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diff --git a/24762-h/24762-h.htm b/24762-h/24762-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..55c7098 --- /dev/null +++ b/24762-h/24762-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3825 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Diggers in the Earth, by Eva March Tappan. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-right: 10%; + font-variant: small-caps;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Diggers in the Earth, by Eva March Tappan + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Diggers in the Earth + +Author: Eva March Tappan + +Release Date: March 6, 2008 [EBook #24762] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIGGERS IN THE EARTH *** + + + + +Produced by Diane Monico and The Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<h3>THE INDUSTRIAL READERS</h3> + +<h3><i>Book II</i></h3> + +<h1>DIGGERS IN THE<br /> +EARTH</h1> + +<h4>BY</h4> + +<h2>EVA MARCH TAPPAN, <span class="smcap">Ph</span>.D.</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Author of "England's Story," "American Hero Stories,"<br /> +"Old World Hero Stories," "Story of the Greek People,"<br /> +"Story of the Roman People," etc. Editor of<br /> +"The Children's Hour."</i></p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 99px;"> +<img src="images/image001.png" width="99" height="125" alt="" title="" /> +</p> + +<h4>HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY</h4> + +<h5>BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO</h5> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + + +<p class="center"><b>THE INDUSTRIAL READERS</b></p> + +<p class="center"><b>By Eva March Tappan</b></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="readers"> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE FARMER AND HIS FRIENDS. 50 cents.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'> DIGGERS IN THE EARTH. 50 cents.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'> MAKERS OF MANY THINGS. 50 cents.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'> TRAVELERS AND TRAVELING. 50 cents.</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p class="center">The foregoing are list prices, postpaid<br /><br /></p> + + +<p class="center"><small>COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY EVA MARCH TAPPAN</small></p> +<p class="center"><small>ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</small><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="center"><i>First printing April 1916;</i><br /> +<i>Reprinted December 1916</i><br /><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="center">The Riverside Press<br /> +<small>CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS</small><br /> +<small>U. S. A.</small> +</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> + + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>The four books of this series have been written +not merely to provide agreeable reading matter for +children, but to give them information. When a +child can look at a steel pen not simply as an article +furnished by the city for his use, but rather as the +result of many interesting processes, he has made a +distinct growth in intelligence. When he has begun +to apprehend the fruitfulness of the earth, both +above ground and below, and the best way in which +its products may be utilized and carried to the +places where they are needed, he has not only acquired +a knowledge of many kinds of industrial life +which may help him to choose his life-work wisely +from among them; but he has learned the dependence +of one person upon other persons, of one part of +the world upon other parts, and the necessity of +peaceful intercourse. Best of all, he has learned to +see. Wordsworth's familiar lines say of a man whose +eyes had not been opened,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"A primrose by a river's brim<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A yellow primrose was to him,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And it was nothing more."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>These books are planned to show the children that +there is "something more"; to broaden their horizon; +to reveal to them what invention has accomplished +and what wide room for invention still +remains; to teach them that reward comes to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span> +man who improves his output beyond the task of the +moment; and that success is waiting not for him who +works because he must, but him who works because +he may.</p> + +<p>Acknowledgment is due to the Lehigh Valley +Railroad, Jones Brothers Company, Alpha Portland +Cement Company, Dwight W. Woodbridge, the +Utah Copper Company, the Aluminum Company +of America, the Diamond Crystal Salt Company, +T. W. Rickard, and others, whose advice and criticism +have been of most valuable aid in the preparation +of this volume.</p> + +<p class="author"> +Eva March Tappan.<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="toc"> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">In a Coal Mine</span> </td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Down in the Quarries</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Houses of Sand</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Bricks, their Faults and their Virtues</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">At the Gold Diggings</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Story of a Silver Mine</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Iron, the Everyday Metal</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Our Good Friend Copper</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The New Metal, Aluminum</span> </td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>X.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Oil in our Lamps</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Little Grains of Salt</span> </td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="loi"> +<tr><td align='left'>A STRUCTURAL STEEL APARTMENT BUILDING</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>HOW A COAL MINE LOOKS ABOVEGROUND</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MINERS AND THEIR MINE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>OPENING A GRANITE QUARRY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BUILDING A CONCRETE ROAD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>IN A NEW JERSEY BRICK MILL</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>HYDRAULIC GOLD MINING</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE STORY OF A SPOON</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>IN THE STEEL FOUNDRY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>IN A COPPER SMELTER</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A "MOVIE" OF AN ALUMINUM FUNNEL</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A CALIFORNIA OIL FIELD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;"> +<img src="images/image006.jpg" width="362" height="580" alt="A STRUCTURAL STEEL APARTMENT BUILDING" + title="A STRUCTURAL STEEL APARTMENT BUILDING" /> +<span class="caption">A STRUCTURAL STEEL APARTMENT BUILDING<br /><br /> + +<i><small>Courtesy American Bridge Co.</small></i><br /><br /> + +First the steel frame, then the floors, then the stone or brick shell, +then the interior finishing—this is how the building is made.</span> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="THE_INDUSTRIAL_READERS" id="THE_INDUSTRIAL_READERS"></a>THE INDUSTRIAL READERS</h1> + +<h3>BOOK II</h3> + +<h2>DIGGERS IN THE EARTH</h2> + + + +<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2> + +<h3>IN A COAL MINE</h3> + + +<p>Did you ever wonder how beds of coal happened +to be in the earth? This is their story.</p> + +<p>Centuries ago, so many thousand centuries that +even the most learned men can only guess at their +number, strange things were coming to pass. The +air was so moist and cloudy that the sun's rays had +hard work to get through. It was warm, nevertheless, +for the crust of the earth was not nearly so +thick as it is now, and much heat came from the +earth itself. Many plants and trees grow best in +warm, moist air; and such plants flourished in those +days. Some of their descendants are living now, but +they are dwarfs, while their ancestors were giants. +There is a little "horse-tail" growing in our meadows, +and there are ferns and club mosses almost everywhere. +These are some of the descendants; but +many of their ancestors were forty or fifty feet high. +They grew very fast, especially in swamps; and when +they died, there was no lack of others to take their +places. Dead leaves fell and heaped up around them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +Stumps stood and decayed, just as they do in our +forests to-day. Every year the soft, black, decaying +mass grew deeper. As the crust of the earth was so +thin, it bent and wrinkled easily. It often sank in +one place and rose in another. When these low, +swampy places sank, water rushed over them, pressing +down upon them with a great weight and sweeping +in sand and clay. Now, if you burn a heap of +wood in the open air, the carbon in the wood burns +and only a pile of ashes remains. "Burning" means +that the carbon in the wood unites with the oxygen +gas in the air. If you cover the wood before you +light it, so that only a little oxygen reaches it, much +of the carbon is left, in the form of charcoal.</p> + +<p>When wood decays, its carbon unites with the +oxygen of the air; and so decay is really a sort of +burning. In the forests of to-day the leaves, and at +length the trees themselves, fall and decay in the +open air; but at the time when our coal was forming, +the water kept the air away, and much carbon was +left. This is the way coal was made. Some of the +layers, or strata, are fifty or sixty feet thick, and +some are hardly thicker than paper. On top of each +one is a stratum of sandstone or dark-gray shale. +This was made by the sand and mud which were +brought in by the water. These shaly rocks split +easily into sheets and show beautiful fossil impressions +of ferns. There are also impressions of the +bark and fruit of trees, together with shells, crinoids, +corals, remains of fishes and flying lizards, and some +few trilobites,—crablike animals with a shell somewhat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +like the back of a lobster, but marked into +three divisions or lobes, from which its name comes.</p> + +<p>Since the crust of the earth was so thin and yielding, +it wrinkled up as the earth cooled, much as the +skin of an apple wrinkles when the apple dries. This +brought some of the strata of coal to the surface, +and after a while people discovered that it would +burn. If a vein of coal cropped out on a man's farm, +he broke some of it up with his pickaxe, shoveled it +into his wheelbarrow, and wheeled it home. After +a while hundreds of thousands of people wanted +coal; and now it had to be mined. In some places +the coal stratum was horizontal and cropped out on +the side of a hill, so that a level road could be dug +straight into it. In other places the coal was so near +the surface that it could be quarried under the open +sky, just as granite is quarried. Generally, however, +if you wish to visit a coal mine, you go to a shaft, a +square, black well sometimes deeper than the height +of three or four ordinary church steeples. You get +into the "cage," a great steel box, and are lowered +down, down, down. At last the cage stops and you +are at the bottom of the mine. The miners' faces, +hands, overalls, are all black with coal dust. They +wear tiny lamps on their caps, and as they come +near the walls of coal, it sparkles as it catches the +light. Here and there hangs an electric lamp. It is +doing its best to give out light, but its glass is thick +with coal dust. The low roof is held up by stout +wooden timbers and pillars of coal. A long passageway +stretches off into a blacker darkness than you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +ever dreamed of. Suddenly there is a blaze of red +light far down the passage, a roar, a medley of all +sorts of noises,—the rattling of chains, the clattering +of couplings, the shouts of men, the crash of coal +falling into the bins. It is a locomotive dragging its +line of cars loaded with coal. In a few minutes it +rushes back with empty cars to have them refilled.</p> + +<p>All along this passageway are "rooms," that is, +chambers which have been made by digging out the +coal. Above them is a vast amount of earth and +rock, sometimes hundreds of feet in thickness. There +is always danger that the roof will cave in, and so +the rooms are not made large, and great pillars of +coal are left to hold up the roof.</p> + +<p>Not many years ago the miner used to do all the +work with his muscles; now machines do most of it. +The miner then had to lie down on his side near the +wall of coal in his "room" and cut into it, close to +the floor, as far as his pickaxe would reach. Then +he bored a hole into the top of the coal, pushed in a +cartridge, thrust in a slender squib, lighted it, and +ran for his life. The cartridge exploded, and perhaps +a ton or two of coal fell. The miner's helper shoveled +this into a car and pushed it out of the room to join +the long string of cars.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image011.jpg" width="600" height="310" alt="HOW A COAL MINE LOOKS ABOVEGROUND" title="HOW A COAL MINE LOOKS ABOVEGROUND" /> +<span class="caption">HOW A COAL MINE LOOKS ABOVEGROUND<br /><br /> + +All that shows on the surface is the machinery shed where +the various engines work to keep the air fresh, and bring +up the miners and the coal.</span> +</p> + +<p>That is the way mining used to be done. In these +days a man with a small machine for cutting coal +comes first. He puts his cutter on the floor against +the wall of coal and turns on the electricity. <i>Chip, +chip</i>, grinds the machine, eating its way swiftly into +the coal, and soon there is a deep cut all along the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +side of the room. The man and his machine go elsewhere, +and the first room is left for its next visitors. +They come in the evening and bore holes for the +blasting. Once these holes were bored by hand, but +now they are made with powerful drills that work +by compressed air. A little later other men come +and set off cartridges. In the morning when the +dust has settled and the smoke has blown away, the +loaders appear with their shovels and load the coal +into the cars. Then it is raised to the surface and +made ready for market.</p> + +<p>Did you ever notice that some pieces of coal are +dull and smutty, while others are hard and bright? +The dull coal is called bituminous, because it contains +more bitumen or mineral pitch. This is often +sold as "run-of-mine" coal,—that is, just as it +comes from the mine, whether in big pieces or in +little ones; but sometimes it is passed over screens, +and in this process the dust and smaller bits drop +out.</p> + +<p>The second kind of coal, the sort that is hard and +bright, is anthracite. Its name is connected with a +Greek word meaning ruby. It burns with a glow, +but does not blaze. Most of the anthracite coal is +used in houses, and householders will not buy it +unless the pieces are of nearly the same size and free +from dirt, coal dust, and slate. The work of preparation +is done in odd-shaped buildings called "breakers." +One part of a breaker is often a hundred or a +hundred and fifty feet in height. The coal is carried +to the top of the breaker. From there it makes a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +journey to the ground, but something happens to it +every little way. It goes between rollers, which +crush it; then over screens, through which the +smaller pieces fall. Sometimes the screens are so +made that the coal will pass over them, while the +thin, flat pieces of slate will fall through. In spite +of all this, bits of coal mixed with slate sometimes +slide down with the coal, and these are picked out +by boys. A better way of getting rid of them is now +coming into use. This is to put the coal and slate +into moving water. The slate is heavier than the +coal, and sinks; and so the coal can easily be separated +from it. Dealers have names for the various +sizes of coal. "Egg" must be between two and two +and five eighths inches in diameter; "nut" between +three fourths and one and one eighth inches; "pea" +between one half and three fourths of an inch.</p> + +<p>Mining coal is dangerous work. Any blow of the +pickaxe may break into a vein of water which will +burst out and flood the mine. The wooden props +which support the roof may break, or the pillars of +coal may not be large enough; and the roof may fall +in and crush the workers. There are always poisonous +gases. The coal, as has been said before, was +made under water, and therefore the gas which was +formed in the decaying leaves and wood could not +escape. It is always bubbling out from the coal, and +at any moment a pickaxe may break into a hole that +is full of it. One kind of gas is called "choke-damp," +because it chokes or suffocates any one who breathes +it. There is also "white-damp," the gas which you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +see burning with a pretty blue flame over a hot coal +fire. Worst of all is the "fire-damp." If you stir up +the water in a marsh, you will see bubbles of it rise +to the surface. It is harmless in a marsh, but quite +the opposite in a mine. When it unites with a certain +amount of air, it becomes explosive, and the +least bit of flame will cause a terrible explosion. +Even coal dust may explode if the air is full of it, +and it is suddenly set in motion by too heavy a blast +of powder.</p> + +<p>Miners used to work by candlelight. Every one +knew how dangerous this was; but no one found any +better way until, about a hundred years ago, Sir +Humphry Davy noticed something which other +people had not observed. He discovered that flame +would not pass through fine wire gauze, and he made +a safety lamp in which a little oil lamp was placed +in a round funnel of wire gauze. The light, but not +the flame, would pass through it; and all safety +lamps that burn oil have been made on this principle. +The electric lamp, however, is now in general +use. The miner wears it on his cap, and between his +shoulders he carries a small, light storage battery. +Even with safety lamps, however, there are sometimes +explosions. The only way to make a mine at +all safe from dangerous gases is to keep it full of +fresh, pure air. There is no wind to blow through +the chambers and passages, and therefore air has +to be forced in. One way is to keep a large fire at +the bottom of the air shaft. If you stand on a stepladder, +you will feel that the top of the room is much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +warmer than the floor. This is because hot air rises; +and in a mine, the hot air over the fire rises and sucks +the foul air and gas out of the mine, and fresh air +rushes in to take its place. Another way is by a +"fan," a machine that forces fresh air into the +mine.