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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A History of Art for Beginners and
+Students: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture: Painting, by Clara
+Erskine Clement
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A History of Art for Beginners and Students: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture
+       Painting
+
+
+Author: Clara Erskine Clement
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 1, 2008  [eBook #24726]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART FOR BEGINNERS AND
+STUDENTS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Anne Storer, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 24726-h.htm or 24726-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/7/2/24726/24726-h/24726-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/7/2/24726/24726-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+A HISTORY OF ART FOR BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS
+
+Painting--Sculpture--Architecture
+
+With Complete Indexes and Numerous Illustrations
+
+by
+
+CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT
+
+Author of "Handbook of Legendary and Mythological Art,"
+"Painters, Sculptors, Engravers, Architects and Their Works,"
+"Artists of the Nineteenth Century," Etc.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+New York
+Frederick A. Stokes Company
+MDCCCXCI
+
+Copyright, 1887,
+by Frederick A. Stokes,
+Successor to White, Stokes, & Allen.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ CHAPTER I.
+                                            PAGE
+ ANCIENT PAINTING, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES
+   TO THE CHRISTIAN ERA,                       1
+ EGYPT,                                        3
+ ASSYRIA,                                      9
+ BABYLON,                                     11
+ ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY,                    13
+ MOSAICS,                                     34
+ PAINTINGS ON STONE,                          36
+ VASE-PAINTING,                               36
+
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+
+ MEDI�VAL PAINTING, FROM THE BEGINNING
+   OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE RENAISSANCE,   41
+ THE EARLY PERIOD,                            42
+ THE CENTRAL, OR ROMANESQUE PERIOD,           50
+ THE FINAL, OR GOTHIC PERIOD,                 54
+
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+
+ PAINTING IN ITALY, FROM THE BEGINNING
+   OF THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT CENTURY, 72
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+
+ PAINTING IN FLANDERS, HOLLAND, AND GERMANY, 155
+
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+
+ PAINTING IN SPAIN,                          207
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+
+ PAINTING IN FRANCE,                         234
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII.
+
+ PAINTING IN ENGLAND,                        249
+
+
+ INDEX,                                      305
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+                                            PAGE
+ Harp-player (from an Egyptian painting),      3
+ King Ramesses II. and his Sons Storming
+   a Fortress (from Abousimbel),               5
+ Fragment of an Assyrian Tile-painting,       10
+ Sacrifice of Iphigenia
+   (from a Pompeian wall-painting),           16
+ Etruscan Wall-painting,                      22
+ Human Sacrifice Offered by Achilles to
+   the Shade of Patroklos (from an
+   Etruscan wall-painting),                   24
+ The Aldobrandini Marriage
+   (from a wall-painting in the Vatican),     26
+ Landscape Illustration to the Odyssey
+   (from a wall-painting discovered on
+   the Esquiline at Rome),                    28
+ The Flight of �neas (from a wall-painting),  30
+ Demeter Enthroned
+   (from a Pompeian wall-painting),           31
+ Pompeian Wall-painting,                      32
+ Nest of Cupids
+   (from a Pompeian wall-painting),           33
+ Doves Seated on a Bowl (from a
+   mosaic picture in the Capitol, Rome),      35
+ Niobe (from a picture on a slab of
+   granite at Pompeii),                       37
+ The Dodwell Vase,                            38
+ Scene in the Lower World (from a vase
+   of the style of Lower Italy),              39
+ Moses (from a painting in the
+   Catacomb of S. Agnes),                     43
+ Decoration of a Roof
+   (Catacomb of S. Domitilla),                44
+ Justinian, Theodora, and Attendants
+   (from a mosaic picture at S. Vitalis,
+   Ravenna),                                  46
+ The Discovery of the Herb Mandragora
+   (from a MS. of Dioskorides, at Vienna),    48
+ King David (from a window in
+   Augsburg Cathedral),                       51
+ Window (from the Cathedral of St. Denis),    52
+ Figure of Henry I. in west window of
+   Strasbourg Cathedral,                      55
+ Birth of the Virgin (from the
+   Grandes Heures of the Duc de Berri),       57
+ The Annunciation (from the Mariale of
+   Archbishop Arnestus of Prague),            59
+ Painted Window at Konigsfelden,              60
+ Portrait of Cimabue,                         61
+ The Madonna of the Church of
+   Santa Maria Novella,                       63
+ Portrait of Dante, painted by Giotto,        65
+ Giotto's Campanile and the Duomo (Florence), 67
+ Fra Angelico (from the representation of
+   him in the fresco of the "Last
+   Judgment" by Fra Bartolommeo),             74
+ An Angel (Fra Angelico),                     77
+ Christ (Gio. Bellini),                       81
+ Madonna (Perugino),                          83
+ Leonardo da Vinci,                           85
+ The Last Supper (Da Vinci),                  88
+ Mona Lisa (Da Vinci),                        91
+ Portrait of Michael Angelo,                  95
+ The Prophet Jeremiah (Michael Angelo),      101
+ Statue of Moses (Michael Angelo),           102
+ The Madonna del Sacco (Sarto),              106
+ Portrait of Raphael, painted by himself,    109
+ The Sistine Madonna (Raphael),              113
+ St. Cecilia Listening to the Singing
+   of Angels (Raphael),                      117
+ Portrait of Titian (Caracci),               122
+ Portrait of Lavinia (Titian),               125
+ Portrait of Correggio,                      133
+ Upper Part of a Fresco by Correggio,        136
+ Lower Part of a Fresco by Correggio,        138
+ Communion of St. Jerome (Domenichino),      142
+ Aurora (Guido Reni),                        144
+ Beatrice Cenci (Guido Reni),                146
+ The Anchorites (Van Eyck),                  157
+ The Sibyl and the Emperor Augustus
+   (Van der Weyden),                         159
+ Rubens and his Second Wife,                 163
+ The Return from Egypt (Rubens),             166
+ Portrait of an Officer (Hals),              178
+ One of Rembrandt's Portraits of Himself,    182
+ The Lecture on Anatomy (Rembrandt),         183
+ Burgomaster Meier Madonna (Holbein),        191
+ From Holbein's Dance of Death,              193
+ A Scene from D�rer's Wood Engravings
+   of the Life of the Virgin Mary,           196
+ The Four Apostles (D�rer),                  200
+ Laughing Peasant (Velasquez),               217
+ The Topers (Velasquez),                     219
+ The Immaculate Conception (Murillo),        226
+ Arcadian Shepherds (Poussin),               235
+ The Sabine Women (David),                   241
+ Death of the Duke of Guise (Delaroche),     243
+ Sir Joshua Reynolds,                        250
+ The Marriage Contract (Hogarth),            253
+ Muscipula (Reynolds),                       256
+ Portrait of Turner,                         272
+ Nantes (Turner),                            276
+ Illustration from Rogers's Poems,           285
+ The Slave Ship (Turner),                    289
+ The Eagle and Dead Stag (Landseer),         297
+
+
+
+
+
+PAINTING.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ANCIENT PAINTING, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE CHRISTIAN ERA.
+
+
+In speaking of art we often contrast the useful or mechanical arts with
+the Fine Arts; by these terms we denote the difference between the arts
+which are used in making such things as are necessary and useful in
+civilized life, and the arts by which ornamental and beautiful things are
+made.
+
+The fine arts are Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Poetry, and Music,
+and though we could live if none of these existed, yet life would be far
+from the pleasant experience that it is often made to be through the
+enjoyment of these arts.
+
+In speaking of Painting, just here I wish to include the more general idea
+of pictures of various sorts, and it seems to me that while picture-making
+belongs to the fine or beautiful arts, it is now made a very useful art in
+many ways. For example, when a school-book is illustrated, how much more
+easily we understand the subject we are studying through the help we get
+from pictures of objects or places that we have not seen, and yet wish to
+know about. Pictures of natural scenery bring all countries before our
+eyes in such a way that by looking at them, while reading books of travel,
+we may know a great deal more about lands we have never seen, and may
+never be able to visit.
+
+Who does not love pictures? and what a pleasure it is to open a magazine
+or book filled with fine illustrations. St. Augustine, who wrote in the
+fourth century after Christ, said that "pictures are the books of the
+simple or unlearned;" this is just as true now as then, and we should
+regard pictures as one of the most agreeable means of education. Thus one
+of the uses of pictures is that they give us a clear idea of what we have
+not seen; a second use is that they excite our imaginations, and often
+help us to forget disagreeable circumstances and unpleasant surroundings.
+The cultivation of the imagination is very important, because in this way
+we can add much to our individual happiness. Through this power, if we are
+in a dark, narrow street, in a house which is not to our liking, or in the
+midst of any unpleasant happenings, we are able to fix our thoughts upon a
+photograph or picture that may be there, and by studying it we are able to
+imagine ourselves far, far away, in some spot where nature makes
+everything pleasant and soothes us into forgetfulness of all that can
+disturb our happiness. Many an invalid--many an unfortunate one is thus
+made content by pictures during hours that would otherwise be wretched.
+This is the result of cultivating the perceptive and imaginative
+faculties, and when once this is done, we have a source of pleasure within
+ourselves and not dependent on others which can never be taken from us.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--HARP-PLAYER. _From an Egyptian painting._]
+
+It often happens that we see two persons who do the same work and are
+situated in the same way in the world who are very different in their
+manner; one is light-hearted and happy, the other heavy and sad. If you
+can find out the truth, it will result that the sad one is matter-of-fact,
+and has no imagination--he can only think of his work and what concerns
+him personally; but the merry one would surprise you if you could read his
+thoughts--if you could know the distances they have passed over, and what
+a vast difference there is between his thought and his work. So while it
+is natural for almost every one to exclaim joyfully at the beauty of
+pictures, and to enjoy looking at them simply, I wish my readers to think
+of their uses also, and understand the benefits that may be derived from
+them. I have only hinted at a few of these uses, but many others will
+occur to you.
+
+When pictures are composed of beautiful colors, such as we usually think
+of when we speak of the art of painting, the greatest charm of pictures is
+reached, and all civilized people have admired and encouraged this art. It
+is true that the remains of ancient art now existing are principally those
+of architecture or sculpture, yet there are a sufficient number of
+pictures in color to prove how old the art of painting is.
+
+
+EGYPT.
+
+Egyptian painting is principally found on the walls of temples and tombs,
+upon columns and cornices, and on small articles found in burial places.
+There is no doubt that it was used as a decoration; but it was also
+intended to be useful, and was so employed as to tell the history of the
+country;--its wars, with their conquests and triumphs, and the lives of
+the kings, and many other stories, are just as distinctly told by pictures
+as by the hieroglyphics or Egyptian writings. We can scarcely say that
+Egyptian painting is beautiful; but it certainly is very interesting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--KING RAMESSES II. AND HIS SONS STORMING A FORTRESS.
+_From Abousimbel._]
+
+The Egyptians had three kinds of painting: one on flat surfaces, a second
+on bas-reliefs, or designs a little raised and then colored, and a third
+on designs in _intaglio_, or hollowed out from the flat surface and the
+colors applied to the figures thus cut out. They had no knowledge of what
+we call perspective, that is, the art of representing a variety of objects
+on one flat surface, and making them appear to be at different distances
+from us--and you will see from the illustrations given here that their
+drawing and their manner of expressing the meaning of what they painted
+were very crude. As far as the pictorial effect is concerned, there is
+very little difference between the three modes of Egyptian painting; their
+general appearance is very nearly the same.
+
+The Egyptian artist sacrificed everything to the one consideration of
+telling his story clearly; the way in which he did this was sometimes very
+amusing, such as the making one man twice as tall as another in order to
+signify that he was of high position, such as a king or an officer of high
+rank. When figures are represented as following each other, those that are
+behind are frequently taller than those in front, and sometimes those that
+are farthest back are ranged in rows, with the feet of one row entirely
+above the heads of the others. This illustration of the storming of a fort
+by a king and his sons will show you what I mean. The sons are intended to
+be represented as following the father, and are in a row, one above the
+other (Fig. 2).
+
+For the representation of water, a strip of blue filled in with
+perpendicular zigzag black lines was used. From these few facts you can
+understand how unformed and awkward Egyptian pictures seem if we compare
+them with the existing idea of what is beautiful. There appear to have
+been certain fixed rules for the use of colors, and certain objects were
+always painted in the colors prescribed for them. The background of a
+picture was always of a single, solid color; Egyptian men were painted in
+a reddish brown, and horses were of the same shade; women were generally
+yellow, sometimes a lighter brown than the men; negroes were black, the
+Asiatic races yellow, and but one instance is known of a white skin, blue
+eyes, and yellow hair. The draperies about the figures were painted in
+pleasing colors, and were sometimes transparent, so that the figures could
+be seen through them.
+
+The execution of Egyptian paintings was very mechanical. One set of
+workmen prepared the plaster on the wall for the reception of the colors;
+another set drew all the outlines in red; then, if chiselling was to be
+done, another class performed this labor; and, finally, still others put
+on the colors. Of course nothing could be more matter-of-fact than such
+painting as this, and under such rules an artist of the most lofty genius
+and imagination would find it impossible to express his conceptions in his
+work. We know all this because some of these pictures exist in an
+unfinished condition, and are left in the various stages of execution;
+then, too, there are other pictures of the painters at their work, and all
+these different processes are shown in them. The outline drawing is the
+best part of Egyptian painting, and this is frequently very cleverly done.
+
+As I have intimated, the greatest value of Egyptian painting is that it
+gives us a clear record of the habits and customs of a very ancient
+people--of a civilization which has long since passed away, and of which
+we should have a comparatively vague and unsatisfactory notion but for
+this picture-history of it. The religion, the political history, and the
+domestic life of the ancient Egyptians are all placed before us in these
+paintings. Through a study of them we know just how they hunted and
+fished, gathered their fruits, tilled the soil, and cooked the food,
+played games, danced, and practised gymnastics, conducted their scenes of
+festivity and mourning--in short, how they lived under all circumstances.
+Thus you see that Egyptian painting is a very important example of the way
+in which pictures can teach us; you will also notice that it is not even
+necessary that they should be pretty in order that we may learn from
+them.
+
+Another use made of Egyptian painting was the illustration of the papyrus
+rolls upon which historical and other documents were written. These rolls,
+found in the tombs, are now placed in museums and collections of curious
+things; the paintings upon them may be called the oldest book
+illustrations in the world. Sometimes a single color is used, such as red
+or black; but others are in a variety of colors which have been put on
+with a brush. Indeed, some rolls exist which have pictures only, and are
+entirely without hieroglyphics or writing characters; one such is more
+than twenty yards long, and contains nothing but pictures of funeral
+ceremonies.
+
+The ancient Egyptians were so serious a people that it is a pleasant
+surprise to find that some of these pictures are intended for jokes and
+satires, somewhat like those of the comic papers of to-day; for example,
+there is one in the British Museum, London, representing cats and rats
+fighting, which is intended to ridicule the soldiers and heroes of the
+Egyptian army.
+
+One cannot study Egyptian painting without feeling sorry for the painters;
+for in all the enormous amount of work done by them no one man was
+recognized--no one is now remembered. We know some of the names of great
+Egyptian architects which are written in the historical rolls; but no
+painter's name has been thus preserved. The fact that no greater progress
+was made is a proof of the discouraging influences that must have been
+around these artists, for it is not possible that none of them had
+imagination or originality: there must have been some whose souls were
+filled with poetic visions, for some of the Egyptian writings show that
+poetry existed in ancient Egypt. But of what use could imagination be to
+artists who were governed by the laws of a narrow priesthood, and hedged
+about by a superstitious religion which even laid down rules for art?
+
+For these reasons we know something of Egyptian art and nothing of
+Egyptian artists, and from all these influences it follows that Egyptian
+painting is little more than an illuminated alphabet or a child's
+picture-history. In the hieroglyphics, or writing characters of Egypt, it
+often occurs that small pictures of certain animals or other objects stand
+for whole words, and it appears that this idea was carried into Egyptian
+painting, which by this means became simply a picture chronicle, and never
+reached a point where it could be called truly artistic or a high art.
+
+
+ASSYRIA.
+
+The remains of Assyrian painting are so few that they scarcely serve any
+other purpose than to prove that the Assyrians were accustomed to decorate
+their walls with pictures. Sometimes the walls were prepared with plaster,
+and the designs were painted on that; in other cases the painting was done
+upon the brick itself. The paintings on plaster were usually on the inner
+walls, and many of these which have been discovered during the excavations
+have disappeared when exposed to the air after their long burial from the
+sight and knowledge of the world.
+
+Speaking of these pictures, the writer on art, J. Oppert, says that some
+paintings were found in the Palace of Sargon; they represented gods,
+lions, rosettes, and various other designs; but when he reached Nineveh,
+one year after these discoveries, the pictures had all disappeared--the
+colors which had been buried twenty-five hundred years lasted but a few
+days after they were uncovered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--FRAGMENT OF AN ASSYRIAN TILE-PAINTING.]
+
+Assyrian tile-painting was more durable than the wall-painting; but in
+all the excavations that have been made these have been found only in
+fragments, and from these fragments no complete picture has been put
+together. The largest one was found at Nimrud, and our illustration is
+taken from it. It represents a king, as we know by the tiara he wears, and
+two servants who follow him. The pictures to which the existing fragments
+belong could not have been large: the figures in our picture are but nine
+inches high. A few pieces have been found which must have belonged to
+larger pictures, and there is one which shows a part of a face belonging
+to a figure at least three feet high; but this is very unusual.
+
+The Assyrian paintings have a broad outline which is of a lighter color
+than the rest of the picture; it is generally white or yellow. There are
+very few colors used in them. This does not accord with our notions of the
+dresses and stuffs of the Assyrians, for we suppose that they were rich
+and varied in color--probably they had so few pigments that they could not
+represent in their paintings all the colors they knew.
+
+No one can give a very satisfactory account of Assyrian painting; but,
+judging from the little of it which remains, and from the immense number
+of Assyrian sculptures which exist, we may conclude that the chief aim of
+Assyrian artists was to represent each object they saw with absolute
+realism. The Dutch painters were remarkable for this trait and for the
+patient attention which they gave to the details of their work, and for
+this reason Oppert has called the Assyrians the Dutchmen of antiquity.
+
+
+BABYLON.
+
+In Babylon, in the sixth century B.C., under the reign of Nebuchadnezzar,
+the art of tile-painting reached a high state of perfection. The
+Babylonians had no such splendid alabaster as had the Assyrians, neither
+had they lime-stone; so they could not make fine sculptured slabs, such as
+are found at Nineveh and in other Assyrian ruins. But the Babylonians had
+a fine clay, and they learned how to use it to the best advantage. The
+city of Babylon shone with richly colored tiles, and one traveller writes:
+"By the side of Assyria, her colder and severer sister of the North,
+Babylon showed herself a true child of the South,--rich, glowing, careless
+of the rules of taste, only desiring to awaken admiration by the dazzling
+brilliance of her appearance."
+
+Many of the Babylonish tiles are in regular, set patterns in rich tints;
+some are simply in solid colors. These last are found in the famous
+terrace-temple of Borsipp�, near Babylon. We know from ancient writings
+that there were decorative paintings in Babylon which represented hunting
+scenes and like subjects, and, according to the prophet Ezekiel, chap.
+xxiii., verse 14, there were "men portrayed upon the wall, the images of
+the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their
+loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all of them princes to
+look to, after the manner of the Babylonians of Chaldea, the land of their
+nativity." Some writers assume that this must have been a description of
+tapestries; but most authorities believe them to have been glazed
+tile-paintings.
+
+A whole cargo of fragments of Babylonish tile-paintings was once collected
+for the gallery of the Louvre at Paris, and, when on board a ship and
+ready to be sent away, by some accident the whole was sunk. From the
+descriptions of them which were written, we find that there were portions
+of pictures of human faces and other parts of the body, of animals,
+mountains, and forests, of water, walls, and trees.
+
+Judging from what still remains, the art of painting was far less
+important and much less advanced among the Eastern or Oriental nations
+than were those of architecture and sculpture. It is very strange that
+these peoples, who seem to have observed nature closely, and to have
+mastered the mathematical sciences, made no steps toward the discovery of
+the laws of perspective; neither did they know how to give any expression
+of thought or feeling to the human face. In truth, their pictures were
+a mere repetition of set figures, and were only valuable as pieces of
+colored decorations for walls, adding a pleasing richness and variety by
+their different tints, but almost worthless as works of art.
+
+
+ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY.
+
+The painting of Greece and that of ancient Italy are so much the same that
+it is almost impossible to speak of them separately; the art of painting
+was carried from Greece to Italy by the Etruscans, and the art of ancient
+Rome was simply that of Greece transplanted. If Greek artists were
+employed by Romans, certainly their works were Greek; and if Romans
+painted they aimed to imitate the Greeks exactly, so that Italian painting
+before the time of the Christian era must be considered together with that
+of Greece.
+
+In architecture and sculpture the ancient Greeks accepted what had been
+done by the Egyptians and Assyrians as a foundation, and went on to
+perfect the work of the older nations through the aid of poetic and
+artistic imaginations. But in painting the Greeks followed nothing that
+had preceded them. They were the first to make pictures which were a
+life-like reproduction of what they saw about them: they were the first to
+separate painting from sculpture, and to give it such importance as would
+permit it to have its own place, quite free from the influence of any
+other art, and in its own way as grand and as beautiful as its sister
+arts.
+
+There are writers who trace the origin and progress of Greek painting from
+the very earliest times; but I shall begin with Apollodorus, who is spoken
+of as the first Greek painter worthy of fame, because he was the first
+one who knew how to make his pictures appear to be real, and to follow the
+rules of perspective so as to have a background from which his figures
+stood out, and to shade his colors and soften his outlines. He was very
+famous, and was called _skiagraphos_, which means shadow painter.
+
+Apollodorus was an Athenian, and lived at about the close of the fifth
+century B.C. Although he was a remarkable artist then, we must not fancy
+that his pictures would have satisfied our idea of the beautiful--in fact,
+Pliny, the historian, who saw his pictures six hundred years later, at
+Pergamos, says that Apollodorus was but the gatekeeper who threw open the
+gates of painting to the famous artists who lived after him.
+
+Zeuxis was a pupil of Apollodorus, and a great artist also. He was born at
+Heraclea, probably in Lower Italy. When young he led a wandering life; he
+studied at Athens under Apollodorus, and settled in Ephesus. He was in the
+habit of putting his pictures on exhibition, and charging an admittance
+fee, just as artists do now: he called himself "the unsurpassable," and
+said and did many vain and foolish things. Near the end of his life he
+considered his pictures as beyond any price, and so gave them away. Upon
+one of his works he wrote, "Easier to carp at than to copy." It is said
+that he actually laughed himself to death from amusement at one of his own
+pictures, which represented an old woman.
+
+Zeuxis had a rival in the painter Parrhasius, and their names are often
+associated. On one occasion they made trial of their artistic skill.
+Zeuxis painted a bunch of grapes so naturally that the birds came to peck
+at them. Then Parrhasius painted a hanging curtain, and when his picture
+was exposed to the public Zeuxis asked him to draw aside his curtain,
+fully believing it to be of cloth and concealing a picture behind it. Thus
+it was judged that Parrhasius was the best artist, for he had deceived
+Zeuxis, while the latter had only deceived the birds.
+
+From these stories it appears that these artists tried to imitate objects
+with great exactness. Parrhasius, too, was a vain man, and went about in
+a purple robe with a gold wreath about his head and gold clasps on his
+sandals; he painted his own portrait, and called it the god Hermes, or
+Mercury; he wrote praises of himself in which he called himself by many
+high-sounding names, for all of which he was much ridiculed by others.
+
+However, both these artists were surpassed by Timanthes, according to the
+ancient writers, who relate that he engaged in a trial of skill with
+Parrhasius, and came off the victor in it. The fame of his picture of the
+"Sacrifice of Iphigenia" was very great, and its one excellence seems to
+have been in the varied expression of its faces. The descriptions of this
+great work lead to the belief that this Pompeian wall-painting, from which
+we give a cut, closely resembles that of Timanthes, which no longer
+exists.
+
+The story of Iphigenia says that when her father, King Agamemnon, killed
+a hart which was sacred to Diana, or Artemis, that goddess becalmed his
+fleet so that he could not sail to Troy. Then the seer, Calchas, advised
+the king to sacrifice his daughter in order to appease the wrath of Diana.
+Agamemnon consented; but it is said that the goddess was so sorry for the
+maiden that she bore her away to Tauris, and made her a priestess, and
+left a hart to be sacrificed instead of Iphigenia. In our cut you see
+Calchas on the right; two men are bearing the maiden to her doom, while
+her father stands on the left with his head veiled from sight (Fig. 4).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--SACRIFICE OF IPHIGENIA. _From a Pompeian
+wall-painting._]
+
+Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Timanthes belonged to the Ionian school of
+painting, which flourished during the Peloponnesian war. This school was
+excelled by that of Sikyon, which reached its highest prosperity between
+the end of the Peloponnesian war and the death of Alexander the Great.
+The chief reason why this Dorian school at Sikyon was so fine was that
+here, for the first time, the pupils followed a regular course of study,
+and were trained in drawing and mathematics, and taught to observe nature
+with the strictest attention. The most famous master of this school was
+Pausias; some of his works were carried to Rome, where they were much
+admired. His picture of the garland-weaver, Glykera, gained him a great
+name, and by it he earned the earliest reputation as a flower-painter that
+is known in the history of art.
+
+Nikomachos, who lived at Thebes about 360 B.C., was famous for
+the rapidity with which he painted pictures that were excellent in their
+completeness and beauty. Aristides, the son or brother of Nikomachos, was
+so good an artist that Attalus, king of Pergamos, offered more than twenty
+thousand pounds, or about one hundred thousand dollars, for his picture of
+Dionysus, or Bacchus. This wonderful picture was carried to Rome, and
+preserved in the temple of Ceres; but it no longer exists. Euphranor was
+another great painter, and was distinguished for his power to give great
+expression to the faces and a manly force to the figures which he painted.
+
+Nikias, the Athenian, is said to have been so devoted to his art that he
+could think of nothing else: he would ask his servants if he had bathed or
+eaten, not being able to remember for himself. He was very rich, and when
+King Ptolemy of Egypt offered him more than sixty thousand dollars for his
+picture of Ulysses in the under-world, he refused this great sum, and gave
+the painting to his native city. Nikias seems to have greatly exalted and
+respected his art, for he contended that painters should not fritter away
+time and talent on insignificant subjects, but ought rather to choose some
+grand event, such as a battle or a sea-fight. His figures of women and his
+pictures of animals, especially those of dogs, were much praised. Some of
+his paintings were encaustic, that is to say, the colors were burned in;
+thus they must have been made on plaster or pottery of some sort. Nikias
+outlived Alexander the Great, and saw the beginning of the school of
+painters to which the great Apelles belonged--that which is called the
+Hellenic school, in which Greek art reached its highest point.
+
+Apelles was the greatest of all Greek painters. He was born at Kolophon;
+but as he made his first studies at Ephesus he has been called an
+Ephesian: later he studied in the school of Sikyon, but even when a pupil
+there he was said to be the equal of all his instructors. Philip of
+Macedon heard of his fame, and persuaded Apelles to remove to his capital
+city, which was called Pella. While there Apelles became the friend of the
+young Alexander, and when the latter came to the throne he made Apelles
+his court-painter, and is said to have issued an edict forbidding all
+other artists from painting his portrait. Later on Apelles removed to
+Ephesus.
+
+During the early part of his artistic life Apelles did little else than
+paint such pictures as exalted the fame of Philip, and afterward that of
+Alexander. He painted many portraits of both these great men; for one of
+Alexander he received nearly twenty-five thousand dollars; in it the
+monarch was represented as grasping the thunderbolt, as Jupiter might have
+done, and the hand appeared to be stretched out from the picture. This
+portrait was in the splendid temple of Diana, or Artemis, at Ephesus.
+Alexander was accustomed to say of it, "There are two Alexanders, one
+invincible, the living son of Philip--the other immutable, the picture of
+Apelles."
+
+Later in his life Apelles painted many pictures of mythological subjects.
+He visited Alexandria, in Egypt; he did not win the favor of King Ptolemy,
+and his enemies in the Egyptian court played cruel practical jokes upon
+him. On one occasion he received an invitation to a feast at which the
+king had not desired his presence. The monarch was angry; but Apelles told
+him the truth, and appeased his wrath by sketching on the wall the exact
+likeness of the servant who had carried the invitation to him. However,
+Ptolemy remained unfavorable to him, and Apelles painted a great picture,
+called Calumny, in which he represented those who had been his enemies,
+and thus held them up to the scorn of the world. Apelles visited Rhodes
+and Athens, but is thought to have died in the island of Kos, where he had
+painted two very beautiful pictures of the goddess Venus. One of these is
+called the Venus Anadyomene, or Venus rising from the sea. The emperor
+Augustus carried this picture to Rome, and placed so high a value on it
+that he lessened the tribute-money of the people of Kos a hundred talents
+on account of it. This sum was about equal to one hundred thousand dollars
+of our money.
+
+The art of Apelles was full of grace and sweetness, and the finish of his
+pictures was exquisite. The saying, "leave off in time," originated in his
+criticism of Protogenes, of whom he said that he was his superior except
+that he did not know when to leave off, and by too much finishing lessened
+the effect of his work. Apelles was modest and generous: he was the first
+to praise Protogenes, and conferred a great benefit upon the latter by
+buying up his pictures, and giving out word that he was going to sell them
+as his own. Apelles was never afraid to correct those who were ignorant,
+and was equally ready to learn from any one who could teach him anything.
+It is said that on one occasion, when Alexander was in his studio, and
+talked of art, Apelles advised him to be silent lest his color-grinder
+should laugh at him. Again, when he had painted a picture, and exposed it
+to public view, a cobbler pointed out a defect in the shoe-latchet;
+Apelles changed it, but when the man next proceeded to criticise the leg
+of the figure, Apelles replied, "Cobbler, stick to your last." These
+sayings have descended to our own day, and have become classical. All
+these anecdotes from so remote a time are in a sense doubtful; but they
+are very interesting--young people ought to be familiar with them, but it
+is also right to say that they are not known to be positively true.
+
+Protogenes of Rhodes, to whom Apelles was so friendly, came to be thought
+a great painter. It is said that when Demetrius made war against Rhodes
+the artist did not trouble himself to leave his house, which was in the
+very midst of the enemy's camp. When questioned as to his fearlessness he
+replied, "Demetrius makes war against the Rhodians, and not against the
+Arts." It is also said that after hearing of this reply Demetrius
+refrained from burning the town, in order to preserve the pictures of
+Protogenes.
+
+The ancient writers mention many other Greek painters, but none as
+important as those of whom we have spoken. Greek painting never reached a
+higher point than it had gained at the beginning of the Hellenistic age.
+Every kind of painting except landscape-painting had been practised by
+Greek artists; but that received no attention until figure-painting had
+declined. Vitruvius mentions that the ancients had some very important
+wall-paintings consisting of simple landscapes, and that others had
+landscape backgrounds with figures illustrating scenes from the poems of
+Homer. But we have no reason to believe that Greek landscape-painting was
+ever more than scenic or decorative work, and thus fell far short of what
+is now the standard for such painting.
+
+The painting of the early Romans was principally derived from or through
+the early Etruscans, and the Etruscans are believed to have first learned
+their art from Greek artists, who introduced plastic art into Italy as
+early as B.C. 655, when Demaratus was expelled from Corinth--and later,
+Etruscan art was influenced by the Greek colonies of Magna Gr�cia. So it
+is fair to say that Etruscan art and early Roman art were essentially
+Greek art. The earliest artists who are known to have painted in Rome had
+Greek names, such as Ekphantos, Damophilos, and Gargasos. Later on in
+history there are painters mentioned with Latin names, but there is little
+of interest related concerning them; in truth, Ludius (who is also called
+by various authors Tadius and Studius) is the only really interesting
+ancient Roman painter of whom we know. He lived in the time of Augustus,
+and Pliny said of him: "Ludius, too, who lived in the age of the divine
+Augustus, must not be cheated of his fame. He was the first to bring in a
+singularly delightful fashion of wall-painting--villas, colonnades,
+examples of landscape-gardening, woods and sacred groves, reservoirs,
+straits, rivers, coasts, all according to the heart's desire--and amidst
+them passengers of all kinds on foot, in boats, driving in carriages, or
+riding on asses to visit their country properties; furthermore fishermen,
+bird-catchers, hunters, vintagers; or, again, he exhibits stately villas,
+to which the approach is through a swamp, with men staggering under the
+weight of the frightened women whom they have bargained to carry on their
+shoulders; and many another excellent and entertaining device of the same
+kind. The same artist also set the fashion of painting views--and that
+wonderfully cheap--of seaside towns in broad daylight."
+
+We cannot think that Ludius was the first painter, though he may have been
+the first Roman painter, who made this sort of pictures, and he probably
+is the only one of whose work any part remains. Brunn and other good
+authorities believe that the wall-painting of Prima Porta, in Rome, was
+executed by Ludius. It represents a garden, and covers the four walls of a
+room. It is of the decorative order of painting, as Pliny well understood,
+for he speaks of the difference between the work of Ludius and that of
+the true artists who painted panel pictures and not wall-paintings. After
+the time of Ludius we can give no trustworthy account of any fine, Roman
+painter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ETRUSCAN WALL-PAINTING.]
+
+The works of the ancient painters which still remain in various countries
+are wall-paintings, paintings on vases, mosaics, paintings on stone, and
+certain so-called miniatures; and besides these principal works there are
+many small articles, such as mirrors, toilet-cases, and other useful
+objects, which are decorated in colors.
+
+We will first speak of the mural, or wall-paintings, as they are the most
+important and interesting remains of ancient painting. We shall only
+consider such as have been found in Italy, as those of other countries are
+few and unimportant.
+
+The Etruscan tombs which have been opened contain many beautiful objects
+of various kinds, and were frequently decorated with mural pictures. They
+often consist of several rooms, and have the appearance of being prepared
+as a home for the living rather than for the dead. I shall give you no
+long or wordy description of them; because if what I tell you leads you to
+wish to know more about them, there are many excellent books describing
+them which you can read. So I will simply give you two cuts from these
+Etruscan paintings, and tell you about them.
+
+Fig. 5 is in a tomb known as the _Grotta della Querciola_. The upper part
+represents a feast, and the lower portion a boar-hunt in a wood, which is
+indicated by the few trees and the little twigs which are intended to
+represent the underbrush of the forest. If we compare these pictures with
+the works of the best Italian masters, they seem very crude and almost
+childish in their simplicity; but, if we contrast them with the paintings
+of the Egyptians and Assyrians, we see that a great advance has been made
+since the earliest paintings of which we know were done. The pose and
+action of the figures and their grace of movement, as well as the folding
+of the draperies, are far better than anything earlier than the Greek
+painting of which there is any knowledge; for, as we have said, these
+Etruscan works are essentially Greek.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--HUMAN SACRIFICE OFFERED BY ACHILLES TO THE SHADE
+OF PATROKLOS. _From an Etruscan wall-painting._]
+
+Fig. 6 belongs to a later period than the other, and is taken from a tomb
+at Vulci which was opened in 1857 by Fran�ois. This tomb has seven
+different chambers, several of which are decorated with wall-paintings of
+mythological subjects. A square chamber at the end of the tomb has the
+most important pictures. On one side the human sacrifices which were
+customary at Etruscan funerals are represented: the pictures are very
+painful, and the terror and agony of the poor victims who are being put to
+death make them really repulsive to see. On an opposite wall is the
+painting from which our cut is taken. This represents the sacrifices made
+before Troy by Achilles, on account of the death of his dear friend
+Patroklos. The figure with the hammer is Charon, who stands ready to
+receive the sacrifice which is intended to win his favor. Your mythology
+will tell you the story, which is too long to be given here. The realism
+of this picture is shocking in its effect, and yet there is something
+about the manner of the drawing and the arrangement of the whole design
+that fixes our attention even while it makes us shudder.
+
+The ancient wall-paintings which have been found in Rome are far more
+varied than are those of Etruria; for, while some of the Roman pictures
+are found in tombs, others are taken from baths, palaces, and villas. They
+generally belong to one period, and that is about the close of the
+Republic and the beginning of the Empire. Modern excavations have revealed
+many of these ancient paintings; but so many of them crumble and fade away
+so soon after they are exposed to the air, that few remain in a condition
+to afford any satisfaction in seeing them. But fortunately drawings have
+been made of nearly all these pictures before they fell into decay.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE ALDOBRANDINI MARRIAGE. _From a wall-painting
+in the Vatican._]
+
+Some of the ancient paintings have been carefully removed from the walls
+where they were found, and placed in museums and other collections. One of
+the finest of these is in the Vatican, and is called the Aldobrandini
+Marriage. It received this name from the fact that Cardinal Aldobrandini
+was its first possessor after its discovery, near the Arch of Gallienus,
+in 1606.
+
+As you will see from Fig. 7, from it, there are three distinct groups
+represented. In the centre the bride veiled, with her head modestly bowed
+down, is seated on a couch with a woman beside her who seems to be
+arranging some part of her toilet, while another stands near holding
+ointment and a bowl. At the head of the couch the bridegroom is seated on
+a threshold. The upper part of his figure is bare, and he has a garland
+upon his head. On the right of the picture an ante-room is represented in
+which are three women with musical instruments, singing sacrificial songs.
+To the left, in another apartment, three other women are preparing a bath.
+This is charming on account of the sweet, serious way in which the whole
+story is placed before us; but as a painting it is an inferior work of
+art--not in the least above the style which we should call house
+decoration.
+
+Although ancient writers had spoken of landscape paintings, it was not
+until 1848-1850, when a series of them was discovered on the Esquiline in
+Rome, that any very satisfactory specimens could be shown. These pictures
+number eight: six are complete, of the seventh but half remains, and the
+eighth is in a very imperfect state. They may be called historical
+landscapes, because each one has a complete landscape as well as figures
+which tell a story. They illustrate certain passages from the Odyssey of
+Homer. The one from which our cut is taken shows the visit of Ulysses to
+the lower world. When on the wall the pictures were divided by
+pilasters, and finished at the top by a border or frieze. The pilasters
+are bright red, and the chief colors in the picture are a yellowish brown
+and a greenish blue. In this scene the way in which the light streams
+through the entrance to the lower world is very striking, and shows the
+many figures there with the best possible effect. Even those in the far
+distance on the right are distinctly seen. This collection of Esquiline
+wall-paintings is now in the Vatican Library.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--LANDSCAPE ILLUSTRATION TO THE ODYSSEY. _From a
+wall-painting discovered on the Esquiline at Rome._]
+
+Besides the ancient mural paintings which have been placed in the museums
+of Rome, there are others which still remain where they were painted, in
+palaces, villas, and tombs. Perhaps those in the house of Livia are the
+most interesting; they represent mythological stories, and one frieze has
+different scenes of street life in an ancient town. Though these
+decorations are done in a mechanical sort of painting, such as is
+practised by the ordinary fresco painters of our own time, yet there was
+sufficient artistic feeling in their authors to prevent their repeating
+any one design.
+
+One circumstance proves that this class of picture was not thought very
+important when it was made, which is that the name of the artist is rarely
+found upon his work: in but one instance either in Rome or Pompeii has
+this occurred, namely, in a chamber which was excavated in the gardens of
+the Farnesina Palace at Rome, and the name is Seleucus.
+
+We have not space to speak of all the Italian cities in which these
+remains are discovered, and, as Pompeii is the one most frequently visited
+and that in which a very large proportion of the ancient pictures have
+been found, I will give a few illustrations from them, and leave the
+subject of ancient, mural paintings there. Many of the Pompeian pictures
+have been removed to the Museum of Naples, though many still remain where
+they were first painted.
+
+The variety of subjects at Pompeii is large: there are landscapes, hunting
+scenes, mythological subjects, numerous kinds of single figures, such as
+dancing girls, the hours, or seasons, graces, satyrs, and many others;
+devotional pictures, such as representations of the ancient divinities,
+lares, penates, and genii; pictures of tavern scenes, of mechanics at
+their work; rope-dancers and representations of various games,
+gladiatorial contests, _genre_ scenes from the lives of children, youths,
+and women, festival ceremonies, actors, poets, and stage scenes, and last,
+but not least, many caricatures, of which I here give you an example (Fig.
+9).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--THE FLIGHT OF �NEAS. _From a wall-painting._]
+
+The largest dog is �neas, who leads the little Ascanius by the hand and
+carries his father, Anchises, on his shoulder. Frequently in the ancient
+caricatures monkeys are made to take the part of historical and imaginary
+heroes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--DEMETER ENTHRONED. _From a Pompeian
+wall-painting._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--POMPEIAN WALL-PAINTING.]
+
+Fig. 11 shows you how these painted walls were sometimes divided; the
+principal subjects were surrounded by ornamental borders, and the spaces
+between filled in with all sorts of little compartments. The small spaces
+in this picture are quite regular in form; but frequently they are of
+varied shapes, and give a very decorative effect to the whole work. The
+colors used upon these different panels, as they may be called, were
+usually red, yellow, black, and white--more rarely blue and green.
+Sometimes the entire decoration consisted of these small, variously
+colored spaces, divided by some graceful little border, with a very small
+figure, plant, or other object in the centre of each space.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--NEST OF CUPIDS. _From a Pompeian
+wall-painting._]
+
+Fig. 10, of Demeter, or Ceres, enthroned is an example of such devotional
+paintings as were placed above the altars and shrines for private worship
+in the houses of Pompeii, or at the street corners, just as we now see
+pictures and sacred figures in street shrines in Roman Catholic countries.
+In ancient days, as now, these pictures were often done in a coarse and
+careless manner, as if religious use, and not art, was the object in the
+mind of the artist.
+
+Fig. 12, of a Nest of Cupids is a very interesting example of Pompeian
+painting, and to my mind it more nearly resembles pictures of later times
+than does any other ancient painting of which I know.
+
+
+MOSAICS.
+
+The pictures known as mosaics are made by fitting together bits of marble,
+stone, or glass of different colors and so arranging them as to represent
+figures and objects of various kinds, so that at a distance they have much
+the same effect as that of pictures painted with brush and colors. The art
+of making mosaics is very ancient, and was probably invented in the East,
+where it was used for borders and other decorations in regular set
+patterns. It was not until after the time of Alexander the Great that the
+Greeks used this process for making pictures. At first, too, mosaics were
+used for floors or pavements only, and the designs in them were somewhat
+like those of the tile pavements of our own time.
+
+This picture of doves will give you a good idea of a mosaic; this subject
+is a very interesting one, because it is said to have been first made by
+Sosos in Pergamos. It was often repeated in later days, and that from
+which our cut is taken was found in the ruins of Hadrian's villa at
+Tivoli, near Rome; it is known as the Capitoline Doves, from the fact that
+it is now in the Capitoline Museum in Rome. Few works of ancient art are
+more admired and as frequently copied as this mosaic: it is not unusual to
+see ladies wear brooches with this design in fine mosaic work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--DOVES SEATED ON A BOWL. _From a mosaic picture in
+the Capitol, Rome._]
+
+A few examples of ancient mosaics which were used for wall decorations
+have been found; they may almost be said not to exceed a dozen; but
+pavement mosaics are very numerous, and are still seen in the places for
+which they were designed and where they have been during many centuries,
+as well as in museums to which they have been removed. They are so hard in
+outline and so mechanical in every way that they are not very attractive
+if we think of them as pictures, and their chief interest is in the skill
+and patience with which mosaic workers combine the numberless particles
+of one substance and another which go to make up the whole.
+
+Mosaic pictures, as a rule, are not large; but one found at Palestrina,
+which is called the Nile mosaic, is six by five metres inside. Its subject
+is the inundation of a village on the river Nile. There are an immense
+number of figures and a variety of scenes in it; there are Egyptians
+hunting the Nile horse, a party of revellers in a bower draped with vines,
+bands of warriors and other groups of men occupied in different pursuits,
+and all represented at the season when the Nile overflows its banks. This
+is a very remarkable work, and it has been proved that a portion of the
+original is in the Berlin Museum, and has been replaced by a copy at
+Palestrina.
+
+
+PAINTINGS ON STONE.
+
+It is well known that much of the decoration of Greek edifices was in
+colors. Of course these paintings were put upon the marble and stone of
+which the structures were made. The Greeks also made small pictures and
+painted them on stone, just as canvas and panels of wood are now used.
+Such painted slabs have been found in Herculaneum, in Corneto, and in
+different Etruscan tombs; but the most important and satisfactory one was
+found at Pompeii in 1872. Since then the colors have almost vanished; but
+Fig. 14, from it, will show you how it appeared when found. It represents
+the mythological story of the punishment of Niobe, and is very beautiful
+in its design.
+
+
+VASE-PAINTING.
+
+Vase-painting was another art very much practised by the ancients. So much
+can be said of it that it would require more space than we can give for
+its history even in outline. So I shall only say that it fills an
+important place in historic art, because from the thousands of ancient
+vases that have been found in one country and another, much has been
+learned concerning the history of these lands and the manners and customs
+of their people; occasionally inscriptions are found upon decorated vases
+which are of great value to scholars who study the history of the past.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--NIOBE. _From a picture on a slab of granite at
+Pompeii._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--THE DODWELL VASE. _At Munich._]
+
+The Dodwell vase shows you the more simple style of decoration which was
+used in the earlier times. Gradually the designs came to be more and more
+elaborate, until whole stories were as distinctly told by the pictures on
+vases as if they had been written out in books. The next cut, which is
+made from a vase-painting, will show what I mean.
+
+The subject of Fig. 16 is connected with the service of the dead, and
+shows a scene in the under world, such as accorded with ancient religious
+notions. In the upper portion the friends of the deceased are grouped
+around a little temple. Scholars trace the manufacture of these vases back
+to very ancient days, and down to its decline, about two centuries before
+Christ. I do not mean that vase-painting ceased then, for its latest
+traces come down to 65 B.C.; but like all other ancient arts, it was then
+in a state of decadence. Though vase-painting was one of the lesser
+arts, its importance can scarcely be overestimated, and it fully merits
+the devoted study and admiration which it receives from those who are
+learned in its history.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--SCENE IN THE LOWER WORLD. _From a vase of the
+style of Lower Italy._]
+
+From what we know of ancient Greek painting we may believe that this art
+first reached perfection in Greece. If we could see the best works of
+Apelles, who reached the highest excellence of any Greek painter, we might
+find some lack of the truest science of the art when judged by more modern
+standards; but the Greeks must still be credited with having been the
+first to create a true art of painting. After the decline of Greek art
+fifteen centuries elapsed before painting was again raised to the rank
+which the Greeks had given it, and if, according to our ideas, the later
+Italian painting is in any sense superior to the Greek, we must at least
+admit that the study of the works of antiquity which still remained in
+Italy, excited the great masters of the Renaissance to the splendid
+achievements which they attained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+MEDI�VAL PAINTING, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE
+RENAISSANCE.
+
+
+The Middle Ages extend from the latter part of the fifth century to the
+time of the Renaissance, or about the fifteenth century. The painting of
+this period has little to attract attention if regarded only from an
+artistic stand-point, for we may truly say that, comparing it with the
+Greek art which had preceded it, or with the Italian art which followed
+it, that of the Middle Ages had no claim to the beautiful. On the other
+hand, it is full of interest to students, because it has its part in the
+history of art; therefore I shall give a mere outline of it, so that this
+link in the chain which unites ancient and modern painting may not be
+entirely wanting in our book.
+
+Early medi�val painting, down to about A.D. 950, consists principally of
+paintings in burial-places, mosaics (usually in churches), and of
+miniatures, or the illustration and illumination of _MSS._, which were the
+books of that time, and were almost without exception religious writings.
+This period is called the Early Period of the Middle Ages, and the
+pictures are often called the works of Early Christian Art.
+
+About 1050 a revival of intellectual pursuits began in some parts of
+Europe, and from that time it may be said that the Renaissance, or new
+birth of art and letters, was in its A B Cs, or very smallest beginnings.
+The period between 950 and 1250 is often called the Central or Romanesque
+Period of the Middle Ages, and it was during this time that glass-painting
+originated; it is one of the most interesting features of art in medi�val
+times.
+
+From 1250 to 1400 comes the Final or Gothic Period of the Middle Ages, and
+this has some very interesting features which foretell the coming glory of
+the great Renaissance.
+
+
+THE EARLY PERIOD.
+
+The paintings of the catacombs date from the third and fourth centuries
+after Christ. The catacombs, or burial-places of the early Christians,
+consist of long, narrow, subterranean passages, cut with regularity, and
+crossing each other like streets in a city. The graves are in the sides of
+these passages, and there are some larger rooms or chambers into which the
+narrow passages run. There are about sixty of the catacombs in and near
+Rome; they are generally called by the name of some saint who is buried in
+them. The paintings are in the chambers, of which there are sometimes
+several quite near each other. The reason for their being in these
+underground places was that Christians were so persecuted under the
+Romans, that they were obliged to do secretly all that they did as
+Christians, so that no attention should be attracted to them.
+
+The principal characteristics of these pictures are a simple majesty and
+earnestness of effect; perhaps spirituality is the word to use, for by
+these paintings the early Christians desired to express their belief in
+the religion of Christ, and especially in the immortality of the soul,
+which was a very precious doctrine to them. The catacombs of Rome were
+more numerous and important than those of any other city.
+
+Many of the paintings in the catacombs had a symbolic meaning, beyond the
+plainer intention which appeared at the first sight of them: you will know
+what I mean when I say that not only was this picture of Moses striking
+the rock intended to represent an historical fact in the life of Moses,
+but the flowing water was also regarded as a type of the blessing of
+Christian baptism.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--MOSES. _From a painting in the Catacomb of S.
+Agnes._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--DECORATION OF A ROOF. _Catacomb of S.
+Domitilla._]
+
+The walls of the chambers of the catacombs are laid out in such a manner
+as to have the effect of decorated apartments, just as was done in the
+pagan tombs, and sometimes the pictures were a strange union of pagan and
+Christian devices.
+
+The above cut, from the Catacomb of S. Domitilla, has in the centre the
+pagan god Orpheus playing his lyre, while in the alternate compartments of
+the border are the following Christian subjects: 1, David with the Sling;
+2, Moses Striking the Rock; 3, Daniel in the Lion's Den; 4, The Raising of
+Lazarus. The other small divisions have pictures of sacrificial animals.
+These two cuts will give you an idea of the catacomb wall-paintings.
+
+The mosaics of the Middle Ages were of a purely ornamental character down
+to the time of Constantine. Then, when the protection of a Christian
+emperor enabled the Christians to express themselves without fear, the
+doctrines of the church and the stories of the life of Christ and the
+histories of the saints, as well as many other instructive religious
+subjects, were made in mosaics, and placed in prominent places in churches
+and basilicas. Mosaics are very durable, and many belonging to the early
+Christian era still remain.
+
+The mosaics at Ravenna form the most connected series, and are the best
+preserved of those that still exist. While it is true in a certain sense
+that Rome was always the art centre of Italy, it is also true that at
+Ravenna the works of art have not suffered from devastation and
+restoration as have those of Rome. After the invasion of the Visigoths in
+A.D. 404, Honorius transferred the imperial court to Ravenna, and that
+city then became distinguished for its learning and art. The Ravenna
+mosaics are so numerous that I shall only speak of one series, from which
+I give an illustration (Fig. 19).
+
+This mosaic is in the church of S. Vitalis, which was built between A.D.
+526 and 547. In the dome of the church there is a grand representation of
+Christ enthroned; below Him are the sacred rivers of Paradise; near Him
+are two angels and S. Vitalis, to whom the Saviour is presenting a crown;
+Bishop Ecclesius, the founder of the church, is also represented near by
+with a model of the church in his hand.
+
+On a lower wall there are two pictures in which the Emperor Justinian and
+the Empress Theodosia are represented: our cut is from one of these, and
+shows the emperor and empress in magnificent costumes, each followed by a
+train of attendants. This emperor never visited Ravenna; but he sent such
+rich gifts to this church that he and his wife are represented as its
+donors.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--JUSTINIAN, THEODORA, AND ATTENDANTS. _From a
+mosaic picture at S. Vitalis, Ravenna._]
+
+After the time of Justinian (A.D. 527-565) mosaics began to be less
+artistic, and those of the later time degenerated, as did everything else
+during the Middle or Dark Ages, and at last all works of art show less and
+less of the Greek or Classic influence.
+
+When we use the word miniature as an art term, it does not mean simply a
+small picture as it does in ordinary conversation; it means the pictures
+executed by the hand of an illuminator or _miniator_ of manuscripts, and
+he is so called from the _minium_ or cinnabar which he used in making
+colors.
+
+In the days of antiquity, as I have told you in speaking of Egypt, it was
+customary to illustrate manuscripts, and during the Middle Ages this art
+was very extensively practised. Many monks spent their whole lives in
+illuminating religious books, and in Constantinople and other eastern
+cities this art reached a high degree of perfection. Some manuscripts have
+simple borders and colored initial letters only; sometimes but a single
+color is used, and is generally red, from which comes our word rubric,
+which means any writing or printing in red ink, and is derived from the
+Latin _rubrum_, or red. This was the origin of illumination or
+miniature-painting, which went on from one step to another until, at its
+highest state, most beautiful pictures were painted in manuscripts in
+which rich colors were used on gold or silver backgrounds, and the effect
+of the whole was as rich and ornamental as it is possible to imagine.
+
+Many of these old manuscripts are seen in museums, libraries, and various
+collections; they are very precious and costly, as well as interesting;
+their study is fascinating, for almost every one of the numberless designs
+that are used in them has its own symbolic meaning. The most ancient,
+artistic miniatures of which we know are those on a manuscript of a part
+of the book of Genesis; it is in the Imperial Library at Vienna, and was
+made at the end of the fifth century. In the same collection there is a
+very extraordinary manuscript, from which I give an illustration.
+
+This manuscript is a treatise on botany, and was written by Dioskorides
+for his pupil, the Princess Juliana Anicia, a granddaughter of the Emperor
+Valentine III. As this princess died at Constantinople A.D. 527, this
+manuscript dates from the beginning of the sixth century. This picture
+from it represents Dioskorides dressed in white robes and seated in a
+chair of gold; before him stands a woman in a gold tunic and scarlet
+mantle, who represents the genius of discovery; she presents the legendary
+mandrake root, or mandragora, to the learned man, while between them is
+the dog that has pulled the root, and falls dead, according to the
+fabulous story. This manuscript was painted by a masterly hand, and is
+curious and interesting; the plants, snakes, birds, and insects must have
+been painted from nature, and the whole is most skilfully done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--THE DISCOVERY OF THE HERB MANDRAGORA. _From a MS.
+of Dioskorides, at Vienna._]
+
+During the Middle Ages the arts as practised in Rome were carried into all
+the different countries in which the Romans made conquests or sent their
+monks and missionaries to establish churches, convents, and schools. Thus
+the medi�val arts were practised in Gaul, Spain, Germany, and Great
+Britain. No wall-paintings or mosaics remain from the early German or
+Celtic peoples; but their illuminated manuscripts are very numerous:
+miniature-painting was extensively done in Ireland, and many Irish
+manuscripts remain in the collections of Great Britain.
+
+When Charlemagne became the king of the Franks in 768, there was little
+knowledge of any art among his northern subjects; in 800 he made himself
+emperor of the Romans, also, and when the Franks saw all the splendor of
+Rome and other parts of Italy, it was not difficult for the great emperor
+to introduce the arts into the Frankish portion of his empire. All sorts
+of beautiful objects were carried from Italy by the Franks, and great
+workshops were established at Aix-la-Chapelle, the capital, and were
+placed under the care of Eginhard, who was skilled in bronze-casting,
+modelling, and other arts; he was called Bezaleel, after the builder of
+the Tabernacle. We have many accounts of the wall-paintings and mosaics of
+the Franks; but there are no remains of them that can be identified with
+positive accuracy.
+
+Miniature-painting flourished under the rule of Charlemagne and his
+family, and reached a point of great magnificence in effect, though it was
+never as artistic as the work of the Italian miniators; and, indeed,
+gradually everything connected with art was declining in all parts of the
+world; and as we study its history, we can understand why the terms Dark
+Ages and Middle Ages are used to denote the same epoch, remarkable as it
+is for the decay and extinction of so many beautiful things.
+
+
+THE CENTRAL, OR ROMANESQUE PERIOD.
+
+During the Romanesque Period (950-1250) architecture was pursued according
+to laws which had grown out of the achievements and experiences of earlier
+ages, and had reached such a perfection as entitled it to the rank of a
+noble art. But this was not true of painting, which was then but little
+more than the painting of the Egyptians had been, that is, a sort of
+picture-writing, which was principally used to illustrate the doctrines of
+religion, and by this means to teach them to peoples who had no books, and
+could not have read them had they existed.
+
+During all this time the art of painting was largely under the control of
+the priests. Some artists were priests themselves, and those who were not
+were under the direction of some church dignitary. Popes, bishops, abbots,
+and so on, were the principal patrons of art, and they suggested to the
+artists the subjects to be painted, and then the pictures were used for
+the decoration of churches and other buildings used by the religious
+orders. The monks were largely occupied in miniature-painting; artists
+frequented the monasteries, and, indeed, when they were engaged upon
+religious subjects, they were frequently under the same discipline as that
+of the monks themselves.
+
+Next to the influence of the church came that of the court; but in a way
+it was much the same, for the clergy had great influence at court, and,
+although painting was used to serve the luxury of sovereigns and nobles,
+it was also true that these high personages often employed artists to
+decorate chapels and to paint altar-pieces for churches at their expense,
+for during the Romanesque period there was some painting on panels. At
+first these panel-pictures were placed on the front of the altar where
+draperies had formerly been used: later they were raised above the altar,
+and also put in various parts of the church. The painting of the
+Romanesque period was merely a decline, and there can be little more said
+of it than is told by that one word.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--KING DAVID. _From a window in Augsburg
+Cathedral._]
+
+Glass-painting dates from this time. The very earliest specimens of which
+we know are from the eleventh century. Before that time there had been
+transparent mosaics made by putting together bits of colored glass, and
+arranging them in simple, set and ornamental patterns. Such mosaics date
+from the earliest days of Christianity, and were in use as soon as glass
+was used for windows. From ancient writings we know that some windows were
+made with pictures upon them as long ago as A.D. 989; but nothing now
+remains from that remote date.
+
+There is a doubt as to whether glass-painting originated in France or
+Germany. Some French authors ascribe its invention to Germany, while some
+German writers accord the same honor to France. Remains of glass-painting
+of the eleventh century have been found in both these countries; but it is
+probable that five windows in the Cathedral of Augsburg date from 1065,
+and are a little older than any others of which we know. This picture of
+David is from one of them, and is probably as old as any painted window in
+existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--WINDOW. _From the Cathedral of St. Denis._]
+
+The oldest glass-painting in France is probably a single fragment in the
+Cathedral of Le Mans. This cathedral was completed in 1093, but was badly
+burned in 1136, so that but a single piece of its windows remains; this
+has been inserted in a new window in the choir, and is thus preserved.
+With the beginning of the twelfth century, glass-painting became more
+frequent in Europe, and near the end of this century it was introduced
+into England, together with the Gothic style of architecture. Very soon a
+highly decorative effect was given to glass-painting, and the designs upon
+many windows were very much like those used in the miniatures of the same
+time. The stained glass in the Cathedral of St. Denis, near Paris, is very
+important. It dates from about 1140-1151, and was executed under the care
+of the famous Abbot Suger. He employed both French and German workmen, and
+decorated the entire length of the walls with painted windows. St. Denis
+was the first French cathedral in the full Gothic style of architecture.
+The present windows in St. Denis can scarcely be said to be the original
+ones, as the cathedral has suffered much from revolutions; but some of
+them have been restored as nearly as possible, and our illustration (Fig.
+22) will give you a good idea of what its windows were.
+
+The stripes which run across the ground in this window are red and blue,
+and the leaf border is in a light tone of color. There are nine
+medallions; the three upper ones have simply ornamental designs upon them,
+and the six lower ones have pictures of sacred subjects. The one given
+here is an Annunciation, in which the Abbot Suger kneels at the feet of
+the Virgin Mary. His figure interferes with the border of the medallion in
+a very unusual manner.
+
+Perhaps the most important ancient glass-painting remaining in France is
+that of the west front of the Cathedral of Chartres. It dates from about
+1125, when this front was begun; there are three windows, and their color
+is far superior to the glass of a later period, which is in the same
+cathedral. The earliest painted glass in England dates from about 1180.
+Some of the windows in Canterbury Cathedral correspond to those in the
+Cathedral of St. Denis.
+
+In the Strasbourg Cathedral there are some splendid remains of painted
+glass of the Romanesque period, although they were much injured by the
+bombardment of 1870. Fig. 23 is from one of the west windows, and
+represents King Henry I.
+
+This is an unusually fine example of the style of the period before the
+more elaborate Gothic manner had arisen; the quiet regularity of the
+drapery and the dignified air of the whole figure is very impressive.
+
+An entirely different sort of colored windows was used in the churches and
+edifices which belonged to the Cistercian order of monks. The rule of this
+order was severe, and while they wished to soften the light within their
+churches, they believed it to be wrong to use anything which denoted pomp
+or splendor in the decoration of the house of God. For these reasons they
+invented what is called the _grisaille_ glass: it is painted in regular
+patterns in gray tones of color. Sometimes these windows are varied by a
+leaf pattern in shades of green and brown, with occasional touches of
+bright color; but this is used very sparingly. Some of these _grisaille_
+windows are seen in France; but the finest are in Germany in the Cathedral
+of Heiligenkreuz: they date from the first half of the thirteenth century.
+
+
+THE FINAL, OR GOTHIC PERIOD.
+
+The Gothic order of architecture, which was perfected during this period,
+had a decided influence upon the painting and sculpture of the time; but
+this influence was not felt until Gothic architecture had reached a high
+point in its development. France was now the leading country of the world,
+and Paris came to be the most important of all cities: it was the centre
+from which went forth edicts as to the customs of society, the laws of
+dress and conduct, and even of the art of love. From France came the codes
+of chivalry, and the crusades, which spread to other lands, originated
+there. Thus, for the time, Paris overshadowed Rome and the older centres
+of art, industry, and science, with a world-wide influence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--FIGURE OF HENRY I. IN WEST WINDOW OF STRASBOURG
+CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Although the painting of this period had largely the same characteristics
+as that of the Romanesque period, it had a different spirit, and it was no
+longer under the control of the clergy. Before this time, too, painters
+had frequently been skilled in other arts; now it became the custom for
+them to be painters only, and besides this they were divided into certain
+classes of painters, and were then associated with other craftsmen who
+were engaged in the trade which was connected with their art. That is, the
+glass-painters painted glass only, and were associated with the
+glass-blowers; those who decorated shields, with the shield or scutcheon
+makers, and so on; while the painters, pure and simple, worked at
+wall-painting, and a little later at panel-painting also. From this
+association of artists and tradesmen there grew up brotherhoods which
+supported their members in all difficulties, and stood by each other like
+friends. Each brotherhood had its altar in some church; they had their
+funerals and festivals in common, and from these brotherhoods grew up the
+more powerful societies which were called guilds. These guilds became
+powerful organizations; they had definite rights and duties, and even
+judicial authority as to such matters as belonged to their special trades.
+
+All this led to much greater individuality among artists than had ever
+existed before: it came to be understood that a painter could, and had a
+right to, paint a picture as he wished, and was not governed by any
+priestly law. Religious subjects were still painted more frequently than
+others, and the decoration of religious edifices was the chief employment
+of the artists; but they worked with more independence of thought and
+spirit. The painters studied more from nature, and though the change was
+very slow, it is still true that a certain softness of effect, an easy
+flow of drapery, and a new grace of pose did appear, and about A.D. 1350 a
+new idea of the uses and aims of painting influenced artists everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--BIRTH OF THE VIRGIN. _From the Grandes Heures of
+the Duc de Berri._]
+
+About that time they attempted to represent distances, and to create
+different planes in their works; to reproduce such things as they
+represented far more exactly than they had done before, and to put them in
+just relations to surrounding places and objects; in a word, they seemed
+to awake to an appreciation of the true office of painting and to its
+infinite possibilities.
+
+During this Gothic period some of the most exquisite manuscripts were made
+in France and Germany, and they are now the choicest treasures of their
+kind in various European collections.
+
+Fig. 24, of the birth of the Virgin Mary, is from one of the most splendid
+books of the time which was painted for the Duke de Berry and called the
+Great Book of the Hours. The wealth of ornament in the border is a
+characteristic of the French miniatures of the time. The Germans used a
+simpler style, as you will see by Fig. 25, of the Annunciation.
+
+The influence of the Gothic order of architecture upon glass-painting was
+very pronounced. Under this order the windows became much more important
+than they had been, and it was not unusual to see a series of windows
+painted in such pictures as illustrated the whole teaching of the
+doctrines of the church. It was at this time that the custom arose of
+donating memorial windows to religious edifices. Sometimes they were the
+gift of a person or a family, and the portraits of the donors were painted
+in the lower part of the window, and usually in a kneeling posture; at
+other times windows were given by guilds, and it is very odd to see
+craftsmen of various sorts at work in a cathedral window: such pictures
+exist at Chartres, Bourges, Amiens, and other places.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--THE ANNUNCIATION. _From the Mariale of Archbishop
+Arnestus of Prague._]
+
+About A.D. 1300 it began to be the custom to represent architectural
+effects upon colored windows. Our cut is from a window at Konigsfelden,
+and will show exactly what I mean (Fig. 26).
+
+This style of decoration was not as effective as the earlier ones had
+been, and, indeed, from about this time glass-painting became less
+satisfactory than before, from the fact that it had more resemblance to
+panel-painting, and so lost a part of the individuality which had belonged
+to it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--PAINTED WINDOW AT KONIGSFELDEN.]
+
+Wall-paintings were rare in the Gothic period, for its architecture left
+no good spaces where the pictures could be placed, and so the interior
+painting of the churches was almost entirely confined to borders and
+decorative patterns scattered here and there and used with great effect.
+In Germany and England wall-painting was more used for the decoration of
+castles, halls, chambers, and chapels; but as a whole mural painting was
+of little importance at this time in comparison with its earlier days.
+
+About A.D. 1350 panel pictures began to be more numerous, and from this
+time there are vague accounts of schools of painting at Prague and
+Cologne, and a few remnants exist which prove that such works were
+executed in France and Flanders; but I shall pass over what is often
+called the Transitional Period, by which we mean the time in which new
+influences were beginning to act, and hereafter I will tell our story by
+giving accounts of the lives of separate painters; for from about the
+middle of the thirteenth century it is possible to trace the history of
+painting through the study of individual artists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--PORTRAIT OF CIMABUE.]
+
+GIOVANNI CIMABUE, the first painter of whom I shall tell you, was born in
+Florence in 1240. He is sometimes called the "Father of Modern Painting,"
+because he was the first who restored that art to any degree of the
+beauty to which it had attained before the Dark Ages. The Cimabui were a
+noble family, and Giovanni was allowed to follow his own taste, and became
+a painter; he was also skilled in mosaic work, and during the last years
+of his life held the office of master of the mosaic workers in the
+Cathedral of Pisa, where some of his own mosaics still remain.
+
+Of his wall-paintings I shall say nothing except to tell you that the
+finest are in the Upper Church at Assisi, where one sees the first step in
+the development of the art of Tuscany. But I wish to tell the story of one
+of his panel pictures, which is very interesting. It is now in the
+Rucellai Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria Novella, in Florence, and it
+is only just in me to say that if one of my readers walked through that
+church and did not know about this picture, it is doubtful if he would
+stop to look at it--certainly he would not admire it. The story is that
+when Cimabue was about thirty years old he was busy in painting this
+picture of the Madonna Enthroned, and he would not allow any one to see
+what he was doing.
+
+It happened, however, that Charles of Anjou, being on his way to Naples,
+stopped in Florence, where the nobles did everything in their power for
+his entertainment. Among other places they took him to the studio of
+Cimabue, who uncovered his picture for the first time. Many persons then
+flocked to see it, and were so loud in their joyful expressions of
+admiration for it that the part of the city in which the studio was has
+since been called the _Borgo Allegri_, or the "joyous quarter."
+
+When the picture was completed the day was celebrated as a festival; a
+procession was formed; bands of music played joyful airs; the magistrates
+of Florence honored the occasion with their presence; and the picture was
+borne in triumph to the church. Cimabue must have been very happy at this
+great appreciation of his art, and from that time he was famous in all
+Italy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE MADONNA OF THE CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA
+NOVELLA.]
+
+Another madonna by this master is in the Academy of Florence, and one
+attributed to him is in the Louvre, in Paris.
+
+Cimabue died about 1302, and was buried in the Church of Santa Maria del
+Fiore, or the Cathedral of Florence. Above his tomb these words were
+inscribed: "Cimabue thought himself master of the field of painting. While
+living, he was so. Now he holds his place among the stars of heaven."
+
+Other artists who were important in this early time of the revival of
+painting were ANDREA TAFI, a mosaist of Florence, MARGARITONE OF AREZZO,
+GUIDO OF SIENA, and of the same city DUCCIO, the son of Buoninsegna. This
+last painter flourished from 1282 to 1320; his altar-piece for the
+Cathedral of Siena was also carried to its place in solemn procession,
+with the sound of trumpet, drum, and bell.
