in England, his own country on
+account of his religion, being forbidden ground to him.
+
+The journal of his travels forms a large work, in which everything
+that concerns Persia is especially developed. The long stay he made
+in the country and his intimate acquaintance with the highest
+personages of the state enabled him to collect numerous and
+authentic documents. It may fairly be said that in this way Persia
+was better known in the seventeenth century than it was 100 years
+later.
+
+The countries which Chardin had just explored were visited again
+some years later by a Dutch painter, Cornelius de Bruyn, or Le Brun.
+The great value of his work consists in the beauty and accuracy of
+the drawings which illustrate it, for as far as the text is
+concerned, it contains nothing which was not known before, except in
+what relates to the Samoyedes, whom he was the first to visit.
+
+[Illustration: Japanese Warrior. _From an old print_.]
+
+We must now speak of the Westphalian, Kaempfer, almost a naturalized
+Swede in consequence of his long sojourn in Scandinavian countries.
+He refused the brilliant position which was there offered him in
+order to accompany as secretary, an ambassador who was going to
+Moscow. He was thus enabled to see the principal cities of Russia, a
+country which at that period had scarcely entered upon the path of
+western civilization; afterwards he went to Persia, where he quitted
+the Ambassador Fabricius, in order to enter the service of the Dutch
+Company of the Indies, and to continue his travels. He thus visited
+in the first place Persepolis, Shiraz, Ormuz upon the Persian Gulf,
+where he was extremely ill, and whence he embarked in 1688 for the
+East Indies. Arabia Felix, India, the Malabar Coast, Ceylon, Java,
+Sumatra, and Japan were afterwards all visited by him. The object of
+these journeys was exclusively scientific. Kaempfer was a physician,
+but was more especially devoted to the various branches of Natural
+History, and collected, described, drew, or dried, a considerable
+number of plants then unknown in Europe, gave new information upon
+their use in medicine or manufactures, and collected an immense
+herbarium, which is now preserved with the greater part of his
+manuscripts in the British Museum in London. But the most
+interesting portion of his narrative, now-a-days indeed quite
+obsolete and very incomplete since the country has been opened up to
+our scientific men,--was for a long time that relating to Japan. He
+had contrived to procure books treating of the history, literature,
+and learning of the country, when he had failed in obtaining from
+certain personages to whom he had rendered himself very acceptable,
+information which was not usually imparted to foreigners.
+
+To conclude, if all the travellers of whom we have just spoken are
+not strictly speaking discoverers, if they do not explore countries
+unknown before, they all have, in various degrees and according to
+their ability or their studies, the merit of having rendered the
+countries which they visited better known. Besides they were able to
+banish to the domain of fable, many of the tales which others less
+learned had naively accepted, and which had for long become so
+completely public property that nobody dreamed of disputing them.
+
+Thanks to these travellers, something is known of the history of the
+east, the migrations of nations began to be dimly suspected, and
+accounts to be given of the changes in those great empires of which
+the very existence had been long problematical.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+I.
+THE GREAT CORSAIR.
+
+William Dampier; or a Sea-King of the Seventeenth Century.
+
+
+William Dampier was born in 1612 at East Coker, and by the death of
+his parents was from his childhood left to his own control. Not
+possessing any great taste for study, he preferred running wild in
+the woods, and fighting with his companions, to remaining in his
+place on the school benches. While still young he was sent to sea as
+cabin-boy on board merchant ships. After a voyage to Newfoundland
+and a campaign in the East Indies, he took service in the Naval
+Marine, and being wounded in a battle, returned to Greenwich to be
+nursed. Free from any prejudices, Dampier forgot his engagement when
+he left the Military Hospital, and started for Jamaica in the
+position of manager of a plantation. It did not require a long trial
+to discover that this occupation was not to his taste. So he
+abandoned his negroes at the end of six months, and went on board a
+ship bound for the Bay of Campeachy, where he worked for three years
+at gathering in woods for dyeing.
+
+At the end of that period he is again found in London, but the laws
+and the officers charged with compelling their observance are too
+strict for his comfort. He goes back to Jamaica, where he speedily
+puts himself into communication with those famous buccaneers and
+corsairs, who at that time did so much harm to the Spaniards.
+
+These English or French adventurers, established in the Island of
+Tortuga, off the coast of San Domingo, had sworn implacable hatred
+to Spain. Their ravages were not confined to the Gulf of Mexico:
+they crossed the Isthmus of Panama and devastated the coast of the
+Pacific Ocean from the Strait of Magellan to California. Terror
+exaggerated the exploits of these pirates, which however presented
+something of the marvellous.
+
+It was amongst these adventurers, then commanded by Harris, Sawkins,
+and Shays, that Dampier enrolled himself. In 1680 we find him in
+Darien, where he pillages Santa Maria, endeavours in vain to
+surprise Panama, and with his companions, on board of some wretched
+canoes stolen from the Indians, captures eight vessels well armed,
+which were at anchor not far from the town. In this affair the
+losses of the corsairs are so great in the fight, and the spoil is
+so poor, that they separate from each other. Some go back to the
+Gulf of Mexico, while others establish themselves upon the island of
+Juan Fernandez, whence shortly after they attack Arica. But here
+again they were so roughly handled that a new secession takes place,
+and Dampier is sent to Virginia, where his captain hoped to make
+some recruits. There Captain Cook was fitting out a vessel, with the
+intention of reaching the Pacific by the Strait of Magellan, and
+Dampier joins the expedition. It begins by privateering upon the
+African coast, in the Cape de Verd Islands, at Sierra Leone, and in
+the River Scherborough, for this is the route habitually taken by
+the ships going to South America. In 36 degrees south latitude,
+Dampier, who notes in his journal every interesting fact, remarks
+that the sea is become white or rather pale, but of this he cannot
+explain the reason, which he might easily have done had he made use
+of the microscope. The Sebaldine Islands are passed without incident,
+the Strait of Le Maire is traversed, Cape Horn is doubled on the 6th
+February, 1684, and as soon as he can escape from the storms which
+usually assail ships entering the Pacific, Captain Cook arrives at
+the island of Juan Fernandez, where he hopes to revictual. Dampier
+wondered if he would find a Nicaraguan Indian there, who had been
+left behind in 1680 by Captain Sharp. "This Indian had remained
+alone upon the island for more than three years. He had been in the
+woods hunting goats when the English captain had ordered his men to
+re-embark, and they had set sail without perceiving his absence. He
+had only his gun and his knife, with a small horn of powder and a
+little lead; when his powder and lead were exhausted he had
+contrived to saw the barrel of his gun into small pieces with his
+knife, and out of them to make harpoons, spears, fish hooks and a
+long knife. With these instruments he obtained all the supplies
+which the island afforded: goats and fish. At the distance of half a
+mile from the sea, he had a small hut covered with goat skins. He
+had no clothes left, but an animal's skin covered his loins." We
+have dwelt at some length upon this involuntary hermit because he
+served Daniel de Foe as the original of his "Robinson Crusoe," a
+romance which has formed the delight of every child.