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"> +<img src="images/image015.jpg" width="390" height="600" alt="MINERS AND THEIR MINE" + title="MINERS AND THEIR MINE" /> +<span class="caption">MINERS AND THEIR MINE<br /><br /> + +Notice the safety lamps in the men's caps, and the little railroad +on which the cars of coal and ore travel, hauled by the useful mule.</span> +</p> + +<p>So it is that by hard work and much danger we +get coal for burning. Now, coal is dirty and heavy. +A coal fire is hard to kindle and hard to put out, and +the ashes are decidedly disagreeable to handle. And +after all, we do not really burn the coal itself, but +only the gas from it which results from the union of +carbon and oxygen. In some places natural gas, as +it is called, which comes directly from some storehouse +in the ground, is used in stoves and furnaces +and fireplaces for both heating and cooking; and +perhaps before long gas will be manufactured so +cheaply and can be used so safely and comfortably +that we shall not have to burn coal at all, but can +use gas for all purposes—unless electricity should +take its place.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2> + +<h3>DOWN IN THE QUARRIES</h3> + + +<p>When walking in the country one day I came to a +beautiful pond by the side of the road. The water +was almost as clear as air, and as I looked down into +it, I could see that the bottom was made of granite. +The farther shores were cliffs of clean granite thirty +or forty feet high and coming down to the water's +edge. The marks of tools could be seen on them, +showing where blocks of stone had evidently been +split off. I picked up a piece of the rock and examined +it closely. It proved to be made up of three +kinds of material. First, there were tiny sparkling +bits of mica. In some places there are mica mines +yielding big sheets of this curious mineral which +is used in the doors of stoves and the little windows +of automobile curtains. With the point of a knife +the bits in my piece of granite could be split into +tiny sheets as thin as paper. The second material +was quartz. This was grayish-white and looked +somewhat like glass. The third material was feldspar. +This, too, was whitish, but one or two sides +of each bit were flat, as if they had not been broken, +but split. This is the most common kind of granite. +There are many varieties. Some of them are almost +white, some dark gray, others pale pink, and yet +others deep red. It is found in more than half the +States of the Union.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> + +<p>This quarry had been given up and allowed to fill +with water; but it was a granite country, and farther +down the road there was another, where scores of +men were hard at work. This second quarry was +part-way up a hill; or rather, it was a hill of granite +which men were digging out and carrying away. +When they began to open the quarry, much of the +rock was covered with dirt and loose stones, and +even the granite that showed aboveground was worn +and broken and stained. This is called "trap rock." +The easiest way to get rid of it is to blast with dynamite +and then carry away the dirt and fragments. +Next comes the getting out of great masses of rock +to use, some of them perhaps long enough to make +the pillars of a large building.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;"> +<img src="images/image019.jpg" width="369" height="580" alt="OPENING A GRANITE QUARRY" + title="OPENING A GRANITE QUARRY" /> +<span class="caption">OPENING A GRANITE QUARRY<br /><br /> + +<i><small>Courtesy Jones Brothers Company.</small></i><br /><br /> + +The first thing to do is to strip off the soil from the stone. Then, +as the blocks are cut out, the big derrick lifts and loads them on +waiting cars.</span> +</p> + +<p>Now, granite is a hard stone, but there is no +special difficulty in cutting it if you know how. In +the old days, when people wished to split a big +boulder, they sometimes built a fire beside it, and +when it was well heated, they dropped a heavy iron +ball upon it. King's Chapel in Boston was built +of stone broken in this way. To break from a cliff, +however, a block of granite big enough to make a +long pillar is a different matter, and this is what the +men were doing. First of all, the foreman had examined +the quarry till he had found a stratum of the +right thickness. He had marked where the ends +were to come, and the men had drilled holes down +to the bottom of the stratum. Then he had drawn +a line at the back along where he wished the split to +be, and the men had drilled on this line also a row<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +of holes. Next came the blasting. If one very heavy +charge had been exploded, it would probably have +shattered the whole mass, or at any rate have injured +it badly. Instead of this, they put into each +hole a light charge of coarse powder and covered it +with sand. These were all fired at the same instant, +and thus the great block was loosened from the wall. +Sometimes there seems to be no sign of strata, and +then a line of horizontal holes must be drilled where +the bottom of the block is to be. After this comes +what is called the "plug-and-feather" process. Into +each hole are placed two pieces of iron, shaped like +a pencil split down the middle. These are the +"feathers." The "plug" is a small steel wedge that +is put between the iron pieces. Then two men with +hammers go down the line and strike each wedge +almost as gently as if it was a nut whose kernel they +were afraid of crushing. They go down the line +again, striking as softly as before. Then, if you look +closely, you can see a tiny crack between the holes. +There is more hammering, the crack stretches farther, +a few of the wedges are driven deeper and the +others drop out. The block splits off. A mighty +chain is then wound about it, the steam derrick lifts +it, lays it gently upon a car, and it is carried to the +shed to be cut into shape, smoothed, and perhaps +polished.</p> + +<p>In almost every kind of work new methods are +invented after a while. In quarrying, however, the +same old methods are in use. The only difference is +that, instead of the work being done by muscle, it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +done by compressed air or steam or electricity. Compressed +air or steam works the drill and the sledgehammer. +The drill is held by an arm, but the arm is +a long steel rod which is only guided by the workman. +Not the horse-sweep of old times, but the +steam derrick and the electric hoist lift the heavy +blocks from the quarry. Polishing used to be a very +slow, expensive operation, because it was all done +by the strength of some one's right arm, but now, +although it takes as much work as ever, this work is +done by machinery. To "point" a piece of stone, +or give it a somewhat smooth surface, is done now +with tools worked by compressed air. After this, +the stone is rubbed—by machinery, of course—with +water and emery, then by wet felt covered with +pumice or polishing putty. A few years ago two +young Vermonters invented a machine that would +saw granite. This saw has no teeth, but only blades +of iron. Between these blades and the piece of granite, +however, shot of chilled steel are poured; and +they do the real cutting.</p> + +<p>Granite has long been used in building wherever +a strong, solid material was needed; but until the +sand blast was tried, people thought it impossible +to do fine work in this stone. There was a firm in +Vermont, however, who believed in the sand blast. +They had a contract with the Government to furnish +several thousand headstones for national cemeteries. +Cutting the names would be slow and costly; +so they made letters and figures of iron, stuck them +to the stones, and turned on the blast. If a sand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +blast is only fast enough, it will cut stone harder +than itself. The blast was turned upon a stone for +five minutes. Then the iron letters were removed. +There stood in raised letters the name, company, +regiment, and rank of the soldier, while a quarter of +an inch of the rest of the stone, which the iron letters +had not protected, had been cut away. By means of +the sand blast it has become possible to do beautiful +carving even in material as hard as granite.</p> + +<p>Granite looks so solid that people used to think it +was fireproof; but it is really poor material in a great +fire. Most substances expand when they are heated; +but the three substances of which granite is made do +not expand alike, and so they tend to break apart +and the granite crumbles.</p> + +<p>A marble quarry is even more interesting than a +granite quarry. If you stand on a hill in a part of +the country where marble is worked, you will see +white ledges cropping out here and there. The little +villages are white because many of the houses are +built of marble. Then, too, there are great marble +quarries flashing in the sunshine. Sometimes a +marble quarry is chiefly on the surface. Sometimes +the marble stretches into the earth, and the cutting +follows it until a great cavern is made, perhaps two +or three hundred feet deep. A roof is often built to +keep out the rain and snow. It keeps out the light, +too, and on rainy days the roof, together with the +smoke and steam of the engines, makes the bottom +of the quarry a gloomy place. Everywhere there are +slender ladders with men running up and down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +them. There are shouts of the men, clanking of +chains, and puffing of locomotives.</p> + +<p>Marble is cut out in somewhat the same way as +granite, but a valuable machine called a "channeler" +is much used. This machine runs back and +forth, cutting a channel two inches wide along the +ends and back and sometimes the bottom of the +block to be taken out.</p> + +<p>Marble is so much softer than granite that it is +far more easy to work. Cutting it is a simple matter. +The saw, which is a smooth flat blade of iron, swings +back and forth, while between it and the marble +sand and water are fed. It does not exactly <i>cut</i>, but +rubs, its way through. The round holes in the tops +of washstands are cut by saws like this, only bent +in the form of a cylinder and turned round and +round, going in a little deeper at each revolution. +A queer sort of saw is coming into use. It is a cord +made of three steel wires twisted loosely together. +This cord is stretched tightly over pulleys and +moves very rapidly. Every little ridge of the cord +strikes the stone and cuts a little of it away.</p> + +<p>There are varieties of marble without end. The +purest and daintiest is the white of which statues +are carved; but there are black, red, yellow, gray, +blue, green, pink, and orange in all shades. Many +are beautifully marked. The inner walls of buildings +are sometimes covered with thin slabs of marble. +These are often carefully split, and the two pieces +put up side by side, so that the pattern on one is +reversed on the other. Certain kinds of marble contain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +fossils or remains of coral and other animals +that lived hundreds of thousands of years ago. In +some marbles there are so many that the stone seems +to be almost made of them. When a slab is cut and +polished, the fossils are of course cut into; but even +then we can sometimes see their shape. One of the +most common is the crinoid. This was really an +animal, but it looked somewhat like a closed pond +lily with a long stem, and people used to call it the +stone lily. This stem is made up of little flat rings +looking like bits of a pipestem. The stems are often +broken up and these bits are scattered through the +marble. The animals whose shells help to make +marble lived in the ocean, and when they died sank +to the bottom. Many of the shells were broken by +the beating of the waves, but both broken shells and +whole ones became united and hardened into limestone, +one kind of which we call marble. Common +chalk is another kind. Blackboard crayons are made +of this: so are whitewash and whiting for cleaning +silver and making putty.</p> + +<p>Another stone that builders would be sorry to do +without is slate. This, too, was formed at the bottom +of the sea. Rivers brought down fine particles +of clay, which settled, were covered by other matter, +and finally became stone. It was formed in layers, +of course, but, queerly enough, it splits at right +angles to its bottom line. Just why it does this is +not quite certain, but the action is thought to be +due to heat and long, slow pressure, which will do +wonderful things, as in the case of coal. This splitting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +is a great convenience for the people who want +to use it for roofing and for blackboards. Blocks of +slate are loosened by blasting, and are taken to the +splitting-shed.</p> + +<p>Splitting slate needs care, and a man who is not +careful should never try to work in a slate quarry. +The splitting begins by one man's dividing the +block into pieces about two inches thick and somewhat +larger than the slates are to be when finished. +The way he does this is to cut a little notch in one +end of the block with his "sculpin chisel" and make +a groove from this across the block. He must then +set his chisel into the groove, strike it with a mallet, +and split the slate to the bottom. This sounds easy, +but it needs skill. Slate has sometimes its own notions +of behavior, and it does not always care to +split in a straight line exactly perpendicular to the +bottom of the stratum. The man keeps it wet so +that he can see the crack more plainly, and if that +crack turns back a little to the right, he must turn +it to the left by striking the sculpin toward the left, +or perhaps by striking a rather heavy blow on the +left of the stone itself. Now the chief splitter takes +it, and with a broad thin chisel he splits it into plates +becoming thinner at each split. The second assistant +trims these into the proper shape and size with +either a heavy knife or a machine. Slate can be +sawed and planed; but whatever is done to it should +be done when it first comes from the quarry, for +then it is not so likely to break. It would be very +much cheaper if so much was not broken and wasted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +at the quarries and in the splitting. It is said that +in Wales sometimes one hundred tons of stone are +broken up to get between three and four tons of +good slate. Within the last few years the quarrymen +have been using channeling machines and getting +out the slate in great masses instead of small blocks. +This is not so wasteful by any means; but even now +there is room for new and helpful inventions.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2> + +<h3>HOUSES OF SAND</h3> + + +<p>If you wanted to build a house, of what should +you build it? In a new country, people generally +use wood; but after a time wood grows expensive. +Moreover, wood catches fire easily; therefore, as a +country becomes more thickly settled and people +live close together in cities, stone and brick are used. +Large cities do not allow the building of wooden +houses within a certain distance from the center, +and sometimes even the use of wooden shingles is +forbidden. Of late years large numbers of "concrete" +or "cement" houses have been built. Our +grandfathers would have opened their eyes wide at +the suggestion of a house built of sand, and would +have felt anxious at every rainfall lest their homes +should suddenly melt away. Even after thousands +of concrete buildings were in use, many people still +feared that they would not stand the cold winters +and hot summers of the United States; but it has +been proved that concrete is a success provided it is +properly made.</p> + +<p>No one can succeed in any work unless he understands +how it should be done. Concrete is made of +Portland cement, mixed with sand and water and +either broken stone, gravel, cinders, or slag; but if +any one thinks that he can mix these together without +knowing how and produce good concrete, he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +will make a bad mistake rather than a good building +material.</p> + +<p>First, he must buy Portland cement of the best +quality. This cement is made of limestone and clay, +or marl, chalk, and slag. These are crushed and +ground and put into a kiln which is heated up to +2500° or 3000°F.; that is, from twelve to fourteen +times as hot as boiling water. The stone fuses sufficiently +to form a sort of clinker. After this has +cooled, it is ground so fine that the greater part of it +will pass through a sieve having 40,000 meshes to +the square inch. To every hundred pounds of this +powder, about three pounds of gypsum is added. +The mixture is then put into the bags in which we +see it for sale in the stores. This powder is so greedy +for water that it will absorb the moisture from the +air around it. Even in the bags, it begins to harden +as soon as it gets some moisture; and as soon as it +hardens, it is of no use. The moral of that is to keep +your cement in a dry place.</p> + +<p>The second substance needed in concrete is broken +stone or gravel. Of course a hard rock must be selected, +such as granite or trap rock. Limestone +calcines in a heat exceeding 1000° F., and therefore +it cannot be used in fireproof construction. Soft +rock, like slate or shale or soft sandstone, will not +answer because it is not strong enough. Gravel is +always hard. If you look at a cut in a gravel bank, +you will usually see strata of sand and then strata +of rounded pebbles of different sizes. The sand was +once an ancient sea beach; the pebbles were dashed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +up on it by waves or storms or some change of currents. +They were at first only broken bits of rock, +but after being rolled about for a few thousand years +in the ocean and on the shore, the corners were all +rounded. Soft rock would have been ground to +powder by such treatment. Sometimes, if there is +to be no great strain on the concrete, cinders or +pieces of brick may be used instead of stone; and +for some purposes they answer very well.</p> + +<p>The third substance used in concrete is sand; but +it must be the right kind of sand, having both fine +and coarse grains. These grains need to be sharp, or +the cement will not stick to them well. They must +also be clean, that is, free from dirt. If you rub sand +between your hands, and it soils them, then there +is clay or loam with it, and it must not be used in +making concrete unless it is thoroughly washed. +Another way of testing it is to put it into a glass +jar partly full of water and shake it. Then let it +settle. If there is soil in the sand, it will appear as a +stratum of mud on top of the sand.</p> + +<p>The water with which these three substances are +to be mixed must be clean and must contain no acid +and no strong alkali. As a general rule, there must +be twice as much broken stone as sand. When people +first make concrete, they often expect too much +of their materials. A good rule for the strongest sort +of cement, strong enough for floors on which heavy +machines are to stand, is one fourth of a barrel of +cement, half a barrel of sand, and one barrel of +gravel or broken stone. Apparently this would make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +one and three fourths barrels; but in reality it makes +only about one barrel, because the sand fills in the +spaces between the gravel, and the cement fills in +the spaces between the grains of sand.