+
+GIOTTO DI BONDONE was the next artist in whom we have an unusual interest.
+He was born at Del Colle, in the commune of Vespignano, probably about
+1266, though the date is usually given ten years later. One of the best
+reasons for calling Cimabue the "Father of Painting" is that he acted the
+part of a father to Giotto, who proved to be so great an artist that from
+his time painting made a rapid advance. The story is that one day when
+Cimabue rode in the valley of Vespignano he saw a shepherd-boy who was
+drawing a portrait of one of his sheep on a flat rock, by means of a
+pointed bit of slate for a pencil. The sketch was so good that Cimabue
+offered to take the boy to Florence, and teach him to paint. The boy's
+father consented, and henceforth the little Giotto lived with Cimabue, who
+instructed him in painting, and put him to study letters under Brunetto
+Latini, who was also the teacher of the great poet, Dante.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--PORTRAIT OF DANTE, PAINTED BY GIOTTO.]
+
+The picture which we give here is from the earliest work by Giotto of
+which we have any knowledge. In it were the portraits of Dante, Latini,
+and several others. This picture was painted on a wall of the Podest� at
+Florence, and when Dante was exiled from that city his portrait was
+covered with whitewash; in 1841 it was restored to the light, having been
+hidden for centuries. It is a precious memento of the friendship between
+the great artist and the divine poet, who expressed his admiration of
+Giotto in these lines:--
+
+      "In painting Cimabue fain had thought
+         To lord the field; now Giotto has the cry,
+       So that the other's fame in shade is brought."
+
+Giotto did much work in Florence; he also, about 1300, executed frescoes
+in the Lower Church at Assisi; from 1303-1306 he painted his beautiful
+pictures in the Cappella dell' Arena, at Padua, by which the genius of
+Giotto is now most fully shown. He worked at Rimini also, and about 1330
+was employed by King Robert of Naples, who conferred many honors upon him,
+and made him a member of his own household. In 1334 Giotto was made the
+chief master of the cathedral works in Florence, as well as of the city
+fortifications and all architectural undertakings by the city authorities.
+He held this high position but three years, as he died on January 8, 1337.
+
+Giotto was also a great architect, as is well known from his tower in
+Florence, for which he made all the designs and a part of the working
+models, while some of the sculptures and reliefs upon it prove that he was
+skilled in modelling and carving. He worked in mosaics also, and the
+famous "Navicella," in the vestibule of St. Peter's at Rome, was
+originally made by him, but has now been so much restored that it is
+doubtful if any part of what remains was done by Giotto's hands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--GIOTTO'S CAMPANILE AND THE DUOMO. _Florence._]
+
+The works of Giotto are too numerous to be mentioned here, and his
+merits as an artist too important to be discussed in our limits; but his
+advance in painting was so great that he deserved the great compliment of
+Cennino, who said that Giotto "had done or translated the art of painting
+from Greek into Latin."
+
+I shall, however, tell you of one excellent thing that he did, which was
+to make the representation of the crucifix far more refined and
+Christ-like than it had ever been. Before his time every effort had been
+made to picture physical agony alone. Giotto gave a gentle face, full of
+suffering, it is true, but also expressive of tenderness and resignation,
+and it would not be easy to paint a better crucifix than those of this
+master.
+
+In person Giotto was so ugly that his admirers made jokes about it; but he
+was witty and attractive in conversation, and so modest that his friends
+were always glad to praise him while he lived, and since his death his
+fame has been cherished by all who have written of him. There are many
+anecdotes told of Giotto. One is that on a very hot day in Naples, King
+Robert said to the painter, "Giotto, if I were you, I would leave work,
+and rest." Giotto quickly replied, "So would I, sire, _if I were you_."
+
+When the same king asked him to paint a picture which would represent his
+kingdom, Giotto drew an ass bearing a saddle on which were a crown and
+sceptre, while at the feet of the ass there was a new saddle with a
+shining new crown and sceptre, at which the ass was eagerly smelling. By
+this he intended to show that the Neapolitans were so fickle that they
+were always looking for a new king.
+
+There is a story which has been often repeated which says, that in order
+to paint his crucifixes so well, he persuaded a man to be bound to a cross
+for an hour as a model; and when he had him there he stabbed him, in order
+to see such agony as he wished to paint. When the Pope saw the picture he
+was so pleased with it that he wished to have it for his own chapel; then
+Giotto confessed what he had done, and showed the body of the dead man.
+The Pope was so angry that he threatened the painter with the same death,
+upon which Giotto brushed the picture over so that it seemed to be
+destroyed. Then the Pope so regretted the loss of the crucifix that he
+promised to pardon Giotto if he would paint him another as good. Giotto
+exacted the promise in writing, and then, with a wet sponge, removed the
+wash he had used, and the picture was as good as before. According to
+tradition all famous crucifixes were drawn from this picture ever after.
+
+When Boniface VIII. sent a messenger to invite Giotto to Rome, the
+messenger asked Giotto to show him something of the art which had made him
+so famous. Giotto, with a pencil, by a single motion drew so perfect a
+circle that it was thought to be a miracle, and this gave rise to a
+proverb still much used in Italy:--_Piu tondo che l'O di Giotto_, or,
+"Rounder than the O of Giotto."
+
+Giotto had a wife and eight children, of whom nothing is known but that
+his son Francesco became a painter. Giotto died in 1337, and was buried
+with great honors in the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore. Lorenzo de
+Medici erected a monument to his memory. The pupils and followers of
+Giotto were very numerous, and were called Giotteschi; among these TADDEO
+GADDI, and his son AGNOLO, are most famous: others were MASO and BERNARDO
+DI DADDO; but I shall not speak in detail of these artists.
+
+While Giotto was making the art of Florence famous, there was an artist in
+Siena who raised the school of that city to a place of great honor. This
+was SIMONE MARTINI, who lived from 1283 to 1344, and is often called
+SIMONE MEMMI because he married a sister of another painter, LIPPO MEMMI.
+The most important works of Simone which remain are at Siena in the
+Palazzo Pubblico and in the Lower Church at Assisi. There is one
+beautiful work of his in the Royal Institution, at Liverpool, which
+illustrates the text, "Behold, thy father and I have sought Thee,
+sorrowing."
+
+While the Papal court was at Avignon, in 1338, Simone removed to that
+city. Here he became the friend of Petrarch and of Laura, and has been
+praised by this poet as Giotto was by Dante.
+
+Another eminent Florentine artist was ANDREA ORCAGNA, as he is called,
+though his real name was ANDREA ARCAGNUOLO DI CIONE. He was born about
+1329, and died about 1368. It has long been the custom to attribute to
+Orcagna some of the most important frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa;
+but it is so doubtful whether he worked there that I shall not speak of
+them. His father was a goldsmith, and Orcagna first studied his father's
+craft; he was also an architect, sculptor, mosaist, and poet, as well as a
+painter. He made an advance in color and in the painting of atmosphere
+that gives him high rank as a painter; as a sculptor, his tabernacle in
+the Church of Or San Michele speaks his praise. Mr. C. C. Perkins thus
+describes it: "Built of white marble in the Gothic style, enriched with
+every kind of ornament, and storied with bas-reliefs illustrative of the
+Madonna's history from her birth to her death, it rises in stately beauty
+toward the roof of the church, and, whether considered from an
+architectural, sculptural, or symbolic point of view, must excite the
+warmest admiration in all who can appreciate the perfect unity of
+conception through which its bas-reliefs, statuettes, busts, intaglios,
+mosaics, and incrustations of _pietre dure_, gilded glass, and enamels are
+welded into a unique whole."
+
+But perhaps it is as an architect that Orcagna is most interesting to us,
+for he it was who made the designs for the Loggia de Lanzi in Florence.
+This was built as a place for public assembly, and the discussion of the
+topics of the day in rainy weather; it received its name on account of
+its nearness to the German guard-house which was called that of the
+Landsknechts (in German), or Lanzi, as it was given in Italian. Orcagna
+probably died before the Loggia was completed, and his brother Bernardo
+succeeded him as architect of the commune. This Loggia is one of the most
+interesting places in Florence, fully in sight of the Palazzo Signoria,
+near the gallery of the Uffizi, and itself the storehouse of precious
+works of sculpture.
+
+There were also in these early days of the fourteenth century schools of
+art at Bologna and Modena; but we know so little of them in detail that I
+shall not attempt to give any account of them here, but will pass to the
+early artists who may be said to belong to the true Renaissance in Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+PAINTING IN ITALY, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE RENAISSANCE
+TO THE PRESENT CENTURY.
+
+
+The reawakening of Art in Italy which followed the darkness of the Middle
+Ages, dates from about the beginning of the fifteenth century and is
+called the Renaissance. The Italians have a method of reckoning the
+centuries which differs from ours. Thus we call 1800 the first year of the
+nineteenth century, but they call it the first of the eighteenth; so the
+painters of what was to us the fifteenth century are called by Italians
+the "_quattrocentisti_," or men of the fourteenth century, and while to us
+the term "_cinquecento_" means the style of the sixteenth century, to the
+Italians the same century, which begins with 1500, is the fifteenth
+century.
+
+I shall use our own method of reckoning in my writing; but this fact
+should be known to all who read or study art.
+
+The first painter of whom I shall now speak is known to us as FRA
+ANGELICO. His name was Guido, the son of Pietro, and he was born at
+Vicchio in the province of Mugello, in the year 1387. We know that his
+family was in such circumstances that the young Guido could have led a
+life of ease; but he early determined to become a preaching friar.
+Meantime, even as a boy, he showed his taste for art, and there are six
+years in his life, from the age of fourteen to twenty, of which no one can
+tell the story. However, from what followed it is plain that during this
+time he must somewhere have devoted himself to the study of painting and
+to preparation for his life as a monk.
+
+Before he was fully twenty years old, he entered the convent at Fiesole,
+and took the name of Fra, or Brother Giovanni; soon after, his elder
+brother joined him there, and became Fra Benedetto. Later on our artist
+was called Fra Angelico, and again _Il Beato Angelico_, and then,
+according to Italian custom, the name of the town from which he came was
+added, so that he was at last called _Il Beato Giovanni, detto Angelico,
+da Fiesole_, which means, "The Blessed John, called the Angelic, of
+Fiesole." The title _Il Beato_ is usually conferred by the church, but it
+was given to Fra Angelico by the people, because of his saintly character
+and works.
+
+It was in 1407 that Fra Angelico was admitted to the convent in Fiesole,
+and after seven years of peaceful life there he was obliged to flee with
+his companions to Foligno. It was at the time when three different popes
+claimed the authority over the Church of Rome, and the city of Florence
+declared itself in favor of Alexander V.; but the monks of Fiesole adhered
+to Gregory XII., and for this reason were driven from their convent. Six
+years they dwelt at Foligno; then the plague broke out in the country
+about them, and again they fled to Cortona. Pictures painted by Fra
+Angelico at this time still remain in the churches of Cortona.
+
+After an absence of ten years the monks returned to Fiesole, where our
+artist passed the next eighteen years. This was the richest period of his
+life: his energy was untiring, and his zeal both as an artist and as a
+priest burned with a steady fire. His works were sought for far and wide,
+and most of his easel-pictures were painted during this time. Fra Angelico
+would never accept the money which was paid for his work; it was given
+into the treasury of his convent; neither did he accept any commission
+without the consent of the prior. Naturally, the monk-artist executed
+works for the adornment of his own convent. Some of these have been sold
+and carried to other cities and countries, and those which remain have
+been too much injured and too much restored to be considered important
+now.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--FRA ANGELICO. _From the representation of him in
+the fresco of the "Last Judgment," by Fra Bartolommeo, in Santa Maria
+Nuova, Florence._]
+
+He painted so many pictures during this second residence at Fiesole, not
+only for public places, but for private citizens, that Vasari wrote: "This
+Father painted so many pictures, which are dispersed through the houses of
+the Florentines, that sometimes I am lost in wonder when I think how works
+so good and so many could, though in the course of many years, have been
+brought to perfection by one man alone."
+
+In 1436 the great Cosimo de Medici insisted that the monks of Fiesole
+should again leave their convent, and remove to that of San Marco, in
+Florence. Most unwillingly the brethren submitted, and immediately Cosimo
+set architects and builders to work to erect a new convent, for the old
+one was in a ruinous state. The new cloisters offered a noble field to the
+genius of Fra Angelico, and he labored for their decoration with his whole
+soul; though the rule of the order was so strict that the pictures in the
+cells could be seen only by the monks, he put all his skill into them, and
+labored as devotedly as if the whole world could see and praise them, as
+indeed has since been done. His pictures in this convent are so numerous
+that we must not describe them, but will say that the Crucifixion in the
+chapter-room is usually called his masterpiece. It is nearly twenty-five
+feet square, and, besides the usual figures in this subject, the Saviour
+and the thieves, with the executioners, there are holy women, the founders
+of various orders, the patrons of the convent, and companies of saints. In
+the frame there are medallions with several saints and a Sibyl, each
+bearing an inscription from the prophecies relating to Christ's death;
+while below all, St. Dominic, the founder of the artist's order, bears a
+genealogical tree with many portraits of those who had been eminent among
+his followers. For this reason this picture has great historic value.
+
+At last, in 1445, Pope Eugenius IV., who had dedicated the new convent of
+San Marco and seen the works of Angelico, summoned him to Rome. It is said
+that the Pope not only wished for some of his paintings, but he also
+desired to honor Angelico by giving him the archbishopric of Florence; but
+when this high position was offered him, Fra Angelico would not accept of
+it: he declared himself unequal to its duties, and begged the Pope to
+appoint Fra Antonino in his stead. This request was granted, and Angelico
+went on with his work as before, in all humility fulfilling his
+heaven-born mission to lead men to better lives through the sweet
+influence of his divine art.
+
+The honor which had been tendered him was great--one which the noblest men
+were striving for--but if he realized this he did not regret his decision,
+neither was he made bold or vain by the royal tribute which the Pope had
+paid him.
+
+From this time the most important works of Fra Angelico were done in the
+chapel of Pope Nicholas V., in the Vatican, and in the chapel which he
+decorated in the Cathedral of Orvieto. He worked there one summer, and the
+work was continued by Luca Signorelli. The remainder of his life was
+passed so quietly that little can be told of it. It is not even known with
+certainty whether he ever returned to Florence, and by some strange fate
+the key to the chapel which he painted in the Vatican was lost during two
+centuries, and the pictures could only be seen by entering through a
+window. Thus it would seem that his last years were passed in the quiet
+work which he best loved.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--AN ANGEL. _In the Uffizi, Florence. By Fra
+Angelico._]
+
+When his final illness was upon him, the brethren of Santa Maria Sopra
+Minerva, where he resided, gathered about him, and chanted the _Salve
+Regina_. He died on the 18th of February, 1455, when sixty-seven years
+old. His tombstone is in the church of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva, in Rome;
+on it lies the figure of a Dominican monk in marble. Pope Nicholas V.
+wrote his epitaph in Latin. The following translation is by Professor
+Norton:
+
+      "Not mine be the praise that I was a second Apelles,
+       But that I gave all my gains to thine, O Christ!
+       One work is for the earth, another for heaven.
+       The city, the Flower of Tuscany, bore me--John."
+
+In the Convent of San Marco in Florence there are twenty-five pictures by
+this master; in the Academy of Florence there are about sixty; there are
+eleven in the chapel of Nicholas V., and still others in the Vatican
+gallery. The Church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, the Cathedral of
+Orvieto, the Church of St. Domenico in Perugia, and that of Cortona, are
+all rich in his works. Besides these a few exist in some of the principal
+European galleries; but I love best to see them in San Marco, where he
+painted them for his brethren, and where they seem most at home.
+
+The chief merit of the pictures of Fra Angelico is the sweet and tender
+expression of the faces of his angels and saints, or any beings who are
+holy and good; he never succeeded in painting evil and sin in such a way
+as to terrify one; his gentle nature did not permit him to represent that
+which it could not comprehend, and the very spirit of purity seems to
+breathe through every picture.
+
+Two other Florentine artists of the same era with Fra Angelico were
+MASOLINO, whose real name was PANICALE, and TOMMASO GUIDI, called MASACCIO
+on account of his want of neatness. The style of these two masters was
+much the same, but Masaccio became so much the greater that little is
+said of Masolino. The principal works of Masaccio are a series of frescoes
+in the Brancacci Chapel in Florence. They represent "The Expulsion from
+Paradise," "The Tribute Money," "Peter Baptizing," "Peter Curing the Blind
+and Lame," "The Death of Ananias," "Simon Magus," and the "Resuscitation
+of the King's Son." There is a fresco by Masolino in the same chapel; it
+is "The Preaching of Peter." Masaccio was in fact a remarkable painter.
+Some one has said that he seemed to hold Giotto by one hand, and reach
+forward to Raphael with the other; and considering the pictures which were
+painted before his time, his works are as wonderful as Raphael's are
+beautiful. He died in 1429.
+
+PAOLO UCCELLO (1396-1479) and FILIPPO LIPPI (1412-1469) were also good
+painters, and SANDRO BOTTICELLI (1447-1515), a pupil of Filippo, was
+called the best Florentine painter of his time. FILLIPINO LIPPI
+(1460-1505) was a pupil of Botticelli and a very important artist. ANDREA
+VERROCCHIO, LORENZO DI CREDI, and ANTONIO POLLAJUOLO were all good
+painters of the Florentine school of the last half of the fifteenth
+century.
+
+Of the same period was DOMENICO GHIRLANDAJO (1449-1494), who ranks very
+high on account of his skill in the composition of his works and as a
+colorist. He made his pictures very interesting also to those of his own
+time, and to those of later days, by introducing portraits of certain
+citizens of Florence into pictures which he painted in the Church of Santa
+Maria Novella and other public places in the city. He did not usually make
+them actors in the scene he represented, but placed them in detached
+groups as if they were looking at the picture themselves. While his scenes
+were laid in the streets known to us, and his architecture was familiar,
+he did not run into the fantastic or lose the picturesque effect which is
+always pleasing. Without being one of the greatest of the Italian masters
+Ghirlandajo was a very important painter. He was also a teacher of the
+great Michael Angelo.
+
+Other prominent Florentine painters of the close of the fifteenth century
+were FRANCISCO GRANACCI (1477-1543), LUCA SIGNORELLI (1441-1521), BENOZZO
+GOZZOLI (1424-1485), and COSIMO ROSSELLI (1439-1506).
+
+Some good painters worked in Venice from the last half of the fourteenth
+century; but I shall begin to speak of the Venetian school with some
+account of the Bellini. The father of this family was JACOPO BELLINI
+(1395-1470), and his sons were GENTILE BELLINI (1421-1507) and GIOVANNI
+BELLINI (1426-1516).
+
+The sketch-book of the father is one of the treasures of the British
+Museum. It has 99 pages, 17 by 13 inches in size, and contains sketches of
+almost everything--still and animal life, nature, ancient sculpture,
+buildings and human figures, stories of the Scriptures, of mythology, and
+of the lives of the saints are all illustrated in its sketches, as well as
+hawking parties, village scenes, apes, eagles, dogs, and cats. In this
+book the excellence of his drawing is seen; but so few of his works remain
+that we cannot judge of him as a colorist. It is certain that he laid the
+foundation of the excellence of the Venetian school, which his son
+Giovanni and the great Titian carried to perfection.
+
+The elder son, Gentile, was a good artist, and gained such a reputation by
+his pictures in the great council-chamber of Venice, that when, in 1479,
+Sultan Mehemet, the conqueror of Constantinople, sent to Venice for a good
+painter, the Doge sent to him Gentile Bellini. With him he sent two
+assistants, and gave him honorable conduct in galleys belonging to the
+State. In Constantinople Gentile was much honored, and he painted the
+portraits of many remarkable people. At length it happened that when he
+had finished a picture of the head of John the Baptist in a charger, and
+showed it to the Sultan, that ruler said that the neck was not well
+painted, and when he saw that Gentile did not agree with him he called a
+slave and had his head instantly struck off, to prove to the artist what
+would be the true action of the muscles under such circumstances. This act
+made Gentile unwilling to remain near the Sultan, and after a year in his
+service he returned home. Mehemet, at parting, gave him many gifts, and
+begged him to ask for whatever would best please him. Gentile asked but
+for a letter of praise to the Doge and Signoria of Venice. After his
+return to Venice he worked much in company with his brother. It is said
+that Titian studied with Gentile: it is certain that he was always
+occupied with important commissions, and worked until the day of his
+death, when he was more than eighty years old.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--CHRIST. _By Gio. Bellini._]
+
+But Giovanni Bellini was the greatest of his family, and must stand as the
+founder of true Venetian painting. His works may be divided into two
+periods, those that were done before, and those after he learned the use
+of oil colors. His masterpieces, which can still be seen in the Academy
+and the churches of Venice, were painted after he was sixty-five years
+old. The works of Giovanni Bellini are numerous in Venice, and are also
+seen in the principal galleries of Europe. He did not paint a great
+variety of subjects, neither was his imagination very poetical, but there
+was a moral beauty in his figures; he seems to have made humanity as
+elevated as it can be, and to have stopped just on the line which
+separates earthly excellence from the heavenly. He often painted the
+single figure of Christ, of which L�bke says: "By grand nobleness of
+expression, solemn bearing, and an excellent arrangement of the drapery,
+he reached a dignity which has rarely been surpassed." Near the close of
+his life he painted a few subjects which represent gay and festive scenes,
+and are more youthful in spirit than the works of his earlier years. The
+two brothers were buried side by side, in the Church of SS. Giovanni e
+Paolo, in Venice.
+
+There were also good painters in Padua, Ferrara, and Verona in the
+fifteenth century.
+
+ANDREA MANTEGNA, of Padua (1430-1506), was a very important artist. He
+spent the best part of his life in the service of the Duke of Mantua; but
+his influence was felt in all Italy, for his marriage with the daughter of
+Jacopo Bellini brought him into relations with many artists. His services
+were sought by various sovereigns, whose offers he refused until Pope
+Innocent VIII. summoned him to Rome to paint a chapel in the Vatican.
+After two years there he returned to Mantua, where he died. His pictures
+are in all large collections; his finest works are madonnas at the Louvre,
+Paris, and in the Church of St. Zeno at Verona. Mantegna was a fine
+engraver also, and his plates are now very valuable.
+
+In the Umbrian school Pietro Perugino (1446-1524) was a notable painter;
+he was important on account of his own work, and because he was the master
+of the great Raphael. His pictures were simple and devout in their spirit,
+and brilliant in color; in fact, he is considered as the founder of the
+style which Raphael perfected. His works are in the principal galleries of
+Europe, and he had many followers of whom we have not space to speak.
+
+FRANCISCO FRANCIA (1450-1518) was the founder of the school of Bologna.
+His true name was Francisco di Marco Raibolini, and he was a goldsmith of
+repute before he was a painter. He was also master of the mint to the
+Bentivoglio and to Pope Julius II. at Bologna. It is not possible to say
+when he began to paint; but his earliest known work is dated 1490 or 1494,
+and is in the Gallery of Bologna. His pictures resemble those of Perugino
+and Raphael, and it is said that he died of sorrow because he felt himself
+so inferior to the great painter of Urbino. Raphael sent his St. Cecilia
+to Francia, and asked him to care for it and see it hung in its place; he
+did so, but did not live long after this. It is well known that these two
+masters were good friends and corresponded, but it is not certain that
+they ever met. Francia's pictures are numerous; his portraits are
+excellent. Many of his works are still in Bologna.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--MADONNA. _By Perugino. In the Pitti Gallery,
+Florence._]
+
+We come now to one of the most celebrated masters of Italy, LEONARDO DA
+VINCI (1452-1519), the head of the Lombard or Milanese school. He was not
+the equal of the great masters, Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Titian; but
+he stands between them and the painters who preceded him or those of his
+own day.
+
+In some respects, however, he was the most extraordinary man of his time.
+His talents were many-sided; for he was not only a great artist, but also
+a fine scholar in mathematics and mechanics; he wrote poetry and composed
+music, and was with all this so attractive personally, and so brilliant in
+his manner, that he was a favorite wherever he went. It is probable that
+this versatility prevented his being very great in any one thing, while he
+was remarkable in many things.
+
+When still very young Leonardo showed his artistic talent. The paper upon
+which he worked out his sums was frequently bordered with little pictures
+which he drew while thinking on his lessons, and these sketches at last
+attracted his father's attention, and he showed them to his friend Andrea
+Verrocchio, an artist of Florence, who advised that the boy should become
+a painter. Accordingly, in 1470, when eighteen years old, Leonardo was
+placed under the care of Verrocchio, who was like a kind father to his
+pupils: he was not only a painter, but also an architect and sculptor, a
+musician and a geometer, and he especially excelled in making exquisite
+cups of gold and silver, crucifixes and statuettes such as were in great
+demand for the use of the priesthood in those days.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--LEONARDO DA VINCI. _From a drawing in red chalk
+by himself. In the Royal Library, Turin._]
+
+Pietro Perugino was a fellow-pupil with Leonardo, and they two soon
+surpassed their master in painting, and at last, when Verrocchio was
+painting a picture for the monks of Vallambrosa, and desired Leonardo to
+execute an angel in it, the work of his pupil was so much better than his
+own that the old painter desired to throw his brush aside forever. The
+picture is now in the Academy of Florence, and represents "The Baptism
+of Christ." With all his refinement and sweetness, Leonardo had a liking
+for the horrible. It once happened that a countryman brought to his father
+a circular piece of wood cut from a fig-tree, and desired to have it
+painted for a shield; it was handed over to Leonardo, who collected in his
+room a number of lizards, snakes, bats, hedgehogs, and other frightful
+creatures, and from these painted an unknown monster having certain
+characteristics of the horrid things he had about him. The hideous
+creature was surrounded by fire, and was breathing out flames. When his
+father saw it he ran away in a fright, and Leonardo was greatly pleased at
+this. The countryman received an ordinary shield, and this _Rotello del
+Fico_ (or shield of fig-tree wood) was sold to a merchant for one hundred
+ducats, and again to the Duke of Milan for three times that sum. This
+shield has now been lost for more than three centuries; but another
+horror, the "Medusa's Head," is in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, and is
+a head surrounded by interlacing serpents, the eyes being glassy and
+deathlike and the mouth most revolting in expression.
+
+While in Florence Leonardo accomplished much, but was at times diverted
+from his painting by his love of science, sometimes making studies in
+astronomy and again in natural history and botany; he also went much into
+society, and lived extravagantly. He had the power to remember faces that
+he had seen accidentally, and could make fine portraits from memory; he
+was also accustomed to invite to his house people from the lower classes;
+he would amuse them while he sketched their faces, making good portraits
+at times, and again ridiculous caricatures. He even went so far, for the
+sake of his art, as to accompany criminals to the place of execution, in
+order to study their expressions.
+
+After a time Leonardo wished to secure some fixed income, and wrote to the
+Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, called Il Moro, offering his services to
+that prince. This resulted in his going to Milan, where he received a
+generous salary, and became very popular with the Duke and all the court,
+both as a painter and as a gentleman. The Duke governed as the regent for
+his young nephew, and gathered about him talented men for the benefit of
+the young prince. He also led a gay life, and his court was the scene of
+constant festivities. Leonardo's varied talents were very useful to the
+Duke; he could assist him in everything--by advice at his council, by
+plans for adorning his city, by music and poetry in his leisure hours, and
+by painting the portraits of his favorites. Some of these last are now
+famous pictures--that of Lucrezia Crevelli is believed to be in the Louvre
+at Paris, where it is called "La Belle Ferroni�re."
+
+The Duke conferred a great honor on Leonardo by choosing him to be the
+founder and director of an academy which he had long wished to establish.
+It was called the "Academia Leonardi Vinci," and had for its purpose the
+bringing together of distinguished artists and men of letters. Leonardo
+was appointed superintendent of all the f�tes and entertainments given by
+the court, and in this department he did some marvellous things. He also
+superintended a great work in engineering which he brought to perfection,
+to the wonder of all Italy: it was no less an undertaking than bringing
+the waters of the Adda from Mortisana to Milan, a distance of nearly two
+hundred miles. In spite of all these occupations the artist found time to
+study anatomy and to write some valuable works. At length Il Moro became
+the established duke, and at his brilliant court Leonardo led a most
+agreeable life; but he was so occupied with many things that he painted
+comparatively few pictures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--THE LAST SUPPER. _By Leonardo da Vinci._]
+
+At length the Duke desired him to paint a picture of the Last Supper on
+the wall of the refectory in the Convent of the Madonna delle Grazie. This
+was his greatest work in Milan and a wonderful masterpiece. It was
+commenced about 1496, and was finished in a very short time. We must now
+judge of it from copies and engravings, for it has been so injured as to
+give no satisfaction to one who sees it. Some good copies were made before
+it was thus ruined, and numerous engravings make it familiar to all the
+world. A copy in the Royal Academy, London, was made by one of Leonardo's
+pupils, and is the size of the original. It is said that the prior of the
+convent complained to the Duke of the length of time the artist was
+spending upon this picture; when the Duke questioned the painter he said
+that he was greatly troubled to find a face which pleased him for that of
+Judas Iscariot; he added that he was willing to allow the prior to sit for
+this figure and thus hasten the work; this answer pleased the Duke and
+silenced the prior.
+
+After a time misfortunes overtook the Duke, and Leonardo was reduced to
+poverty; finally Il Moro was imprisoned; and in 1500 Leonardo returned to
+Florence, where he was honorably received. He was not happy here, however,
+for he was not the one important artist. He had been absent nineteen
+years, and great changes had taken place; Michael Angelo and Raphael were
+just becoming famous, and they with other artists welcomed Leonardo, for
+his fame had reached them from Milan. However, he painted some fine
+pictures at this time; among them were the "Adoration of the Kings," now
+in the Uffizi Gallery, and a portrait of Ginevra Benci, also in the same
+gallery. This lady must have been very beautiful; Ghirlandajo introduced
+her portrait into two of his frescoes.
+
+But the most remarkable portrait was that known as Mona Lisa del Giocondo,
+which is in the Louvre, and is called by some critics the finest work of
+this master. The lady was the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, a lovely
+woman, and some suppose that she was very dear to Leonardo. He worked upon
+it for four years, and still thought it unfinished: the face has a deep,
+thoughtful expression--the eyelids are a little weary, perhaps, and
+through it all there is a suggestion of something not quite understood--a
+mystery: the hands are graceful and of perfect form, and the rocky
+background gives an unusual fascination to the whole picture. Leonardo
+must have loved the picture himself, and it is not strange that he
+lavished more time upon it than he gave to the great picture of the Last
+Supper (Fig. 37).
+
+Leonardo sold this picture to Francis I. for nine thousand dollars, which
+was then an enormous sum, though now one could scarcely fix a price upon
+it. In 1860 the Emperor of Russia paid twelve thousand dollars for a St.
+Sebastian by Leonardo, and in 1865 a madonna by him was sold in Paris for
+about sixteen thousand dollars. Of course his pictures are rarely sold;
+but, when they are, great sums are given for them.
+
+In 1502 C�sar Borgia appointed Leonardo his engineer and sent him to
+travel through Central Italy to inspect his fortresses; but this usurper
+soon fled to Spain, and in 1503 our painter was again in Florence. In 1504
+his father died. From 1507 to 1512 Leonardo was at the summit of his
+greatness. Louis XII. appointed him his painter, and he labored for this
+monarch also to improve the water-works of Milan. For seven years he dwelt
+at Milan, making frequent journeys to Florence. But the political troubles
+of the time made Lombardy an uncongenial home for any artist, and
+Leonardo, with a few pupils, went to Florence and then on to Rome. Pope
+Leo X. received him cordially enough, and told him to "work for the glory
+of God, Italy, Leo X., and Leonardo da Vinci." But Leonardo was not happy
+in Rome, where Michael Angelo and Raphael were in great favor, and when
+Francis I. made his successes in Italy in 1515, Leonardo hastened to
+Lombardy to meet him. The new king of France restored him to the office to
+which Louis XII. had appointed him, and gave him an annual pension of
+seven hundred gold crowns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--MONA LISA.--"LA BELLE JOCONDE."]
+
+When Francis returned to France he desired to cut out the wall on which
+the Last Supper was painted, and carry it to his own country: this proved
+to be impossible, and it is much to be regretted, as it is probable that
+if it could have been thus removed it would have been better preserved.
+However, not being able to take the artist's great work, the king took
+Leonardo himself, together with his favorite pupils and friends and his
+devoted servant. In France, Leonardo was treated with consideration. He
+resided near Amboise, where he could mingle with the court. It is said
+that, old though he was, he was so much admired that the courtiers
+imitated his dress and the cut of his beard and hair. He was given the
+charge of all artistic matters in France, and doubtless Francis hoped that
+he would found an Academy as he had done at Milan. But he seems to have
+left all his energy, all desire for work, on the Italian side of the Alps.
+He made a few plans; but he brought no great thing to pass, and soon his
+health failed, and he fell into a decline. He gave great attention to
+religious matters, received the sacrament, and then made his will, and put
+his worldly affairs in order.
+
+The king was accustomed to visit him frequently, and on the last day of
+his life, when the sovereign entered the room, Leonardo desired to be
+raised up as a matter of respect to the king: sitting, he conversed of his
+sufferings, and lamented that he had done so little for God and man. Just
+then he was seized with an attack of pain--the king rose to support him,
+and thus, in the arms of Francis, the great master breathed his last. This
+has sometimes been doubted; but the modern French critics agree with the
+ancient writers who give this account of his end.
+
+He was buried in the Church of St. Florentin at Amboise, and it is not
+known that any monument was erected over him. In 1808 the church was
+destroyed; in 1863 Arsine Houssaye, with others, made a search for the
+grave of Leonardo, and it is believed that his remains were found. In
+1873 a noble monument was erected in Milan to the memory of Da Vinci. It
+is near the entrance to the Arcade of Victor Emmanuel: the statue of the
+master stands on a high pedestal in a thoughtful attitude, the head bowed
+down and the arms crossed on the breast. Below are other statues and rich
+bas-reliefs, and one inscription speaks of him as the "Renewer of the Arts
+and Sciences."
+
+Many of his writings are in the libraries of Europe in manuscript form:
+his best known work is the "Trattato della Pittura," and has been
+translated into English. As an engineer his canal of Mortesana was enough
+to give him fame; as an artist he may be called the "Poet of Painters,"
+and, if those who followed him surpassed him, it should be remembered that
+it is easier to advance in a path once opened than to discover a new path.
+Personally he was much beloved, and, though he lived when morals were at a
+low estimate, he led a proper and reputable life. His pictures were pure
+in their spirit, and he seemed only to desire the progress of art and
+science, and it is a pleasure to read and learn of him, as it is to see
+his works.
+
+Other good artists of the Lombard school in the fifteenth century were
+BERNARDINO LUINI (about 1460-1530), who was the best pupil of Leonardo,
+GIOVANNI ANTONIO BELTRAFFIO (1467-1516), GAUDENZIO FARRARI (1484-1549),
+AMBROGIO BORGOGNONE (works dated about 1500), and ANDREA SOLARIO, whose
+age is not known.
+
+We return now to the Florentine school at a time when the most remarkable
+period of its existence was about to begin. We shall speak first of FRA
+BARTOLOMMEO or BACCIO DELLA PORTA, also called IL FRATE (1469-1517). He
+was born at Savignano, and studied at Florence under Cosimo Rosselli, but
+was much influenced by the works of Leonardo da Vinci. This painter became
+famous for the beauty of his pictures of the Madonna, and at the time
+when the great Savonarola went to Florence Bartolommeo was employed in the
+Convent of San Marco, where the preacher lived. The artist became the
+devoted friend of the preacher, and, when the latter was seized, tortured,
+and burned, Bartolommeo became a friar, and left his pictures to be
+finished by his pupil Albertinelli. For four years he lived the most
+austere life, and did not touch his brush: then his superior commanded him
+to resume his art; but the painter had no interest in it. About this time
+Raphael sought him out, and became his friend; he also instructed the monk
+in perspective, and in turn Raphael learned from him, for Fra Bartolommeo
+was the first artist who used lay figures in arranging his draperies; he
+also told Raphael some secrets of colors.
+
+About 1513 Bartolommeo went to Rome, and after his return to his convent
+he began what promised to be a wonderful artistic career; but he only
+lived four years more, and the amount of his work was so small that his
+pictures are now rare. His madonnas, saints, and angels are holy in their
+effect; his representations of architecture are grand, and while his works
+are not strong or powerful, they give much pleasure to those who see them.
+
+MICHAEL ANGELO BUONARROTI was born at the Castle of Caprese in 1475. His
+father, who was of a noble family of Florence, was then governor of
+Caprese and Chiusi, and, when the Buonarroti household returned to
+Florence, the little Angelo was left with his nurse on one of his father's
+estates at Settignano. The father and husband of his nurse were
+stone-masons, and thus in infancy the future artist was in the midst of
+blocks of stone and marble and the implements which he later used with so
+much skill. For many years rude sketches were shown upon the walls of the
+nurse's house made by her baby charge, and he afterward said that he
+imbibed a love for marble with his earliest food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--PORTRAIT OF MICHAEL ANGELO BUONARROTI.]
+
+At the proper age Angelo was taken to Florence and placed in school; but
+he spent his time mostly in drawing, and having made the acquaintance of
+Francesco Granacci, at that time a pupil with Ghirlandajo, he borrowed
+from him designs and materials by which to carry on his beloved pursuits.
+Michael Angelo's desire to become an artist was violently opposed by his
+father and his uncles, for they desired him to be a silk and woollen
+merchant, and sustain the commercial reputation of the family. But so
+determined was he that finally his father yielded, and in 1488 placed him
+in the studio of Ghirlandajo. Here the boy of thirteen worked with great
+diligence; he learned how to prepare colors and to lay the groundwork of
+frescoes, and he was set to copy drawings. Very soon he wearied of this,
+and began to make original designs after his own ideas. At one time he
+corrected a drawing of his master's: when he saw this, sixty years later,
+he said, "I almost think that I knew more of art in my youth than I do in
+my old age."
+
+When Michael Angelo went to Ghirlandajo, that master was employed on the
+restoration of the choir of Santa Maria Novella, so that the boy came at
+once into the midst of important work. One day he drew a picture of the
+scaffolding and all that belonged to it, with the painters at work
+thereon: when his master saw it he exclaimed, "He already understands more
+than I do myself." This excellence in the scholar roused the jealousy of
+the master, as well as of his other pupils, and it was a relief to Michael
+Angelo when, in answer to a request from Lorenzo de Medici, he and
+Francesco Granacci were named by Ghirlandajo as his two most promising
+scholars, and were then sent to the Academy which the duke had
+established. The art treasures which Lorenzo gave for the use of the
+students were arranged in the gardens of San Marco, and here, under the
+instruction of the old Bertoldo, Angelo forgot painting in his enthusiasm
+for sculpture. He first copied the face of a faun; but he changed it
+somewhat, and opened the mouth so that the teeth could be seen. When
+Lorenzo visited the garden he praised the work, but said, "You have made
+your faun so old, and yet you have left him all his teeth; you should have
+known that at such an advanced age there are generally some wanting." The
+next time he came there was a gap in the teeth, and so well done that he
+was delighted. This work is now in the Uffizi Gallery.
+
+Lorenzo now sent for the father of Angelo, and asked that the son might
+live in the Medici palace under his own care. Somewhat reluctantly the
+father consented, and the duke gave him an office in the custom-house.
+From this time for three years, Angelo sat daily at the duke's table, and
+was treated as one of his own family; he was properly clothed, and had an
+allowance of five ducats a month for pocket-money. It was the custom with
+Lorenzo to give an entertainment every day; he took the head of the table,
+and whoever came first had a seat next him. It often happened that Michael
+Angelo had this place. Lorenzo was the head of Florence, and Florence was
+the head of art, poetry, and all scholarly thought. Thus, in the home of
+the Medici, the young artist heard learned talk upon all subjects of
+interest; he saw there all the celebrated men who lived in the city or
+visited it, and his life so near Lorenzo, for a thoughtful youth, as he
+was, amounted to an education.
+
+The society of Florence at this time was not of a high moral tone, and in
+the year in which Michael Angelo entered the palace, a monk called
+Savonarola came to Florence to preach against the customs and the crimes
+of the city. Michael Angelo was much affected by this, and throughout his
+long life remembered Savonarola with true respect and affection, and his
+brother, Leonardo Buonarroti, was so far influenced that he withdrew from
+the world and became a Dominican monk.
+
+Michael Angelo's diligence was great; he not only studied sculpture, but
+he found time to copy some of the fine old frescoes in the Church of the
+Carmine. He gave great attention to the study of anatomy, and he was known
+throughout the city for his talents, and for his pride and bad temper. He
+held himself aloof from his fellow-pupils, and one day, in a quarrel with
+Pi�tro Torrigiano, the latter gave Angelo a blow and crushed his nose so
+badly that he was disfigured for life. Torrigiano was banished for this
+offence and went to England; he ended his life in a Spanish prison.
+
+In the spring of 1492 Lorenzo de Medici died. Michael Angelo was deeply
+grieved at the loss of his best friend; he left the Medici palace, and
+opened a studio in his father's house, where he worked diligently for two
+years, making a statue of Hercules and two madonnas. After two years there
+came a great snow-storm, and Piero de Medici sent for the artist to make a
+snow statue in his court-yard. He also invited Michael Angelo to live
+again in the palace, and the invitation was accepted; but all was so
+changed there that he embraced the first opportunity to leave, and during
+a political disturbance fled from the city with two friends, and made his
+way to Venice. There he met the noble Aldovrandi of Bologna, who invited
+the sculptor to his home, where he remained about a year, and then
+returned to his studio in Florence.
+
+Soon after this he made a beautiful, sleeping Cupid, and when the young
+Lorenzo de Medici saw it he advised Michael Angelo to bury it in the
+ground for a season, and thus make it look like an antique marble; after
+this was done, Lorenzo sent it to Rome and sold it to the Cardinal Riario,
+and gave the sculptor thirty ducats. In some way the truth of the matter
+reached the ears of the Cardinal, who sent his agent to Florence to find
+the artist. When Michael Angelo heard that two hundred ducats had been
+paid for his Cupid, he knew that he had been deceived. The Cardinal's
+agent invited him to go to Rome, and he gladly went. The oldest existing
+writing from the hand of Michael Angelo is the letter which he wrote to
+Lorenzo to inform him of his arrival in Rome. He was then twenty-one years
+old, and spoke with joy of all the beautiful things he had seen.
+
+Not long after he reached Rome he made the statue of the "Drunken
+Bacchus," now in the Uffizi Gallery, and then the Virgin Mary sitting near
+the place of the cross and holding the body of the dead Christ. The
+art-term for this subject is "La Piet�." From the time that Michael Angelo
+made this beautiful work he was the first sculptor of the world, though he
+was but twenty-four years old. The Piet� was placed in St. Peter's Church,
+where it still remains. The next year he returned to Florence. He was
+occupied with both painting and sculpture, and was soon employed on his
+"David," one of his greatest works. This statue weighed eighteen thousand
+pounds, and its removal from the studio in which it was made to the place
+where it was to stand, next the gate of the Palazzo Vecchio, was a
+difficult undertaking. It was at last put in place on May 18, 1504; there
+it remained until a few years ago, when, on account of its crumbling from
+the effect of the weather, it was removed to the Academy of Fine Arts by
+means of a railroad built for the purpose.
+
+About this time a rivalry sprang up between Michael Angelo and Leonardo da
+Vinci. They were very unlike in their characters and mode of life. Michael
+Angelo was bitter, ironical, and liked to be alone; Leonardo loved to be
+gay and to see the world; Michael Angelo lived so that when he was old he
+said, "Rich as I am, I have always lived like a poor man;" Leonardo
+enjoyed luxury, and kept a fine house, with horses and servants. They had
+entered into a competition which was likely to result in serious trouble,
+when Pope Julius II. summoned Michael Angelo to Rome. The Pope gave him an
+order to build him a splendid tomb; but the enemies of the sculptor made
+trouble for him, and one morning he was refused admission to the Pope's
+palace. He then left Rome, sending this letter to the Pope: "Most Holy
+Father, I was this morning driven from the palace by the order of your
+Holiness. If you require me in future you can seek me elsewhere than at
+Rome."
+
+Then he went to Florence, and the Pope sent for him again and again; but
+he did not go. Meantime he finished his design, and received the
+commission that he and Leonardo had striven for, which was to decorate the
+hall of the Grand Council with pictures. At last, in 1506, the Pope was in
+Bologna, and again sent for Michael Angelo. He went, and was forgiven for
+his offence, and received an order for a colossal statue of the Pope in
+bronze. When this was finished in 1508, and put before the Church of St.
+Petronio, Michael Angelo returned to Florence. He had not made friends in
+Bologna; his forbidding manner did not encourage others to associate with
+him; but we now know from his letters that he had great trials. His family
+was poor, and all relied on him; indeed, his life was full of care and
+sadness.
+
+In 1508 he was again summoned to Rome by the Pope, who insisted that he
+should paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican. Michael
+Angelo did not wish to do this, as he had done no great painting. It
+proved to be one of his most famous works; but he had a great deal of
+trouble in it. On one occasion the Pope threatened to throw the artist
+from the scaffolding. The Pope complained also that the pictures looked
+poor; to this the artist replied: "They are only poor people whom I have
+painted there, and did not wear gold on their garments." His subjects were
+from the Bible. When the artist would have a leave of absence to go to
+Florence, the Pope got so angry that he struck him; but, in spite of all,
+this great painting was finished in 1512. Grimm, in his life of Michael
+Angelo, says: "It needed the meeting of these two men; in the one such
+perseverance in requiring, and in the other such power of fulfilling, to
+produce this monument of human art."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--THE PROPHET JEREMIAH. _By M. Angelo. From the
+Sistine Chapel._]
+
+It is impossible here to follow, step by step, the life and works of this
+master. Among the other great things which he did are the tomb of Julius
+II. in the Church of S. Pietro in Vincoli, in Rome, of which the famous
+statue of Moses makes a part (Fig. 40).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--STATUE OF MOSES. _By M. Angelo._]
+
+He made the statues in the Medici Chapel in the Church of San Lorenzo, in
+Florence, the painting of the Last Judgment on a wall of the Sistine
+Chapel, and many works as an architect; for he was called upon to attend
+to fortifications both in Florence and Rome, and at last, as his
+greatest work of this sort, he was the architect of St. Peter's at Rome.
+Many different artists had had a share in this work; but as it now is
+Michael Angelo may be counted as its real architect. His works are
+numerous and only a small part of them is here mentioned; but I have
+spoken of those by which he is most remembered. His life, too, was a
+stormy one for many reasons that we have not space to tell. While he lived
+there were wars and great changes in Italy; he served also under nine
+popes, and during his life thirteen men occupied the papal chair. Besides
+being great as a painter, an architect, and a sculptor, he was a poet, and
+wrote sonnets well worthy of such a genius as his. His whole life was so
+serious and sad that it gives one joy to know that in his old age he
+formed an intimate friendship with Vittoria Colonna, a wonderful woman,
+who made a sweet return to him for all the tender devotion which he
+lavished upon her.
+
+Italians associate the name of Michael Angelo with those of the divine
+poet Dante and the painter Raphael, and these three are spoken of as the
+three greatest men of their country in what are called the modern days.
+Michael Angelo died at Rome in 1564, when eighty-nine years old. He
+desired to be buried in Florence; but his friends feared to let this be
+known lest the Pope should forbid his removal. He was therefore buried in
+the Church of the Holy Apostles; but his nephew, Leonardo Buonarroti,
+conveyed his remains to Florence secretly, disguised as a bale of
+merchandise. At Florence, on a Sunday night, his body was borne to Santa
+Croce, in a torchlight procession, and followed by many thousands of
+citizens. There his friends once more gazed upon the face which had not
+been seen in Florence for thirty years; he looked as if quietly sleeping.
+Some days later a splendid memorial service was held in San Lorenzo,
+attended by all the court, the artists, scholars, and eminent men of the
+city. An oration was pronounced; rare statues and paintings were
+collected in the church; all the shops of the city were closed; and the
+squares were filled with people.
+
+Above his grave in Santa Croce, where he lies near Dante, Machiavelli,
+Galileo, and many other great men, the Duke and Leonardo Buonarroti
+erected a monument. It has statues of Painting, Sculpture, and
+Architecture, and a bust of the great man who sleeps beneath.
+
+In the court of the Uffizi his statue stands together with those of other
+great Florentines. His house in the Ghibelline Street now belongs to the
+city of Florence, and contains many treasured mementoes of his life and
+works; it is open to all who wish to visit it. In 1875 a grand festival
+was held in Florence to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of his
+birth. The ceremonies were very impressive, and at that time some
+documents which related to his life, and had never been opened, were, by
+command of Victor Emmanuel, given to proper persons to be examined.
+
+Thus it is that the great deeds of great men live on and on, through all
+time, and it is a joy to know that though the fourscore and nine years of
+the life of this artist had much of care and sorrow in them, his name and
+memory are still cherished, and must continue to be, while from his life
+many lessons may be drawn to benefit and encourage others--lessons which
+we cannot here write out; but they teach patience, industry, and
+faithfulness to duty, while they also warn us to avoid the bitterness and
+roughness which are blemishes on the memory of this great, good man.
+
+DANIELE DE VOLTERRA (1509-1566) was the best scholar of Michael Angelo.
+His principal pictures are the "Descent from the Cross," in the Church of
+Trinit� di Monti, in Rome, and the "Massacre of the Innocents," in the
+Uffizi Gallery; both are celebrated works.
+
+The next important Florentine painter was ANDREA DEL SARTO (1488-1530).
+His family name was Vannucchi; but because his father was a tailor, the
+Italian term for one of his trade, _un sarto_, came to be used for the
+son. Early in life Andrea was a goldsmith, as were so many artists; but,
+when he was able to study painting under Pietro di Cosimo, he became
+devoted to it, and soon developed his own style, which was very soft and
+pleasing. His pictures cannot be called great works of art, but they are
+favorites with a large number of people. He succeeded in fresco-painting,
+and decorated several buildings in Florence, among them the Scalzo, which
+was a place where the Barefooted Friars held their meetings, and was named
+from them, as they are called _Scalzi_. These frescoes are now much
+injured; but they are thought his best works of this kind.
+
+Probably Andrea del Sarto would have come to be a better painter if he had
+been a happier man. His wife, of whom he was very fond, was a mean,
+selfish woman who wished only to make a great show, and did not value her
+husband's talents except for the money which they brought him. She even
+influenced him to desert his parents, to whom he had ever been a dutiful
+son. About 1518 Francis I., king of France, invited Andrea to Paris to
+execute some works for him. The painter went, and was well established
+there and very popular, when his wife insisted that he should return to
+Florence. Francis I. was very unwilling to spare him, but Andrea dared not
+refuse to go to his wife; so he solemnly took an oath to return to Paris
+and bring his wife, so that he could remain as long as pleased the king,
+and then that sovereign consented. Francis also gave the artist a large
+sum of money to buy for him all sorts of beautiful objects.
+
+When Andrea reached Florence his wife refused to go to France, and
+persuaded him to give her the king's money. She soon spent it, and Andrea,
+who lived ten years more, was very unhappy, while the king never forgave
+him, and to this day this wretched story must be told, and continues the
+remembrance of his dishonesty. After all he had sacrificed for his wife,
+when he became very ill, in 1530, of some contagious disease, she deserted
+him. He died alone, and with no prayer or funeral was buried in the
+Convent of the Nunziata, where he had painted some of his frescoes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--THE MADONNA DEL SACCO. _By Andrea del Sarto._]
+
+His pictures are very numerous; they are correct in drawing, very softly
+finished, and have a peculiar gray tone of color. He painted a great
+number of Holy Families, one of which is called the "Madonna del Sacco,"
+because St. Joseph is leaning on a sack (Fig. 41). This is in the convent
+where he is buried. His best work is called the "Madonna di San Francesco"
+and hangs in the tribune of the Uffizi Gallery. This is a most honorable
+place, for near it are pictures by Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, and
+other great painters, as well as some very celebrated statues, such as the
+"Venus de Medici" and the "Dancing Faun." Andrea del Sarto's pictures of
+the Madonna and Child are almost numberless; they are sweet, attractive
+works, as are also his St. Barbara, St. Agnes, and others of his single
+figures.
+
+We will now leave the Florentine school of the sixteenth century, and
+speak of the great master of the Roman school, RAPHAEL SANZIO, or SANTI
+(1483-1520), who was born at Urbino on Good Friday. His father was a
+painter, and Raphael showed his taste for art very early in life. Both his
+parents died while he was still a child, and though he must have learned
+something from seeing his father and other painters at their work, we say
+that Perugino was his first master, for he was but twelve years old when
+he entered the studio of that painter in Perugia.
+
+Here he remained more than eight years, and about the time of leaving
+painted the very celebrated picture called "Lo Sposalizio," or the
+Marriage of the Virgin, now in the Brera at Milan. This picture is famous
+the world over, and is very important in the life of the painter, because
+it shows the highest point he reached under Perugino, or during what is
+called his first manner in painting. Before this he had executed a large
+number of beautiful pictures, among which was the so-called "Staffa
+Madonna." This is a circular picture and represents the Virgin walking in
+a springtime landscape. It remained in the Staffa Palace in Perugia three
+hundred and sixty-eight years, and in 1871 was sold to the Emperor of
+Russia for seventy thousand dollars.
+
+In 1504 Raphael returned to Urbino, where he became the favorite of the
+court, and was much employed by the ducal family. To this time belong the
+"St. George Slaying the Dragon" and the "St. Michael Attacking Satan," now
+in the gallery of the Louvre. But the young artist soon grew weary of the
+narrowness of his life, and went to Florence, where, amid the treasures of
+art with which that city was crowded, he felt as if he was in an enchanted
+land. It is worth while to recount the wonderful things he saw; they were
+the cathedral with the dome of Brunelleschi, the tower of Giotto, the
+marbles and bronzes of Donatello, the baptistery gates of Ghiberti, the
+pictures of Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, Fra Angelico, and many other older
+masters, while Michael Angelo and Leonardo were surprising themselves and
+all others with their beautiful works.
+
+At this time the second manner of Raphael begun. During his first winter
+here he painted the so-called "Madonna della Gran Duca," now in the Pitti
+Gallery, and thus named because the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III.,
+carried it with him on all his journeys, and said his prayers before it at
+morning and evening. He made a visit to Urbino in 1505, and wherever he
+was he worked continually, and finished a great number of pictures, which
+as yet were of religious subjects with few and unimportant exceptions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--PORTRAIT OF RAPHAEL. _Painted by Himself._]
+
+When he returned to Florence in 1506, the cartoon of Leonardo da Vinci's
+"Battle of the Standard" and Michael Angelo's "Bathing Soldiers" revealed
+a new world of art to Raphael. He saw that heroic, exciting scenes could
+be represented by painting, and that vigor and passion could speak from
+the canvas as powerfully as Christian love and resignation. Still he did
+not attempt any new thing immediately. In Florence he moved in the best
+circles. He received orders for some portraits of nobles and wealthy men,
+as well as for madonnas and Holy Families. Before long he visited Bologna,
+and went again to Urbino, which had become a very important city under the
+reign of Duke Guidobaldo. The king of England, Henry VIII., had sent to
+this duke the decoration of the Order of the Garter. In return for this
+honor, the duke sent the king rich gifts, among which was a picture of St.
+George and the Dragon by Raphael.
+
+While at Urbino, at this time, he painted his first classic subject, the
+"Three Graces." Soon after, he returned the third time to Florence, and
+now held much intercourse with Fra Bartolommeo, who gave the younger
+artist valuable instruction as to his color and drapery. In 1508, among a
+great number of pictures he painted the madonna which is called "La Belle
+Jardini�re," and is now one of the treasures of the Louvre. The Virgin is
+pictured in the midst of a flowery landscape, and it has been said that a
+beautiful flower-girl to whom Raphael was attached was his model for the
+picture. This picture is also a landmark in the history of Raphael, for it
+shows the perfection of his second manner, and the change that had come
+over him from his Florentine experience and associations. His earlier
+pictures had been full of a sweet, unearthly feeling, and a color which
+could be called spiritual was spread over them; now his madonnas were like
+beautiful, earthly mothers, his colors were deep and rich, and his
+landscapes were often replaced by architectural backgrounds which gave a
+stately air where all before had been simplicity. His skill in grouping,
+in color, and in drapery was now marvellous, and when in 1508 the Pope,
+who had seen some of his works, summoned him to Rome, he went, fully
+prepared for the great future which was before him, and now began his
+third, or Roman manner of painting.
+
+This pope was Julius II., who held a magnificent court and was ambitious
+for glory in every department of life--as a temporal as well as a
+spiritual ruler, and as a patron of art and letters as well as in his
+office of the Protector of the Holy Church. He had vast designs for the
+adornment of Rome, and immediately employed Raphael in the decoration of
+the first of the Stanze, or halls of the Vatican, four of which he
+ornamented with magnificent frescoes before his death. He also executed
+wall-paintings in the Chigi Palace, and in a chapel of the Church of Santa
+Maria della Pace.
+
+With the exception of a short visit to Florence, Raphael passed the
+remainder of his life in Rome. The amount of work which he did as an
+architect, sculptor, and painter was marvellous, and would require the
+space of a volume to follow it, and name all his achievements, step by
+step, so I shall only tell you of some of his best-known works and those
+which are most often mentioned.
+
+While he was working upon the halls of the Vatican Julius II. died. He was
+succeeded by Leo X., who also was a generous patron to Raphael, who thus
+suffered no loss of occupation from the change of popes. The artist became
+very popular and rich; he had many pupils, and was assisted by them in his
+great frescoes, not only in the Vatican, but also in the Farnesina Villa
+or Chigi Palace. Raphael had the power to attach men to him with devoted
+affection, and his pupils gave him personal service gladly; he was often
+seen in the street with numbers of them in attendance, just as the nobles
+were followed by their squires and pages. He built himself a house in a
+quarter of the city called the Borgo, not far from the Church of St.
+Peter's, and during the remainder of his life was attended by prosperity
+and success.
+
+One of the important works which he did for Leo X. was the making of
+cartoons, or designs to be executed in tapestry for the decoration of the
+Sistine Chapel, where Michael Angelo had painted his great frescoes. The
+Pope ordered these tapestries to be woven in the looms of Flanders, from
+the richest materials, and a quantity of gold thread was used in them.
+They were completed and sent to Rome in 1519, and were exhibited to the
+people the day after Christmas, when all the city flocked to see them. In
+1527, when the Constable de Bourbon allowed the French soldiers to sack
+Rome, these tapestries were carried away. In 1553 they were restored; but
+one was missing, and it is believed that it had been destroyed for the
+sake of the gold thread which was in it. Again, in 1798, the French
+carried them away and sold them to a Jew in Leghorn, who burned one of the
+pieces; but his gain in gold was so little that he preserved the others,
+and Pius VII. bought them and restored them to the Vatican. The cartoons,
+however, are far more important than the tapestries, because they are the
+work of Raphael himself. The weavers at Arras tossed them aside after
+using them, and some were torn; but a century later the artist Rubens
+learned that they existed, and advised King Charles I. of England to buy
+them. This he did, and thus the cartoons met with as many ups and downs as
+the tapestries had had. When they reached England they were in strips; the
+workmen had cut them for their convenience. After the king was executed
+Cromwell bought the cartoons for three hundred pounds. When Charles II.
+was king and in great need of money he was sorely tempted to sell them to
+Louis XIV., who coveted them, and wished to add them to the treasures of
+France; but Lord Danby persuaded Charles to keep them. In 1698 they were
+barely saved from fire at Whitehall, and finally, by command of William
+III., they were properly repaired and a room was built at Hampton Court to
+receive them, by the architect, Sir Christopher Wren. At present they are
+in the South Kensington Museum, London. Of the original eleven only seven
+remain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE SISTINE MADONNA.]
+
+Both Henry VIII. and Francis I. had received presents of pictures by
+Raphael: we have told of the occasion when the St. George was sent to
+England. The "Archangel Michael" and the "Large Holy Family of the Louvre"
+were given to Francis I. by Lorenzo de Medici, who sent them overland on
+mules to the Palace of Fontainebleau. Francis was so charmed with these
+works that he presented Raphael so large a sum that he was unwilling to
+accept it without sending the king still other pictures; so he sent the
+sovereign another painting, and to the king's sister, Queen Margaret of
+Navarre, he gave a picture of St. Margaret overcoming the dragon. Then
+Francis gave Raphael many thanks and another rich gift of money. Besides
+this he invited Raphael to come to his court, as did also the king of
+England; but the artist preferred to remain where he was already so
+prosperous and happy.
+
+About 1520 Raphael painted the famous Sistine Madonna, now the pride of
+the Dresden Gallery. It is named from St. Sixtus, for whose convent, at
+Piacenza, it was painted: the picture of this saint, too, is in the lower
+part of the picture, with that of St. Barbara. No sketch or drawing of
+this work was ever found, and it is believed that the great artist,
+working as if inspired, sketched it and finished it on the canvas where it
+is. It was originally intended for a _drappellone_, or procession
+standard, but the monks used it for an altar-piece (Fig. 43).
+
+While Raphael accomplished so much as a painter, he by no means gave all
+his time or thought to a single art. He was made superintendent of the
+building of St. Peter's in 1514, and made many architectural drawings for
+that church; he was also much interested in the excavations of ancient
+Rome, and made immense numbers of drawings of various sorts. As a sculptor
+he made models and designs, and there is in the Church of Santa Maria del
+Popolo, in Rome, a statue of Jonah sitting on a whale, said to have been
+modelled by Raphael and put into marble by Lorenzetto Latti.
+
+Raphael was also interested in what was happening outside the world of
+art; he corresponded with scholars of different countries, and sent men to
+make drawings of places and objects which he could not go to see. He was
+also generous to those less fortunate than himself, and gave encouragement
+and occupation to many needy men.
+
+At one time he expected to marry Maria de Bibiena, a niece of Cardinal
+Bibiena; but she died before the time for the marriage came.
+
+While Raphael was making his great successes in Rome, other famous artists
+also were there, and there came to be much discussion as to their merits,
+and especially as to the comparative worth of Michael Angelo and Raphael.
+At last, when this feeling of rivalry was at its height, the Cardinal
+Giulio de Medici, afterward Pope Clement VII., gave orders to Raphael and
+Sebastian del Piombo to paint two large pictures for the Cathedral of
+Narbonne. The subject of Sebastian's picture was the "Raising of Lazarus,"
+and it has always been said that Michael Angelo made the drawing for it.
+
+Raphael's picture was the "Transfiguration," and proved to be his last
+work, for before it was finished he was attacked by fever, and died on
+Good Friday, 1620, which was the thirty-seventh anniversary of his birth.
+All Rome mourned for him; his body was laid in state, and the
+Transfiguration was placed near it. Those who had known him went to weep
+while they gazed upon his face for the last time.
+
+He had chosen his grave in the Pantheon, near to that of Maria Bibiena,
+his betrothed bride. The ceremonies of his burial were magnificent, and
+his body was followed by an immense throng dressed in mourning. Above his
+tomb was placed an inscription in Latin, written by Pietro Bembo, which
+has for its last sentence these words: "This is that Raphael by whom
+Nature feared to be conquered while he lived, and to die when he died."
+Raphael had also requested Lorenzo Lorenzetti to make a statue of the
+Virgin to be placed above his resting-place. He left a large estate, and
+gave his works of art to his pupils Giulio Romano and Francesco Penni; his
+house to Cardinal Bibiena; a sum to buy another house, the rent of which
+should pay for twelve masses to be said monthly, for the repose of his
+soul, from the altar near his grave; this was observed until 1705, when
+the income from the house was not enough to support these services.
+
+For many years there was a skull at the Academy of St. Luke, in Rome,
+which was called that of Raphael; but there was no proof of this, and in
+1833 some antiquarians received the consent of the Pope to their searching
+for the bones of Raphael in his grave in the Pantheon. After five days of
+careful work, and removing the pavement in several places, the skeleton of
+the great master was found, and with it such proofs of its being his as
+left no room for doubt. Then a second great funeral service was held; the
+Pope, Gregory XVI., gave a marble sarcophagus in which the bones were
+placed, and reverently restored to their first resting-place. More than
+three thousand persons were present at the service, including artists of
+all nations, as well as Romans of the highest rank. They moved in
+procession about the church, bearing torches in their hands, and keeping
+time to beautiful chants from an invisible choir.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--SAINT CECILIA LISTENING TO THE SINGING OF ANGELS.
+_By Raphael._]
+
+Raphael left two hundred and eighty-seven pictures and five hundred and
+seventy-six studies and drawings, and all done in so short a life. In
+considering him and the story of his life, we find that it was not any one
+trait or talent that made his greatness; but it was the rare union of
+gifts of genius with a personal charm that won all hearts to him. His
+famous picture of "St. Cecilia," with its sweetness of expression and
+lovely color--its union of earthly beauty with spiritual feeling, is a
+symbol of the harmonious and varied qualities of this prince of painters
+(Fig. 44).
+
+GIULIO ROMANO (1492-1556) was the favorite pupil of Raphael, and the heir
+of a part of his estate; but his remaining works would not repay us for a
+study of them.
+
+Of course, the influence of so great a master as Raphael was felt outside
+of his own school, and, in a sense, all Italian art of his time was
+modified by him. His effect was very noticeable upon a Sienese painter,
+BAZZI, or RAZZI, called IL SODOMA (1477-1549), who went to Rome and was
+under the immediate influence of Raphael's works. He was almost unrivalled
+in his power to represent beautiful female heads.
+
+His important works were frescoes, many of which are in the churches of
+Siena. Doubtless Bazzi was lost in the shadow of the great Raphael, and
+had he existed at a time a little more distant from that great man, he
+would have been more famous in his life.
+
+During the sixteenth century the Venetian school reached its highest
+excellence. The great difference between it and the school of Florence
+was, that the latter made beauty of form the one object of its art, while
+the Venetian painters combined with grace and ease the added charm of
+rich, brilliant color.
+
+GIORGIO BARBARELLI, called GIORGIONE (1477-1511), was the first great
+artist of Venice who cast off the rigid manner of the Bellini school, and
+used his brush and colors freely, guided only by his own ideas, and
+inspired by his own genius.
+
+He was born at Castelfranco, and was early distinguished for his personal
+beauty. Giorgione means George the Great, and this title was given him on
+account of his noble figure. He was fond of music, played the lute well,
+and composed many of the songs he sang; he had also an intense love of
+beauty--in short, his whole nature was full of sentiment and harmony, and
+with all these gifts he was a man of pure life. Mrs. Jameson says of him:
+"If Raphael be the Shakspeare, then Giorgione may be styled the Byron of
+painting."
+
+There is little that can be told of his life. He was devoted to his art,
+and passionately in love with a young girl, of whom he told one of his
+artist friends, Morto da Feltri. This last proved a traitor to Giorgione,
+for he too admired the same girl, and induced her to forsake Giorgione,
+and go away with him. The double treachery of his beloved and his friend
+caused the painter such grief that he could not overcome his sadness, and
+when the plague visited Venice in 1511, he fell a victim to it in the very
+flower of his age.
+
+Much of the work of Giorgione has disappeared, for he executed frescoes
+which the damp atmosphere of Venice has destroyed or so injured that they
+are of no value. His smaller pictures were not numerous, and there is much
+dispute as to the genuineness of those that are called by his name. He
+painted very few historical subjects; his works are principally portraits,
+sibyls, and religious pictures. Among the last, the altar-piece at
+Castelfranco holds the first place; it represents the Virgin and Child
+between Sts. Francis and Liberale, and was painted before 1504.
+
+Giorgione gave an elevated tone to his heads and figures; it seemed as if
+he painted only the beings of a superior race, and as if they must all be
+fitted to do great deeds. His fancy was very fruitful, and in some of his
+works he pictured demons, sea-monsters, dogs, apes, and such creatures
+with great effect. In clearness and warmth of color Giorgione is at the
+head of the Venetian painters; in truth, it seems as if the color was
+within them and showed itself without in a deep, luminous glow.
+
+The most important of Giorgione's scholars was called FRA SEBASTIANO DEL
+PIOMBO; his real name was _Luciani_, and he was a native of Venice
+(1485-1547). This artist excelled in his coloring and in the effect he
+gave to the atmosphere of his work, making it a broad _chiaro-scuro_, or
+clear-obscure, as it really means. This is an art term which is frequently
+used, and denotes a sort of mistiness which has some light in it, and is
+gradually shaded off, either into a full light or a deep shadow. But from
+the earliest efforts of this artist, it was plain that he had no gift of
+composition, neither could he give his pictures an elevated tone or
+effect. For this reason his portraits were his best works, and these were
+very fine.
+
+A portrait of his in the National Gallery, London, and another in the
+St�del Gallery at Frankfort, are both said to be of Giulia Gonzaga, the
+most beautiful woman of her day in Italy. In 1553, Ippolito de Medici, who
+was madly in love with her, sent Sebastian with an armed force to Fondi to
+paint her portrait; it was finished in a month, and was said to be the
+best ever painted by Sebastian. It was sent to France as a gift to Francis
+I., and its present abiding-place is not known.