+
+We shall not relate minutely all the expeditions in which Dampier
+participated. Suffice it to mention that in this campaign he visited
+the Gallapagos Islands. In 1686, Dampier was serving on board of
+Captain Swan's ship, who, seeing that the greater part of his
+enterprises failed, went to the East Indies, where the Spaniards
+were less upon their guard, and where the corsairs reckoned upon
+seizing the Manilla galleon. But when our adventurers arrived at
+Guaham, they had only three days' provisions, and the sailors had
+plotted if the voyage should be prolonged, to eat in turn all those
+who had declared themselves in favour of the voyage, and to begin
+with the captain who had proposed it. Dampier's turn would have come
+next. "Thus it came to pass," says he very humourously, "that after
+having cast anchor at Guaham, Swan embraced him and said: 'Ah
+Dampier, you would have made them but a sorry meal.' He was right,"
+he adds, "for I was as thin and lean, as he was fat and plump."
+Mindanao, Manilla, certain parts of the Chinese coasts, the Moluccas,
+New Holland, and the Nicobar Islands, were the places visited and
+plundered by Dampier in this campaign. In the last-named archipelago
+he became separated from his companions, and was discovered half
+dead upon the coast of Sumatra.
+
+[Illustration: "Ah! Dampier, you would have afforded them but a
+sorry meal."]
+
+During this voyage, Dampier had discovered several hitherto unknown
+islands, and especially the Baschi group. Like the thorough
+adventurer he was, immediately he recovered his health he travelled
+over the south of Asia, Malacca, Tonkin, Madras, and Bencoolen,
+where he enrolled himself as an artilleryman in the English service.
+Five months afterwards he deserted and returned to London. The
+narrative of his adventures and his privateering obtained for him a
+certain amount of sympathy amongst the higher classes, and he was
+presented to the Earl of Oxford, Lord High Admiral. He speedily
+received the command of the ship _Roebuck_ to attempt a voyage of
+discovery in the seas which he had already explored. He left England
+on the 14th January, 1699, with the intention of passing through the
+Strait of Magellan, or of making the tour of Tierra del Fuego, so as
+to commence his discoveries on the coasts of the Pacific, which had
+hitherto received the visits of a comparatively small number of
+travellers. After crossing the line on the 10th March, he sailed for
+Brazil, where the ship was revictualled. Far from being able again
+to descend the coast of Patagonia, he beheld himself driven by the
+wind to forty-eight miles south of the Cape of Good Hope, whence he
+steered east-south-east towards New Holland, a long passage which
+was not signalized by any adventure. On the 1st August, Dampier saw
+land, and at once sought for a harbour in which to land. Five days
+later he entered the Bay of Sea-Dogs upon the western coast of
+Australia; but he only found there a sterile soil, and met with
+neither water nor vegetation. Until the 31st August, he sailed along
+this coast without discovering what he sought. Once when he landed,
+he had a slight skirmish with some of the inhabitants, who seemed to
+be very thinly scattered over the country. Their chief was a young
+man of middle height, but quick and vigilant; his eyes were
+surrounded by a single ring of white paint, while a stripe of the
+same colour descended from the top of his forehead to the end of his
+nose; his chest and arms were likewise striped with white. His
+companions were black, fierce in aspect, their hair woolly, and in
+shape they were tall and slender.
+
+For five weeks Dampier hovered near land, and found neither water
+nor provisions; however, he would not give in, and intended to
+continue to ascend the coast northwards, but the shallows which he
+incessantly encountered, and the monsoon from the north-west which
+was soon due, obliged him to give up the enterprise, after having
+discovered more than 900 miles of the Australian continent. He
+afterwards steered towards Timor, where he intended to repose and
+recruit his crew, exhausted by the long voyage. But he knew little
+of these parts, and his charts were quite insufficient. He was
+therefore obliged to make a reconnaissance of it, as if the Dutch
+had not already been long settled there. Thus he discovered a
+passage between Timor and Anamabao, in a locality in which his map
+only indicated a bay. The arrival of Dampier in a port known only to
+themselves, astonished and greatly displeased the Dutch. They
+imagined that the English could only have reached it by means of
+charts taken on board a ship of their own. However, in the end they
+recovered from their fright and received the strangers with kindness.
+
+Although the precursors of the monsoon were making themselves felt,
+Dampier again put to sea, and steered towards the western coast of
+New Guinea, where he arrived on the 4th February, 1700, near to Cape
+Maho of the Dutch. Amongst the things which struck him, Dampier
+notices the prodigious quantities of a species of pigeon, bats of
+extraordinary size, and scallops, a kind of shell fish, of which the
+empty shell weighed as much as 258 lbs. On the 7th of February he
+approaches King William's Island and runs to the east, where he soon
+sights the Cape of Good Hope of Schouten, and the island named after
+that navigator. On the 24th the crew witnessed a curious spectacle:
+"Two fish, which had accompanied the vessel for five or six days,
+perceived a great sea serpent, and began to pursue it. They were
+about the shape and size of mackerel, but yellow and green in colour.
+The serpent, who fled from them with great swiftness, carried his
+head out of the water, and one of them attempted to seize his tail.
+As soon as he turned round, the first fish remained in the rear, and
+the other took his place. They retained their wind for a long time,
+always heedful to defend themselves by flight, until they were lost
+to view."