</p> + +<p>There are many sorts of machines on the market +for mixing the materials; but small quantities can +just as well be mixed by hand. The "mixing-bowl" +is a platform, and on this the sand is laid. Then +comes the cement; and these two must be shoveled +together several times. While this is being done, +the broken stone or gravel must be wet, and now it +is put on top of the sand and cement and well shoveled +together, with just enough water added so that +the mass will almost bear the weight of a man.</p> + +<p>Concrete is impatient to be hardening, and if it +is not put into the right place, it will begin promptly +to harden in the wrong place, and nothing can be +done with it afterwards. If it is to be made in +blocks, the moulds must be ready and the concrete +put into them at once and well tamped down. For +such uses as beams and the sides of tanks where +great strength is needed, the cement is often "reinforced," +that is, rods of iron or steel are embedded +in it. For floors, a sheet of woven wire is often +stretched out and embedded. At first only solid +blocks, made to imitate rough stone, were used for +houses, but the hollow block soon took their place. +This is cheaper; houses built this way are warmer +in winter and cooler in summer; and it prevents +moisture from working through the walls. Many +cities have regulations about the use of hollow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +blocks, all the more strict because concrete is comparatively +new as a building material. In Philadelphia +the blocks must be composed of at least one +barrel of Portland cement to five barrels of crushed +rock or gravel. They must be three weeks old or +more before being used; the lintels and sills of the +doors must be reinforced; and every block must be +marked, so that if the building should not prove to +be of proper strength, the maker may be known. +There would seem, however, to be little question of +the quality of the blocks, for samples must pass the +tests of the Bureau of Building Inspection.</p> + +<p>Even better than the hollow block is the method of +making the four walls of a house at once by building +double walls of boards and pouring in the concrete. +When this has hardened, the boards are removed, +and whatever sort of finish the owner prefers is +given to the walls. They can be treated by spatter-work, +pebble dash, or in other ways before the +cement is fully set, or by bush hammering and tool +work after the cement has hardened. Coloring +matter can be mixed with the cement in the first +place; and if the owner decides to change the color +after the house is completed, he can paint it with +a thin cement of coloring matter mixed with plaster +of Paris.</p> + +<p>A concrete house has several advantages. In the +first place, it will not burn. Neither will granite, but +granite will fall to pieces in a hot fire. Granite is +made of quartz, mica, and feldspar, as has been said +before. These three do not expand alike in heat;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +and therefore great flakes of the stone split off, so +that it really seems to melt away. A well-made +concrete is not affected by fire. It will not burn, and +it will not carry heat to make other things burn. +For a concrete house no paint is needed and less +fuel will be required to keep it warm. If the floors +are made with even a very little slant, "house-cleaning" +consists of removing the furniture and +turning on the hose. Water-tank, sink, washtubs, +and bathtubs can be cast in concrete and given a +smooth finish. Wooden floors can be laid over the +concrete, or a border of wood can be put around +each room for tacking down carpets or rugs. A concrete +house may be as ornamental as the owner +chooses, for columns and cornices and mouldings +can easily be made of concrete; and if they are cast +in sand, as iron is, they will have a finish like sandstone.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat troublesome to lay concrete in +very cold weather, because of the danger of freezing +and cracking. Sometimes the materials are heated, +and after the concrete is in place, straw or sand or +sawdust is spread over it. These will keep it warm for +several hours, and so give the concrete a chance to +"set." Sometimes a canvas house is built over the +work. When a concrete dam was to be built in the +Province of Quebec and the mercury was 20° below +zero, the contractors built a canvas house over one +portion of the dam and set up iron stoves in it. +When this part was completed, they took down the +house and built it up again over another portion of +the dam. Sometimes salt is used. Salt water is +heavier than fresh water and will not freeze so +easily. Therefore salt put into the water used in +making the concrete will enable it to endure more +cold without freezing; but not more than one pound +of salt to twelve gallons of water should be used.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image027.jpg" width="600" height="310" alt="BUILDING A CONCRETE ROAD" + title="BUILDING A CONCRETE ROAD" /> +<span class="caption">BUILDING A CONCRETE ROAD<br /><br /> + +<i><small>Courtesy Alpha Portland Cement Co.</small></i><br /><br /> + +The concrete mixer travels along the prepared roadbed, and after it +follow the workmen with levelers and stamps.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> +<p>Concrete objects to being frozen before it is "set," +but it is exceedingly accommodating about working +under water. It must, of course, be carried in some +way through the water to its proper place without +being washed away, but this is easily done. Sometimes +it is let down in great buckets closed at the +top, but with a hinged bottom that will open when +the bucket strikes the rock or soil where the material +is to be left. Sometimes it is poured down through +a tube. Sometimes it is dropped in sacks made of +cloth. This cloth must be coarse, so that enough of +the concrete will ooze through it to unite the bag +and its contents with what is below it and make a +solid mass. Sometimes even paper bags have been +successfully used. The concrete, made rather dry, +is poured into the bags and they are slid down a +chute. The paper soon becomes soft and breaks, +and lets the concrete out. Sometimes concrete +blocks are moulded on land and lowered by a derrick, +while a diver stands ready to see that they go +into their proper places.</p> + +<p>Concrete is used for houses, churches, factories, +walls, sidewalks, steps, foundations, sewers, chimneys, +piers, cellar bottoms, cisterns, tunnels, and +even bridges. In the country, it is used for silos,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +barn floors, ice houses, bins for vegetables, box +stalls for horses, doghouses, henhouses, fence posts, +and drinking-troughs. It is of very great value in +filling cavities in decaying trees. All the decayed +wood must be cut out, and some long nails driven +from within the cavity part-way toward the outside, +so as to help hold the concrete. Then it is poured +in and allowed to harden. If the cavity is so large +that there is danger of the trunk's breaking, an +iron pipe may be set in to strengthen it. If this is +encased in concrete, it will not rust. A horizontal +limb with a large cavity may be strengthened by +bending a piece of piping and running one part of +it into the limb and the other into the trunk, then +filling the whole cavity with concrete. If the bark +is trimmed in such a way as to slant in toward the +cavity, it will sometimes grow entirely over it.</p> + +<p>Concrete is also used for stucco work, that is, for +plastering the outside of buildings. If the building +to be stuccoed is of brick or stone, the only preparation +needed is to clean it and wet it; then put on +the plaster between one and two inches thick. A +wooden house must first be covered with two thicknesses +of roofing-paper, then by wire lathing. The +concrete will squeeze through the lathing and set. +Stucco work is nothing new, and if it is well done, +it is lasting.</p> + +<p>Concrete has been used for many purposes besides +building, and the number of purposes increases +rapidly. For blackboards, refrigerator linings, and +railroad ties it has been found available, and for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +poles or posts of all sizes it has already proved itself +a success. It has even been suggested as an excellent +material for boats, if reinforced; and minute directions +are given by one writer for making a concrete +rowboat. To do this, the wooden boat to be copied +is hung up just above the ground, and clay built +around it, leaving a space between boat and clay +as thick as the concrete boat is to be. The wooden +boat is covered with paper and greased, then the +concrete is poured into the space between the boat +and the clay mould; and when it hardens and the +wooden boat is removed, there is a boat of stone—or +so the directions declare; but I think most people +would prefer one of wood. However it may be with +rowboats, concrete is taking an important place in +the construction of battleships, a backing for armor +being made of it instead of teakwood. The Arizona +is built in this way.</p> + +<p>Concrete that is carelessly made is very poor +stuff, and dangerous to use, for it is not at all reliable +and may give out at any time; but concrete that +is made of the best materials and properly put together +is an exceedingly valuable article.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2> + +<h3>BRICKS, THEIR FAULTS AND THEIR VIRTUES</h3> + + +<p>The simplest way to make a brick is to fill a +mould with soft clay, then take it out and let it +stiffen, and then put it in the sun to dry. This is +the way in which the "adobe" bricks of Central +America are made. They answer very well in countries +where there is little rain; but one or two heavy +downpours would be likely to melt a house built of +such material.</p> + +<p>Clay is a kind of earth containing mostly alumina +and silica or sand, that can be mixed with water, +moulded into any shape, retain that shape after it +is dry, and become hard by being burned. If you +want to make a china cup, you must have a fine sort +of clay called "kaolin," which is pure white when +it is fired and is not very common; but if you want +to make bricks, it will not be at all difficult to find +a suitable clay bank. And yet the clay, even for +bricks, must be of the right kind. If it contains too +much silica (sand), the brick will not mould well; +if too much alumina it will be weak; if too much +iron, it will lose its shape in burning; if too much +lime, it will be flesh-colored when it is burned.</p> + +<p>If you want to find out whether a building-brick +is of good quality, there are some tests that a boy +or girl can apply as well as any one. First, look the +brick over and note whether it is straight and true,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +and whether the edges and corners are sharp. Strike +it, and see whether it gives a clear, ringing sound. +Then weigh it and soak it in water for twenty-four +hours. Weigh it again, and if it is more than one +fifth heavier than it was before soaking, it is not +of the first quality.</p> + +<p>After the clay has been dug, it must be "tempered," +that is, mixed with water and about one +third or one fourth as much sand as clay, and left +overnight in a "soak pit," a square pit about five +feet deep. In the morning the workmen shovel the +mass over and feed it into the machines for forming +the bricks. The mixing is better done, however, in +a "ring pit." This is a circular pit twenty-five or +thirty feet in diameter, three feet deep, and lined +with boards or brick. A big iron wheel works from +the center to the edge and back again for several +hours, through and through the clay. A method +even better than this is to put the clay and sand +and water into a great trough, in which there is a +long shaft bristling with knives. The shaft revolves, +mixes the clay, and pushes it along to the end of +the trough. This is called "pugging," and the +whole thing—trough, shaft, and knives—is a "pug +mill."</p> + +<p>In the old days bricks were always made by hand. +The moulder stood in front of a wet table whereon +lay a heap of soft clay. He either wet or sanded +his mould to keep it from sticking. Meanwhile, his +assistant had cut a piece of clay and rolled it and +patted it into the shape of the mould. In making +bricks, there can be no patching; the mould must +be filled at one stroke, or else there will be folds in +the brick. To make a good brick, the moulder lifts +the clay up above his head and throws it into the +mould with all his force. Then he presses it into +the corners with his thumbs, scrapes off with a +strip of wood any extra clay, or cuts it off with a +wire, smooths the surface of the brick, puts mould +and brick upon a board, jerks the mould up and +proceeds to make another brick.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;"> +<img src="images/image033.jpg" width="367" height="580" alt="IN A NEW JERSEY BRICK MILL" + title="IN A NEW JERSEY BRICK MILL" /> +<span class="caption">IN A NEW JERSEY BRICK MILL<br /><br /> + +<i><small>Copyright by Underwood and Underwood.</small></i><br /><br /> + +This man is moulding a fire-brick to its final shape.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p> +<p>No matter how expert a moulder may be, brick-making +by hand is slow work, and in most places +machines are used. In what is called the "soft-mud" +process, the clay is pushed on by the pug mill to the +end of the trough. There stands a mould for six +bricks. A plunger forces the clay into it, the mould +is emptied, and in a single hour five thousand bricks +can be made. By what is called the "stiff-mud" +process, the stiff clay is put into a machine with an +opening the size of the end or side of a brick. The +machine forces the clay through this opening, cuts +it off at the proper moment; and so makes bricks +by the thousand without either mould or moulder. +A third way of making brick is by what is called +the "dry process." The clay is pulverized and filled +into moulds the length and breadth of a brick, but +much deeper, and with neither top nor bottom. One +plunger from above and another from below strike +the clay in the mould with much force, and make +the fine, smooth brick known as "pressed brick." +All this is done by machinery, and some machines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +make six bricks at a time. These "dry" bricks are +fragile before they are burned, and must be handled +with great care.</p> + +<p>Bricks cannot be put into the kiln while they are +still wet, for when a brick is drying, it is a delicate +article. It objects to being too hot or too cold, and +it will not stand showers or drafts. In some way +about a pound of water must be dried out of each +brick; but if you try to hurry the drying, the brick +turns sulky, refuses to have anything more to do +with you, and proceeds to crack. To dry, bricks are +sometimes spread on floors; or piled up in racks on +short pieces of board called "pallets"; and sometimes +they are put upon little cars and run slowly +through heated tunnels. The last is the best way +for people who are in a hurry, for it takes only from +twenty-four to thirty-six hours to make the bricks +ready to go to the kiln to be burned.</p> + +<p>In one sort of kiln, the bricks themselves make +the kiln. They are piled up in arches, but left a +little way apart so the hot air can move freely +among them. The sides of the structure are covered +with burnt brick and mud, but the top is left open +to allow the steam from the hot bricks to escape. +The fires are in flues that are left at the bottom. +They must burn slowly at first, but after a while, +some forty to sixty hours, the heat becomes intense. +Thus far the bricks have been grayish or cream-colored, +but now, if there is iron in them, they turn +red; if there is lime, they turn yellow; if a large +amount of lime, they become flesh-colored. Besides<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +this sort of kiln, which is torn down when the +bricks are sufficiently burned, there is also the permanent +kiln, which has fixed side walls and either +an open or closed top. Then, too, there is a "continuous" +kiln. This has a number of chambers, and +the heat from each one passes into the next; so that +bricks in one chamber may be just warming up +while in another they are ready to be taken out.</p> + +<p>When the bricks come out of the kiln, some of +them are good and some are not. Those that were +on the outside are not burned enough; those next it +are not well baked, but can be used for the middle +of thick walls. The next ones are of good quality; but +those directly over the fires are so hard and brittle +that they are of little use except for pavements.</p> + +<p>Paving-bricks, however, are not to be despised. +They are not as smooth and well finished as pressed +brick, but they are exceedingly useful. They need +as much care in making as any others, and they +must be burned in a much hotter fire to make them +dense and hard. The tests for paving-bricks are +quite different from those for ordinary building-brick. +If first-class paving-bricks weighing fifty +pounds are soaked in water for twenty hours, they +take up so little water that they will not weigh +more than fifty-one or fifty-one and a half pounds +when taken out. To find out how hard they are, +the bricks are weighed and shaken about with +foundry shot for a number of hours. Then they are +weighed again to see how much of their material +has been rubbed off. A third test is to put one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +brick on edge into a crushing machine to see how +much pressure it will stand. Paving-brick is cheaper +than granite blocks, and if it has a good foundation +of concrete covered with sand, it will last about +three fourths as long. Brick is less noisy than stone +and is easier to clean.</p> + +<p>Not so very long ago, when particularly handsome +bricks were needed for the outside of walls and other +places where they would be conspicuous, they were +"re-pressed"; that is, they were made by hand or +in a "soft-mud" machine, and then, after drying +for a while, were put into a re-pressing machine to +give them a smooth finish. These machines are still +used, but they are hardly necessary, for the "dry-clay" +brick machine will turn out a smooth brick +in one operation.</p> + +<p>Another substance which is made of almost the +same materials as brick is terra cotta. To make +this, fire brick, bits of pottery, partly burned clay, +and fine white sand are ground to a powder and +mixed very thoroughly. This mixture is moulded, +dried, and burned. Until recently, all terra cotta +was of the color that is called by that name, but +now it is made in gray, white, and bronze as well.