+
+While Raphael was at the height of his fame in Rome, the banker Chigi
+invited Sebastian to that city, and in the Farnesina he painted works
+which were very inferior beside Raphael's. Then Sebastian tried to improve
+by study under Michael Angelo. This last great master would not compete
+with Raphael himself, but he was very jealous of the fame of the younger
+man, and it is said that he aided Sebastian, and even made his designs for
+him, in the hopes that thus he might eclipse Raphael. We have spoken of
+one large picture of the "Raising of Lazarus" said to have been made from
+Michael Angelo's design, which Sebastian colored; it was painted in
+competition with Raphael's Transfiguration, and even beside that most
+splendid work the Lazarus was much admired. This is now in the National
+Gallery, London.
+
+After Raphael's death Sebastian was called the first painter in Rome, and
+was made a _piombatore_. It was necessary to be an ecclesiastic to hold
+this office, and it is on account of this that he gave up his real name,
+and became a friar. He wrote to Michael Angelo: "If you were to see me as
+an honorable lord, you would laugh at me. I am the finest ecclesiastic in
+all Rome. Such a thing had never come into my mind. But God be praised in
+eternity! He seemed especially to have thus decreed it. And, therefore, so
+be it." It is not strange that he should have been so resigned to a high
+office and a salary of eight hundred scudi a year!
+
+Another Venetian, of the same time with Giorgione, was JACOPO PALMA,
+called IL VECCHIO, or the elder (about 1480-1528). He was born near
+Bergamo, but as an artist he was a Venetian. We do not know with whom he
+studied, and he was not a very great man, nor was he employed by the
+state--but he dwelt much in the palaces of noble families and did much
+work for them. When he died he left forty-four unfinished paintings.
+
+His female figures are his best works, and one of his fine pictures at
+Dresden, called the "Three Graces," is said to represent his daughters.
+The work which is usually called his masterpiece is an altar-piece in the
+Church of Santa Maria Formosa, in Venice; the St. Barbara in the centre is
+very beautiful, and is said to have been painted from his daughter
+Violante.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--PORTRAIT OF TITIAN. _From the etching by Agostino
+Caracci._]
+
+The greatest master of the Venetian school is called TITIAN, though his
+real name was TIZIANO VECELLI, and sometimes Cadore is added to this,
+because of his having been born in that village (1477-1576). His family
+was noble and their castle was called Lodore, and was in the midst of a
+large estate surrounded by small houses; in one of these last, which is
+still preserved, the painter was born.
+
+As a child he was fond of drawing, and so anxious to color his pictures
+that he squeezed the juices from certain flowers, and used them as paints.
+When but nine years old he was taken to Venice to study, and from this
+time was called a Venetian; he is said by some writers to be the first
+portrait-painter of the world.
+
+He first studied under Sebastian Zuccato, and then under the Bellini,
+where he was a fellow-pupil with Giorgione, and the two became devoted
+friends, at the time when they were just coming to be men and were filled
+with glad hopes of future greatness. After a time, when Titian was about
+thirty years old, the two were employed on the "Fondaco dei Tedeschi," or
+the exchange for German merchants in Venice. Here the frescoes of Titian
+were more admired than those of Giorgione, and the latter became so
+jealous that they ceased to live together, as they had done, and there is
+cause for believing that they were never good friends again. But after the
+early death of Giorgione, Titian completed the works he had left
+unfinished, and, no doubt, sincerely mourned for him.
+
+One of the most celebrated pictures by Titian is the Presentation in the
+Temple, which was painted for the Church of the Brotherhood of Charity,
+called in Italian "La Scuola della Carit�;" this church is now the Academy
+of Fine Arts in Venice, where the picture still remains. It represents the
+Virgin Mary when three years old entering the temple and the high priest
+receiving her at the entrance. All around below the steps is a company of
+friends who have been invited by her father and mother to attend them on
+this important occasion. The picture is full of life and action, and is
+gorgeous in its coloring. Several of the figures are said to be
+portraits, one being that of Titian himself.
+
+Among his female portraits, that of Caterina Cornaro, Queen of Cyprus, is
+celebrated; also one called "Flora;" both of these are in the Uffizi
+Gallery, in Florence, while near by, in the Pitti, is "La Bella," or the
+beautiful lady of Titian. He also made many portraits of his daughter
+Lavinia, who was very beautiful; sometimes he represented her as a fruit
+or flower-girl, again as Herodias and in various characters (Fig. 46). One
+of the finest of these is at Berlin, where she is in a very rich dress,
+and holds up a plate of fruit; it is one of his best works.
+
+Titian's fame extended throughout Italy, and even all over Europe, and the
+Duke of Ferrara invited him to his court. The artist went, and there
+painted two very famous mythological pictures, besides portraits and other
+works. One of these important subjects was "Bacchus and Ariadne," and it
+is now in the National Gallery, London; the second was a Venus, surrounded
+by more than sixty children and cupids; some are climbing trees, others
+shoot arrows in the air, while still others twine their arms around each
+other; this is now in Madrid.
+
+While at Ferrara the Pope, Leo X., asked Titian to go to Rome; but he
+longed for his home--he wished for his yearly visit to Cadore, and he
+declined the honorable invitation, and returned to Venice. In 1530
+Titian's wife died, leaving him with two sons, Pomponio and Orazio, and
+his daughter, Lavinia. In this same sad year the Emperor Charles V. and
+Pope Clement VII. met at Bologna. All the most brilliant men of Germany
+and Italy were also there, and Titian was summoned to paint portraits of
+the two great heads of Church and State, and of many of the notable men
+among their followers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--PORTRAIT OF LAVINIA. _By Titian._]
+
+When the painter returned to Venice he was loaded with honors and riches.
+He bought a new house at Berigrande, opposite the island of Murano; it
+commanded fine views and its garden was beautiful. The landscapes of his
+pictures soon grew better than they had been, and no wonder, when he could
+always see the Friuli Alps in the distance with their snow-capped peaks
+rising to the clouds; nearer him was the Murano, like another city with
+its towers and domes, and then the canals, which at night were gay with
+lighted gondolas bearing fair ladies hither and thither. Here Titian
+entertained many people, and some of them were exalted in station. The
+house was called "Casa Grande," and on one occasion, when a cardinal and
+others invited themselves to dine with him, Titian flung a purse to his
+steward, saying, "Now prepare a feast, since all the world dines with me."
+
+While living at "Casa Grande," the artist saw the most glorious years of
+his life. It seemed that every person of note in all Europe, both men and
+women, desired their portraits at his hand. One only, Cosmo I., Grand Duke
+of Florence, refused to sit to him. If these pictures could be collected
+together, most of the famous persons of his time would be represented in
+them.
+
+After he was sixty years old Titian made a second journey to Ferrara,
+Urbino, and Bologna. This time he painted a portrait of Charles V., with a
+favorite dog by his side. After this, in 1545, at an invitation from Pope
+Paul III., the great master went to Rome; while there he painted many
+wonderful pictures--among them, one of the pope with his two grandsons was
+very remarkable; it is now in the Museum of Naples. He left Rome when he
+was sixty-nine years old.
+
+In 1548 Charles V. summoned Titian to Augsburg, and while there made him a
+count, and gave him a yearly pension of two hundred gold ducats. The
+emperor was very fond of Titian, and spent a good deal of time with him.
+On one occasion the painter dropped his brush; the emperor picked it up,
+and returned it to him. The etiquette of courts forbade any one to receive
+such a service from the sovereign, and Titian was much embarrassed, when
+Charles said, "Titian is worthy to be served by C�sar," this being one of
+the great ruler's titles. Charles continued his favors to Titian through
+life, and when he resigned his crown, and retired to the monastery of
+Yuste, he took nine pictures by this master into his solitude. One of
+these, a portrait of the Empress Isabella, was so hung that the emperor
+gazed upon it when dying; this is now in the museum at Madrid, where are
+also many fine works by Titian, for Philip II. was his patron as his
+father had been.
+
+When eighty-five years old he finished his wonderful picture of the
+"Martyrdom of St. Lawrence" for the Church of the Jesuits in Venice, and
+his old age was one of strength and mental clearness. Though he had seen
+great prosperity and received many honors, he had not escaped sorrow.
+After the death of his wife, his sister Orsa, who was very dear to him,
+had kept his house; she too sickened and died; his son Pomponio was a
+worthless fellow, and caused him much grief; Lavinia had married, and the
+old man was left with Orazio alone, who was a dutiful son. He also was an
+artist, but painted so frequently on the same canvas with his father that
+his works cannot be spoken of separately.
+
+At length Titian's work began to show his years, and some one told him
+that his "Annunciation" did not resemble his usual pictures. He was very
+angry, and, seizing a pencil, wrote upon it, "_Tizianus fecit
+fecit_"--meaning to say by this, "Truly, Titian did this!" When he was
+ninety-six years old he was visited by Henry III. of France, attended by a
+train of princes and nobles. The aged painter appeared with such grace and
+dignity as to excite the admiration of all, and when the king asked the
+price of some pictures, Titian presented them to him as one sovereign
+might make a gift to another who was his equal, and no more.
+
+In 1576 the plague broke out in Venice, and both Titian and Orazio fell
+victims to it. Naturally the man of ninety-eight years could not recover,
+and, though Orazio was borne off to the hospital and cared for as well as
+possible, he also died. After Titian was left alone robbers entered his
+house while he still lived, and carried away jewels, money, and pictures.
+He died August 27th, and all Venice mourned for him.
+
+There was a law that no person who died of the plague in Venice should be
+buried within the city; but Titian was so much honored and beloved that
+exception was made, and he was buried in the Church of Santa Maria
+Gloriosa de Frari; or as it is usually called, "the Frari." He had painted
+a great picture of the Assumption for this church, which has since been
+removed to the Academy of Venice; but another work of his, called the
+Pesaro altar-piece, still remains near his grave. His burial-place is
+marked by a simple tablet, inscribed thus: "Here lies the great Tiziano di
+Vecelli, rival of Zeuxis and Apelles."
+
+A little more than two centuries after his death the citizens of Venice
+determined to erect a monument to Titian, and Canova made a design for it;
+but political troubles interfered, and prevented the execution of the
+plan. In 1852 the Emperor of Austria, Ferdinand I., placed a costly
+monument near his grave; it consists of a Corinthian canopy beneath which
+is a sitting statue of the painter, while several other allegorical
+figures are added to increase its magnificence. This monument was
+dedicated with imposing ceremonies, and it is curious to note that not far
+away from it the sculptor Canova is buried, and his own monument is made
+from the design which he made for that of Titian.
+
+Some writers consider the "Entombment of Christ," in the Manfrini Palace,
+as the greatest work of Titian. At all events, it is the best existing
+representation of this subject, and is a picture which has had a great
+effect upon art; its chief feature is the general expression of sorrow
+which pervades the whole work.
+
+Titian gave a new importance to landscape-painting by making backgrounds
+to his pictures from natural scenery, and that not as if it was merely for
+the sake of a background, but in a manner which showed his love for
+Nature, and, in fact, he often rendered it with poetical significance.
+
+The works of Titian are very seldom sold. One subject which he oftentimes
+repeated was that of "Dan�e" with the shower of gold falling about her;
+one of these was purchased by the Emperor of Russia for six hundred
+thousand francs. One of the most important of his religious pictures was
+that of "St. Peter Martyr;" this was burned in the Church of SS. Giovanni
+e Paolo in Venice in 1868. An excellent copy of it had been for a long
+time in the Museum of Florence, and this was presented to the Venetians in
+order to repair their loss as far as possible. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia
+presented nine pictures by Titian to the Duke of Marlborough, and these
+were all destroyed in 1861 when the ch�teau of Blenheim was burned. Kugler
+says: "In the multifariousness of his powers Titian takes precedence of
+all other painters of his school; indeed, there is scarcely a line of art
+which in his long and very active life he did not enrich." His last work
+was not quite completed by himself, and is now in the Academy of Venice.
+It is a Piet�, and although the hand of ninety-eight years guided the
+brush uncertainly, yet it has the wonderful light this master threw around
+his figures, and the whole is conceived with his accustomed animation.
+
+The pupils and followers of Titian were too numerous to be spoken of one
+by one, and none of them were so great as to require their mention in
+detail here; yet they were so good that, while the other schools of Italy
+were decreasing in importance during the sixteenth century, that of
+Venice was flourishing, and some great masters still existed there. Among
+these was JACOPO ROBUSTI (1512-1594), who was called, and is best known as
+Tintoretto, which name was given him because his father was a dyer. He
+studied under Titian for a time, and then he attempted to follow Michael
+Angelo, and it is said that his motto was, "The coloring of Titian, the
+drawing of Michael Angelo." His best pictures are slightly treated, and
+others are coarse and unfinished in the manner of painting. His portraits
+seem to be his best works, probably because they are more carefully
+finished.
+
+Several works of his are simply enormous; one is seventy-four by thirty
+feet; the school of St. Roch has fifty-seven large pictures by him, in
+many of which the figures are of life size. His two most famous works are
+the "Miracle of St. Mark," in the Academy of Venice, and the
+"Crucifixion," in the school of St. Roch. The last is, for every reason,
+his best work; there are crowds of people in it, on foot and on horseback,
+while their faces show every possible kind of expression, and their
+movements are infinitely varied. The immense painting mentioned above is
+in the Doge's Palace, and is called "Paradise." His daughter, MARIETTA
+ROBUSTI (1560-1590), was a pupil of her father's, and became so good a
+portrait-painter that she was invited to the Court of Spain by Philip II.,
+but her father could not consent to a separation from her. Some excellent
+pictures of hers still exist, and her portraits of Marco dei Vescovi and
+the antiquarian Strada were celebrated pictures. When the Emperor
+Maximilian and the Archduke Ferdinand, each in turn, desired her presence
+at their courts, her father hastened to marry her to Mario Augusti, a
+wealthy German jeweller, upon the condition that she should remain in her
+father's house. She was celebrated for her beauty, had fine musical
+talents, and was sprightly and enthusiastic; her father was so fond of
+having her with him that he sometimes allowed her to dress as a boy, and
+go with him to study where young girls were not admitted.
+
+When but thirty years old Marietta Robusti died; she was buried in the
+Church of Santa Maria dell Orto, where are several works by her father.
+Both he and her husband mourned for her all their remaining days. Many
+pictures of Tintoretto painting his daughter's portrait after her death
+have been made by later artists.
+
+PAOLI CAGLIARI, or CALIARI, called PAUL VERONESE (1528-1588), was born at
+Verona, but as he lived mostly at Venice, he belongs to the school of that
+city. He was an imitator of Titian, whom he did not equal; still he was a
+fine painter. His excellences were in his harmonious color, his good
+arrangement of his figures in the foreground, and his fine architectural
+backgrounds. He tried to make his works magnificent, and to do this he
+painted festive scenes, with many figures in splendid costumes. He is
+buried in the Church of St. Sebastian, where there are many of his works.
+
+In the gallery of the Louvre is his "Marriage at Cana." It is thirty by
+twenty feet in size, and many of its figures are portraits. His pictures
+are numerous and are seen in the European galleries. The "Family of
+Darius," in the National Gallery, London, cost that institution the
+enormous sum of thirteen thousand six hundred and fifty pounds; it was
+formerly in the Pisani Palace, Venice, and was said to have been left
+there by Veronese as payment for his entertainment during a visit he had
+made in the palace. In 1868, at the Demidoff sale, a portrait of his
+daughter sold for two thousand five hundred and twenty-four pounds.
+
+At the close of the sixteenth century a family of a father and four sons
+were busy painting what may rightfully be termed the earliest _genre_
+pictures of Italy. This term is used to denote pictures that stand
+between historical and utterly imaginary subjects; that is to say, the
+representation of something that seems real to us because it is so
+familiar to our imagination, or because it is something that we know might
+have happened, that it has all the naturalness of an actual reproduction
+of a fact. There may be interior or landscape _genre_ pictures. The first
+represent familiar in-door scenes--the latter are landscapes with animals
+or figures to give a life element and to tell a story.
+
+The name of the family of which I speak was Da Ponte, but it was called
+Bassano, from the birth-place of JACOPO DA PONTE BASSANO (1510-1592), the
+father, who was the most important of the family. He studied in Venice,
+but returned to his native town. His portraits are fine; among them are
+those of the Doge of Venice, Ariosto, and Tasso. His works are very
+numerous and are seen in all galleries. He introduced landscapes and
+animals into most of his pictures, sometimes with great impropriety.
+
+We come now to ANTONIO ALLEGRI, called CORREGGIO (1493-1534), who was born
+at the end of the fifteenth, but did his work in the beginning of the
+sixteenth century. His name of Correggio is that of his birth-place, and
+as he was not born at any of the great art centres, and did not adopt the
+precise manner of any school, he, with his followers, stand by themselves,
+and yet, because his principal works were done at Parma, he is sometimes
+said to be of the school of Parma.
+
+When Correggio was thirteen years old he had learned to draw well. He
+studied under Andrea Mantegna and his son Francesco Mantegna. From these
+masters he learned to be very skilful in drawing, especially in
+foreshortening, or in representing objects seen aslant. But though he
+learned much of the science of art from his teachers, his grace and
+movement and his exquisite light and shade are all his own, for they did
+not possess these qualities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--PORTRAIT OF CORREGGIO.]
+
+Foreshortening is so important that I must try to explain it; and, as
+Correggio is said to be the greatest master in this art since the days of
+the Greeks, it is quite proper for me to speak of it in connection with
+him. The art of foreshortening is that which makes different objects
+painted on a plane or flat surface appear as if they were at different
+distances from the eye of the person who is looking at the picture, or as
+scenes in nature appear, where one part is much farther off than another.
+To produce this effect it is often necessary to make an object--let us
+say, for example, an arm or a leg, look as if it was stretched forward,
+out of the canvas, directly toward the person who is looking at it. Now,
+the truth is that in order to produce this effect the object is often
+thrown backward in the drawing; sometimes also it is doubled up in an
+unnatural manner, and occupies a small space on the canvas, while it
+appears to be of life size when one looks at it. A "Christ in Glory"
+painted by Correggio in the cupola of the Church of San Giovanni
+Evangelista, in Parma, is a fine piece of foreshortening. The head is so
+thrown back, and the knees are so thrown forward, that the whole figure
+seems to be of life size; yet if the space from the top of the head to the
+soles of the feet were measured, it would be found to be much less than
+the height of the same figure would be if it were drawn in an erect
+position.
+
+I have already explained the meaning of chiaro-scuro, and this delicate
+manner of passing from light to shade was another quality in the works of
+Correggio. It is even seen in his early works, as, for instance, in the
+beautiful Madonna di San Francesco, now at Dresden, which he painted when
+he was but eighteen years old.
+
+When this master was twenty-six years old he married Girolama Nurlini, and
+about the same time he was summoned to Mantua by the Duke Federigo
+Gonzaga. During eleven years after his marriage he was occupied with works
+in Mantua, and with his great frescoes at Parma. In 1530 he returned to
+Correggio, and there passed the remainder of his life. That he held a high
+position is proved by certain records of his life, among which is the fact
+that in 1533 he was invited to be one of the witnesses of the marriage of
+the Lord of Correggio.
+
+It is said that when this painter saw one of the great works of Raphael,
+he exclaimed, enthusiastically and thankfully, "I, too, am a painter!" and
+no doubt he then felt himself moved to attempt such works as should make
+his name known to all the world through future centuries. When Titian saw
+Correggio's frescoes at Parma, he said: "Were I not Titian, I should wish
+to be Correggio." Annibale Caracci, also a great artist, said of
+Correggio, more than a hundred years after his death, "He was the only
+painter!" and declared that the children he painted seemed to breathe and
+smile with such grace that one was forced to smile and be happy with them.
+
+In 1534 Correggio died of a fever, and was buried in his family tomb in
+the Franciscan Convent of his native city. His grave is simply marked with
+his name and the date of his death.
+
+Some of his oil-paintings are very famous. One at Dresden, representing
+the "Nativity of the Saviour," is called the "Notte," or night, because
+the only light on the picture comes from the halo of glory around the head
+of the Holy Child. Correggio's "Reading Magdalen" is in the same gallery;
+probably no one picture exists which has been more universally admired
+than this.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--UPPER PART OF A FRESCO BY CORREGGIO.]
+
+There was a large work of his representing "The Shepherds Adoring the
+Infant Saviour," at Seville, in Spain. During the Peninsular War (1808-14)
+the people of that city sent many valuable things to Cadiz for safety, and
+this picture, on account of its size, was cut in two. By some accident
+the two parts were separated; but both were sold, and the purchaser of
+each was promised that the other portion should be given him. From this
+much trouble arose, because both purchasers determined to keep what they
+had, and each claimed that the whole belonged to him, and as they were
+equally obstinate, the two parts of the same work have never been
+reunited. Fortunately, each half makes a picture by itself.
+
+The frescoes at Parma are the greatest works of this master, and it is
+very interesting to visit that quaint old city; his works are in the
+Cathedral, the Church of St. John the Evangelist, and in the parlor of the
+Convent of the Benedictine Nuns. This last is a wonderful room. The
+ceiling is arched and high, and painted to represent an arbor of vines
+with sixteen oval openings, out of which frolicsome children are peeping,
+as if, in passing around behind the vines, they had stopped to look down
+into the room. The pictures here will make you understand the effect
+(Figs. 48 and 49). Beneath each of these openings or lunettes is a
+half-circular picture of some mythological story or personage. Upon the
+wall of the parlor, above the mantel, there is a picture of Diana, the
+goddess of the moon and the protector of young animals, which is a
+beautiful picture.
+
+When Correggio worked on the frescoes at the Church of St. John, he lived
+much in the monastery connected with it. The monks became very fond of
+him, and made him a member of the Congregation Cassinensi; the poet Tasso
+also was a member of this fraternity. This membership gave him the right
+to share in the masses, prayers, and alms of the community, and after his
+death the same offices for the repose of his soul would be performed as if
+he had been a true monk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--LOWER PART OF A FRESCO BY CORREGGIO.]
+
+The works of Correggio are very rarely sold. The madonna in the National
+Gallery, London, known as "_La Vierge au Panier_," was formerly in the
+Royal Gallery at Madrid. During the French invasion of Spain, Mr. Wallace,
+an English artist, obtained it. It is painted on a panel, and is 13�
+inches high by 10 inches wide. In 1813 it was offered for sale in London
+at twelve hundred pounds. In 1825 it was sold in Paris for eighty thousand
+francs, and soon after sold to the National Gallery for thirty-eight
+hundred pounds, or nearly nineteen thousand dollars.
+
+A copy of the "Reading Magdalen" was sold to Earl Dudley for sixteen
+hundred pounds, or more than seven thousand dollars.
+
+Correggio had but few pupils, but he had many imitators. The one most
+worthy of mention was FRANCESCO MAZZUOLI (1503-1540), called IL
+PARMIGIANO, or PARMIGIANINO. He was not a great painter. The "Vision of
+St. Jerome," in the National Gallery, London, is one of his best works. It
+is said that during the sack of Rome, in 1527, he was painting the figures
+of the Virgin and Child in this picture, and was so engrossed by his work
+that the invaders entered his studio, and surrounded him before he was
+aware of their approach. And they, for their part, were so moved by what
+they saw that they went away, and left him undisturbed.
+
+Art writers often use the term "early masters." This denotes Michael
+Angelo, Raphael, and other men so great that they were very prominent in
+the history of art, and were imitated by so many followers that they had
+an unusual effect upon the world. Titian may be called the last of these
+great masters of the early school, and his life was so long that he lived
+to see a great decline in art.
+
+The painters of the close of the sixteenth century are called
+"Mannerists," which means that they adopted or imitated the manner or
+style of some great master who had preceded them--and this was done in so
+cold and spiritless a way that it may be said that true artistic
+inspiration was dead in Italy. No one lived who, out of his own
+imagination, could fix upon the wall or the canvas such scenes as would
+befit a poet's dream or serve to arouse the enthusiasm of those who saw
+the painted story born in the artist's brain.
+
+About 1600, the beginning of the seventeenth century, there arose a new
+movement in Italian art, which resulted in forming two schools between
+which there came to be much bitterness of feeling, and even deadly hatred.
+On one side there were those who wished to continue the study and
+imitation of the works of the old masters, but with this they united a
+study of nature. These men were called "Eclectics," because they elected
+or chose certain parts of different systems of painting, and from these
+formed a new manner of their own.
+
+Opposed to the Eclectics were the "Naturalists," who insisted that nature
+only should be studied, and that everything should be represented in the
+most realistic way, and made to appear in the picture exactly as it did in
+reality, not being beautified or adorned by any play of fancy or
+imagination.
+
+The chief school of the Eclectics, of whom I will first speak, was at
+Bologna, and is known also as the "school of the Caracci," because
+LUDOVICO CARACCI (1555-1619) was at the head of a large academy there, and
+was assisted by his nephews, AGOSTINO CARACCI (1558-1601) and ANNIBALE
+CARACCI (1560-1609), the latter being the greatest artist of the three.
+The lives of the Caracci are not of such interest as to require an account
+of them here, neither are their works so interesting that we may not leave
+these artists by saying that they have great consideration as the heads of
+the Eclectic Academy, and for the work they did in it at an important era
+in the history of Italian art; but the fruits of their work are shown in
+that of their scholars rather than in their own paintings, and in this
+view their influence can scarcely be overvalued.
+
+The greatest of their scholars was DOMENICO ZAMPIERI (1581-1641), called
+DOMENICHINO, who was born at Bologna, and was instructed by Denis Calvert,
+who forbade his drawing after the works of Annibale Caracci. Domenico
+disobeyed this command, and was so severely treated by Calvert that he
+persuaded his father to take him from that master, and place him in the
+school of the Caracci. When he entered the Academy he was so dull that his
+fellow-pupils nicknamed him "The Ox;" but Annibale Caracci said: "Take
+care: this ox will surpass you all by and by, and will be an honor to his
+art." Domenichino soon began to win many prizes in the school, and left it
+well trained and prepared for a brilliant career.
+
+He gave much thought to his art, shunned private society, and if he went
+out at all he frequented public places where large numbers of people were
+gathered, thus affording him an opportunity to study their varying
+expressions. He also tried to feel in himself the emotions of the person
+he was painting. For instance, it is said that when he was painting the
+"Scourging of St. Andrew," he threw himself into a passion, and used
+threatening gestures and high words. In the midst of this his master,
+Annibale Caracci, surprised him, and was so impressed with his method that
+he threw his arms about his pupil's neck, exclaiming, "To-day, my
+Domenichino, thou art teaching me!"
+
+The most celebrated work by Domenichino is the "Communion of St. Jerome,"
+in the Vatican. It is universally considered the second picture in Rome,
+the "Transfiguration," by Raphael, being the only one that is placed
+before it. The scene it represents is just before the death of the saint,
+when he was borne into the chapel to receive the sacrament of the
+communion for the last time (Fig. 50).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--COMMUNION OF ST. JEROME.]
+
+Domenichino was made very unhappy in Rome, on account of the jealousy of
+other artists, and he returned to Bologna. However, his fame had reached
+the court at Naples, and the viceroy of that city invited the artist to
+decorate the Chapel of St. Januarius. There was in Naples at that time an
+association of artists who had determined that no strange artist should be
+allowed to do work of any account in their city. As soon as Domenichino
+began his work, therefore, he received letters threatening his life. His
+colors were spoiled by having ruinous chemicals mixed with them, his
+sketches were stolen from his studio, and all sorts of insults and
+indignities were heaped upon him.
+
+After a time, the painter was so disheartened that he fled to Rome; but
+the viceroy sent for him and took every precaution possible to protect him
+and enable him to work in peace. But just as all seemed to be going well
+he sickened and died, and it has always been said that he was poisoned. Be
+this as it may, there is no doubt that the fear, vexation, and anxiety of
+his life caused his death, and on this account his tormentors were his
+murderers.
+
+The works of Domenichino are not numerous, and are not seen in as many
+galleries as are those of some Italian painters; but there are a
+considerable number scattered over Europe and very beautiful ones in
+several galleries in Rome.
+
+The next painter of importance in the Eclectic school was GUIDO RENI
+(1575-1642), born at Bologna, and the son of a professor of music. His
+father intended that Guido also should be a musician, and the poor boy was
+much persecuted on account of his love for drawing. But after many
+struggles the boy came into the Caracci school, and was soon a favorite
+pupil there.
+
+When still young he listened with great attention to a lecture from
+Annibale, in which he laid down the rules which should govern a true
+painter. Guido resolved to follow these rules closely, and soon he painted
+so well that he was accused of trying to establish a new system of
+painting. At last Ludovico Caracci turned against him and dismissed him
+from his school.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--AURORA. _By Guido Reni._]
+
+The young artist went to Rome; but his persecutions did not cease, and it
+seemed to be his fate to excite the jealousy of other painters. Now, when
+so much time has elapsed, we know that Guido was not a very great master,
+and had he painted in the days of Michael Angelo he would not have been
+thought so. But art had lowered its standard, and Guido's works were
+suited to the taste of his time; he had a high conception of beauty, and
+he tried to reach it in his pictures.
+
+In the course of his career Guido really painted in three styles. His
+earliest pictures are the strongest; those of his middle period are
+weaker, because he seemed only to strive to represent grace and sweetness;
+his latest pictures are careless and unequal in execution, for he grew
+indifferent to fame, and became so fond of gaming that he only painted in
+order to get money to spend in this sinful folly.
+
+His masterpiece in Rome was the "Aurora," on a ceiling of the Rospigliosi
+Palace; it represents the goddess of the dawn as floating before the
+chariot of Apollo, or Phoebus, the god of the sun. She scatters flowers
+upon the earth, he holds the reins over four piebald and white horses,
+while Cupid, with his lighted torch, floats just above them. Around the
+chariot dance seven graceful female figures which represent the Hours, or
+Hor�. I have been asked why seven was the number; the ancients had no
+fixed number for the Hours; sometimes they were spoken of as two, again
+three, and even in some cases as ten. It has always seemed to me that ten
+was the number chosen by Guido, for in that case there would naturally be
+three out of sight, on the side of the chariot which is not seen (Fig.
+51).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--BEATRICE CENCI.]
+
+The portrait of Beatrice Cenci is another very celebrated picture by
+Guido; it is in the gallery of the Barberini Palace, in Rome (Fig. 52).
+The interest in the portrait of this unhappy girl is world-wide. She was
+the daughter of a wealthy Roman noble, who after the death of her mother
+married a second time, and treated the children of his first marriage in a
+brutal way. It is even said that he hired assassins to murder two of his
+sons on their return from a journey to Spain. The story also relates that
+his cruelty to Beatrice was such that, with the aid of her step-mother and
+her brother, she killed him. At all events, these three were accused of
+this crime and were executed for it in 1599. Other accounts say that he
+was murdered by robbers, and his wife and children were made to appear as
+if guilty. Clement VII. was the pope at that time, and in spite of his
+knowledge of the cruelty of the father he would not pardon them, though
+mercy was implored of him for this lovely girl. The reason given for this
+action of the pope's is that he wished to confiscate the Cenci estates,
+which he could do if the family suffered the death penalty. So many
+reproductions of this sad face have been made that it is very familiar to
+us, and almost seems to have been the face of some one whom we have known.
+
+Guido did not paint his St. Michael for the Cappucini in Rome until after
+he returned to his native city. When he sent the picture to the monks, he
+wrote: "I wish I had the wings of an angel to have ascended into Paradise,
+and there to have beholden the forms of those beautified spirits from
+which I might have copied my archangel; but not being able to mount so
+high, it was in vain for me to search for his resemblance here below, so
+that I was forced to make an introspection into my own mind, and into that
+idea of beauty which I have formed in my own imagination."
+
+We are told that he always tried to paint his ideal of beauty rather than
+to reproduce any human beauty that he had seen. He would pose his
+color-grinder, and draw his outlines from him, and then fill in with his
+own conceptions of what the head he was painting should be; this accounts
+for the sameness in his heads and faces.
+
+His passion for gaming degraded the close of his life. It led him into
+great distresses, and for the sake of money he painted many pictures which
+are not worthy of his name. He had always received generous prices for his
+pictures, but he left many debts as a blot upon his memory. His works are
+seen in the galleries of Europe, and are always admired for their feeling,
+beauty, and grace.
+
+FRANCESCO ALBANI (1578-1660), born at Bologna, was another scholar of the
+Caracci school, and a friend of Guido Reni. There are many works of his in
+Rome. His pictures of landscapes with figures were his best works, and
+beauty was his characteristic. His own home had all the advantages for
+painting such works as he best succeeded in, such as Venus and the Loves,
+maids and boys, children and Cupids in unending variety.
+
+His villa was surrounded by charming views. His wife was very handsome,
+and they had twelve lovely children, so lovely that it is said that other
+artists besides himself made use of them for models.
+
+There were several other Eclectics of some importance of whom we shall not
+speak, but shall leave them with an account of ELISABETTA SIRANI
+(1640-1665), who also was born at Bologna, and is worthy of attention on
+account of her talents, while the story of her life adds another interest
+than that which she has as an artist.
+
+She was an imitator of the attractive manner of Guido Reni. The heads of
+her madonnas and magdalens are charming, and, indeed, all her work speaks
+of the innate refinement of her nature. Her industry was marvellous, since
+she made one hundred and fifty pictures and etchings in a period of about
+ten years. Much has been said of the rapidity with which she worked, and
+one story relates that on a certain day the Duchess of Brunswick, the
+Duchess of Mirandola, and the Duke Cosimo de Medici, with other persons,
+met in her studio, and she sketched and shaded drawings of subjects which
+they named to her, with a skill and celerity which astonished and
+delighted her guests.
+
+Her masterpiece is a picture of "St. Anthony Adoring the Virgin and
+Child," which is in the Pinacoteca of Bologna. There are pictures by her
+in the Belvedere and Lichtenstein Galleries at Vienna, in the Hermitage at
+St. Petersburg, and in the Sciarra Palace, Rome.
+
+In person Elisabetta Sirani was beautiful, and her character commanded the
+affection of all who knew her. She was a sweet singer, and her biographers
+increase her virtues by praising her taste in dress, and even her
+moderation in eating! She was skilful in domestic affairs, and was in the
+habit of rising early to perform her share in the household duties, never
+allowing her art to displace any occupation which properly made a part of
+her life. Her name has come down through more than two centuries as one
+whose "devoted filial affection, feminine grace, and artless benignity of
+manner added a lustre to her great talents, and completed a personality
+which her friends regarded as an ideal of perfection."
+
+She died very suddenly, and the cause of her death has never been known;
+but the theory that she was poisoned has been generally accepted. Several
+reasons for the crime have been given; one is that she was the victim of
+jealous artists, as Domenichino had been; another, that a princely lover
+whom she had scorned thus revenged himself. A servant-girl in her family
+was suspected of the crime, tried, and banished; but after a time she was
+recalled to Bologna at the request of the father of Elisabetta, for he saw
+no proof of the girl's guilt. Thus the mystery was never solved, but the
+whole city of Bologna was saddened by her death. The day of her burial was
+one of public mourning; her funeral was attended with great pomp, and she
+was buried beside Guido Reni in the splendid church of the Dominicans.
+Poems and orations in her praise were numerous, and a book was published,
+called "Il Penello Lagrimate," which contained these, with odes, anagrams,
+and epitaphs, in both Latin and Italian, all setting forth her charms and
+virtues. Her portrait in the Ercolani Gallery at Bologna represents her
+when occupied in painting her father's portrait; according to this picture
+she had a tall, elegant figure, and a very pretty face. She had two
+sisters, Barbara and Anna Maria, who also were artists, but her fame was
+so much greater than theirs that she quite overshadowed them.
+
+The earliest master of the Naturalists was MICHAEL ANGELO AMERIGI, called
+CARAVAGGIO, from the name of his birth-place (1569-1609). His life and
+character was not such as to make him an attractive study. His subjects
+and his manner of representing them combined in producing what has been
+called "the poetry of the repulsive." He was wild in his nature and lived
+a wild life. His religious subjects, even, were coarse, though his color
+was vivid and his figures arranged with good effect. His "False Players"
+is one of his best works; it represents two men playing cards, while a
+third looks over the shoulder of one as if advising him what to play.
+
+Naturally, his manner of painting was best suited to scenes from common
+life, though he made those coarse and sometimes painful; but when he
+attempted subjects of a higher order his works are positively offensive.
+Some of his sacred pictures were removed from the altars for which they
+were painted on account of their coarseness. His most celebrated work is
+the "Entombment of Christ," at the Vatican; in the Gallery of the Capitol
+in Rome there is a "Fortune Teller," which is also a fine work.
+
+Next to Caravaggio came GIUSEPPE RIBERA, called IL SPAGNOLETTO
+(1588-1656). He was a native of Valencia, and when very young made his way
+to Rome, so that, although his education as an artist was wholly Italian,
+his familiar name arose from his Spanish origin. While living in
+miserable poverty in Rome, and industriously copying such frescoes as he
+could gain access to, he attracted the attention of a cardinal, who took
+him to his home, and made him comfortable. But the young painter soon ran
+away, and returned to his street life. The cardinal sought him out, and
+called him an "ungrateful little Spaniard;" but Ribera excused his conduct
+by saying that as soon as he was made comfortable and was well fed he lost
+all ambition to work, adding that it would require the spur of poverty to
+make him a good painter. The cardinal respected his courage, and the story
+being repeated to other artists, much interest was attracted to him.
+
+Later he went to Naples, and joined the cabal there which had agreed to
+persecute the strange artists who should come to work in that city. If
+Ribera did not actually commit many of the crimes which were done there,
+he was responsible for them through his influence. His works are
+frequently so brutal in their subjects and treatment that one feels that
+he who painted them must have lost all the kindliness of his nature.
+
+He married the daughter of a rich picture dealer, and became very rich
+himself. In 1630 he was made a member of the Academy of St. Luke, at Rome,
+and in 1648 Pope Innocent X. sent him the cross of the Order of Christ.
+Few Italian artists were better known in their own country, and many of
+his pictures were sent to Spain. His greatest excellence was in his
+knowledge of anatomy, and he painted subjects that enabled him to show
+this. Among his famous works are a "Descent from the Cross;" "The Flaying
+of St. Bartholomew;" "Ixion on the Wheel;" and "Cato of Utica." His works
+are in all the famous galleries of the world.
+
+Ribera's greatest pupil was SALVATOR ROSA (1615-1673), the landscape
+painter, who was a very gifted man, being a poet and musician as well as
+an artist. His father was an educated man, and with his other relatives
+encouraged his son in his taste for art. When twenty years old he went to
+Rome, and with the exception of some intervals remained there during his
+life.
+
+It is said that as a youth he associated much with bandits, and, when one
+considers the wildness of many of his scenes and the character of the
+figures in their midst, it is not difficult to believe that this may have
+been true. It is certain that he painted the portrait of the famous
+Masaniello more than once, and he is believed to have joined the
+_Compagnia della Morte_, of which Falcone, one of his masters, was the
+captain.
+
+Salvator made many enemies by his independence and his inclination to
+satire. He wrote satires on various subjects which were not published
+until after his death, but it was known that he had written them. He
+married a Florentine woman, who was the mother of his two sons. When he
+died he was buried in the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, where a
+monument is erected to his memory.
+
+He painted some historical subjects and portraits in which he followed the
+Naturalists, but his principal works were landscapes. Jagged rocks and
+mountains, wild dells and lonely defiles, with here and there robbers,
+hermits, or soldiers, make his most effective pictures. There is a deep
+sense of desolation, almost of fear, in them which is very impressive.
+Sometimes he painted serene landscapes and poetic figures; but his best
+works are not of this sort. His pictures are in the principal public and
+in some private galleries. He also left about ninety etchings which are
+masterly in execution and full of expression in the heads, while the
+atmosphere is soft. When his works are sold they bring great prices. A
+large landscape with Apollo and the Sibyl in the foreground brought eight
+thousand five hundred dollars in England years ago, and is now worth much
+more than that.
+
+Early in the eighteenth century an artist named ANTONIO CANALE
+(1697-1768), called CANALETTO, began to make views of the city of Venice
+and scenes on the canals. He had two followers, BERNARDO BELLOTTI
+(1720-1780), who was his nephew, and FRANCESCO GUARDI (1712-1793), and
+these three painters executed a large number of these pictures, which are
+found in many European galleries, and it is not always easy to distinguish
+their authorship. There is no doubt that many which were once attributed
+to the first master were really painted by his pupils.
+
+Before the commencement of the eighteenth century the decline of the
+Renaissance school in Italy had begun; in fact, the painting of the
+seventeenth century came to be mere mechanical realism. For this reason
+the portraits were the best pictures of the time, as in them it was
+requisite to be true to the object represented.
+
+Late in the eighteenth century a new impulse was given to Italian
+painting, chiefly through the influence of foreign artists such as Raphael
+Mengs, and the French painter David. In the beginning of our own century
+LORENZO BENVENUTI (1769-1844) executed some excellent frescoes in
+Florence, Siena, and Arezzo, which was his native city. He decorated the
+ceiling of the Medici Chapel in the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, and
+Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tuscany, erected a tomb to this painter in the
+same church where he had spent so much time and talent. His portrait,
+painted by himself, is in the gallery of the Uffizi, at Florence.
+VINCENZIO CAMMUCCINI (1775-1844), too, was a celebrated master of his
+time. He was a Roman by birth, and became President of the Academy of St.
+Luke; he was also a member of the Institute of France, and received
+decorations from sovereigns of various countries. He made many copies from
+the works of the great masters. His portraits were so much admired as to
+be compared to those of Rubens and Tintoretto, and his ceiling frescoes
+in the Torlonia Palace, Rome, were among his important works, as was a
+"Presentation of Christ in the Temple," painted for the Church of San
+Giovanni in Piacenza.
+
+But there has been no true restoration of Italian art. The painting of
+Italy in our time has been largely a commercial enterprise rather than an
+outcome from artistic genius or impulse, and the few works which are
+exceptions to this rule are not sufficient to encourage the hope that this
+nation can again attain to her former rank or regain the fame of her past
+in the history of modern art.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PAINTING IN FLANDERS, HOLLAND, AND GERMANY.
+
+
+Flanders formerly embraced a larger part of Belgium than is contained in
+the present Belgian provinces of East and West Flanders. It also covered a
+portion of Holland and some territory in the northwest of France. The
+principal Flemish towns connected with the story of Flemish art were
+Bruges, Tournai, Louvain, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, Mechlin, Liege, and
+Utrecht.
+
+There are some records of Flemish painting much earlier than the fifteenth
+century, but they are so vague and uncertain that I shall pass them over,
+and begin with the family of Van Eyck, in which there were four
+painters--three brothers and a sister. The eldest, HUBERT VAN EYCK
+(1366-1426), effected a great change in the art of his time and country.
+Very little is known of him as a young man, or indeed of his personal
+history at all, except that he passed his middle life at Bruges and his
+later years at Ghent. The subjects of his pictures were mostly scriptural.
+I do not suppose that the pictures of this master would seem very
+beautiful to you if you saw them, but they are of great value. His
+greatest work was an altar-piece for Judocus Vyts and his wife Lisabetta;
+it was for the decoration of their funeral chapel in the Church of St.
+Bavon in Ghent. It was an immense work, with a centre-piece and wings that
+could be closed; the inside was divided into twelve different pictures,
+and the outside also was painted. We do not know how much of this was
+completed when Hubert died and left it to be finished by his brother John.
+Philip I. of Spain wished to buy this altar-piece, and when he could not
+do so, he employed Michael Coxie to copy it; this artist spent two years
+on the work, and was paid four thousand florins. Of the original work, a
+large portion remains in the Church of St. Bavon; the wings, consisting of
+six beautiful, tall panels, are in the Berlin Museum, and two outer
+compartments are in the Brussels Museum. The picture of holy men who have
+served God is on one of the wings of this altar-piece (Fig. 53).
+
+But the principal interest attached to Hubert van Eyck comes from the fact
+that he made such discoveries in the use of colors as led to what we call
+the "Invention of Oil-Painting," and this invention is always attributed
+to the Van Eycks, for it is probable that the discoveries of Hubert were
+perfected by JAN VAN EYCK (1390-1440), who became a celebrated painter.
+Oil-painting had been known, it is true, a long time, but the manner of
+preparing the colors and the varnish used before the time of the Van Eycks
+was very unsatisfactory, and the improvement of these substances was the
+work of these masters.
+
+The pictures of Hubert van Eyck are stronger than those of Jan, who was
+really the founder of a school remarkable for delicacy and fine finish
+rather than for power. It was after the death of Hubert that the fame of
+the new colors spread abroad, and thus it happened that it was to Jan that
+other artists went to learn his secrets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--THE ANCHORITES. _In S. Bavon at Ghent._]
+
+Jan van Eyck was something of a diplomat as well as a painter, for when he
+was in the service of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, he was sent on
+several secret missions, and in 1428 he accompanied the ambassadors of the
+duke to Portugal in order to paint the portrait of Isabella of Portugal,
+who was betrothed to the duke. There is a goodly number of works by Jan
+van Eyck in various galleries. The portrait of himself and wife in the
+National Gallery, London, is very interesting; they stand hand in hand,
+with a terrier dog at their feet; their dress and all the details of their
+surroundings are painted with great care. It is said that the Princess
+Mary, sister of Charles V., gave a barber who owned it a position with a
+handsome salary in exchange for the picture. Jan van Eyck, being twenty
+years younger than his brother Hubert, naturally learned all that the
+elder knew, and the story of his life gives him the appearance of being
+the more important artist, though in point of highest merit he was not the
+superior.
+
+Of LAMBERT VAN EYCK very little is known. It is believed that he made the
+copy of Hubert's great work which is in the Antwerp Museum; another work
+called by his name is in Louvain. MARGARETHA VAN EYCK is said to have been
+a skilful artist, but no one picture can be ascribed to her; she was
+buried beside her brother Hubert in the Cathedral of Ghent.
+
+Of course the Van Eycks had many followers. Among them were PETRUS
+CHRISTUS (records 1444-1471), GERARD VAN DER MEIRE (records 1447-1474),
+HUGO VON DER GOES (1405?-1482), and JUSTUS OF GHENT (1468-?), all of whom
+were good artists, but I shall pass to a more important one, ROGIER VAN
+DER WEYDEN (1400-1464), who was himself the head of a school of as great
+importance as was that of the Van Eycks. His realism was his chief
+characteristic, and this was so great as to make some of his works
+repulsive, especially his martyrdoms, in which he detailed horrors with
+great exactness. He also loved to paint pictures which illustrated the
+myths of the Middle Ages. Our illustration is from one of these works
+(Fig. 54).
+
+This picture is from the story that when the Roman Senate decreed divine
+honors to the Emperor Augustus, he consulted the Tiburtine Sibyl as to
+whether he ought to receive them or no. She replied to him that it was
+more becoming for him to go away silently, and told him that a Hebrew
+child should be born who should reign over the gods themselves, or that a
+king should come from heaven whose power should never end. Another
+version, which is the one this picture represents, says that the heavens
+opened, and a vision of the Virgin with the Saviour in her arms, standing
+on an altar, was shown the emperor. He worshipped it, and heard a voice
+saying, "Haec ara filii Dei" (This is the altar of the Son of God).
+Augustus reported this to the Senate, and erected an altar upon the spot
+in Rome where the Church of Santa Maria in Capitolio, or the "Ara
+Coeli," now stands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--THE SIBYL AND THE EMPEROR AUGUSTUS. _By Rogier
+van der Weyden. In the Berlin Museum._]
+
+Many pictures by Van der Weyden are seen in European galleries. He was
+also a fine miniaturist. He was official painter to the city of Brussels,
+and was buried in its cathedral.
+
+His son, ROGIER VAN DER WEYDEN the younger, became very rich and
+benevolent. He died at Brussels in 1529. His works are not numerous in
+public galleries.
+
+The elder Van der Weyden had a pupil, HANS MEMLING (records 1450-1499),
+who became the greatest master in Belgium. I shall not give you a long
+account of him; but shall tell you of his greatest work, which was the
+Shrine of St. Ursula, at the Hospital of Bruges, and is the best example
+of this type of early Flemish art which still exists. It is divided into
+six compartments, with two ends, and other panels on top, all of which are
+finished with the greatest care, and give the whole story of St. Ursula
+and her eleven thousand virgins, which is that Ursula was a daughter of a
+king of Brittany who was a Christian. The young girl was educated with the
+greatest care, and the fame of her beauty and wisdom spread all over
+Europe. At length the king of England asked for her to be the wife of his
+son. The princess replied that she would wed him on three conditions:
+first, that he should give her ten virgins of noble blood for her
+companions, then to each of these virgins and to herself he should give a
+thousand maidens as attendants; second, he should allow her three years
+with these companions, with whom she should visit the shrines where the
+bodies of the saints repose; and third, the English king and his court
+should receive baptism.
+
+I cannot give space for all the details of this story, which is of great
+interest; but the result was that Ursula received all that she asked, and
+started on her journey to Rome, in the course of which she and the eleven
+thousand maidens met with many adventures. At last, having reached Cologne
+on their return, they encountered an army of barbarians which was
+besieging the city, and all were slain.
+
+The subjects of the pictures as they were painted by Memling were: 1, the
+first landing at Cologne in the beginning of the journey; 2, the landing
+at Basle; 3, the arrival in Rome; 4, the second arrival at Basle on her
+return toward home; 5, commencement of the martyrdom, when Ursula and her
+train are first seen by the barbarians; 6, death of Ursula.
+
+The works of Memling which still remain are numerous, and are seen in many
+public galleries. After the death of this master the purity of Flemish
+painting declined. Many artists visited Italy, and the manner of Flemish
+painters was influenced by association with Italian art and artists. I
+shall, therefore, pass over a period when no very important masters
+appeared, and speak next of a great man, QUINTIN MATSYS (1466-1529), who
+began life as a blacksmith. He was born at Antwerp, and there are
+specimens of iron work there said to have been executed by him. It is said
+that he fell in love with the daughter of an artist who refused to allow
+him to marry her because he was not a painter; for this reason Matsys
+devoted himself to the study of art, and became the best Belgian master of
+his time. His pictures of religious subjects are full of tender
+earnestness and deep feeling, and his most important work was an
+altar-piece which is now in the Museum of Antwerp. His scenes from common
+life, his misers and lovers are spirited and truthful.
+
+His portrait and that of his second wife, both painted by himself, are in
+the gallery of the Uffizi in Florence. His works are not very numerous,
+but they are seen in the principal galleries. He was buried in the
+Cathedral of Antwerp, and a slab is inserted in the wall which tells his
+story; one sentence is, "_Connubialis amor de mulcibre fecit Apellene_"
+(True love changed the smith to an Apelles).
+
+Rubens is the next great master of whom I shall speak, but I wish to say
+that during the last part of the sixteenth century there were many Flemish
+painters of considerable note whose pictures are seen in galleries, and
+are well worth consideration, but whose lives had no circumstances of
+especial interest. Among the best of these artists were ANTONIO MORO,
+PETER POURBUS (1510-1583), and his son and grandson, both named Frans,
+PIETER BREUGHEL (1530-1569), and his sons Jan and Pieter the younger, and
+PAUL BRIL, an early Flemish landscape painter.
+
+All the early Flemish pictures are very interesting, but in the beginning
+of the seventeenth century a new manner of painting was introduced through
+the genius of PETER PAUL RUBENS (1577-1640). This master was descended
+from two good families: his mother was of the distinguished family
+Pypeling, and his father, John Rubens, was one of the two principal
+magistrates of Antwerp. This city was the home of Rubens, although he was
+born at Siegen, in the county of Nassau, during a time when his father was
+in exile on account of a civil war which was then raging. He was born June
+29th, the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul, and hence was named for those
+apostles.
+
+He was a bright, scholarly boy, and soon showed his love for drawing. When
+he began to study art under Adam van Noort he had already a good
+education. During the four years he passed with this teacher he learned
+thoroughly all the technical part of painting; then, in another four years
+under Otto V�nius, he cultivated his taste and the more poetical elements
+of his nature, for V�nius was a very learned and elegant man. In 1598,
+when twenty-one years old, Rubens was admitted to the guild of painters in
+Antwerp. Two years later he went to Venice, and, after studying the works
+of Titian and Paul Veronese there, he entered the service of the Duke of
+Mantua, to whom he had been recommended by the governor of the
+Netherlands.
+
+While in Mantua he painted some fine pictures, and the duke sent him to
+Rome to copy celebrated works there. Rubens also executed some other
+orders in Rome, from which place he was recalled by the duke, who wished
+to send an envoy to Spain, and had chosen the young artist for that duty.
+He showed great political ability in the way he conducted his embassy,
+and through his personal charms made many friends.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--RUBENS AND HIS SECOND WIFE.]
+
+After his return from Spain he went again to Rome and then to Genoa, and
+finally, on account of the illness of his mother, he returned to Antwerp,
+having been absent seven years. His mother died before he reached her. He
+then decided to remain in Antwerp, and built himself a fine house with a
+charming studio. He soon married his first wife, Isabella Brant, and
+during the next fifteen years led a very regular and industrious life, and
+executed many important works. He also received a large number of pupils
+into his studio, and he has been accused of allowing them to paint
+pictures which he called by his own name; but it is true that Rubens, with
+his own hand, completed pictures of almost every kind, and so proved his
+power as an artist.
+
+He was fond of study, and could read and speak seven languages. He was in
+the habit of having some one read aloud to him while he painted, and
+preferred books of history and poetry. In 1620 he was invited to France by
+Marie de Medicis, for whom he executed many works. Among them the most
+important were scenes illustrating the life of this queen which decorate
+some apartments in the Louvre.
+
+In 1628 the Infanta Isabella sent him on a second mission to Spain, and
+while there he painted many grand and important pictures, which are fine
+examples of his gorgeous coloring. He proved himself so good a diplomatist
+that he was sent to England to try to make peace between that country and
+Flanders, in which he was successful. He was knighted by King Charles in
+1630, and received the same honor from the king of Spain.
+
+In 1630 he married Helena Forment, a niece of his first wife, who was but
+sixteen years old. She became the mother of five children; he had two sons
+by his first marriage, to whom Gevartius was tutor. Rubens made so many
+portraits of both his wives and so often used them as models in painting
+his large pictures, that their faces are familiar to all the world (Fig.
+55).
+
+Rubens made a valuable collection of all sorts of beautiful objects, and
+lived luxuriously. After his death a portion of his collection was sold at
+private sale for more than seventy-five thousand dollars. His death
+occurred in 1640, and he was buried in a private chapel in the Church of
+St. James in Antwerp; he had decorated this chapel with some works of his
+own. His family erected a monument to him, upon which an epitaph written
+by Gevartius was inscribed.
+
+In painting Rubens was almost a universal genius, for he left a great
+variety of works as well as a great number. About one thousand eight
+hundred are ascribed to him: doubtless his pupils did much work on these;
+but there is something of himself in all. They include historical,
+scriptural, and mythological subjects, portraits, animals, _genre_
+pictures, and landscapes. His style is a strange mingling of northern and
+southern elements. His handling and his arrangement of his subjects was
+like that of the Italians; but his figures, even when he represented
+Christ and the holiest men, were like Spanish kings or German peasants, or
+somebody whom he had seen.
+
+We have not space to speak in detail of the works of Rubens. Some critics
+insist that one class of his pictures is best, and some another. Of course
+this depends largely upon the taste of those who make the judgment. It is
+certain that he was a wonderful painter, and many of his pictures give
+great pleasure to those who visit the galleries where they are seen.
+
+His pictures of children were so painted that they seem to have been done
+from pure love of the work. His portraits are splendid, his _genre_ scenes
+delightful, and his landscapes fine; in short, the amount and variety of
+his work is a proof of his great genius and industry, such as can
+scarcely be equalled in the history of painting. Yet it cannot be denied
+that there is much incorrect drawing, unnatural coloring, and coarse, bad
+taste in some of his works. On the other hand, the fertility of his
+imagination, his bold design and effective execution, as well as his
+brilliant color, are all to be admired, and the name of Rubens stands high
+on the list of Flemish artists who are famous the world over.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. _By Rubens._]
+
+FRANS SNYDERS (1579-1657) was born at Antwerp and lived in the time of
+Rubens. He was a famous painter of animals, and it sometimes happened that
+they worked together, Rubens painting the landscapes and figures and
+Snyders the animals in the same pictures. Snyders, like Rubens, excelled
+in representing animals in the most exciting moment of the combat or the
+chase, and his pictures are full of life. They are seen in all large
+European galleries, and are much prized.
+
+JAN FYT (1609-1661), also born at Antwerp, is the greatest Flemish animal
+painter after Snyders. His greyhounds cannot be equalled, while his live
+dogs are wonderful; but his best pictures represent dead game. The fur and
+feathers in his paintings are marvellously done, and his pictures are
+among the best in the world in which such subjects are treated.
+
+JACOB JORDAENS (1593-1678), another native of Antwerp, studied under Adam
+van Noort at the same time with Rubens, but later in life he became a
+follower and a sort of assistant of his former fellow-pupil. He married a
+daughter of their old master and never visited Italy. His color was fine;
+in truth, he sometimes excelled Rubens himself in the "golden glow" which
+is much admired in his works. Many sacred pictures by Jordaens are seen in
+the churches of Flanders. A fine historical work of his represents scenes
+from the life of Prince Frederick Henry of Orange, and is in the House of
+the Wood, near the Hague; but the larger part of his pictures represent
+the manners and customs of the common people, and are seen in public
+galleries.
+
+The greatest artist among the pupils of Rubens, as well as one of the
+greatest of Flanders, was ANTHONY VANDYCK (1599-1641). He was born in
+Antwerp, and was the son of a silk merchant, this having been the
+occupation of the Vandycks for several generations. The mother of the
+painter was extremely skilled in various kinds of embroidery, and had such
+artistic tastes as enabled her to make many original designs, which she
+worked out with her needle in delicate and elaborate tapestry work.
+
+Some people believe that to this taste and talent of his mother's Vandyck
+owed the instinct for drawing which he early showed; at all events, she
+did all she could to develop his taste, and when he was still a boy she
+persuaded her husband to place him under the teaching of Henry van Balen.
+
+He was still quite young when he entered the studio of Rubens, and was
+soon so much trusted by the master as to be allowed to make drawings from
+his works for the use of the engravers. This sort of drawing must be done
+with great care and exactness, and Vandyck must have had much skill to be
+fitted for it. His fellow-pupils also had great faith in him, as is shown
+by the story that one day, when Rubens had gone out, the young student
+bribed his old servant to show them the painting with which the master was
+then occupied. While jostling each other it happened that one of them hit
+the fresh picture, and injured it. They were much alarmed, and begged
+Vandyck to repair it. After some hesitation he did so, and was so
+successful that at first Rubens did not detect the fact that another had
+worked on the picture. When he did discover it, and learned the truth
+about it he forgave the offence heartily.
+
+When Vandyck was nineteen years old he was admitted to the Society of
+Artists in Antwerp, an unusual honor to one of his age. In 1620 Vandyck
+went to England, having been invited there through the Earl of Arundel.
+Little is known of this visit, and two years later he was invited to the
+Hague, where he spent several months.
+
+When Vandyck was passing through Haarlem he went to the studio of Franz
+Hals, who was at a tavern just then. A message was sent him saying that a
+stranger desired to have his portrait made, and had but two hours to spare
+for it. Hals hastened home and dashed off the portrait within the time
+stated. Vandyck then said, "Portrait-painting seems to be a simple thing;
+take my place, and give me the brush for awhile." Hals complied with the
+request and Vandyck made his portrait with great celerity. Seeing this,
+Hals cried out, "You are Vandyck; he alone can do such work."
+
+The young artist was suddenly called to the death-bed of his father, who
+commanded him to paint a picture for the Dominican Sisters who had cared
+for his father in his illness. Seven years later Vandyck presented the
+Sisters with a Crucifixion. At the foot of the cross was a rock upon which
+was inscribed, in Latin, "Lest the earth should be heavy upon the remains
+of his father, Anthony Vandyck moved this rock to the foot of the cross,
+and gave it to this place." When the monasteries were broken up, this
+picture was purchased for two thousand seven hundred dollars for the
+Antwerp Academy, where it now is.
+
+At length Vandyck prepared to set out for Italy. When he paid his farewell
+visit to Rubens he presented the master with three of his pictures, and in
+return Rubens gave him one of his finest horses. As Vandyck was on his way
+from Antwerp to Brussels he halted at the village of Saventhem, where he
+fell in love with Anna van Ophem, and so stayed on in the lovely valley of
+Flanders, week after week, as if he had forgotten that Italy existed. Anna
+persuaded him to paint a picture for the village church, and he executed
+a Holy Family in which the Virgin was a portrait of Anna, and St. Joachim
+and St. Anna were drawn from her father and mother. This picture pleased
+the church authorities so much that they gave the young painter an order
+for another, which represented St. Martin dividing his cloak with beggars.
+In this work the saint was a portrait of Vandyck, and the horse on which
+he rode was like that which Rubens had given him.
+
+This picture has quite a history. In 1758 the priest agreed to sell it to
+a collector from the Hague for one thousand eight hundred dollars; but
+when the villagers knew of it they surrounded the church with clubs and
+pitchforks, and drove the purchaser away. In 1806, when the French
+invaders tried to carry it away, the people again prevented it, and they
+were forced to call more soldiers from Brussels before they succeeded in
+taking it. The St. Martin was placed in the Gallery of the Louvre, at
+Paris, but was restored to Saventhem in 1815. About 1850 a rich American
+offered twenty thousand dollars for the picture, no matter who brought it
+to him. Upon this a set of rogues tried to steal it at night; but the dogs
+of the village gave such an alarm that the town was roused, and the
+robbers escaped with difficulty. Since then a guardian sleeps in the
+church, and the St. Martin is still there.
+
+The news that Vandyck was thus lingering on his way to Italy reached the
+ears of Rubens, and he sent such urgent messages to his pupil as induced
+him to continue his journey, and he also sent him letters of introduction
+to artists and to nobles whom the master had known when he made his
+studies beyond the Alps.
+
+Vandyck went first to Venice, where he worked hard to copy and learn to
+imitate the rich color and refined manner of Titian and other Venetian
+masters. He also painted some original pictures in Venice, and made many
+portraits which gave him fame in that and other cities. He was asked to
+go to other places for the painting of portraits; but he remained in
+Venice until his money was spent, and then went to Genoa, where he was
+well received and generously employed by the old friends of Rubens. His
+works are still to be seen in some of the palaces of that city, while some
+have been sold and carried to other countries--they were so fine that they
+still maintain the name which they gained for him when they were executed.
+The principal work done in Genoa was a picture of the Lomellini family
+which is now in Edinburgh; it is about nine feet square. His different
+visits to Genoa during his absence in Italy make up a period of about
+three years, and he did a vast amount of work there.
+
+When he first went to Rome Vandyck was invited to the house of Cardinal
+Bentivoglio, who had been papal nuncio to Flanders, and for whom our
+artist made a picture of the Crucifixion. The full-length portrait which
+Vandyck painted of the cardinal is now in Florence; a copy of it is in one
+of the halls of Harvard College. It is one of the finest among the many
+splendid portraits by this great master.
+
+Vandyck was fascinated with Rome, but he was so unpopular with the other
+Flemish painters there that he shortened his stay in the Eternal City in
+order to escape the vexations he there received. The artists disliked him
+for his ostentation, and he was called _Il pittore cavalieresco_--and he
+offended them by declining to associate with them at taverns or to join
+their coarse festivities. After leaving Rome he visited Palermo, from
+which place he was driven away by the appearance of the plague. He
+returned to Genoa, visited Florence and other cities in the north of
+Italy, and finally returned to Antwerp after an absence of four years.
+
+During the first years after his return he met with small success--Rubens
+was so great that he filled all the space about him--but at last, in 1628,
+Vandyck began to receive important commissions, and from this time was
+constantly busy with works for the churches of the Low Countries. He also
+painted portraits of many notable persons, and made great numbers of them
+in brown and white for the use of engravers. While Vandyck was thus
+executing great numbers of fine pictures for the embellishment of
+Flanders, he became so unpopular and his rivals said such hard things of
+him that he determined to go away. One of his unfortunate experiences was
+in the house of the bishop, who had sent for him to paint his portrait.
+Vandyck had first sent his implements to the care of the porter of the
+palace. When he went himself he was taken into the presence of the bishop,
+who was reclining on a sofa, and gave little attention to the artist. At
+last the bishop asked if he had not come to paint his portrait. Vandyck
+declared himself to be quite at the service of his lordship. "Why, then,"
+said the bishop, "do you not go for your implements? Do you expect me to
+fetch them for you?" Vandyck calmly replied, "Since you have not ordered
+your servants to bring them I supposed that you wished to do it yourself."
+Then the bishop leaped up in anger and cried out, "Anthony, Anthony, you
+are a little asp, but you have a great deal of venom!" Vandyck thought it
+safe to make his escape, and after he crossed the threshold he called
+back, "My lord Van der Burch, you are a voluminous personage, but you are
+like the cinnamon tree. The bark is the best part of you."
+
+In 1629 Vandyck went to England with the hope of being employed by King
+Charles I.; but he was not able even to get an introduction to the
+sovereign, and went to the continent filled with mortification. At length,
+however, Charles called him to London, whither he went in 1632, and soon
+became the friend of the king as well as his favorite artist. He was
+assigned a city and a country residence, and within three months of the
+time of his arrival at court the king knighted him, and gave him a gold
+chain with a portrait of himself set in brilliants suspended from it.
+Charles was in the habit of passing much time with Vandyck, and the studio
+of the court-painter became one of the most fashionable resorts in London
+for the courtiers and other distinguished people.
+
+Vandyck kept up a fine establishment, and lived luxuriously. He had a
+habit of asking his sitters to dinner; thus he could study their faces and
+retouch their portraits with the more natural expressions of their
+conversational hours, for it is rare that one is natural when posing
+before an artist who is painting one's portrait. But in the midst of his
+busy life as an artist and his gay life as a man of the world, Sir Anthony
+did not forget the needs of his brother painters. There was at that time
+no club or place where artists met socially to consult and aid each other
+in their profession. Vandyck founded the Club of St. Luke; it met at the
+Rose Tavern, and all painters of talent living in London joined it. One of
+the more personal acts of kindness which are related of him is that having
+seen by chance a picture which was painted by William Dobson, Vandyck
+sought him out, found him in a poor garret, instructed him with great
+care, introduced him to the king, and, in short, by his kind offices so
+prepared the way that Dobson was made sergeant-painter to the king after
+Vandyck's death, and won the title of "the English Tintoretto."
+
+The portraits which Vandyck executed in England are numbered by hundreds
+and are magnificent pictures. Those of the royal family are very numerous
+and important, and there is scarcely a man or woman belonging to this
+period whose name has come down to us in history or literature, whose
+portrait he did not paint. He also made thirteen portraits of himself
+which are still preserved. He was very skilful in painting horses and
+dogs, and frequently introduced these animals into his portrait groups.
+
+There is a large collection of the pictures of Vandyck at Windsor Castle;
+there are many also in the private galleries of Great Britain and other
+countries, besides a goodly number in the public galleries of Europe. He
+executed at least thirty-six portraits of Charles I., as many as
+twenty-five of Queen Henrietta Maria, and he also painted several groups
+of the children of the royal pair. Prince Rupert of the Rhine and Thomas
+Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, were also frequently portrayed by him, and
+one of his most important large works was a family picture of the Earl of
+Pembroke and his household. It is called the Wilton Family, as it is in a
+salon at Wilton House; it contains eleven figures, and has been called
+"the first and most magnificent historic portraiture in the world." Again,
+it is said to be stiff, wanting in harmony, bad in color, and so on, but
+after all it still remains a splendid monument to the skill and genius of
+Vandyck. The picture is twenty feet long by twelve feet high.
+
+Vandyck painted no portraits of the Puritans nor popular leaders of his
+day; neither did he of the literary men who flourished at that time, with
+the exception of the court poets, Sir John Suckling and Thomas Carew.
+
+I shall not give a list of Vandyck's historical and religious pictures,
+though they are quite numerous. They are not as interesting as his
+portraits, and we have not space to give them. His ambition, however, was
+never satisfied, for he wished to do some great historical work. At one
+time his opportunity seemed to have come, for the great banqueting-room of
+Whitehall Palace, the ceiling of which Rubens had painted, still remained
+with plain walls. Vandyck desired to paint on them the history of the
+Order of the Garter. The project was laid before the king, and he desired
+sketches to be made for the work, and one of them, the "Procession of the
+Knights of the Garter," was sold after the execution of the king for five
+pounds. It was owned by Sir Peter Lely and Sir Joshua Reynolds, and is
+now at Belvoir in the collection of the Duke of Rutland. We cannot help
+being sorry for Vandyck's great disappointment when he knew that his work
+could not be done. He was weak in health and much in debt, for the king
+could not pay him his pension nor what he owed him for pictures. The
+artist grew sad and discouraged. He sought relief in the study of alchemy,
+and indulged the vain hope of discovering some chemical means of making
+gold from base metals. All this wasted his time and means, and it is to be
+regretted that he was less wise than his master, for when an alchemist
+tried to interest Rubens in the same subject, that great artist replied:
+"You come too late, my good fellow; I have long since discovered the
+philosopher's stone. My palette and brushes are worth far more than any
+other secret."