+
+On the 25th, Dampier gave the name of Saint Matthias to a
+mountainous island, thirty miles long, situated above and to the
+east of the Admiralty Islands. Further on at the distance of
+twenty-one or twenty-four miles, he discovered another island, which
+received the name of Squally Island, on account of violent
+whirlwinds which prevented him from landing upon it. Dampier
+believed himself to be on the coast of New Guinea, while he was in
+reality sailing along that of New Ireland. He endeavoured to land
+there, but he was surrounded by canoes carrying more than 200
+natives, and the shore was covered by a large crowd. Seeing that it
+would be imprudent to send a boat on shore, Dampier ordered the ship
+to be put about. Scarcely was the order given, when the ship was
+assailed by showers of stones, which the natives hurled from a
+machine of which Dampier could not discover the shape, but which
+caused the name of Slingers' Bay to be given to this locality. A
+single discharge of cannon stupefied the natives, and put an end to
+hostilities. A little further on, at some distance from the coast of
+New Ireland, the English discover the Islands of Denis and St. John.
+Dampier is the first to pass through the strait which separates New
+Ireland from New Britain, and discovers Vulcan, Crown, G. Rook, Long
+Reach and Burning Islands.
+
+[Illustration: Battle in Slingers' Bay.]
+
+After this long cruise, distinguished by important discoveries,
+Dampier again steered towards the west, reached Missory Island, and
+at length arrived at the Island of Ceram, one of the Moluccas, where
+he made a somewhat long stay. He went afterwards to Borneo, passed
+through the Strait of Macassar, and on the 23rd of June anchored at
+Batavia, in the Island of Java. He remained there until the 17th of
+October, when he set out for Europe. On arriving at the Island of
+Ascension on the 23rd of February, 1701, his vessel had so
+considerable a leak that it was impossible to stop it. It was
+necessary to run the ship aground and to put the crew and cargo on
+shore. Happily there was no want of water, turtles, goats, and
+land-crabs, which prevented any fear of dying of hunger before some
+ship should call at the island, and transport the shipwrecked
+sailors to their country. For this they had not long to wait, for on
+the 2nd of April an English vessel took them on board and carried
+them to England. We shall have occasion again to speak of Dampier
+with relation to the voyages of Wood Rodgers.
+
+
+II.
+THE POLE AND AMERICA.
+
+Hudson and Baffin--Champlain and La Sale--The English upon the coast
+of the Atlantic--The Spaniards in South America--Summary of the
+information acquired at the close of the 17th century--The measure
+of the terrestrial degree--Progress of cartography--Inauguration of
+Mathematical Geography.
+
+
+Although the attempts to find a passage by the north-west had been
+abandoned by the English for twenty years, they had not, however,
+given up the idea of seeking by that way, for a passage which was
+only to be discovered in our own days, and of which the absolute
+impracticability was then to be ascertained. A clever sailor, Henry
+Hudson, of whom Ellis says, "that never did any one better
+understand the seafaring profession, that his courage was equal to
+any emergency, and that his application was indefatigable,"
+concluded an agreement with a company of merchants to search for the
+passage by the north-west. On the 1st of May, 1607, he sailed from
+Gravesend in the _Hopewell_, a craft about the size of one of the
+smallest of modern collier brigs, and having on board a crew of
+twelve men; and on the 13th of June, reached the eastern coast of
+Greenland at 73 degrees, and gave it a name answering to the hopes
+he entertained, in calling it Cape Hold with Hope. The weather here
+was finer and less cold than it had been ten degrees southwards. By
+the 27th of June, Hudson had advanced 5 degrees more to the north,
+but on the 2nd of July, by one of the sudden changes which so
+frequently occur in those countries, the cold became severe. The sea,
+however, remained free, the air was still, and drift wood floated
+about in large quantity. On the 14th of the same month, in 33
+degrees 23 minutes, the master's mate and the boatswain of the
+vessel landed upon a shore which formed the northern part of
+Spitzbergen. Traces of musk oxen, and foxes, great abundance of
+aquatic birds, two streams of fresh water, one of them being warm,
+proved to our navigators that it was possible to live in these
+extreme latitudes at this period of the year. Hudson, who had
+re-embarked without delay, found himself arrested at the height of
+82 degrees, by thick pack ice, which he endeavoured in vain to
+penetrate or sail round. He was compelled to return to England,
+where he arrived on September 15th, after having discovered an
+island, which is probably that of Jan Mayen. The route followed in
+this first voyage having had no result towards the north, Hudson
+would try another, and accordingly set sail on April 21st in the
+following year, and advanced between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla;
+but he could only follow for a certain distance the coast of that
+vast land, without being able to attain as high an elevation as he
+had wished. The failure of this second attempt was more complete
+than that of the voyage of 1607. In consequence, the English Company,
+which had defrayed the expenses of both attempts, declined to
+proceed further. This was doubtless the reason which decided Hudson
+to take service in Holland.
+
+The Company of Amsterdam gave him, in 1609, the command of a vessel,
+with which he set sail from the Texel at the beginning of the year.
+Having doubled the North Cape, he advanced along the coasts of Nova
+Zembla; but his crew, composed of English and Dutch, who had made
+voyages to the East Indies, were soon disheartened by the cold and
+ice. Hudson found himself forced to change his route, and to propose
+to his sailors, who were in open mutiny, to seek for a passage,
+either by Davis' Strait, or the coasts of Virginia, where, according
+to the information of Captain Smith, who had frequently visited them,
+an outlet must surely be found. The choice of this crew, little
+accustomed to discipline, could not be doubtful. In order not to
+render the outlay of the Company completely abortive, Hudson was
+obliged to make for the Faroe Islands, to descend southward as low
+as 44 degrees, and to search on the coast of America for the strait,
+of the existence of which he had been assured. On July 18th, he
+disembarked on the continent, in order to replace his foremast,
+which had been broken in a storm; and he took the opportunity of
+bartering furs with the natives. But his undisciplined sailors,
+having by their exactions roused the indignation of the poor and
+peaceable natives, compelled him again to set sail. He continued to
+follow the coast until August 3rd, and then landed a second time. At
+40 degrees 30 minutes, he discovered a great bay which he explored
+in a canoe for more than 150 miles. In the meantime, his provisions
+began to run short, and it was impossible to procure supplies on
+land. The crew, which appears to have imposed its wishes on its
+captain during this whole voyage, assembled; some proposed to winter
+in Newfoundland, in order to resume the search for the passage in
+the following year; others wished to make for Ireland. This latter
+proposition was adopted; but when they approached the shores of
+Great Britain, the land proved so attractive to his men, that Hudson
+was obliged, on November 7th, to cast anchor at Dartmouth.