</p> + +<p>Bricks are laid in mortar, and this makes a wall +one solid mass and stronger than it could be without +any cement. But mortar does more than this. It +is more elastic than brick, and therefore, when a +wall settles, the mortar yields a little, and this often +prevents the bricks from cracking. Bricks are always +thirsty, and if one is laid in mortar, it will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +suck the moisture out of it almost as a sponge will +suck up water. The mortar thus has no chance to +set, and so is not strong as it should be. That is why +the bricklayer wets his bricks, especially in summer, +before he puts them in place. Lime or cement +mortar will not set in freezing weather, and a brick +building put up in the winter is in danger of tumbling +down when the warm days of spring arrive.</p> + +<p>This thirstiness of bricks is their greatest fault. +Three or four days of driving rain will sometimes +wet through a brick wall two feet thick, crumbling +the plaster and spoiling the wallpaper. That is +why it is a poor plan to plaster directly on the +brick wall of a house. "Furring" strips, as they are +called, or narrow strips of wood, should be fastened +on first and the laths nailed to these, or the wall +can be painted or oiled on the outside. The best +way, however, though more expensive, is to build +the wall double. Then there is air between the two +thicknesses of brick. Air is a poor conductor of +heat; so in summer it keeps the heat out, and in +winter it keeps it in.</p> + +<p>But brick will suck up water from the ground as well +as from a storm; and therefore, when a brick house +is to be built in a wet place, there ought to be a three-eighths-inch +layer of something waterproof, like asphalt +and coal tar, put on top of one of the layers of +brickwork to prevent the moisture from creeping up.</p> + +<p>Bricks have their faults, but they will not burn, +and when properly used, they make a most comfortable +and enduring house.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2> + +<h3>AT THE GOLD DIGGINGS</h3> + + +<p>When gold was first discovered in California, in +1848, people from all over the world made a frantic +rush to get there, every one of them hoping that he +would be lucky enough to make his fortune, and +fearing lest the precious metal should be gone before +he could even begin to dig. The gold that +these men gathered came from what were called +"placers"; that is, masses of gravel and sand along +the beds of mountain streams. Each miner had a +pan of tin or iron, which he filled half-full of the +gravel, or "pay dirt," as the miners called it. Then, +holding it under water, he shook off the stones and +mud over the side of the pan, leaving grains of gold +mixed with black sand at the bottom. This black +sand was iron, and after a while the miners removed +it with a magnet, dried what remained, and blew +away the dust, leaving only the grains of gold.</p> + +<p>Another contrivance which soon came into use +was the "cradle." This was a long box, sometimes +only a hollowed-out log. At the top was a sieve +which sifted out the stones. Nailed to the bottom +of the cradle were small cleats of wood, or "riffles," +which kept the water from running so fast as to +sweep the gold out of the cradle with it. The cradle +was placed on rockers and was also tilted slightly. +The miner shoveled the gravel into the top of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +cradle and his partner rocked it. The sieve kept +back the stones, the water broke up the lumps of +earth and gravel and washed them down the cradle, +and the grains of gold were stopped by the riffles, +and sank to the bottom. Sometimes the "pay dirt" +continued under a stream. To get at it, the miners +often built a little canal and turned the water into +a new channel; then they could work on the former +bed of the river.</p> + +<p>Before many years had passed, the gold that was +near the surface had been gathered. The miners +then followed the streams up into the mountains, +and found that much of the gold had come from +beds where in ancient times rivers had flowed. +There was gold still remaining in these beds, but it +was poorly distributed, the miners thought. Sometimes +there would be quite an amount in one place, +and then the miner would dig for days without +finding any more. Even worse than this was the +fact that these gravel beds were not on the top of +the ground, but were covered up with soil and trees. +Evidently the slow work with pans and cradles +would not pay here; but it occurred to some one +that if a powerful stream of water could be directed +against the great banks of earth, as water is directed +against a burning building, they would crumble, the +dirt could be washed down sluices, and the gold be +saved. This was done. Great reservoirs were built +high up in the mountains, and water was brought +by means of ditches or pipes to a convenient place. +Then it was allowed to rush furiously through a +hose and nozzle, and the great stream coming with +tremendous force was played upon the banks of +gravel. The banks crumbled, the gravel was washed +into a string of sluices, or long boxes with riffles to +catch the gold. Soon the miners found that if +quicksilver was put into these sluices, it would unite +with the gold and make a sort of paste called +"amalgam." Then if this amalgam was heated, the +quicksilver would be driven off in the form of gas, +and the gold would remain in a beautiful yellow +mass.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/image042.jpg" width="800" height="415" alt="HYDRAULIC GOLD MINING" + title="HYDRAULIC GOLD MINING" /> +<span class="caption">HYDRAULIC GOLD MINING<br /><br /> + +A placer mine at Gold Point, California, where tremendous streams of +water under high pressure are busy washing away the side of a +gold-bearing hill.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p> +<p>The ancient rivers had also carried gold to the valleys, +and to collect this a dredge, which the miners +called a "gold ship," came into use. The "ship" +part of this machine is an immense flat scow. +Stretching out from one end is something which +looks like a moving ladder. This is the support of +an endless chain of buckets, each of which can bite +into the gravel and take a mouthful of five or six +hundred pounds. They drop this gravel into a big +drum which is continually revolving. Water flows +through the drum, and washes out the sand and +bits of gold over large tables, where by means of +riffles and quicksilver the gold is captured. This +scow was usually on dry land at first; but its digging +soon made a lake, and then it floated. It must +be more fascinating to hold a pan in your own hands +and pick out little grains of gold or perhaps even +a big piece of it with your own fingers, but if the +gravel is good the dredge makes more money.</p> + +<p>In Alaska the great difficulty in mining is that,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +except at the surface, the ground is frozen all the +year round. At first, the miners used to thaw the +place where they wished to dig by building wood +fires; but this was a slow method, and now the +thawing is done by steam. They carry the steam +in a pipe to the place where the digging is to be +done, and send it through a hose. At the end of the +hose is a pointed steel tube. They hammer this tube +into the ground and let some steam pass through +the nozzle. This softens the ground so that picks +and shovels may be used. There is generally cold +enough in Alaska, but once at least the miners had +to manufacture it. The gold-bearing gravel was +deep, the ground was flat, and it was often overflowed. +They set up a freezing plant, and shut in +their land with a bulkhead of ice several feet thick. +Then they pumped out what water was already in +and did their work with no more trouble.</p> + +<p>When gold began to grow less in the California +gravel, the miners looked for it in the rocks on the +mountain-side. The placer miners laughed at them +and called their shafts "coyote holes"; but in time +the placers failed, while nearly all of our gold to-day +comes from veins of white quartz in the rocks. A +vein of gold is the most capricious thing in the +world. It may be so tiny that it can hardly be seen, +then widen and grow rich in gold, then suddenly +come to an end. This is why a new mine is so uncertain +an enterprise. The gold may hold out and +bring fortunes to the investors, or it may fail, and +then all they will have to show for their money is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +memory that they put it into a hole in the ground. +The managers of a few of the well-established mines, +however, have explored so far as to make sure that +there is gold enough for many years of digging.</p> + +<p>The mining engineer must be a very wide-awake +man. It is not enough for him simply to remember +what was taught him in the schools of mining; he +must be bright enough to invent new ways of meeting +difficulties. No two mines are alike, and he +must be ready for all sorts of emergencies. A gold +mine now consists of a shaft or pit dug several hundred +feet down into the rock, with levels or galleries +running off from it and with big openings like +rooms made where the rock was dug out. The roofs +of the rooms are supported by great timbers. To +break away the rock, the miner makes a hole with +a rock drill worked by electricity or compressed air, +puts powder or dynamite into the hole and explodes +it. The broken rock is then raised to the surface +and crushed in a "stamping mill." Here the +ore is fed into a great steel box called a "mortar." +Five immense hammers, often weighing a thousand +pounds apiece, drop down upon the ore, one after +another, until it is fine enough to go through a wire +screen in the front of the box. When two hundred +or more of these hammers are pounding away with +all their might, a stamping mill is a pretty noisy +place. The ore, crushed to a fine mud, now runs +over sloping tables covered with copper. Sticking +to the top of the copper is a film of quicksilver. +This holds fast whatever gold there may be and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +makes an amalgam, which is scraped off from time +to time, and the quicksilver is driven from the gold +by heat.</p> + +<p>Gold that is not united with other metals is called +"free milling gold." Much of it, however, is found +in combination with one metal or another, and is +known as "rebellious" or "refractory" gold. Such +gold may sometimes be set free by heat, and sometimes +by chemicals. One way is by the use of chlorine +gas, and the story of it sounds almost like "The +house that Jack built." It might run somewhat like +this: This is the salt that furnishes the chlorine. This +is the chlorine gas that unites with the gold. This is +the chloride that is formed when the chlorine gas +unites with the gold. This is the water that washes +from the tank the chloride that is formed when the +chlorine gas unites with the gold. This is the sulphate +of iron that unites with the chlorine gas of the +chloride that the water washes from the tank that +is formed when the chlorine gas unites with the gold—and +leaves the gold free.</p> + +<p>Another method is by the use of cyanide. More +than a century ago a chemist discovered that if gold +was put into water containing a little cyanide, the +gold would dissolve, while quartz and any metals +that might be united with the gold would settle in +the tank. The water in which the gold is dissolved +is now run into boxes full of shavings of zinc and is +"precipitated" upon them; that is, the tiny particles +of gold in the water fall upon the zinc and cling to it. +Zinc melts more easily than gold, so if this gilded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +zinc is put into a furnace, the zinc melts and the gold +is set free.</p> + +<p>Very often gold is found combined with lead or +copper. It must then be melted or smelted in great +furnaces. The metal is heavier than the rock and +settles to the bottom of the furnace. It is then +drawn off and the gold is separated from the other +metals, usually by electricity.</p> + +<p>Sometimes large pieces of gold called "nuggets" +are found by miners. The largest one known was +found in Australia. It weighed 190 pounds and was +worth $42,000. Sometimes spongy lumps of gold +are found; but as a general thing gold comes from +the little specks scattered through veins in rock, and +much work has to be done before it can be made +into coins or jewelry. It is too soft for such uses +unless some alloy, usually copper or silver, is mixed +with it to make it harder. Sometimes it is desirable +to know how much alloy has been added. The +jeweler then makes a line with the article on a peculiar +kind of black stone called a "touchstone," and +by the color of the golden mark he can tell fairly +well how nearly pure the article is. To be more +accurate, he pours nitric acid upon the mark. This +eats away the alloy and leaves only the gold.</p> + +<p>Gold is a wonderful metal. It is of beautiful color; +it can be hammered so thin that the light will shine +through it; few acids affect it, and the oxygen which +eats away iron does not harm it. Pure gold is spoken +of as being "twenty-four carats fine," from <i>carat</i>, +an old weight equal to one twenty-fourth of an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +ounce troy. Watchcases are from eight to eighteen +carats fine; chains are seldom more than fourteen; +and the gold coins of the United States are about +eleven parts of gold and one of copper. Coins wear +in passing from one person to another, and that is +why the edges are milled, so that it may be more +easily seen when they have become too light to be +used as coins. When such pieces come into the hands +of the Government, they must be recoined.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2> + +<h3>THE STORY OF A SILVER MINE</h3> + + +<p>A man who goes out in search of a mine is called +a "prospector." The best prospector is a man who +has learned to keep his eyes open and to recognize +the signs of gold and silver and other metals. A +faithful friend goes with him, a donkey or mule +which carries his bacon and beans, blankets, saucepan, +and a few tools, such as a pan, pick, shovel, +hammer, and axe. Sometimes the prospector also +takes with him a magnifying glass and a little acid +to test specimens, but usually he trusts to his eyes +alone.</p> + +<p>When these few things have been brought together, +the prospector and the donkey set out. They +wander over the hills and down into the canyons. If +a rock is stained red, the prospector examines it to +see whether it contains iron; if it is green, he looks +for copper. In the canyons and along the creeks he +often tests the gravel for traces of some valuable +metal. If he finds any of these traces along the +stream, he follows them on the bank until they stop; +then he carefully examines the bank of the stream +or the nearest hillside. If he continues to find bits +of metal, they will lead him to a vein of ore, from +which they have been broken by the wind, rain, and +frost.</p> + +<p>Generally a prospector is looking for some one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +special metal, and in his search he often overlooks +some other metal; for instance, thousands of the +gold-seekers who rushed to California in 1849 hurried +through Nevada on their way. If they had only +known what was under their feet, they would have +taken their picks and shovels and begun to dig, instead +of trying to get out of the region as soon as +might be. Ten years later, the California placers +were becoming exhausted, and miners began to go +elsewhere in their search for gold.</p> + +<p>Among those who were working in what is now +the State of Nevada were two Irishmen who had +been unlucky in California and had fared no better +in Nevada. They wanted to go somewhere else, but +they had not money enough for the journey; so +they kept on with their work at the foot of Mount +Davidson, washing the gravel and saving the little +gold that they found. They were annoyed by some +heavy black stuff that united with the quicksilver +in their cradles, interfered with the saving of the +gold, and put them in a very bad temper. At length +a man named Henry Comstock came along, who +told them that this black stuff was silver ore. They +examined the mountain-side, and discovered the +outcrop or edge of a great vein containing gold and +also silver. It is no wonder that people rushed from +the east and west to the wonderful new mines, for +it was plain that these new "diggings" were not +mere placers, but rich veins that many years of +working might not exhaust. Every newcomer hoped +to discover a vein; and within a year or two the district<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +around the Comstock lode was full of deep +shafts, many of them abandoned and half-hidden +by low brush, but some of them yielding quantities +of gold and silver. Before this, there had been only +about a thousand people in what is now Nevada, +but in two years after the discovery of silver, there +were 16,000, and a new Territory was formed.</p> + +<p>The miners knew how to get gold out of ore, but +silver was another matter, and some of it was difficult +to extract. They had so much trouble that they +were ready to believe in any treatment of the ore, +no matter how absurd, that promised to help them +out of their difficulties. Some of them were actually +persuaded that the juice of the wild sagebrush would +bring the silver out. It is no wonder that they were +troubled, for in the Comstock lode were not only +gold and silver, but ten or twelve other metals or +combinations of silver with something else. At +length processes were invented for treating the different +kinds of ore. Some kinds were crushed in a +stamping mill, then ground to a powder and mixed +with quicksilver or mercury. This mercury united +with both the gold and the silver, making an amalgam. +The amalgam, together with the finely ground +ore, was put into a "settler," and here the heavy +amalgam sank to the bottom and was then strained. +The extra mercury was collected, and the amalgam +was put into a retort or kettle and heated. The +mercury became a gas and was driven off from the +gold and silver, then caught in a vessel cool enough +to condense it, just as a cold plate held in steam +will collect drops of water. Sometimes the ore was +mixed with copper and lead. In that case common +salt and copper sulphate were used. Some ore had +to be roasted in a furnace in order to drive off the +sulphur.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image052.jpg" width="600" height="302" alt="THE STORY OF A SPOON" + title="THE STORY OF A SPOON" /> +<span class="caption">THE STORY OF A SPOON<br /><br /> + +<i><small>Courtesy The Gorham Co.</small></i><br /><br /> + +(1) Silver strip blanked. (2) Pinched. (3) Graded. (4) Outlining of Handle. +(5) Stamped Handle. (6) Spoon completely trimmed. (7, 8) Finished spoons.