+
+The king and all Vandyck's friends were troubled by his state of health
+and mind, and a marriage was brought about for him with the hope that he
+would be a happier man. His wife was Maria Ruthven, a lovely Scotch girl
+who held a high position among the attendants of the queen. Not long after
+his marriage Vandyck took her to Flanders, where he enjoyed much the
+honorable reception which he met with in revisiting the scenes of his
+childhood and youth. But having learned that Louis XIII. was about to
+adorn a large gallery in the Louvre, Vandyck hastened to Paris hoping to
+obtain the commission. He was too late--the work had been given to
+Poussin, and Vandyck returned to London greatly disheartened.
+
+While at Antwerp he had received much attention, as, indeed, had been the
+case before, for in 1634 he had been elected Dean of the Confraternity of
+St. Luke and a great feast was held in his honor. When he came now to
+London the social atmosphere was full of sadness. The political troubles,
+which were finally so terrible in England, had already become alarming.
+In a few months the Earl of Strafford was executed, and Vandyck saw the
+royal family, to whom he was so much attached, surrounded with danger and
+at last separated.
+
+His physical health was already delicate, and his sorrows brought on a
+disease from which he soon died. He continued to work until the very last
+days of his life. Eight days before his death his daughter was born; she
+was named Justiniana, and when she grew up married an English baronet, Sir
+John Stepney.
+
+A short time before Vandyck died the king came from the North to London,
+and though he was overburdened with his own cares and griefs he found time
+to sorrow for the condition of his friend and artist. He offered his
+physician three hundred pounds if he would save the life of Sir Anthony;
+but nothing availed to baffle his disease, and he died December 9, 1641.
+Two days later he was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. It is said that many
+nobles and artists attended his funeral, which was conducted with
+impressive ceremony. The fire which destroyed St. Paul's made it
+impossible to say exactly where Vandyck was laid, but his coffin-plate was
+found at the time of the burial of Benjamin West.
+
+There were no artists of importance after the time of Rubens and his
+followers whom we call Flemish artists. There were good painters,
+certainly, belonging to the schools of Flanders; but these schools had
+reached their highest excellence and were on the decline, and so we pass
+to the Dutch school, or the painters of Holland.
+
+There was doubtless a very early school of Dutch painters, dating back to
+the fourteenth century even; but the records of it are so imperfect, and
+so few pictures remain from its early days, that for our purpose it is
+best to pass over the fifteenth century and say that during the sixteenth
+century the painters of Holland gave up the painting of sacred subjects
+very largely, and began to take on the characteristics of what is
+generally known now as the Dutch School. This school is distinguished for
+its portraits, which form a large and important part of its painting; next
+for its domestic scenes, which are realistic and true to life in an
+astonishing degree.
+
+At the beginning of the seventeenth century Holland had obtained a
+position as a nation that freed its artists from the influence of the
+Romish Church and the fear of the Inquisition, and they soon used their
+freedom to establish a national art, and one which became very important
+to the world. FRANZ HALS (1584-1666) was the most noteworthy of the
+portrait-painters. He was born at Mechlin, but passed most of his life at
+Haarlem. There was a custom in Holland of painting portraits of the
+members of guilds and societies in groups, and some such works of his at
+Haarlem are very fine. I have told a story of his rapid manner in the
+sketch of Vandyck. He was the first master to introduce that free, bold,
+sleight-of-hand manner which was afterward used by the Dutch masters, and
+is so strong in its effect. This painter led a merry, careless life. His
+portraits of single heads or figures are rare, and his small _genre_
+subjects still more so. In the H�tel de Ville at Haarlem there are as many
+as eight of his large works, most of them having ten or a dozen portraits.
+
+The Dutch painters of still-life--flowers, dead game and poultry, and
+metals, glass, and other beautiful objects--were very skilful, and have
+never been surpassed. The names of these masters would make a long list.
+There is little to be told of the circumstances of their lives, though
+their works are seen in most European galleries, and well repay one for
+careful examination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--PORTRAIT OF AN OFFICER. _By Franz Hals._]
+
+Another form of Dutch art is the representation of scenes from peasant
+life, and there were some very eminent painters who devoted themselves to
+these subjects entirely. The interiors of inns with men smoking and
+drinking, playing cards or making jokes, were subjects many times
+repeated; dancing villagers, f�tes, and fairs were often pictured, and in
+all these scenes everything was given exactly to the life. It follows that
+these pictures of coarse, vulgar people engaged in rude amusements cannot
+be beautiful; but they are oftentimes wonderful. Among the most noted
+names in this kind of painting are those of Adrian Brauwer, the Van
+Ostades, the Teniers, and Jan Steen. Most of these artists executed small
+pictures only. I shall speak particularly of but one of these Dutch
+_genre_ painters--DAVID TENIERS the younger (1610-1694), who became the
+greatest painter of his time of scenes from common life. This is very
+great praise, because there were many Dutch and several Flemish painters
+who were noted for such pictures. This Teniers studied with his father,
+but his works show that he was much influenced by Rubens. He excelled in
+guard-house scenes and peasant life in every aspect. In representations of
+the alchemist also he was unequalled, as well as in fairs and festivals of
+every sort. He sometimes painted sacred subjects, but they are the least
+praiseworthy of all his works.
+
+The pictures of Teniers are very numerous. One author describes nine
+hundred of his works which are known to be genuine, and it is believed
+that there may be one hundred more. He often represented a great number of
+figures on one canvas. At Schleissheim there was a large picture, thirteen
+and a half feet by ten feet in size, which contained one thousand one
+hundred and thirty-eight figures. It was not unusual for him to paint from
+one hundred and fifty to three hundred figures in a single picture of
+moderate size. He had a light, brilliant touch, his color was exquisite,
+and his arrangement of his subjects was very picturesque. His chief fault
+was a resemblance in his heads, and for this reason those pictures with
+the fewest figures are his best works.
+
+Teniers had several royal patrons, and earned sufficient money to live in
+handsome style in his home in Perck, not far from Mechlin. He chose this
+place in order to be near the peasant classes, whose life was his chief
+study. He also excelled in his ability to imitate the styles of other
+masters. In the Vienna Gallery there is a curious work of his which
+represents the walls of a room hung with fifty pictures, imitating those
+of various Italian masters; in the foreground are portraits of Teniers and
+the Archduke Leopold William, who are represented as conversing with each
+other.
+
+Teniers reached his excellence early in life, and was but twenty-two years
+old when he was admitted to the Guild of Painters at Antwerp. That Rubens
+was his friend is proved by the fact that when Teniers married the
+daughter of Jan Breughel, in 1637, that great master was one of the
+witnesses to the ceremony. In 1656 he married his second wife, the
+daughter of the Secretary of State for Brabant. By his artistic and
+personal merits Teniers gained a higher place in society than was ever
+held by any other _genre_ painter of the Flemish or Dutch schools. He was
+eighty-four years old when he died, and was active and industrious up to
+the close of his life.
+
+Although Teniers had such good fortune during his life, I fancy he would
+have been surprised if he could have known what his fame would be now, or
+what prices would be paid for his pictures about two centuries after his
+death. The "Flemish Kermes" was bought for the Brussels Museum in 1867 for
+twenty-five thousand dollars, and at the San Donato sale, in 1880, the
+"Prodigal Son" sold for sixteen thousand two hundred dollars, and the
+"Five Senses" for fifteen thousand dollars. It is difficult to distinguish
+the etchings of the son from those of the father, David Teniers the elder,
+though it is well known that the son executed such works.
+
+GERARD HONTHORST (1592-1660) was also a painter of _genre_ scenes, and
+many of his works had figures of life size. His chief distinction,
+however, was that of painting the effects of artificial lights. He was
+famous in England and Italy as well as in his own country, and the
+Italians called him "_Gherardo della Notte_," or Gerard of the Night,
+because he painted so many night-scenes lighted by candles, lamps, and
+torches.
+
+Then there was a class of Dutch artists who represented the interiors of
+fine houses--rooms with all sorts of beautiful furniture and ornaments,
+with ladies and gentlemen in splendid costumes. They tried to show the
+effects of light upon satins, glass, metals, and other shining objects.
+They painted with great care, and finished their pictures in the most
+perfect manner. GERHARD TERBURG (1608-1681), GERHARD DOW (1613-1675), and
+GABRIEL METSU (1615-after 1667) were all remarkable for works of this
+kind.
+
+PIETER DE HOOGE, who worked from 1628 to 1671, and of whose life little is
+known, painted similar pictures of court-yards as well as of rooms in
+houses. The list of the names of all these Dutch masters cannot be given
+here, and I hasten to tell you of one whose name and fame is so great that
+when we hear of Dutch art we always think first of him, because he stands
+out as its head.
+
+REMBRANDT VAN RYN (1607-1669) was born at Leyden, and was educated by his
+parents with the hope that he would be a scholar and a prominent man in
+Leyden. But his taste for drawing and painting would not be put aside, and
+in 1620 he entered the studio of J. J. van Swanenburg, where he learned
+the first lessons in his art, and was then placed under the teaching of
+Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, where he remained only six months, after
+which he returned to his father's house, and there lived for seven years.
+He was not far from seventeen years old when he thus left the usual course
+of study. From this time he gave himself up to close observation of nature
+in every form.
+
+He studied broad landscapes--farms, groves, gardens, rivers, canals,
+sunshine, clouds, and shadows, and with and above all these, the human
+faces that he saw, as well as the varying forms, movements, and
+peculiarities of the men and women about him. That nothing escaped his
+observation is proved by the works he did in later life.
+
+In 1630 Rembrandt settled in Amsterdam, which was called the "Venice of
+the North," and was the centre of northern commerce, civilization, and the
+activity of political and intellectual life. Rembrandt was no sooner
+established in his studio on one of the western quays than he was pressed
+with orders for pictures and applications from young men who desired his
+instructions. The years following were crowded with work--with painting
+and engraving. Rembrandt is called the "Prince of Etchers," and he used
+the etching needle most skilfully, but he also employed the dry-point and
+even the graver in finishing. Thus he may be said to have established a
+new school of engraving of great excellence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--ONE OF REMBRANDT'S PORTRAITS OF HIMSELF.]
+
+It would seem that in these early years one of his amusements was to make
+etchings of himself. In one year, 1630-31, he made nineteen of these
+portraits in different costumes and positions, with as many kinds of
+expression on his face. He often repeated the portrait of his mother also.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE LECTURE ON ANATOMY. _By Rembrandt._]
+
+In 1632 he painted the "School of Anatomy," now one of the gems of the
+fine gallery at the Hague. It represents a lecture by Professor Tulp, who
+is dissecting the arm of a dead body and explaining its structure to seven
+other surgeons. It is a wonderful picture and one of the most famous works
+of this great master. In 1828 it was sold for the benefit of the fund for
+surgeons' widows, and the Dutch Government paid thirty-two thousand
+florins for it. This picture is in a certain way a portrait picture, and
+comes within the class of Dutch pictures of which I have spoken as
+portraits of guilds and societies; for Tulp was very famous, and Rembrandt
+probably attended his lectures, and was chosen by him to be the painter of
+this celebrated portrait of himself surrounded by members of his guild.
+
+Rembrandt's influence upon the art of his time was very great almost from
+the beginning of his career. About 1634 he introduced his manner of
+portrait-painting, with dark backgrounds and deep shadows on the face,
+with a bright light on the cheek and nose passing down to the shoulder,
+and immediately other artists adopted this manner. They considered it a
+necessity to imitate him, so much was he admired.
+
+In 1634 Rembrandt married Saskia van Ulenburg, who was very beautiful and
+of an aristocratic and wealthy family. She was only twenty-one years of
+age when she married, and Rembrandt painted many portraits of her besides
+making her his model for beautiful figures in his mythological and sacred
+subjects. She lived but eight years after her marriage, which were the
+happiest of the artist's life. She left but one child, a son named Titus,
+and showed her confidence in her husband by leaving all her fortune to
+him, with the single stipulation that their son should be properly
+educated.
+
+After the death of Saskia it seems that the only thought of the master was
+to work without rest, and in this way to drown the remembrance of his
+sorrow. There is little material for a story of his life--it is told in
+his pictures. The house in which Saskia lived was very fine, and Rembrandt
+was so fond of collecting all sorts of curious and beautiful objects that
+he finally made himself poor, and his collection was sold. He never
+travelled, and some writers have said that he was ignorant of classic art;
+but the list of his collections proves that he had busts of Homer and
+Socrates and copies of ancient sculptures, such as the "La�coon," a
+"Cupid," and so on. He also had pictures of some of the best Italian
+masters. After the sale of his home and all his rare objects he hired a
+house on the Rosengracht near the West Church. This house still stands,
+and has a shield dated 1652, though the artist did not live there until
+1658.
+
+His life here was not lonely or desolate. He had many friends in Amsterdam
+who did not forget him. He was near the bastions of the city, and had not
+far to go to sketch, as he loved to do, and he was busy with his brush
+until 1662, when he did nothing of which we know. In 1666 he executed four
+pictures. Among his works of 1667 there is a portrait of himself which is
+of great interest. In October, 1668, Rembrandt died after a short illness.
+He was buried in the West Church, and his funeral was so simple that its
+cost was registered as only fifteen florins.
+
+Rembrandt's pictures are so numerous and so varied in their subjects that
+no adequate list or account of them can be given here. And his numerous
+engravings are as interesting as his pictures, so that a volume would
+scarcely suffice to do him justice; but I will try to tell something of
+his style. His management of light was his most striking characteristic.
+He generally threw a strong, vivid light upon the central or important
+object, whether it was a single figure or a group, and the rest of the
+picture was in shadow. This is true of all his works, almost without
+exception--portraits, pictures both large and small, and etchings.
+
+Rembrandt loved to paint unusual things. We are apt to think that an
+unusual thing is not natural; but if we closely observe nature, especially
+the effect of light and shade, we shall find that no imagination could
+make pictures more wonderful than the reality we see. Rembrandt had that
+keen observation that helped him to seize upon the sharp features--the
+strong points in a scene or a person--and then he had the skill to
+reproduce these things on his canvas with great truth.
+
+His etchings are much prized. One of the most famous represents Christ
+healing the sick, and is called the "Hundred Guilders Print," because that
+sum was the price he fixed for it; now a good impression of it is worth
+ten times as much. At his death he left about six hundred pictures and
+four hundred engravings. His landscapes are his rarest subjects. Most of
+these are in private collections, but I have seen one in the Cassel
+Gallery; the color of it is bright and glowing--the sky magnificent. In
+the foreground there is a bridge, and on an eminence are the ruins of a
+castle.
+
+Some fine works by Rembrandt are in England, and very large prices have
+been paid for them. In 1867 "Christ Blessing Little Children" was sold for
+seven thousand pounds. At the San Donato sale in Florence, in 1880,
+"Lucretia" brought twenty-nine thousand two hundred dollars, and a
+"Portrait of a Young Woman" nearly as much.
+
+Among Rembrandt's pupils Gerbrandt van der Eeckhout holds a high rank, and
+his pictures are seen in many galleries.
+
+Among the landscape painters of Holland ALBERT CUYP (1605-1691) is very
+famous. He sometimes introduced figures and animals into his pictures, but
+they were of secondary importance; the scenery was his chief thought. His
+works are in many galleries, and the increase in their value is
+marvellous. Sir Robert Peel bought a landscape, twelve by twenty inches
+in size, for which he paid three hundred and fifty guineas: it was
+originally sold in Holland for about one English shilling! During the
+first century after his death no picture by Cuyp brought more than thirty
+florins; now they cost almost their weight in gold.
+
+Other fine landscape painters were Jan and Andries Both, Jan van Goyen,
+Jan Wynants, Adrian van de Velde, and, finally, PHILIP WOUVERMAN
+(1619-1668), who introduced much life into his works. He painted battles,
+hunting parties, and such subjects as allowed him to introduce white
+horses, for which he became noted. His works, as well as those of the
+other painters last mentioned, are valuable. There are so many in
+galleries which are attributed to Wouverman that it is doubtful if they
+are all genuine. He had animation and fine feeling for the picturesque.
+His execution was light and delicate, and there is much tenderness shown
+in his works. There were many excellent Dutch landscape painters whom we
+have not mentioned.
+
+PAUL POTTER (1625-1654) was born at Enkhuysen, and though he died young he
+made himself a great and enduring reputation by his pictures of animals.
+"Paul Potter's Bull," which is in the gallery at the Hague, is as well
+known as any one picture the world over. He left one hundred and eight
+pictures and eighteen etchings. He was most successful in representing
+cattle and sheep; his horses are not as fine. He never crowded his
+pictures; they have an open landscape, but few animals, and perhaps a
+shepherd, and that is all. Some of his pictures have been valued as high
+as fifty thousand dollars.
+
+JACOB RUYSDAEL (1625-1681) was born in the same year with Paul Potter. His
+birth-place was Haarlem. He came to be the very best of all Dutch
+landscape painters, and though most of his pictures represent the dull,
+uninteresting scenery of Holland, they are so skilfully drawn and painted
+that they are really most attractive, if not cheerful. His works number
+about four hundred and forty-eight pictures and seven fine, spirited
+etchings. He was fond of giving a broad, expansive effect to his pictures,
+and frequently placed church spires in the distance. He painted a few
+marine views with rough seas and cloudy skies. Though many of his works
+are gloomy, he sometimes painted sunshine with much effect. Some of his
+finest works are in the Dresden Gallery.
+
+MINDERT HOBBEMA was a pupil of Jacob Ruysdael, and this is almost all that
+is known of him personally; but his pictures show that he was a great
+landscape painter. They sell for enormous sums, and many of the best are
+in England. Most of those seen in the continental galleries are not those
+he should be judged by. At the San Donato sale in Florence, his picture of
+the "Wind-Mills" sold for forty-two thousand dollars.
+
+The number of reputable Dutch painters is very large, but I shall mention
+no more names. After the great men whom we have spoken of there comes an
+army of those who are called "little Dutch masters," and their principal
+work was making copies from the pictures of the greater artists.
+
+In the history of what we know as German art we find a very early school
+at Cologne, but the records of it are so scarce and imperfect that I shall
+give no account of it here. At Augsburg there was an important school of
+art which commenced with the Holbeins. The first Hans Holbein is known as
+"Old Holbein," and so little is known of him that I shall merely give his
+name. The second HANS HOLBEIN, called the elder (1460-1523), painted a
+great number of religious pictures, which are seen in various churches and
+galleries in Germany. Some of the best are in the Cathedral of Augsburg.
+In one salon of the Munich Pinakothek there are sixteen panels painted by
+him. But it was HANS HOLBEIN the third, known as "the younger," who
+reached the perfection of his school (1495-1543). This painter was
+instructed by his father and by Hans Burgkmair. He was but fifteen years
+of age when he began to receive commissions for pictures. When he was
+about twenty-one years old he removed to Basle, and there he painted many
+pictures, though not nearly as many as have been called by his name.
+
+About a year after Holbein went to Basle he was called to Lucerne to
+decorate a house, and he executed other works there and at Altorf. In
+1519, when he had been three years in Basle, he became a citizen of that
+town and a member of its guild of painters. His works at Basle were mostly
+decorative, and he painted few easel pictures there.
+
+Holbein married a widow with one son; her name was Elizabeth Schmid. She
+had a very bad temper. It is said that she made Holbein's life so
+miserable that he left Basle for that reason. He visited her sometimes,
+and always gave her money, but lived away from her. In 1526 Holbein went
+to England, and his friend Erasmus said that he went because he had so
+little to do in Basle. He carried a letter to Sir Thomas More, who
+received him with great kindness, and the artist made many portraits of
+Sir Thomas and his family. There is a story about one of these portraits
+of that nobleman. He had refused to be present at the marriage of Anne
+Boleyn to King Henry VIII., and she never forgave him. On the day that
+More was executed she looked at one of Holbein's portraits of the
+ex-chancellor and exclaimed, "Ah, me! the man seems to be still alive;"
+and seizing the picture she threw it into the street.
+
+In 1530 Holbein returned to Basle to complete some unfinished frescoes,
+and this being done he went again to London. About this time he began to
+be employed by the king, and did many pictures for him from time to time.
+In 1538 Henry sent Holbein to Brussels to make a portrait of the Duchess
+of Milan, of whom the king was thinking for his fourth wife. No citizen of
+Basle was allowed to enter the service of a foreign sovereign without the
+consent of the council, so in 1538 the artist went home to ask permission
+to serve the King of England. Great efforts were made to keep him in
+Basle, but at last he received permission to remain two years in England:
+the artist never went again to Basle. Henry VIII. became fond of Holbein,
+and was generous to him, even giving him a painting-room in the palace of
+Whitehall.
+
+In 1539 the artist was sent to paint a portrait of Anne of Cleves, whom
+the king married the next year. It has been said that the picture was so
+flattering that when the king saw the lady he was disappointed; we know
+that he was soon divorced from her.
+
+In 1543 the plague raged in London, and on the 7th of October Holbein
+prepared his will. He died before the 29th of November, but the facts
+concerning his death and burial are not known.
+
+There are several interesting anecdotes of Holbein. One relates that when
+passing through Strasburg he visited the studio of an artist, and finding
+him out, painted a fly on a picture which was on an easel. When the
+painter saw the fly he tried to brush it away, and when he found who had
+painted it he searched the city for Holbein; but he had already left for
+England. Another story shows the regard which Henry VIII. had for him. One
+day a nobleman went to Holbein's studio, and insisted upon entering,
+though the artist told him that he was painting the portrait of a lady by
+his Majesty's orders. The nobleman persisting, Holbein threw him down the
+stairs with great violence, and then rushed to the king, and told him what
+he had done. Soon after the nobleman was borne to the presence of the
+king; he was unable to walk, and was loud in his complaints. The king
+ridiculed him, and the nobleman was angry, and threatened to punish the
+artist legally. Then Henry got angry, and said: "Now you have no longer to
+deal with Holbein, but with me, your king. Do you think that this man is
+of so little consideration with us? I tell you, my lord, that out of seven
+peasants I can make seven earls in a day; but out of seven earls I could
+not make one such artist as Hans Holbein."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--BURGOMASTER MEIER MADONNA. _By Holbein. Dresden
+Gallery._]
+
+At Basle one may see some of the most important of the early portraits of
+Holbein; these are in the gallery where are also his ten well-known scenes
+from the Passion of Christ. While at Basle he probably made the designs
+for the "Dance of Death." For a long time it was believed that he painted
+this subject both at Basle and at Bonn, but we now know that he only made
+designs for it. He also decorated the Town Hall at Basle; of this work,
+however, but little remains.
+
+The most celebrated work by Holbein is the "Meyer Madonna" in the royal
+palace of Darmstadt, of which there is a copy in the Dresden Gallery. It
+takes its name from that of the Burgomaster Meyer, for whom it was
+painted. The Madonna, with the infant Jesus in her arms, stands in a niche
+in the centre of the picture; the burgomaster and his family kneel before
+her. This is what is called a votive picture, which means a picture made
+in the fulfilment of a vow, in gratitude for some signal blessing or to
+turn away some danger. Many of these works commemorate an escape from
+accident or a recovery from sickness.
+
+The picture is very beautiful, and it seems as if the Virgin wished to
+share her peace with the kneeling family, so sweet is the expression of
+her face, while the child seems to bestow a blessing with his lifted hand.
+The original was probably painted for a "Chapel of Our Lady."
+
+His "Dance of Death" was very curious, the idea being that Death is always
+near us and trying to strike down his prey. The pictures represent a
+skeleton clutching at his victims, who are of all ages and occupations,
+from the lovely young bride at the altar to the hard-working pedlar in the
+cut we give here, and all of them are hurried away by this frightful
+figure which stands for Death itself.
+
+Holbein made many wood engravings, but none so important as these. When
+the set is complete there are fifty-three cuts, but it is rare to find
+more than forty-six.
+
+Holbein was one of the foremost of German masters. All his pictures are
+realistic, and many of them are fantastic; he gave graceful movement and
+beauty of form to many of his subjects; his drapery was well arranged; his
+color and manner of painting were good. He painted in fresco and oil
+colors, executed miniatures and engravings. His portraits were his best
+works, and in them he equalled the greatest masters. The most reliable
+portrait of this artist is in the Basle Museum. It is done in red and
+black chalk, and represents him as a man with regular, well-shaped
+features, with a cheerful expression which also shows decision of
+character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--FROM HOLBEIN'S DANCE OF DEATH.]
+
+There were other good artists in the Augsburg school after the time of the
+Holbeins; but I shall pass immediately to the Franconian school, or that
+of Nuremburg, and to its great master, ALBERT D�RER (1471-1528), whose
+life was very interesting, and who stands, as an artist, among the
+greatest painters of the world. The city of Nuremburg was a grand, rich
+old place even in D�rer's time, and as a boy he was familiar with its
+scenery and architecture, which helped him to cultivate his artist tastes,
+and to make him the great man that he became. He was an author of books as
+well as an architect, sculptor, painter, and engraver.
+
+His father was a goldsmith, and Albert was apprenticed to the same trade;
+but he was so anxious to study painting that at length his father placed
+him as apprentice to the painter Michael Wohlgemuth. At this time Albert
+was fifteen years old, and the two years he had spent with the goldsmith
+had doubtless been of great advantage to him; for in that time he had been
+trained in the modelling of small, delicate objects, and in the accurate
+design necessary in making the small articles in precious metals which are
+the principal work of that trade.
+
+Albert D�rer had a very strong nature, and Michael Wohlgemuth was not a
+man who could gain much influence over such a youth. During the three
+years which D�rer passed under his teaching he learned all the modes of
+preparing and using colors, and acquired much skill in handling the brush;
+he also learned the first lessons in wood-engraving, in which he afterward
+reached so high a perfection that a large part of his present fame rests
+upon his skill in that art.
+
+One of the earliest portraits painted by D�rer is in the Albertina at
+Vienna, and bears this inscription: "This I have drawn from myself from
+the looking-glass, in the year 1484, when I was still a child. ALBERT
+D�RER." Six years later he painted the beautiful portrait of his father
+which is now in the gallery at Florence; and it is a question whether this
+is not as finely executed as any portrait of his later years.
+
+When D�rer left Wohlgemuth he started upon the student journey which was
+then the custom with all German youths, and is still practised in a
+modified degree. These youths, after serving their apprenticeship in the
+occupation they were to follow, travelled, and worked at their trade or
+profession in the cities of other countries. D�rer was absent four years,
+but we know little of what he did or saw, for in his own account of his
+life he says only this: "And when the three years were out my father sent
+me away. I remained abroad four years, when he recalled me; and, as I had
+left just after Easter in 1490, I returned home in 1494, just after
+Whitsuntide."
+
+In the same year, in July, D�rer was married to Agnes Frey. He was also
+admitted to the guild of painters, and we may say that he was now settled
+for life. It is a singular fact that, although D�rer painted several
+portraits of his father and himself, he is not known to have made any of
+his wife. Some of his sketches are called by her name, but there is no
+good reason for this.
+
+D�rer was so industrious, and executed so many pictures, copper-plates,
+and wood engravings within the six years next after his return to
+Nuremburg, that it is not possible to give an exact account of them here.
+In 1500 an event occurred which added much to his happiness and to his
+opportunities for enlarging his influence. It was the return to Nuremburg
+of Willibald Pirkheimer, one of the friends of D�rer's childhood, between
+whom and himself there had always existed a strong affection. Pirkheimer
+was rich and influential, and at his house D�rer saw many eminent men,
+artists, scholars, reformers, and theologians, and in their society he
+gained much broader knowledge of the world, while he received the respect
+which was due to his genius and character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A SCENE FROM D�RER'S WOOD ENGRAVINGS OF THE LIFE
+OF THE VIRGIN MARY.]
+
+D�rer's health was not good, and his continual work proved more than he
+could bear. His father died in 1502, and this loss was a deep grief to the
+artist. So little money was left for his mother and younger brother that
+their support came upon him. At length, in 1505, he made a journey to
+Venice, partly for his health, and in order to study Venetian painting. He
+was well received by the painters of Venice. Giovanni Bellini and
+Carpaccio were the leading painters of that time. They were both quite
+old, but Giorgione and Titian were already coming into notice and
+preparing to fill the places of the older men. Bellini was especially
+delighted with the exquisite manner in which D�rer painted hair, and asked
+the German to give him the brush he used for that purpose. D�rer gave him
+all his brushes, but Bellini insisted upon having _the one_ for painting
+hair. D�rer took a common brush, and painted a long tress of fine hair:
+Bellini declared that had he not seen this done he could not have believed
+it.
+
+While in Venice D�rer received an order to paint a picture for the Fondaco
+de' Tedeschi, or German Exchange. It is believed that this work was the
+famous "Feast of Rose Garlands," now in the Monastery at Strahow, in
+Bohemia. The Emperor Rudolph II. bought it, and had it carried from Venice
+to Prague on men's shoulders. In 1782 it was purchased for the Abbey of
+Strahow, and was almost lost to the world for many years. It is a
+beautiful picture, and the praise it received was a great pleasure to
+D�rer, because heretofore many painters had said that he was a good
+engraver, but could not use colors. D�rer wrote to Pirkheimer: "There is
+no better picture of the Virgin Mary in the land, because all the artists
+praise it, as well as the nobility. They say they have never seen a more
+sublime, a more charming painting."
+
+The Venetian Government offered D�rer a handsome pension if he would
+remain in Venice, and he declined many orders for the sake of returning to
+Germany, which he believed to be his duty. From the time of his return, in
+1507, to 1520, there is very little to tell of the personal history of
+this artist. Almost all that can be said is that he labored with great
+industry; it was the golden period of his art; he had many young men in
+his studio, which was the centre of art to Nuremburg. At this time he
+probably executed the best carvings which he ever did. During seven years
+he made forty-eight engravings and etchings and more than a hundred
+wood-cuts. The large demand for these works was a source of good income to
+D�rer, and gave him a position of comfort. The Reformation was at hand,
+and D�rer's Virgins and Saints and his pictures of the sufferings of
+Christ were very well suited to the religious excitement of that period.
+
+The house in which D�rer lived and worked for many years is still
+preserved in Nuremburg as public property, and is used as an art gallery.
+The street on which it stands is now called the Albrecht-D�rer Strasse. On
+the square before the house stands a bronze statue of the master which was
+erected by the Nuremburgers on the three hundredth anniversary of his
+death.
+
+About 1509 D�rer occupied himself considerably in writing poetry; but,
+although there was much earnest feeling in his verse, it was not such as
+to give him great fame as a poet. It was at the same period that he carved
+the wonderful bas-relief of the "Birth of John the Baptist," now in the
+British Museum. It is cut out of stone, is seven and one-half by five and
+one-half inches in size, and is a marvellous piece of work. Two thousand
+five hundred dollars were paid for it nearly a century ago. He made many
+exquisite little carvings in stone, ivory, and boxwood, and in these
+articles the result of his work as a goldsmith is best seen.
+
+In 1512 D�rer was first employed by the Emperor Maximilian, and for the
+next seven years there was a close relation between the sovereign and the
+artist; but there are few records concerning it. It is said that one day
+when the painter was making a sketch of the emperor the latter took a
+charcoal crayon, and tried to draw a picture himself: he constantly broke
+the crayon, and made no progress toward his end. After watching him for a
+time D�rer took the charcoal from Maximilian, saying, "This is my sceptre,
+your Majesty;" and he then taught the emperor how to use it.
+
+D�rer executed some very remarkable drawings and engravings. Among them
+was the "Triumphal Arch of Maximilian," composed of ninety-two blocks. The
+whole cut is ten and one-half feet high by nine feet wide. It shows all
+the remarkable events in the emperor's life, just as such subjects were
+carved upon the triumphal arches of the Romans and other nations.
+Hieronymus R�sch did the engraving of this great work from D�rer's blocks,
+and while it was in progress the emperor went often to see it. During one
+of these visits several cats ran into the room, from which happening arose
+the proverb, "A cat may look at a king."
+
+The emperor granted D�rer a pension; but it was never regularly paid, and
+after the emperor's death the Council of Nuremburg refused to pay it
+unless it was confirmed by the new sovereign, Charles V. For the purpose
+of obtaining this confirmation D�rer made a journey to the Netherlands in
+the year 1520. His wife and her maid Susanna went with him. His diary
+gives a quaint account of the places they visited, the people whom they
+met, and of the honors which were paid him. In Antwerp he was received
+with great kindness, and the government of the city offered him a house
+and a liberal pension if he would remain there; but his love for his
+native town would not allow him to leave it.
+
+After several months D�rer received the confirmation of his pension and
+also the appointment of court-painter. This last office was of very little
+account to him. The emperor spent little time at Nuremburg, and it was
+not until he was older that he was seized with the passion of having his
+portrait painted, and then D�rer had died, and Titian was painter to the
+court.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--THE FOUR APOSTLES. _By D�rer._]
+
+When D�rer returned to his home there was quite an excitement over the
+collection of curious and rare objects which he had made while absent.
+Some of these he had bought, and many others were gifts to him, and he
+gave much pleasure to his friends by displaying them. There had been a
+great change in Nuremburg, for the doctrines of the Reformation were
+accepted by many of its people, and it was the first free city that
+declared itself Protestant. The change, too, was quietly made; its
+convents and churches were saved from violence, and the art treasures of
+the city were not destroyed. Among the most important Lutherans was
+Pirkheimer, D�rer's friend. We do not know that D�rer became a Lutheran,
+but he wrote of his admiration for the great reformer in his diary, and it
+is a meaning fact that during the last six years of his life D�rer made no
+more pictures of the Madonna.
+
+These last years were not as full of work as the earlier ones had been. A
+few portraits and engravings and the pictures of the Four Apostles were
+about all the works of this time. He gave much attention to the
+arrangement and publication of his writings upon various subjects
+connected with the arts. These books gave him much fame as a scholar, and
+some of them were translated into several languages.
+
+As an architect D�rer executed but little work; but his writings upon
+architectural subjects prove that he was learned in its theories.
+
+During several years his health was feeble, and he exerted himself to make
+provision for his old age if he should live, or for his wife after his
+death. He was saddened by the thought that he had never been rewarded as
+he should have been for his hard, faithful labors, and his latest letters
+were sad and touching. He died in April, 1528, after a brief illness, and
+was buried in the cemetery of St. John, beyond the walls, where a simple
+epitaph was inscribed upon his monument. This cemetery is an interesting
+place, and contains the graves of many men noted in the chronicles of
+Nuremburg.
+
+On Easter Sunday in 1828, three hundred years after his death, a D�rer
+celebration was held in Nuremburg. Artists came from all parts of Germany.
+A solemn procession proceeded to his grave, where hymns were sung, and the
+statue by Rauch, near D�rer's house, was dedicated.
+
+I can give you no description of D�rer's many works, and although it is
+true that he was a very great master, yet it is also true that his
+pictures and engravings are not noted for their beauty so much as for
+their strength and power. His subjects were often ugly and repulsive
+rather than beautiful, and his imagination was full of weird, strange
+fancies that can scarcely be understood. Indeed, some of them never have
+been explained, and one of his most famous engravings, called "The Knight,
+Death, and the Devil," has never yet been satisfactorily interpreted, and
+many different theories have been made about it.
+
+Many of the principal galleries of Europe have D�rer's paintings, though
+they are not as numerous as his engravings, and, indeed, his fame rests
+more upon the latter than the former, and very large sums are paid by
+collectors for good impressions of his more important plates.
+
+D�rer had several followers. His most gifted scholar was LUCAS SUNDER
+(1472-1553), who is called Lucas Cranach, from the place of his birth. He
+established a school of painting in Saxony, and was appointed
+court-painter. Although there were a goodly number of German painters late
+in the sixteenth century, there were none of great eminence, and, in
+truth, there have been few since that time whose lives were of sufficient
+interest to be recounted here, so I shall tell you of but one more before
+passing to the artists of Spain.
+
+ANGELICA KAUFFMAN (1742-1808) was a very interesting woman who gained a
+good reputation as an artist; but there is such a difference of opinion
+among judges as to her merits as a painter that it is difficult to decide
+what to say of her. As a person, she excited an interest in her lifetime
+which has never died out, and Miss Thackeray's novel, "Miss Angel," tells
+what is claimed to be her story, as nearly as such stories are told in
+novels.
+
+She was born at Coire, in the Grisons. Her father was an artist, a native
+of Schwarzenburg, and when Angelica was born he was occupied in executing
+some frescoes at Coire. When the child was a year old he settled at
+Morbegno, in Lombardy, and ten years later, when she had shown a taste for
+music, her parents again removed to Como, where there were better
+opportunities for her instruction. Her progress in music was remarkable,
+and for a time she was unable to say whether she loved this art or that of
+painting the better. Later in life she painted a picture in which she
+represented herself, as a child, standing between allegorical figures of
+Music and Painting.
+
+The beautiful scenery about Como, the stately palaces and charming villas,
+the lake with its pleasure boats, and all the poetry of the life there,
+tended to develop her talents rapidly, and, though she remained but two
+years, the recollection of this time was a pleasure to her through all her
+life. She was next taken to Milan, where a world of art was opened to her,
+and she saw pictures which excelled all her imaginations. The works of
+Leonardo and other great Lombard masters stirred her soul to its very
+depths. She soon attracted attention by her pictures, and Robert d'Este
+became her patron, and placed her under the care of the Duchess of
+Carrara. She was now daily associated with people of culture and elegance,
+and thus early in her life acquired the modest dignity and
+self-possession which enabled her in her future life to accept becomingly
+the honors and attentions which were paid her.
+
+Her mother's death occurred at Milan, and her father returned to
+Schwarzenburg. The people about her were so coarse and disagreeable to
+Angelica that she passed much of her time in the grand forests. At this
+time she painted frescoes of the Twelve Apostles, copied from the
+engravings after Piazetta. Her father was not content to remain away from
+Italy, and they went again to Milan, then to Florence, and at last to
+Rome. She was now eighteen years old, and found much profit in the
+friendship of the great scholar Winckelmann, who allowed her to paint his
+portrait. Angelica visited Naples and Bologna also, and finally Venice,
+where she met Lady Wentworth, who became her friend, and afterward took
+her to England.
+
+She had a most brilliant career in London, where her friends were in the
+highest rank of society. De Rossi described her appearance at this time,
+and said that she was not very tall, but had a slight, elegant figure. Her
+complexion was dark and clear, her mouth well formed, her teeth white and
+even, and all her features good. He speaks of her azure eyes, so placid
+and bright that their expression had a charm which could not be described.
+No one felt like criticising her. Other artists paid her many honors, and
+she was made a member of the Academy of Arts. It has been said that
+Fuseli, the learned art critic, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, the great artist,
+both asked her hand in marriage. Some members of the royal family became
+her friends, and she was at the height of honorable success and of
+happiness.
+
+It is painful to turn from this bright picture of her life to all the
+sorrow and darkness which followed it. She made an unhappy marriage, her
+husband proving to be an adventurer who had assumed a distinguished name.
+For a time she was crushed by this sorrow; but her friends remained true
+to her, and she found relief in absolute devotion to her art. For twelve
+years she supported herself and her father; then his health failed, and it
+was thought best for him to go to Italy. Angelica was now forty years old,
+and before leaving England she married Antonio Zucchi, an artist who had
+long been her friend. He devoted himself to her and to her father with
+untiring affection, and when the old man died he was happy in the thought
+that his beloved daughter had so true a friend as Zucchi.
+
+From this time their home was in Rome, where Angelica was the centre of an
+artistic and literary society of a high order. Among her visitors were
+such men as Herder and Goethe. The latter wrote of her: "The light and
+pleasing in form and color, in design and execution, distinguish the
+numerous works of our artist. No living painter excels her in dignity or
+in the delicate taste with which she handles the pencil." She was very
+industrious, and her life seems to have been divided between two
+pleasures, her work and the society of her friends, until the death of her
+husband, which occurred in 1795. She lived twelve years longer, but they
+were years of great sadness. She made journeys in order to regain her
+spirits. She visited the scenes of her childhood, and remained some time
+in Venice with the family of Signor Zucchi.
+
+Even after her last return to Rome she worked as much as her strength
+would permit, but her life was not long. She was mourned sincerely in
+Rome; her funeral was attended by the members of the Academy of St. Luke;
+and her latest works were borne in the procession. She was buried beside
+her husband in the Church of St. Andrea dei Frati. Her bust was placed in
+the Pantheon.
+
+Various critics have praised her works in the most liberal manner; others
+can say nothing good of them. For myself, I cannot find the extreme of
+praise or blame a just estimate of her. No one can deny the grace of her
+design, which was also creditably correct. Her portraits were good; her
+poetical subjects are very pleasing; her historical pictures are not
+strong; her color was as harmonious and mellow as that of the best
+Italians, excepting a few of the greatest masters, and in all her pictures
+there is something which wins for her a certain fondness and praise, even
+while her faults are plainly seen. Her pictures are to be found in
+galleries in Rome, Florence, Vienna, Munich, and England; many are also in
+private collections. She painted several portraits of herself; one in the
+Uffizi, at Florence, is very pleasing. She represents herself seated in a
+solitary landscape, with a portfolio in one hand and a pencil in the
+other. She has an air of perfect unconsciousness, as if she thought of her
+work only. Her etchings are much valued, and sell for large prices. Many
+of her pictures were engraved by Bartolozzi, and good prints of them are
+rare. On one of her pictures she wrote: "I will not attempt to express
+supernatural things by human inspiration, but wait for that till I reach
+heaven, if there is painting done there."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PAINTING IN SPAIN.
+
+
+Spanish painting had its birth during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+and may be said to have been derived from Italy, through the influence of
+the Italian painters who went to Spain, and the Spanish artists who made
+their studies in Italy. But in spite of this strong Italian influence
+Spanish painting has its own characteristics which separate it from all
+other schools, and give it a high position on its own merits. ANTONIO DEL
+RINCON (1446-1500) was the first Spanish painter of whom we know. If any
+works of his remain they are portraits of his august sovereigns now in the
+Cathedral of Granada; but it is probable that these pictures are copies of
+the originals by Rincon.
+
+Dating the beginning of the Spanish school from the last half of the
+fifteenth century, it is the third school in Europe as to age, it being
+about two centuries later than the Italian, and one century later than the
+Flemish school. Its importance is only exceeded by that of Italy. The
+distinguishing feature of Spanish art is its gravity, or we may almost say
+its strictly religious character, for, excepting portraits, there were few
+pictures of consequence that had not a religious meaning. Some artists
+were also priests, and, as the officers of the Inquisition appointed
+inspectors whose duty it was to report for punishment any artist who did
+not follow the rules of the Inquisition, it is easy to understand that the
+painters were careful to keep within the rules fixed for them. Whatever
+flights of imagination one might have in secret, he would scarcely run the
+risk of being excommunicated from the church, sent into exile for a year,
+and fined one thousand five hundred ducats for the pleasure of putting his
+fancies on canvas.
+
+Pacheco, who was an inspector at Seville, published minute rules for the
+representation of sacred subjects and persons, and other writers did the
+same. There was a long and grave discussion over the propriety of painting
+the devil with horns and a tail. It was decided that he should have horns
+because, according to the legend of St. Theresa, he had horns when he
+appeared to that saint; and he was allowed to have a tail because it was
+thought to be a suitable appendage to a fallen angel who had lost his
+wings. One very strict rule was that the feet of the Virgin Mary should be
+covered, and nude figures or portions of the figure were strictly
+forbidden.
+
+Another important influence upon the Spanish artists was their belief that
+the Virgin Mary and other holy spirits appeared to inspire them and aid
+them in painting their pictures. In fact, the church was the chief patron
+of art, and the artist was one of her most valuable teachers. A learned
+Spanish writer said: "For the ignorant, what master is like painting? They
+may read their duty in a picture though they may not search for it in
+books."
+
+The painters of Spain were divided between the schools of Castile,
+Seville, and Valencia. That of Castile was founded at Toledo early in the
+fifteenth century, and was maintained about two hundred years. Claudio
+Coello was of this school; he died in 1693, and has well been called "the
+last of the old masters of Spain."
+
+ALONZO BERREGUETTE (1480-1561), born at Parades de Nava, in Castile, was
+the most eminent Spanish artist of his time. He is called the Michael
+Angelo of Spain, because he was painter, sculptor, and architect. He was
+painter to Philip I. Later he went to Italy, and journeyed from Florence
+to Rome with Michael Angelo in 1505. He studied in Italy many years. He
+was appointed painter and sculptor to the Emperor Charles V. Berreguette
+received four thousand four hundred ducats for the altar in the Church of
+St. Benito el Real in Valladolid, where he settled. When he was almost
+eighty years old he went to Toledo to erect a monument in the Hospital of
+St. John Baptist. He was lodged in the hospital, and died there. He left a
+large fortune, and was buried with splendid ceremonies at the expense of
+the emperor.
+
+LUIS DE MORALES (1510-1586) was called "the divine." He belonged to the
+school of Castile, and very little is known of his early life. When he was
+fifty-five years old Philip II. invited him to court. When Morales
+appeared he was so splendidly dressed that the king was angry, and gave
+orders that he should be paid a certain sum and dismissed. But the poor
+painter explained that he had spent all that he had in order to come
+before the king in a dress befitting Philip's dignity. Then Philip
+pardoned him, and allowed him to paint one picture; but as this was not
+hung in the Escorial, Morales was overcome by mortification, and almost
+forsook his painting, and fell into great poverty. In 1581 the king saw
+Morales at Badajoz, in a very different dress from that he had worn at
+court. The king said: "Morales, you are very old." "Yes, sire, and very
+poor," replied the painter. The king then commanded that he should have
+two hundred ducats a year from the crown rents with which to buy his
+dinners. Morales hearing this, exclaimed, "And for supper, sire?" This
+pleased Philip, and he added one hundred ducats to the pension. The street
+in Badajoz on which Morales lived bears his name.
+
+Nearly all his pictures were of religious subjects, and on this account he
+was called "the divine." He avoided ghastly, painful pictures, and was one
+of the most spiritual of the artists of Spain. Very few of his pictures
+are seen out of Spain, and they are rare even there. His masterpiece is
+"Christ Crowned with Thorns," in the Queen of Spain's Gallery at Madrid.
+In the Louvre is his "Christ Bearing the Cross." At the sale of the Soult
+collection his "Way to Calvary" sold for nine hundred and eighty pounds
+sterling.
+
+ALONSO SANCHEZ COELLO (about 1515-1590) was the first great portrait
+painter of Spain. He was painter-in-ordinary to Philip II., and that
+monarch was so fond of him that in his letters he called him "my beloved
+son." At Madrid the king had a key to a private entrance to the apartments
+of Coello, so that he could surprise the painter in his studio, and at
+times even entered the family rooms of the artist. Coello never abused the
+confidence of Philip, and was a favorite of the court as well as of the
+monarch. Among his friends were the Popes Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V., the
+Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and the Dukes of Florence and Savoy. Many
+noble and even royal persons were accustomed to visit him and accept his
+hospitality. He was obliged to live in style becoming his position, and
+yet when he died he left a fortune of fifty-five thousand ducats. He had
+lived in Lisbon, and Philip sometimes called him his "Portuguese Titian."
+
+Very few of his portraits remain; they are graceful in pose and fine in
+color. He knew how to represent the repose and refinement of "gentle blood
+and delicate nurture." Many of his works were burned in the Prado. His
+"Marriage of St. Catherine" is in the Gallery of Madrid. A "St. Sebastian"
+painted for the Church of St. Jerome, at Madrid, is considered his
+masterpiece. Lope de Vega wrote Coello's epitaph, and called his pictures
+
+      "Eternal scenes of history divine,
+       Wherein for aye his memory shall shine."
+
+JUAN FERNANDEZ NAVARRETE (1526-1579), called El Mudo, because deaf and
+dumb, is a very interesting painter. He was not born a mute, but became
+deaf at three years of age, and could not learn to speak. He studied some
+years in Italy, and was in the school of Titian. In 1568 he was appointed
+painter to Philip II. His principal works were eight pictures for the
+Escorial, three of which were burned. His picture of the "Nativity" is
+celebrated for its lights, of which there are three; one is from the
+Divine Babe, a second from the glory above, and a third from a torch in
+the hand of St. Joseph. The group of shepherds is the best part of the
+picture, and when Tibaldi saw the picture he exclaimed, "O! gli belli
+pastori!" and it has since been known as the "Beautiful Shepherds."
+
+His picture of "Abraham and the Three Angels" was placed near the door
+where the monks of the Escorial received strangers. The pictures of
+Navarrete are rare. After his death Lope de Vega wrote a lament for him,
+in which he said,
+
+      "No countenance he painted that was dumb."
+
+When the "Last Supper" painted by Titian reached the Escorial, it was
+found to be too large for the space it was to occupy in the refectory. The
+king ordered it to be cut, which so distressed El Mudo that he offered to
+copy it in six months, in reduced size, and to forfeit his head if he did
+not fulfil his promise. He also added that he should hope to be knighted
+if he copied in six months what Titian had taken seven years to paint. But
+Philip was resolute, and the picture was cut, to the intense grief of the
+dumb Navarrete. While the painter lived Philip did not fully appreciate
+him; but after his death the king often declared that his Italian artists
+could not equal his mute Spaniard.
+
+JUAN CARRE�O DE MIRANDA (1614-1685) is commonly called Carre�o. He was of
+an ancient noble family. His earliest works were for the churches and
+convents of Madrid, and he acquired so good a name that before the death
+of Philip IV. he was appointed one of his court-painters. In 1671 the
+young king Charles gave Carre�o the cross of Santiago, and to his office
+of court-painter added that of Deputy Aposentador. He would allow no other
+artist to paint his likeness unless Carre�o consented to it. The pictures
+of Carre�o were most excellent, and his character was such as to merit all
+his good fortune. His death was sincerely mourned by all who knew him.
+
+It is said that on one occasion he was in a house where a copy of Titian's
+"St. Margaret" hung upon the wall, and those present united in saying that
+it was abominably done. Carre�o said: "It has at least one merit; it shows
+that no one need despair of improving in art, for I painted it myself when
+I was a beginner."
+
+Gregorio Utande, a poor artist, had painted a "Martyrdom of St. Andrew"
+for the nuns of Alcal�, and demanded one hundred ducats for it. The nuns
+thought the price too much, and wished to have Carre�o value the work.
+Utande took the picture to Carre�o, and first presenting the great master
+with a jar of honey, asked him to touch up his St. Andrew for him. Carre�o
+consented, and, in fact, almost repainted Utande's picture. A short time
+after Carre�o was asked to value the St. Andrew, but declined. Then
+Herrera valued it at two hundred ducats, which price the nuns paid. After
+Utande received his money he told the whole story, and the picture was
+then known as "La Cantarilla de Miel," or "the pot of honey."
+
+CLAUDIO COELLO (1635-1693), who, as we have said, has been called the last
+of the old Spanish masters, was intended by his father for his own
+profession, that of bronze-casting. But Claudio persuaded his father to
+allow him to study painting, and before the close of his life he became
+the most famous painter in Madrid. He was not only the court-painter, but
+also the painter to the Cathedral of Toledo and keeper of the royal
+galleries. It was not strange that he should feel that he merited the
+honor of painting the walls of the Escorial, and when this was refused him
+and Luca Giordano was selected for the work, Coello threw aside his
+brushes and paints, grew sad, then ill, and died a year later. His
+masterpiece is now in the Escorial; it represents the "Collocation of the
+Host." His own portrait painted by himself is in the gallery of the
+Hermitage at St. Petersburg.
+
+The school of Seville was the most important school of Spain. It is also
+known as the school of Andalusia. It dates from the middle of the
+fifteenth century, and its latest master, Alonso Miguel de Tobar, died in
+1758.
+
+LUIS DE VARGAS (1502-1568), one of the earliest of the painters of the
+school of Seville, was a devout and holy man. He was accustomed to do
+penance, and in his room after his death scourges were found with which he
+had beaten himself, and a coffin in which he had been accustomed to lie
+and meditate upon death and a future life. It is said that Vargas studied
+twenty-eight years in Italy. His pictures were fine. His female heads were
+graceful and pure, his color good, and the whole effect that of grand
+simplicity. His picture of the "Temporal Generation of Our Lord" is his
+best work in Seville. Adam is kneeling in the foreground, and his leg is
+so well painted that the picture has been called "La Gamba." In spite of
+his seriousness Vargas was a witty man. On one occasion he was asked to
+give his opinion of a very poor picture of "Christ on the Cross." Vargas
+replied: "He looks as if he were saying, 'Forgive them, Lord, for they
+know not what they do!'"
+
+PABLO DE CESPEDES (1538-1608) was born at Cordova, and is an important
+person in the history of his time, for he was a divine, a poet, and a
+scholar, as well as an architect, sculptor, and painter. He was a graduate
+of the University of Alcal�, and excelled in Oriental languages. He
+studied art in Rome, and while there made a head of Seneca in marble, and
+fitted it to an antique trunk; on account of this work he was called
+"Victor il Spagnuolo." Zuccaro was asked to paint a picture for the
+splendid Cathedral of Cordova; he declined, and said that while Cespedes
+was in Spain they had no need of Italian artists. The pictures of Cespedes
+which now remain are so faded and injured that a good judgment can
+scarcely be formed of them; but they do not seem to be as fine as they
+were thought to be in his day. His "Last Supper" is in the Cathedral of
+Cordova. In the foreground there are some jars and vases so well painted
+that visitors praised them. Cespedes was so mortified at this that he
+commanded his servant to rub them out, and only the most judicious
+admiration for the rest of the picture and earnest entreaty for the
+preservation of the jars saved them from destruction. He left many
+writings upon artistic subjects and an essay upon the antiquity of the
+Cathedral of Cordova. He was as modest as he was learned, and was much
+beloved. He was made a canon in the Cathedral of Cordova, and was received
+with "full approbation of the Cordovese bishop and chapter."
+
+FRANCISCO PACHECO (1571-1654) was born at Seville. He was a writer on art,
+and is more famous as the master of Velasquez and on account of his books
+than for his pictures. He established a school where younger men than
+himself could have a thorough art education. Pacheco was the first in
+Spain to properly gild and paint statues and bas-reliefs. Some specimens
+of his work in this specialty still exist in Seville.
+
+FRANCISCO DE HERRERA, the elder (1576-1656), was a very original painter.
+He was born at Seville, and never studied out of Andalusia. He had so bad
+a temper that he drove his children and his pupils away from him. He knew
+how to engrave on bronze, and made false coins; when his forgery was
+discovered, he took refuge with the Jesuits. While in their convent
+Herrera painted the history of St. Hermengild, one of the patron saints of
+Seville. When Philip IV. saw his picture he forgave him his crime, and set
+him at liberty.
+
+FRANCISCO ZURBARAN (1598-1662) was one of the first among Spanish
+painters. He was skilful in the use of colors, and knew how to use sober
+tints and give them a brilliant effect. He did not often paint the
+Madonna. His female saints are like portraits of the ladies of his day. He
+was very successful in painting animals, and his pictures of drapery and
+still-life were exact in their representation of the objects he used for
+models. He painted historical and religious pictures, portraits and
+animals; but his best pictures were of monks. Stirling says: "He studied
+the Spanish friar, and painted him with as high a relish as Titian painted
+the Venetian noble, and Vandyck the gentleman of England."
+
+Zurbaran was appointed painter to Philip IV. before he was thirty-five
+years old. He was a great favorite with Philip, who once called Zurbaran
+"the painter of the king, and king of painters." Zurbaran's finest works
+are in the Museum of Seville. He left many pictures, and the Louvre claims
+to have ninety-two of them in its gallery.
+
+DIEGO RODRIGUEZ DE SILVA Y VELASQUEZ (1599-1660) was born at Seville, and
+died at Madrid. His parents were of noble families; his father was Juan
+Rodriguez de Silva, and his mother Geronima Velasquez, by whose name,
+according to the custom of Andalusia, he was called. His paternal
+grandfather was a Portuguese, but so poor that he was compelled to leave
+his own country, and seek his fortune at Seville, and to this circumstance
+Spain owes her greatest painter. Velasquez's father became a lawyer, and
+lived in comfort, and his mother devoted herself to his education. The
+child's great love of drawing induced his father to place young Velasquez
+in the school of Herrera, where the pupil acquired something of his free,
+bold style. But Velasquez soon became weary, and entered the school of
+Francisco Pacheco, an inferior painter, but a learned and polished
+gentleman. Here Velasquez soon learned that untiring industry and the
+study of nature were the surest guides to perfection for an artist. Until
+1622 he painted pictures from careful studies of common life, and always
+with the model or subject before him--adhering strictly to form, color,
+and outline. He is said to have kept a peasant lad for a study, and from
+him executed a variety of heads in every posture and with every possible
+expression. This gave him wonderful skill in taking likenesses. To this
+period belong the "Water Carrier of Seville," now at Apsley House, several
+pictures of beggars, and the "Adoration of the Shepherds," now in the
+Louvre, where is also a "Beggar Boy munching a piece of Pastry." At Vienna
+is a "Laughing Peasant" holding a flower (Fig. 64), and in Munich another
+"Beggar Boy." In 1622 his strong desire to see the paintings in the Royal
+Galleries led him to Madrid. Letters which he carried gave him admission
+to the works of art; but excepting securing the friendship of Fonesca, a
+noted patron of art, and an order to paint a portrait of the poet Gongora,
+he was unnoticed, and so he returned in a few months to Seville.
+Subsequently Fonesca interested the minister Olivarez in his behalf. This
+resulted in a letter summoning Velasquez to court, with an enclosure of
+fifty ducats for the journey. He was attended by his slave, Juan Pareja, a
+mulatto lad, who was his faithful attendant for many years, and who became
+an excellent painter. His former instructor, Pacheco, now his
+father-in-law, also accompanied him. His first work at the capital,
+naturally, was a portrait of his friend Fonesca, which so pleased the
+king, Philip IV., that he appointed Velasquez to his service, in which
+he remained during his life. This gave him full opportunity to perfect
+himself, for the king was never weary of multiplying pictures of himself.
+Velasquez also painted many portraits of the other members of the royal
+family, in groups and singly. His life was even and prosperous, and he
+made steady advances toward perfection. He was sent to Italy to study and
+to visit the galleries and works in all the cities. A second time the king
+sent him to Italy to purchase works of art, with orders to buy anything he
+thought worth having. He was everywhere received with consideration and
+kindness. The pope sat to him for his portrait; the cardinals Barberini
+and Rospigliosi; the sculptors Bernini and Algardi; the painters Nicolas
+Poussin, Pietro da Cortona, Claude and Matteo Prete were his friends and
+associates. Upon his return to Madrid, Velasquez was appointed
+aposentador-major, with a yearly salary of three thousand ducats, and a
+key at his girdle to unlock every door in the palace. He superintended the
+ceremonies and festivals of the royal household; he arranged in the halls
+of the Alcazar the bronzes and marbles purchased in Italy; he also cast in
+bronze the models he brought from abroad, and he yet found time to paint
+his last great picture, "Las Meni�as," or the "Maids of Honor," which
+represents the royal family, with the artist, maids of honor, the dwarfs,
+and a sleeping hound. It is said that when the king saw the picture he
+declared but one thing was wanting, and with his own hand significantly
+painted the cross of Santiago upon the breast of the artist. When the
+courts of France and Spain met on the Isle of Pheasants for the betrothal
+of the Infanta Maria Teresa to Louis XIV., Velasquez superintended all the
+ceremonies and all the festivities. These were of surpassing splendor, for
+these two courts were at this time the most luxurious in Europe. Stirling
+says the fatigues of the life of Velasquez shortened his days. He arrived
+at Madrid on his return, on June 26th, and from that time was gradually
+sinking. He died August 6th. He was buried with magnificent ceremonies in
+the Church of San Juan. His wife survived him but eight days; she was
+buried in the same grave.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--LAUGHING PEASANT. _Velasquez._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--THE TOPERS. _By Velasquez._]
+
+The character of Velasquez was a rare combination of freedom from
+jealousy, power to conciliate, sweetness of temper, strength of will and
+intellect, and steadfastness of purpose. He was the friend of Rubens and
+of Ribera, the protector of Cano and Murillo, who succeeded and were, next
+to him, the greatest painters of Spain. As the favorite of Philip IV., in
+fact, his minister for artistic affairs, he filled his office with purity
+and disinterestedness.
+
+JUAN DE PAREJA (1610-1670) was born in Spanish South America. He was never
+a great artist; but the circumstances of his life make him interesting. He
+was the slave of Velasquez, and was employed as color-grinder. He studied
+painting secretly, and at last, on an occasion when the king visited the
+studio of his master, Pareja showed him a picture of his own painting, and
+throwing himself at Philip's feet begged pardon for his audacity. Both
+Philip and Velasquez treated him very kindly. Velasquez gave Pareja his
+freedom; but it is said that he continued to serve his old master
+faithfully as long as he lived. Pareja succeeded best as a portrait
+painter. His works are not numerous, and are seen in few collections out
+of Spain.
+
+BARTOLOM� EST�BAN MURILLO (1618-1682) was born at Seville. His parents
+were Gaspar Est�ban and Maria Perez, and the name of his maternal
+grandmother, Elvira Murillo, was added to his own, according to Andalusian
+custom. From childhood he showed his inclination for art, and although
+this at first suggested to his parents that he should be educated as a
+priest, the idea was soon abandoned, as it was found that his interest in
+the paintings which adorned the churches was artistic rather than
+religious. He was therefore, at an early age, placed in the studio of his
+maternal uncle, Juan de Castillo, one of the leaders of the school of art
+of Seville. Castillo was then about fifty years old, and had as a student
+with Louis Fernandez acquired the Florentine style of the sixteenth
+century--combining chaste designing with cold and hard coloring. Murillo
+was thus early instructed not only in grinding colors and in indispensable
+mechanical details, but was thoroughly grounded in the important elements
+of purity of conception and dignity of treatment and arrangement. Seville
+at this time was the richest city in the Spanish empire. Its commerce with
+all Europe, and especially with Spanish America, was at its height. The
+Guadalquivir was alive with its shipping. Its palaces of semi-Moorish
+origin were occupied by a wealthy and luxurious nobility. The vast
+cathedral had been finished a century before. The tower "La Giralda,"
+three hundred and forty feet in height, is to this day one of the greatest
+marvels in Christendom, and with its Saracenic ornament and its "lace work
+in stone" is beyond all compare. The royal palace of the Alcazar, designed
+by Moorish architects, rivalled the Alhambra, and was filled with the
+finest workmanship of Grenada. There were one hundred and forty churches,
+of which many had been mosques, and were laden with the exquisite
+ornaments of their original builders. Such a city was sure to stimulate
+artists and be their home. The poorer ones were in the habit of exposing
+their works on balconies, on the steps of churches or the cathedral, or in
+any place where they would attract attention. Thus it often happened on
+festival days that a good work would command fame for an artist, and gain
+for him the patronage of some cathedral chapter or generous nobleman.
+Castillo removed to Cadiz in 1640, and Murillo, who was very poor, could
+only bring himself before the public, and earn sufficient for the bare
+necessities of life by thus exposing his pictures in the market of the
+Feria, as it was called, in front of the Church of All Saints. He
+struggled along in this way for two years. Early in 1640, Murillo met with
+an old fellow-pupil, Moya, who had been campaigning in Flanders in the
+Spanish army, and had there become impressed with the worth of the clear
+and strong style of the Flemish masters. Especially was he pleased with
+Vandyck, so that he followed him to England, and there studied as his
+pupil during the last six months of Vandyck's life. Moved by Moya's
+romancing stories of travel, adventure, and study, Murillo resolved to see
+better pictures than were to be found at Seville, and, if possible, to
+visit Italy. As a first step he painted a quantity of banners, madonnas,
+flower-pieces--anything and everything--and sold them to a ship owner, who
+sent them to Spanish America; and it is said that this and similar trades
+originated the story that Murillo once visited Mexico and other
+Spanish-American countries. Thus equipped with funds, and without
+informing his friends (his parents were dead), he started on foot across
+the mountains and the equally dreaded plains for Madrid, which he entered
+at the age of twenty-five, friendless and poor. He sought out Velasquez,
+and asked him for letters to his friends in Rome. But Velasquez, then at
+the height of his fame and influence, was so much interested in the young
+enthusiast that he offered him lodgings and an opportunity to study and
+copy in the galleries of Madrid. The Royal Galleries contained carefully
+selected pictures from the Italian and Flemish schools, so that Murillo
+was at once placed in the very best possible conditions for success.
+Murillo thus spent more than two years, mostly under the direction of
+Velasquez, and worked early and late. He copied from the Italian and
+Flemish masters, and drew from casts and from life. This for a time so
+influenced his style that even now connoisseurs are said to discern
+reminiscences of Vandyck and Velasquez in the pictures painted by him on
+his first return to Seville. At the end of two years Velasquez advised
+Murillo to go to Rome, and offered to assist him. But Murillo decided
+first to return to Seville, and perhaps had come to the resolution not to
+go to Italy; but this may be doubted. He knew the progress he had made; he
+was reasonably certain that, if not the superior, he was the equal of any
+of the artists he had left behind in Seville. He was sure of the wealth,
+and taste, and love for art in his native city. His only sister was living
+there. The rich and noble lady he afterward married resided near there.
+And so we can hardly wonder that the artist gave up a cherished journey to
+Italy, and returned to the scene of his early struggles with poverty.
+
+The first works which Murillo painted after his return were for the
+Franciscan Convent. They brought him little money but much fame. They were
+eleven in number, but even the names of some are lost. One represents St.
+Francis resting on his iron bed, listening in ecstacy to the notes of a
+violin which an angel is playing to him; another portrays St. Diego of
+Alcal�, asking a blessing on a kettle of broth he is about to give to a
+group of beggars clustered before him; another represents the death of St.
+Clara of Assisi, in the rapturous trance in which her soul passed away,
+surrounded by pale nuns and emaciated monks looking upward to a
+contrasting group of Christ and the Madonna, with a train of celestial
+virgins bearing her shining robe of immortality. The companion picture is
+a Franciscan monk who passes into a celestial ecstacy while cooking in the
+convent kitchen, and who is kneeling in the air, while angels perform his
+culinary tasks. These pictures brought Murillo into speedy notice. Artists
+and nobles flocked to see them. Orders for portraits and altar-pieces
+followed in rapid succession, and he was full of work. Notwithstanding the
+fact that he was acknowledged to be at the head of his profession in
+Seville, his style at this time was cold and hard. It is called _frio_
+(cold), to distinguish it from his later styles. The Franciscan Convent
+pictures were carried off by Marshal Soult, and fortunately; for the
+convent was burned in 1810. His second style, called _calido_, or warm,
+dated from about the time of his marriage, in 1648, to a lady of
+distinguished family, named Do�a Beatriz de Cabrera y Sotomayor. She was
+possessed of considerable property, and had lived in the village of Pilas,
+a few leagues southwest of Seville. Her portrait is not known to exist;
+but several of Murillo's madonnas which resemble each other are so
+evidently portraits, that the belief is these idealized faces were drawn
+from the countenance of the wife of the master.
+
+His home now became famous for its hospitable reunions, and his social
+position, added to his artistic merits, procured for him orders beyond his
+utmost ability to fill. One after another in quick succession, large,
+grand works were sent out from his studio to be the pride of churches and
+convents. At this time his pictures were noted for a portrait-like
+naturalness in their faces, perhaps lacking in idealism, but withal pure
+and pleasing; the drapery graceful and well arranged, the lights skilfully
+disposed, the tints harmonious, and the contours soft. His flesh tints
+were heightened by dark gray backgrounds, so amazingly true that an
+admirer has said they were painted in blood and milk. The _calido_, or
+warm manner, was preserved for eight or ten years. In this style were
+painted an "Immaculate Conception," for the Franciscan Convent; "The
+Nativity of the Virgin," for the high altar of the Seville Cathedral; a
+"St. Anthony of Padua" for the same church, and very many others equally
+famous. In 1874 the St. Anthony was stolen from the cathedral, and for
+some time was unheard of, until two men offered to sell it for two hundred
+and fifty dollars to Mr. Schaus, the picture dealer in New York. He
+purchased the work and turned it over to the Spanish Consul, who
+immediately returned it to the Seville Cathedral, to the great joy of the
+Sevillians. In 1658 Murillo turned his attention to the founding of an
+Academy of Art, and, though he met with many obstacles, the institution
+was finally opened for instruction in 1660, and Murillo was its first
+president. At this time he was taking on his latest manner, called the
+_vaporoso_, or vapory, which was first used in some of his pictures
+executed for the Church of Sta. Maria la Blanca. In this manner the rigid
+outlines of his first style is gone; there is a feathery lightness of
+touch as if the brush had swept the canvas smoothly and with unbroken
+evenness: this softness is enhanced by frequent contrasts with harder and
+heavier groups in the same picture.
+
+But the highest point in the art was reached by Murillo in the eleven
+pictures which he painted in the Hospital de la Caridad. Six of these are
+now in their original places; five were stolen by Soult and carried to
+France; some were returned to Spain, but not to the hospital.
+
+The convent of the Capuchins at Seville at one time possessed twenty
+pictures by this master. The larger part of them are now in the Museum of
+Seville, and form the finest existing collection of his works. This museum
+was once a church, and the statue of Murillo is placed in front of it.
+Although the lighting of this museum is far inferior to that of Madrid and
+many others, yet here one must go to realize fully the glory of this
+master. Among the pictures is the "Virgen de la Sevillet�," or Virgin of
+the Napkin. It is said that the cook of the convent had become the friend
+of the painter, and begged of him some memento of his good feeling; the
+artist had no canvas, and the cook gave him a napkin upon which this great
+work was done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. _By Murillo. In the
+Louvre._]
+
+Murillo's representation of that extremely spiritual and mystical subject
+called the Immaculate Conception, has so far excelled that of any other
+artist that he has sometimes been called "the painter of the Conception."