+
+The following year, 1610, notwithstanding all the mortifications
+which he had experienced, Hudson tried to renew his engagement with
+the Dutch company. But the terms which they named as the price of
+their concurrence compelled him to renounce the project, and induced
+him to submit to the requirements of the English Company. This
+company imposed on Hudson as a condition, that he should carry on
+board, rather as an assistant than as a subordinate, a clever seaman,
+named Coleburne, in whom they had full confidence. It is easy to
+understand how mortifying this condition was to Hudson. Accordingly,
+he took the earliest opportunity of ridding himself of the
+superintendent who had been imposed upon him. He had not yet left
+the Thames when he sent Coleburne back to shore with a letter for
+the Company, in which he endeavoured to palliate and justify this
+certainly very strange proceeding.
+
+Towards the end of May, when the ship had cast anchor in one of the
+ports of the island, the crew formed on the subject of Coleburne,
+its first conspiracy, which was repressed without difficulty, and
+when Hudson quitted the island on June 1st, he had re-established
+his authority. After having passed Frobisher's Strait, he sighted
+the land of Desolation of Davis, entered the strait which has
+received his name, and speedily penetrated into a wide bay, the
+entire western coast of which he examined until the beginning of
+September. At this epoch, one of the inferior officers, continuing
+to excite revolt against his chief, was superseded; but this act of
+justice only exasperated the sailors. In the early part of November,
+Hudson, having arrived at the extremity of the bay, sought for an
+appropriate spot to winter in, and having soon found one, drew up
+the ship on dry land. It is difficult to understand such a
+resolution. On the one hand, Hudson had left England with provisions
+for six months only, which had already been largely reduced, and he
+could scarcely reckon, considering the barrenness of the country,
+upon procuring a further supply of nourishment; on the other, the
+crew had exhibited such numerous signs of mutiny, that he could
+hardly rely upon its discipline and good will. Nevertheless,
+although the English were often obliged to content themselves with
+scanty rations, they did not, owing to the arrival of great numbers
+of birds, pass a very distressing winter. But, on the return of
+spring, as soon as the ship was prepared to resume her route to
+England, Hudson found that his fate was decided. He made his
+arrangements accordingly, distributed to each his share of biscuit,
+paid the wages due, and awaited the course of events. He had not
+long to wait. The conspirators seized their captain, his son, a
+volunteer, the carpenter, and five sailors, put them on board a boat,
+without arms, provisions, or instruments, and abandoned them to the
+mercy of the ocean. The culprits reached England again, but not all;
+two were killed in an encounter with the Indians, another died of
+sickness, while the others were sorely tried by famine. Eventually,
+no prosecution was commenced against them. Only, the Company, in
+1674, procured employment, on board a vessel, for the son of Henry
+Hudson, "lost in the discovery of the North-west," the son being
+entirely destitute of resources.
+
+[Illustration: Hudson abandoned by his crew.]
+
+The expeditions of Hudson were followed by those of Button and of
+Gibbons, to whom we owe, if not new discoveries, important
+observations on the tides, the variation of the weather and the
+temperature, and on a number of natural phenomena.
+
+In 1615, the English Company entrusted to Byleth, who had taken part
+in the last voyages, the command of a vessel of fifty tons. Her name,
+the _Discovery_, was of good augury. She carried, as pilot, the
+famous William Baffin, whose renown has eclipsed that of his captain.
+Setting sail from England on April 13th, the English explorers
+sighted Cape Farewell by the 6th of May, passed from the Island of
+Desolation to the Savage Islands, where they met with a great number
+of natives, and ascended north-westward as high as 64 degrees. On
+July 10th, land appeared on the starboard, and the tide flowed from
+the north; from which they conceived so much hope of the passage
+sought for, that they gave to the cape, discovered on this spot, the
+name of Comfort. It was probably Cape Walsingham, for they
+ascertained, after doubling it, that the land inclined towards the
+north-east, and the east. It was at the entry of Davis' Strait, that
+their discoveries came to an end for this year. They returned to
+Plymouth on September 9th, without having lost a single man.
+
+So strong were the hopes entertained by Byleth and Baffin, that they
+obtained permission to put to sea again in the same vessel the
+following year. On May 14th, 1616, after a voyage in which nothing
+worthy of remark occurred, the two captains penetrated into Davis'
+Strait, sighted Cape Henderson's Hope, the extreme point formerly
+reached by Davis, and ascended as high as 72 degrees 40 minutes to
+the Women's Island, thus named after some Esquimaux females whom
+they met with. On June 12th, Byleth and Baffin were forced by the
+ice to enter a bay on the coast. Some Esquimaux brought them a great
+quantity of horns, without doubt tusks of walruses, or horns of musk
+oxen; from which they named the bay Horn Sound. After remaining some
+days in this place, they were able to put to sea again. On setting
+out from 75 degrees 40 minutes, they encountered a vast expanse of
+water free from ice, and penetrated, without much danger, beyond the
+78 degree of latitude, to the entrance of the strait, which
+prolonged northwards the immense bay which they had just traversed,
+and which received the name of Baffin. Then turning to the west, and
+afterwards to the south-west, Byleth and Baffin discovered the Carey
+Islands, Jones Strait, Coburg Island, and Lancaster Strait, and
+afterwards they descended along the entire western shore of Baffin's
+Bay as far as Cumberland Land. Despairing then of being able to
+carry his discoveries further, Byleth, who had several men among his
+crew afflicted with scurvy, found himself obliged to return to the
+shores of England, where he disembarked at Dover, on August 30th.
+
+If this expedition terminated again in failure, in the sense that
+the north-west passage was not discovered, the results obtained were
+nevertheless considerable. Byleth and Baffin had prodigiously
+increased the knowledge of the seas and coasts in the quarters of
+Greenland. The captain and the pilot, in writing to the Director of
+the Company, assured him that the bay which they had visited was an
+excellent spot for fishing, in which thousands of whales, seals, and
+walruses, disported themselves. The event could not be long in amply
+proving the correctness of this information.