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> +<p>There were great and unusual dangers to be met +in getting the ore. The vein of quartz which bore it +was fifty or sixty feet wide. Some was hard, and +some so soft and crumbling that pillars would not +hold up the roof. The passageways were then lined +with heavy logs standing on either side, other logs +laid across their tops, and all bolted firmly together. +Nevertheless, they twisted and fell, and slowly but +certainly the whole mass of earth and rock, two hundred +or more feet in thickness, was coming down +upon the heads of the miners. The work on the +Comstock mines had come to an end unless a man +could be found able to invent some system of support +not laid down in the books. The man was +found. He took short, square timbers five or six +feet long, put them together as if they were the sides +and ends of square boxes, and piled them one above +another, making hollow pillars. He fastened these +firmly together and filled the space inside with waste +rock, thus making strong, solid pillars that would +support almost any weight that could be put upon +them.</p> + +<p>There were two other dangers, water and heat. +The vein was porous and water was constantly +trickling out of it. Then, too, there were "water +pockets," or natural reservoirs in the rock, and any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +moment the stroke of a pick might let out a torrent +and force the miners to run for their lives. Sometimes +minerals were dissolved in this water, and the +men with closed eyes and swollen faces had to be +hurried to the surface for treatment. Powerful +pumps had to be used and the water sent away +through long lines of pipes. This water was warm, +and in very deep workings in the Comstock vein it +was boiling hot. Even with quantities of ice sent +down to cool them, the men could work in some +places only a short time.</p> + +<p>In San Francisco there was a mining engineer +named Adolph Sutro who planned to remedy these +troubles by driving a big four-mile tunnel through +the heart of the mountain, letting out the hot water +and the foul air. The owners of some of the mines +joined him in raising the money, and the tunnel was +dug. Through this the water ran out. The mines +were freed of foul air and fresh air was driven in.</p> + +<p>The Comstock lode has given up an amazing +amount of precious metal. Between 1860 and 1890 +it produced $340,000,000. After 1890, however, its +product grew less. The vein was not so rich, the +price of silver fell, while the cost of mining it at +great depths increased. Not nearly so much was +mined, and at length water rose in the mines up to +the level of the Sutro Tunnel. In 1900 new machinery +was put in and new methods were adopted, such +as treating the tailings with cyanide and so saving +much of the precious metal from them. From the +beginning the Comstock mines have been so ready<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +to follow improved methods that they have been +called the mining school of the world.</p> + +<p>Great quantities of silver are used for making +jewelry and for tableware. The one objection to its +use is that silver likes to unite with sulphur, and +thus the silver easily becomes black. There is sulphur +in the yolk of an egg and that is why the spoon +with which it has been eaten turns black. Even if +silverware is not used, it tarnishes, especially in +towns, because there is so much sulphureted hydrogen +in the air. In perfectly pure air, it would not +tarnish. Silver is harder than gold, but not hard +enough to be used without some alloy, usually copper. +Tableware is "solid" even if it contains alloy +enough to stiffen it. It is "plated" if it is made of +some cheaper metal and covered with silver. The +old way of doing this was to fasten with bits of +solder a thin sheet of silver to the cup or vase or +whatever was in hand and heat it. This did fairly +well for large, smooth articles; but it was almost +impossible to finish the edges of spoons so as not to +show the two metals. If you look at a plated spoon +to-day, however, you will find that there is no break +at the edge, and so far as you can tell by the eye, it +is solid silver. If you look on the back of the spoon, +you will perhaps see "Rogers Bros. 1846." These +men were the first silvermakers in this country to +plate tableware by electricity. To make a spoon, +they formed one out of iron or copper and made +sure that it was perfectly clean. Then across a bath +of silver cyanide, potassium cyanide, and water they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +laid two metal rods, and from these they hung a +spoon at one end and a plate of silver at the other. +These rods were connected with the two poles of a +battery. The electrical current passed through them, +released the silver from the silver cyanide, and this +was deposited upon the spoon. The cyanide that +had lost its silver took enough more from the silver +plate to make up. The amount of silver on the spoon +depends upon the length of time it remains in the +bath. It is weighed before plating and again afterwards, +to make sure that the proper amount of silver +has been deposited upon it. On the back of +many plated articles you will see the words "Triple +plate" or "Quadruple plate." If the article has +been made by a reliable firm, this means that the +triple plate it manufactures contains three times as +much silver as "single plate," and that quadruple +plate contains four times as much. A piece of silver +looks just as well if it has stayed in the bath only +a few minutes, but of course it has taken on so little +silver that this will soon wear off and show the +cheaper metal.</p> + +<p>A large amount of silver is used for coins. When +the United States needs dollars, half-dollars, quarters, +and dimes, notice is given and offers are called +for, stating the quantity for sale and its price. When +it is delivered, it is first of all "assayed"; that is, +tested to find out how nearly pure it is and how much +it is worth. Next it is refined, or purified from other +metals, mixed with a little copper to harden it, then +melted again and poured into moulds to make bars.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +If dollars are to be made, the bar is made thinner +by passing it between heavy rollers, and blanks for +dollars are cut out with a die. These blanks are +weighed and every one that is too heavy or too light +is put back to be melted over again. Thus far these +dollars are only round, smooth pieces of metal. They +must be milled to give them a rough edge, and they +must be stamped. For stamping, the piece of metal +is placed between two dies, one above and one below, +and these close upon it with a force of one hundred +and fifty tons. Every part of the process of manufacturing +money is carried on with the utmost care. +The places where coins are made are called "mints." +The United States has four; the oldest is in Philadelphia, +and there are branch mints in San Francisco, +New Orleans, and Denver. Coins minted in Philadelphia +have no distinguishing mark; but coins +minted in San Francisco are marked with a tiny +"S"; if minted in New Orleans, with an "O"; and if +in Denver, with a "D."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2> + +<h3>IRON, THE EVERYDAY METAL</h3> + + +<p>Did you ever realize that your food and clothes, +your books, and the house in which you live all +depend upon iron? Vegetables, grains, and fruits +are cultivated with iron tools; fish are caught with +iron hooks, and many iron articles are used in the +care and sale of meat. Clothes are woven on iron +looms, sewed with iron needles, and fastened together +with buttons containing iron. Books are +printed and bound by iron machines, and sometimes +written with iron pens or on iron typewriters. +Houses are put together with nails; and indeed, +there is hardly an article in use that could be made +as well or as easily if iron was not plenty. If you +were making a world and wanted to give the people +the most useful metal possible, the gift would have +to be iron; and the wisest thing you could do would +be to put it everywhere, but in such forms that the +people would have to use their brains to make it of +service.</p> + +<p>This is just the way with the iron in our world. +Wherever you see a bank of red sand or red clay or +a little brook which leaves a red mark on the ground +as it flows, there is iron. Iron is in most soils, in red +bricks, in garnets, in ripening apples, and even in +your own blood. It forms one twentieth part of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +crust of the earth. Iron dissolves in water if you +give it time enough. If you leave a steel tool out of +doors on a wet night, it will rust; that is, some of the +iron will unite with the oxygen of the water. This is +rather inconvenient, and yet in another way this +dissolving is a great benefit. Through the millions +of years that are past, the oxygen of the rain has +dissolved the iron in the hills and has worked it +down, so that now it is in great beds of ore or in rich +"pockets" that are often of generous size. One of +them, which is now being mined in Minnesota, is +more than two miles long, half a mile wide, and of +great thickness. The rains are still at work washing +down iron from the hills. They carry the tiny particles +along as easily as possible until they come upon +limestone. Then, almost as if it was frightened, the +brook drops its iron and runs away as fast as it can. +Sometimes it flows into a pond or bog in which are +certain minute plants or animals that act as limestone +does, and the particles of iron fall to the bottom +of the pond. In colonial days much of the iron +worked in America was taken from these deposits. +One kind of iron is of special interest because it +comes directly from the sky, and falls in the shape of +stones called "meteorites," some of which weigh +many tons. In some of the old fables about wonderful +heroes, the stories sometimes declare that the +swords with which they accomplished their deeds of +prowess fell straight from the heavens, which probably +means that they were made of meteoric iron. +Fortunately for the people and their homes, meteorites<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +are not common, but every large museum has +specimens of them.</p> + +<p>It is not especially difficult to make iron if you +have the ore, a charcoal fire in a little oven of stones, +and a pair of bellows. Put on layers of charcoal alternating +with layers of ore, blow the bellows, and by +and by you will have a lump of iron. It is not really +melted, but it can be pounded and worked. This is +called the "Catalan method," because the people of +Catalonia in Spain made iron in this way. It is still +used by the natives of the interior of Africa. But if +all the iron was made by this method, it would be +far more costly than gold. The man who makes iron +in these days must have an immense "blast furnace," +perhaps one hundred feet high, a real "pillar +of fire." Into this furnace are dropped masses of +ore, and with it coke to make it hotter and limestone +to carry off the silica slag, or worthless part. To +increase the heat, blasts of hot air are blown into +the bottom of the furnace. This air is heated by +passing it through great steel cylinders as high as +the furnace. The fuel used is nothing more than the +gases which come out at the top of the furnace.</p> + +<p>The slag is so much lighter than iron that when +the ore is melted the slag floats on top just as oil +floats on water, and can be drained out of the furnace +through a higher opening than that through +which the iron flows. The slag tap is open most of the +time, but the iron tap is opened only once in about +six hours. It is a magnificent sight when a furnace +is "tapped" and the stream of iron drawn off.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +Imagine a great shed, dark and gloomy, with many +workmen hurrying about to make ready for what +is to come. The floor is of sand and slopes down +from the furnace. Through the center of this floor +runs a long ditch straight from the furnace to the +end of the shed. Opening from it on both sides are +many smaller ditches; and connecting with these +are little gravelike depressions two or three feet long +and as close together as can be. These are called +"pigs." When the time has come, the workmen +gather about the furnace, and with a long bar they +drill into the hard-baked clay of the tapping hole. +Suddenly it breaks, and with a rush and a roar the +crimson flood of molten iron gushes out. It flows +down the trench into the ditches, then into the pigs, +till their whole pattern is marked out in glowing +iron. Now the blast begins to drive great beautiful +sparks through the tapping hole. This means that +the molten iron is exhausted. The blast is turned +off, and the "mud-gun" is brought into position and +shoots balls of clay into the tapping hole to close it +for another melting, or "drive." The crimson pigs +become rose-red, darken, and turn gray. The men +play streams of water over them and the building +is filled with vapor. As soon as the pigs are cool +enough, they are carted away and piled up outside +the building.</p> + +<p>In some iron works moulds of pressed steel carried +on an endless chain are used instead of sand floors. +The chain carries them past the mouth of a trough +full of melted iron. They are filled, borne under +water to be cooled, and then dropped upon cars. A +first-class machine can make twenty pigs a minute.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;"> +<img src="images/image062.jpg" width="368" height="580" alt="IN THE STEEL FOUNDRY" + title="IN THE STEEL FOUNDRY" /> +<span class="caption">IN THE STEEL FOUNDRY<br /><br /> + +It is a dangerous business to visit a steel mill. Tremendous kettles +travel overhead on huge cranes, hot metal flows from unexpected places, +and there is a constant glow and steam and roar everywhere to confuse +the unwary.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> +<p>Most of the iron made in blast furnaces is turned +into steel. Steel has been made for centuries, but +until a few years ago the process was slow and +costly. A workman's steel tools were treasures, and +a good jackknife was a valuable article. Railroads +were using iron rails. They soon wore out, but at +the suggestion to use steel, the presidents of the +roads would have exclaimed, "Steel, indeed! We +might as well use silver!" Trains needed to be +longer and heavier, but iron rails and bridges could +not stand the strain. Land in cities was becoming +more valuable; higher buildings were needed, but +stone was too expensive. Everywhere there was a +call for a metal that should be strong and cheap. +Iron was plentiful, but steel was dear. A cheaper +method of making iron into steel was needed; and +whenever there is pressing need of an invention, it +is almost sure to come. Before long, what is known +as the "Bessemer process" was invented. One great +difficulty in the manufacture of steel was to leave +just the right amount of carbon in the iron. Bessemer +simply took it all out, and then put back exactly +what was needed. Molten iron, tons and tons +of it, is run into an immense pear-shaped vessel +called a "converter." Fierce blasts of air are forced +in from below. These unite with the carbon and +destroy it. There is a roar, a clatter, and a clang. +Terrible flames of glowing red shoot up. Suddenly +they change from red to yellow, then to white; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +this is the signal that the carbon has been burned +out. The enormously heavy converter is so perfectly +poised that a child can move it. The workmen +now tilt it and drop in whatever carbon is needed. +The molten steel is poured into square moulds, +forming masses called "blooms," and is carried +away. More iron is put into the converter, and the +work begins again.</p> + +<p>The Bessemer process makes enormous masses of +steel and makes it very cheaply; but it has one +fault—it is too quick. The converter roars away +for a few minutes, till the carbon and other impurities +are burned out; and the men have no control +over the operation. In what is called the "open-hearth" +process, pig iron, scrap iron, and ore are +melted together with whatever other substances +may be needed to make the particular kind of steel +desired. This process takes much longer than the +Bessemer, but it can be controlled. Open-hearth +steel is more homogeneous,—that is, more nearly +alike all the way through,—and is better for some +purposes, while for others the Bessemer is preferred.</p> + +<p>Steel is hard and strong, but it has two faults. +A steel bar will stand a very heavy blow and not +break, but if it is struck gently many thousand +times, it sometimes crystallizes and may snap. A +steel rail may carry a train for years and then may +crystallize and break and cause a wreck. Inventors +are at work discovering alloys to prevent this crystallization. +The second fault of steel is that it rusts +and loses its strength. That is why an iron bridge or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +fence must be kept painted to protect it from the +moisture in the air.</p> + +<p>If all the iron that is in use should suddenly disappear, +did you ever think what would happen? +Houses, churches, skyscrapers, and bridges would +fall to the ground. Railroad trains, automobiles, and +carriages would become heaps of rubbish. Ships +would fall apart and become only scattered planks +floating on the surface of the water. Clocks and +watches would become empty cases. There would +be no machines for manufacturing or for agriculture, +not even a spade to dig a garden. Everybody +would be out of work. If you wish to see how it +would seem, try for an hour to use nothing that is +of iron or has been made by using iron.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII</h2> + +<h3>OUR GOOD FRIEND COPPER</h3> + + +<p>Where did rocks come from?</p> + +<p>Some were deposited in water, like limestone and +like the shale and sandstone that lie over the strata +of coal. Others were made by fire, and were thrown +up in a melted state from the interior of the earth. +Such rocks are the Giant's Causeway in Ireland +and the Palisades of the Hudson River. They are +called "igneous" rocks, from the Latin word <i>ignis</i> +meaning "fire."</p> + +<p>When the igneous rocks were thrown up to the +surface of the earth, they brought various metals +with them. How the metals happened to be there +ready to be brought up, no one knows. Some people +think they were dissolved in water and then deposited; +others think that electricity had something +to do with their formation. However that may be, +metals were brought up with the igneous rocks, and +one of these metals is copper.</p> + +<p>Now, to one who did not know how to work iron, +copper was indeed a wonderful treasure, for it made +very good knives and spoons. The people who +lived in this country long before the Indians came +understood how to use it, and after a while the +Indians themselves found out its value. They did +not trouble themselves to dig for it; they simply +picked it up from the ground, good pure metal in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +lumps; and with stones for hammers they beat it +into knives.