+His attention was especially called to this subject by the fact that the
+doctrine it sets forth was a pet with the clergy of Seville, who, when
+Pope Paul V., in 1617, published a bill making this doctrine obligatory,
+celebrated the occasion with all possible pomp in the churches; the nobles
+also gave entertainments, and the whole city was alive with a fervor of
+religious zeal and a desire to manifest its love for this dogma. The
+directions given by the Inspector of the Holy Office for the
+representation of this subject were extremely precise; but Murillo
+complied with them in general effect only, and disregarded details when it
+pleased him: for example, the rules prescribed the age of the Virgin to be
+from twelve to thirteen, and the hair to be of golden hue. Murillo
+sometimes pictured her as a dark-haired woman. It is said that when he
+painted the Virgin as very young his daughter Francesca was his model;
+later the daughter became a nun in the convent of the Madre de Dios.
+
+The few portraits painted by Murillo are above all praise; his pictures of
+humble life, too, would of themselves have sufficed to make him famous. No
+Spanish artist, except Velasquez, has painted better landscapes than he.
+But so grand and vast were his religious works that his fame rests
+principally on them. It is true, however, that in England and in other
+countries out of Spain he was first made famous by his beggar boys and
+kindred subjects.
+
+Murillo and Velasquez may be said to hold equivalent positions in the
+annals of Spanish Art--Murillo as the painter for the church, and
+Velasquez as that of the court. As a delineator of religious subjects
+Murillo ranked only a very little below the greatest Italian masters, and
+even beside them he excels in one direction; for he is able more generally
+and fully to arouse religious emotions and sympathies. This stamps his
+genius as that of the first order, and it should also be placed to his
+credit, in estimating his native talent, that he never saw anything of all
+the Classic Art which was such a source of inspiration to the artists of
+Italy. Stirling says: "All his ideas were of home growth: his mode of
+expression was purely national and Spanish; his model--nature, as it
+existed in and around Seville."
+
+While painting a marriage of St. Catherine for the Capuchin Church of
+Cadiz, Murillo fell from the scaffold, and soon died from his injuries: he
+was buried in the Church of Sta. Cruz, and it is a sad coincidence that
+this church and that of San Juan, at Madrid, in which Velasquez was
+interred, were both destroyed by the French under the command of Soult.
+
+The character of Murillo was such as to command the greatest respect, and
+though he was not associated with as many royal personages as Velasquez,
+he was invited to court, and received many flattering acknowledgments of
+his genius. His fame was not confined to his own country, and his portrait
+was engraved in Flanders during the last year of his life. He had many
+strong personal friends, and his interest in the academy and his
+generosity to other artists prove him to have been above all mean
+jealousies: he loved Art because it was Art, and did all in his power for
+its elevation in his own country. It is probable that since his death more
+money has been paid for a single picture by him than he received for the
+entire work of his life. The Immaculate Conception, now in the Louvre, was
+sold from the Soult collection for six hundred and fifteen thousand three
+hundred francs, or more than one hundred and twenty-three thousand
+dollars. At the time of its sale it was believed to be the largest price
+ever paid for a picture.
+
+SEBASTIAN GOMEZ (about 1620) was a mulatto slave of Murillo's, and like
+Pareja he secretly learned to paint. At last one day when Murillo left a
+sketch of a head of the Virgin on his easel Gomez dared to finish it.
+Murillo was glad to find that he had made a painter of his slave, and
+though the pictures of Gomez were full of faults his color was much like
+that of his master. Two of his pictures are in the Museum of Seville. He
+did not live long after Murillo's death in 1682.
+
+DON ALONSO MIGUEL DE TOBAR (1678-1758) never attained to greatness. His
+best original pictures were portraits. He made a great number of copies of
+the works of Murillo, and was chiefly famous for these pictures. There is
+little doubt that many pictures attributed to Murillo are _replicas_, or
+copies by the hand of Tobar.
+
+The school of Valencia flourished from 1506 to 1680. VICENTE DE JOANES
+(about 1506-1579) was a painter of religious pictures who is scarcely
+known out of Spain, and in that country his pictures are, almost without
+exception, in churches and convents. He was very devout, and began his
+works with fasting and prayer. It is related that on one occasion a Jesuit
+of Valencia had a vision in which the Virgin Mary appeared to him, and
+commanded him to have a picture painted of her in a dress like that she
+then wore, which was a white robe with a blue mantle. She was to be
+represented standing on a crescent with the mystic dove floating above
+her; her Son was to crown her, while the Father was to lean from the
+clouds above all.
+
+The Jesuit selected Joanes to be the painter of this work, and though he
+fasted and prayed much he could not paint it so as to please himself or
+the Jesuit. At last his pious zeal overcame all obstacles, and his picture
+was hung above the altar of the Immaculate in the convent of the Jesuits.
+It was very beautiful--the artists praised it, the monks believed that it
+had a miraculous power, and it was known as "La Purisima," or the
+perfectly pure one.
+
+Joanes excelled in his pictures of Christ. He seemed to have conceived the
+very Christ of the Scriptures, the realization of the visions of St. John,
+or of the poetry of Solomon. In these pictures he combined majesty with
+grace and love with strength. Joanes frequently represented the Last
+Supper, and introduced a cup which is known as the Holy Chalice of
+Valencia. It is made of agate and adorned with gold and gems, and was
+believed to have been used by Christ at his Last Supper with his
+disciples. Some of the portraits painted by Joanes are very fine. In
+manner and general effect his works are strangely like those of the great
+Raphael.
+
+FRANCISCO DE RIBALTA (1550-1628) was really the head of the school of
+Valencia, and one of the best historical painters of Spain. He studied his
+art first in Valencia, and there fell in love with the daughter of his
+master. The father refused him his suit, and the young couple parted in
+deep sorrow. Ribalta went to Italy, where he made such progress, and
+gained such fame that when he returned to Valencia he had no trouble in
+marrying his old master's daughter. Valencia has more pictures by Ribalta
+than are found elsewhere. Out of Spain they are very rare. One of his
+works is at Magdalene College, Oxford.
+
+One peculiarity of the Spanish painters was that they painted the extremes
+of emotion. Their subjects represented the ecstacy of bliss or the most
+excruciating agony. They did not seem to have as much middle ground or to
+know as much of moderate emotions as the painters of other nations.
+Ribalta was no exception to this rule, and some of his pictures are
+painful to look at. His portraits are fine, and represent the most
+powerful men of Valencia of the time in which he lived.
+
+JOSEF DE RIBERA was a native of Valencia, but lived and studied in Italy,
+and so became more of an Italian than a Spanish master. I have spoken of
+him in connection with the Naturalists and their school at Naples.
+
+ALONSO CANO (1601-1667) was a very important artist, and cannot be said to
+belong to any school. He was born at Granada, and studied under masters of
+Seville, both in painting and sculpture. He became the best Spanish
+artist who studied in Spain only. He was something of an architect also,
+and his various talents acquired a high place for him among artists; but
+his temper was such as to cause him much trouble, and it so interfered
+with his life that he did not attain to the position to which his artistic
+gifts entitled him.
+
+In 1637 he fought a duel, and was obliged to flee from Madrid, and in 1644
+his wife was found murdered in her bed. Cano was suspected of the crime,
+and although he fled he was found, and brought back, and put to the
+torture. He made no confession, and was set at liberty; but many people
+believed in his guilt. He still held his office as painter to the king,
+and was sometimes employed on important works; but he determined to remove
+to his native Granada and become a priest. Philip IV. appointed him canon,
+and after he held this office he was still employed as a painter and
+sculptor by private persons, as well as by religious bodies, and was even
+sent to Malaga to superintend improvements in the cathedral there. But his
+temper led him into so many broils that at length, in 1659, the chapter of
+Granada deprived him of his office. He went to the king with his
+complaints, and was again made a canon; but he was so angry that he never
+would use his brush or his chisel in the service of the Cathedral of
+Granada.
+
+His life was now devoted to charity and good works. He gave away all his
+money as soon as he received it. When his purse was empty he would go into
+a shop, and beg a pencil and paper, and sketching a head or other design
+would mark the price on it, and give it to a beggar with directions for
+finding a purchaser for it. After his death large numbers of these charity
+works were collected.
+
+One of his strong characteristics was hatred of the Jews. He would cross
+the street, in order not to meet one of them, and would throw away a
+garment that had brushed against one of the race. One day he went home,
+and found his housekeeper bargaining with a Jew; he chased him away with
+great fury, sent the woman off to be purified, repaved the spot where the
+Jew had stood, and gave the shoes in which he had chased him to a servant.
+When about to die Cano would not receive the sacrament from the priest who
+was present, because he had communicated with Jews, and when a rude
+crucifix was held before him he pushed it away. When he was reproved for
+this he said: "Vex me not with this thing; but give me a simple cross that
+I may adore it, both as it is, and as I can figure it in my mind." When
+this was done, it is said that he died in a most edifying manner.
+
+Very few of Cano's architectural works remain; a few drawings of this sort
+are in the Louvre which are simple and elegant in style. The finest
+carving by him is a small figure of the Virgin, now in the Cathedral of
+Granada. Eight of his pictures are in the Queen of Spain's gallery at
+Madrid, and the Church of Getafe, the Cathedral of Granada and that of
+Malaga have his works. A beautiful madonna, which was one of his latest
+works, is in the chapel of the Cathedral of Valencia, and is lighted by
+votive tapers only. His pictures are rare out of Spain. One of his
+portraits is in the Louvre. Other works are in Berlin, Dresden, Munich,
+and the Hermitage, St. Petersburg.
+
+The last Spanish painter of whom I shall speak belongs to a much later
+period. FRANCISCO GOYA Y LUCIENTES (1746-1828) was a student in Rome, and
+after his return to Spain lived in fine style in a villa near Madrid. He
+was painter to Charles IV., and was always employed on orders from the
+nobility. He painted portraits and religious pictures, but his chief
+excellence was in painting caricatures. He was never weary of painting the
+priests and monks in all sorts of ridiculous ways. He made them in the
+form of apes and asses, and may be called the Hogarth of Spain, so well
+did he hold up the people about him to ridicule. He painted with great
+boldness and could use a sponge or stick in place of a brush. Sometimes he
+made a picture with his palette-knife, and put in the fine touches with
+his thumb. He executed engravings also, and published eighty prints which
+he called "Caprices." These were very famous; they were satires upon all
+Spanish laws and customs. He also made a series of plates about the French
+invasion, thirty-three prints of scenes in the bull-ring, and etchings of
+some of the works of Velasquez. Portraits of Charles IV. and his queen by
+Goya are in the museum at Madrid. Works of his are in the Louvre and in
+the National Gallery in London. His pictures sell for large prices. In
+1870 his picture of Charlotte Corday sold for five hundred and eighty-four
+pounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+PAINTING IN FRANCE.
+
+
+The French school of painting does not date earlier than the sixteenth
+century, and the painters of that time were few in number, and little is
+known of them. Before the time when a French school could be said to exist
+the kings of France employed foreign artists to decorate their palaces and
+churches, and they naturally turned to the Italians for all that they
+needed. Hence it happened that in its earliest days the French school was
+almost entirely under Italian influence, and I shall first speak of French
+masters who studied in Italy.
+
+NICHOLAS POUSSIN (1594-1665) may be said to belong to the seventeenth
+century, since he was born so late in the preceding one. Poussin was born
+in Normandy, and early began to draw and paint. He studied somewhat in
+France, and when thirty years old went to Rome, where, in reality, his
+artistic career began. He was a pupil of Andrea Sacchi, and received some
+instruction from Domenichino also; but he formed his style principally by
+studying the works of the ancients and those of the great Raphael. He was
+so devoted to the study of the habits and customs of the Greeks that he
+almost became one of them in his modes of thought.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--ARCADIAN SHEPHERDS. _Poussin._]
+
+He was very poor when he first went to Rome; but he worked hard, and began
+to be known and to receive orders for pictures. Louis XIII. heard of
+Poussin, and invited him to Paris, where he gave him apartments in the
+Tuileries. But the artist longed to return to Rome, and made a plea of
+going for his wife. Soon after he left, Louis died, and Poussin never
+returned to France. Poussin was always busy; but he asked such moderate
+prices that he was never rich, and, when a great man pitied the artist
+because he had so few servants, Poussin pitied him in return for having so
+many. His portrait painted by himself is in the Louvre, where are many of
+his mythological pictures. His love for the classic manner makes these
+subjects his best works. His paintings are seen in many European
+galleries.
+
+CLAUDE LORRAINE (1600-1682), whose real name was Claude Gel�e, was born in
+Champagne in Lorraine. His parents were very poor, and died when he was
+still young: he was apprenticed to a pastry-cook, and so travelled to Rome
+as servant to some young gentlemen. Not long after his arrival he engaged
+himself to the painter Agostino Tassi, for whom he cooked, and mixed
+colors. After a time he himself began to paint. Nature was his teacher; he
+studied her with unchanging devotion; he knew all her changes, and was in
+the habit of sitting for a whole day watching one scene, so that he could
+paint from memory its different aspects at the various hours of the day.
+His works brought him into notice when he was still young. He received
+many orders, and when about twenty-seven years old some pictures he
+painted for Pope Urban VIII. established his fame as an artist of high
+rank. His character was above reproach, and his feelings were as tender as
+many of his pictures. He was attractive in person, though his face was
+grave in its expression. It would seem that he should have left a large
+fortune, but he did not. This was partly because he suffered much from
+gout, and was often unable to paint; but a better reason probably is that
+he gave so much to his needy relations that he could not save large sums.
+
+Claude Lorraine has been called the prince and poet of landscape painters.
+L�bke, the German art writer, praises him very much, and his praise is
+more valuable than it would be if it came from one of Claude's own
+countrymen. He says: "Far more profoundly than all other masters did
+Claude Gel�e penetrate into the secrets of nature, and by the enchanting
+play of sunlight, the freshness of his dewy foregrounds, and the charm of
+his atmospheric distances, he obtained a tone of feeling which influences
+the mind like an eternal Sabbath rest. In his works there is all the
+splendor, light, untroubled brightness, and harmony of the first morning
+of creation in Paradise. His masses of foliage have a glorious richness
+and freshness, and even in the deepest shadows are interwoven with a
+golden glimmer of light. But they serve only as a mighty framework, for,
+more freely than with other masters, the eye wanders through a rich
+foreground into the far distance, the utmost limits of which fade away in
+golden mist."
+
+His two great charms are the immense space which he represents in his
+pictures and his beautiful color. The latter appears as if he had first
+used a silvery gray, and then put his other colors over that, which gives
+his works a soft, lovely atmospheric effect, such as no other artist has
+surpassed. When he introduced buildings into his pictures they were well
+done; but his figures and animals were so imperfect that he was accustomed
+to say that he sold the landscape, and gave away the figures.
+
+Before his death his pictures were so much valued that other artists tried
+to imitate them, and he was accustomed to keep a book of sketches by which
+his works could be proved. He called this book "Liber Veritatis," and
+before his death it reached six volumes; one of these containing two
+hundred drawings is at Chatsworth. A catalogue of his works describes more
+than four hundred landscapes. All the principal galleries of Europe have
+his pictures, and there are a great number of them in England, both in
+public and private collections.
+
+SEBASTIAN BOURDON (1616-1671), who was born at Montpelier, made his
+studies in Rome. He brought himself into notice by a picture of the
+Crucifixion of St Peter, which is now in the Louvre. He was one of the
+earliest members of the French Academy. Bourdon resided in Sweden for some
+years; but was in Paris, and held the position of Rector of the Academy
+when he died. He painted a few _genre_ subjects, and two of his portraits
+by himself are in the Louvre; but his best works were landscapes, and in
+these his style was like that of Salvator Rosa. It has been said that
+Rigaud assisted him in his portraits of himself. Bourdon made some
+engravings, and collectors prize his plates very much.
+
+There were other French painters who studied in Italy, but those that I
+have mentioned are the important ones. Of those who studied in their own
+country only, EUSTACHE LE SUEUR (1617-1655) was the first of any
+importance; but his life was short and uneventful, and he was not
+appreciated. His most important works are in the Louvre.
+
+CHARLES LE BRUN (1619-1690) was very prominent in his day. His father was
+a sculptor, and was employed by the Chancellor Segnier. This nobleman's
+attention was attracted to the son, and he at length sent the young Le
+Brun to Italy to study. He remained there six years, and after his return
+to Paris he was made painter to the king, and became the favorite of the
+court. He used his opportunities to persuade Louis XIV. to found the Royal
+Academy at Paris, which was done in 1648. All his principal pictures are
+in the Louvre.
+
+PIERRE MIGNARD (1612-1695) has been called "the Roman," because he lived
+in Rome twenty-two years, and while there was patronized by three
+successive popes. In 1664 he was made President of the Academy of St. Luke
+in Rome. At length Louis XIV. invited him to return to France. In 1690 he
+succeeded Le Brun as court painter, and was made Chancellor of the
+Academy. His portraits are his best works, and these are seen in the
+galleries of various European countries.
+
+HYACINTHE RIGAUD (1659-1743) became the most distinguished French portrait
+painter of his time; but his pictures are not very attractive or
+interesting in our day. He finished them too much, and so gave them an
+artificial appearance. Then, too, the costume of his day was such that his
+portraits seem to be the portraits of wigs and not of people. They are
+very numerous. He often painted the portrait of Louis XIV., and had
+illustrious people from all parts of Europe among his sitters.
+
+ANTOINE WATTEAU (1684-1721) was the first to practise a new style of
+painting. The habit of the French court was to pass much time in elegant
+out-door amusements. Watteau represented the scenes of the _f�tes
+galantes_ and reunions then so much in fashion. His pictures are crowded
+with figures in beautiful costumes. There are groups of ladies and
+gentlemen promenading, dancing, love-making, and lounging in pleasant
+grounds with temples and fountains and everything beautiful about them.
+The pictures of Watteau are fine, and are seen in many galleries. His
+color is brilliant, and to their worth as pictures is added the historical
+interest which belongs to them, because they give us the best idea of
+court life, dress, and manners of the reign of Louis XIV. which can be had
+from any paintings.
+
+The followers of Watteau were numerous, but are not of great importance.
+There were a few painters of animals and flowers in the French school; but
+we shall pass to the _genre_ painters, among whom JEAN-BAPTISTE GREUZE
+(1725-1805) was important. He painted very beautiful pictures of young
+girls and children. His color is very agreeable, and some of his works are
+finished as finely as if they were done on ivory. Most of his pictures
+are in private galleries, but they are seen in some public collections.
+Probably the "Broken Jug," in the Louvre, is his best known work. His
+pictures sell for very large prices. At the Forster sale in 1876, "A
+Little Girl with a Lap Dog in her Arms" brought six thousand seven hundred
+and twenty pounds; in 1772 the same picture was sold for three hundred
+pounds, and in 1832 it was again sold for seven hundred and three pounds.
+Thus we see that in fifty-four years its value had increased to more than
+nine times its price, and in one hundred and four years it brought
+twenty-two times as much as it was first sold for.
+
+CLAUDE JOSEPH VERNET (1714-1789) was the best marine painter of the French
+school. Louis XV. commissioned him to paint the seaports of France.
+Fifteen of these pictures are in the Louvre. There have been many
+engravings after his works. His pictures of Italian seaports and views
+near Rome and Tivoli are among his best paintings. His color has little
+variety; but his drawing is correct, and his finish is very careful and
+fine. Vernet also made a few etchings.
+
+In the early part of the eighteenth century JOSEPH MARIE VIEN (1716-1809)
+returned to the classic style of painting, and created a feeling against
+the pretty manner which had been the chief feature of French pictures for
+some time. His pictures are very numerous in the churches and galleries of
+Paris. He was not a great painter, but he marks a change in the spirit of
+French painting. Vien was the teacher of JACQUES LOUIS DAVID (1748-1825),
+who was considered the first painter in modern art at the close of the
+eighteenth century. He was so devoted to the classic style that he took
+the remains of ancient art as models for the figures in his pictures. His
+groups are like groups of statues, and his flesh looks like marble, it is
+so hard and lifeless. During the time of the first Napoleon this style
+was carried to excess in everything connected with the arts. David was
+such a favorite with the emperor that after the return of the Bourbons he
+was banished, and his family were not allowed to bury him in France. He
+lived in Brussels, and executed many of his best pictures there.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--THE SABINE WOMEN. _David._]
+
+ANTOINE JEAN GROS (1771-1835) was a great admirer of David, and first
+attracted attention in 1801 by a picture of "Bonaparte on the Bridge of
+Arcola." After this Gros painted many such works, and principally
+represented military events. Many of his pictures are very coarse. The
+"Plague at Jaffa" and the "Field of Eylau" are of this type, and the first
+is disgusting. Among his best works is "Francis I. and Charles V. visiting
+the Tombs at St. Denis." But although he received many honors, and was
+made a baron by Charles X., he could not bear the criticism which was made
+upon his pictures, and finally drowned himself in the Seine near Meudon.
+
+PAUL DELAROCHE (1797-1856) was born at Paris, and studied under Baron
+Gros. He became a celebrated artist and was made a member of the Institute
+of France, a Professor in l'�cole des Beaux-Arts, and an officer of the
+Legion of Honor. His principal works represent scenes of important
+historical interest, and he so arranged them that they appeal to one's
+sympathies with great power. Among these pictures are the "Condemnation of
+Marie Antoinette," the "Death of the Duke of Guise," "Cromwell
+Contemplating the Remains of Charles I.," and other similar historical
+incidents. His design was according to academical rules; but he was not
+entirely conventional, and in some of his religious pictures there was
+much expression and deep feeling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--DEATH OF THE DUKE OF GUISE. _Delaroche._]
+
+His largest and most famous work is the "Hemicycle," in l'�cole des
+Beaux-Arts, Paris. He was occupied with this painting during three years;
+it contains seventy-five figures of life size. The arts of different
+countries and ages are represented in it by portraits of the artists of
+the times and nations typified. Thus it is very interesting when
+considered merely as a great collection of portraits. Delaroche married
+the daughter of Horace Vernet, and it is said that the figure which stands
+for Gothic Architecture is a portrait of her. The Hemicycle is richly
+colored, and has a great deal of fine painting in it; but from its very
+nature it has no dramatic power, and does not arouse any deep sentiment in
+one who studies it. Delaroche was paid only about fifteen thousand dollars
+for this great labor, and refused to have any further reward.
+
+Perhaps none of his works are more powerful than the "Death of the Duke of
+Guise." You will easily recall the circumstances of his assassination: the
+painter has so represented it that one really forgets that it is a
+picture, and can only remember the horror of the crime. The corpse of the
+duke is on one side of the immense chamber, near the bed; the assassins
+are in a terrified group on the other side, and with them the cowardly
+king, who was absolutely afraid of the dead body of his victim. The
+picture is a remarkable instance of the power that may be given to what is
+sometimes called historical-genre art. This picture was sold in 1853 for
+ten thousand five hundred dollars (Fig. 69).
+
+JEAN LOUIS G�RICAULT (1791-1824). He was born at Rouen, and studied first
+under Gu�rin and then in Rome. He was the first master of any power who
+entirely dismissed the influence of the art of David with its marble flesh
+and statuesque effect. The one great work by which he is known is the
+"Wreck of the Medusa," which is in the Louvre, and which may be said to
+mark the advent of the modern French school.
+
+EUGENE DELACROIX (1799-1863) was the son of a Minister of Foreign Affairs,
+and was born to position and wealth. But through misfortunes all this was
+changed, and he was forced to work hard for his living. At last he
+managed to study under Gu�rin, and in the studio of the master became the
+friend of G�ricault. The first work which brought Delacroix fame was a
+picture of a scene from Dante's "Inferno," in which Dante sees some of his
+old acquaintances who were condemned to float upon the lake which
+surrounds the infernal city. This work was exhibited in 1822, and was
+bought for the Gallery of the Luxembourg. Baron Gros tried to be his
+friend; but Delacroix wished to follow his own course, and for some time
+had but small success.
+
+He travelled in Spain, Algiers, and Morocco, and at length was
+commissioned by Thiers to do some decorative work in the throne-room of
+the Chamber of Deputies. He was much criticised, but at length was
+accepted as a great artist, and was made a member of the Institute in
+1857. He received another important order for the Chamber of Peers. Some
+of his works are at Versailles, and others are seen in various churches of
+Paris. When they are considered as a whole they are effective, but they do
+not bear examination; his design was free and spirited and his color good,
+and he painted a variety of subjects, and was able to vary the expression
+of his work to suit the impression he wished to produce.
+
+�MILE JEAN HORACE VERNET (1789-1863) was born in the Louvre. He studied
+under his father, Carle Vernet, who was the son of Claude Joseph Vernet.
+Carle was a witty man, and it is said that when he was dying he exclaimed,
+"How much I resemble the Grand Dauphin--son of a king, father of a king,
+and never a king myself!" In spite of his being less than his father or
+his son, he was a good painter of horses. When Horace Vernet was but
+fifteen years old he supported himself by drawing; he studied with
+Vincent, and drew from living models. In 1814 he showed such bravery at
+the Barriere of Clichy that he was decorated with the Cross of the Legion
+of Honor: before he died he was a grand officer of the order on account
+of his artistic merits. He was also a member of the Institute and Director
+of the Academy of Rome.
+
+His best works were executed in Rome, where he spent seven years; he
+travelled in Algiers, Syria, Egypt, Palestine, Russia, and England, and
+was everywhere received with the honors which his genius merited. His
+works embraced a great variety of subjects, and it is said that he often
+finished his picture the first time he went over it, and did not retouch
+it. There is no doubt that in certain ways the excellence of Vernet has
+been overestimated, and he has been too much praised; but his remarkable
+memory, which enabled him truthfully to paint scenes he had witnessed, and
+his facility of execution, are worthy of honorable mention.
+
+When twenty years old Vernet was married, and from this time he kept an
+expense account in which all the prices he received for his works are set
+down. The smallest is twenty-four sous for a tulip; the largest is fifty
+thousand francs for the portrait of the Empress of Russia.
+
+About 1817 Vernet became the favorite of the Duke of Orleans, and was
+therefore unpopular with the royal party. In 1820 he had made himself so
+displeasing to the king by some lithographs which were scattered among the
+people, that it was thought best for him to leave Paris. However, he
+overcame all this, and four years later Charles X. sat to him for his
+portrait. From this time orders and money flowed in from all sides.
+
+The Vernets had originated in Avignon, and in 1826, when the museum there
+was opened, Horace and his father were invited to be present. Every honor
+was shown them; poems were read in their praise; they were conducted to
+the home of their ancestors, which they piously saluted, and inscribed
+their names upon the door-posts. After they returned to Paris they
+received rich gifts in return for the pictures they had given to Avignon.
+The Gallery Vernet, which contains works by Antoine, Fran�ois, Joseph,
+Carle, and Horace Vernet, is regarded as a sacred place by the people of
+that region.
+
+When Horace Vernet was Director of the Academy in Rome he held _salons_
+weekly; they were very gay, and all people of distinction who lived in
+Rome or visited that city were seen at these receptions, dancing and
+amusing themselves in the lively French manner. But after 1830 he felt
+that the Villa Medici was a prison. He wished to follow the French army in
+the East, and three years later did go to Algiers. In the same year the
+king decided to convert the palace at Versailles into an historical
+museum, and from this time Vernet had but two ideas, the East and
+Versailles. Almost every work he did was connected with these two
+thoughts.
+
+Louis Philippe now desired him to paint four battle-pieces; but Vernet
+objected that no room was large enough to please him: for this reason a
+floor was removed, two stories turned into one, and the grand Gallery of
+Battles made. At length he had a difficulty with the king and went to
+Russia; but hearing that his father was dying he returned to Paris, and
+was made welcome back to Versailles, where he was really necessary.
+
+We cannot stay to recount the honors which were showered upon him, and
+which he always received with great modesty of demeanor. He went from one
+triumph to another until 1848, when the Revolution almost broke his heart;
+he worked on, but his happiness was over. In the great Exposition of 1855
+he had a whole _salon_ devoted to his works, and men from all the world
+came to see and to praise. He lived still eight years; he made pictures of
+incidents in the Crimean War; he painted a portrait of Napoleon III., but
+he wrote of himself: "When time has worn out a portion of our faculties we
+are not entirely destroyed; but it is necessary to know how to leave the
+first rank and content one's self with the fourth."
+
+His industry and the amount of work he did are simply marvellous. He loved
+excitement and adventure, and the works which have these elements were his
+best--and he liked best to do them. His color cannot be praised; he had no
+lofty intellectual aims; he was clever to a high degree, but he was not
+great; he was one to whom the happy medium of praise should be given, for
+he neither merits severity of criticism nor immoderate praise; he was
+simply a gifted painter and "the greatest and last of the Vernets."
+
+He is also the last French painter of whom we shall speak, as we do not
+propose to take up the excellent artists of our own day, who would require
+a volume devoted strictly to themselves.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+PAINTING IN ENGLAND.
+
+
+In early days in England there were miniature-painters, and in the last
+half of the sixteenth century there were some very important English
+painters of this kind. Before the days of Charles I. the English kings
+were much in the habit of inviting foreign artists to England, and
+commissions were given to them. The painters who were most prominent in
+England were of the Flemish school, and even under Charles I., as we have
+seen, Rubens and Vandyck were the principal painters in England. But in
+the reign of this king some native artists made names for themselves, and
+what we call the English school of painting may really be dated from this
+time.
+
+Before speaking of painters I must mention one miniaturist whose works
+were in demand in other countries, as well as in England. SAMUEL COOPER
+(1609-1672) has been called "the Vandyck in little," and there is far more
+breadth in his works than is usual in miniature. He painted likenesses of
+many eminent persons, and his works now have an honorable place in many
+collections.
+
+WILLIAM DOBSON (1610-1646) has been mentioned in our account of Vandyck as
+a painter whom the great master befriended and recommended to Charles I.
+He became a good portrait-painter, and after Vandyck's death was appointed
+sergeant-painter to the king. His portraits are full of dignity; the face
+shadows are dark, and his color excellent. He did not excel in painting
+historical subjects. Vandyck was succeeded at court by two foreign artists
+who are so closely associated with England that they are always spoken of
+as English artists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS.]
+
+PETER VAN DER FAES (1618-1680), who was born in Westphalia, is known to us
+as Sir PETER LELY. He became the most celebrated portrait-painter after
+Vandyck, and his "Beauties at Hampton Court" are pictures which are known
+the world over. He has been accused of not painting eyes as he ought; but
+the ladies of his day had an affectation in the use of their eyes. They
+tried to have "the sleepy eye that spoke the melting soul," so Sir Peter
+Lely was not to blame for painting them as these ladies wished them to be.
+He was knighted by Charles II., and became very rich. His portraits of men
+were not equal to those of women. When Cromwell gave him a commission to
+paint his portrait, he said: "Mr. Lely, I desire you will use all your
+skill to paint my picture truly like me, and not flatter me at all; but
+remark all these roughnesses, pimples, warts, and everything as you see
+me, otherwise I will never pay you a farthing for it." Sir Peter Lely was
+buried in Covent Garden, where there is a monument to his memory with a
+bust by Gibbon.
+
+Sir GODFREY KNELLER (1646-1723), born at L�beck, was a rival to Sir Peter
+Lely, and had the honor of painting the portraits of eight crowned heads
+and a very great number of other people of importance. He had studied both
+the Dutch and Italian manner; for he was the pupil of Rembrandt and Bol,
+of Carlo Maratti and Bernini. Some critics praise his pictures very much,
+while others point out many defects in them. He painted very rapidly, and
+he sometimes hurried his pictures off for the sake of money; but his
+finished works are worthy of remark. He especially excelled in painting
+hair; his drawing was correct; some of his groups of children are fine
+pictures; and some madonnas that he painted, using his sitters as models,
+are works of merit. His monument was made by Rysbrach, and was placed in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+Both Sir Peter Lely and Sir Godfrey Kneller had pupils and followers; but
+there was no original English artist before the time of WILLIAM HOGARTH
+(1697-1764), and he may really be named as the first master of a purely
+English school of painting. When Hogarth was fifteen years old he was
+apprenticed to a silversmith, and the grotesque designs which he copied
+for armorial bearings helped to increase his natural love for all that was
+ridiculous and strange. After 1718 he was much occupied in engraving for
+booksellers, and at length he began to paint small _genre_ pictures and
+some portraits, in which he made good success, but he felt that he was
+fitted for other work. In 1730 he married the daughter of the artist, Sir
+James Thornhill, without the consent of her father.
+
+Soon after this he began his series of pictures called the "Harlot's
+Progress," and when Sir James saw them he was so satisfied with the talent
+of Hogarth that he declared that such an artist could support a wife who
+had no dower, and the two painters were soon reconciled to each other.
+Before 1744 Hogarth had also painted the series of the "Rake's Progress"
+and "Marriage � la Mode" (Fig. 71).
+
+These are all pictures which hold up the customs of the time to ridicule
+and satire, and his works of this kind are almost numberless. He explains
+as follows the cause of his painting in this way: "The reasons which
+induced me to adopt this mode of designing were that I thought both
+critics and painters had, in the historical style, quite overlooked that
+intermediate species of subjects which may be placed between the sublime
+and the grotesque. I therefore wished to compose pictures on canvas
+similar to representations on the stage; and further hope that they will
+be tried by the same test and criticised by the same criticism."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--THE MARRIAGE CONTRACT. _No. 1 of The Marriage �
+la Mode. By Hogarth. In the National Gallery._]
+
+It was in this sort of picture that Hogarth made himself great, though he
+supported himself for several years by portrait-painting, in which art he
+holds a reputable place. Most of his important pictures are in public
+galleries.
+
+Hogarth was a fine engraver, and left many plates after his own works,
+which are far better and more spirited than another artist could have made
+them. The pictures of Hogarth have good qualities aside from their
+peculiar features. He made his interiors spacious, and the furniture and
+all the details were well arranged; his costumes were exact, as was also
+the expression of his faces; his painting was good, and his color
+excellent. In 1753 he published a book called the "Analysis of Beauty."
+
+Ever after his first success his career was a prosperous one. He rode in
+his carriage, and was the associate and friend of men in good positions.
+Hogarth was buried in Chiswick Churchyard, and on his tombstone are these
+lines, written by David Garrick:
+
+      "Farewell, great painter of mankind!
+       Who reach'd the noblest point of Art,
+       Whose pictur'd morals charm the mind,
+       And through the eye, correct the heart.
+       If Genius fire thee, reader, stay;
+       If Nature touch thee, drop a tear;
+       If neither move thee, turn away,
+       For Hogarth's honour'd dust lies here."
+
+The next important English painter was RICHARD WILSON (1713-1782), and he
+was important not so much for what he painted as for the fact that he was
+one of the earliest landscape-painters among English artists. He never
+attained wealth or great reputation, although after his return from
+studying in Italy he was made a member of the Royal Academy.
+
+We come now to Sir JOSHUA REYNOLDS (1723-1792), born at Plympton, in
+Devonshire. His father was a clergyman and the master of the grammar
+school at Plympton. Joshua was destined for the medical profession by his
+parents; but his love of drawing was so marked that, as the opportunity
+offered for him to go to London and study under Hudson, his father allowed
+him to do so. After various changes, in 1749 he was able to go to Rome,
+and remained in Italy three years (Fig. 70).
+
+When he returned to England he soon attracted attention to his pictures,
+and it was not long before both fame and fortune were secured to him. His
+life was a very quiet one, with little of incident that can be related
+here. His sister kept his house for him, and he lived generously, having
+company to dinner almost daily. His friends were among the best people of
+the time, including such persons as Dr. Johnson, Percy, Goldsmith,
+Garrick, the Burkes, and many others. The day before Johnson died he told
+Reynolds that he had three requests to make of him: that he would forgive
+him thirty pounds which he had lent him, would read the Scriptures daily,
+and would not paint on Sunday. Sir Joshua promised to do these things, and
+remembered his promise.
+
+Sir Joshua was skilful in compliments. When he painted his famous picture
+of Mrs. Siddons as the "Tragic Muse" he put his name on the border of her
+garment. The actress went near the picture to examine it, and when she saw
+the name she smiled. The artist said: "I could not lose the opportunity of
+sending my name to posterity on the hem of your garment."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--"MUSCIPULA." _By Reynolds._]
+
+Sir Joshua Reynolds' fame rests upon his portraits, and in these he is
+almost unrivalled. His pictures of children are especially fine. It was
+his custom to receive six sitters daily. He kept a list of those who were
+sitting and of others who waited for an opportunity to have their
+portraits made by him. He also had sketches of the different portraits
+he had painted, and when new-comers had looked them over and chosen the
+position they wished, he sketched it on canvas and then made the likeness
+to correspond. In this way, when at his best, he was able to paint a
+portrait in about four hours. His sitters' chairs moved on casters, and
+were placed on a platform a foot and a half above the floor. He worked
+standing, and used brushes with handles eighteen inches long, moving them
+with great rapidity.
+
+In 1768 Sir Joshua was made the first President of the Royal Academy, and
+it was then that he was knighted by the king. He read lectures at the
+Academy until 1790, when he took his leave. During these years he sent two
+hundred and forty-four pictures to the various exhibitions. In 1782 he had
+a slight shock of paralysis, but was quite well until 1789, when he feared
+that he should be blind, and from this time he did not paint. He was ill
+about three months before his death, which occurred in February, 1792. His
+remains were laid in state at the Royal Academy, and then buried in St.
+Paul's Cathedral, near the tomb of Sir Christopher Wren.
+
+It is to be regretted that the colors used by Sir Joshua Reynolds are now
+much faded in many of his pictures. Those in the National Gallery, in
+London, are, however, in good preservation. Naturally, since so many of
+his pictures were portraits they are in the collections of private
+families in England, and but few of them are seen in European galleries.
+There is an excellent opportunity to study his manner in the pictures at
+the South Kensington Museum, where there are several portraits, some
+pictures of children, and the "Graces Decorating a Statue of Hymen."
+
+It is very satisfactory to think of a great artist as a genial, happy man,
+who is dear to his friends, and has a full, rich life outside of his
+profession. Such a life had Sir Joshua Reynolds, and one writer says of
+him: "They made him a knight--this famous painter; they buried him 'with
+an empire's lamentation;' but nothing honors him more than the 'folio
+English dictionary of the last revision' which Johnson left to him in his
+will, the dedication that poor, loving Goldsmith placed in the 'Deserted
+Village,' and the tears which five years after his death even Burke could
+not forbear to shed over his memory."
+
+THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH (1727-1788) was born in Sudbury, in Suffolk, and when
+still quite young went to London, and studied under Francis Hayman, who
+was not an eminent painter. Gainsborough became one of the most important
+masters of the English school, especially in landscape painting and the
+representation of rustic figures. His portraits were not as good in color
+as those of Sir Joshua Reynolds; they have a bluish-gray hue in the flesh
+tints; but they are always graceful and charming. His landscapes are not
+like those of any other master. They are not exact in the detail of leaves
+and flowers--a botanist could find many faults in them--but they are like
+nature in spirit: they seem to have the air blowing through them, they are
+fresh and dewy when it is morning in them, and quiet and peaceful when
+evening comes under his brush. In many of his pictures he put a cart and a
+white animal.
+
+His rustic figures have the true country life in them: they seem to have
+fed upon the air, and warmed themselves in the sun until they are plump
+and rosy as country lads and lasses should be. His best _genre_ pictures
+are the "Cottage Girl," the "Woodman and Dog in a Storm," the "Cottage
+Door," and the "Shepherd Boy in a Shower." He painted a picture of a "Girl
+and Pigs," for which Sir Joshua Reynolds paid him one hundred guineas.
+
+In character Gainsborough was very attractive, though somewhat
+contradictory in his moods. He was generous and genial, lovable and
+affectionate; he was also contradictory and impulsive, not to say
+capricious. His wife and he had little quarrels which they settled in this
+wise: When Gainsborough had spoken to her unkindly, he would quickly
+repent, and write a note to say so, and address it to his wife's spaniel,
+called "Tristram," and sign it with the name of his pet dog, "Fox." Then
+Margaret Gainsborough would answer: "My own, dear Fox, you are always
+loving and good, and I am a naughty little female ever to worry you as I
+too often do, so we will kiss, and say no more about it; your own
+affectionate Tris." Like Reynolds, Gainsborough had many warm friends, and
+when he died Sir Joshua himself watched by his bedside, and bent to catch
+his last word, which was the name of Vandyck.
+
+JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY (1737-1815) was born in Boston, Mass., U. S., to
+which place his parents are said to have immigrated from Limerick,
+Ireland. The father was descended from the Copleys of Yorkshire, England,
+and the mother from the Singletons of County Clare, both families of note.
+When young Copley was eleven years old his mother was married to Peter
+Pelham, a widower with three sons--Peter, Charles, and William--and who
+subsequently became the father of another son, Henry, by this second
+marriage. Mr. Pelham was a portrait painter and a mezzotint engraver of
+unusual merit. One authority calls him "the founder of those arts in New
+England." Mr. Pelham was also a man of education, a land surveyor, and a
+mathematician. He was thus well qualified to educate, assist, and
+stimulate young Copley in the pursuit of studies so natural and congenial
+to him. He is said to have been studious and quiet, and to have made rapid
+advances. When he was fifteen years old he painted a portrait of his
+step-brother, Charles Pelham, now in the family of a great-grandson, Mr.
+Charles Pelham Curtis, of Boston. At sixteen he published an engraving of
+Rev. William Welsteed, from a portrait painted by himself. The same year
+he painted the portrait of a child--afterward Dr. de Mountfort--now owned
+in Detroit. In 1754 he painted an allegorical picture of Mars, Venus, and
+Vulcan, thirty inches long by twenty-five wide, now owned in Bridgewater,
+Mass. The next year he painted a miniature of George Washington, who was
+on a visit to Governor Shirley at the time. This picture now belongs to
+the family of the late George P. Putnam, of New York City. In 1756 he
+painted a three-quarters length portrait of General William Brattle, life
+size, signed and dated, and now owned by Mr. William S. Appleton. He now
+improved rapidly. A crayon portrait of Miss Rebecca Gardiner, afterward
+Mrs. Philip Dumaresq, an oil painting of Mrs. Edmund Perkins, a portrait
+of Rebecca Boylston, afterward wife of Governor Gill, portraits of Colonel
+and Mrs. Lee, grandparents of General William Raymond Lee, all exist and
+attest the continued growth of his powers. These date between 1763 and
+1769. During this time he had access to and was a visitor in houses where
+were portraits by Saribest, Blackburn, Liopoldt, and even by Vandyck and
+Sir Godfrey Kneller. Mr. Augustus Thorndike Perkins, in his carefully
+written monograph on Copley, says that our artist must have seen all these
+pictures, since, as Dr. Gardiner says, "his genial disposition and his
+courtly manners make him a welcome guest everywhere." Mr. Perkins remarks
+that Copley must have studied with Blackburn; that he imitated, but in
+some respects surpassed him. "Both frequently used, either as the lining
+of a dress or as drapery, a certain shade of mauve pink; Blackburn uses
+this shade feebly, while Copley dashes it on with the hand of a master."
+On November 16, 1769, Copley married Susan (or Susannah, as it is
+sometimes written), the daughter of Mr. Richard Clarke, a distinguished
+merchant of Boston, to whom, as agent of the East India Company of London,
+was consigned the tea thrown overboard in Boston harbor. From all accounts
+he soon began to live in good style; and as, in 1771, Colonel Trumbull
+found him living opposite the Common, it is probable that he purchased at
+about that time the property which afterward became so valuable, although
+long after Copley had ceased to be the owner. In 1773, says the late
+eminent conveyancer, Nathaniel Ingersoll Bowditch, "Copley owned all the
+land bounded on the west by Charles River, thence by Beacon Street to
+Walnut Street, thence by Walnut Street to Mt. Vernon Street, thence by Mt.
+Vernon Street to Louisburg Square, thence by Louisburg Square to Pinckney
+Street, thence by Pinckney Street to the water, containing about eleven
+acres of land." This land is now covered with handsome residences, and is
+of great value. An agent of Copley's sold his property after he went
+abroad without being authorized to do so, and, although his son came over
+in 1795 to look into the matter, he was only able to secure a compromise
+by which a further sum of three thousand guineas was paid in final
+settlement.
+
+Soon after his marriage Copley painted his picture of a "Boy with a
+Squirrel," which he sent anonymously to Benjamin West, in London, for
+exhibition. West judged from the wood on which the picture was stretched
+and from the kind of squirrel that the work was American, and so excellent
+was the painting that a rule of the institution was set aside, and the
+picture exhibited. This picture is now in the possession of Mrs. James S.
+Amory, of Boston, a granddaughter of the artist. The boy in the picture
+was his half-brother Henry. The picture was so favorably received that
+Copley was advised to go to England. He sailed in 1774, and never
+returned.
+
+Mr. Copley, soon after his arrival in London, passed over to the
+Continent, and through Italy, studying in Parma and in Rome. He visited
+Naples and P�stum also. It is said that he studied so diligently that he
+was with difficulty persuaded to paint two portraits in Rome. In 1775 he
+travelled and studied in Germany, in Holland, and in France. This same
+year his wife and family joined him in England. These consisted of his
+wife, his son, John Singleton, who afterward became the famous Lord
+Chancellor Lyndhurst; his daughter Elizabeth, afterward married to a
+distinguished merchant in Boston, and who survived to a great age; Mary
+Copley, who lived unmarried to the great age of ninety-four; and another
+son who died young. In 1777 he was made an Associate of the Royal Academy,
+and six years later an Academician. He was now in the full tide of
+success. He was offered five hundred guineas to paint a family group of
+six persons. The well-known group of Copley's family, called the "Family
+Picture," the "Death of Lord Chatham," and "Watson and the Shark," were on
+his easel in 1780. The picture of Lord Chatham falling senseless in the
+House of Lords was commenced soon after his death in 1778. It was engraved
+by Bartolozzi, and twenty-five hundred copies were sold in a few weeks.
+Copley exhibited the picture, to his own profit as well as fame.
+
+In 1781 occurred the death of Major Pierson, shot in the moment of victory
+over the French troops who had invaded the island of Jersey. His death was
+instantly avenged by his black servant, and of this scene Copley made one
+of his finest pictures. He took pains, with his usual honesty, to go to
+St. Helier's, and make a drawing of the locality. The picture is
+thoroughly realistic, although painful. His large picture of the "Repulse
+and Defeat of the Spanish Floating Batteries at Gibraltar" was painted on
+commission from the city of London. It is twenty-five feet long by
+twenty-two and a half feet high; but there are so many figures and so much
+distance to be shown in the painting that the artist really needed more
+room. Of the commander, Lord Heathfield, Sir Robert Royd, Sir William
+Green, and some twelve or fifteen others, the artist made careful
+portraits.
+
+The story told by Elkanah Watson shows Copley's strong sympathy for
+America. In 1782 Watson was in London, and Copley made a full-length
+portrait of him, and in his journal Watson says: "The painting was
+finished in most exquisite style in every part, except the background,
+which Copley and I designed to represent a ship bearing to America the
+acknowledgments of our independence. The sun was just rising upon the
+stripes of the Union streaming from her gaff. All was complete save the
+flag, which Copley did not deem proper to hoist under the present
+circumstances, as his gallery was the constant resort of the royal family
+and the nobility. I dined with the artist on the glorious 5th of December,
+1782. After listening with him to the speech of the king formally
+recognizing the United States of America as in the rank of nations,
+previous to dinner, and immediately after our return from the House of
+Lords, he invited me into his studio, and there, with a bold hand, a
+master's touch, and, I believe, an American heart, he attached to the ship
+the stars and stripes. This was, I imagine, the first American flag
+hoisted in Old England."
+
+Copley purchased, for a London residence, the mansion-house in George
+Street belonging to Lord Fauconburg. It afterward became more widely known
+as the residence of his son, Lord Lyndhurst. Lord Mansfield's residence
+was near by, and among the many commissions from public men was one to
+paint his lordship's portrait. Perhaps one of the most interesting of all
+his commissions was one to paint the picture of Charles I. demanding the
+five obnoxious members from the Long Parliament, for which a number of
+gentlemen in Boston paid one thousand five hundred pounds. It is said that
+every face in this great picture was taken from a portrait at that time
+extant; and Mrs. Gardiner Greene narrates that she and her father were
+driven in a post-chaise over a considerable part of England, visiting
+every house in which there was a picture of a member of the famous
+Parliament, and were always received as honored guests. Copley's painting
+of the death of Lord Chatham was much admired. So numerous were the
+subscriptions for the engraving that it is said Copley must have received
+nearly, or quite, eleven thousand pounds for the picture and the engraved
+copies. It was quite natural for Copley to be popular with New Englanders;
+indeed, almost every Bostonian, at one time, on visiting London, made a
+point to bring home his portrait by Copley, if possible. There are known
+to exist in this country two hundred and sixty-nine oil-paintings,
+thirty-five crayons, and fourteen miniatures by him. These pictures are
+carefully cherished, as are indeed all memorials of this generous and
+kindly gentleman. Although his life was mostly passed in England, where he
+obtained wealth and renown, yet in a strong sense he could be claimed for
+Boston, as it was there he was born; it was there he received his artistic
+bias and education; it was there he was married, and had three children
+born to him; and, finally, it was there that he acquired a fair amount of
+fame and property solely by his brush. It will be worth while for the
+readers of this volume to take pains to see some of the more noteworthy
+Copleys.
+
+A portrait of John Adams, full length, painted in London in 1783, is now
+in possession of Harvard College. A portrait of Samuel Adams,
+three-quarters length, spirited and beautiful, standing by a table, and
+holding a paper, hangs in Faneuil Hall. Another picture of Samuel Adams is
+in Harvard College, which also owns several other Copleys. A portrait of
+James Allen, a man of fortune, a patriot, and a scholar, is now owned by
+the Massachusetts Historical Society. The "Copley Family," one of the
+artist's very best pictures, is now owned in Boston by Mr. Amory, and, in
+fact, Mrs. James S. Amory owns a number of his best works.
+
+Copley was a man of elegance and dignity, fond of the beautiful,
+particular in his dress, hospitable, and a lover of poetry and the arts.
+His favorite book was said to be "Paradise Lost." His last picture was on
+the subject of the Resurrection.
+
+BENJAMIN WEST (1738-1820) was born at Springfield, Pennsylvania, of Quaker
+parentage. In the various narratives of his successful life many stories
+are told which appear somewhat fabulous, and most of which have nothing to
+do with his subsequent career. He is said to have made a pen-and-ink
+portrait of his little niece at the age of seven years; to have shaved the
+cat's tail for paint brushes; to have received instruction in painting and
+archery from the Indians; to have so far conquered the prejudices of his
+relatives and their co-religionists to his adoption of an artist's life
+that he was solemnly consecrated to it by the laying on of hands by the
+men, and the simultaneous kissing of the women. His love for art must have
+been very strong, and he was finally indulged, and assisted in it by his
+relatives, so that at the age of eighteen he was established as a
+portrait-painter in Philadelphia. By the kindness of friends in that city
+and in New York he was enabled to go to Italy, where he remained three
+years, making friends and reputation everywhere. Parma, Florence, and
+Bologna elected him a member of their Academies. He was only twenty-five
+years old when he went to England, on his way back to America. But he was
+so well received that he finally determined to remain in England, and a
+young lady named Elizabeth Shewell, to whom he had become engaged before
+going abroad, was kind and judicious enough to join him in London, where
+she became his wife, and was his faithful helpmate for fifty years. In
+1766 he exhibited his "Orestes and Pylades," which on account of its
+novelty and merit produced a sensation. He painted "Agrippina weeping over
+the Urn of Germanicus," and by the Archbishop of York was introduced to
+George III. as its author. He immediately gained favor with the king, and
+was installed at Windsor as the court-painter with a salary of one
+thousand pounds per annum. This salary and position was continued for
+thirty-three years. He painted a series of subjects on a grand scale from
+the life of Edward III. for St. George's Hall, and twenty-eight scriptural
+subjects, besides nine portrait pictures of the royal family. In 1792, on
+the death of Reynolds, he was elected President of the Royal Academy, a
+position which, except a brief interregnum, he held until his death in
+March, 1820. He was greatly praised in his day, and doubtless thought
+himself a great artist. He painted a vast number of portraits and quite a
+number of pictures of classical and historical subjects. His "Lear" is in
+the Boston Athen�um; his "Hamlet and Ophelia" is in the Longworth
+collection in Cincinnati; "Christ Healing the Sick" is in the Pennsylvania
+Hospital; and the "Rejected Christ" is or was owned by Mr. Harrison, of
+Philadelphia. There are two portraits of West, one by Allston and one by
+Leslie, in the Boston Athen�um, and a full-length, by Sir Thomas Lawrence,
+in the Wadsworth Gallery in Hartford, Conn. One of West's pictures did a
+great deal for his reputation, although it was quite a departure from the
+treatment and ideas then in vogue; this was the "Death of General Wolfe"
+on the Plains of Abraham. When it was known to artists and amateurs that
+his purpose was to depict the scene as it really might have happened he
+was greatly ridiculed. Even Sir Joshua Reynolds expressed an opinion
+against it; but when he saw the picture he owned that West was right.
+Hitherto no one had painted a scene from contemporary history with figures
+dressed in the costume of the day. But West depicted each officer and
+soldier in his uniform, and gave every man his pig-tail who wore one. The
+picture is spirited and well grouped. West was just such a practical,
+thoughtful, and kindly man as we might expect from his ancestry and
+surroundings.
+
+GEORGE ROMNEY (1734-1802), born in Beckside, near Dalton, in Cumberland.
+He married when he was twenty-two, and in his twenty-seventh year went to
+London with only thirty pounds in his pocket, leaving his wife with
+seventy pounds and two young children. He returned home to die in 1799,
+and in the meantime saw his wife but twice. The year after his arrival in
+London he carried off the fifty-guinea prize on the subject of the "Death
+of Wolfe" from the Society of Arts. Through the influence of Sir Joshua
+Reynolds this was reconsidered, and the fifty-guinea prize was awarded to
+Mortimer for his "Edward the Confessor," while Romney was put off with a
+gratuity of twenty-five guineas. This produced a feud between the two
+artists. Romney showed his resentment by exhibiting in a house in Spring
+Gardens, and never sending a picture to the Academy, while Reynolds would
+not so much as mention his name, but spoke of him as "the man in Cavendish
+Square." This was after his return from the Continent; but before going to
+Italy he was distinctly the rival of Sir Joshua, so much so that there
+were two factions, and Romney's studio, in Great Newport Street, was
+crowded with sitters, among whom was the famous Lord Chancellor Thurlow,
+whose full-length portrait is the pride of its possessor. At this time he
+was making about twelve hundred pounds a year, a very good income for
+those days. In 1773 he went to Rome with a letter to the Pope from the
+Duke of Richmond. His diary, which he kept for a friend, shows how
+conscientious and close was his observation and how great his zeal. He
+made a copy of the "Transfiguration," for which he refused one hundred
+guineas, and which finally sold for six guineas after his death. On his
+return to London in 1775 he took the house in Cavendish Square, where he
+had great success. He painted a series of portraits of the Gower family,
+the largest being a group of children dancing, which Allan Cunningham
+commended as being "masterly and graceful." Some of his portraits have a
+charm beyond his rivals. He painted portraits of Lady Hamilton, the friend
+of Lord Nelson--"the maid of all work, model, mistress, ambassadress, and
+pauper"--scores of times, and in different attitudes and a variety of
+characters, as Hebe, a Bacchante, a Sibyl, as Joan of Arc, as
+"Sensibility," as a St. Cecilia, as Cassandra, as Iphigenia, as Constance,
+as Calypso, as Circe, and as Mary Magdalen, and in some of these
+characters many times. He often worked thirteen hours a day, and did his
+fancy sketches when sitters disappointed him. He would paint a portrait of
+a gentleman in four sittings. He was extremely fond of portraying
+Shakespeare's characters, and contributed to the Shakespeare Gallery
+formed by Alderman Boydell. He went to Paris in 1790, where Lord and Lady
+Gower introduced him to Louis Philippe, and through him to all the art
+treasures of the French capital. On his return to London he formed a plan
+of an art museum, to be furnished with casts of the finest statues in
+Rome, and spent a good deal of money in the erection of a large building
+for the purpose. His powers as an artist gradually waned. He left his
+Cavendish Square residence in 1797, and in 1799 returned to his family and
+home at Kendall. From this time to the close of his life in 1802 he was a
+mere wreck, and his artist life was over.
+
+GEORGE MORLAND (1763-1804) was born in London, and the son of an artist.
+His father was unsuccessful, and poor George was articled to his father,
+after the English fashion, and was kept close at home and at work. It is
+said that his father stimulated him with rich food and drink to coax him
+to work. He was very precocious, and really had unusual talents. His
+subjects were those of rustic life, and his pictures contain animals
+wonderfully well painted, but his pigs surpass all. His character was
+pitiful; he was simply, at his best, a mere machine to make pictures. As
+for goodness, truth, or nobleness of any sort, there is not a syllable
+recorded in his favor. Strange to say, the pictures of his best time are
+masterpieces in their way, and have been sold at large prices.
+
+Sir THOMAS LAWRENCE (1769-1830), born at Bristol, England, in the White
+Hart Inn, of which his father was landlord. He was wonderfully precocious,
+and as a child of five years would recite odes, and declaim passages from
+Milton and Shakespeare. Even at this early period he made chalk or pencil
+portraits, and at nine he finally decided to become a painter from having
+seen a picture by Rubens. At this period he made a colored chalk portrait
+of the beautiful Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, which still hangs in
+Chiswick House, in the room in which Charles Fox died. His father was the
+son of a clergyman, and was bred a lawyer, but had never prospered; still
+his culture and education gave a certain zest and tone to the mind of
+young Lawrence, and made him, with his elegant figure and handsome face,
+the successful courtier that he afterward became. He worked hard, with
+considerable success, and with but little instruction until, at the age of
+eighteen, he went to London for the first time. At that period he was
+described as being extremely handsome in person, with fine, regular
+features, brilliant eyes, and long, chestnut-colored hair falling to his
+shoulders. He lodged close by Sir Joshua Reynolds--then near the end of
+his career, and from him received much valuable advice. During Lawrence's
+first years in London he attempted pictures illustrating classic art, but
+without much success. Indeed he was never successful in large, imaginative
+pictures, and during most of his career of more than forty years, confined
+himself to portraits. The time was propitious for him: Gainsborough was
+dead; Reynolds was almost blind, and had given up painting; and Romney had
+no hold on the court and the leaders of fashion. Lawrence raised his
+prices, and had all he could do. He adopted a more expensive style of
+dress, and in fact lived so extravagantly that he never arrived at what
+may be called easy circumstances--his open-handed generosity contributed
+to this result. He early received commissions from the royal family. In
+1791 he was elected an Associate, and in 1794 an Academician. The next
+year George III. appointed him painter in ordinary to his Majesty. He was
+thus fairly launched on a career that promised the highest success. In a
+certain sense he had it, but largely in a limited sense. He painted the
+portraits of people as he saw them; but he never looked behind the costume
+and the artificial society manner. He reproduced the pyramidically shaped
+coats and collars, the overlapping waistcoats of different colors, the
+Hessian boots, and the velvet coats, adorned with furs and frogs, of the
+fine gentlemen; and the turbans with birds-of-Paradise feathers, the gowns
+without waists, the bare arms and long gloves, the short leg-of-mutton
+sleeves, and other monstrosities of the ladies. And for thirty years his
+sitters were attired in red, or green, or blue, or purple. He absolutely
+revelled in the ugliness of fashion. Occasionally Lawrence did some very
+good things, as when he painted the Irish orator and patriot, Curran, in
+one sitting, in which, according to Williams, "he finished the most
+extraordinary likeness of the most extraordinary face within the memory of
+man." He always painted standing, and often kept his sitters for three
+hours at a stretch, and sometimes required as many as nine sittings. On
+one occasion he is said to have worked all through one day, through that
+night, the next day, and through all the night following! By command of
+the prince regent he painted the allied sovereigns, their statesmen,
+princes, and generals--all the leading personages, in fact, in alliance
+against Napoleon. His pictures in the exhibition of 1815 were Mrs. Wolfe,
+the Prince Regent, Metternich, the Duke of Wellington, Blucher, the Hetman
+Platoff, and Mr. Hart Davis. During the Congress that met at
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, Lawrence was commissioned by the Prince Regent to
+paint its principal heads for an especial gallery. He thus had for sitters
+nearly all the leading statesmen of Europe. From Aix-la-Chapelle he went
+to Vienna, and thence to Rome in 1819, where among others he painted
+likenesses of the Pope, of Cardinal Gonsalvi, and of Canova. Of the
+latter, Canova cried out, "Per Baccho, che nomo e questo!" It was
+considered a marvellous likeness; and without violating good taste he
+worked into the picture crimson velvet and damask, gold, precious marble,
+and fur, with a most brilliant effect. Before reaching home in London he
+was elected President of the Royal Academy. At this time he had been
+elected a member of the Roman Academy of St. Luke's, of the Academy of
+Fine Arts in Florence, and of the Fine Arts in New York. He continued to
+improve as a painter, and between 1825 and the year of his death, painted
+and exhibited some of his finest works. He usually exhibited eight
+pictures each year, and although without a rival, gave evidence of anxious
+care to sustain his reputation. He was especially successful with
+children, and many of these pictures--as well as of celebrities--were
+engraved, and have thus become known all over the world. Of his eight
+pictures exhibited in 1829--the last he ever contributed--Williams says:
+"It is difficult to imagine a more undeviating excellence, an infallible
+accuracy of likeness, with an elevation of art below which it seemed
+impossible for him to descend." Lawrence died on the morning of the 7th of
+January, 1830, with but little warning, from ossification of the heart; he
+was buried with much pomp and honor in St. Paul's Cathedral, by the side
+of Sir Joshua Reynolds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--PORTRAIT OF TURNER.]
+
+JOSEPH M. W. TURNER, R.A. (1775-1851).--It is believed, by those who have
+investigated the question most carefully, that this eminent artist and
+most remarkable man was born in Maiden Lane, London, April 3, 1775,
+although the artist himself has stated that he was born in Devonshire,
+April 23, 1769. Turner's father, William Turner, was a native of
+Devonshire, but came to London while young, and did a fair business in the
+Covent Garden district as a hair-dresser, wig-maker, and in shaving
+people. The father was garrulous, like the traditional hair-dresser, with
+a pleasant laugh, and a fresh, smiling face. He had a parrot nose and a
+projecting chin. Turner's mother was a Miss Mallord (or Marshall), of good
+family, but a violent-tempered woman, with a hawk nose and a fierce
+visage. Her life ended in a lunatic asylum. The artist, who was always
+impatient of inquiry into his domestic matters, resented any allusion to
+his mother, and never spoke of her. The manifest peculiarities of his
+parents had an impression upon Turner, and would have made him eccentric
+had there been no other influences of a kindred nature. The parents were
+under-sized, and of limited mental range; they were of very little
+personal assistance to their gifted son, although the father in later
+years busied himself in mixing colors, adjusting pictures to frames, and
+sometimes he was entrusted with certain rough work at filling in
+backgrounds. When Turner was but five years old he is said to have made,
+from memory, a fair copy of a lion rampant engraved on a silver salver,
+which he had seen while accompanying his father to the house of a
+customer. Presently the boy began to copy pictures in water-colors, and
+then to make sketches from nature of scenes along the river Thames. In his
+ninth year he drew a picture of Margate Church. When he was ten years old
+he was sent to school at Brentford-Butts, where he remained two years,
+boarding with his uncle, the local butcher. His leisure hours were spent
+in dreamy wanderings and in making countless sketches of birds, trees,
+flowers, and domestic fowls. He acquired a smattering of the classics and
+some knowledge of legends and ancient history. On his return to London he
+received instruction from Palice in painting flowers, and, after a year or
+two, was sent to Margate, in Kent, to Coleman's school. Here he had more
+scope and a wider range, and made pictures of the sea, the chalk cliffs,
+the undulations of the coast, and the glorious effects of cloud scenery.
+On his return from Margate he began to earn money by coloring engravings
+and by painting skies in amateurs' drawings and in architects' plans at
+half a crown an evening. He always deemed this good practice, as he thus
+acquired facility and skill in gradations. His father at one time thought
+to make an architect of him, and sent him to Tom Malton to study
+perspective. But he failed in the exact branch of the profession, and
+neither with Malton nor with the architect Hardwick did he give
+satisfaction. While with Hardwick he drew careful sketches of old houses
+and churches, and this practice must have been of much use to him in
+after-life. His father finally sent him to the Royal Academy, where he
+studied hard, drawing from Greek models and the formal classic
+architecture. About this time he was employed, at half a crown an evening,
+with supper thrown in, to make copies of pictures by Dr. Munro, of Adelphi
+Terrace. Munro was one of the physicians employed in the care of George
+III. when he had a crazy spell, and owned many valuable pictures by
+Salvator-Rosa, Rembrandt, Snyder, Gainsborough, Hearne, Cozens, and
+others. He had also portfolios full of drawings of castles and cathedrals,
+and of Swiss and Italian scenery, and of sketches by Claude and Titian.
+Turner was also employed to sketch from nature in all directions about
+London. In these tasks he had for a constant companion "Honest Tom
+Girtin," a young fellow of Turner's own age, who afterward married a
+wealthy lady, had rich patrons, and died before he was thirty. Had he
+lived to mature years, Girtin would have been a powerful rival to Turner.
+They were most excellent friends, and when Girtin died in Rome, Turner was
+one of his most sincere mourners. Toward the close of Sir Joshua Reynolds'
+life, Turner frequented his studio, copied pictures, and acquired some art
+secrets. He began to teach water-color drawing in schools, while still a
+boy, at from a crown to a guinea a lesson. He made hundreds of sketches in
+a part of London now built over compactly with houses in streets and
+squares, but then picturesque in hills and dells, in wooded fields and
+green lanes. With all his baggage tied in a handkerchief on the end of his
+walking-stick, he made a sketching tour through the towns of Rochester,
+Canterbury, Margate, and others, in Kent, in 1793, and about this time
+began to paint in oil. His first contribution to the Royal Academy was a
+water-color sketch in 1790. Within the next ten years he exhibited over
+sixty pictures of castles, cathedrals, and landscapes. All through his
+life he made sketches. Wherever he was, if he saw a fine or an unusual
+effect, he treasured it up for use. He sketched on any bit of paper, or
+even on his thumb-nail, if he had nothing better. Nothing escaped his
+attention, whether of earth, or sea, or sky. Probably no artist that ever
+lived gave nature such careful and profound study. His studies of cloud
+scenery were almost a revelation to mankind. In all this Turner drew his
+instruction as well as his inspiration from nature. The critics did
+nothing for him; he rather opened the eyes of even such men as Ruskin to
+the wonders of the natural world. But these results all came later, and
+were the fruit of and resulted from his constant and incessant studies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--NANTES. _By Turner._]
+
+In 1794 and 1795 he made elaborate drawings of Rochester, Chepstow,
+Birmingham, Worcester, Guildford, Cambridge, and other towns, for
+magazines. In 1796 he did the same for Chester, Bristol, Leith,
+Peterborough, and Windsor. Within the next four years he completed the
+circuit of twenty-six counties in England and Wales, and he also exhibited
+twenty-three highly finished drawings of cathedrals and churches. He was
+slow to undertake oil-painting, preferring the more rapid touch and the
+light-and-shade effect of the crayon, or the delicate and beautiful
+effects of water-colors. He was always greater as a painter in
+water-colors than in oils, and it is claimed by Redgrave that "the art all
+but began with him," and that his water-color paintings "epitomize the
+whole mystery of landscape art." Some of his paintings in this line have
+been sold at enormous prices, and even in his own day his water-color
+picture of Tivoli sold for eighteen hundred guineas. Turner became as fond
+of Northern Yorkshire--which he first visited in 1797--as he was of
+Southern Kent. He found there a great variety of scenery, from the sweet
+and peaceful to the ennobling and grand. He visited and made studies from
+all the old cathedrals, castles, and abbeys, and in 1798 he exhibited
+pictures of Fountain and Kirkstall Abbeys, Holy Island Cathedral,
+Buttermere Lake, Dunstanborough Castle, as well as "Morning Among the
+Corriston Fells." He found in Yorkshire also some of his warmest friends
+and most munificent patrons, notably Mr. Hawkesworth Fawkes, of Farnley
+Hall, whose house was adorned with fifty thousand dollars' worth of
+Turner's pictures. Some additions to Farnley Hall were designed by Turner,
+and he was always a welcome visitor. Here he sketched, and at intervals
+enjoyed himself greatly in hunting and fishing. It is said that the
+Farnley portfolios still contain sketches not only of the hall and its
+precincts, but of coast scenes, Swiss views, drawings of birds,
+illustrations of the Civil War, and, more especially, of fifty-three
+remarkable drawings of the Rhineland regions, done at the rate of three a
+day; these last were offered by Turner to Mr. Fawkes on his return from
+the Continent for the sum of five hundred pounds, and the bargain was
+closed at once. When Mr. Fawkes visited London he spent hours in Turner's
+private gallery, but was never shown into the painting-room. Indeed, very
+few persons were ever allowed there. Once, when Turner dined at a hotel
+with Mr. Fawkes, the artist took too much wine, and reeled about,
+exclaiming, "Hawkey, I am the real lion--I am the great lion of the day,
+Hawkey." When Mr. Fawkes died, ended Turner's visits to Farnley. He never
+went there again, but when the younger Fawkes brought the Rhine drawings
+up to London for him to see again, he passed his hand over the "Lorelei
+Twilight," saying, with tears in his eyes, "But Hawkey! but Hawkey!" When
+Mr. Wells, an artist of Addiscomb, died he mourned his loss bitterly, and
+exclaimed to his daughter: "Oh, Clara, Clara, these are iron tears! I have
+lost the best friend I ever had in my life!" In this family all the
+children loved him. He would lie on the floor, and play with them, and the
+oldest daughter afterward said: "Of all the light-hearted, merry creatures
+I ever knew, Turner was the most so." But in 1797 Turner had a bitter
+disappointment which warped and distorted all his after-life. A young lady
+to whom he had become attached while a schoolboy at Margate, was engaged
+to be married to him. He had been absent for two years on sketching tours,
+and the step-mother of the young lady had intercepted and destroyed his
+letters, so that at last she believed the representations made that Turner
+had deserted her. She became engaged to another, and was about to be
+married, when Turner appeared, and pleaded passionately that she would
+return to him. She thought that she had been trifled with, and held by her
+refusal, and did not find out the wrongs done by the step-mother until it
+was too late. This disappointment led to greater self-concentration and
+stingy money-getting until it became the absorbing passion of his life, so
+that the artist passion was dominated by it.