+
+Let us now descend again upon the coast of America, as far as Canada,
+and see what had happened since the time of Jacques Cartier. This
+latter, we may remember, had made an attempt at colonization, which
+had not produced any important results. Nevertheless, some Frenchmen
+had remained in the country, had married there, and founded families
+of colonists. From time to time, they received reinforcements
+brought by fishing vessels from Dieppe or St. Malo. But it was
+difficult to establish a current of emigration. It was under these
+circumstances that a gentleman, named Samuel de Champlain, a veteran
+of the wars of Henry IV., and who, for two years and a half, had
+frequented the East Indies, was engaged by the Commander of Chastes
+with the Sieur de Pontgrave, to continue the discoveries of Jacques
+Cartier, and to choose the situations most favourable for the
+establishment of towns and centres of population. This is not the
+place for us to consider the manner in which Champlain understood
+the business of a colonizer, nor his great services, which might
+well entitle him to be called the father of Canada. We will,
+therefore, advisedly leave this aspect of his undertaking, not the
+least brilliant, in order simply to occupy ourselves with the
+discoveries which he effected in the interior of the continent.
+
+Setting sail from Honfleur, on March 15th, 1603, the two chiefs of
+the enterprise first ascended the St. Lawrence, as far as the
+harbour of Tadoussac, 240 miles from its mouth. They were welcomed
+by the populations, which had, however, "neither faith, nor law, and
+lived without God, and without religion, like brute beasts." At this
+place they quitted their ships, which could not have advanced
+further without danger, and reached in a boat the Fall of St. Louis,
+where Jacques Cartier had been stopped; they even penetrated a
+little into the interior, and then returned to France, where
+Champlain printed a narrative of the voyage for the king.
+
+Henry IV. resolved to continue the enterprise. In the meantime M. de
+Chastes having died, his privilege was transferred to M. de Monts,
+with the title of Vice-admiral and Governor of Acadia. Champlain
+accompanied M. de Monts to Canada, and passed three whole years,
+whether in aiding by his counsels and his exertions the efforts of
+colonization, or in exploring the coasts of Acadia, the bearings of
+which he took beyond Cape Cod, or in making excursions into the
+interior and visiting the savage tribes which it was important to
+conciliate. In 1607, after a new voyage to France to recruit
+colonists, Champlain returned again to New France, and founded, in
+1608, a town which was to become Quebec. The following year was
+devoted to again ascending the St. Lawrence, and ascertaining its
+course. On board of a pirogue, with two companions only, Champlain
+penetrated, with some Algonquins, to the Iroquois, and remained
+conqueror in a great battle fought on the borders of a lake which
+has received his name; he then descended the river Richelieu, as far
+as the St. Lawrence. In 1610, he made a fresh incursion into the
+territory of the Iroquois, at the head of his allies, the Algonquins,
+whom he had the greatest possible difficulty in making observe the
+European discipline. In this campaign he employed instruments of
+warfare which greatly astonished the savages, and easily secured him
+the victory. For the attack of a village, he constructed a cavalier
+of wood, which 200 of the most powerful men "carried before this
+village to within a pike's length, and displayed three arquebusiers
+well protected from the arrows and stones which might be shot or
+launched at them." A little later, we see him exploring the river
+Ottawa, and advancing, in the north of the continent, to within 225
+miles of Hudson's Bay. After having fortified Montreal, in 1615, he
+twice ascended the Ottawa, explored Lake Huron, and arrived by land
+at Lake Ontario, which he crossed.
+
+[Illustration: Siege of a village by Champlain.]
+
+It is very difficult to divide into two parts a life so occupied as
+Champlain's. All his excursions, all his reconnaissances, had but
+one object, the development of the work to which he had consecrated
+his existence. Thus detached from what gives them their interest,
+they appear to us unimportant; and yet if the colonial policy of
+Louis XIV. and his successor had been different, we should possess
+in America a colony which assuredly would not yield in prosperity to
+the United States. Notwithstanding our abandonment, Canada has
+preserved a fervent love for the mother country.
+
+We must now leap over a period of forty years, to arrive at Robert
+Cavelier de la Sale. During this time, the French establishments
+have acquired some importance in Canada, and have extended
+themselves over a great part of North America. Our hunters and
+trappers scour the woods, and bring, every year, with their load of
+furs, new information respecting the interior of the continent. In
+this latter task they are powerfully seconded by the missionaries,
+in the first rank of whom we must place Father Marquette, whom the
+extent of his voyages on the great lakes and as far as the
+Mississippi marks out for special acknowledgment. Two men, besides,
+deserve to be mentioned for the encouragements and facilities which
+they afforded to the explorers, viz., M. de Frontenac, Governor of
+New France, and Talon, intendant of justice and police. In 1678,
+there arrived in Canada, without any settled purpose, a young man
+named Cavelier de la Sale. "He was born at Rouen," says Father
+Charlevoix, "of a family in easy circumstances; but having passed
+some years with the Jesuits, he had had no share in the inheritance
+of his parents. He had a cultivated mind, he wished to distinguish
+himself, and he felt within himself sufficient genius and courage to
+ensure success. In reality, he was not deficient in resolution to
+enter upon, nor in perseverance to follow up, an undertaking, nor in
+firmness in contending against obstacles, nor in resource to repair
+his losses; but he knew not how to make himself loved, nor how to
+manage those of whom he stood in need, and when he had attained
+authority, he exercised it with harshness and arrogance. With such
+defects he could not be happy, and in fact he was not."
+
+Father Charlevoix's portrait appears to us somewhat too black, and
+he does not seem to estimate at its true value the great discovery
+which we owe to Cavelier de la Sale; a discovery, which has nothing
+like it, we do not say equal to it, except that of the river Amazon,
+by Orellana, in the 16th century, and that of the Congo, by Stanley,
+in the 19th. However this may be, no sooner had he arrived in the
+country, than he set himself, with extraordinary application, to
+study the native idioms, and to associate with the savages in order
+to render himself familiar with their manners and habits. At the
+same time he gathered from the trappers a mass of information on the
+situation of the rivers and lakes. He communicated his projects of
+exploration to M. de Frontenac, who encouraged him, and gave him the
+command of a fort constructed at the outlet of the lake into the St.
+Lawrence. In the meantime, one Jolyet arrived at Quebec. He brought
+the news that in company with Father Marquette and four other
+persons, he had reached a great river called the Mississippi,
+flowing towards the south. Cavelier de la Sale very soon understood
+what advantage might be derived from an artery of this importance,
+especially if the Mississippi had, as he believed, its mouth in the
+Gulf of Mexico. By the lakes and the Illinois, an affluent of the
+Mississippi, it was easy to effect a communication between the St.