</p> + +<p>There was only one place in what is now the +United States where they could do this, and that +was in northern Michigan. A long point of land +stretches out into Lake Superior as if it was trying +to see what could be found there. Just beyond its +reach is Isle Royal; and in these two places there +was plenty of copper, enough for the Indians, +enough for the people who have come after them, +and enough for a great many more. One piece of +copper which the Indians did not pick up, and +the United States Government did, is the famous +Ontonagon Boulder, so called because it was found +near the Ontonagon River. It weighs more than +three tons. The Indians would have been glad to +make use of it, but it was too hard for their tools, +and so they are said to have worshiped it as a god. +It is now in the National Museum in Washington.</p> + +<p>The lumps of copper, such as those which delighted +the hearts of the Indians, are known to-day +as "barrel" copper, because they are of a good size +to be dropped into barrels and carried away for +smelting. The great boulders which the Indians +could not use are called "mass" copper. Sometimes +they weigh as much as five hundred tons. +The copper in them is almost pure, and a big boulder +is worth perhaps $200,000. Nevertheless, the +mine-owners do not rejoice when they come upon +such a mass in their digging, for it cannot be either +dug or blasted, and has to be cut away with chisels +of chilled steel. Now, a mine may be wonderfully +rich in metal, but if working it costs too much, then +another mine with less metal but more easily +worked will pay better. So it is with these great +masses of copper. They are interesting to study and +they look well in museums, but they do not pay so +well as the "stamp" copper which is found in humble +little bits in the gangue, or the rock of the vein, +and has to be pounded in a stamp mill. This gangue +is dug out and broken up as in mines of other metals. +The copper is much heavier than the rock, so it is +easy to get rid of the worthless gangue by means of +a flow of water. The gangue of the Michigan mines +is exceedingly hard, but the stamps are so powerful +that one can crush five hundred tons in less than +twenty-four hours. Some copper can be taken out +of the mortars at once, but the rest of the broken +gangue is fed to jigs, or screens, which are kept +under jets of water. The water is thrown up from +below and the lighter rock is tossed away, while the +heavier copper falls through the tiny holes in the +screens.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 373px;"> +<img src="images/image068.jpg" width="373" height="580" alt="IN A COPPER SMELTER" + title="IN A COPPER SMELTER" /> +<span class="caption">IN A COPPER SMELTER<br /><br /> + +The men are pouring hot copper into moulds for castings.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> +<p>After the ore has been through all these experiences, +it comes out looking like dark-colored sand +or coarse brown sugar. It is not interesting, and no +one who saw it for the first time would ever fancy +that it was going to turn into something beautiful. +It is dumped into freight cars and trundled off to the +smelting furnaces. But however uninteresting it +looks, it is well worth while to follow these cars to +see what happens to it at the smelters. First of all,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +even before it goes into the smelting furnace, it must +be roasted. There is usually sulphur combined with +the copper, and roasting will get rid of much of it. +In some places this is done by building up a great +heap of ore with a little wood. The wood is kindled, +and by the time it has burned out, the sulphur in +the ore has begun to burn, and in a good-sized heap +it will continue to burn for perhaps two months.</p> + +<p>Such a heap is a good thing to keep away from, +for the fumes of sulphur are very disagreeable. Indeed, +they will kill trees and other growing things +wherever the wind may carry them, even several +miles away. The managers of mines of copper as +well as of gold and silver have learned to economize; +and it has been found that instead of letting these +fumes go into the air, they may be made to pass +through acid chambers lined with zinc and full of +water. The water holds the fumes, and can be used +in making sulphuric acid.</p> + +<p>After the ore has been roasted, it is put into the +furnace for smelting. If you should make an oven +and put into it a mixture of wood and roasted copper, +that would be a smelting furnace. Set the wood on +fire, pump in air to make the flame hot, and if your +furnace could be made hot enough,—that is, 2300° +F., or about eleven times as hot as boiling water,—you +could smelt copper. Of course the furnace of a +real smelting factory will hold tons and tons of +copper ore and has all sorts of improvements, but +after all it is in principle only an oven with wood +and ore and draft. Another sort of furnace, which is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +better for some kinds of ore, has a grate for the fire +and a bed above it for the copper.</p> + +<p>Imagine an enormous furnace holding between +two and three hundred tons of metal and burning +with such a terrific heat that by contrast boiling +water would seem cool and comfortable. Suddenly, +while you stand looking at it, but a long way off, a +door flies open and the most beautiful cascade—only +it is not a waterfall, but a <i>copper</i> fall—pours +out. It looks like red, red gold, rich and wonderful, +with little flames of red and blue dancing over it. +It might almost be one of the fire-breathing dragons +of the old story-books; and if it should get loose, it +would devour whomever it touched far quicker than +any dragon. It hardly seems as if any one could +manage such a monster; but it looks easy, after you +have seen it done. An enormous horizontal wheel +revolves slowly. On its edge are moulds shaped like +bricks, but much larger. On the hub of the wheel a +workman sits to direct the filling of these. A set +of them is filled, and moves on, and others take their +place. When they are partly cooled, another workman, +at the farther side of the wheel, pries them out +of the mould and drops them into water. Then by +the aid of the fingers of a machine and those of men, +they are loaded upon cars.</p> + +<p>In copper there is often some gold and silver. The +precious metals do not make the copper any better, +and if they can be separated from it, they are well +worth the trouble. This is done by electricity. It is +so successful that the metallurgists are hoping soon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +to take a long step ahead and by means of electricity +to produce refined copper directly from the ore. +Indeed, this has been done already in the laboratories, +but before the managers of mines can employ +the method, a way of making it less expensive must +be discovered.</p> + +<p>No mine that wastes anything is as well managed +as it might be; and superintendents are constantly +on the watch for cheaper methods and for ways to +make the refuse matter of use. Even the scoria, or +slag from the furnaces, has been found to be good +for something, and now it is made into a coarse sort +of brick that for certain rough uses is of value. By +the way, the shaft of a copper mine, the Red Jacket, +has shown itself of use in a manner that no one +expected, namely, it helps to prove that the earth +turns around. This shaft is the deepest mining shaft +in the world, and when you get into the cage, you +go down a full mile toward the center of the earth. +If you drop any article into the shaft, it always +strikes the east side before reaching the bottom. +The only way to explain this is that the earth turns +toward the east.</p> + +<p>Copper mixed with zinc forms brass, which is +harder than copper alone. It tarnishes, though not +so easily as copper; but a coat of varnish will protect +it till the varnish wears off. A good way to find +out the many uses of brass and to see how valuable +they are is to go along the street and through a +house and make a list. On the street you will see +signs, harness buckles, and buttons, everywhere.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +Look on the automobiles and fire engines for a fine +display of brass, polished and shining. In the house +you will find brass bedsteads, curtain rods, faucets, +pipes, drawerpulls, candlesticks, gas and electric +fixtures, lamps, the works of clocks and watches, +and scores of other things. You will not have any +idea how many they are till you begin to count.</p> + +<p>Copper mixed with tin forms bronze. Go into a +hardware store and look at the samples of bronze +outside of each drawer, and you will be surprised +that there are so many. Bronze does not change +even when in the open air for ages. That is one +reason why it has always been so much used for +statues. There are two strange facts about this mixture. +One is that bronze is harder than either copper +or tin. The other is that if you mix one pint of +melted copper with one pint of tin, the mixture will +be less than a quart. Just why these things are so, +no one is quite certain. Mathematics declares that +the whole is equal to the sum of its parts; but in +this one case the whole seems to be less than the +sum of its parts.</p> + +<p>Another reason why bronze is so much used for +statues is that the castings are smooth. I once went +to a foundry to have a brass ornament shaped somewhat +like a cone made for a clock. The foundryman +formed a mould in clay and poured the melted brass +into it. When it had cooled, the mould was broken +off and the ornament taken out; but it was of no use +because it was so full of little hollows that it could +not be made smooth without cutting away a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +deal of it. The man had to try three times before he +succeeded in making one that could be polished. If +it had been made of bronze, there would have been +no trouble, because bronze, hard as it is after it +cools, flows when it is melted almost as easily as +molasses and fills every little nook and corner of the +mould.</p> + +<p>A famous Latin poet named Horace, who lived two +thousand years ago, wrote of his poems, "I have +reared a monument more lasting than bronze"; +and he was right, for few statues have endured from +his day to ours, but his poems are still read and +admired.</p> + +<p>Bells are made of bronze, about three quarters +copper and one quarter tin. It is thought that much +copper gives a deep, full tone, and that much tin +with, sometimes, zinc makes the tone sharp. The age +of a bell has something to do with its sound being +rich and mellow; but the bellmaker has even more, +for he must understand not only how to cast it, but +also how to tune it. If you tap a large bell, it will, if +properly tuned, sound a clear note. Tap it just on +the curve of the top, and it will give a note exactly +one octave above the first. If the note of the bell is +too low, it can be made higher by cutting away a +little from the inner rim. If it is too high, it can be +made lower by filing on the inside a little above the +rim. Many of the old bells contain the gifts of silver +and gold which were thrown in by people who +watched their founding. The most famous bell in +the United States is the "Liberty Bell" of Independence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +Hall, in Philadelphia, which rang when +Independence was adopted by Congress. This was +founded in England long before the Revolution and +later was melted and founded again in the United +States.</p> + +<p>It would not be easy to get on without brass and +bronze; but even these alloys are not so necessary as +copper by itself. It is so strong that it is used in +boiler tubes of locomotives, as roofing for buildings +and railroad coaches, in the great pans and vats of +the sugar factories and refineries. A copper ore +called "malachite," which shows many shades of +green, beautifully blended and mingled, is used for +the tops of tables. Wooden ships are often "copper-bottomed"; +that is, sheets of copper are nailed to +that part of the hull which is under water in order +to prevent barnacles from making their homes on it, +and so lessening the speed of the vessel.</p> + +<p>People often say that the latter half of the nineteenth +century was the Age of Steel, because so +many new uses for steel were found at that time. +The twentieth century promises to be the Age of +Electricity, and electricity must have copper. Formerly +iron was used for telegraph wires; but it needs +much more electricity to carry power or light or heat +or a telegraphic message over an iron wire than one +of copper. Moreover, iron will rust and will not +stretch in storms like copper, and so needs renewing +much oftener. Electric lighting and the telephone +are everywhere, even on the summits of mountains +and in mines a mile below the earth's surface. Electric<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +power, if a waterfall furnishes the electricity, +is the cheapest power known. The common blue +vitriol is one form of copper, and to this we owe +many of our electric conveniences. It is used in all +wet batteries, and so it rings our doorbells for us. +It also sprays our apple and peach trees, and is a +very valuable article. Indeed, copper in all its forms, +pure and alloyed, is one of our best and most helpful +friends.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX</h2> + +<h3>THE NEW METAL, ALUMINUM</h3> + + +<p>Not many years ago a college boy read about an +interesting metal called "aluminum." It was as +strong as iron, but weighed only one third as much, +and moisture would not make it rust. It was made +of a substance called "alumina," and a French +chemist had declared that the clay banks were full +of it; and yet it cost as much as silver. It had been +used in France for jewelry and knicknacks, and a +rattle of it had been presented to the baby son of +the Emperor of France as a great rarity.</p> + +<p>The college boy thought by day and dreamed by +night of the metal that was everywhere, but that +might as well be nowhere, so far as getting at it was +concerned. At the age of twenty-one, the young +man graduated, but even his new diploma could not +keep his mind away from aluminum. He borrowed +the college laboratory and set to work. For seven +or eight months he tried mixing the metal with +various substances to see if it would not dissolve. +At length he tried a stone from Greenland called +"cryolite," which had already been used for making +a kind of porcelain. The name of this stone comes +from two Greek words meaning "ice stone," and it is +so called because it melts so easily. The young student +melted it and found that it would dissolve +alumina. Then he ran an electric current through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +the melted mass, and there was a deposit of aluminum. +This young man, just out of college, had discovered +a process that resulted in reducing the cost +of aluminum from twelve dollars a pound to eighteen +cents. Meanwhile a Frenchman of the same age +had been working away by himself, and made the +same discovery only two months later.</p> + +<p>Aluminum is now made from a mineral called +"bauxite," found chiefly in Georgia, Alabama, and +Arkansas. Mining it is much more agreeable than +coal mining, for the work is done aboveground. +The bauxite is in beds or strata which often cover +the hills like a blanket. First of all, the mine is +"stripped,"—that is, the soil which covers the ore +is removed,—and then the mining is done in great +steps eight or ten feet high, if a hill is to be worked. +There is some variety in mining bauxite, for it occurs +in three forms. First, it may be a rock, which has to +be blasted in order to loosen it. Second, it may be +in the form of gray or red clay. Third, it occurs in +round masses, sometimes no larger than peas, and +sometimes an inch in diameter. In this form it can +easily be loosened with a pickaxe, and shoveled into +cars to be carried to the mill. Bauxite is a rather +mischievous mineral and sometimes acts as if it +delighted in playing tricks upon managers of mines. +The ore may not change in the least in its appearance, +and yet it may suddenly have become much +richer or much poorer. Therefore the superintendent +has to give his ore a chemical test every little while +to make sure that all things are going on well.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> + +<p>This bauxite is purified, and the result is a fine +white powder, which is pure alumina, and consists of +the metal aluminum and the gas oxygen. Cryolite +is now melted by electricity. The white powder is +put into it, and dissolves just as sugar dissolves in +water. The electricity keeps on working, and now +it separates the alumina into its two parts. The +aluminum is a little heavier than the melted cryolite, +and therefore it settles and may be drawn off at +the bottom of the melting-pot.</p> + +<p>There are a good many reasons why aluminum is +useful. As has been said it is strong and light and +does not rust in moisture. You can beat it into +sheets as thin as gold leaf, and you can draw it into +the finest wire. It is softer than silver, and it can be +punched into almost any form. It is the most +accommodating of metals. You can hammer it in +the cold until it becomes as hard as soft iron. Then, +if you need to have it soft again, it will become so by +melting. It takes a fine polish and is not affected, +as silver is, by the fumes which are thrown off by +burning coal; and so keeps its color when silver +would turn black. Salt water does not hurt it in the +least, and few of the acids affect it. Another good +quality is that it conducts electricity excellently. +It is true that copper will do the same work with a +smaller wire; but the aluminum is much lighter and +so cheap that the larger wire of aluminum costs less +than the smaller one of copper, and its use for this +purpose is on the increase. It conducts heat as well +as silver. If you put one spoon of aluminum, one of +silver, and one that is "plated" into a cup of hot +water, the handles of the first two will almost burn +your fingers before the third is at all uncomfortable +to touch.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 556px;"> +<img src="images/image080.jpg" width="556" height="600" alt="A "MOVIE" OF AN ALUMINUM FUNNEL" + title="A "MOVIE" OF AN ALUMINUM FUNNEL" /> +<span class="caption">A "MOVIE" OF AN ALUMINUM FUNNEL<br /><br /> + +<i><small>Courtesy The Aluminum Cooking Utensil Company.</small></i><br /><br /> + +Seventeen other operations are necessary after the thirteenth stamping +operation before the funnel is ready to be sold. And after all this +work, we can buy it for 35 cents at any hardware store.