+
+It would take up too large a portion of this book to describe even briefly
+Turner's travels and works. Only a bare outline can be given. In 1800 he
+became an Associate of the Royal Academy. He moved into a more commodious
+house at 64 Harley Street. During this year he exhibited pictures of
+Caernarvon Castle and the "Fifth Plague of Egypt;" also fine views of
+Fonthill Abbey, the new palace of Beckford, with whom he spent much time.
+The only portrait for which Turner ever sat was painted in 1800 by George
+Dance. It shows a handsome young man, with a full but receding forehead,
+arched eyebrows, a prominent nose, a massive chin, and a sensual mouth.
+His thick and wiry hair is tied behind, and he wears a coat with an
+immense cape. By this time full-bottomed wigs had gone out of fashion, and
+the old barber abandoned his business to go and live with his artist son.
+In 1801 Turner exhibited pictures of St. Donat's Castle and Pembroke
+Castle in Wales, the Salisbury Chapter-house, an autumn morning in London,
+the destruction of the Median army, and Dutch fishing-boats in a gale. He
+had begun his contest with Claude by painting pictures of classical
+subjects in Claude's manner. Turner was elected Royal Academician in 1802,
+and exhibited several notable oil-paintings, signed with all his initials,
+which he thenceforth used. The Academy had been quick to recognize
+Turner's genius, and he was always its faithful, conservative, and zealous
+friend. As an auditor, councillor, or a visitor he was scrupulous, and he
+attended general meetings and formal dinners with the same promptitude and
+certainty with which for forty-five years he sent his pictures to the
+annual exhibitions. He was a peacemaker in debates, but in business he was
+irresolute. In 1802 he visited the Continent for the first time,
+travelling in France, Switzerland, and Italy, and everywhere making
+sketches. At this time he carried sketch-books in which he jotted
+everything--all manner of drawings and outlines of nature and
+architecture, notes of local gossip, chemical memoranda, notes of
+expenses, tavern bills, views of coasts and cities, ruins, castles,
+manufacturing works, and detached figures. One book gives views about the
+Simplon Pass, another the sea-coast from Nice to Genoa, another contains
+countless jottings from the pictures in the Vatican, another is taken up
+with views in Paris and Rouen, and several are devoted to Scottish
+scenery.
+
+In 1806 Turner began his _Liber Studiorum_, in rivalship of Claude's
+_Liber Veritatis_; it was issued in parts in dark blue covers, each part
+containing five plates. It was discontinued in 1814, after seventy plates
+had been issued. Although not remunerative at the time, in later days as
+high as three thousand pounds has been paid for a single copy of the
+_Liber_, while the subscription price was only seventeen pounds ten
+shillings; even before Turner died a copy of it was worth over thirty
+guineas. Charles Turner, the engraver, used the proofs for kindling-paper;
+but some years later Colnaghi, the print dealer, paid him fifteen hundred
+pounds for his remaining "rubbish," as he considered it. "Good God!" cried
+the old engraver; "I have been burning bank-notes all my life!" In 1878
+Professor Norton, of Harvard University, published a set of thirty-three
+of the best of the _Liber_ studies, reproduced in Boston by the heliotype
+process. The _Liber Studiorum_ was intended to manifest Turner's command
+of the whole compass of the landscape art, and was divided into six heads:
+historical, pastoral, elegant pastoral, mountain, marine, and
+architectural.
+
+In 1808 Turner was appointed Professor of Perspective in the Royal
+Academy. During two or three years only, out of the thirty in which he
+held the professorship, did he deliver lectures. He spoke in a deep and
+mumbling voice, was confused and tedious in manner, and frequently became
+hopelessly entangled in blind mazes of obscure words. Sometimes when he
+had written out his lectures he was unable to read them. Once, after
+fumbling in his pockets, he exclaimed: "Gentlemen, I've been and left my
+lecture in the hackney-coach." Still he was interested in this work, and
+Ruskin says: "The zealous care with which Turner endeavored to do his duty
+is proved by a large existing series of drawings, exquisitely tinted, and
+often completely colored, all by his own hand, of the most difficult
+perspective subjects--illustrating not only directions of light, but
+effects of light, with a care and completion which would put the work of
+any ordinary teacher to utter shame." During this year he took a house at
+Hammersmith, Upper Mall, the garden of which ran down to the Thames, but
+still retained his residence in Harley Street. In 1812 he first occupied
+the house No. 47 Queen Anne Street, and this house he retained for forty
+years. It was dull, dingy, unpainted, weather-beaten, sooty, with unwashed
+windows and shaky doors, and seemed the very abode of poverty, and yet
+when Turner died his estate was sworn as under one hundred and forty
+thousand pounds--seven hundred thousand dollars. When Turner's father died
+in 1830 he was succeeded by a withered and sluttish old woman named Danby.
+The whole house was dreary, dirty, damp, and full of litter. The master
+had a fancy for tailless--Manx--cats, and these made their beds everywhere
+without disturbance. In the gallery were thirty thousand fine proofs of
+engravings piled up and rotting. His studio had a fair north light from
+two windows, and was surrounded by water-color drawings. His sherry-bottle
+was kept in an old second-hand buffet.
+
+About 1813 or 1814 Turner purchased a place at Twickenham; he rebuilt the
+house, and called it Solus Lodge. The rooms were small, and contained
+models of rigged ships which he used in his marine views; in his
+jungle-like garden he grew aquatic plants which he often copied in
+foregrounds. He kept a boat for fishing and marine sketching; also a gig
+and an old cropped-eared horse, with which he made sketching excursions.
+He made at this time the acquaintance of Rev. Mr. Trimmer, the rector of
+the church at Heston, who was a lover of art, and often took journeys with
+Turner. While visiting at the rectory Turner regularly attended church in
+proper form; and finally he wrote a note to Mr. Trimmer, alluding to his
+affection for one of the rector's kinswomen, and suggesting: "If
+Miss ---- would but waive bashfulness, or in other words make
+an offer instead of expecting one, the same [Lodge] might change
+occupiers." But Turner was doomed to disappointment, and never made
+another attempt at matrimony. In 1814 Turner commenced his contributions
+of drawings to illustrate "Cook's Southern Coast," and continued this
+congenial work for twelve years, making forty drawings at the rate of
+about twenty guineas each; the drawings were returned to the artist after
+being engraved. In 1815 he exhibited the "Dido Building Carthage," and in
+1817 a companion picture, the "Decline of the Carthaginian Empire," and
+for these two pictures the artist refused five thousand pounds, having
+secretly willed them to the National Gallery.
+
+Ruskin divides Turner's art life into three periods: that of study, from
+1800 to 1820; that of working out art theories toward an ideal, from 1820
+to 1835; and that of recording his own impressions of nature, from 1835 to
+1845, preceded by a period of development, and followed by a period of
+decline, from 1845 to 1850. Besides his pictures painted on private
+commission, Turner exhibited two hundred and seventy-five pictures at the
+Academy. The "Rivers of England" was published in 1824, with sixteen
+engravings after Turner; another series contained six illustrations of the
+"Ports of England"--second-class cities. In 1826 the "Provincial
+Antiquities of Scotland" was published, with thirteen illustrations by
+Turner. The same year he sold his house at Twickenham, because, he said,
+"Dad" was always working in the garden, and catching abominable colds. In
+1827 Turner commenced the "England and Wales" on his own account, and
+continued it for eleven years. It consisted of a hundred plates,
+illustrating ports, castles, abbeys, cathedrals, palaces, coast views, and
+lakes. In 1828 Turner went to Rome by way of Nismes, Avignon, Marseilles,
+Nice, and Genoa; and this year painted his "Ulysses Dividing Polyphemus,"
+of which Thornbury says: "For color, for life and shade, for composition,
+this seems to me to be the most wonderful and admirable of Turner's
+realisms." Ruskin calls it his central picture, illustrating his perfect
+power.
+
+Of Turner's wonderful versatility, Ruskin says: "There is architecture,
+including a large number of formal 'gentlemen's seats;' then lowland
+pastoral scenery of every kind, including nearly all farming operations,
+plowing, harrowing, hedging and ditching, felling trees, sheep-washing,
+and I know not what else; there are all kinds of town life, court-yards of
+inns, starting of mail coaches, interiors of shops, house-buildings,
+fairs, and elections; then all kinds of inner domestic life, interiors of
+rooms, studies of costumes, of still-life and heraldry, including
+multitudes of symbolical vignettes; then marine scenery of every kind,
+full of local incident--every kind of boat, and the methods of fishing for
+particular fish being specifically drawn--round the whole coast of
+England; pilchard-fishing at St. Ives, whiting-fishing at Margate, herring
+at Loch Fyne, and all kinds of shipping, including studies of every
+separate part of the vessels, and many marine battle-pieces; then all
+kinds of mountain scenery, some idealized into compositions, others of
+definite localities, together with classical compositions; Romes and
+Carthages, and such others by the myriad, with mythological, historical,
+or allegorical figures; nymphs, monsters, and spectres, heroes and
+divinities.... Throughout the whole period with which we are at present
+concerned, Turner appears as a man of sympathy absolutely infinite--a
+sympathy so all-embracing that I know nothing but that of Shakespeare
+comparable with it. A soldier's wife resting by the roadside is not
+beneath it; Rizpah watching the dead bodies of her sons, not above it.
+Nothing can possibly be so mean as that it will not interest his whole
+mind and carry his whole heart; nothing so great or solemn but that he
+can raise himself into harmony with it; and it is impossible to prophesy
+of him at any moment whether the next he will be in laughter or tears."
+
+In 1832 Turner made a will in which he bequeathed the bulk of his estate
+for the founding of an institution "for the Maintenance and Support of
+Poor and Decayed Male Artists being born in England and of English parents
+only, and of lawful issue." It was to be called "Turner's Gift," and for
+the next twenty years the artist pinched, and economized to increase the
+fund for his noble purpose. At this time he was entering upon his third
+manner--that of his highest excellence, when he "went to the cataract for
+its iris, and the conflagration for its flames; asked of the sky its
+intensest azure, of the sun its clearest gold." It is remarked by Ruskin,
+who has made most profound study of Turner's works, that he had an
+underlying meaning or moral in his groups of foreign pictures; in
+Carthage, he illustrated the danger of the pursuit of wealth; in Rome, the
+fate of unbridled ambition; and in Venice, the vanity of pleasure and
+luxury. The Venetian pictures began in 1833, with a painting of the Doge's
+Palace, Dogana, Campanile, and Bridge of Sighs; and with these were
+exhibited "Van Tromp Returning from Battle," the "Rotterdam Ferry-boat,"
+and the "Mouth of the Seine." In 1830 or 1831 he made, on commission from
+the publisher Cadell, twenty-four sketches to illustrate Walter Scott's
+poems--published in 1834--and while doing this he was entertained royally
+at Abbotsford, and made excursions with Scott and Lockhart to Dryburgh
+Abbey and other points of interest. He went as far north as the Isle of
+Skye, where he drew Loch Corriskin, and nearly lost his life by a fall.
+About this time he made a series of illustrations for Scott's "Life of
+Napoleon." Turner spent some time in Edinburgh, frequently sketching with
+Thomson, a clergyman and local artist, who was preferred by some of the
+Scotch amateurs to Turner. He one day called at Thomson's house to examine
+his paintings, but instead of expected praises he merely remarked, "You
+beat me in frames." Turner made thirty-three illustrations for Rogers's
+"Poems" (Fig. 75), and seventeen for an extended edition of Byron. He was
+in the habit at this time of frequently walking to Cowley Hall, the
+residence of a Mr. Rose, where he was kindly welcomed. He was there called
+"Old Pogey." One day Mrs. Rose asked him to paint her favorite spaniel; in
+amazement he cried, "My dear madam, you do not know what you ask;" and
+always after this the lady went by the title of "My dear madam." Mr. Rose
+tells how he and Turner sat up one night until two o'clock drinking cognac
+and water, and talking of their travels. When Mrs. Rose and a lady, a
+friend, visited Turner in a house in Harley Street, in mid-winter, they
+were entertained with wine and biscuits in a cold room, without a fire,
+where they saw seven tailless cats, which Turner said were brought from
+the Isle of Man.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--ILLUSTRATION FROM ROGERS'S POEMS.]
+
+For three years Turner travelled in France, and made studies and sketches
+up and down its rivers. These were first published as "Turner's Annual
+Tour," but were afterward brought out by Bohn as "Liber Fluviorum." These
+sketches have been highly praised by Ruskin; but Hammerton, who certainly
+knows French scenery far more accurately than Ruskin, while praising the
+exquisite beauty of Turner's work, challenges its accuracy, and especially
+as to color, saying that "Turner, as a colorist, was splendid and
+powerful, but utterly unfaithful." Leitch Ritchie, who was associated with
+Turner in this work, could not travel with him, their tastes were so
+unlike; and he says that Turner's drawings were marvellously exaggerated,
+that he would make a splendid picture of a place without a single correct
+detail, trebling the height of spires and throwing in imaginary
+accessories. Turner always claimed the right to change the groupings of
+his landscapes and architecture at will, preferring to give a general and
+idealized view of the landscape rather than a precise copy thereof.
+
+In 1835 he exhibited "Heidelberg Castle in the Olden Time,"
+"Ehrenbreitstein," "Venice from the Salute Church," and "Line-fishing off
+Hastings." In 1836 he exhibited a "View of Rome from the Aventine Hill,"
+and the "Burning of the House of Lords and Commons," which last was almost
+entirely painted on the walls of the exhibition. At this time it was the
+custom to have what were called "varnishing days" at the exhibition,
+during which time artists retouched, and finished up their pictures. They
+were periods of fun and practical jokes, and Turner always enjoyed, and
+made the most of them. He frequently sent his canvas to the Academy merely
+sketched out and grounded, and then coming in as early as four in the
+morning on varnishing days, he would put his nose to the sketch and work
+steadily with thousands of imperceptible touches until nightfall, while
+his picture would begin to glow as by magic. About this time he exhibited
+many pictures founded on classical subjects, or with the scenes laid in
+Italy or Greece, as "Apollo and Daphne in the Vale of Tempe," "Regulus
+Leaving Rome to Return to Carthage," the "Parting of Hero and Leander,"
+"Phryne Going to the Public Baths as Venus," the "Banishment of Ovid from
+Rome, with Views of the Bridge and Castle of St. Angelo." A year later he
+exhibited pictures of "Ancient Rome," a vast dreamy pile of palaces, and
+"Modern Rome," with a view of the "Forum in Ruins."
+
+One of the most celebrated of Turner's pictures was that of the "Old
+T�m�raire," an old and famous line-of-battle ship, which in the battle of
+Trafalgar ran in between and captured the French frigates Redoubtable and
+Fougueux. Turner saw the T�m�raire in the Thames after she had become
+old, and was condemned to be dismantled. The scene is laid at sunset, when
+the smouldering, red light is vividly reflected on the river, and
+contrasts with the quiet, gray and pearly tints about the low-hung moon.
+The majestic old ship looms up through these changing lights, bathed in
+splendor. The artist refused a large price for this picture by Mr. Lennox,
+of New York, and finally bequeathed it to the nation. In 1840 Turner
+exhibited the "Bacchus and Ariadne," two marine scenes, and two views in
+Venice; also the well-known "Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and
+Dying, a Typhoon Coming On" (Fig. 76), which is now in the Museum of Fine
+Arts of Boston. Of this picture Thackeray says: "I don't know whether it
+is sublime or ridiculous." But Ruskin, in "Modern Painters," says: "I
+believe if I were reduced to test Turner's immortality upon any single
+work, I should choose the 'Slave Ship.' Its daring conception, ideal in
+the highest sense of the word, is based on the purest truth, and wrought
+out with the concentrated knowledge of a life. Its color is absolutely
+perfect, not one false or morbid hue in any part or line, and so modulated
+that every square inch of canvas is a perfect composition; its drawing as
+accurate as fearless; the ship buoyant, bending, and full of motion; its
+tones as true as they are wonderful; and the whole picture dedicated to
+the most sublime of subjects and impressions (completing thus the perfect
+system of all truth which we have shown to be formed by Turner's works),
+the power, majesty, and deathfulness of the open, deep, illimitable sea."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE SLAVE SHIP. _By Turner._]
+
+No painter of modern times, or perhaps of any time, has ever provoked the
+discussion of his merits which Turner did. When he was at his best his
+great merits and his originality procured for him the strongest defenders,
+and finally brought his pictures into favor with the wealthy middle class
+of England, so that he obtained high prices, and since his death these
+prices have doubled, and even quadrupled. At a sale of Mr. Bicknell's
+collection in 1836, ten of Turner's pictures, which had been bought for
+three thousand seven hundred and forty-nine pounds, were sold for
+seventeen thousand and ninety-four pounds. As Turner grew older and his
+manner deteriorated he was assailed by the wits, the art critics, and the
+amateurs with cruel badinage, and to these censures Turner was morbidly
+sensitive. But even Ruskin admits that the pictures of his last five years
+are of "wholly inferior value," with unsatisfactory foliage, chalky faces,
+and general indications of feebleness of hand.
+
+Wornum, in his _Epochs of Painting_, said: "In the last ten years of his
+career, and occasionally before, Turner was extravagant to an extreme
+degree; he played equally with nature and with his colors. Light, with all
+its prismatic varieties, seems to have been the chief object of his
+studies; individuality of form or color he was wholly indifferent to. The
+looseness of execution in his latest works has not even the apology of
+having been attempted on scientific principles; he did not work upon a
+particular point of a picture as a focus and leave the rest obscure, as a
+foil to enhance it, on a principle of unity; on the contrary, all is
+equally obscure and wild alike. These last productions are a calamity to
+his reputation; yet we may, perhaps, safely assert that since Rembrandt
+there has been no painter of such originality and power as Turner." Dr.
+Waagen says in his _Treasury of Art in Great Britain_: "No landscape
+painter has yet appeared with such versatility of talent. His historical
+landscapes exhibit the most exquisite feeling for beauty of hues and
+effect of lighting, at the same time that he has the power of making them
+express the most varied moods of nature."
+
+Toward the last part of his life Turner's peculiarities increased; he
+became more morose, more jealous. He was always unwilling to have even his
+most intimate friends visit his studio, but he finally withdrew from his
+own house and home. Of late years he had frequently left his house for
+months at a time, and secreted himself in some distant quarter, taking
+care that he should not be followed or known. When the great Exhibition of
+1851 opened, Turner left orders with his housekeeper that no one should be
+admitted to see his pictures. For twenty years the rain had been streaming
+in upon them through the leaky roof, and many were hopelessly ruined. He
+sent no pictures to the exhibition of that year, and he was hardly to be
+recognized when he appeared in the gallery. Finally his prolonged absence
+from the Academy meetings alarmed his friends; but no one dared seek him
+out. His housekeeper alone, of all that had known him, had the interest to
+hunt up the old artist. Taking a hint from a letter in one of his coats,
+she went to Chelsea, and, after careful search, found his hiding-place,
+with but one more day of life in him. It is said that, feeling the need of
+purer air than that of Queen Anne Street, he went out to Chelsea and found
+an eligible, little cottage by the side of the river, with a railed-in
+roof whence he could observe the sky. The landlady demanded references
+from the shabby, old man, when he testily replied, "My good woman, I'll
+buy the house outright." She then demanded his name--"in case, sir, any
+gentleman should call, you know." "Name?" said he, "what's your name?" "My
+name is Mrs. Booth." "Then I am Mr. Booth." And so he was known, the boys
+along the river-side calling him "Puggy Booth," and the tradesmen "Admiral
+Booth," the theory being that he was an old admiral in reduced
+circumstances. In a low studded, attic room, poorly furnished, with a
+single roof window, the great artist was found in his mortal sickness. He
+sent for his favorite doctor from Margate, who frankly told him that death
+was at hand. "Go down stairs," exclaimed Turner, "take a glass of sherry,
+and then look at me again." But no stimulant could change the verdict of
+the physician. An hour before he died he was wheeled to the window for a
+last look at the Thames, bathed in sunshine and dotted with sails. Up to
+the last sickness the lonely, old man rose at daybreak to watch, from the
+roof of the cottage, the sun rise and the purple flush of the coming day.
+The funeral, from the house in Queen Anne Street, was imposing, with a
+long line of carriages, and conducted with the ritual of the English
+Church in St. Paul's Cathedral. Dean Milman read the service, and at its
+conclusion the coffin was borne to the catacombs, and placed between the
+tombs of James Barry and Sir Joshua Reynolds. Turner's will, with its
+codicils, was so confused and vague that the lawyers fought it in the
+courts for four years, and it was finally settled by compromise. The real
+estate went to the heir-at-law, the pictures and drawings to the National
+Gallery, one thousand pounds for a monument in St. Paul's Cathedral, and
+twenty thousand pounds to the Royal Academy for annuities to poor artists.
+Turner's gift to the British nation included ninety-eight finished
+paintings and two hundred and seventy pictures in various stages of
+progress. Ruskin, while arranging and classifying Turner's drawings, found
+more than nineteen thousand sketches and fragments by the master's hand,
+some covered with the dust of thirty years.
+
+Sir DAVID WILKIE (1785-1841) has been called the "prince of British
+_genre_ painters." His father was a minister, and David was placed in the
+Trustees' Academy in Edinburgh in 1799. In 1805 he entered the Royal
+Academy in London, and was much noticed on account of his "Village
+Politicians," exhibited the next year. From this time his fame and
+popularity were established, and each new work was simply a new triumph
+for him. The "Card Players," "Rent Day," the "Village Festival," and
+others were rapidly painted and exhibited.
+
+In 1825 Wilkie went to the Continent, and remained three years. He visited
+France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, and after his return he painted a new
+class of subjects in a new manner. He made many portraits, and his other
+works were historical subjects. His most celebrated works in this second
+manner were "John Knox Preaching," "Napoleon and the Pope at
+Fontainebleau," and "Peep-o'-Day Boy's Cabin." The portrait of the
+landscape painter William Daniell is a good picture.
+
+In 1830 Wilkie succeeded Sir Thomas Lawrence as painter to the king, as he
+had been limner to the King of Scotland since 1822. He was not knighted
+until 1836. In 1840 he visited Constantinople, and made a portrait of the
+sultan; he went then to the Holy Land and Egypt. While at Alexandria, on
+his way home, Wilkie complained of illness, and on shipboard, off
+Gibraltar, he died, and was buried at sea. This burial is the subject of
+one of Turner's pictures, and is now in the National Gallery.
+
+The name of Landseer is an important one in British art. JOHN LANDSEER
+(1761-1852) was an eminent engraver; his son THOMAS (1795-1880) followed
+the profession of his father and arrived at great celebrity in it.
+CHARLES, born in 1799, another son of John Landseer, became a painter and
+devoted himself to a sort of historical genre line of subjects, such as
+"Cromwell at the House of Sir Walter Stewart in 1651," "Surrender of
+Arundel Castle in 1643," and various others of a like nature. Charles
+Landseer travelled in Portugal and Brazil when a young man; he was made a
+member of the Royal Academy in 1845; from 1851 to 1871 he was keeper of
+the Academy, and has been an industrious and respected artist. But the
+great genius of the family was:
+
+Sir EDWIN LANDSEER (1802-1873), the youngest son of John Landseer, the
+engraver. He received his first drawing lessons from his father, and from
+a very early age showed a great talent for sketching and that love for the
+brute creation which have been his chief characteristics as an artist. He
+had the power to understand his dumb subjects as well as if they spoke
+some language together, and then he had the ability to fix the meaning of
+all they had told him upon his canvas, by means of the sketching lines
+which gave the precise form of it all and by his finishing shades which
+put in the expression. If his animals were prosperous and gladsome, he
+represented their good fortune with hearty pleasure; if they were
+suffering, sad, or bereaved, he painted their woes with a sympathy such as
+none but a true friend can give.
+
+When Edwin and Thomas were old enough that their father thought other
+instruction than his own should be given them, he placed them with Haydon,
+and in these early days the master predicted that Edwin Landseer would be
+the Snyders of England. Edwin sent his first picture to the Royal Academy
+when he was but thirteen years old, and during the following fifty-eight
+years there were but six exhibitions to which he did not contribute. When
+he began his studies at the Royal Academy he was fourteen years old, and
+already famous as an animal painter. He was a bright, curly-headed, manly
+lad, and the aged Fuseli, then keeper of the Academy, grew to be very fond
+of him; he would often ask, "Where is my little dog-boy?"
+
+Edwin Landseer now worked on diligently and quietly; his works were
+constantly praised, and he received all the patronage that he desired.
+Through the advice of his master, Haydon, he had the habit of dissecting
+animals, and learning their anatomy with all the exactness with which
+other artists study that of human beings. About 1820 a lion died in the
+Exeter Change Menagerie, and Edwin Landseer secured the body for
+dissection. He then painted three large pictures of lions, and during the
+year in which he became eighteen years old, he exhibited these pictures
+and others of horses, dogs, donkeys, deer, goats, wolves, and vultures.
+
+When nineteen, in 1821, he painted "Pointers, To-ho!" a hunting scene,
+which was sold in 1872, the year before his death, for two thousand and
+sixteen pounds. In 1822 Landseer gained the prize of the British
+Institution, one hundred and fifty pounds, by his picture of "The Larder
+Invaded." He made the first sketch for this on a child's slate, which is
+still preserved as a treasure. But the most famous of this master's early
+works is the "Cat's Paw," in which a monkey uses a cat's paw to draw
+chestnuts from a hot stove. Landseer was paid one hundred pounds; its
+present value is three thousand pounds, and it is kept at the seat of the
+Earl of Essex, Cashiobury.
+
+This picture of the "Cat's Paw" had an important result for the young
+artist, as it happened that it was exhibited when Sir Walter Scott was in
+London, and he was so much pleased with it that he made Landseer's
+acquaintance, and invited him to visit Abbotsford. Accordingly, in 1824,
+Landseer visited Sir Walter in company with Leslie, who then painted a
+portrait of the great novelist, which now belongs to the Ticknor family of
+Boston. It was at this time that Sir Walter wrote in his journal:
+"Landseer's dogs were the most magnificent things I ever saw, leaping, and
+bounding, and grinning all over the canvas." Out of this visit came a
+picture called "A Scene at Abbotsford," in which the dog Maida, so loved
+by Scott, was the prominent figure; six weeks after it was finished the
+dog died.
+
+At this time Sir Walter was not known as the author of the "Waverley
+Novels," but in later years Landseer painted a picture which he called
+"Extract from a Journal whilst at Abbotsford," to which the following was
+attached: "Found the great poet in his study, laughing at a collie dog
+playing with Maida, his favorite old greyhound, given him by Glengarry,
+and quoting Shakespeare--'Crabbed old age and youth cannot agree.' On the
+floor was the cover of a proof-sheet, sent for correction by Constable,
+of the novel then in progress. N. B.--This took place before he was the
+acknowledged author of the 'Waverley Novels.'" Landseer early suspected
+Scott of the authorship of the novels, and without doubt he came to this
+conclusion from what he saw at Abbotsford.
+
+Landseer repeated his visits to Scotland for many years, and saw all parts
+of that country at various seasons. From the time of his first visit there
+was a new feeling in his works--a breadth and power was in them which he
+gained from nature, and a refinement and elevation which he undoubtedly
+received from his friendship with Sir Walter and the impetus it gave him.
+He also became so interested in the Gaelic people that he painted good
+pictures of them. At first these men did not know what to make of a
+huntsman who would throw away his gun when fine game appeared, and draw
+out pencils and paper to make pictures of what others were so eager to
+shoot. This tendency made him a poor hunter; but he was intensely
+interested in the chase, and especially in deer-stalking. He insisted that
+deer had intelligence, and the question was whether the game or the hunter
+happened to have the superior mind. When in London the artist was a quiet,
+society gentleman; but each year he broke away from all city habits, and
+went to the Highlands, where he divided his days between the chase and
+painting portraits of his friends there with their children and pets, or
+putting frescoes on the walls of their houses.
+
+Landseer continued to live in his father's house long after he was a
+famous man. The senior artist conducted all business matters--sold
+pictures, and took the money for them as if his son was still a boy. At
+length, through the advice of a friend, Edwin Landseer removed to No. 1
+St. John's Wood Road, to which he gave the name of Maida Vale; he
+enlarged, and improved this home from time to time, and had no other for
+nearly fifty years.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--THE EAGLE AND DEAD STAG. _By Landseer._]
+
+In 1826 Landseer painted "Chevy Chase;" it was the only historical
+painting he ever did, and still remains at Woburn Abbey, where it
+originally went. The animals in the picture are excellent of course, but
+this sort of painting was not that in which Landseer showed his best. This
+year of 1826 was an important one to this master. He was twenty-four years
+old, and was immediately admitted an Associate of the Royal Academy. No
+one can be a candidate for this honor at a younger age, and very few
+others have attained it so early. Before he was thirty Landseer was a full
+member, and his diploma picture, "The Dead Warrior" is in the Royal
+Academy. But this year saw a great change in his pictures, as may be seen
+in that of "The Chief's Return from Deer-stalking," which he sent to the
+next exhibition. It was free, broad, and effective beyond any previous
+work, and this manner was his best. Many judges fix the year 1834 as the
+very prime in the art of Landseer, and one of the works of that year,
+called "Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time," is very famous. It represents the
+vassals of the abbey bringing in their tributes of game, fish, and fruits,
+which the jolly, old monks gladly receive.
+
+There is no question but that Landseer's best pictures are of dogs, and we
+can but echo the words of Hamerton when he says: "The best commentators on
+Landseer, the best defenders of his genius, are the dogs themselves; and
+so long as there exist terriers, deer-hounds, blood-hounds, his fame will
+need little assistance from writers on art."
+
+Landseer had a long and happy intimacy with Queen Victoria and the royal
+family. He painted portraits of the various members of the queen's
+household in all possible ways, with dogs and on horseback, in fancy dress
+and hunting costume--in short, these portraits are far too numerous to be
+mentioned in detail. Ever after 1835 Landseer was called upon to paint
+pictures of the pets of the royal family, and these works became very
+numerous. While he was thus favored as an artist he was also a friend of
+the queen and her immediate family; he was often summoned to play
+billiards with Prince Albert. The queen's Journal of Life in the Highlands
+frequently mentions him, and we are sure that if we could read Landseer's
+diary it would tell us many interesting things of the queen and her
+family. Naturally it followed that an artist thus favored by the queen
+would be patronized by the nobility, and it is true that much of
+Landseer's time, both as an artist and as a gentleman of society, was
+passed in the company of people of the highest positions in Great Britain;
+and with the one exception of Sir Joshua Reynolds, no artist in England
+was ever visited by so many people of rank. His house was really a social
+centre, and no one felt above accepting his hasty invitations to his
+parties, which were almost always gotten up on an impulse and the guests
+invited at the last possible moment.
+
+Among Landseer's friends were Dickens and Thackeray, and Sydney Smith was
+very fond of the artist; and it is said that when the great wit was asked
+to sit to Landseer for his portrait, he replied in the words of the
+haughty Syrian: "Is thy servant a _dog_ that he should do this thing?"
+
+When at his best Landseer had a facility in drawing and painting that was
+marvellous. He could draw two entirely different objects at the same
+moment, his left hand being equally skilful with the right. He was seen to
+draw a horse's head with one hand and a stag's head with antlers at
+exactly the same time--and this at an evening party to prove that it could
+be done. He once sent to an exhibition a picture of rabbits under which he
+wrote, "Painted in three-quarters of an hour." He painted a life-size
+picture of a fallow-deer in three hours, and it required no retouching.
+One of his comrades said: "Sir Edwin has a fine hand, a correct eye,
+refined perceptions, and can do almost anything but dance on the slack
+wire. He is a fine billiard player, plays at chess, sings when with his
+intimate friends, and has considerable humor."
+
+We have passed over the best and most pleasant part of the life of this
+great painter, for in 1840 he had an attack of illness from which he never
+recovered. He travelled, and endeavored in every way to go on with his
+work; but he was always subject to attacks of depression which were
+sometimes so serious that his friends feared loss of reason. Of course
+there was a different tone in his works--a seriousness and pathos, and at
+times a religious element, which was very acceptable to some persons, and
+he gained admirers where he had not found them before. But it can scarcely
+be said that his last days were his best days, though he executed some
+famous pictures.
+
+In 1866 he exhibited a model of a stag at bay which was afterward cast in
+bronze. The lions at the base of the Nelson monument in Trafalgar Square
+may be called the work of Sir Edwin, for he modelled one of the colossal
+beasts from which the others were formed with but slight changes, and the
+whole were cast under the care of Baron Marochetti.
+
+In 1872 he painted "The Font," which is a religious subject. It represents
+the sheep and lambs of the Gospel gathering round a font, upon the edge of
+which are doves. A rainbow spans the sky; on the sides of the font are a
+mask of the face of Christ and the symbols of the Atonement. This is a
+painful picture, for while it is exquisite in conception its execution
+shows the weakness of the painter, who so soon after he made it was
+released from all his darkness and suffering.
+
+Sir Edwin Landseer was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral with all the honors
+which his genius and character merited. His works are known to almost
+every child in America by means of the engravings which have been made
+from them. His brother Thomas engraved hundreds of the designs of Edwin
+and made them popular all over the world, and a large part of this success
+was due to the skill and sympathy which Thomas devoted to what was largely
+a work of love. Of course many other engravers have worked after Landseer,
+and almost all his pictures have been reproduced in one style of engraving
+or another.
+
+There are nine portraits of Sir Edwin Landseer in existence--one by J.
+Hayter when Landseer was thirteen years old and is represented as a
+cricketer; one painted a year later by Leslie, in which Edwin Landseer is
+the Rutland in the work called "Henry VI." It is owned by the Philadelphia
+Academy. The next were not made until 1843, when Count d'Orsay painted two
+portraits of him; in 1830 Dupper had made a drawing, and in 1835 a
+photograph was taken; Baron Marochetti made a bust portrait of Landseer
+which is in the Royal Academy, and in his picture called the
+"Connoisseurs" Sir Edwin painted his own portrait, with dogs on each side
+who stand as critics of his work. This was painted in 1865.
+
+Sir Edwin Landseer left an estate of two hundred and fifty thousand
+pounds, and the works unsold at his death brought about seventy thousand
+pounds. His will made but a few bequests, and the remainder of this large
+sum was divided between his brother and three sisters. With the account of
+Sir Edwin I shall close the account of painters given in this volume.
+
+We have seen how few actual remains of the painting of ancient nations are
+now in existence. Almost nothing is left even from the times of the
+Greeks; in truth, there is more upon the tombs of Egypt than in the land
+of Hellas. We read accounts of classic painting which arouse our deepest
+interest one moment, only to remember in the next that we can see but the
+merest scraps of all this wealth of beauty which moved the cultured Greeks
+to write of it with such enthusiasm.
+
+After the days of classic art we have endeavored to trace painting through
+a period when it could scarcely be termed an art, so little of it was
+done, and that little was so far below our ideal. Again, this decline was
+followed by a Renaissance--an awakening--and from that day in the
+fourteenth century when the Madonna of Cimabue was carried in triumph
+through the streets of Florence, this art moved on with progressive steps
+until Michael Angelo, Leonardo, Raphael, Titian, and others highly gifted,
+had set up the standards which have remained as beacons and guides to all
+the world.
+
+In tracing this progress we have seen that Italy, the German nations,
+Spain, France, and England have all striven to dream dreams of beauty and
+grandeur, of tenderness and love, and to fix them in fitting colors where
+all the world could see them.
+
+The past is always fascinating. No stories are so pleasantly begun as
+those that say, "A long time ago there lived," etc. One can have the most
+complete satisfaction in the study of what has happened so far in the past
+that we can see all its effects and judge of it by the tests which time is
+sure to bring to everything. It is such a study that has been made in
+these pages, and I would suggest that it has a second use scarcely less
+important than the study of history--that is, the preparation it affords
+for judging of what is done in the present. A knowledge of what has been
+achieved enables us by comparison to decide upon the merits of new works.
+
+The painting of to-day offers an immense field for investigation. When we
+remember that five centuries ago the painters of the world could be
+counted by tens, and are told that now there is an average of twenty-five
+hundred painters in some foreign cities, we see that a lifetime is
+scarcely sufficient in which to study the painting of our own era.
+
+Have we not reason to hope that works are now being produced which shall
+be studied and admired in the future as we study and admire those of the
+past? Is it not true that the artistic works of any period show forth the
+spirit of the time? If, then, the close of the Dark Ages and the dawn of a
+better life could bring forth the treasures which remain from those days,
+what ought to be the result of the more universal learning and the
+advancing civilization of the nineteenth century? And so, in leaving this
+book, I hope that it may be useful to all who read it for one purpose that
+I have suggested or the other; either to present an outline of what has
+been done in the past, or aid in the understanding of the painting of the
+present.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+BY L. E. JONES.
+
+
+"Abraham and the Three Angels" (Navarrete), 211
+
+Academia Leonardi Vinci, 87
+
+Adams, John, portrait by Copley, 264
+
+Adams, Samuel, portrait by Copley, 264
+
+"Adoration of the Kings" (Vinci), 89
+
+"Adoration of the Shepherds" (Velasquez), 216
+
+"Agrippina Weeping over the Urn of Germanicus" (West), 265
+
+Albani, Francesco, 148
+
+"Aldobrandini Marriage," 27
+
+Alexander the Great, portrait by Apelles, 18
+
+Allen, James, portrait by Copley, 264
+
+Allston, portrait of West, 266
+
+"Analysis of Beauty" (Hogarth), 254
+
+Ancient painting, 1-40
+
+"Ancient Rome" (Turner), 287
+
+Andalusia school of painting, 213
+
+Angelico, Fra, 72-78
+
+Animal painters--
+  Snyders and Fyt, 167;
+  Potter, 187;
+  Landseer, 293
+
+Anne of Cleves, portrait by Holbein, 190
+
+"Annunciation" (Titian), 127
+
+Apelles, 18-20, 40
+
+"Apollo and Daphne in the Vale of Tempe" (Turner), 287
+
+Apollodorus, 13-14
+
+"Archangel Michael" (Raphael), 114
+
+Architecture, a fine art, 1;
+  more advanced than painting among Oriental nations, 12;
+  development of Greek, from Egyptian and Assyrian, 13;
+  during the Romanesque period, 150.
+  _See also_ Gothic
+
+Ariosto, portrait by Bassano, 132
+
+Aristides, 17
+
+Assisi, wall-paintings of Cimabue in Upper Church at, 62;
+  frescoes of Giotto in Lower Church at, 66
+
+Assyrian painting, 9-11
+
+Augsburg Cathedral contains earliest painted windows, 51
+
+Augsburg school of art, 188
+
+Augustine, St., quoted, 2
+
+"Aurora" (Guido Reni), 145
+
+Avignon, the Vernet Gallery at, 247
+
+
+Babylonian painting, 11-13
+
+"Bacchus and Ariadne" (Titian), 124
+
+"Bacchus and Ariadne" (Turner), 288
+
+Balen, Henry van, 168
+
+"Banishment of Ovid from Rome" (Turner), 287
+
+"Baptism of Christ," 84-86
+
+Barbarelli, Giorgio, 118-120
+
+Bartolommeo, Fra, 93-94;
+  and Raphael, 110
+
+Bartolozzi, engraved pictures of Angelica Kauffman, 206
+
+Bas-reliefs in Egyptian painting, 3-5
+
+Bassano family, 132
+
+"Bathing Soldiers" (Michael Angelo), 108
+
+"Battle of the Standard" (Vinci), 108
+
+Bazzi, or Razzi, 118
+
+"Beauties at Hampton Court" (Lely), 251
+
+"Beggar Boy" (Velasquez), 216
+
+"Beggar Boy Munching a Piece of Pastry" (Velasquez), 216
+
+Belgium. _See_ Flanders
+
+"Bella, La" (Titian), 124
+
+"Belle Ferroni�re, La" (Vinci), 87
+
+"Belle Jardini�re, La" (Raphael), 110
+
+Bellini, Gentile, 80-81
+
+Bellini, Giovanni, 80, 81-82;
+  and Titian, 123;
+  and D�rer, 197
+
+Bellini, Jacopo, 80
+
+Bellotti, Bernardo, 153
+
+Beltraffio, Giovanni Antonio, 93
+
+Bembo, Pietro, epitaph on Raphael, 116
+
+"Benci, Ginevra" (Vinci), 89
+
+Bentivoglio, Cardinal, and Vandyck, 171
+
+Benvenuti, Lorenzo, 153
+
+Bernardo di Daddo, 69
+
+Berreguette, Alonzo, 208-209
+
+Bertoldo, 96-97
+
+"Birth of John the Baptist" (D�rer), 198
+
+"Birth of the Virgin Mary," 58
+
+Blucher, portrait by Lawrence, 270
+
+Boleyn, Anne, and Holbein, 189
+
+Bologna school, 71, 82
+
+"Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time" (Landseer), 298
+
+"Bonaparte on the Bridge of Arcola" (Gros), 242
+
+Borgia, C�sar, appoints Da Vinci engineer, 90
+
+Borgognone, Ambrogio, 93
+
+Both, Jan and Andries, 187
+
+Botticelli, Sandro, 79
+
+Bourdon, Sebastian, 238
+
+Bowditch, N. I., quoted, 261
+
+"Boy with a Squirrel" (Copley), 261
+
+Boylston, Miss Rebecca, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Brattle, General William, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Brauwer, Adrian, 178
+
+Brenghel, Jan, 162
+
+Brenghel, Pieter, 162
+
+Bril, Paul, 162
+
+"Broken Jug" (Greuze), 240
+
+Brunn, cited, 21
+
+"Bull, The" (Potter), 187
+
+Burch, Bishop Van der, and Vandyck, 172
+
+Burgkmair, Hans, instructor of Holbein, 189
+
+Burial-places, medi�val paintings in, 41.
+  _See also_ Catacombs
+
+"Burning of the House of Lords and Commons" (Turner), 287
+
+Byron's Works illustrated by Turner, 286
+
+
+"Calumny" (Apelles), 19
+
+Calvert, Denis, instructor of Domenichino, 141
+
+Cammuccini, Vincenzio, 153
+
+Canaletto, 153
+
+Cano, Alonso, 230-232
+
+Canova, designed a monument for Titian, 128;
+  portrait by Lawrence, 271
+
+"Cantarilla de Miel, La" (Utande), 212
+
+"Capitoline Doves," 34
+
+"Caprices" (Goya), 233
+
+Caracci, Annibale, 140;
+  quoted on Correggio, 135;
+  on Domenichino, 141;
+  instructor of Guido Reni, 143
+
+Caracci family and school, 140
+
+Caravaggio, 150
+
+"Card Players" (Wilkie), 292
+
+Carew, Thomas, portrait by Vandyck, 174
+
+Carre�o, Juan de, 211-212
+
+Carvings of D�rer, 198
+
+Casa Grande, the home of Titian, 126
+
+Castelfranco, altar-piece painted by Giorgione, 119
+
+Castile school of painting, 208
+
+Castillo, Juan de, instructor of Murillo, 221
+
+Catacombs, paintings of, 42-45
+
+"Cato of Utica" (Ribera), 151
+
+"Cat's Paw" (Landseer), 295
+
+Celtic illuminated MSS., early, 49
+
+Cenci, Beatrice, portrait by Guido Reni, 145-147
+
+Cennino, quoted, 68
+
+Central period of Middle Ages.
+  _See_ Romanesque
+
+Cespedes, Pablo de, 213-214
+
+Charles I., and Rubens, 164;
+  and Vandyck, 172-173;
+  portraits by Vandyck, 174;
+  and Dobson, 249
+
+Charles II. and Lely, 251
+
+Charles IV. and Goya, 232
+
+Charles V., and Titian, 124, 126-127;
+  and D�rer, 199-201;
+  and Berreguette, 209
+
+Charles X., and Gros, 242;
+  and Vernet, 246
+
+Chartres Cathedral, glass-painting in, 53
+
+"Chevy Chase" (Landseer), 296-298
+
+"Chief's (The) Return from Deer-stalking" (Landseer), 298
+
+Christ, paintings by Joanes of, 229
+
+"Christ Bearing the Cross" (Morales), 210
+
+"Christ Blessing Little Children" (Rembrandt), 186
+
+"Christ Crowned with Thorns" (Morales), 210
+
+"Christ Healing the Sick" (West), 266
+
+"Christ in Glory" (Correggio), 134
+
+Christian art. _See_ Early
+
+Church decoration in Gothic period of Middle Ages, 60
+
+Cimabue, G., 61-64
+
+Cistercian monks, painted windows in churches of, 54
+
+Clay used by Babylonian tile-painters, 12
+
+Clement VII., portrait by Titian, 124
+
+Club of St. Luke founded by Vandyck, 173
+
+Coello, Alonso Sanchez, 210
+
+Coello, Claudio, 208, 212-213
+
+"Collocation of the Host" (Coello), 213
+
+Cologne school of art, 188
+
+Colonna, Vittoria, friendship with Michael Angelo, 103
+
+Colors, Egyptian rules for use of, 5-7;
+  in Assyrian paintings, 11;
+  in Pompeian wall-paintings, 32;
+  in illumination, 47;
+  Raphael's skill in, 110;
+  discoveries by Hubert van Eyck in use of, 156
+
+"Communion of St. Jerome" (Domenichino), 141
+
+"Condemnation of Marie Antoinette" (Delaroche), 242
+
+Consalvi, Cardinal, portrait by Lawrence, 271
+
+Cook's "Southern Coast," illustrated by Turner, 282
+
+Cooper, Samuel, 249
+
+Copley, John Singleton, 259-264
+
+"Copley Family" (Copley), 264
+
+Corday, Charlotte, portrait by Goya, 233
+
+Cornaro, Caterina, portrait by Titian, 124
+
+Correggio, 132-139
+
+"Cottage Door" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+"Cottage Girl" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+Court influence upon art during Romanesque period, 50
+
+Coxie, Michael, copies Van Eyck's altar-piece for Philip I., 156
+
+Cranach, Lucas, 202
+
+"Cromwell at the House of Sir Walter Stewart" (Landseer), 293
+
+"Cromwell Contemplating the Remains of Charles I." (Delaroche), 242
+
+Cromwell's directions to Lely for painting his portrait, 251
+
+Crucifixion as represented by Giotto, 68-69
+
+"Crucifixion" (Fra Angelico), 75-76
+
+"Crucifixion" (Tintoretto), 130
+
+"Crucifixion" (Vandyck), 169, 171
+
+"Crucifixion of St. Peter" (Bourdon), 238
+
+Cunningham, Allan, quoted, 267
+
+Cupid, statue of, by Michael Angelo, 98-99
+
+Curran, portrait by Lawrence, 270
+
+Cuyp, Albert, 186-187
+
+
+Damophilos, 21
+
+"Dan�e" (Titian), 129
+
+Dance, George, portrait of Turner, 279
+
+"Dance of Death" (Holbein), 192-193
+
+Daniell, William, portrait by Wilkie, 293
+
+Dante, portrait by Giotto, 64-66;
+  and Michael Angelo, 103
+
+Dante's "Inferno," painting by Delacroix of scene from, 245
+
+David, Jacques Louis, 240-242
+
+"David" (Michael Angelo), 99
+
+"Dead Warrior, The" (Landseer), 298
+
+"Death of the Duke of Guise" (Delaroche), 242, 244
+
+"Death of Lord Chatham" (Copley), 262
+
+"Death of Wolfe" (Romney), 267
+
+"Death of Wolfe" (West), 266
+
+"Decline of the Carthaginian Empire" (Turner), 282
+
+"Decoration of a Roof," 44-45
+
+Delacroix, Eugene, 244-245
+
+Delaroche, Paul, 242
+
+"Demeter Enthroned," 34
+
+"Descent from the Cross" (Ribera), 151
+
+"Descent from the Cross" (Volterra), 104
+
+"Dido Building Carthage" (Turner), 282
+
+"Dionysus, or Bacchus" (Aristides), 17
+
+"Discovery of the Herb Mandragora," 47-48
+
+Dobson, William, 249-251;
+  and Vandyck, 173
+
+"Dodwell Vase (The)," 38
+
+Domenichino, 141-143;
+  and Poussin, 234
+
+Dorian school of Sikyon, 15-17
+
+Dow, Gerhard, 181
+
+Drawing first regularly taught in Sikyon school, 17
+
+"Drunken Bacchus" (Michael Angelo), 99
+
+Duccio, 64
+
+Dupper, portrait of Landseer, 301
+
+D�rer, Albert, 193-202
+
+Dutch. _See_ Holland
+
+
+Early Christian art, 41, 42-49
+
+Early period of Middle Ages. _See_ Early Christian art
+
+Eastern. _See_ Oriental
+
+Eclectics of the seventeenth century, 140
+
+"Edward the Confessor" (Mortimer), 267
+
+Edward III., paintings by West from the life of, 266
+
+Eeckhout, Gerbrandt van der, 186
+
+Eginhard, 49
+
+Egyptian mosaics, 36
+
+Egyptian painting, 3-9
+
+"Ehrenbreitstein" (Turner), 287
+
+Ekphantos, 21
+
+Encaustic paintings of Nikias, 18
+
+England, painting in, 249-303;
+  glass-painting in, 53;
+  wall-painting in, 60
+
+"England and Wales" (Turner), 282
+
+Engravings, by Rembrandt, 185;
+  by D�rer, 194, 198;
+  by Hogarth, 254.
+  _See also_ Etchings
+
+"Entombment of Christ" (Caravaggio), 150
+
+"Entombment of Christ" (Titian), 128-129
+
+Erasmus and Holbein, 189
+
+Escorial, Giordano painted walls of, 213
+
+Etching, Rembrandt's use of, 182
+
+Etchings, of Salvator Rosa, 152;
+  of Teniers, 180;
+  of Rembrandt, 186
+
+Etruscan tombs, decorated with mural paintings, 23;
+  stone-paintings found in, 36
+
+Etruscans introduced painting into Italy from Greece, 13, 20-21
+
+Euphranor, 17
+
+"Extract from a Journal whilst at Abbotsford" (Landseer), 295
+
+Eyck, Hubert van, 155-156
+
+Eyck, Jan van, 156-158
+
+Eyck, Lambert van, 158
+
+Eyck, Margaretha van, 158
+
+
+Faes, Peter van der, 251
+
+"False Players" (Caravaggio), 150
+
+"Family of Darius" (Veronese), 131
+
+"Family Picture" (Copley), 262
+
+Farnesina Villa, frescoes by Raphael in, 111
+
+Farrari, Gaudenzio, 93
+
+Fawkes, H., friend and patron of Turner, 277
+
+"Feast of Rose Garlands" (D�rer), 197
+
+Fernandez, Louis, 221
+
+Ferrara, Duke of, and Titian, 124
+
+"Field of Eylau" (Gros), 242
+
+"Fifth Plague of Egypt" (Turner), 278-279
+
+Figure-painting in ancient Greece, 20
+
+Final period of Middle Ages. _See_ Gothic
+
+"Five Senses" (Teniers), 180
+
+Flanders, painting in, 155-176
+
+"Flaying of St. Bartholomew" (Ribera), 151
+
+"Flemish Kermes" (Teniers), 180
+
+"Flora" (Titian), 124
+
+Florentine school, 72-80, 93
+
+Fonesca, portrait by Velasquez, 216
+
+"Font, The" (Landseer), 300
+
+Foreshortening of Correggio, 134
+
+"Fortune Teller" (Caravaggio), 150
+
+"Four Apostles, The" (D�rer), 201
+
+France, painting in, 234-248;
+  glass-painting in, 51.
+  _See also_ Gaul
+
+Francia, Francisco, 82-83
+
+Francis I., and Da Vinci, 90-92;
+  and Sarto, 105;
+  and Raphael, 114
+
+"Francis I. and Charles V. Visiting the Tombs at St. Denis" (Gros), 242
+
+Franconian school, 193
+
+Frederick Henry, Prince, scenes from the life of, painted by Jordaens, 167
+
+Fuseli, and Angelica Kauffman, 204;
+  and Landseer, 294
+
+Fyt, Jan, 167
+
+
+Gaddi, A., 69
+
+Gaddi, T., 69
+
+Gainsborough, Thomas, 258
+
+"Gamba, La" (Vargas), 213
+
+Gardiner, quoted, 260
+
+Gardiner, Miss Rebecca, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Gargasos, 21
+
+Garrick, David, epitaph on Hogarth, 254
+
+Gaul, miniature-painting in, 49
+
+George III., and West, 265;
+  and Lawrence, 270
+
+G�ricault, Jean Louis, 244
+
+German illuminated MSS., early, 49
+
+Germany, painting in, 188-206;
+  glass-painting in, 51;
+  wall-painting in, 60
+
+Gel�e, Claude. _See_ Lorraine
+
+Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 79-80, 96
+
+Giordano, Luca, 213
+
+Giorgione, 118-120;
+  and Titian, 123
+
+Giotteschi, 69
+
+Giotto di Bondone, 64-69
+
+"Girl and Pigs" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+Girtin, Tom, 274
+
+Glass-painting, 51-54, 58-60
+
+"Glykera" (Pausias), 17
+
+Goes, Hugo van der, 158
+
+Goethe, quoted, 205
+
+Goldsmith, Oliver, and Reynolds, 258
+
+Gomez, Sebastian, 228-229
+
+Gongora, portrait by Velasquez, 216
+
+Gonzaga, Giulia, portraits by Piombo, 120
+
+Gothic architecture,
+  its influence upon painting and sculpture in Middle Ages, 54;
+  its influence upon glass-painting, 58
+
+Gothic period of Middle Ages, 42, 54-71
+
+Gower family, portraits by Romney, 267
+
+Goya y Lucientes, Francisco, 232-233
+
+Goyen, Jan van, 187
+
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, 80
+
+"Graces Decorating a Statue of Hymen" (Reynolds), 257
+
+Granacci, Francisco, 80, 96
+
+Great Book of the Hours, illumination of, 58
+
+Greek painting, ancient, 13-34, 40;
+  on stone, 36
+
+Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, 239-240
+
+Grimm, quoted, 100-101
+
+Grisaille glass, 54
+
+Gros, Antoine Jean, 242
+
+Guardi, Francesco, 153
+
+Gu�rin, instructor of G�ricault, 244;
+  of Delacroix, 245
+
+Guido, Tommaso, 78-79
+
+Guido of Siena, 64
+
+Guido Reni, 143-148
+
+Guilds among painters in Gothic period of Middle Ages, 56
+
+
+Hals, Franz, 177;
+  and Vandyck, 169
+
+Hamerton, on Turner, 286;
+  on Landseer, 298
+
+Hamilton, Lady, portraits by Romney, 267-268
+
+"Hamlet and Ophelia" (West), 266
+
+"Harlot's Progress" (Hogarth), 252
+
+Haydon, instructor of Landseer, 294
+
+Hayman, Francis, instructor of Gainsborough, 258
+
+Hayter, J., portrait of Landseer, 301
+
+"Heidelberg Castle in the Olden Time" (Turner), 287
+
+Hellenic school, 18
+
+"Hemicycle" (Delaroche), 242-244
+
+Henrietta Maria, Queen, portraits by Vandyck, 174
+
+"Henry I.," 54-55
+
+Henry III. and Titian, 127
+
+Henry VIII. and Holbein, 189-192
+
+Hercules, statue of, by Michael Angelo, 98
+
+Herrera, Francisco de, 212, 214-215, 216
+
+Hobbema, Mindert, 188
+
+Hogarth, William, 252-254
+
+Holbein, Hans, 188-193
+
+Holland, painting in, 176-188;
+  fidelity to detail, 11
+
+"Holy Family" (Vandyck), 169-170
+
+Honthorst, Gerard, 180
+
+Hooge, Pieter de, 181
+
+Houssaye, A., 92
+
+Hudson, instructor of Reynolds, 255
+
+"Hundred Guilders Print" (Rembrandt), 186
+
+
+Illumination of MSS., 41, 46-49, 58
+
+Illustrations used in Egyptian papyrus rolls, 8
+
+"Immaculate Conception" (Murillo), 224, 225-227, 228
+
+Inquisition, its influence on Spanish painting, 207-208
+
+Intaglios in Egyptian painting, 6
+
+Interiors, Dutch painters of, 180-181
+
+Ionian school, 15
+
+Ireland, miniature-painting in ancient, 49
+
+Isabella, Empress, portrait by Titian, 127
+
+Isabella, Infanta, sends Rubens to Spain, 164
+
+Isabella of Portugal, portrait by Jan van Eyck, 156
+
+Italy, painting in, 13-34, 40, 72-154
+
+"Ixion on the Wheel" (Ribera), 151
+
+
+Jameson, Mrs., quoted, 119
+
+Joanes, Vicente de, 229
+
+"John Knox Preaching" (Wilkie), 293
+
+Johnson, Samuel, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, 255
+
+Jonah, statue of, modelled by Raphael, 115
+
+Jordaens, Jacob, 167-168
+
+Julius II., Pope, and Michael Angelo, 99-100;
+  and Raphael, 111
+
+"Julius II., Tomb of," (Michael Angelo), 100, 101
+
+"Justinian, Theodora, and Attendants," 45-46
+
+Justus of Ghent, 158
+
+
+Kauffman, Angelica, 203-206
+
+"King David," 51
+
+Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 251-252
+
+"Knight (The), Death, and the Devil" (D�rer), 202
+
+Kugler, quoted, 129
+
+
+Landseer, Charles, 293
+
+Landseer, Sir Edwin, 293-301
+
+Landseer, John, 293
+
+Landseer, Thomas, 293
+
+Landscape-painting, in ancient Greece, 20;
+  in ancient Rome, 27-29;
+  in Holland, 186-187
+
+"Larder Invaded" (Landseer), 295
+
+"Large Holy Family of the Louvre" (Raphael), 114
+
+"Last Judgment" (Michael Angelo), 101
+
+"Last Supper" (Vinci), 87-89, 92
+
+"Last Supper" (Titian), 211
+
+"Last Supper" (Cespedes), 214
+
+Last Supper, paintings by Joanes of, 229-230
+
+Lastman, Pieter, 181
+
+"Laughing Peasant" (Velasquez), 216
+
+Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 269-271;
+  portrait of West, 266
+
+"Lear" (West), 266
+
+Le Brun, Charles, 238
+
+Lee, Colonel and Mrs., portraits by Copley, 260
+
+Lely, Sir Peter, 251
+
+Leo X., and Da Vinci, 90;
+  and Raphael, 111;
+  and Titian, 124
+
+Leonardo da Vinci, 84-93
+
+Leopold William, Archduke, portrait by Teniers, 179
+
+Leslie, portrait of West, 266;
+  portrait by Landseer, 301
+
+Le Sueur, Eustache, 238
+
+"Liber Fluviorum" (Turner), 286
+
+"Liber Studiorum" (Turner), 280
+
+"Liber Veritatis" (Claude Lorraine), 237
+
+"Line-fishing off Hastings" (Turner), 287
+
+Lippi, Fillipino, 79
+
+Lippi, Filippo, 79
+
+"Little Girl with a Lap Dog in her Arms" (Greuze), 240
+
+Lombard school, 93
+
+"Lomellini Family" (Vandyck), 171
+
+"Lorelei Twilight" (Turner), 278
+
+Lorenzo di Credi, 79
+
+Lorraine, Claude, 236-238
+
+Louis XII. and Da Vinci, 90
+
+Louis XIII. and Poussin, 234-236
+
+Louis XIV., and Le Brun, 238;
+  and Mignard, 239;
+  portraits by Rigaud, 239
+
+Louis XV. and Vernet, 240
+
+Louis Philippe and Vernet, 246
+
+L�bke, quoted, 82, 237
+
+"Lucretia" (Rembrandt), 186
+
+Ludius, 21-23
+
+Luini, Bernardino, 93
+
+Luther, D�rer's admiration for, 201
+
+
+Madonna del Sacco (Sarto), 107
+
+"Madonna della Gran Duca" (Raphael), 108
+
+"Madonna di San Francesco" (Correggio), 134
+
+"Madonna di San Francesco" (Sarto), 107
+
+"Madonna Enthroned" (Cimabue), 62
+
+Madonnas of Fra Bartolommeo, 93
+
+Madonnas of Raphael, 110
+
+Madonnas of Elisabetta Sirani, 148
+
+"Maids of Honor" (Velasquez), 218
+
+Mannerists, 139-140
+
+Mansfield, Lord, portrait by Copley, 263
+
+Mantegna, Andrea, 82, 132
+
+Mantua, Duke of, a patron of Rubens, 162-164
+
+Manuscripts. _See_ Illumination
+
+Margaritone of Arezzo, 64
+
+Marochetti, Baron, portrait of Landseer, 301
+
+"Marriage at Cana" (Veronese), 131
+
+"Marriage � la Mode" (Hogarth), 252
+
+"Marriage of St. Catharine" (Coello), 210
+
+"Mars, Venus, and Vulcan" (Copley), 259-260
+
+"Martyrdom of St. Andrew" (Utande), 212
+
+"Martyrdom of St. Lawrence" (Titian), 127
+
+Masaccio, 78-79
+
+Maso, 69
+
+Masolino, 78-79
+
+"Massacre of the Innocents" (Volterra), 104
+
+Matsys, Quintin, 161
+
+Maximilian, Emperor, and D�rer, 198-199
+
+Mazzuoli, Francesco, 139
+
+Medi�val painting, 41-71
+
+Medici, Lorenzo de, patron of Michael Angelo, 96-97
+
+"Medusa's Head" (Vinci), 86
+
+Meire, Gerard van der, 158
+
+Memling, Hans, 160-161
+
+Memorial windows, origin of, 58
+
+Mengs, Raphael, 153
+
+"Meni�as, Las" (Velasquez), 218
+
+Metsu, Gabriel, 181
+
+"Meyer Madonna" (Holbein), 192
+
+Michael Angelo, 94-104;
+  his frescoes of Sistine Chapel, 112;
+  and Raphael, 115;
+  and Piombo, 120-121
+
+Middle Ages. _See_ Medi�val
+
+Mignard, Pierre, 238-239
+
+Milan, Academia Leonardi Vinci, 87
+
+Miniaturists in England, 249.