+Lawrence, and the Sea of the Antilles. What marvellous profit would
+France derive from this discovery! La Sale explained the project
+which he had conceived to the Count of Frontenac, and obtained from
+him very pressing letters of recommendation to the Minister of
+Marine. On arriving in France, La Sale learned the death of Colbert;
+but he remitted to his son, the Marquis of Seignelay, who had
+succeeded him, the despatches of which he was the bearer. This
+project, which appeared to rest upon solid foundations, could not
+fail to please a young minister. Accordingly, Seignelay presented La
+Sale to the king, who caused letters of nobility to be prepared for
+him, granted him the Seignory of Catarocouy, and the government of
+the fort which he had built, with the monopoly of commerce in the
+countries which he might discover.
+
+La Sale had also found means to procure the patronage of the Prince
+de Conti, who asked him to take with him the Chevalier Tonti, son of
+the inventor of the Tontine, in whom he felt an interest. He was for
+La Sale a precious acquisition. Tonti, who had made a campaign in
+Sicily, where his hand had been carried off by the explosion of a
+grenade, was a brave and skilful officer, who always showed himself
+extremely devoted.
+
+La Sale and Tonti embarked at Rochelle, on July 14th, 1678, carrying
+with them about thirty men, workmen and soldiers, and a Recollet
+(monk), Father Hennepin, who accompanied them in all their voyages.
+
+Then La Sale, being conscious that the execution of his project
+required more considerable resources than those which were at his
+disposal, constructed a boat upon the Lake Erie, and devoted a whole
+year to scouring the country, visiting the Indians, and carrying on
+an active trade in furs, which he stored in his fort of Niagara,
+while Tonti pursued the same course in other directions. At length,
+towards the middle of August, of the year 1679, his boat, the
+_Griffon_, being prepared for sailing, he embarked on the Lake Erie,
+with thirty men, and three Fathers, Recollets, for Machillimackinac.
+In crossing the lakes St. Clair and Huron, he experienced a violent
+storm, which caused the desertion of some of his people, whom,
+however, Tonti brought back to him. La Sale arrived at
+Machillimackinac, and very soon entered the Green Bay. But during
+this time his creditors at Quebec had sold all that he possessed,
+and the _Griffon_, which he had despatched, laden with furs, to the
+fort of Niagara, was either lost or pillaged by the Indians; which
+of these took place has never been precisely ascertained. For
+himself, although the departure of the _Griffon_ had displeased his
+companions, he continued his route, and reached the river St. Joseph,
+where he found an encampment of Miamis, and where Tonti speedily
+rejoined him. Their first care was to construct a fort on this spot.
+Then they crossed the dividing line of the water between the basin
+of the great lakes, and that of the Mississippi; they subsequently
+reached the river of the Illinois, an affluent on the left of that
+great river. With his small band of followers, upon whose fidelity
+he could not entirely depend, the situation of La Sale was critical,
+in the midst of an unknown country, and among a powerful nation, the
+Illinois, who, at first allies of France, had been prejudiced and
+excited against us by the Iroquois and the English, jealous of the
+progress of the Canadian colony.
+
+Nevertheless, it was necessary, at all cost, to attach to himself
+these Indians, who from their situation, were able to hinder all
+communication between La Sale and Canada. In order to strike their
+imagination, Cavelier de la Sale proceeds to their encampment, where
+more than 3000 men are assembled. He has but twenty men, but he
+traverses their village haughtily, and stops at some distance. The
+Illinois, who have not yet declared war, are surprised. They advance
+towards him, and overwhelm him with pacific demonstrations. So
+versatile is the spirit of the savages! Such an impression does
+every mark of courage make upon them! Without delay, La Sale takes
+advantage of their friendly dispositions, and erects upon the very
+site of their camp, a small fort, which he calls Crevecoeur, in
+allusion to the troubles which he has already experienced. There he
+leaves Tonti with all his people, and he himself, anxious about the
+fate of the _Griffon_, returns with three Frenchmen and one Indian,
+to the fort of Catarocouy, separated by 500 leagues from Crevecoeur.
+Before setting out, he had detached with Father Hennepin, one of his
+companions named Dacan, on a mission to reascend the Mississippi
+beyond the river of the Illinois, and if possible, to its source.
+"These two travellers," says Father Charlevoix, "set out from the
+fort of Crevecoeur, on February 28th, and having entered the
+Mississippi, ascended it as far as 46 degrees of north latitude.
+There they were stopped by a considerable waterfall, extending quite
+across the river, to which Father Hennepin gave the name of St.
+Anthony of Padua. Then they fell, I know not by what mischance, into
+the hands of the Sioux, who kept them for a long time prisoners."
+
+On his journey back to Catarocouy, La Sale, having discovered a new
+site appropriate to the construction of a fort, summoned Tonti
+thither, who immediately set to work, while La Sale continued his
+route. This is Fort St. Louis. On his arrival at Catarocouy, La Sale
+learned news which would have broken down a man of a less hardy
+temperament. Not only had the _Griffon_, on board of which he had
+furs of the value of 10,000 crowns, been lost, but a vessel which
+was bringing him from France a cargo worth 880_l._ had been
+shipwrecked, and his enemies had spread a report of his death.
+Having no further business at Catarocouy, and having proved by his
+presence that the reports of his disappearance were all false, he
+arrived again at the fort of Crevecoeur, where he was much
+astonished to find no one.
+
+This is what had happened. While the Chevalier Tonti was employed in
+the construction of Fort St. Louis, the garrison of Fort Crevecoeur
+had mutinied, had pillaged the magazines, had done the same at Fort
+Miami, and then fled to Machillimackinac. Tonti, almost alone in
+face of the Illinois, who were roused against him by the
+depredations of his men, and judging that he could not resist in his
+fort of Crevecoeur, had left it on September 11th, 1680, with the
+five Frenchmen who composed his garrison, and had retired as far as
+the bay of the Lake Michigan. After having placed a garrison at
+Crevecoeur and at Fort St. Louis, La Sale came to Machillimackinac,
+where he rejoined Tonti, and together they set out again from thence
+towards the end of August for Catarocouy, whence they embarked on
+the Lake Erie with fifty-five persons, on August 28th, 1681. After a
+journey of 240 miles along the frozen river of the Illinois, they
+reached Fort Crevecoeur, where the water, free from ice, permitted
+the use of their canoes. On February 6th, 1682, La Sale arrived at
+the confluence of the Illinois and the Mississippi. He descended the
+river, sighted the mouth of the Missouri, and that of the Ohio,
+where he raised a fort, penetrated into the country of the Arkansas,
+of which he took possession in the name of France, crossed the
+country of the Natchez, with whom he made a treaty of friendship,
+and finally passed out into the Gulf of Mexico on April 9th, after a
+navigation of 1050 miles in a mere bark. The anticipations so
+skilfully conceived by Cavelier de la Sale, were realized. He
+immediately took formal possession of the country, to which he gave
+the name of Louisiana, and called the immense river which he had
+just discovered the St. Louis.