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> +<p>Aluminum is found not only in clay and indeed in +most rocks except sandstone and limestone, but also +in several of the precious stones, in the yellow topaz, +the blue sapphire and lapis-lazuli, and the red garnet +and ruby. It might look down upon some of its +metallic relatives, but it is friendly with them all, +and perfectly willing to form alloys with most of +them. A single ounce of it put into a ton of steel as +the latter is being poured out will drive away the +gases which often make little holes in castings. +Mixed with copper it makes a beautiful bronze +which has the yellow gleam of gold, but is hard to +work. When a piece of jewelry looks like gold, but +is sold at too low a price to be "real," it may be aluminum +bronze, very pretty at first, but before long its +luster will vanish. Aluminum bronze is not good for +jewelry, but it is good for many uses, especially for +bearings in machinery. Aluminum mixed with even +a very little silver has the color and brightness of +silver. The most common alloys with aluminum are +zinc, copper, and manganese, but in such small +quantities that they do not change its appearance.</p> + +<p>With so many good qualities and so few bad ones, +it is small wonder that aluminum is employed for +more purposes than can be counted. A very few +years ago it was only an interesting curiosity, but +now it is one of the hardest-worked metals. Automobiles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +in particular owe a great deal to its help. +When they first began to be common, in 1904-05, +the engines were less powerful than they are now +made, and aluminum was largely employed in order +to lessen the weight. Before long it was in use for +carburetors, bodies, gear-boxes, fenders, hoods, and +many other parts of the machine. Makers of electric +apparatus use aluminum instead of brass. The +frames of opera glasses and of cameras are made of +it. Travelers and soldiers and campers, people to +whom every extra ounce of weight counts, are glad +enough to have dishes of aluminum. The accommodating +metal is even used for "wallpaper," and +threads of it are combined with silk to give a specially +brilliant effect on the stage. It can be made +into a paint which will protect iron from rust; and +will make woodwork partially fireproof.</p> + +<p>Aluminum has been gladly employed by the manufacturers +of all sorts of articles, but nowhere has +its welcome been more cordial than in the kitchen. +Any one who has ever lifted the heavy iron kettles +which were in use not so very many years ago will +realize what an improvement it is to have kettles +made of aluminum. But aluminum has other advantages +besides its lightness. If any food containing a +weak acid, like vinegar and water, is put into a copper +kettle, some of the copper dissolves and goes +into the food; acid does not affect aluminum except +to brighten it if it has been discolored by an alkali +like soda. "Tin" dishes, so called, are only iron +with a coating of tin. The tin soon wears off, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +the iron rusts; aluminum does not rust in moisture. +A strong alkali will destroy it, but no alkali in common +use in the kitchen is strong enough to do more +harm than to change the color, and a weak acid will +restore that. Enameled ware, especially if it is +white, looks dainty and attractive; but the enamel is +likely to chip off, and, too, if the dish "boils dry," +the food in it and the dish itself are spoiled. Aluminum +never chips, and it holds the heat in such a +manner as to make all parts of the dish equally hot. +Food, then, is not so likely to "burn down," but if it +does, only the part that sticks will taste scorched; +and no matter how many times a dish "boils dry," +it will never break. If you make a dent in it, you +can easily pound it back into shape again. It is said +that an aluminum teakettle one sixteenth of an inch +in diameter can be bent almost double before it will +break.</p> + +<p>Aluminum dishes are made in two ways. Sometimes +they are cast, and sometimes they are drawn +on a machine. If one is to be smaller at the top, as +in the case of a coffeepot, it is drawn out into a cylinder, +then put on a revolving spindle. As it whirls +around, a tool is held against it wherever it is to +be made smaller, and very soon the coffeepot is in +shape. The spout is soldered on, but even the solder +is made chiefly of aluminum.</p> + +<p>Aluminum dishes may become battered and +bruised, but they need never be thrown away. +There is an old story of some enchanted slippers +which brought misfortune to whoever owned them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +The man who possessed them tried his best to get +rid of the troublesome articles, but they always returned. +So it is with an aluminum dish. Bend it, +burn it, put acid into it, do what you will to get rid +of it, but like the slippers it remains with you. +Unlike them, however, it brings good fortune, because +it saves time and trouble and patience and +money.</p> + +<p>A few years ago the motive power for most manufactures +was steam. Electricity is rapidly taking its +place; and if aluminum was good for nothing else +save to act as a conductor of electricity in its various +applications, there would even then be a great future +before it.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X</h2> + +<h3>THE OIL IN OUR LAMPS</h3> + + +<p>Probably the first man who went to a spring for +a drink and found oil floating on the water was decidedly +annoyed. He did not care in the least where +the oil came from or what it was good for; he was +thirsty, and it had spoiled his drink, and that was +enough for him. We know now that oil comes +chiefly from strata of coarse sandstone, but we are +not quite sure how it happened to be there. The sand +which formed these strata was deposited by water +ages and ages ago—we are certain of that. Another +thing that we are certain of is that where the +strata lie flat, there is no oil. Hot substances become +smaller as they cool; and as the earth grew +cooler, it became smaller. The crust of the earth +wrinkled as the skin of an apple does when it dries. +In the tops of these great sandstone wrinkles there +is often gas; and below the gas is the place where oil +is found. There is no use in looking for petroleum +where the folds of the strata are very sharp, because +in that case the strata crack and let the oil +flow away. It is not in pools, but the porous stone +holds it just as a sponge holds water. If you drop a +little oil upon a stone even much less porous than +sandstone, it will not be easy to wipe it off, because +some of it will have sunk into the stone.</p> + +<p>In many places the gas forces its way out, and is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +piped to carry to houses for light and heat. Not far +above Niagara Falls there was a spring of gas which +flowed for years. An iron pipe was put down, and +when the gas was lighted, the flame shot up three +or four feet. The gas came with such force that a +handkerchief put over the end of the pipe would not +burn, though the flame would blaze away above it. +In the country of the fire worshipers, on the shores +of the Caspian Sea, fires of natural gas have been +burning for ages, kindled, perhaps, by lightning centuries +ago. There is a vast supply of oil in this place; +and indeed there is hardly a country that has not +more or less of it.</p> + +<p>In the United States the colonists soon learned +that there was petroleum in what is now the State +of New York; but New York was a long way from +the Atlantic seaboard in those days, and they went +on contentedly burning candles or sperm whale oil, +or, a little later, a rather dangerous liquid which was +known as "fluid." The Indians believed that the oil +which appeared in the springs was a good medicine. +They threw their blankets upon the water, and when +these had become saturated with the oil, they +wrung them out and sold the oil. Those were the +times when if a medicine only tasted and smelled +bad enough, people never doubted that it would +cure all their diseases, and they gladly bought the +oil of the Indians.</p> + +<p>When at last it became clear to the members of +an enterprising company that oil for use in lamps +could be made from petroleum, they secured some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +land in Pennsylvania that seemed promising and +set to work to dig a well. But the more they dug, +the more the loose dirt fell in upon them. Fortunately +for the company, the superintendent had +brains, and he thought out a way to get the better +of the crumbling soil. He simply drove down an iron +pipe to the sandstone which contained the oil, and +set his borer at work within the pipe. One morning +he found that the oil had gushed in nearly to the top +of the well. He had "struck oil."</p> + +<p>This was about ten years after the rush to California +for gold, and now that this cheaper and +quicker method of making a well had been invented, +there was almost as much of a rush to Pennsylvania +for oil. With every penny that they could beg or +borrow, people from the East hurried to the westward +to buy or lease a piece of land in the hope of +making their fortunes. A song of the day had for its +refrain,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Stocks par, stocks up,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Then on the wane;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Everybody's troubled with<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Oil on the brain."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>In the course of a year or two, the first "gusher" +was discovered. The workmen had drilled down +some four or five hundred feet and were working +away peacefully, when a furious stream of oil burst +forth which hurled the tools high up into the air. +Hundreds of barrels gushed out every day, and +soon other gushers were discovered. The most famous +one in the world is at Lakeview, California. +For months it produced fifty thousand barrels of oil +a day, and threw it up three hundred and fifty feet +into the air in a black column, spraying the country +with oil for a mile around. The oil flowed away in +a river, and for a time no one could plan any way to +stop it or store it. At last, however, a mammoth +tank was built around the well and made firm with +stones and bags of earth. This was soon full of oil; +and with all this vast weight of oil pressing down +upon it, the stream could not rise more than a few +feet above the surface. Just why oil should come out +with such force, the geologists are not quite certain; +but it is thought to result from a pressure of gas +upon the sandstone containing it. The flow almost +always becomes less and less, and after a time the +most generous well has to be pumped.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/image088.jpg" width="800" height="413" alt="A CALIFORNIA OIL FIELD" + title="A CALIFORNIA OIL FIELD" /> +<span class="caption">A CALIFORNIA OIL FIELD<br /><br /> + +For scenery, one should not go to an oil field. Looks, smell, and oil +alike are unpleasant, but every oil derrick covers a fortune and helps +to make our machinery run smoothly.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> +<p>An "oil field" may extend over thousands of +square miles; but within this field there are always +"pools"; that is, certain smaller fields, where oil is +found. When a man thinks there is oil in a certain +spot, sometimes he buys the land if he is able; but +oftener he gets permission of the owner to bore a +well, agreeing to pay him a royalty; that is, a certain +percentage of all the oil that is produced. +When this has been arranged, he builds his derrick. +This consists of four strong upright beams firmly +held together by crossbeams. It stands directly +over the place where the well is to be dug. It is from +thirty to eighty feet in height, according to the +depth at which it is hoped to find oil. There must +also be an engine house to provide the power for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +drilling. An iron pipe eight or ten inches in diameter +is driven down through the soil until it comes to +rock. Now the regular drilling begins. At the top +of the derrick is a pulley. Over the pulley passes a +stout rope to which the heavy drilling tools—the +"string of tools," as they are called—are fastened. +The drilling goes on day and night. The drill makes +the hole, and the sand pump sucks out the water and +loose bits of stone. When the drill has gone to the +bottom of the strata which carry water, the sides of +the bore are cased to keep the water out; then the +drilling continues, but now the drill makes its way +into the oil-bearing sandstone.</p> + +<p>There is nothing certain about the search for oil. +In some places it is near the surface, in others it is +perhaps three or four thousand feet down. The well +may prove to be a gusher and pour out hundreds of +thousands of gallons a day; or the oil may refuse to +rise to the surface and have to be pumped out even +at the first. Naturally, no one is prepared for a +gusher, and millions of gallons have often flowed +away before any arrangements could be made for +storing the oil. Sometimes a well that gives only a +moderate flow can be made to yield generously by +exploding a heavy charge of dynamite at the bottom, +to break up the rock and, it is always hoped, +to open some new oil-holding crevice that the drill +has not reached.</p> + +<p>Crude petroleum is a dark, disagreeable, bad-smelling +liquid; and before it can be of much use, it +must be refined. For several years it was carried in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +barrels from the oil fields to Pittsburgh by wagon +and boat, a slow, expensive process, and generally +unsatisfactory to all but the teamsters. Then came +the railroads. They provided iron tanks in the shape +of a cylinder fastened to freight cars, much like those +employed to-day. There was only one difficulty +about sending oil by rail, and that was that it still +had to be hauled by team to the railroad, sometimes +a number of miles. At length, some one said to himself, +"Why cannot we simply run a pipe directly +from the well to the railroad?" This was done. +Pumping engines were put in a few miles apart, and +the invention was a success in the eyes of all but the +teamsters. In spite of their opposition, however, +pipe-lines increased.</p> + +<p>Before this it had been necessary to build the refineries +as near the oil regions as possible in order to +save the expense of carrying the oil; but now they +could be built wherever it was most convenient. +To-day oil can be brought at a small expense from +west of the Mississippi River to the Atlantic seaboard, +refined, and distributed throughout that +part of the country, or loaded into "tankers,"—that +is, steamships containing strong tanks of steel,—and +so taken across the ocean. The pipes are +made of iron and are six or eight inches or more in +diameter. In using them one difficulty was found +which has been overcome in an ingenious fashion. +Sometimes they become choked by the impurities of +the oil and the flow is lessened. Then a "go-devil" +is put into them. This is shaped like a cartridge, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +about three feet in length, composed of springs and +plates of iron and so flexible that it can turn around +a corner. It is so made that as it slips down the current +of oil, it whirls around and in so doing its nose +of sharp blades scrapes the pipes clean.</p> + +<p>The pipes go over hills and through swamps. +They cross rivers sometimes by means of bridges, +and sometimes they are anchored to the bed of the +stream. If they have to go through a salt marsh, +they are laid in concrete to preserve the iron. If +these lines were suddenly destroyed and oil had to +be carried in the old way, kerosene would become an +expensive luxury.</p> + +<p>Getting the oil out of the ground and carried to +the refineries is not all of the business by any means. +The early oils crusted on the lamp wicks, their smell +was unendurable, and they were given to exploding. +Evidently, if oil was to be used for lighting, it must +be improved, and the first step was to distil it. To +distil anything means to boil it and collect the vapor. +If you hold a piece of cold earthenware in the steam +of a teakettle, water will collect on it. This is distilled +water, and is purer than that in the kettle. +Petroleum was at first distilled in a rough way; but +now it is done with the utmost care and exactness. +The crude oil is pumped into boilers holding six hundred +barrels or more. The fires are started, and the oil +soon begins to turn into vapor. This vapor passes +through coils of pipe or long, straight, parallel pipes. +Cold water is pumped over these pipes, the vapor +turns into a liquid again, and we have kerosene oil.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p> + +<p>This is the outline of the process, but it is a small +part of the actual work in all its details. Kerosene +oil is only one of the many substances found in petroleum. +Fortunately, some of these substances are +light, like gasoline and benzine; some, like kerosene, +are heavier; and paraffin and tar are heaviest of all. +There are also gases, which pass off first and are +saved to help keep the furnace going. Then come the +others, one by one, according to their weight. The +stillman keeps close watch, and when the color and +appearance of the distillate changes, he turns it off +into another tank. This process is called "fractional +distillation," and the various products are called +"fractions." No two kinds of petroleum and no two +oil wells are just alike, and it needs a skillful man +to manage either.</p> + +<p>Even after all this distillation, the kerosene still +chars the wick somewhat—which prevents the +wick from drawing up the oil properly—and it still +has a disagreeable smell. To fit it for burning in +lamps, it must be treated with sulphuric acid, +which carries away some of the impurities, and then +with caustic soda, which carries away others. Before +it can be put on the market, it is examined to +see whether it is of the proper color. Then come +three important tests. The first is to see that it is +of the proper weight. If it is too heavy, it will not +burn freely enough; if it is too light, then there is too +much of the lighter oils in it for safety. The second +test is the "flash test." The object of this is to see +how hot the oil must be before it gives off a vapor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +which will burn. The third, the "burning test," is to +discover how hot the oil must be before it will take fire +and burn on the surface. Most civilized countries +make definite laws forbidding the sale of kerosene +oil that is not up to a standard of safety. Oil for +use in lamps should have an open flash test of at least +100° F. and a burning point of not less than 125° F.</p> + +<p>We say that we burn oil in our lamps, but what +we really do is to heat the oil until it gives off gas, +and then we burn the gas. To keep the flame regular +and help on the burning, we use a chimney on the +lamp. The hot air rises in the chimney and the cold +air underneath rushes in to take its place and brings +oxygen to the flame. In a close, stuffy room no +lamp will give a good clear light, because there is not +oxygen enough for its flame. Let in fresh air, and +the light will be brighter. If you hold a cold plate +in the flame before the chimney is put on, soot or +carbon will be deposited. A lamp gives light because +these particles of carbon become so hot that they +glow. In lamps using a "mantle," there is the glow +not only of these particles, but also of the mantle. +In a wax candle, we light the wick, its heat melts the +wax and carries it to the flame. When the wax is +made hot enough, it becomes gas, and we burn the +gas, not the wax. Wax alone will melt, but not take +fire even if a burning match is held to it. The reason +is that the match does not give heat enough to turn +the wax into gas. But put a bit of wax upon a bed +of burning coals, where there is a good supply of +heat, and it will turn into gas and burn.