+  _See also_ Illumination
+
+"Miracle of St. Mark" (Tintoretto), 130
+
+Miranda, Juan Carre�o de, 211-212
+
+Modena school, 71
+
+"Modern Rome" (Turner), 287
+
+"Mona Lisa" (Vinci), 89-90
+
+Morales, Luis de, 209-210
+
+More, Sir Thomas, portraits by Holbein, 189
+
+Morland, George, 268
+
+"Morning Among the Corriston Fells" (Turner), 277
+
+Moro, Antonio, 162
+
+Mosaics, found in ancient Italy, 34-36;
+  of the Middle Ages, 41, 45-46;
+  none by early Germans or Celts left, 49;
+  transparent, 51
+
+"Moses," 42-44
+
+Mountfort, Dr. de, portrait by Copley, 259
+
+"Mouth of the Seine" (Turner), 284
+
+Mural paintings, Egyptian, 3;
+  Assyrian, 9;
+  Oriental, 13;
+  Pompeian, 15;
+  ancient Greek, 20;
+  of Ludius, 21;
+  ancient Italian, 23-24;
+  mosaics as, 35;
+  in catacombs, 44-45;
+  no early German or Celtic left, 49;
+  in Middle Ages, 60-61
+
+Murillo, 220-228
+
+
+"Napoleon and the Pope at Fontainebleau" (Wilkie), 293
+
+Napoleon III., portrait by Horace Vernet, 247
+
+"Nativity" (Navarrete), 211
+
+"Nativity of the Saviour" (Correggio), 135
+
+"Nativity of the Virgin" (Murillo), 224
+
+Naturalists of the seventeenth century, 140, 150
+
+Navarrete, Juan Fernandez, 211
+
+"Navicella" (Giotto), 66
+
+"Nest of Cupids," 34
+
+Nicholas V., epitaph on Fra Angelico, 78
+
+Nikias, 17-18
+
+Nikomachos, 17
+
+"Nile Mosaic (The)," 36
+
+"Niobe," 36
+
+Noort, Adam van, instructor of Rubens, 162;
+  of Jordaens, 167
+
+"Notte" (Correggio), 135
+
+Nude paintings forbidden by Spanish Inquisition, 208
+
+Nuremburg school, 193
+
+
+"Old T�m�raire" (Turner), 287-288
+
+Ophem, Anna van, and Vandyck, 169
+
+Oppert, J., quoted, 9, 11
+
+Orcagna, Andrea, 70-71
+
+"Orestes and Pylades" (West), 265
+
+Oriental nations more advanced in architecture and sculpture
+  than in painting, 2
+
+Oriental origin of mosaics, 34
+
+Orsay, Count d', portrait of Landseer, 301
+
+Ostades, Van, 178
+
+Outline drawing the best part of Egyptian painting, 7
+
+
+Pacheco, Francisco, 208, 214, 216
+
+Palma, Jacopo, 121
+
+Panel-pictures, 23, 50-51, 60, 61
+
+Papyrus rolls, Egyptian illustrations in, 8
+
+"Paradise" (Tintoretto), 130
+
+Pareja, Juan de, 220
+
+Parmigianino, 139
+
+Parrhasius, 14-15
+
+"Parting of Hero and Leander" (Turner), 287
+
+Paul III., portrait by Titian, 126
+
+Pausias, 17
+
+Pavement mosaics, 35-36
+
+"Peep-o'-Day Boy's Cabin" (Wilkie), 293
+
+Pelham, Charles, portrait by Copley, 259
+
+Pembroke, Earl of. _See_ Wilton Family
+
+Perkins, A. T., quoted, 260
+
+Perkins, C. C., quoted, 70
+
+Perkins, Mrs. Edmund, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Perspective, unknown to Egyptians, 5;
+  and to Oriental nations, 13;
+  first used by Apollodorus, 14;
+  its use in Middle Ages, 58;
+  Turner's lectures on, 280-281
+
+Perugino, Pietro, 82, 84, 107
+
+Petrus, Christus, 158
+
+Philip I., and Berreguette, 209;
+  employs Coxie to copy Van Eyck's altar-piece, 156
+
+Philip II., and Titian, 127;
+  and Morales, 209;
+  and Coello, 210;
+  and Navarrete, 211
+
+Philip IV., and Carre�o, 212;
+  and Zurbaran, 215;
+  and Herrera, 215;
+  and Velasquez, 216-218;
+  and Cano, 231
+
+Philip of Burgundy, employs Jan van Eyck, 156
+
+Philip of Macedon, portraits by Apelles, 18
+
+"Phryne Going to the Public Baths as Venus" (Turner), 287
+
+"Piet�, La" (Michael Angelo), 99
+
+Pirkheimer, Willibald, and D�rer, 195
+
+"Plague at Jaffa" (Gros), 242
+
+Pliny, quoted, 14, 21-23
+
+"Pointers, To-ho!" (Landseer), 295
+
+Pollajuolo, Antonio, 79
+
+Ponte, Da, family, 132
+
+"Portrait of Dante" (Giotto), 64-66
+
+"Portrait of a Young Woman" (Rembrandt), 186
+
+"Ports of England" (Turner), 282
+
+Potter, Paul, 187
+
+Pourbus, Frans, 162
+
+Pourbus, Peter, 162
+
+Poussin, Nicholas, 175, 234-236
+
+"Presentation in the Temple" (Titian), 123
+
+"Presentation of Christ in the Temple" (Cammuccini), 154
+
+"Prodigal Son" (Teniers), 180
+
+Protogenes, 19-20
+
+"Provincial Antiquities of Scotland," illustrated by Turner, 282
+
+"Purisima, La" (Joanes), 229
+
+
+"Raising of Lazarus" (Piombo), 115
+
+"Rake's Progress" (Hogarth), 252
+
+Raphael, 107-118
+
+Razzi, or Bazzi, 118
+
+"Reading Magdalen" (Correggio), 135, 139
+
+Redgrave, quoted, 277
+
+"Regulus Leaving Rome to Return to Carthage" (Turner), 287
+
+"Rejected Christ" (West), 266
+
+Religious influence, upon Egyptian artists, 8-9;
+  in Romanesque period, 50;
+  in Gothic period, 56;
+  upon Spanish painters, 207
+
+Rembrandt, 181-186
+
+Renaissance, 41, 72
+
+"Rent Day" (Wilkie), 292
+
+"Repulse and Defeat of the Spanish Floating Batteries
+  at Gibraltar" (Copley), 262
+
+Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 251-258;
+  and Angelica Kauffman, 204;
+  portrait of, 250;
+  and Romney, 267
+
+Ribalta, Francisco de, 230
+
+Ribera, Giuseppe, 150-151
+
+Ribera, Josef de, 230
+
+Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 238, 239
+
+Rincon, Antonio del, 207
+
+Ritchie, Leitch, on Ruskin, 286-287
+
+"Rivers of England" (Turner), 282
+
+Robusti, Jacopo, 130
+
+Robusti, Marietta, 130-131
+
+Rogers's "Poems," illustrated by Turner, 286
+
+Roman painting, ancient. _See_ Italian
+
+Roman school, 107
+
+Romanesque period of Middle Ages, 42, 50-54
+
+Romano, Giulio, 116, 118
+
+Romney, George, 266-268
+
+Rosselli, Cosimo, 80
+
+Rossi, de, quoted, 204
+
+"Rotello del Fico" (Vinci), 86
+
+"Rotterdam Ferry-boat" (Turner), 284
+
+Rubens, 162-167;
+  and Vandyck, 168, 169;
+  as an alchemist, 175;
+  in England, 249
+
+Rubrics, 47
+
+Rupert, Prince, portraits by Vandyck, 174
+
+Ruskin, on Turner, 280-281, 282, 283-284, 288
+
+Ruysdael, Jacob, 187-188
+
+
+Sacchi, Andrea, instructor of Poussin, 234
+
+"Sacrifice of Iphigenia" (Timanthes), 15
+
+"St. Anthony Adoring the Virgin and Child" (Sirani), 149
+
+"St. Anthony of Padua" (Murillo), 224
+
+"St. Cecilia" (Raphael), 118
+
+"St. Clara of Assisi" (Murillo), 223
+
+"St. Diego of Alcal�" (Murillo), 223
+
+"St. Francis" (Murillo), 223
+
+"St. George Slaying the Dragon" (Raphael), 108, 110
+
+"St. Hermengild" (Herrera), 215
+
+"St. Margaret" (Titian), 212
+
+"St. Margaret Overcoming the Dragon" (Raphael), 114
+
+"St. Martin" (Vandyck), 170
+
+"St. Michael" (Guido Reni), 147
+
+"St. Michael Attacking Satan" (Raphael), 108
+
+"St. Peter Martyr" (Titian), 129
+
+St. Peter's, Michael Angelo the architect of, 103;
+  supervision of building by Raphael, 114
+
+"St. Sebastian" (Coello), 210
+
+"St. Sebastian" (Vinci), 90
+
+Salvator Rosa, 151-152
+
+Sarto, Andrea del, 104-107
+
+Savonarola, 94-97
+
+Saxony, school of, 202
+
+"Scene at Abbotsford" (Landseer), 295
+
+"Scene in the Lower World," 38
+
+"School of Anatomy" (Rembrandt), 182-184
+
+Scott, Walter, "Poems" and "Life of Napoleon" illustrated by Turner, 284;
+  portrait by Leslie, 295;
+  and Landseer, 295-296
+
+"Scourging of St. Andrew" (Domenichino), 141
+
+Sculpture, more advanced than painting among Oriental nations, 112;
+  Greek, developed from Egyptian and Assyrian, 13
+
+Sebastian del Piombo, 115, 120-121
+
+Segnier, Chancellor, and Le Brun, 238
+
+Seneca, head by Cespedes, 214
+
+Seville in time of Murillo, 221
+
+Seville Academy of Art, founded by Murillo, 225
+
+Seville school of painting, 208, 213
+
+Shakespeare's characters, painted by Romney, 268
+
+"Shepherd Boy in a Shower" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+"Shepherds Adoring the Infant Saviour" (Correggio), 135-137
+
+"Shrine of St. Ursula" (Memling), 160-161
+
+"Sibyl (The) and the Emperor" (Van der Weyden), 158-159
+
+Siddons, Mrs., portrait by Reynolds, 255
+
+Signorelli, Luca, 76, 80
+
+Sikyon school, 15-17
+
+Simone, Martini, 69-70
+
+Sirani, Elisabetta, 148-150
+
+"Sistine Madonna" (Raphael), 114
+
+"Slave Ship" (Turner), 288-289
+
+Smith, Sydney, and Landseer, 299
+
+Snyders, Frans, 167
+
+Solario, Andrea, 93
+
+Sosos, 34
+
+Spain, painting in, 207-233
+
+"Sposalizio, Lo" (Raphael), 107-108
+
+"Staffa Madonna" (Raphael), 108
+
+Steen, Jan, 178
+
+Still-life, Dutch excellence in painting, 177
+
+Stirling, quoted, 215, 218, 228
+
+Stone, paintings on, 36
+
+Strada, portrait by Marietta Robusti, 130
+
+Strafford, Earl of. _See_ Wentworth, Thomas
+
+Studius. _See_ Ludius
+
+Suckling, Sir John, portrait by Vandyck, 174
+
+Suger, Abbot, 53
+
+Sunder, Lucas, 202
+
+"Surrender of Arundel Castle" (Landseer), 293
+
+Swanenburg, J. J. van, instructor of Rembrandt, 181
+
+
+Tadius. _See_ Ludius
+
+Tafi, A., 64
+
+Tasso, portrait by Bassano, 132
+
+"Temporal Generation of Our Lord" (Vargas), 213
+
+Teniers, David, 178-180
+
+Terburg, Gerhard, 181
+
+Thackeray's (Miss) "Miss Angel" the story of Angelica Kauffman, 203
+
+Thornbury, quoted, 283
+
+Thornhill, Sir James, 252
+
+"Three Graces" (Palma), 121
+
+"Three Graces" (Raphael), 110
+
+Thurlow, Lord Chancellor, portrait by Romney, 267
+
+Tile-painting, Assyrian, 9-11;
+  Babylonian, 11-12
+
+Timanthes, 15
+
+Tintoretto, 130
+
+Titian, 121-130;
+  and Correggio, 135;
+  his "Last Supper," 211;
+  instructor of Navarrete, 211;
+  Carre�o's copy of his "St. Margaret," 212
+
+Tobar, Alonzo Miguel de, 213, 229
+
+Toledo, Coello painter to the Cathedral of, 213
+
+Torrigiano, Pi�tro, 98
+
+"Tragic Muse" (Reynolds), 255
+
+"Transfiguration" (Raphael), 115
+
+Transitional period, 61
+
+"Trattato della Pittura" (Vinci), 93
+
+"Triumphal Arch of Maximilian" (D�rer), 199
+
+Tulp, Professor, portrait by Rembrandt, 184
+
+Turner, Charles, 280
+
+Turner, J. M. W., 271-292
+
+"Turner's Annual Tour," 286
+
+
+Uccello, Paolo, 79
+
+"Ulysses Dividing Polyphemus" (Turner), 283
+
+"Ulysses in the Under-world" (Nikias), 17
+
+Umbrian school, 82
+
+Urban VIII. and Claude Lorraine, 236
+
+Utande, Gregorio, 212
+
+
+V�nius, Otto, instructor of Rubens, 162
+
+Velde, Adrian van de, 186
+
+Valencia school, 208, 229
+
+Vandyck, Anthony, 168-176;
+  in England, 249
+
+Vargas, Luis de, 213
+
+Varnish, improvements by the Van Eycks in the use of, 156
+
+Vasari, quoted, 75
+
+Vase-painting by the ancients, 36-40
+
+Vatican, decoration by Raphael of the halls of, 111
+
+Vega, Lope de, on Coello, 210;
+  on Navarrete, 211
+
+Velasquez, 215-220;
+  and Murillo, 222, 227
+
+"Venice from the Salute Church" (Turner), 287
+
+Venetian school, 80-82, 118
+
+"Venus" (Titian), 124
+
+"Venus Anadyomene" (Apelles), 19
+
+Vernet, Carle, 245
+
+Vernet, Claude Joseph, 240
+
+Vernet, Horace, 245-248
+
+Veronese, Paul, 131
+
+Verrocchio, Andrea, 79, 84
+
+Vescovi, Marco dei, portrait by Marietta Robusti, 130
+
+Victoria, Queen, and Landseer, 298-299
+
+Vien, Joseph Marie, 240
+
+"Vierge, La, au Panier" (Correggio), 137-139
+
+"View of Rome from the Aventine Hill" (Turner), 287
+
+"Village Festival" (Wilkie), 292
+
+"Village Politicians" (Wilkie), 292
+
+Vincent, instructor of Horace Vernet, 245
+
+Vinci, Leonardo da, 84-93, 99
+
+Virgin, pictures by Murillo of, 227;
+  by Joanes, 229
+
+"Virgen de la Sevillet�" (Murillo), 225
+
+"Vision of St. Jerome" (Parmigianino), 139
+
+Vitruvius, quoted, 20
+
+Volterra, Daniele de, 104
+
+"Von Tromp Returning from Battle" (Turner), 284
+
+
+Waagen, Dr., on Turner, 290
+
+Walls. _See_ Mural
+
+Washington, George, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Water, Egyptian painting of, 5
+
+"Water Carrier of Seville" (Velasquez), 216
+
+Watson, Elkanah, portrait by Copley, 262-263
+
+"Watson and the Shark" (Copley), 262
+
+Watteau, Antoine, 239
+
+"Way to Calvary" (Morales), 210
+
+Wellington, Duke of, portrait by Lawrence, 270
+
+Wells and Turner, 278
+
+Welsteed, Rev. William, portrait by Copley, 259
+
+Wentworth, Thomas, portrait by Vandyck, 174
+
+Wentworth, Lady, and Angelica Kauffman, 204
+
+West, Benjamin, 265-266;
+  and Copley, 261
+
+Weyden, Rogier van der, 158-159
+
+Weyden, Rogier van der, the younger, 159-160
+
+Wilkie, Sir David, 292-293
+
+Williams, quoted, 270
+
+Wilson, Richard, 254
+
+"Wilton Family, The" (Vandyck), 174
+
+Winckelmann and Angelica Kauffman, 204
+
+"Wind-Mills" (Hobbema), 188
+
+Window-painting. _See_ Glass
+
+Wohlgemuth, Michael, instructor of D�rer, 194
+
+"Woodman and Dog in a Storm" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+Wornum, on Turner, 290
+
+Wouverman, Philip, 187
+
+"Wreck of the Medusa" (G�ricault), 244
+
+Wynants, Jan, 187
+
+
+Zeuxis, 14-15
+
+Zuccaro, on Cespedes, 214
+
+Zuccato, Sebastian, instructor of Titian, 123
+
+Zurbaran, Francisco, 215
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART FOR BEGINNERS AND
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+Students: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, by Clara Erskine
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+<h1 class="center">The Project Gutenberg eBook, A History of Art for Beginners and
+Students: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture: Painting, by Clara Erskine
+Clement</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: A History of Art for Beginners and Students: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture</p>
+<p>       Painting</p>
+<p>Author: Clara Erskine Clement</p>
+<p>Release Date: March 1, 2008  [eBook #24726]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART FOR BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Anne Storer,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="box">
+
+<h3>A</h3>
+
+<h6>HISTORY OF ART</h6>
+
+<p class="center">FOR</p>
+
+<h2>BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2>PAINTING&mdash;SCULPTURE&mdash;ARCHITECTURE</h2>
+
+<p class="center">WITH</p>
+
+<h3><em>COMPLETE INDEXES AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS</em></h3>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">BY</p>
+
+<h3>CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT</h3>
+
+<p class="sml">AUTHOR OF &ldquo;HANDBOOK OF LEGENDARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL ART,&rdquo;<br />
+&ldquo;PAINTERS, SCULPTORS, ENGRAVERS, ARCHITECTS AND THEIR WORKS,&rdquo;<br />
+&ldquo;ARTISTS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY,&rdquo; ETC.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 163px;">
+<img src="images/imgtp.jpg" width="163" height="111" alt="title page" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">NEW YORK<br />
+<span class="lge">FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY</span><br />
+MDCCCXCI</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1887,</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">By</span> FREDERICK A. STOKES,<br />
+<span class="smcap">Successor to White, Stokes, &amp; Allen.</span>
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-rabbitdog.jpg" width="300" height="48" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>  <td align='center'><strong>CHAPTER I.</strong></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'></td>  <td align='right'><span class="smcap">page</span></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><span class="smcap">Ancient Painting, from the Earliest Times to the<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Christian Era</span></span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>1</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#EGYPT"><span class="smcap">Egypt</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>3</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#ASSYRIA"><span class="smcap">Assyria</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>9</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#BABYLON"><span class="smcap">Babylon</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>11</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#ANCIENT_GREECE"><span class="smcap">Ancient Greece and Italy</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>13</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#MOSAICS"><span class="smcap">Mosaics</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>34</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#STONE"><span class="smcap">Paintings on Stone</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>36</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#VASE"><span class="smcap">Vase-painting</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>36</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'><strong>CHAPTER II.</strong></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><span class="smcap">Medi&aelig;val Painting, from the Beginning of the<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Christian Era to the Renaissance</span></span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>41</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#EARLY"><span class="smcap">The Early Period</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>42</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#CENTRAL"><span class="smcap">The Central, or Romanesque Period</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>50</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#FINAL"><span class="smcap">The Final, or Gothic Period</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>54</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'><strong>CHAPTER III.</strong></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><span class="smcap">Painting in Italy, from the Beginning of the<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Renaissance to the Present Century</span></span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>72</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'><strong>CHAPTER IV.</strong></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><span class="smcap">Painting in Flanders, Holland, and Germany</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>155</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'><strong>CHAPTER V.</strong></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><span class="smcap">Painting in Spain</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>207</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'><strong>CHAPTER VI.</strong></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><span class="smcap">Painting in France</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>234</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'><strong>CHAPTER VII.</strong></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><span class="smcap">Painting in England</span>,</a></td>  <td align='right'>249</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#INDEX">INDEX,</a></td>  <td align='right'>305</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-flowers.jpg" width="400" height="93" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>  <td align='left'></td>  <td align='right'><span class="smcap">page</span></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#fig1">Harp-player (from an Egyptian painting),</a></td>  <td align='right'>3</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig2">King Ramesses II. and his Sons Storming a Fortress<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">(from Abousimbel),</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>5</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig3">Fragment of an Assyrian Tile-painting,</a></td>  <td align='right'>10</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig4">Sacrifice of Iphigenia (from a Pompeian wall-painting),</a></td>  <td align='right'>16</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig5">Etruscan Wall-painting,</a></td>  <td align='right'>22</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig6">Human Sacrifice Offered by Achilles to the Shade of Patroklos<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">(from an Etruscan wall-painting),</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>24</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig7">The Aldobrandini Marriage (from a wall-painting in the Vatican),</a></td>  <td align='right'>26</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig8">Landscape Illustration to the Odyssey<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">(from a wall-painting discovered on the Esquiline at Rome),</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>28</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig9">The Flight of &AElig;neas (from a wall-painting),</a></td>  <td align='right'>30</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig10">Demeter Enthroned (from a Pompeian wall-painting),</a></td>  <td align='right'>31</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig11">Pompeian Wall-painting,</a></td>  <td align='right'>32</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig12">Nest of Cupids (from a Pompeian wall-painting),</a></td>  <td align='right'>33</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig13">Doves Seated on a Bowl (from a mosaic picture<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in the Capitol, Rome),</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>35</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig14">Niobe (from a picture on a slab of granite at Pompeii),</a></td>  <td align='right'>37</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig15">The Dodwell Vase,</a></td>  <td align='right'>38</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig16">Scene in the Lower World (from a vase of the style of Lower Italy),</a></td>  <td align='right'>39</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig17">Moses (from a painting in the Catacomb of S. Agnes),</a></td>  <td align='right'>43</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig18">Decoration of a Roof (Catacomb of S. Domitilla),</a></td>  <td align='right'>44</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig19">Justinian, Theodora, and Attendants<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">(from a mosaic picture at S. Vitalis, Ravenna),</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>46</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig20">The Discovery of the Herb Mandragora<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">(from a MS. of Dioskorides, at Vienna),</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>48</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig21">King David (from a window in Augsburg Cathedral),</a></td>  <td align='right'>51</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig22">Window (from the Cathedral of St. Denis),</a></td>  <td align='right'>52</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig23">Figure of Henry I. in west window of Strasbourg Cathedral,</a></td>  <td align='right'>55</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig24">Birth of the Virgin (from the Grandes Heures of the Duc de Berri),</a></td>  <td align='right'>57</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig25">The Annunciation (from the Mariale of<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Archbishop Arnestus of Prague),</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>59</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig26">Painted Window at Konigsfelden,</a></td>  <td align='right'>60</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig27">Portrait of Cimabue,</a></td>  <td align='right'>61</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig28">The Madonna of the Church of Santa Maria Novella,</a></td>  <td align='right'>63</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig29">Portrait of Dante, painted by Giotto,</a></td>  <td align='right'>65</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig30">Giotto&#8217;s Campanile and the Duomo (Florence),</a></td>  <td align='right'>67</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig31">Fra Angelico (from the representation of him in the fresco of the<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">&ldquo;Last Judgment&rdquo; by Fra Bartolommeo),</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>74</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig32">An Angel (Fra Angelico),</a></td>  <td align='right'>77</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig33">Christ (Gio. Bellini),</a></td>  <td align='right'>81</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig34">Madonna (Perugino),</a></td>  <td align='right'>83</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig35">Leonardo da Vinci,</a></td>  <td align='right'>85</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig36">The Last Supper (Da Vinci),</a></td>  <td align='right'>88</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig37">Mona Lisa (Da Vinci),</a></td>  <td align='right'>91</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig38">Portrait of Michael Angelo,</a></td>  <td align='right'>95</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig39">The Prophet Jeremiah (Michael Angelo),</a></td>  <td align='right'>101</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig40">Statue of Moses (Michael Angelo),</a></td>  <td align='right'>102</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig41">The Madonna del Sacco (Sarto),</a></td>  <td align='right'>106</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig42">Portrait of Raphael, painted by himself,</a></td>  <td align='right'>109</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig43">The Sistine Madonna (Raphael),</a></td>  <td align='right'>113</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig44">St. Cecilia Listening to the Singing of Angels (Raphael),</a></td>  <td align='right'>117</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig45">Portrait of Titian (Caracci),</a></td>  <td align='right'>122</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig46">Portrait of Lavinia (Titian),</a></td>  <td align='right'>125</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig47">Portrait of Correggio,</a></td>  <td align='right'>133</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig48">Upper Part of a Fresco by Correggio,</a></td>  <td align='right'>136</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig49">Lower Part of a Fresco by Correggio,</a></td>  <td align='right'>138</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig50">Communion of St. Jerome (Domenichino),</a></td>  <td align='right'>142</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig51">Aurora (Guido Reni),</a></td>  <td align='right'>144</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig52">Beatrice Cenci (Guido Reni),</a></td>  <td align='right'>146</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig53">The Anchorites (Van Eyck),</a></td>  <td align='right'>157</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig54">The Sibyl and the Emperor Augustus (Van der Weyden),</a></td>  <td align='right'>159</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig55">Rubens and his Second Wife,</a></td>  <td align='right'>163</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig56">The Return from Egypt (Rubens),</a></td>  <td align='right'>166</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig57">Portrait of an Officer (Hals),</a></td>  <td align='right'>178</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig58">One of Rembrandt&#8217;s Portraits of Himself,</a></td>  <td align='right'>182</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig59">The Lecture on Anatomy (Rembrandt),</a></td>  <td align='right'>183</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig60">Burgomaster Meier Madonna (Holbein),</a></td>  <td align='right'>191</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig61">From Holbein&#8217;s Dance of Death,</a></td>  <td align='right'>193</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig62">A Scene from D&uuml;rer&#8217;s Wood Engravings of the<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Life of the Virgin Mary,</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>196</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig63">The Four Apostles (D&uuml;rer),</a></td>  <td align='right'>200</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig64">Laughing Peasant (Velasquez),</a></td>  <td align='right'>217</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig65">The Topers (Velasquez),</a></td>  <td align='right'>219</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig66">The Immaculate Conception (Murillo),</a></td>  <td align='right'>226</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig67">Arcadian Shepherds (Poussin),</a></td>  <td align='right'>235</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig68">The Sabine Women (David),</a></td>  <td align='right'>241</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig69">Death of the Duke of Guise (Delaroche),</a></td>  <td align='right'>243</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig70">Sir Joshua Reynolds,</a></td>  <td align='right'>250</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig71">The Marriage Contract (Hogarth),</a></td>  <td align='right'>253</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig72">Muscipula (Reynolds),</a></td>  <td align='right'>256</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig73">Portrait of Turner,</a></td>  <td align='right'>272</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig74">Nantes (Turner),</a></td>  <td align='right'>276</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig75">Illustration from Rogers&#8217;s Poems,</a></td>  <td align='right'>285</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig76">The Slave Ship (Turner),</a></td>  <td align='right'>289</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Fig77">The Eagle and Dead Stag (Landseer),</a></td>  <td align='right'>297</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-greenman.jpg" width="400" height="137" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 1]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>PAINTING.</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>ANCIENT PAINTING, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE CHRISTIAN ERA.</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>In speaking of art we often contrast the useful or mechanical arts with
+the Fine Arts; by these terms we denote the difference between the arts
+which are used in making such things as are necessary and useful in
+civilized life, and the arts by which ornamental and beautiful things are
+made.</p>
+
+<p>The fine arts are Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Poetry, and Music,
+and though we could live if none of these existed, yet life would be far
+from the pleasant experience that it is often made to be through the
+enjoyment of these arts.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of Painting, just here I wish to include the more general idea
+of pictures of various sorts, and it seems to me that while picture-making
+belongs to the fine or beautiful arts, it is now made a very useful art in
+many ways. For example, when a school-book is illustrated, how much more
+easily we understand the subject we are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>studying through the help we get
+from pictures of objects or places that we have not seen, and yet wish to
+know about. Pictures of natural scenery bring all countries before our
+eyes in such a way that by looking at them, while reading books of travel,
+we may know a great deal more about lands we have never seen, and may
+never be able to visit.</p>
+
+<p>Who does not love pictures? and what a pleasure it is to open a magazine
+or book filled with fine illustrations. St. Augustine, who wrote in the
+fourth century after Christ, said that &ldquo;pictures are the books of the
+simple or unlearned;&rdquo; this is just as true now as then, and we should
+regard pictures as one of the most agreeable means of education. Thus one
+of the uses of pictures is that they give us a clear idea of what we have
+not seen; a second use is that they excite our imaginations, and often
+help us to forget disagreeable circumstances and unpleasant surroundings.
+The cultivation of the imagination is very important, because in this way
+we can add much to our individual happiness. Through this power, if we are
+in a dark, narrow street, in a house which is not to our liking, or in the
+midst of any unpleasant happenings, we are able to fix our thoughts upon a
+photograph or picture that may be there, and by studying it we are able to
+imagine ourselves far, far away, in some spot where nature makes
+everything pleasant and soothes us into forgetfulness of all that can
+disturb our happiness. Many an invalid&mdash;many an unfortunate one is thus
+made content by pictures during hours that would otherwise be wretched.
+This is the result of cultivating the perceptive and imaginative
+faculties, and when once this is done, we have a source of pleasure within
+ourselves and not dependent on others which can never be taken from us.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;">
+<a href="images/img01.png">
+<img src="images/img01_th.png" width="402" height="450" alt="Fig 1" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.&mdash;Harp-player.</span> <em>From an Egyptian painting.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It often happens that we see two persons who do the same work and are
+situated in the same way in the world who are very different in their
+manner; one is light-hearted <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>and happy, the other heavy and sad. If you
+can find out the truth, it will result that the sad one is matter-of-fact,
+and has no imagination&mdash;he can only think of his work and what concerns
+him personally; but the merry one would surprise you if you could read his
+thoughts&mdash;if you could know the distances they have passed over, and what
+a vast difference there is between his thought and his work. So while it
+is natural for almost every one to exclaim joyfully at the beauty of
+pictures, and to enjoy looking at them simply, I wish my readers to think
+of their uses also, and understand the benefits that may be derived from
+them. I have only hinted at a few of these uses, but many others will
+occur to you.</p>
+
+<p>When pictures are composed of beautiful colors, such as we usually think
+of when we speak of the art of painting, the greatest charm of pictures is
+reached, and all civilized people have admired and encouraged this art. It
+is true that the remains of ancient art now existing are principally those
+of architecture or sculpture, yet there are a sufficient number of
+pictures in color to prove how old the art of painting is.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong><a name="EGYPT" id="EGYPT"></a>EGYPT.</strong></p>
+
+<p>Egyptian painting is principally found on the walls of temples and tombs,
+upon columns and cornices, and on small articles found in burial places.
+There is no doubt that it was used as a decoration; but it was also
+intended to be useful, and was so employed as to tell the history of the
+country;&mdash;its wars, with their conquests and triumphs, and the lives of
+the kings, and many other stories, are just as distinctly told by pictures
+as by the hieroglyphics or Egyptian writings. We can scarcely say that
+Egyptian painting is beautiful; but it certainly is very interesting.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig2" id="Fig2"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img02.jpg">
+<img src="images/img02_th.jpg" width="500" height="240" alt="Fig 2" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.&mdash;King Ramesses II. and his Sons Storming a
+Fortress.</span><br /> <em>From Abousimbel.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Egyptians had three kinds of painting: one on flat surfaces, a second
+on bas-reliefs, or designs a little raised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> and then colored, and a third
+on designs in <em>intaglio</em>, or hollowed out from the flat surface and the
+colors applied to the figures thus cut out. They had no knowledge of what
+we call perspective, that is, the art of representing a variety of objects
+on one flat surface, and making them appear to be at different distances
+from us&mdash;and you will see from the illustrations given here that their
+drawing and their manner of expressing the meaning of what they painted
+were very crude. As far as the pictorial effect is concerned, there is
+very little difference between the three modes of Egyptian painting; their
+general appearance is very nearly the same.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian artist sacrificed everything to the one consideration of
+telling his story clearly; the way in which he did this was sometimes very
+amusing, such as the making one man twice as tall as another in order to
+signify that he was of high position, such as a king or an officer of high
+rank. When figures are represented as following each other, those that are
+behind are frequently taller than those in front, and sometimes those that
+are farthest back are ranged in rows, with the feet of one row entirely
+above the heads of the others. This illustration of the storming of a fort
+by a king and his sons will show you what I mean. The sons are intended to
+be represented as following the father, and are in a row, one above the
+other (<a href="#Fig2">Fig. 2</a>).</p>
+
+<p>For the representation of water, a strip of blue filled in with
+perpendicular zigzag black lines was used. From these few facts you can
+understand how unformed and awkward Egyptian pictures seem if we compare
+them with the existing idea of what is beautiful. There appear to have
+been certain fixed rules for the use of colors, and certain objects were
+always painted in the colors prescribed for them. The background of a
+picture was always of a single, solid color; Egyptian men were painted in
+a reddish brown, and horses were of the same shade; women were generally
+yellow, sometimes a lighter brown than the men; negroes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> were black, the
+Asiatic races yellow, and but one instance is known of a white skin, blue
+eyes, and yellow hair. The draperies about the figures were painted in
+pleasing colors, and were sometimes transparent, so that the figures could
+be seen through them.</p>
+
+<p>The execution of Egyptian paintings was very mechanical. One set of
+workmen prepared the plaster on the wall for the reception of the colors;
+another set drew all the outlines in red; then, if chiselling was to be
+done, another class performed this labor; and, finally, still others put
+on the colors. Of course nothing could be more matter-of-fact than such
+painting as this, and under such rules an artist of the most lofty genius
+and imagination would find it impossible to express his conceptions in his
+work. We know all this because some of these pictures exist in an
+unfinished condition, and are left in the various stages of execution;
+then, too, there are other pictures of the painters at their work, and all
+these different processes are shown in them. The outline drawing is the
+best part of Egyptian painting, and this is frequently very cleverly done.</p>
+
+<p>As I have intimated, the greatest value of Egyptian painting is that it
+gives us a clear record of the habits and customs of a very ancient
+people&mdash;of a civilization which has long since passed away, and of which
+we should have a comparatively vague and unsatisfactory notion but for
+this picture-history of it. The religion, the political history, and the
+domestic life of the ancient Egyptians are all placed before us in these
+paintings. Through a study of them we know just how they hunted and
+fished, gathered their fruits, tilled the soil, and cooked the food,
+played games, danced, and practised gymnastics, conducted their scenes of
+festivity and mourning&mdash;in short, how they lived under all circumstances.
+Thus you see that Egyptian painting is a very important example of the way
+in which pictures can teach us; you will also notice that it is not even
+necessary that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> they should be pretty in order that we may learn from
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Another use made of Egyptian painting was the illustration of the papyrus
+rolls upon which historical and other documents were written. These rolls,
+found in the tombs, are now placed in museums and collections of curious
+things; the paintings upon them may be called the oldest book
+illustrations in the world. Sometimes a single color is used, such as red
+or black; but others are in a variety of colors which have been put on
+with a brush. Indeed, some rolls exist which have pictures only, and are
+entirely without hieroglyphics or writing characters; one such is more
+than twenty yards long, and contains nothing but pictures of funeral
+ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Egyptians were so serious a people that it is a pleasant
+surprise to find that some of these pictures are intended for jokes and
+satires, somewhat like those of the comic papers of to-day; for example,
+there is one in the British Museum, London, representing cats and rats
+fighting, which is intended to ridicule the soldiers and heroes of the
+Egyptian army.</p>
+
+<p>One cannot study Egyptian painting without feeling sorry for the painters;
+for in all the enormous amount of work done by them no one man was
+recognized&mdash;no one is now remembered. We know some of the names of great
+Egyptian architects which are written in the historical rolls; but no
+painter&#8217;s name has been thus preserved. The fact that no greater progress
+was made is a proof of the discouraging influences that must have been
+around these artists, for it is not possible that none of them had
+imagination or originality: there must have been some whose souls were
+filled with poetic visions, for some of the Egyptian writings show that
+poetry existed in ancient Egypt. But of what use could imagination be to
+artists who were governed by the laws of a narrow priesthood, and hedged
+about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+by a superstitious religion which even laid down rules for art?</p>
+
+<p>For these reasons we know something of Egyptian art and nothing of
+Egyptian artists, and from all these influences it follows that Egyptian
+painting is little more than an illuminated alphabet or a child&#8217;s
+picture-history. In the hieroglyphics, or writing characters of Egypt, it
+often occurs that small pictures of certain animals or other objects stand
+for whole words, and it appears that this idea was carried into Egyptian
+painting, which by this means became simply a picture chronicle, and never
+reached a point where it could be called truly artistic or a high art.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong><a name="ASSYRIA" id="ASSYRIA"></a>ASSYRIA.</strong></p>
+
+<p>The remains of Assyrian painting are so few that they scarcely serve any
+other purpose than to prove that the Assyrians were accustomed to decorate
+their walls with pictures. Sometimes the walls were prepared with plaster,
+and the designs were painted on that; in other cases the painting was done
+upon the brick itself. The paintings on plaster were usually on the inner
+walls, and many of these which have been discovered during the excavations
+have disappeared when exposed to the air after their long burial from the
+sight and knowledge of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of these pictures, the writer on art, J. Oppert, says that some
+paintings were found in the Palace of Sargon; they represented gods,
+lions, rosettes, and various other designs; but when he reached Nineveh,
+one year after these discoveries, the pictures had all disappeared&mdash;the
+colors which had been buried twenty-five hundred years lasted but a few
+days after they were uncovered.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig3" id="Fig3"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img03.jpg">
+<img src="images/img03_th.jpg" width="400" height="365" alt="Fig 3" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.&mdash;Fragment of an Assyrian Tile-painting.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Assyrian tile-painting was more durable than the wall-painting; but in
+all the excavations that have been made these have been found only in
+fragments, and from these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> fragments no complete picture has been put
+together. The largest one was found at Nimrud, and our illustration is
+taken from it. It represents a king, as we know by the tiara he wears, and
+two servants who follow him. The pictures to which the existing fragments
+belong could not have been large: the figures in our picture are but nine
+inches high. A few pieces have been found which must have belonged to
+larger pictures, and there is one which shows a part of a face belonging
+to a figure at least three feet high; but this is very unusual.</p>
+
+<p>The Assyrian paintings have a broad outline which is of a lighter color
+than the rest of the picture; it is generally white or yellow. There are
+very few colors used in them. This does not accord with our notions of the
+dresses and stuffs of the Assyrians, for we suppose that they were rich
+and varied in color&mdash;probably they had so few pigments that they could not
+represent in their paintings all the colors they knew.</p>
+
+<p>No one can give a very satisfactory account of Assyrian painting; but,
+judging from the little of it which remains, and from the immense number
+of Assyrian sculptures which exist, we may conclude that the chief aim of
+Assyrian artists was to represent each object they saw with absolute
+realism. The Dutch painters were remarkable for this trait and for the
+patient attention which they gave to the details of their work, and for
+this reason Oppert has called the Assyrians the Dutchmen of antiquity.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong><a name="BABYLON" id="BABYLON"></a>BABYLON.</strong></p>
+
+<p>In Babylon, in the sixth century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, under the reign of Nebuchadnezzar,
+the art of tile-painting reached a high state of perfection. The
+Babylonians had no such splendid alabaster as had the Assyrians, neither
+had they lime-stone; so they could not make fine sculptured slabs, such as
+are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> found at Nineveh and in other Assyrian ruins. But the Babylonians had
+a fine clay, and they learned how to use it to the best advantage. The
+city of Babylon shone with richly colored tiles, and one traveller writes:
+&ldquo;By the side of Assyria, her colder and severer sister of the North,
+Babylon showed herself a true child of the South,&mdash;rich, glowing, careless
+of the rules of taste, only desiring to awaken admiration by the dazzling
+brilliance of her appearance.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Babylonish tiles are in regular, set patterns in rich tints;
+some are simply in solid colors. These last are found in the famous
+terrace-temple of Borsipp&ecirc;, near Babylon. We know from ancient writings
+that there were decorative paintings in Babylon which represented hunting
+scenes and like subjects, and, according to the prophet Ezekiel, chap.
+xxiii., verse 14, there were &ldquo;men portrayed upon the wall, the images of
+the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their
+loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all of them princes to
+look to, after the manner of the Babylonians of Chaldea, the land of their
+nativity.&rdquo; Some writers assume that this must have been a description of
+tapestries; but most authorities believe them to have been glazed
+tile-paintings.</p>
+
+<p>A whole cargo of fragments of Babylonish tile-paintings was once collected
+for the gallery of the Louvre at Paris, and, when on board a ship and
+ready to be sent away, by some accident the whole was sunk. From the
+descriptions of them which were written, we find that there were portions
+of pictures of human faces and other parts of the body, of animals,
+mountains, and forests, of water, walls, and trees.</p>
+
+<p>Judging from what still remains, the art of painting was far less
+important and much less advanced among the Eastern or Oriental nations
+than were those of architecture and sculpture. It is very strange that
+these peoples, who seem to have observed nature closely, and to have
+mastered the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+mathematical sciences, made no steps toward the discovery of
+the laws of perspective; neither did they know how to give any expression
+of thought or feeling to the human face. In truth, their pictures were
+a mere repetition of set figures, and were only valuable as pieces of
+colored decorations for walls, adding a pleasing richness and variety by
+their different tints, but almost worthless as works of art.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong><a name="ANCIENT_GREECE" id="ANCIENT_GREECE"></a>ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY.</strong></p>
+
+<p>The painting of Greece and that of ancient Italy are so much the same that
+it is almost impossible to speak of them separately; the art of painting
+was carried from Greece to Italy by the Etruscans, and the art of ancient
+Rome was simply that of Greece transplanted. If Greek artists were
+employed by Romans, certainly their works were Greek; and if Romans
+painted they aimed to imitate the Greeks exactly, so that Italian painting
+before the time of the Christian era must be considered together with that
+of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>In architecture and sculpture the ancient Greeks accepted what had been
+done by the Egyptians and Assyrians as a foundation, and went on to
+perfect the work of the older nations through the aid of poetic and
+artistic imaginations. But in painting the Greeks followed nothing that
+had preceded them. They were the first to make pictures which were a
+life-like reproduction of what they saw about them: they were the first to
+separate painting from sculpture, and to give it such importance as would
+permit it to have its own place, quite free from the influence of any
+other art, and in its own way as grand and as beautiful as its sister
+arts.</p>
+
+<p>There are writers who trace the origin and progress of Greek painting from
+the very earliest times; but I shall begin with Apollodorus, who is spoken
+of as the first Greek
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+painter worthy of fame, because he was the first
+one who knew how to make his pictures appear to be real, and to follow the
+rules of perspective so as to have a background from which his figures
+stood out, and to shade his colors and soften his outlines. He was very
+famous, and was called <em>skiagraphos</em>, which means shadow painter.</p>
+
+<p>Apollodorus was an Athenian, and lived at about the close of the fifth
+century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> Although he was a remarkable artist then, we must not fancy
+that his pictures would have satisfied our idea of the beautiful&mdash;in fact,
+Pliny, the historian, who saw his pictures six hundred years later, at
+Pergamos, says that Apollodorus was but the gatekeeper who threw open the
+gates of painting to the famous artists who lived after him.</p>
+
+<p>Zeuxis was a pupil of Apollodorus, and a great artist also. He was born at
+Heraclea, probably in Lower Italy. When young he led a wandering life; he
+studied at Athens under Apollodorus, and settled in Ephesus. He was in the
+habit of putting his pictures on exhibition, and charging an admittance
+fee, just as artists do now: he called himself &ldquo;the unsurpassable,&rdquo; and
+said and did many vain and foolish things. Near the end of his life he
+considered his pictures as beyond any price, and so gave them away. Upon
+one of his works he wrote, &ldquo;Easier to carp at than to copy.&rdquo; It is said
+that he actually laughed himself to death from amusement at one of his own
+pictures, which represented an old woman.</p>
+
+<p>Zeuxis had a rival in the painter Parrhasius, and their names are often
+associated. On one occasion they made trial of their artistic skill.
+Zeuxis painted a bunch of grapes so naturally that the birds came to peck
+at them. Then Parrhasius painted a hanging curtain, and when his picture
+was exposed to the public Zeuxis asked him to draw aside his curtain,
+fully believing it to be of cloth and concealing a picture behind it. Thus
+it was judged that Parrhasius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> was the best artist, for he had deceived
+Zeuxis, while the latter had only deceived the birds.</p>
+
+<p>From these stories it appears that these artists tried to imitate objects
+with great exactness. Parrhasius, too, was a vain man, and went about in
+a purple robe with a gold wreath about his head and gold clasps on his
+sandals; he painted his own portrait, and called it the god Hermes, or
+Mercury; he wrote praises of himself in which he called himself by many
+high-sounding names, for all of which he was much ridiculed by others.</p>
+
+<p>However, both these artists were surpassed by Timanthes, according to the
+ancient writers, who relate that he engaged in a trial of skill with
+Parrhasius, and came off the victor in it. The fame of his picture of the
+&ldquo;Sacrifice of Iphigenia&rdquo; was very great, and its one excellence seems to
+have been in the varied expression of its faces. The descriptions of this
+great work lead to the belief that this Pompeian wall-painting, from which
+we give a cut, closely resembles that of Timanthes, which no longer
+exists.</p>
+
+<p>The story of Iphigenia says that when her father, King Agamemnon, killed
+a hart which was sacred to Diana, or Artemis, that goddess becalmed his
+fleet so that he could not sail to Troy. Then the seer, Calchas, advised
+the king to sacrifice his daughter in order to appease the wrath of Diana.
+Agamemnon consented; but it is said that the goddess was so sorry for the
+maiden that she bore her away to Tauris, and made her a priestess, and
+left a hart to be sacrificed instead of Iphigenia. In our cut you see
+Calchas on the right; two men are bearing the maiden to her doom, while
+her father stands on the left with his head veiled from sight (<a href="#Fig4">Fig. 4</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig4" id="Fig4"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 373px;">
+<a href="images/img04.png">
+<img src="images/img04_th.png" width="373" height="400" alt="Fig 4" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.&mdash;Sacrifice of Iphigenia.</span><br />
+<em>From a Pompeian wall-painting.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Timanthes belonged to the Ionian school of
+painting, which flourished during the Peloponnesian war. This school was
+excelled by that of Sikyon, which reached its highest prosperity between
+the end of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> Peloponnesian war and the death of Alexander the Great.
+The chief reason why this Dorian school at Sikyon was so fine was that
+here, for the first time, the pupils followed a regular course of study,
+and were trained in drawing and mathematics, and taught to observe nature
+with the strictest attention. The most famous master of this school was
+Pausias; some of his works were carried to Rome, where they were much
+admired. His picture of the garland-weaver, Glykera, gained him a great
+name, and by it he earned the earliest reputation as a flower-painter that
+is known in the history of art.</p>
+
+<p>Nikomachos, who lived at Thebes about 360 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, was famous for
+the rapidity with which he painted pictures that were excellent in their
+completeness and beauty. Aristides, the son or brother of Nikomachos, was
+so good an artist that Attalus, king of Pergamos, offered more than twenty
+thousand pounds, or about one hundred thousand dollars, for his picture of
+Dionysus, or Bacchus. This wonderful picture was carried to Rome, and
+preserved in the temple of Ceres; but it no longer exists. Euphranor was
+another great painter, and was distinguished for his power to give great
+expression to the faces and a manly force to the figures which he painted.</p>
+
+<p>Nikias, the Athenian, is said to have been so devoted to his art that he
+could think of nothing else: he would ask his servants if he had bathed or
+eaten, not being able to remember for himself. He was very rich, and when
+King Ptolemy of Egypt offered him more than sixty thousand dollars for his
+picture of Ulysses in the under-world, he refused this great sum, and gave
+the painting to his native city. Nikias seems to have greatly exalted and
+respected his art, for he contended that painters should not fritter away
+time and talent on insignificant subjects, but ought rather to choose some
+grand event, such as a battle or a sea-fight. His figures of women and his
+pictures of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>animals, especially those of dogs, were much praised. Some of
+his paintings were encaustic, that is to say, the colors were burned in;
+thus they must have been made on plaster or pottery of some sort. Nikias
+outlived Alexander the Great, and saw the beginning of the school of
+painters to which the great Apelles belonged&mdash;that which is called the
+Hellenic school, in which Greek art reached its highest point.</p>
+
+<p>Apelles was the greatest of all Greek painters. He was born at Kolophon;
+but as he made his first studies at Ephesus he has been called an
+Ephesian: later he studied in the school of Sikyon, but even when a pupil
+there he was said to be the equal of all his instructors. Philip of
+Macedon heard of his fame, and persuaded Apelles to remove to his capital
+city, which was called Pella. While there Apelles became the friend of the
+young Alexander, and when the latter came to the throne he made Apelles
+his court-painter, and is said to have issued an edict forbidding all
+other artists from painting his portrait. Later on Apelles removed to
+Ephesus.</p>
+
+<p>During the early part of his artistic life Apelles did little else than
+paint such pictures as exalted the fame of Philip, and afterward that of
+Alexander. He painted many portraits of both these great men; for one of
+Alexander he received nearly twenty-five thousand dollars; in it the
+monarch was represented as grasping the thunderbolt, as Jupiter might have
+done, and the hand appeared to be stretched out from the picture. This
+portrait was in the splendid temple of Diana, or Artemis, at Ephesus.
+Alexander was accustomed to say of it, &ldquo;There are two Alexanders, one
+invincible, the living son of Philip&mdash;the other immutable, the picture of
+Apelles.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Later in his life Apelles painted many pictures of mythological subjects.
+He visited Alexandria, in Egypt; he did not win the favor of King Ptolemy,
+and his enemies in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> the Egyptian court played cruel practical jokes upon
+him. On one occasion he received an invitation to a feast at which the
+king had not desired his presence. The monarch was angry; but Apelles told
+him the truth, and appeased his wrath by sketching on the wall the exact
+likeness of the servant who had carried the invitation to him. However,
+Ptolemy remained unfavorable to him, and Apelles painted a great picture,
+called Calumny, in which he represented those who had been his enemies,
+and thus held them up to the scorn of the world. Apelles visited Rhodes
+and Athens, but is thought to have died in the island of Kos, where he had
+painted two very beautiful pictures of the goddess Venus. One of these is
+called the Venus Anadyomene, or Venus rising from the sea. The emperor
+Augustus carried this picture to Rome, and placed so high a value on it
+that he lessened the tribute-money of the people of Kos a hundred talents
+on account of it. This sum was about equal to one hundred thousand dollars
+of our money.</p>
+
+<p>The art of Apelles was full of grace and sweetness, and the finish of his
+pictures was exquisite. The saying, &ldquo;leave off in time,&rdquo; originated in his
+criticism of Protogenes, of whom he said that he was his superior except
+that he did not know when to leave off, and by too much finishing lessened
+the effect of his work. Apelles was modest and generous: he was the first
+to praise Protogenes, and conferred a great benefit upon the latter by
+buying up his pictures, and giving out word that he was going to sell them
+as his own. Apelles was never afraid to correct those who were ignorant,
+and was equally ready to learn from any one who could teach him anything.
+It is said that on one occasion, when Alexander was in his studio, and
+talked of art, Apelles advised him to be silent lest his color-grinder
+should laugh at him. Again, when he had painted a picture, and exposed it
+to public view, a cobbler pointed out a defect in the shoe-latchet;
+Apelles changed it, but when the man<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> next proceeded to criticise the leg
+of the figure, Apelles replied, &ldquo;Cobbler, stick to your last.&rdquo; These
+sayings have descended to our own day, and have become classical. All
+these anecdotes from so remote a time are in a sense doubtful; but they
+are very interesting&mdash;young people ought to be familiar with them, but it
+is also right to say that they are not known to be positively true.</p>
+
+<p>Protogenes of Rhodes, to whom Apelles was so friendly, came to be thought
+a great painter. It is said that when Demetrius made war against Rhodes
+the artist did not trouble himself to leave his house, which was in the
+very midst of the enemy&#8217;s camp. When questioned as to his fearlessness he
+replied, &ldquo;Demetrius makes war against the Rhodians, and not against the
+Arts.&rdquo; It is also said that after hearing of this reply Demetrius
+refrained from burning the town, in order to preserve the pictures of
+Protogenes.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient writers mention many other Greek painters, but none as
+important as those of whom we have spoken. Greek painting never reached a
+higher point than it had gained at the beginning of the Hellenistic age.
+Every kind of painting except landscape-painting had been practised by
+Greek artists; but that received no attention until figure-painting had
+declined. Vitruvius mentions that the ancients had some very important
+wall-paintings consisting of simple landscapes, and that others had
+landscape backgrounds with figures illustrating scenes from the poems of
+Homer. But we have no reason to believe that Greek landscape-painting was
+ever more than scenic or decorative work, and thus fell far short of what
+is now the standard for such painting.</p>
+
+<p>The painting of the early Romans was principally derived from or through
+the early Etruscans, and the Etruscans are believed to have first learned
+their art from Greek artists, who introduced plastic art into Italy as
+early as <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 655, when Demaratus was expelled from Corinth&mdash;and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> later,
+Etruscan art was influenced by the Greek colonies of Magna Gr&aelig;cia. So it
+is fair to say that Etruscan art and early Roman art were essentially
+Greek art. The earliest artists who are known to have painted in Rome had
+Greek names, such as Ekphantos, Damophilos, and Gargasos. Later on in
+history there are painters mentioned with Latin names, but there is little
+of interest related concerning them; in truth, Ludius (who is also called
+by various authors Tadius and Studius) is the only really interesting
+ancient Roman painter of whom we know. He lived in the time of Augustus,
+and Pliny said of him: &ldquo;Ludius, too, who lived in the age of the divine
+Augustus, must not be cheated of his fame. He was the first to bring in a
+singularly delightful fashion of wall-painting&mdash;villas, colonnades,
+examples of landscape-gardening, woods and sacred groves, reservoirs,
+straits, rivers, coasts, all according to the heart&#8217;s desire&mdash;and amidst
+them passengers of all kinds on foot, in boats, driving in carriages, or
+riding on asses to visit their country properties; furthermore fishermen,
+bird-catchers, hunters, vintagers; or, again, he exhibits stately villas,
+to which the approach is through a swamp, with men staggering under the
+weight of the frightened women whom they have bargained to carry on their
+shoulders; and many another excellent and entertaining device of the same
+kind. The same artist also set the fashion of painting views&mdash;and that
+wonderfully cheap&mdash;of seaside towns in broad daylight.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We cannot think that Ludius was the first painter, though he may have been
+the first Roman painter, who made this sort of pictures, and he probably
+is the only one of whose work any part remains. Brunn and other good
+authorities believe that the wall-painting of Prima Porta, in Rome, was
+executed by Ludius. It represents a garden, and covers the four walls of a
+room. It is of the decorative order of painting, as Pliny well understood,
+for he speaks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> of the difference between the work of Ludius and that of
+the true artists who painted panel pictures and not wall-paintings. After
+the time of Ludius we can give no trustworthy account of any fine, Roman
+painter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig5" id="Fig5"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img05.png">
+<img src="images/img05_th.png" width="500" height="350" alt="Fig 5" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.&mdash;Etruscan Wall-painting.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The works of the ancient painters which still remain in various countries
+are wall-paintings, paintings on vases, mosaics, paintings on stone, and
+certain so-called miniatures; and besides these principal works there are
+many small articles, such as mirrors, toilet-cases, and other useful
+objects, which are decorated in colors.</p>
+
+<p>We will first speak of the mural, or wall-paintings, as they are the most
+important and interesting remains of ancient painting. We shall only
+consider such as have been found in Italy, as those of other countries are
+few and unimportant.</p>
+
+<p>The Etruscan tombs which have been opened contain many beautiful objects
+of various kinds, and were frequently decorated with mural pictures. They
+often consist of several rooms, and have the appearance of being prepared
+as a home for the living rather than for the dead. I shall give you no
+long or wordy description of them; because if what I tell you leads you to
+wish to know more about them, there are many excellent books describing
+them which you can read. So I will simply give you two cuts from these
+Etruscan paintings, and tell you about them.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig5">Fig. 5</a> is in a tomb known as the <em>Grotta della Querciola</em>. The upper part
+represents a feast, and the lower portion a boar-hunt in a wood, which is
+indicated by the few trees and the little twigs which are intended to
+represent the underbrush of the forest. If we compare these pictures with
+the works of the best Italian masters, they seem very crude and almost
+childish in their simplicity; but, if we contrast them with the paintings
+of the Egyptians and Assyrians, we see that a great advance has been made
+since the earliest paintings of which we know were done.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> The pose and
+action of the figures and their grace of movement, as well as the folding
+of the draperies, are far better than anything earlier than the Greek
+painting of which there is any knowledge; for, as we have said, these
+Etruscan works are essentially Greek.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig6" id="Fig6"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img06.png">
+<img src="images/img06_th.png" width="500" height="260" alt="Fig 6" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.&mdash;Human Sacrifice Offered by Achilles to the Shade
+of Patroklos.</span> <em>From an Etruscan wall-painting.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig6">Fig. 6</a> belongs to a later period than the other, and is taken from a tomb
+at Vulci which was opened in 1857 by Fran&ccedil;ois. This tomb has seven
+different chambers, several of which are decorated with wall-paintings of
+mythological subjects. A square chamber at the end of the tomb has the
+most important pictures. On one side the human sacrifices which were
+customary at Etruscan funerals are represented: the pictures are very
+painful, and the terror and agony of the poor victims who are being put to
+death make them really repulsive to see. On an opposite wall is the
+painting from which our cut is taken. This represents the sacrifices made
+before Troy by Achilles, on account of the death of his dear friend
+Patroklos. The figure with the hammer is Charon, who stands ready to
+receive the sacrifice which is intended to win his favor. Your mythology
+will tell you the story, which is too long to be given here. The realism
+of this picture is shocking in its effect, and yet there is something
+about the manner of the drawing and the arrangement of the whole design
+that fixes our attention even while it makes us shudder.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient wall-paintings which have been found in Rome are far more
+varied than are those of Etruria; for, while some of the Roman pictures
+are found in tombs, others are taken from baths, palaces, and villas. They
+generally belong to one period, and that is about the close of the
+Republic and the beginning of the Empire. Modern excavations have revealed
+many of these ancient paintings; but so many of them crumble and fade away
+so soon after they are exposed to the air, that few remain in a condition
+to afford any satisfaction in seeing them. But fortunately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> drawings have
+been made of nearly all these pictures before they fell into decay.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig7" id="Fig7"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img07.jpg">
+<img src="images/img07_th.jpg" width="500" height="233" alt="Fig 7" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.&mdash;The Aldobrandini Marriage.</span><br /> <em>From a wall-painting
+in the Vatican.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some of the ancient paintings have been carefully removed from the walls
+where they were found, and placed in museums and other collections. One of
+the finest of these is in the Vatican, and is called the Aldobrandini
+Marriage. It received this name from the fact that Cardinal Aldobrandini
+was its first possessor after its discovery, near the Arch of Gallienus,
+in 1606.</p>
+
+<p>As you will see from <a href="#Fig7">Fig. 7</a>, from it, there are three distinct groups
+represented. In the centre the bride veiled, with her head modestly bowed
+down, is seated on a couch with a woman beside her who seems to be
+arranging some part of her toilet, while another stands near holding
+ointment and a bowl. At the head of the couch the bridegroom is seated on
+a threshold. The upper part of his figure is bare, and he has a garland
+upon his head. On the right of the picture an ante-room is represented in
+which are three women with musical instruments, singing sacrificial songs.
+To the left, in another apartment, three other women are preparing a bath.
+This is charming on account of the sweet, serious way in which the whole
+story is placed before us; but as a painting it is an inferior work of
+art&mdash;not in the least above the style which we should call house
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Although ancient writers had spoken of landscape paintings, it was not
+until 1848-1850, when a series of them was discovered on the Esquiline in
+Rome, that any very satisfactory specimens could be shown. These pictures
+number eight: six are complete, of the seventh but half remains, and the
+eighth is in a very imperfect state. They may be called historical
+landscapes, because each one has a complete landscape as well as figures
+which tell a story. They illustrate certain passages from the Odyssey of
+Homer. The one from which our cut is taken shows the visit of Ulysses to
+the lower world. When on the wall the pictures were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> divided by
+pilasters, and finished at the top by a border or frieze. The pilasters
+are bright red, and the chief colors in the picture are a yellowish brown
+and a greenish blue. In this scene the way in which the light streams
+through the entrance to the lower world is very striking, and shows the
+many figures there with the best possible effect. Even those in the far
+distance on the right are distinctly seen. This collection of Esquiline
+wall-paintings is now in the Vatican Library.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig8" id="Fig8"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img08.jpg">
+<img src="images/img08_th.jpg" width="400" height="312" alt="Fig 8" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.&mdash;Landscape Illustration to the Odyssey.</span> <em>From a
+wall-painting discovered on the Esquiline at Rome.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides the ancient mural paintings which have been placed in the museums
+of Rome, there are others which still remain where they were painted, in
+palaces, villas, and tombs. Perhaps those in the house of Livia are the
+most interesting; they represent mythological stories, and one frieze has
+different scenes of street life in an ancient town. Though these
+decorations are done in a mechanical sort of painting, such as is
+practised by the ordinary fresco painters of our own time, yet there was
+sufficient artistic feeling in their authors to prevent their repeating
+any one design.</p>
+
+<p>One circumstance proves that this class of picture was not thought very
+important when it was made, which is that the name of the artist is rarely
+found upon his work: in but one instance either in Rome or Pompeii has
+this occurred, namely, in a chamber which was excavated in the gardens of
+the Farnesina Palace at Rome, and the name is Seleucus.</p>
+
+<p>We have not space to speak of all the Italian cities in which these
+remains are discovered, and, as Pompeii is the one most frequently visited
+and that in which a very large proportion of the ancient pictures have
+been found, I will give a few illustrations from them, and leave the
+subject of ancient, mural paintings there. Many of the Pompeian pictures
+have been removed to the Museum of Naples, though many still remain where
+they were first painted.</p>
+
+<p>The variety of subjects at Pompeii is large: there are landscapes, hunting
+scenes, mythological subjects, numerous kinds of single figures, such as
+dancing girls, the hours,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> or seasons, graces, satyrs, and many others;
+devotional pictures, such as representations of the ancient divinities,
+lares, penates, and genii; pictures of tavern scenes, of mechanics at
+their work; rope-dancers and representations of various games,
+gladiatorial contests, <em>genre</em> scenes from the lives of children, youths,
+and women, festival ceremonies, actors, poets, and stage scenes, and last,
+but not least, many caricatures, of which I here give you an example (<a href="#Fig9">Fig. 9</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig9" id="Fig9"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
+<a href="images/img09.png">
+<img src="images/img09_th.png" width="326" height="345" alt="Fig 9" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.&mdash;The Flight of &AElig;neas.</span><br />
+<em>From a wall-painting.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The largest dog is &AElig;neas, who leads the little Ascanius by the hand and
+carries his father, Anchises, on his shoulder. Frequently in the ancient
+caricatures monkeys are made to take the part of historical and imaginary
+heroes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig10" id="Fig10"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;">
+<a href="images/img10.png">
+<img src="images/img10_th.png" width="376" height="500" alt="Fig10" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.&mdash;Demeter Enthroned.</span><br />
+<em>From a Pompeian wall-painting.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig11" id="Fig11"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img11.jpg">
+<img src="images/img11_th.jpg" width="400" height="345" alt="Fig 11" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.&mdash;Pompeian Wall-painting.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig11">Fig. 11</a> shows you how these painted walls were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>sometimes divided; the
+principal subjects were surrounded by ornamental borders, and the spaces
+between filled in with all sorts of little compartments. The small spaces
+in this picture are quite regular in form; but frequently they are of
+varied shapes, and give a very decorative effect to the whole work. The
+colors used upon these different panels, as they may be called, were
+usually red, yellow, black, and white&mdash;more rarely blue and green.
+Sometimes the entire decoration consisted of these small, variously
+colored spaces, divided by some graceful little border, with a very small
+figure, plant, or other object in the centre of each space.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig12" id="Fig12"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img12.png">
+<img src="images/img12_th.png" width="400" height="302" alt="Fig 12" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.&mdash;Nest of Cupids.</span><br />
+<em>From a Pompeian wall-painting.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+<p><a href="#Fig10">Fig. 10</a>, of Demeter, or Ceres, enthroned is an example of such devotional
+paintings as were placed above the altars and shrines for private worship
+in the houses of Pompeii, or at the street corners, just as we now see
+pictures and sacred figures in street shrines in Roman Catholic countries.
+In ancient days, as now, these pictures were often done in a coarse and
+careless manner, as if religious use, and not art, was the object in the
+mind of the artist.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig12">Fig. 12</a>, of a Nest of Cupids is a very interesting example of Pompeian
+painting, and to my mind it more nearly resembles pictures of later times
+than does any other ancient painting of which I know.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong><a name="MOSAICS" id="MOSAICS"></a>MOSAICS.</strong></p>
+
+<p>The pictures known as mosaics are made by fitting together bits of marble,
+stone, or glass of different colors and so arranging them as to represent
+figures and objects of various kinds, so that at a distance they have much
+the same effect as that of pictures painted with brush and colors. The art
+of making mosaics is very ancient, and was probably invented in the East,
+where it was used for borders and other decorations in regular set
+patterns. It was not until after the time of Alexander the Great that the
+Greeks used this process for making pictures. At first, too, mosaics were
+used for floors or pavements only, and the designs in them were somewhat
+like those of the tile pavements of our own time.</p>
+
+<p>This picture of doves will give you a good idea of a mosaic; this subject
+is a very interesting one, because it is said to have been first made by
+Sosos in Pergamos. It was often repeated in later days, and that from
+which our cut is taken was found in the ruins of Hadrian&#8217;s villa at
+Tivoli, near Rome; it is known as the Capitoline Doves, from the fact that
+it is now in the Capitoline Museum in Rome. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>Few works of ancient art are
+more admired and as frequently copied as this mosaic: it is not unusual to
+see ladies wear brooches with this design in fine mosaic work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig13" id="Fig13"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<a href="images/img13.jpg">
+<img src="images/img13_th.jpg" width="350" height="271" alt="Fig 13" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.&mdash;Doves Seated on a Bowl.</span><br />
+<em>From a mosaic picture in the Capitol, Rome.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A few examples of ancient mosaics which were used for wall decorations
+have been found; they may almost be said not to exceed a dozen; but
+pavement mosaics are very numerous, and are still seen in the places for
+which they were designed and where they have been during many centuries,
+as well as in museums to which they have been removed. They are so hard in
+outline and so mechanical in every way that they are not very attractive
+if we think of them as pictures, and their chief interest is in the skill
+and patience with which mosaic workers combine the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>numberless particles
+of one substance and another which go to make up the whole.</p>
+
+<p>Mosaic pictures, as a rule, are not large; but one found at Palestrina,
+which is called the Nile mosaic, is six by five metres inside. Its subject
+is the inundation of a village on the river Nile. There are an immense
+number of figures and a variety of scenes in it; there are Egyptians
+hunting the Nile horse, a party of revellers in a bower draped with vines,
+bands of warriors and other groups of men occupied in different pursuits,
+and all represented at the season when the Nile overflows its banks. This
+is a very remarkable work, and it has been proved that a portion of the
+original is in the Berlin Museum, and has been replaced by a copy at
+Palestrina.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong>PAINTINGS ON <a name="STONE" id="STONE"></a>STONE.</strong></p>
+
+<p>It is well known that much of the decoration of Greek edifices was in
+colors. Of course these paintings were put upon the marble and stone of
+which the structures were made. The Greeks also made small pictures and
+painted them on stone, just as canvas and panels of wood are now used.
+Such painted slabs have been found in Herculaneum, in Corneto, and in
+different Etruscan tombs; but the most important and satisfactory one was
+found at Pompeii in 1872. Since then the colors have almost vanished; but
+<a href="#Fig14">Fig. 14</a>, from it, will show you how it appeared when found. It represents
+the mythological story of the punishment of Niobe, and is very beautiful
+in its design.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong><a name="VASE" id="VASE"></a>VASE-PAINTING.</strong></p>
+
+<p>Vase-painting was another art very much practised by the ancients. So much
+can be said of it that it would require more space than we can give for
+its history even in outline. So I shall only say that it fills an
+important place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> in historic art, because from the thousands of ancient
+vases that have been found in one country and another, much has been
+learned concerning the history of these lands and the manners and customs
+of their people; occasionally inscriptions are found upon decorated vases
+which are of great value to scholars who study the history of the past.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig14" id="Fig14"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 294px;">
+<a href="images/img14.jpg">
+<img src="images/img14_th.jpg" width="294" height="400" alt="Fig 14" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.&mdash;Niobe.</span> <em>From a picture on a slab of granite at
+Pompeii.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig15" id="Fig15"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/img15.jpg">
+<img src="images/img15_th.jpg" width="194" height="178" alt="Fig 15" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.&mdash;The Dodwell Vase.</span>
+<em>At Munich.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Dodwell vase shows you the more simple style of decoration which was
+used in the earlier times. Gradually the designs came to be more and more
+elaborate, until whole stories were as distinctly told by the pictures on
+vases as if they had been written out in books. The next cut, which is
+made from a vase-painting, will show what I mean.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of <a href="#Fig16">Fig. 16</a> is connected with the service of the dead, and
+shows a scene in the under world, such as accorded with ancient religious
+notions. In the upper portion the friends of the deceased are grouped
+around a little temple. Scholars trace the manufacture of these vases back
+to very ancient days, and down to its decline, about two centuries before
+Christ. I do not mean that vase-painting ceased then, for its latest
+traces come down to 65 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>; but like all other ancient arts, it was then
+in a state of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>decadence. Though vase-painting was one of the lesser
+arts, its importance can scarcely be overestimated, and it fully merits
+the devoted study and admiration which it receives from those who are
+learned in its history.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig16" id="Fig16"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img16.png">
+<img src="images/img16_th.png" width="400" height="309" alt="Fig 16" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.&mdash;Scene in the Lower World.</span><br />
+<em>From a vase of the style of Lower Italy.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>From what we know of ancient Greek painting we may believe that this art
+first reached perfection in Greece. If we could see the best works of
+Apelles, who reached the highest excellence of any Greek painter, we might
+find some lack of the truest science of the art when judged by more modern
+standards; but the Greeks must still be credited with having been the
+first to create a true art of painting. After the decline of Greek art
+fifteen centuries elapsed before painting was again raised to the rank
+which the Greeks had given it, and if, according to our ideas, the later
+Italian painting is in any sense superior to the Greek, we must at least
+admit that the study of the works of antiquity which still remained in
+Italy, excited the great masters of the Renaissance to the splendid
+achievements which they attained.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 41]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-gryffon.jpg" width="400" height="94" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>MEDI&AElig;VAL PAINTING, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA<br />
+TO THE RENAISSANCE.</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>The Middle Ages extend from the latter part of the fifth century to the
+time of the Renaissance, or about the fifteenth century. The painting of
+this period has little to attract attention if regarded only from an
+artistic stand-point, for we may truly say that, comparing it with the
+Greek art which had preceded it, or with the Italian art which followed
+it, that of the Middle Ages had no claim to the beautiful. On the other
+hand, it is full of interest to students, because it has its part in the
+history of art; therefore I shall give a mere outline of it, so that this
+link in the chain which unites ancient and modern painting may not be
+entirely wanting in our book.</p>
+
+<p>Early medi&aelig;val painting, down to about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 950, consists principally of
+paintings in burial-places, mosaics (usually in churches), and of
+miniatures, or the illustration and illumination of <em>MSS.</em>, which were the
+books of that time, and were almost without exception religious writings.
+This period is called the Early Period of the Middle Ages, and the
+pictures are often called the works of Early Christian Art.</p>
+
+<p>About 1050 a revival of intellectual pursuits began in some parts of
+Europe, and from that time it may be said that the Renaissance, or new
+birth of art and letters, was in its A B Cs, or very smallest beginnings.
+The period <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>between 950 and 1250 is often called the Central or Romanesque
+Period of the Middle Ages, and it was during this time that glass-painting
+originated; it is one of the most interesting features of art in medi&aelig;val
+times.</p>
+
+<p>From 1250 to 1400 comes the Final or Gothic Period of the Middle Ages, and
+this has some very interesting features which foretell the coming glory of
+the great Renaissance.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong>THE <a name="EARLY" id="EARLY"></a>EARLY PERIOD.</strong></p>
+
+<p>The paintings of the catacombs date from the third and fourth centuries
+after Christ. The catacombs, or burial-places of the early Christians,
+consist of long, narrow, subterranean passages, cut with regularity, and
+crossing each other like streets in a city. The graves are in the sides of
+these passages, and there are some larger rooms or chambers into which the
+narrow passages run. There are about sixty of the catacombs in and near
+Rome; they are generally called by the name of some saint who is buried in
+them. The paintings are in the chambers, of which there are sometimes
+several quite near each other. The reason for their being in these
+underground places was that Christians were so persecuted under the
+Romans, that they were obliged to do secretly all that they did as
+Christians, so that no attention should be attracted to them.</p>
+
+<p>The principal characteristics of these pictures are a simple majesty and
+earnestness of effect; perhaps spirituality is the word to use, for by
+these paintings the early Christians desired to express their belief in
+the religion of Christ, and especially in the immortality of the soul,
+which was a very precious doctrine to them. The catacombs of Rome were
+more numerous and important than those of any other city.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the paintings in the catacombs had a symbolic meaning, beyond the
+plainer intention which appeared at the first sight of them: you will know
+what I mean when I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> say that not only was this picture of Moses striking
+the rock intended to represent an historical fact in the life of Moses,
+but the flowing water was also regarded as a type of the blessing of
+Christian baptism.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig17" id="Fig17"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 334px;">
+<a href="images/img17.png">
+<img src="images/img17_th.png" width="334" height="400" alt="Fig 17" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.&mdash;Moses.</span> <em>From a painting in the Catacomb of S.
+Agnes.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig18" id="Fig18"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;">
+<a href="images/img18.png">
+<img src="images/img18_th.png" width="380" height="378" alt="Fig 18" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.&mdash;decoration of a Roof.</span><br />
+<em>Catacomb of S. Domitilla.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The walls of the chambers of the catacombs are laid out in such a manner
+as to have the effect of decorated apartments, just as was done in the
+pagan tombs, and sometimes the pictures were a strange union of pagan and
+Christian devices.</p>
+
+<p>The above cut, from the Catacomb of S. Domitilla, has in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> the centre the
+pagan god Orpheus playing his lyre, while in the alternate compartments of
+the border are the following Christian subjects: 1, David with the Sling;
+2, Moses Striking the Rock; 3, Daniel in the Lion&#8217;s Den; 4, The Raising of
+Lazarus. The other small divisions have pictures of sacrificial animals.