+
+La Sale's return to Canada occupied not less than one year and a
+half. There is no ground for astonishment, when all the obstacles
+scattered in his path are considered. What energy, what strength of
+mind were requisite in one of the greatest travellers of whom France
+has reason to be proud, to succeed in such an enterprise!
+
+Unhappily, a man, otherwise well intentioned, but who allowed
+himself to be prejudiced against La Sale by his numerous enemies, M.
+Lefevre de la Barre, who had succeeded M. de Frontenac as governor
+of Canada, wrote to the Minister of Marine, that the discoveries of
+La Sale were not to be regarded as of much importance. "This
+traveller," he said "was actually, with about twenty French
+vagabonds and savages, at the extremity of the bay, where he played
+the part of sovereign, plundered and ransomed those of his own
+nation, exposed the people to the incursions of the Iroquois, and
+covered all these acts of violence with the pretext of the
+permission, which he had from His Majesty, to carry on commerce
+alone in the countries which he might be able to discover."
+
+Cavelier de la Sale could not allow himself to remain exposed to
+these calumnious imputations. On the one side, honour prompted him
+to return to France to exculpate himself; on the other, he would not
+leave others to reap the profit of his discoveries. He set out,
+therefore, and received from Seignelay a kindly welcome. The
+minister had not been much influenced by the letters of M. de la
+Barre; he was aware that men could not accomplish great achievements
+without wounding much self-love, nor without making numerous enemies.
+La Sale took the opportunity to explain to him his project of
+discovering the mouth of the Mississippi by sea, in order to open a
+way for French vessels, and to found an establishment there. The
+minister entered into these views, and gave him a commission which
+placed Frenchmen and savages under his orders, from Fort St. Louis
+to the sea. At the same time the commandant of the squadron which
+was to transport him to America, was to be under his authority, and
+to furnish him on his disembarkation with all the succours which he
+might require, provided that nothing was done to the prejudice of
+the king. Four vessels, one of them a frigate of forty guns,
+commanded by M. de Beaujeu were to carry 280 persons, including the
+crews, to the mouth of the Mississippi, to form the nucleus of the
+new colony. Soldiers and artisans had been very badly chosen, as was
+perceived when too late, and no one knew his business. Setting sail
+from La Rochelle, on July 24th, 1684, the little squadron was almost
+immediately obliged to return to port, the bowsprit of the frigate
+having broken suddenly in the very finest weather. This inexplicable
+accident was the commencement of misunderstanding between M. de
+Beaujeu and M. de la Sale. The former could scarcely be pleased to
+see himself subordinated to a private individual, and did not
+forgive Cavelier this. Nothing however would have been more easy
+than to decline the command. La Sale had not the gentleness of
+manner and the politeness necessary to conciliate his companions.
+The disagreement did but gather force during the voyage by reason of
+the obstacles raised by M. de Beaujeu to the rapidity and secrecy of
+the expedition. The annoyances of La Sale had indeed become so great
+when he arrived at St. Domingo, that he fell seriously ill. He
+recovered, however, and the expedition set sail again on November
+25th. A month later, it was off Florida; but, as "La Sale had been
+assured that in the Gulf of Mexico, all the currents bore eastwards,
+he did not doubt that the mouth of the Mississippi must be far to
+the west; an error which was the source of all his misfortunes."
+
+La Sale then steered to the west, and passed by, without perceiving
+it, without deigning even to attend to certain signs which he was
+asked to observe, the mouth of the Mississippi. When he perceived
+his mistake, and entreated M. de Beaujeu to turn back, the latter
+would no longer consent. La Sale, seeing that he could make no
+impression upon the contradictory mind of his companion, decided to
+disembark his men and his provisions in the Bay of St. Bernard. Yet,
+in this very last act, Beaujeu manifested an amount of culpable
+ill-will, which did as little honour to his judgment as to his
+patriotism. Not only was he unwilling to land all the provisions,
+under the pretext that certain of them being at the bottom of the
+hold, he had no time to change his stowage, but further he gave
+shelter on board his own ship to the master and crew of the
+transport, laden with the stores, utensils, and implements necessary
+for a new establishment, people whom everything seems to convict of
+having purposely cast their vessel upon shore. At the same time, a
+number of savages took advantage of the disorder caused by the
+shipwreck of the transport, to plunder everything on which they
+could lay their hands. Nevertheless, La Sale, who had the talent of
+never appearing depressed by misfortune, and who found in his own
+genius resources adapted to the circumstances of the case, ordered
+the works of the establishment to be begun. In order to give courage
+to his companions, he more than once took part with his own hands in
+the work; but very slow progress was made, in consequence of the
+ignorance of the workmen. Struck with the resemblance of the
+language and habits of the Indians of these parts to those of the
+Mississippi, La Sale was very soon persuaded that he was not far
+distant from that river, and made several excursions in order to
+approach it. But, if he found a country beautiful and fertile, he
+did not make progress towards what he was in search of. He returned
+each time to the fort more gloomy and more harsh; and this was not
+the way to restore calm to spirits embittered by sufferings and the
+inutility of their efforts. Grain had been sown; but scarcely any
+came up for want of rain, and what had sprung up was soon laid waste
+by the savages and the deer. The hunters who wandered far from the
+camp were massacred by the Indians, and sickness found an easy prey
+in men overwhelmed with ennui, disappointment, and misery. In a
+short time, the number of the colonists fell to thirty-seven. At
+length, La Sale resolved to try a last effort to reach the
+Mississippi, and in descending the river to seek help from the
+nations with which he had made alliance. He set out on January 12th,
+1687, with his brother, his two nephews, two missionaries, and
+twelve colonists. He was approaching the country of the Shawnees,
+when, in consequence of an altercation between one of his nephews
+and three of his companions, these latter assassinated the young man
+and his servant during their sleep, and resolved immediately to do
+the same with the chief of the enterprise. De la Sale, uneasy at not
+seeing his nephew return, set out to seek him on the morning of the
+19th, with Father Anastase. The assassins, seeing him approach, lay
+in ambush in a thicket, and one of them shot him in the head, and
+stretched him on the ground stark dead. Thus perished Cavelier de la
+Sale, "a man of a capacity," says Father Charlevoix, "of a largeness
+of mind, of a courage and firmness of soul, which might have led him
+to the achievement of something great, if with so many great
+qualities, he had known how to master his gloomy and atrabilious
+disposition, and to soften the severity or rather the harshness of
+his nature...." Many calumnies had been spread abroad against him;
+but it is necessary so much the more to be on our guard against all
+these malevolent reports "as it is only too common to exaggerate the
+defects of the unfortunate, to impute to them even some which they
+had not, especially when they have given occasion for their
+misfortune, and have not known how to make themselves beloved. What
+is sadder for the memory of this celebrated man, is that he has been
+regretted by few persons, and that the ill-success of his
+undertakings--only of his last--has given him the air of an
+adventurer, among those who judge only by appearances. Unhappily,
+these are usually the most numerous, and in some degree the voice of
+the public."