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> + +<p>The products made from petroleum are as different +in their character and uses as paraffin and +naphtha. Some of them are used for oiling machinery; +tar is used for dyes; naphtha dissolves resin to +use in varnish; benzine is the great cleanser of +clothes, printers' types, and almost everything else; +gasoline runs automobiles, motors, and many sorts +of engines; paraffin makes candles, seals jelly glasses, +covers the heads of matches so that they are no +longer spoiled by being wet, and makes the ever-useful +"waxed paper"; printers' ink and waterproof +roofing-paper both owe a debt to petroleum. Even +in medicine, though a little petroleum is no longer +looked upon as a cure-all, vaseline, one of its products, +is of great value. It can be mixed with drugs +without changing their character, and it does not +become rancid. For these reasons, salves and other +ointments can be mixed with it and preserved for +years.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI</h2> + +<h3>LITTLE GRAINS OF SALT</h3> + + +<p>The most interesting mine in the world is that of +Wieliczka in Poland. In it there are some thirty +miles of streets and alleys; there are churches with +pillars, shrines, and statues; there are stairs, monuments, +and restaurants; there is a ballroom three +hundred feet long and one hundred and ninety feet +high, with beautiful chandeliers, and in it is a carven +throne whereon the Emperor Franz Joseph sat when +he visited the mine. There are lakes crossed by +ferryboats. There is a railroad station for the mule +trains which bear the precious mineral salt, for this +is a salt mine, and shrines, statues, churches, chandeliers—everything—are +all cut out of salt.</p> + +<p>This mine has been worked for at least eight hundred +years and still has salt enough to supply all +Europe for ages. The mass of salt is believed to be +five hundred miles long, fifty miles wide, and nearly +a quarter of a mile thick. It is so pure that it is sold +just as it comes from the mine, either in blocks or +finely ground. This mine is a wonderful place to +visit, almost like an enchanted palace, for as the +torchlight strikes the crystals of salt, they flash and +sparkle as if the wall was covered with rubies and +diamonds.</p> + +<p>There is nothing like an enchanted palace in any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +salt mine of the United States, no statues or chapels +or chandeliers. There is only a hole in the ground, +where mining is carried on in much the same manner +as in other kinds of mines. The shaft is sunk and +lined with timbers to keep the dirt from falling in, +just as in other mines. In working salt mines, however, +water is almost as bad as earth, and therefore +a layer of clay is put between the timbers and the +earth. There are the usual galleries and pillars, with +roof and floor of salt. The workmen try to get the +salt out in lumps or blocks as far as possible, and +so they bore in drill holes and then blast with dynamite +or powder. The salt is loaded upon little cars, +running on tracks, and is carried up the shaft and +to the top of a breaker, usually more than one hundred +feet above the surface of the ground. There it +is dumped upon a screen of iron bars, which lets the +fine salt fall through. The large lumps are sold without +crushing or sifting, and are used for cattle and +sheep.</p> + +<p>One of the great deposits of salt is in southeastern +California. It is thought that the Gulf of California +used to run much farther north than it now does, +and that the earth rose, shutting away part of it +from the ocean. This imprisoned water was full of +salt. In time it dried, and the sand blew over it till +it was far underground. A better way than digging +was found to work it, as will be seen later; but while +digging was going on, the workmen built a cottage +of blocks of salt, clear and glassy. The little rain +that falls there melted the blocks only enough to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +unite them firmly together; and there the house has +stood for many years.</p> + +<p>Countries that have no deposits of rock salt can +easily get plenty of salt from the water of the ocean +if they only have a seacoast. About one thirtieth of +the ocean water is salt, and if the water is evaporated, +the salt can be collected without difficulty. +France makes a great deal of salt in this way. When +a man goes into the manufacture, or rather, the collecting +of salt, he first of all buys or rents a piece of +land,—perhaps several acres of it,—that lies just +above high water, and makes it as level as possible. +Unless it is very firm land, he covers it with clay, so +that the water will not soak through it. Then he +divides it into large square basins, making each a +little lower than the one before it. Close beside the +highest basin he makes a reservoir which at high +tide receives water from the ocean. This flows +slowly from the reservoir through one basin after +another, becoming more and more salt as the water +evaporates. At length the water is gone, and the +salt remains. The workmen take wooden scrapers +and push the salt toward the walls of the basins and +then shovel it up on the dikes and heap it into creamy +cones that sparkle in the sunshine. The dikes are +narrow, raised pathways beside the basins and between +them. As you walk along on top of them, you +can smell a faint violet perfume from the salt. +Thatch is put over the cones to protect them from +the rain, and there they stand till some of the impurities +drain away. This salt is not perfectly white,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +because the workmen cannot help scraping up a +little of the gray or reddish clay with it. Most of it +is sold as it is, nevertheless, for many people have +an absurd notion that the darker it is the purer it is. +For those who wish to buy white salt it is sent to a +refinery to be washed with pure water, then boiled +down and dried.</p> + +<p>So it is that the sun helps to manufacture salt. In +some of the colder countries, frost does the same +work, but in a very different manner. When salt +water freezes, the <i>water</i> freezes, but the salt does +not, and a piece of salt water ice is almost as pure as +that made of fresh water. Of course, after part of +the water in a basin of salt water has been frozen +out, what is left is more salt than it was at first, and +after the freezing has been repeated several times, +only a little water remains, and evaporation will +soon carry this away, leaving only salt in the basin, +waiting to be purified.</p> + +<p>Not very many years ago one of the encyclopædias +remarked that "the deposits of salt in the United +States are unimportant." This was true as far as the +working of them was concerned, but in 1913 the +United States produced more than 34,000,000 barrels. +Part of this was made by evaporation of the +waters of salt springs, and a small share from Great +Salt Lake in Utah. The early settlers in Utah used +to gather salt from the shallow bays or lagoons +where the water evaporated during the summer; +but now dams of earth hold back the water in a +reservoir. In the spring the pumps are put to work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +and the reservoir is soon filled with water. This is +left to stand and give the impurities a chance to +settle to the bottom. Then it is allowed to flow into +smaller basins, while more water is pumped into the +reservoir. When autumn comes, the crop of salt is +ready to be harvested. It is in the form of a crust +three to six inches thick, some of it in large crystals, +and some fine-grained. This crust is broken by +ploughs, and the salt is heaped up into great cones +and left for the rain to wash clean. Then it goes to +the mill for purifying. The water of Great Salt Lake +is much more salty than that of the ocean. It preserves +timber remarkably well, and often salt from +the lake is put around telephone poles, seventy-five +pounds being dropped into the hole for each one. It +has been suggested to soak timber in the Lake, and +then paint it with creosote to keep the wet out and +the salt in.</p> + +<p>Salt is also made from the waters of salt springs, +which the Indians thought were the homes of evil +spirits. At Salton, in California, an area of more +than one thousand acres, which lies two hundred +and sixty-four feet below sea level, is flooded with +water from salt springs. When this water has evaporated, +all these acres are covered with salt ten to +twenty inches thick, and as dazzlingly white as if it +was snow. This great field is ploughed up with a +massive four-wheeled implement called a "salt-plough." +It is run by steam and needs two men to +manage it. The heavy steel ploughshare breaks up +the salt crust, making broad, shallow furrows and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +throwing the salt in ridges on both sides. The plough +has hardly moved on before the crust begins to form +again. This broken crust is worked in water by men +with hoes in order to remove the bits of earth that +stick to it, then piled up into cones to drain, loaded +upon flat trucks, and carried to the breaker. The +salt fields are wonderfully beautiful in the moonlight, +but not very agreeable to work in, for the mercury +often reaches 140° F., and the air is so full of +particles of salt that the workers feel an intense +thirst, which the warm, brackish water does not +satisfy. The work is done by Indians and Japanese, +for white people cannot endure the heat.</p> + +<p>A large portion of the salt used in the United +States comes directly from rock salt strata, hundreds +of feet below the surface of the ground. These were +perhaps the bed of the ocean ages and ages ago. +There is a great extent of the beds in New York, +Michigan, Ohio, Kansas, and other States. In +Michigan there is a stratum of rock salt thirty to +two hundred and fifty feet thick and some fifteen +hundred to two thousand feet below the surface. +To mine this would be a difficult and expensive +undertaking, and a far better way has been discovered. +First, a pipe is forced down through the surface +dirt, the limestone, and the shale to the salt +stratum. The drill works inside this pipe and bores +a hole for a six-inch pipe directly into the salt. A +three-inch pipe is let down inside of the six-inch +pipe, and water is forced down through the smaller +pipe. It dissolves the salt, becomes brine, and rises<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +through the space between the two pipes. It is carried +through troughs to some great tanks, and from +these it flows into "grain-settlers," then into the +"grainers" proper, where the grains of salt settle. +At the bottom of the grainers are steam pipes, and +these make the brine so hot that before long little +crystals of salt are seen floating on the surface of the +water. Crystals form much better if the water is +perfectly smooth, and to bring this about a very +little oil is poured into the grainer. It spreads over +the surface in the thinnest film that can be imagined. +The water evaporates, and the tiny crystals grow, +one joining to another as they do in rock candy. +When they become larger, they drop to the bottom +of the grainer. They are now swept along in a trough +to a "pocket," carried up by an endless chain of +buckets, and then wheeled away to the packinghouse.</p> + +<p>The finest salt is made by using vacuum pans. +These are great cans out of which the air is pumped, +and into which the brine flows. This brine, heated +by steam pipes, begins to boil, and as the steam from +it rises, it has to pass through a pipe at the top and +is thus carried into a small tank into which cold +water is flowing. The cold makes the steam condense +into water, which runs off. The condensed +water occupies less space than the steam and so +maintains the vacuum in the pan. For a perfect +vacuum the brine is boiled at less than 100° F., +while in an open pan or grainer it requires 226° to +boil brine. The brine is soon so rich in salt that tiny<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +crystals begin to form. These are taken out and +dried. If you look at some grains of table salt +through a magnifying glass, you can see that each +grain is a tiny cubical crystal. Sometimes two or +three are united, and often the corners are rounded +off and worn, but they show plainly that they are +little cubes.</p> + +<p>Most of the salt used on our tables is made by the +vacuum process or by an improved method which +produces tiny flakes of salt similar to snowflakes. +The salt brine is heated to a high temperature and +filtered. In the filters the impurities are taken out, +and this process gives us very pure salt. The tiny +flakes dissolve more easily than the cubes of salt, +and thus flavor food more readily.</p> + +<p>With a few savage tribes salt is regarded as a +great luxury, but with most peoples it is looked upon +as a necessity. Some of the early races thought a +salt spring was a special gift of the gods, and in their +sacrifices they always used salt. In later times to sit +"above the salt," between the great ornamental salt +cellar and the master of the house, was a mark of +honor. Less distinguished guests were seated "below +the salt." To "eat a man's salt" and then be unfaithful +to him has always been looked upon as a +shameful act; and with some of the savages, so long +as a stranger "ate his salt,"—that is, was a guest +in the house of any one of them,—he was safe. To +"eat salt together" is an expression of friendliness. +Cakes of salt have been used as money in various +parts of Africa and Asia. "Attic salt" means wit,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +because the Athenians, who lived in Attica, were +famous for their keen, delicate wit. To take a story +or a statement "with a grain of salt" means not to +accept it entirely, but only to believe it partially. +When Christ told his disciples that they were "the +salt of the earth," he meant that their lives and +teaching would influence others just as salt affects +every article of food and changes its flavor. Our +word "salary" comes from the Latin word <i>sal</i>, +meaning salt; and <i>salarium</i>, or "salt-money," was +money given for paying one's expenses on a journey. +Living without salt would be a difficult matter. +Cattle that have been shut away from it for a while +are almost wild to get it. Farmers living among the +mountains sometimes drive their cattle to a mountain +pasture to remain there through the summer, +and every little while they go up to salt the animals. +The cattle know the call and know that it means +salt; and I have seen them come rushing down the +mountain-side and through the woods, over fallen +trees, through briers, and down slippery rocks, bellowing +as they came, and plunging head first in a +wild frenzy to get to the pieces of rock salt that were +waiting for them.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>FIRST YEAR IN NUMBER</h2> + +<p class="center">35 cents net. Postpaid</p> + +<p class="center">An Introductory Book to Precede any Series of +Arithmetics</p> + +<p class="center">BY</p> + +<p class="center"><b>FRANKLIN S. HOYT</b></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Formerly Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis</i></p> + +<p class="center">AND</p> + +<p class="center"><b>HARRIET E. PEET</b></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Instructor in Methods of Teaching Arithmetic, State Normal +School, Salem, Massachusetts</i></p> + +<p>The work is based upon the familiar experiences and +activities of children, and follows as closely as possible the +child's own method of acquiring new knowledge and skill.</p> + +<p>Thus we have lessons based on playing store, making +tickets, mailing letters, fishing, etc. Every step is made interesting, +but no time is wasted in mere entertainment.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="center"><i>By the same authors</i></p> + +<h2>THE EVERYDAY ARITHMETICS</h2> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="books"> +<tr><td align='center'><b>THREE-BOOK COURSE</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Book One, grades II-IV.</td><td align='right'>$.40</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Book Two, grades V-VI</td><td align='right'>.40</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Book Three, grades VII-VIII</td><td align='right'>.45</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><b>TWO-BOOK COURSE</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Book One, grades II-IV.</td><td align='right'>$.40</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Book Two, grades V-VIII.</td><td align='right'>.72</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Course of Study (with answers)</td><td align='right'> $.25</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="center"><i><b>Distinctive Features</b></i></p> + +<p>1. Their socialized point of view—all problems and topics +taken from the everyday life of children, home interests, +community interests, common business and industries. +2. Their attractiveness to children—spirited illustrations, +legible page, interesting subject matter. 3. The omission +of all antiquated topics and problems. 4. The grouping of +problems about a given life situation. 5. The development +of accuracy and skill in essential processes. 6. The vocational +studies. 7. The careful attention to method. 8. The +exact grading. 9. The systematic reviews. 10. The adaptation +to quick and to slow pupils.</p> + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> + +<p class="center"> +HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY<br /> +<small>BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO</small><br /> +<small>1901</small><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>"<i>A STEP FORWARD IN READING</i>"</h3> + +<h2><b>THE RIVERSIDE READERS</b></h2> + +<p class="center">EDITED BY</p> + +<h3>JAMES H. VAN SICKLE</h3> + +<p class="center"><i>Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mass.</i></p> + +<p class="center">AND</p> + +<h3>WILHELMINA SEEGMILLER</h3> + +<p class="center"><i>Late Director of Art, Indianapolis. Formerly Principal of the Wealthy +Avenue Public School, Grand Rapids, Mich.</i></p> + +<p class="center">ASSISTED BY</p> + +<h3>FRANCES JENKINS</h3> + +<p class="center"><i>Instructor in Elementary Education, College for Teachers, University +of Cincinnati, Formerly Supervisor of Elementary Grades, Decatur, Ill.</i></p> + +<p class="center">ILLUSTRATED BY</p> + +<p class="center"><b> +RUTH MARY HALLOCK<br /> +MAGINEL WRIGHT ENRIGHT<br /> +CLARA E. ATWOOD<br /> +E. 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