+
+[Illustration: Assassination of La Sale.]
+
+We have but little to add to these last wise words. La Sale knew not
+how to obtain pardon for his first success. We have related
+subsequently by what concurrence of circumstances his second
+enterprise miscarried. He died, the victim it may be said, of the
+jealousy and malevolence of the Chevalier de Beaujeu. It is to this
+slight cause that we owe the failure to found in America a powerful
+colony, which would very soon have been found in a condition to
+compete with the English establishments.
+
+We have narrated the beginning of the English colonies. The events
+which took place in England were highly favourable to them. The
+religious persecutions, the revolutions of 1648 and 1688, furnished
+numerous recruits, who, animated by an excellent spirit, set
+themselves to work, and transported to the other side of the
+Atlantic the arts, the industry, and in a short time the prosperity,
+of the mother country. Very soon, the immense forests which covered
+Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Carolina, fell beneath the hatchet of
+the "Squatter," and the soil became cleared, while the hunters of
+the woods, driving back the Indians, made the interior of the
+country better known, and prepared the work of civilization.
+
+In Mexico, in the whole of Central America, in Peru, in Chili, and
+on the shores of the Atlantic, a different state of things prevailed.
+The Spaniards had extended their conquests; but, far from acting
+like the English, they had reduced the Indians to slavery. Instead
+of applying themselves to the cultivation appropriate to the variety
+of the climates and of the countries of which they had made
+themselves masters, they sought only in the produce of the mines the
+resources and prosperity which they should have endeavoured to
+obtain from the land. If a country can thus rapidly attain
+prodigious wealth, yet this factitious system cannot last long. With
+the mines a prosperity which does not renew itself, must ere long
+become exhausted. The Spaniards could not fail to experience the sad
+result.
+
+Thus then, at the end of the seventeenth century, a great part of
+the new world was known. In North America, Canada, the shores of the
+Atlantic and of the Gulf of Mexico, the valley of the Mississippi,
+the coasts of California and of New Mexico, were discovered or
+colonized. All the central part of the continent, from Rio del Norte,
+as far as Terra Firma, was subject, at least nominally, to the
+Spaniards. In the south, the savannahs and the forests of Brazil,
+the pampas of the Argentine, and the interior of Patagonia, escaped
+the observation of the explorers, as they were destined to do for a
+long time yet.
+
+In Africa, the long line of coasts, which are washed by the Atlantic
+and the Indian Oceans, had been patiently followed and observed by
+navigators. At some points only, colonists and missionaries had
+tried to penetrate the mystery of this vast continent. Senegal,
+Congo, the valley of the Nile, and Abyssinia, were all that were
+known with some degree of detail and of certainty.
+
+If many of the countries of Asia, surveyed by the travellers of the
+middle ages, had not been revisited since that epoch, we had
+carefully explored the whole anterior part of that continent, India
+had been revealed to us, we had even founded some establishments
+there, China had been touched by our missionaries, and Japan, that
+famous Cipango which had exercised so great an attraction for our
+travellers of the preceding age, was at length known to us. Only
+Siberia and the whole north-east angle of Asia had escaped our
+investigations, and it was not yet known whether America was not
+connected with Asia, a mystery which was before long to be cleared
+up.
+
+In Oceania, a number of archipelagos, of islands and separate islets,
+remained still to be discovered, but the islands of Sunda were
+colonized, the coasts of Australia and of New Zealand had been
+partially revealed, and the existence of that great continent which,
+according to Tasman, extended from Tierra del Fuego to New Zealand,
+began to be doubted; but it still required the long and careful
+researches of Cook to banish definitely into the domain of fable a
+chimera so long cherished.
+
+Geography was on the point of transforming itself. The great
+discoveries made in astronomy were about to be applied to geography.
+The labours of Fernel and above all of Picard, upon the measure of a
+terrestrial degree between Paris and Amiens, had made it clear that
+the globe is not a sphere, but a spheroid, that is to say, a ball
+flattened at the poles and swollen at the equator, and thus were
+found at one stroke the form and the dimensions of the world which
+we inhabit. At length the labours of Picard, continued by La Hire
+and Cassini, were completed at the commencement of the following
+century. The astronomical observations, rendered possible by the
+calculation of the satellites of Jupiter, enabled us to rectify our
+maps. If this rectification had been already effected with regard to
+certain places, it became indispensable when the number of points of
+which the astronomical position had been observed, had been
+considerably increased; and this was to be the work of the next
+century. At the same time, historical geography was more studied; it
+began to take for its foundation the study of inscriptions, and
+archaeology was about to become one of the most useful instruments
+of comparative geography.
+
+In a word, the seventeenth century is an epoch of transition and of
+progress; it seeks and it finds the powerful means which its
+successor, the eighteenth century, was destined to put into
+operation. The era of the sciences has already opened, and with it
+the modern world commences.
+
+
+
+
+END OF THE SECOND PART.
+
+
+
+
+GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, ST. JOHN'S SQUARE, LONDON.
+
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