+These two cuts will give you an idea of the catacomb wall-paintings.</p>
+
+<p>The mosaics of the Middle Ages were of a purely ornamental character down
+to the time of Constantine. Then, when the protection of a Christian
+emperor enabled the Christians to express themselves without fear, the
+doctrines of the church and the stories of the life of Christ and the
+histories of the saints, as well as many other instructive religious
+subjects, were made in mosaics, and placed in prominent places in churches
+and basilicas. Mosaics are very durable, and many belonging to the early
+Christian era still remain.</p>
+
+<p>The mosaics at Ravenna form the most connected series, and are the best
+preserved of those that still exist. While it is true in a certain sense
+that Rome was always the art centre of Italy, it is also true that at
+Ravenna the works of art have not suffered from devastation and
+restoration as have those of Rome. After the invasion of the Visigoths in
+A.D. 404, Honorius transferred the imperial court to Ravenna, and that
+city then became distinguished for its learning and art. The Ravenna
+mosaics are so numerous that I shall only speak of one series, from which
+I give an illustration (<a href="#Fig19">Fig. 19</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This mosaic is in the church of S. Vitalis, which was built between <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>
+526 and 547. In the dome of the church there is a grand representation of
+Christ enthroned; below Him are the sacred rivers of Paradise; near Him
+are two angels and S. Vitalis, to whom the Saviour is presenting a crown;
+Bishop Ecclesius, the founder of the church, is also represented near by
+with a model of the church in his hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+<p>On a lower wall there are two pictures in which the Emperor Justinian and
+the Empress Theodosia are represented: our cut is from one of these, and
+shows the emperor and empress in magnificent costumes, each followed by a
+train of attendants. This emperor never visited Ravenna; but he sent such
+rich gifts to this church that he and his wife are represented as its
+donors.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig19" id="Fig19"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img19.jpg">
+<img src="images/img19_th.jpg" width="400" height="256" alt="Fig 19" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.&mdash;Justinian, Theodora, and Attendants.</span> <em>From a
+mosaic picture at S. Vitalis, Ravenna.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the time of Justinian (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 527-565) mosaics began to be less
+artistic, and those of the later time degenerated, as did everything else
+during the Middle or Dark Ages, and at last all works of art show less and
+less of the Greek or Classic influence.</p>
+
+<p>When we use the word miniature as an art term, it does not mean simply a
+small picture as it does in ordinary conversation; it means the pictures
+executed by the hand of an illuminator or <em>miniator</em> of manuscripts, and
+he is so called from the <em>minium</em> or cinnabar which he used in making
+colors.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+<p>In the days of antiquity, as I have told you in speaking of Egypt, it was
+customary to illustrate manuscripts, and during the Middle Ages this art
+was very extensively practised. Many monks spent their whole lives in
+illuminating religious books, and in Constantinople and other eastern
+cities this art reached a high degree of perfection. Some manuscripts have
+simple borders and colored initial letters only; sometimes but a single
+color is used, and is generally red, from which comes our word rubric,
+which means any writing or printing in red ink, and is derived from the
+Latin <em>rubrum</em>, or red. This was the origin of illumination or
+miniature-painting, which went on from one step to another until, at its
+highest state, most beautiful pictures were painted in manuscripts in
+which rich colors were used on gold or silver backgrounds, and the effect
+of the whole was as rich and ornamental as it is possible to imagine.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these old manuscripts are seen in museums, libraries, and various
+collections; they are very precious and costly, as well as interesting;
+their study is fascinating, for almost every one of the numberless designs
+that are used in them has its own symbolic meaning. The most ancient,
+artistic miniatures of which we know are those on a manuscript of a part
+of the book of Genesis; it is in the Imperial Library at Vienna, and was
+made at the end of the fifth century. In the same collection there is a
+very extraordinary manuscript, from which I give an illustration.</p>
+
+<p>This manuscript is a treatise on botany, and was written by Dioskorides
+for his pupil, the Princess Juliana Anicia, a granddaughter of the Emperor
+Valentine III. As this princess died at Constantinople <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 527, this
+manuscript dates from the beginning of the sixth century. This picture
+from it represents Dioskorides dressed in white robes and seated in a
+chair of gold; before him stands a woman in a gold tunic and scarlet
+mantle, who represents the genius of discovery; she presents the legendary
+mandrake root, or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>mandragora, to the learned man, while between them is
+the dog that has pulled the root, and falls dead, according to the
+fabulous story. This manuscript was painted by a masterly hand, and is
+curious and interesting; the plants, snakes, birds, and insects must have
+been painted from nature, and the whole is most skilfully done.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig20" id="Fig20"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;">
+<a href="images/img20.jpg">
+<img src="images/img20_th.jpg" width="383" height="400" alt="Fig 20" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.&mdash;The Discovery of the Herb Mandragora.</span> <em>From a MS.
+of Dioskorides, at Vienna.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<p>During the Middle Ages the arts as practised in Rome were carried into all
+the different countries in which the Romans made conquests or sent their
+monks and missionaries to establish churches, convents, and schools. Thus
+the medi&aelig;val arts were practised in Gaul, Spain, Germany, and Great
+Britain. No wall-paintings or mosaics remain from the early German or
+Celtic peoples; but their illuminated manuscripts are very numerous:
+miniature-painting was extensively done in Ireland, and many Irish
+manuscripts remain in the collections of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>When Charlemagne became the king of the Franks in 768, there was little
+knowledge of any art among his northern subjects; in 800 he made himself
+emperor of the Romans, also, and when the Franks saw all the splendor of
+Rome and other parts of Italy, it was not difficult for the great emperor
+to introduce the arts into the Frankish portion of his empire. All sorts
+of beautiful objects were carried from Italy by the Franks, and great
+workshops were established at Aix-la-Chapelle, the capital, and were
+placed under the care of Eginhard, who was skilled in bronze-casting,
+modelling, and other arts; he was called Bezaleel, after the builder of
+the Tabernacle. We have many accounts of the wall-paintings and mosaics of
+the Franks; but there are no remains of them that can be identified with
+positive accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Miniature-painting flourished under the rule of Charlemagne and his
+family, and reached a point of great magnificence in effect, though it was
+never as artistic as the work of the Italian miniators; and, indeed,
+gradually everything connected with art was declining in all parts of the
+world; and as we study its history, we can understand why the terms Dark
+Ages and Middle Ages are used to denote the same epoch, remarkable as it
+is for the decay and extinction of so many beautiful things.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><strong>THE <a name="CENTRAL" id="CENTRAL"></a>CENTRAL, OR ROMANESQUE PERIOD.</strong></p>
+
+<p>During the Romanesque Period (950-1250) architecture was pursued according
+to laws which had grown out of the achievements and experiences of earlier
+ages, and had reached such a perfection as entitled it to the rank of a
+noble art. But this was not true of painting, which was then but little
+more than the painting of the Egyptians had been, that is, a sort of
+picture-writing, which was principally used to illustrate the doctrines of
+religion, and by this means to teach them to peoples who had no books, and
+could not have read them had they existed.</p>
+
+<p>During all this time the art of painting was largely under the control of
+the priests. Some artists were priests themselves, and those who were not
+were under the direction of some church dignitary. Popes, bishops, abbots,
+and so on, were the principal patrons of art, and they suggested to the
+artists the subjects to be painted, and then the pictures were used for
+the decoration of churches and other buildings used by the religious
+orders. The monks were largely occupied in miniature-painting; artists
+frequented the monasteries, and, indeed, when they were engaged upon
+religious subjects, they were frequently under the same discipline as that
+of the monks themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the influence of the church came that of the court; but in a way
+it was much the same, for the clergy had great influence at court, and,
+although painting was used to serve the luxury of sovereigns and nobles,
+it was also true that these high personages often employed artists to
+decorate chapels and to paint altar-pieces for churches at their expense,
+for during the Romanesque period there was some painting on panels. At
+first these panel-pictures were placed on the front of the altar where
+draperies had formerly been used: later they were raised above the altar,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+and also put in various parts of the church. The painting of the
+Romanesque period was merely a decline, and there can be little more said
+of it than is told by that one word.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig21" id="Fig21"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 114px;">
+<a href="images/img21.jpg">
+<img src="images/img21_th.jpg" width="114" height="450" alt="Fig 21" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.&mdash;King David.</span> <em>From a window in Augsburg
+Cathedral.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Glass-painting dates from this time. The very earliest specimens of which
+we know are from the eleventh century. Before that time there had been
+transparent mosaics made by putting together bits of colored glass, and
+arranging them in simple, set and ornamental patterns. Such mosaics date
+from the earliest days of Christianity, and were in use as soon as glass
+was used for windows. From ancient writings we know that some windows were
+made with pictures upon them as long ago as <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 989; but nothing now
+remains from that remote date.</p>
+
+<p>There is a doubt as to whether glass-painting originated in France or
+Germany. Some French authors ascribe its invention to Germany, while some
+German writers accord the same honor to France. Remains of glass-painting
+of the eleventh century have been found in both these countries; but it is
+probable that five windows in the Cathedral of Augsburg date from 1065,
+and are a little older than any others of which we know. This picture of
+David is from one of them, and is probably as old as any painted window in
+existence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig22" id="Fig22"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 232px;">
+<a href="images/img22.jpg">
+<img src="images/img22_th.jpg" width="232" height="400" alt="Fig 22" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.&mdash;Window.</span> <em>From the Cathedral of St. Denis.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The oldest glass-painting in France is probably a single fragment in the
+Cathedral of Le Mans. This cathedral was completed in 1093, but was badly
+burned in 1136, so that but a single piece of its windows remains; this
+has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> been inserted in a new window in the choir, and is thus preserved.
+With the beginning of the twelfth century, glass-painting became more
+frequent in Europe, and near the end of this century it was introduced
+into England, together with the Gothic style of architecture. Very soon a
+highly decorative effect was given to glass-painting, and the designs upon
+many windows were very much like those used in the miniatures of the same
+time. The stained glass in the Cathedral of St. Denis, near Paris, is very
+important. It dates from about 1140-1151, and was executed under the care
+of the famous Abbot Suger. He employed both French and German workmen, and
+decorated the entire length of the walls with painted windows. St. Denis
+was the first French cathedral in the full Gothic style of architecture.
+The present windows in St. Denis can scarcely be said to be the original
+ones, as the cathedral has suffered much from revolutions; but some of
+them have been restored as nearly as possible, and our illustration
+(<a href="#Fig22">Fig. 22</a>) will give you a good idea of what its windows were.</p>
+
+<p>The stripes which run across the ground in this window are red and blue,
+and the leaf border is in a light tone of color. There are nine
+medallions; the three upper ones have simply ornamental designs upon them,
+and the six lower ones have pictures of sacred subjects. The one given
+here is an Annunciation, in which the Abbot Suger kneels at the feet of
+the Virgin Mary. His figure interferes with the border of the medallion in
+a very unusual manner.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most important ancient glass-painting remaining in France is
+that of the west front of the Cathedral of Chartres. It dates from about
+1125, when this front was begun; there are three windows, and their color
+is far superior to the glass of a later period, which is in the same
+cathedral. The earliest painted glass in England dates from about 1180.
+Some of the windows in Canterbury Cathedral correspond to those in the
+Cathedral of St. Denis.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+<p>In the Strasbourg Cathedral there are some splendid remains of painted
+glass of the Romanesque period, although they were much injured by the
+bombardment of 1870. <a href="#Fig23">Fig. 23</a> is from one of the west windows, and
+represents King Henry I.</p>
+
+<p>This is an unusually fine example of the style of the period before the
+more elaborate Gothic manner had arisen; the quiet regularity of the
+drapery and the dignified air of the whole figure is very impressive.</p>
+
+<p>An entirely different sort of colored windows was used in the churches and
+edifices which belonged to the Cistercian order of monks. The rule of this
+order was severe, and while they wished to soften the light within their
+churches, they believed it to be wrong to use anything which denoted pomp
+or splendor in the decoration of the house of God. For these reasons they
+invented what is called the <em>grisaille</em> glass: it is painted in regular
+patterns in gray tones of color. Sometimes these windows are varied by a
+leaf pattern in shades of green and brown, with occasional touches of
+bright color; but this is used very sparingly. Some of these <em>grisaille</em>
+windows are seen in France; but the finest are in Germany in the Cathedral
+of Heiligenkreuz: they date from the first half of the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong>THE <a name="FINAL" id="FINAL"></a>FINAL, OR GOTHIC PERIOD.</strong></p>
+
+<p>The Gothic order of architecture, which was perfected during this period,
+had a decided influence upon the painting and sculpture of the time; but
+this influence was not felt until Gothic architecture had reached a high
+point in its development. France was now the leading country of the world,
+and Paris came to be the most important of all cities: it was the centre
+from which went forth edicts as to the customs of society, the laws of
+dress and conduct, and even of the art of love. From France came the codes
+of chivalry,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+and the crusades, which spread to other lands, originated
+there. Thus, for the time, Paris overshadowed Rome and the older centres
+of art, industry, and science, with a world-wide influence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig23" id="Fig23"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 199px;">
+<a href="images/img23.jpg">
+<img src="images/img23_th.jpg" width="199" height="400" alt="Fig 23" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.&mdash;Figure of Henry I. in West Window of Strasbourg
+Cathedral.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although the painting of this period had largely the same characteristics
+as that of the Romanesque period, it had a different spirit, and it was no
+longer under the control of the clergy. Before this time, too, painters
+had frequently been skilled in other arts; now it became the custom for
+them to be painters only, and besides this they were divided into certain
+classes of painters, and were then associated with other craftsmen who
+were engaged in the trade which was connected with their art. That is, the
+glass-painters painted glass only, and were associated with the
+glass-blowers; those who decorated shields, with the shield or scutcheon
+makers, and so on; while the painters, pure and simple, worked at
+wall-painting, and a little later at panel-painting also. From this
+association of artists and tradesmen there grew up brotherhoods which
+supported their members in all difficulties, and stood by each other like
+friends. Each brotherhood had its altar in some church; they had their
+funerals and festivals in common, and from these brotherhoods grew up the
+more powerful societies which were called guilds. These guilds became
+powerful organizations; they had definite rights and duties, and even
+judicial authority as to such matters as belonged to their special trades.</p>
+
+<p>All this led to much greater individuality among artists than had ever
+existed before: it came to be understood that a painter could, and had a
+right to, paint a picture as he wished, and was not governed by any
+priestly law. Religious subjects were still painted more frequently than
+others, and the decoration of religious edifices was the chief employment
+of the artists; but they worked with more independence of thought and
+spirit. The painters studied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+more from nature, and though the change was
+very slow, it is still true that a certain softness of effect, an easy
+flow of drapery, and a new grace of pose did appear, and about
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1350 a
+new idea of the uses and aims of painting influenced artists everywhere.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig24" id="Fig24"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/img24.jpg">
+<img src="images/img24_th.jpg" width="323" height="400" alt="Fig 24" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.&mdash;Birth of the Virgin.</span> <em>From the Grandes Heures of
+the Duc de Berri.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>About that time they attempted to represent distances, and to create
+different planes in their works; to reproduce such things as they
+represented far more exactly than they had done before, and to put them in
+just relations to surrounding places and objects; in a word, they seemed
+to awake to an appreciation of the true office of painting and to its
+infinite possibilities.</p>
+
+<p>During this Gothic period some of the most exquisite manuscripts were made
+in France and Germany, and they are now the choicest treasures of their
+kind in various European collections.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig24">Fig. 24</a>, of the birth of the Virgin Mary, is from one of the most splendid
+books of the time which was painted for the Duke de Berry and called the
+Great Book of the Hours. The wealth of ornament in the border is a
+characteristic of the French miniatures of the time. The Germans used a
+simpler style, as you will see by <a href="#Fig25">Fig. 25</a>, of the Annunciation.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Gothic order of architecture upon glass-painting was
+very pronounced. Under this order the windows became much more important
+than they had been, and it was not unusual to see a series of windows
+painted in such pictures as illustrated the whole teaching of the
+doctrines of the church. It was at this time that the custom arose of
+donating memorial windows to religious edifices. Sometimes they were the
+gift of a person or a family, and the portraits of the donors were painted
+in the lower part of the window, and usually in a kneeling posture; at
+other times windows were given by guilds, and it is very odd to see
+craftsmen of various sorts at work in a cathedral <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>window: such pictures
+exist at Chartres, Bourges, Amiens, and other places.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig25" id="Fig25"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 293px;">
+<a href="images/img25.jpg">
+<img src="images/img25_th.jpg" width="293" height="400" alt="Fig 25" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.&mdash;The Annunciation</span>. <em>From the Mariale of Archbishop
+Arnestus of Prague.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>About <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1300 it began to be the custom to represent architectural
+effects upon colored windows. Our cut is from a window at Konigsfelden,
+and will show exactly what I mean (<a href="#Fig26">Fig. 26</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This style of decoration was not as effective as the earlier ones had
+been, and, indeed, from about this time glass-painting became less
+satisfactory than before, from the fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> that it had more resemblance to
+panel-painting, and so lost a part of the individuality which had belonged
+to it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig26" id="Fig26"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img26.jpg">
+<img src="images/img26_th.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="Fig 26" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.&mdash;Painted Window at Konigsfelden.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Wall-paintings were rare in the Gothic period, for its architecture left
+no good spaces where the pictures could be placed, and so the interior
+painting of the churches was almost entirely confined to borders and
+decorative patterns scattered here and there and used with great effect.
+In Germany and England wall-painting was more used for the decoration of
+castles, halls, chambers, and chapels; but as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> whole mural painting was
+of little importance at this time in comparison with its earlier days.</p>
+
+<p>About <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1350 panel pictures began to be more numerous, and from this
+time there are vague accounts of schools of painting at Prague and
+Cologne, and a few remnants exist which prove that such works were
+executed in France and Flanders; but I shall pass over what is often
+called the Transitional Period, by which we mean the time in which new
+influences were beginning to act, and hereafter I will tell our story by
+giving accounts of the lives of separate painters; for from about the
+middle of the thirteenth century it is possible to trace the history of
+painting through the study of individual artists.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig27" id="Fig27"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 205px;">
+<a href="images/img27.jpg">
+<img src="images/img27_th.jpg" width="205" height="252" alt="Fig 27" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.&mdash;Portrait of Cimabue.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Giovanni Cimabue</span>, the first painter of whom I shall tell you, was born in
+Florence in 1240. He is sometimes called the &ldquo;Father of Modern Painting,&rdquo;
+because he was the first who restored that art to any degree of the
+beauty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> to which it had attained before the Dark Ages. The Cimabui were a
+noble family, and Giovanni was allowed to follow his own taste, and became
+a painter; he was also skilled in mosaic work, and during the last years
+of his life held the office of master of the mosaic workers in the
+Cathedral of Pisa, where some of his own mosaics still remain.</p>
+
+<p>Of his wall-paintings I shall say nothing except to tell you that the
+finest are in the Upper Church at Assisi, where one sees the first step in
+the development of the art of Tuscany. But I wish to tell the story of one
+of his panel pictures, which is very interesting. It is now in the
+Rucellai Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria Novella, in Florence, and it
+is only just in me to say that if one of my readers walked through that
+church and did not know about this picture, it is doubtful if he would
+stop to look at it&mdash;certainly he would not admire it. The story is that
+when Cimabue was about thirty years old he was busy in painting this
+picture of the Madonna Enthroned, and he would not allow any one to see
+what he was doing.</p>
+
+<p>It happened, however, that Charles of Anjou, being on his way to Naples,
+stopped in Florence, where the nobles did everything in their power for
+his entertainment. Among other places they took him to the studio of
+Cimabue, who uncovered his picture for the first time. Many persons then
+flocked to see it, and were so loud in their joyful expressions of
+admiration for it that the part of the city in which the studio was has
+since been called the <em>Borgo Allegri</em>, or the &ldquo;joyous quarter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When the picture was completed the day was celebrated as a festival; a
+procession was formed; bands of music played joyful airs; the magistrates
+of Florence honored the occasion with their presence; and the picture was
+borne in triumph to the church. Cimabue must have been very happy at this
+great appreciation of his art, and from that time he was famous in all
+Italy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig28" id="Fig28"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<a href="images/img28.jpg">
+<img src="images/img28_th.jpg" width="250" height="400" alt="Fig 28" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.&mdash;The Madonna of the Church of Santa Maria
+Novella.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
+<p>Another madonna by this master is in the Academy of Florence, and one
+attributed to him is in the Louvre, in Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Cimabue died about 1302, and was buried in the Church of Santa Maria del
+Fiore, or the Cathedral of Florence. Above his tomb these words were
+inscribed: &ldquo;Cimabue thought himself master of the field of painting. While
+living, he was so. Now he holds his place among the stars of heaven.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other artists who were important in this early time of the revival of
+painting were <span class="smcap">Andrea Tafi</span>, a mosaist of Florence, <span class="smcap">Margaritone of Arezzo</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Guido of Siena</span>, and of the same city <span class="smcap">Duccio</span>, the son of Buoninsegna. This
+last painter flourished from 1282 to 1320; his altar-piece for the
+Cathedral of Siena was also carried to its place in solemn procession,
+with the sound of trumpet, drum, and bell.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Giotto di Bondone</span> was the next artist in whom we have an unusual interest.
+He was born at Del Colle, in the commune of Vespignano, probably about
+1266, though the date is usually given ten years later. One of the best
+reasons for calling Cimabue the &ldquo;Father of Painting&rdquo; is that he acted the
+part of a father to Giotto, who proved to be so great an artist that from
+his time painting made a rapid advance. The story is that one day when
+Cimabue rode in the valley of Vespignano he saw a shepherd-boy who was
+drawing a portrait of one of his sheep on a flat rock, by means of a
+pointed bit of slate for a pencil. The sketch was so good that Cimabue
+offered to take the boy to Florence, and teach him to paint. The boy&#8217;s
+father consented, and henceforth the little Giotto lived with Cimabue, who
+instructed him in painting, and put him to study letters under Brunetto
+Latini, who was also the teacher of the great poet, Dante.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig29" id="Fig29"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/img29.jpg">
+<img src="images/img29_th.jpg" width="288" height="400" alt="Fig 29" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.&mdash;Portrait of Dante,<br />
+painted by Giotto.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The picture which we give here is from the earliest work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> by Giotto of
+which we have any knowledge. In it were the portraits of Dante, Latini,
+and several others. This picture was painted on a wall of the Podest&agrave; at
+Florence, and when Dante was exiled from that city his portrait was
+covered with whitewash; in 1841 it was restored to the light, having been
+hidden for centuries. It is a precious memento of the friendship between
+the great artist and the divine poet, who expressed his admiration of
+Giotto in these lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;In painting Cimabue fain had thought<br />
+   <span style="margin-left: 1em;">To lord the field; now Giotto has the cry,</span><br />
+ <span style="margin-left: .5em;">So that the other&#8217;s fame in shade is brought.&rdquo;</span></p>
+
+<p>Giotto did much work in Florence; he also, about 1300, executed frescoes
+in the Lower Church at Assisi; from 1303-1306 he painted his beautiful
+pictures in the Cappella dell&#8217; Arena, at Padua, by which the genius of
+Giotto is now most fully shown. He worked at Rimini also, and about 1330
+was employed by King Robert of Naples, who conferred many honors upon him,
+and made him a member of his own household. In 1334 Giotto was made the
+chief master of the cathedral works in Florence, as well as of the city
+fortifications and all architectural undertakings by the city authorities.
+He held this high position but three years, as he died on January 8, 1337.</p>
+
+<p>Giotto was also a great architect, as is well known from his tower in
+Florence, for which he made all the designs and a part of the working
+models, while some of the sculptures and reliefs upon it prove that he was
+skilled in modelling and carving. He worked in mosaics also, and the
+famous &ldquo;Navicella,&rdquo; in the vestibule of St. Peter&#8217;s at Rome, was
+originally made by him, but has now been so much restored that it is
+doubtful if any part of what remains was done by Giotto&#8217;s hands.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig30" id="Fig30"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img30.jpg">
+<img src="images/img30_th.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="Fig 30" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.&mdash;Giotto&#8217;s Campanile and the Duomo.</span> <em>Florence.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The works of Giotto are too numerous to be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>mentioned here, and his
+merits as an artist too important to be discussed in our limits; but his
+advance in painting was so great that he deserved the great compliment of
+Cennino, who said that Giotto &ldquo;had done or translated the art of painting
+from Greek into Latin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I shall, however, tell you of one excellent thing that he did, which was
+to make the representation of the crucifix far more refined and
+Christ-like than it had ever been. Before his time every effort had been
+made to picture physical agony alone. Giotto gave a gentle face, full of
+suffering, it is true, but also expressive of tenderness and resignation,
+and it would not be easy to paint a better crucifix than those of this
+master.</p>
+
+<p>In person Giotto was so ugly that his admirers made jokes about it; but he
+was witty and attractive in conversation, and so modest that his friends
+were always glad to praise him while he lived, and since his death his
+fame has been cherished by all who have written of him. There are many
+anecdotes told of Giotto. One is that on a very hot day in Naples, King
+Robert said to the painter, &ldquo;Giotto, if I were you, I would leave work,
+and rest.&rdquo; Giotto quickly replied, &ldquo;So would I, sire, <em>if I were you</em>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When the same king asked him to paint a picture which would represent his
+kingdom, Giotto drew an ass bearing a saddle on which were a crown and
+sceptre, while at the feet of the ass there was a new saddle with a
+shining new crown and sceptre, at which the ass was eagerly smelling. By
+this he intended to show that the Neapolitans were so fickle that they
+were always looking for a new king.</p>
+
+<p>There is a story which has been often repeated which says, that in order
+to paint his crucifixes so well, he persuaded a man to be bound to a cross
+for an hour as a model; and when he had him there he stabbed him, in order
+to see such agony as he wished to paint. When the Pope saw the picture he
+was so pleased with it that he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> wished to have it for his own chapel; then
+Giotto confessed what he had done, and showed the body of the dead man.
+The Pope was so angry that he threatened the painter with the same death,
+upon which Giotto brushed the picture over so that it seemed to be
+destroyed. Then the Pope so regretted the loss of the crucifix that he
+promised to pardon Giotto if he would paint him another as good. Giotto
+exacted the promise in writing, and then, with a wet sponge, removed the
+wash he had used, and the picture was as good as before. According to
+tradition all famous crucifixes were drawn from this picture ever after.</p>
+
+<p>When Boniface VIII. sent a messenger to invite Giotto to Rome, the
+messenger asked Giotto to show him something of the art which had made him
+so famous. Giotto, with a pencil, by a single motion drew so perfect a
+circle that it was thought to be a miracle, and this gave rise to a
+proverb still much used in Italy:&mdash;<em>Piu tondo che l&#8217;O di Giotto</em>, or,
+&ldquo;Rounder than the O of Giotto.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Giotto had a wife and eight children, of whom nothing is known but that
+his son Francesco became a painter. Giotto died in 1337, and was buried
+with great honors in the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore. Lorenzo de
+Medici erected a monument to his memory. The pupils and followers of
+Giotto were very numerous, and were called Giotteschi; among these <span class="smcap">Taddeo
+Gaddi</span>, and his son <span class="smcap">Agnolo</span>, are most famous: others were <span class="smcap">Maso</span> and <span class="smcap">Bernardo
+di Daddo</span>; but I shall not speak in detail of these artists.</p>
+
+<p>While Giotto was making the art of Florence famous, there was an artist in
+Siena who raised the school of that city to a place of great honor. This
+was <span class="smcap">Simone Martini</span>, who lived from 1283 to 1344, and is often called
+<span class="smcap">Simone Memmi</span> because he married a sister of another painter, <span class="smcap">Lippo Memmi</span>.
+The most important works of Simone which remain are at Siena in the
+Palazzo Pubblico and in the Lower Church at Assisi. There is one
+beautiful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> work of his in the Royal Institution, at Liverpool, which
+illustrates the text, &ldquo;Behold, thy father and I have sought Thee,
+sorrowing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>While the Papal court was at Avignon, in 1338, Simone removed to that
+city. Here he became the friend of Petrarch and of Laura, and has been
+praised by this poet as Giotto was by Dante.</p>
+
+<p>Another eminent Florentine artist was <span class="smcap">Andrea Orcagna</span>, as he is called,
+though his real name was <span class="smcap">Andrea Arcagnuolo di Cione</span>. He was born about
+1329, and died about 1368. It has long been the custom to attribute to
+Orcagna some of the most important frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa;
+but it is so doubtful whether he worked there that I shall not speak of
+them. His father was a goldsmith, and Orcagna first studied his father&#8217;s
+craft; he was also an architect, sculptor, mosaist, and poet, as well as a
+painter. He made an advance in color and in the painting of atmosphere
+that gives him high rank as a painter; as a sculptor, his tabernacle in
+the Church of Or San Michele speaks his praise. Mr. C. C. Perkins thus
+describes it: &ldquo;Built of white marble in the Gothic style, enriched with
+every kind of ornament, and storied with bas-reliefs illustrative of the
+Madonna&#8217;s history from her birth to her death, it rises in stately beauty
+toward the roof of the church, and, whether considered from an
+architectural, sculptural, or symbolic point of view, must excite the
+warmest admiration in all who can appreciate the perfect unity of
+conception through which its bas-reliefs, statuettes, busts, intaglios,
+mosaics, and incrustations of <em>pietre dure</em>, gilded glass, and enamels are
+welded into a unique whole.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But perhaps it is as an architect that Orcagna is most interesting to us,
+for he it was who made the designs for the Loggia de Lanzi in Florence.
+This was built as a place for public assembly, and the discussion of the
+topics of the day in rainy weather; it received its name on account of
+its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> nearness to the German guard-house which was called that of the
+Landsknechts (in German), or Lanzi, as it was given in Italian. Orcagna
+probably died before the Loggia was completed, and his brother Bernardo
+succeeded him as architect of the commune. This Loggia is one of the most
+interesting places in Florence, fully in sight of the Palazzo Signoria,
+near the gallery of the Uffizi, and itself the storehouse of precious
+works of sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>There were also in these early days of the fourteenth century schools of
+art at Bologna and Modena; but we know so little of them in detail that I
+shall not attempt to give any account of them here, but will pass to the
+early artists who may be said to belong to the true Renaissance in Italy.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-flowersa.jpg" width="400" height="98" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>PAINTING IN ITALY, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE RENAISSANCE<br />
+TO THE PRESENT CENTURY.</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>The reawakening of Art in Italy which followed the darkness of the Middle
+Ages, dates from about the beginning of the fifteenth century and is
+called the Renaissance. The Italians have a method of reckoning the
+centuries which differs from ours. Thus we call 1800 the first year of the
+nineteenth century, but they call it the first of the eighteenth; so the
+painters of what was to us the fifteenth century are called by Italians
+the &ldquo;<em>quattrocentisti</em>,&rdquo; or men of the fourteenth century, and while to us
+the term &ldquo;<em>cinquecento</em>&rdquo; means the style of the sixteenth century, to the
+Italians the same century, which begins with 1500, is the fifteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>I shall use our own method of reckoning in my writing; but this fact
+should be known to all who read or study art.</p>
+
+<p>The first painter of whom I shall now speak is known to us as <span class="smcap">Fra
+Angelico</span>. His name was Guido, the son of Pietro, and he was born at
+Vicchio in the province of Mugello, in the year 1387. We know that his
+family was in such circumstances that the young Guido could have led a
+life of ease; but he early determined to become a preaching friar.
+Meantime, even as a boy, he showed his taste for art, and there are six
+years in his life, from the age of fourteen to twenty, of which no one can
+tell the story.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> However, from what followed it is plain that during this
+time he must somewhere have devoted himself to the study of painting and
+to preparation for his life as a monk.</p>
+
+<p>Before he was fully twenty years old, he entered the convent at Fiesole,
+and took the name of Fra, or Brother Giovanni; soon after, his elder
+brother joined him there, and became Fra Benedetto. Later on our artist
+was called Fra Angelico, and again <em>Il Beato Angelico</em>, and then,
+according to Italian custom, the name of the town from which he came was
+added, so that he was at last called <em>Il Beato Giovanni, detto Angelico,
+da Fiesole</em>, which means, &ldquo;The Blessed John, called the Angelic, of
+Fiesole.&rdquo; The title <em>Il Beato</em> is usually conferred by the church, but it
+was given to Fra Angelico by the people, because of his saintly character
+and works.</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1407 that Fra Angelico was admitted to the convent in Fiesole,
+and after seven years of peaceful life there he was obliged to flee with
+his companions to Foligno. It was at the time when three different popes
+claimed the authority over the Church of Rome, and the city of Florence
+declared itself in favor of Alexander V.; but the monks of Fiesole adhered
+to Gregory XII., and for this reason were driven from their convent. Six
+years they dwelt at Foligno; then the plague broke out in the country
+about them, and again they fled to Cortona. Pictures painted by Fra
+Angelico at this time still remain in the churches of Cortona.</p>
+
+<p>After an absence of ten years the monks returned to Fiesole, where our
+artist passed the next eighteen years. This was the richest period of his
+life: his energy was untiring, and his zeal both as an artist and as a
+priest burned with a steady fire. His works were sought for far and wide,
+and most of his easel-pictures were painted during this time. Fra Angelico
+would never accept the money which was paid for his work; it was given
+into the treasury of his convent;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> neither did he accept any commission
+without the consent of the prior. Naturally, the monk-artist executed
+works for the adornment of his own convent. Some of these have been sold
+and carried to other cities and countries, and those which remain have
+been too much injured and too much restored to be considered important
+now.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig31" id="Fig31"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 317px;">
+<a href="images/img31.jpg">
+<img src="images/img31_th.jpg" width="317" height="400" alt="Fig 31" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.&mdash;Fra Angelico.</span> <em>From the representation of him in
+the fresco of the &ldquo;Last Judgment,&rdquo; by Fra Bartolommeo, in Santa Maria
+Nuova, Florence.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>He painted so many pictures during this second residence at Fiesole, not
+only for public places, but for private citizens, that Vasari wrote: &ldquo;This
+Father painted so many pictures, which are dispersed through the houses of
+the Florentines, that sometimes I am lost in wonder when I think how works
+so good and so many could, though in the course of many years, have been
+brought to perfection by one man alone.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1436 the great Cosimo de Medici insisted that the monks of Fiesole
+should again leave their convent, and remove to that of San Marco, in
+Florence. Most unwillingly the brethren submitted, and immediately Cosimo
+set architects and builders to work to erect a new convent, for the old
+one was in a ruinous state. The new cloisters offered a noble field to the
+genius of Fra Angelico, and he labored for their decoration with his whole
+soul; though the rule of the order was so strict that the pictures in the
+cells could be seen only by the monks, he put all his skill into them, and
+labored as devotedly as if the whole world could see and praise them, as
+indeed has since been done. His pictures in this convent are so numerous
+that we must not describe them, but will say that the Crucifixion in the
+chapter-room is usually called his masterpiece. It is nearly twenty-five
+feet square, and, besides the usual figures in this subject, the Saviour
+and the thieves, with the executioners, there are holy women, the founders
+of various orders, the patrons of the convent, and companies of saints. In
+the frame there are medallions with several saints and a Sibyl, each
+bearing an inscription from the prophecies relating to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> Christ&#8217;s death;
+while below all, St. Dominic, the founder of the artist&#8217;s order, bears a
+genealogical tree with many portraits of those who had been eminent among
+his followers. For this reason this picture has great historic value.</p>
+
+<p>At last, in 1445, Pope Eugenius IV., who had dedicated the new convent of
+San Marco and seen the works of Angelico, summoned him to Rome. It is said
+that the Pope not only wished for some of his paintings, but he also
+desired to honor Angelico by giving him the archbishopric of Florence; but
+when this high position was offered him, Fra Angelico would not accept of
+it: he declared himself unequal to its duties, and begged the Pope to
+appoint Fra Antonino in his stead. This request was granted, and Angelico
+went on with his work as before, in all humility fulfilling his
+heaven-born mission to lead men to better lives through the sweet
+influence of his divine art.</p>
+
+<p>The honor which had been tendered him was great&mdash;one which the noblest men
+were striving for&mdash;but if he realized this he did not regret his decision,
+neither was he made bold or vain by the royal tribute which the Pope had
+paid him.</p>
+
+<p>From this time the most important works of Fra Angelico were done in the
+chapel of Pope Nicholas V., in the Vatican, and in the chapel which he
+decorated in the Cathedral of Orvieto. He worked there one summer, and the
+work was continued by Luca Signorelli. The remainder of his life was
+passed so quietly that little can be told of it. It is not even known with
+certainty whether he ever returned to Florence, and by some strange fate
+the key to the chapel which he painted in the Vatican was lost during two
+centuries, and the pictures could only be seen by entering through a
+window. Thus it would seem that his last years were passed in the quiet
+work which he best loved.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig32" id="Fig32"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 190px;">
+<a href="images/img32.png">
+<img src="images/img32_th.png" width="190" height="400" alt="Fig 32" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.&mdash;An Angel.</span><br />
+<em>In the Uffizi, Florence.<br />By Fra Angelico.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When his final illness was upon him, the brethren of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> Santa Maria Sopra
+Minerva, where he resided, gathered about him, and chanted the <em>Salve
+Regina</em>. He died on the 18th of February, 1455, when sixty-seven years
+old. His tombstone is in the church of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva, in Rome;
+on it lies the figure of a Dominican monk in marble. Pope Nicholas V.
+wrote his epitaph in Latin. The following translation is by Professor
+Norton:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">&ldquo;Not mine be the praise that I was a second Apelles,</span><br />
+ But that I gave all my gains to thine, O Christ!<br />
+ One work is for the earth, another for heaven.<br />
+ The city, the Flower of Tuscany, bore me&mdash;John.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the Convent of San Marco in Florence there are twenty-five pictures by
+this master; in the Academy of Florence there are about sixty; there are
+eleven in the chapel of Nicholas V., and still others in the Vatican
+gallery. The Church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, the Cathedral of
+Orvieto, the Church of St. Domenico in Perugia, and that of Cortona, are
+all rich in his works. Besides these a few exist in some of the principal
+European galleries; but I love best to see them in San Marco, where he
+painted them for his brethren, and where they seem most at home.</p>
+
+<p>The chief merit of the pictures of Fra Angelico is the sweet and tender
+expression of the faces of his angels and saints, or any beings who are
+holy and good; he never succeeded in painting evil and sin in such a way
+as to terrify one; his gentle nature did not permit him to represent that
+which it could not comprehend, and the very spirit of purity seems to
+breathe through every picture.</p>
+
+<p>Two other Florentine artists of the same era with Fra Angelico were
+<span class="smcap">Masolino</span>, whose real name was <span class="smcap">Panicale</span>, and <span class="smcap">Tommaso Guidi</span>, called <span class="smcap">Masaccio</span>
+on account of his want of neatness. The style of these two masters was
+much the same, but Masaccio became so much the greater<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> that little is
+said of Masolino. The principal works of Masaccio are a series of frescoes
+in the Brancacci Chapel in Florence. They represent &ldquo;The Expulsion from
+Paradise,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Tribute Money,&rdquo; &ldquo;Peter Baptizing,&rdquo; &ldquo;Peter Curing the Blind
+and Lame,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Death of Ananias,&rdquo; &ldquo;Simon Magus,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Resuscitation
+of the King&#8217;s Son.&rdquo; There is a fresco by Masolino in the same chapel; it
+is &ldquo;The Preaching of Peter.&rdquo; Masaccio was in fact a remarkable painter.
+Some one has said that he seemed to hold Giotto by one hand, and reach
+forward to Raphael with the other; and considering the pictures which were
+painted before his time, his works are as wonderful as Raphael&#8217;s are
+beautiful. He died in 1429.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Paolo Uccello</span> (1396-1479) and <span class="smcap">Filippo Lippi</span> (1412-1469) were also good
+painters, and <span class="smcap">Sandro Botticelli</span> (1447-1515), a pupil of Filippo, was
+called the best Florentine painter of his time. <span class="smcap">Fillipino Lippi</span>
+(1460-1505) was a pupil of Botticelli and a very important artist. <span class="smcap">Andrea
+Verrocchio</span>, <span class="smcap">Lorenzo di Credi</span>, and <span class="smcap">Antonio Pollajuolo</span> were all good
+painters of the Florentine school of the last half of the fifteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Of the same period was <span class="smcap">Domenico Ghirlandajo</span> (1449-1494), who ranks very
+high on account of his skill in the composition of his works and as a
+colorist. He made his pictures very interesting also to those of his own
+time, and to those of later days, by introducing portraits of certain
+citizens of Florence into pictures which he painted in the Church of Santa
+Maria Novella and other public places in the city. He did not usually make
+them actors in the scene he represented, but placed them in detached
+groups as if they were looking at the picture themselves. While his scenes
+were laid in the streets known to us, and his architecture was familiar,
+he did not run into the fantastic or lose the picturesque effect which is
+always pleasing. Without being one of the greatest of the Italian masters
+Ghirlandajo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> was a very important painter. He was also a teacher of the
+great Michael Angelo.</p>
+
+<p>Other prominent Florentine painters of the close of the fifteenth century
+were <span class="smcap">Francisco Granacci</span> (1477-1543), <span class="smcap">Luca Signorelli</span> (1441-1521), <span class="smcap">Benozzo
+Gozzoli</span> (1424-1485), and <span class="smcap">Cosimo Rosselli</span> (1439-1506).</p>
+
+<p>Some good painters worked in Venice from the last half of the fourteenth
+century; but I shall begin to speak of the Venetian school with some
+account of the Bellini. The father of this family was <span class="smcap">Jacopo Bellini</span>
+(1395-1470), and his sons were <span class="smcap">Gentile Bellini</span> (1421-1507) and <span class="smcap">Giovanni
+Bellini</span> (1426-1516).</p>
+
+<p>The sketch-book of the father is one of the treasures of the British
+Museum. It has 99 pages, 17 by 13 inches in size, and contains sketches of
+almost everything&mdash;still and animal life, nature, ancient sculpture,
+buildings and human figures, stories of the Scriptures, of mythology, and
+of the lives of the saints are all illustrated in its sketches, as well as
+hawking parties, village scenes, apes, eagles, dogs, and cats. In this
+book the excellence of his drawing is seen; but so few of his works remain
+that we cannot judge of him as a colorist. It is certain that he laid the
+foundation of the excellence of the Venetian school, which his son
+Giovanni and the great Titian carried to perfection.</p>
+
+<p>The elder son, Gentile, was a good artist, and gained such a reputation by
+his pictures in the great council-chamber of Venice, that when, in 1479,
+Sultan Mehemet, the conqueror of Constantinople, sent to Venice for a good
+painter, the Doge sent to him Gentile Bellini. With him he sent two
+assistants, and gave him honorable conduct in galleys belonging to the
+State. In Constantinople Gentile was much honored, and he painted the
+portraits of many remarkable people. At length it happened that when he
+had finished a picture of the head of John the Baptist in a charger, and
+showed it to the Sultan, that ruler said that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> neck was not well
+painted, and when he saw that Gentile did not agree with him he called a
+slave and had his head instantly struck off, to prove to the artist what
+would be the true action of the muscles under such circumstances. This act
+made Gentile unwilling to remain near the Sultan, and after a year in his
+service he returned home. Mehemet, at parting, gave him many gifts, and
+begged him to ask for whatever would best please him. Gentile asked but
+for a letter of praise to the Doge and Signoria of Venice. After his
+return to Venice he worked much in company with his brother. It is said
+that Titian studied with Gentile: it is certain that he was always
+occupied with important commissions, and worked until the day of his
+death, when he was more than eighty years old.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig33" id="Fig33"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;">
+<a href="images/img33.jpg">
+<img src="images/img33_th.jpg" width="147" height="300" alt="Fig 33" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.&mdash;Christ.</span><br />
+<em>By Gio. Bellini.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>But Giovanni Bellini was the greatest of his family, and must stand as the
+founder of true Venetian painting. His works may be divided into two
+periods, those that were done before, and those after he learned the use
+of oil colors. His masterpieces, which can still be seen in the Academy
+and the churches of Venice, were painted after he was sixty-five years
+old. The works of Giovanni Bellini are numerous in Venice, and are also
+seen in the principal galleries of Europe. He did not paint a great
+variety of subjects, neither was his imagination very poetical, but there
+was a moral beauty in his figures; he seems to have made humanity as
+elevated as it can be, and to have stopped just on the line which
+separates earthly excellence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> from the heavenly. He often painted the
+single figure of Christ, of which L&uuml;bke says: &ldquo;By grand nobleness of
+expression, solemn bearing, and an excellent arrangement of the drapery,
+he reached a dignity which has rarely been surpassed.&rdquo; Near the close of
+his life he painted a few subjects which represent gay and festive scenes,
+and are more youthful in spirit than the works of his earlier years. The
+two brothers were buried side by side, in the Church of SS. Giovanni e
+Paolo, in Venice.</p>
+
+<p>There were also good painters in Padua, Ferrara, and Verona in the
+fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Andrea Mantegna</span>, of Padua (1430-1506), was a very important artist. He
+spent the best part of his life in the service of the Duke of Mantua; but
+his influence was felt in all Italy, for his marriage with the daughter of
+Jacopo Bellini brought him into relations with many artists. His services
+were sought by various sovereigns, whose offers he refused until Pope
+Innocent VIII. summoned him to Rome to paint a chapel in the Vatican.
+After two years there he returned to Mantua, where he died. His pictures
+are in all large collections; his finest works are madonnas at the Louvre,
+Paris, and in the Church of St. Zeno at Verona. Mantegna was a fine
+engraver also, and his plates are now very valuable.</p>
+
+<p>In the Umbrian school Pietro Perugino (1446-1524) was a notable painter;
+he was important on account of his own work, and because he was the master
+of the great Raphael. His pictures were simple and devout in their spirit,
+and brilliant in color; in fact, he is considered as the founder of the
+style which Raphael perfected. His works are in the principal galleries of
+Europe, and he had many followers of whom we have not space to speak.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Francisco Francia</span> (1450-1518) was the founder of the school of Bologna.
+His true name was Francisco di Marco Raibolini, and he was a goldsmith of
+repute before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> he was a painter. He was also master of the mint to the
+Bentivoglio and to Pope Julius II. at Bologna. It is not possible to say
+when he began to paint; but his earliest known work is dated 1490 or 1494,
+and is in the Gallery of Bologna. His pictures resemble those of Perugino
+and Raphael, and it is said that he died of sorrow because he felt himself
+so inferior to the great painter of Urbino. Raphael sent his St. Cecilia
+to Francia, and asked him to care for it and see it hung in its place; he
+did so, but did not live long after this. It is well known that these two
+masters were good friends and corresponded, but it is not certain that
+they ever met. Francia&#8217;s pictures are numerous; his portraits are
+excellent. Many of his works are still in Bologna.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig34" id="Fig34"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 285px;">
+<a href="images/img34.jpg">
+<img src="images/img34_th.jpg" width="285" height="300" alt="Fig 34" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.&mdash;Madonna.</span> <em>By Perugino.<br />
+In the Pitti Gallery, Florence.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We come now to one of the most celebrated masters of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> Italy, <span class="smcap">Leonardo da
+Vinci</span> (1452-1519), the head of the Lombard or Milanese school. He was not
+the equal of the great masters, Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Titian; but
+he stands between them and the painters who preceded him or those of his
+own day.</p>
+
+<p>In some respects, however, he was the most extraordinary man of his time.
+His talents were many-sided; for he was not only a great artist, but also
+a fine scholar in mathematics and mechanics; he wrote poetry and composed
+music, and was with all this so attractive personally, and so brilliant in
+his manner, that he was a favorite wherever he went. It is probable that
+this versatility prevented his being very great in any one thing, while he
+was remarkable in many things.</p>
+
+<p>When still very young Leonardo showed his artistic talent. The paper upon
+which he worked out his sums was frequently bordered with little pictures
+which he drew while thinking on his lessons, and these sketches at last
+attracted his father&#8217;s attention, and he showed them to his friend Andrea
+Verrocchio, an artist of Florence, who advised that the boy should become
+a painter. Accordingly, in 1470, when eighteen years old, Leonardo was
+placed under the care of Verrocchio, who was like a kind father to his
+pupils: he was not only a painter, but also an architect and sculptor, a
+musician and a geometer, and he especially excelled in making exquisite
+cups of gold and silver, crucifixes and statuettes such as were in great
+demand for the use of the priesthood in those days.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig35" id="Fig35"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/img35.png">
+<img src="images/img35_th.png" width="279" height="400" alt="Fig 35" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.&mdash;Leonardo da Vinci.</span> <em>From a drawing in red chalk
+by himself.<br /> In the Royal Library, Turin.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pietro Perugino was a fellow-pupil with Leonardo, and they two soon
+surpassed their master in painting, and at last, when Verrocchio was
+painting a picture for the monks of Vallambrosa, and desired Leonardo to
+execute an angel in it, the work of his pupil was so much better than his
+own that the old painter desired to throw his brush aside forever. The
+picture is now in the Academy of Florence, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> represents &ldquo;The Baptism
+of Christ.&rdquo; With all his refinement and sweetness, Leonardo had a liking
+for the horrible. It once happened that a countryman brought to his father
+a circular piece of wood cut from a fig-tree, and desired to have it
+painted for a shield; it was handed over to Leonardo, who collected in his
+room a number of lizards, snakes, bats, hedgehogs, and other frightful
+creatures, and from these painted an unknown monster having certain
+characteristics of the horrid things he had about him. The hideous
+creature was surrounded by fire, and was breathing out flames. When his
+father saw it he ran away in a fright, and Leonardo was greatly pleased at
+this. The countryman received an ordinary shield, and this <em>Rotello del
+Fico</em> (or shield of fig-tree wood) was sold to a merchant for one hundred
+ducats, and again to the Duke of Milan for three times that sum. This
+shield has now been lost for more than three centuries; but another
+horror, the &ldquo;Medusa&#8217;s Head,&rdquo; is in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, and is
+a head surrounded by interlacing serpents, the eyes being glassy and
+deathlike and the mouth most revolting in expression.</p>
+
+<p>While in Florence Leonardo accomplished much, but was at times diverted
+from his painting by his love of science, sometimes making studies in
+astronomy and again in natural history and botany; he also went much into
+society, and lived extravagantly. He had the power to remember faces that
+he had seen accidentally, and could make fine portraits from memory; he
+was also accustomed to invite to his house people from the lower classes;
+he would amuse them while he sketched their faces, making good portraits
+at times, and again ridiculous caricatures. He even went so far, for the
+sake of his art, as to accompany criminals to the place of execution, in
+order to study their expressions.</p>
+
+<p>After a time Leonardo wished to secure some fixed income, and wrote to the
+Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> called Il Moro, offering his services to
+that prince. This resulted in his going to Milan, where he received a
+generous salary, and became very popular with the Duke and all the court,
+both as a painter and as a gentleman. The Duke governed as the regent for
+his young nephew, and gathered about him talented men for the benefit of
+the young prince. He also led a gay life, and his court was the scene of
+constant festivities. Leonardo&#8217;s varied talents were very useful to the
+Duke; he could assist him in everything&mdash;by advice at his council, by
+plans for adorning his city, by music and poetry in his leisure hours, and
+by painting the portraits of his favorites. Some of these last are now
+famous pictures&mdash;that of Lucrezia Crevelli is believed to be in the Louvre
+at Paris, where it is called &ldquo;La Belle Ferroni&egrave;re.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Duke conferred a great honor on Leonardo by choosing him to be the
+founder and director of an academy which he had long wished to establish.
+It was called the &ldquo;Academia Leonardi Vinci,&rdquo; and had for its purpose the
+bringing together of distinguished artists and men of letters. Leonardo
+was appointed superintendent of all the f&ecirc;tes and entertainments given by
+the court, and in this department he did some marvellous things. He also
+superintended a great work in engineering which he brought to perfection,
+to the wonder of all Italy: it was no less an undertaking than bringing
+the waters of the Adda from Mortisana to Milan, a distance of nearly two
+hundred miles. In spite of all these occupations the artist found time to
+study anatomy and to write some valuable works. At length Il Moro became
+the established duke, and at his brilliant court Leonardo led a most
+agreeable life; but he was so occupied with many things that he painted
+comparatively few pictures.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig36" id="Fig36"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img36.jpg">
+<img src="images/img36_th.jpg" width="500" height="241" alt="Fig 36" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.&mdash;The Last Supper.</span> <em>By Leonardo da Vinci.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At length the Duke desired him to paint a picture of the Last Supper on
+the wall of the refectory in the Convent of the Madonna delle Grazie. This
+was his greatest work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> in Milan and a wonderful masterpiece. It was
+commenced about 1496, and was finished in a very short time. We must now
+judge of it from copies and engravings, for it has been so injured as to
+give no satisfaction to one who sees it. Some good copies were made before
+it was thus ruined, and numerous engravings make it familiar to all the
+world. A copy in the Royal Academy, London, was made by one of Leonardo&#8217;s
+pupils, and is the size of the original. It is said that the prior of the
+convent complained to the Duke of the length of time the artist was
+spending upon this picture; when the Duke questioned the painter he said
+that he was greatly troubled to find a face which pleased him for that of
+Judas Iscariot; he added that he was willing to allow the prior to sit for
+this figure and thus hasten the work; this answer pleased the Duke and
+silenced the prior.</p>
+
+<p>After a time misfortunes overtook the Duke, and Leonardo was reduced to
+poverty; finally Il Moro was imprisoned; and in 1500 Leonardo returned to
+Florence, where he was honorably received. He was not happy here, however,
+for he was not the one important artist. He had been absent nineteen
+years, and great changes had taken place; Michael Angelo and Raphael were
+just becoming famous, and they with other artists welcomed Leonardo, for
+his fame had reached them from Milan. However, he painted some fine
+pictures at this time; among them were the &ldquo;Adoration of the Kings,&rdquo; now
+in the Uffizi Gallery, and a portrait of Ginevra Benci, also in the same
+gallery. This lady must have been very beautiful; Ghirlandajo introduced
+her portrait into two of his frescoes.</p>
+
+<p>But the most remarkable portrait was that known as Mona Lisa del Giocondo,
+which is in the Louvre, and is called by some critics the finest work of
+this master. The lady was the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, a lovely
+woman, and some suppose that she was very dear to Leonardo. He worked upon
+it for four years, and still thought it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>unfinished: the face has a deep,
+thoughtful expression&mdash;the eyelids are a little weary, perhaps, and
+through it all there is a suggestion of something not quite understood&mdash;a
+mystery: the hands are graceful and of perfect form, and the rocky
+background gives an unusual fascination to the whole picture. Leonardo
+must have loved the picture himself, and it is not strange that he
+lavished more time upon it than he gave to the great picture of the Last
+Supper (<a href="#Fig37">Fig. 37</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Leonardo sold this picture to Francis I. for nine thousand dollars, which
+was then an enormous sum, though now one could scarcely fix a price upon
+it. In 1860 the Emperor of Russia paid twelve thousand dollars for a St.
+Sebastian by Leonardo, and in 1865 a madonna by him was sold in Paris for
+about sixteen thousand dollars. Of course his pictures are rarely sold;
+but, when they are, great sums are given for them.</p>
+
+<p>In 1502 C&aelig;sar Borgia appointed Leonardo his engineer and sent him to
+travel through Central Italy to inspect his fortresses; but this usurper
+soon fled to Spain, and in 1503 our painter was again in Florence. In 1504
+his father died. From 1507 to 1512 Leonardo was at the summit of his
+greatness. Louis XII. appointed him his painter, and he labored for this
+monarch also to improve the water-works of Milan. For seven years he dwelt
+at Milan, making frequent journeys to Florence. But the political troubles
+of the time made Lombardy an uncongenial home for any artist, and
+Leonardo, with a few pupils, went to Florence and then on to Rome. Pope
+Leo X. received him cordially enough, and told him to &ldquo;work for the glory
+of God, Italy, Leo X., and Leonardo da Vinci.&rdquo; But Leonardo was not happy
+in Rome, where Michael Angelo and Raphael were in great favor, and when
+Francis I. made his successes in Italy in 1515, Leonardo hastened to
+Lombardy to meet him. The new king of France restored him to the office to
+which Louis XII. had appointed him, and gave him an annual pension of
+seven hundred gold crowns.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig37" id="Fig37"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 291px;">
+<a href="images/img37.jpg">
+<img src="images/img37_th.jpg" width="291" height="400" alt="Fig 37" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.&mdash;Mona Lisa.&mdash;<br />
+&ldquo;La Belle Joconde.</span>&rdquo;</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+When Francis returned to France he desired to cut out the wall on which
+the Last Supper was painted, and carry it to his own country: this proved
+to be impossible, and it is much to be regretted, as it is probable that
+if it could have been thus removed it would have been better preserved.
+However, not being able to take the artist&#8217;s great work, the king took
+Leonardo himself, together with his favorite pupils and friends and his
+devoted servant. In France, Leonardo was treated with consideration. He
+resided near Amboise, where he could mingle with the court. It is said
+that, old though he was, he was so much admired that the courtiers
+imitated his dress and the cut of his beard and hair. He was given the
+charge of all artistic matters in France, and doubtless Francis hoped that
+he would found an Academy as he had done at Milan. But he seems to have
+left all his energy, all desire for work, on the Italian side of the Alps.
+He made a few plans; but he brought no great thing to pass, and soon his
+health failed, and he fell into a decline. He gave great attention to
+religious matters, received the sacrament, and then made his will, and put
+his worldly affairs in order.</p>
+
+<p>The king was accustomed to visit him frequently, and on the last day of
+his life, when the sovereign entered the room, Leonardo desired to be
+raised up as a matter of respect to the king: sitting, he conversed of his
+sufferings, and lamented that he had done so little for God and man. Just
+then he was seized with an attack of pain&mdash;the king rose to support him,
+and thus, in the arms of Francis, the great master breathed his last. This
+has sometimes been doubted; but the modern French critics agree with the
+ancient writers who give this account of his end.</p>
+
+<p>He was buried in the Church of St. Florentin at Amboise, and it is not
+known that any monument was erected over him. In 1808 the church was
+destroyed; in 1863 Arsine Houssaye, with others, made a search for the
+grave of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> Leonardo, and it is believed that his remains were found. In
+1873 a noble monument was erected in Milan to the memory of Da Vinci. It
+is near the entrance to the Arcade of Victor Emmanuel: the statue of the
+master stands on a high pedestal in a thoughtful attitude, the head bowed
+down and the arms crossed on the breast. Below are other statues and rich
+bas-reliefs, and one inscription speaks of him as the &ldquo;Renewer of the Arts
+and Sciences.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Many of his writings are in the libraries of Europe in manuscript form:
+his best known work is the &ldquo;Trattato della Pittura,&rdquo; and has been
+translated into English. As an engineer his canal of Mortesana was enough
+to give him fame; as an artist he may be called the &ldquo;Poet of Painters,&rdquo;
+and, if those who followed him surpassed him, it should be remembered that
+it is easier to advance in a path once opened than to discover a new path.
+Personally he was much beloved, and, though he lived when morals were at a
+low estimate, he led a proper and reputable life. His pictures were pure
+in their spirit, and he seemed only to desire the progress of art and
+science, and it is a pleasure to read and learn of him, as it is to see
+his works.</p>
+
+<p>Other good artists of the Lombard school in the fifteenth century were
+<span class="smcap">Bernardino Luini</span> (about 1460-1530), who was the best pupil of Leonardo,
+<span class="smcap">Giovanni Antonio Beltraffio</span> (1467-1516), <span class="smcap">Gaudenzio Farrari</span> (1484-1549),
+<span class="smcap">Ambrogio Borgognone</span> (works dated about 1500), and <span class="smcap">Andrea Solario</span>, whose
+age is not known.</p>
+
+<p>We return now to the Florentine school at a time when the most remarkable
+period of its existence was about to begin. We shall speak first of <span class="smcap">Fra
+Bartolommeo</span> or <span class="smcap">Baccio della Porta</span>, also called <span class="smcap">Il Frate</span> (1469-1517). He
+was born at Savignano, and studied at Florence under Cosimo Rosselli, but
+was much influenced by the works of Leonardo da Vinci. This painter became
+famous for the beauty of his pictures of the Madonna, and at the time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+when the great Savonarola went to Florence Bartolommeo was employed in the
+Convent of San Marco, where the preacher lived. The artist became the
+devoted friend of the preacher, and, when the latter was seized, tortured,
+and burned, Bartolommeo became a friar, and left his pictures to be
+finished by his pupil Albertinelli. For four years he lived the most
+austere life, and did not touch his brush: then his superior commanded him
+to resume his art; but the painter had no interest in it. About this time
+Raphael sought him out, and became his friend; he also instructed the monk
+in perspective, and in turn Raphael learned from him, for Fra Bartolommeo
+was the first artist who used lay figures in arranging his draperies; he
+also told Raphael some secrets of colors.</p>
+
+<p>About 1513 Bartolommeo went to Rome, and after his return to his convent
+he began what promised to be a wonderful artistic career; but he only
+lived four years more, and the amount of his work was so small that his
+pictures are now rare. His madonnas, saints, and angels are holy in their
+effect; his representations of architecture are grand, and while his works
+are not strong or powerful, they give much pleasure to those who see them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Michael Angelo Buonarroti</span> was born at the Castle of Caprese in 1475. His
+father, who was of a noble family of Florence, was then governor of
+Caprese and Chiusi, and, when the Buonarroti household returned to
+Florence, the little Angelo was left with his nurse on one of his father&#8217;s
+estates at Settignano. The father and husband of his nurse were
+stone-masons, and thus in infancy the future artist was in the midst of
+blocks of stone and marble and the implements which he later used with so
+much skill. For many years rude sketches were shown upon the walls of the
+nurse&#8217;s house made by her baby charge, and he afterward said that he
+imbibed a love for marble with his earliest food.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig38" id="Fig38"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;">
+<a href="images/img38.jpg">
+<img src="images/img38_th.jpg" width="338" height="400" alt="Fig 38" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.&mdash;Portrait of<br /> Michael Angelo Buonarroti.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the proper age Angelo was taken to Florence and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> placed in school; but
+he spent his time mostly in drawing, and having made the acquaintance of
+Francesco Granacci, at that time a pupil with Ghirlandajo, he borrowed
+from him designs and materials by which to carry on his beloved pursuits.
+Michael Angelo&#8217;s desire to become an artist was violently opposed by his
+father and his uncles, for they desired him to be a silk and woollen
+merchant, and sustain the commercial reputation of the family. But so
+determined was he that finally his father yielded, and in 1488 placed him
+in the studio of Ghirlandajo. Here the boy of thirteen worked with great
+diligence; he learned how to prepare colors and to lay the groundwork of
+frescoes, and he was set to copy drawings. Very soon he wearied of this,
+and began to make original designs after his own ideas. At one time he
+corrected a drawing of his master&#8217;s: when he saw this, sixty years later,
+he said, &ldquo;I almost think that I knew more of art in my youth than I do in
+my old age.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When Michael Angelo went to Ghirlandajo, that master was employed on the
+restoration of the choir of Santa Maria Novella, so that the boy came at
+once into the midst of important work. One day he drew a picture of the
+scaffolding and all that belonged to it, with the painters at work
+thereon: when his master saw it he exclaimed, &ldquo;He already understands more
+than I do myself.&rdquo; This excellence in the scholar roused the jealousy of
+the master, as well as of his other pupils, and it was a relief to Michael
+Angelo when, in answer to a request from Lorenzo de Medici, he and
+Francesco Granacci were named by Ghirlandajo as his two most promising
+scholars, and were then sent to the Academy which the duke had
+established. The art treasures which Lorenzo gave for the use of the
+students were arranged in the gardens of San Marco, and here, under the
+instruction of the old Bertoldo, Angelo forgot painting in his enthusiasm
+for sculpture. He first copied the face of a faun; but he changed it
+somewhat, and opened<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> the mouth so that the teeth could be seen. When
+Lorenzo visited the garden he praised the work, but said, &ldquo;You have made
+your faun so old, and yet you have left him all his teeth; you should have
+known that at such an advanced age there are generally some wanting.&rdquo; The
+next time he came there was a gap in the teeth, and so well done that he
+was delighted. This work is now in the Uffizi Gallery.</p>
+
+<p>Lorenzo now sent for the father of Angelo, and asked that the son might
+live in the Medici palace under his own care. Somewhat reluctantly the
+father consented, and the duke gave him an office in the custom-house.
+From this time for three years, Angelo sat daily at the duke&#8217;s table, and
+was treated as one of his own family; he was properly clothed, and had an
+allowance of five ducats a month for pocket-money. It was the custom with
+Lorenzo to give an entertainment every day; he took the head of the table,
+and whoever came first had a seat next him. It often happened that Michael
+Angelo had this place. Lorenzo was the head of Florence, and Florence was
+the head of art, poetry, and all scholarly thought. Thus, in the home of
+the Medici, the young artist heard learned talk upon all subjects of
+interest; he saw there all the celebrated men who lived in the city or
+visited it, and his life so near Lorenzo, for a thoughtful youth, as he
+was, amounted to an education.</p>
+
+<p>The society of Florence at this time was not of a high moral tone, and in
+the year in which Michael Angelo entered the palace, a monk called
+Savonarola came to Florence to preach against the customs and the crimes
+of the city. Michael Angelo was much affected by this, and throughout his
+long life remembered Savonarola with true respect and affection, and his
+brother, Leonardo Buonarroti, was so far influenced that he withdrew from
+the world and became a Dominican monk.</p>
+
+<p>Michael Angelo&#8217;s diligence was great; he not only studied sculpture, but
+he found time to copy some of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> fine old frescoes in the Church of the
+Carmine. He gave great attention to the study of anatomy, and he was known
+throughout the city for his talents, and for his pride and bad temper. He
+held himself aloof from his fellow-pupils, and one day, in a quarrel with
+Pi&egrave;tro Torrigiano, the latter gave Angelo a blow and crushed his nose so
+badly that he was disfigured for life. Torrigiano was banished for this
+offence and went to England; he ended his life in a Spanish prison.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1492 Lorenzo de Medici died. Michael Angelo was deeply
+grieved at the loss of his best friend; he left the Medici palace, and
+opened a studio in his father&#8217;s house, where he worked diligently for two
+years, making a statue of Hercules and two madonnas. After two years there
+came a great snow-storm, and Piero de Medici sent for the artist to make a
+snow statue in his court-yard. He also invited Michael Angelo to live
+again in the palace, and the invitation was accepted; but all was so
+changed there that he embraced the first opportunity to leave, and during
+a political disturbance fled from the city with two friends, and made his
+way to Venice. There he met the noble Aldovrandi of Bologna, who invited
+the sculptor to his home, where he remained about a year, and then
+returned to his studio in Florence.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after this he made a beautiful, sleeping Cupid, and when the young
+Lorenzo de Medici saw it he advised Michael Angelo to bury it in the
+ground for a season, and thus make it look like an antique marble; after
+this was done, Lorenzo sent it to Rome and sold it to the Cardinal Riario,
+and gave the sculptor thirty ducats. In some way the truth of the matter
+reached the ears of the Cardinal, who sent his agent to Florence to find
+the artist. When Michael Angelo heard that two hundred ducats had been
+paid for his Cupid, he knew that he had been deceived. The Cardinal&#8217;s
+agent invited him to go to Rome, and he gladly went. The oldest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> existing
+writing from the hand of Michael Angelo is the letter which he wrote to
+Lorenzo to inform him of his arrival in Rome. He was then twenty-one years
+old, and spoke with joy of all the beautiful things he had seen.</p>
+
+<p>Not long after he reached Rome he made the statue of the &ldquo;Drunken
+Bacchus,&rdquo; now in the Uffizi Gallery, and then the Virgin Mary sitting near
+the place of the cross and holding the body of the dead Christ. The
+art-term for this subject is &ldquo;La Piet&agrave;.&rdquo; From the time that Michael Angelo
+made this beautiful work he was the first sculptor of the world, though he
+was but twenty-four years old. The Piet&agrave; was placed in St. Peter&#8217;s Church,
+where it still remains. The next year he returned to Florence. He was
+occupied with both painting and sculpture, and was soon employed on his
+&ldquo;David,&rdquo; one of his greatest works. This statue weighed eighteen thousand
+pounds, and its removal from the studio in which it was made to the place
+where it was to stand, next the gate of the Palazzo Vecchio, was a
+difficult undertaking. It was at last put in place on May 18, 1504; there
+it remained until a few years ago, when, on account of its crumbling from
+the effect of the weather, it was removed to the Academy of Fine Arts by
+means of a railroad built for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>About this time a rivalry sprang up between Michael Angelo and Leonardo da
+Vinci. They were very unlike in their characters and mode of life. Michael
+Angelo was bitter, ironical, and liked to be alone; Leonardo loved to be
+gay and to see the world; Michael Angelo lived so that when he was old he
+said, &ldquo;Rich as I am, I have always lived like a poor man;&rdquo; Leonardo
+enjoyed luxury, and kept a fine house, with horses and servants. They had
+entered into a competition which was likely to result in serious trouble,
+when Pope Julius II. summoned Michael Angelo to Rome. The Pope gave him an
+order to build him a splendid tomb; but the enemies of the sculptor made
+trouble for him, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> one morning he was refused admission to the Pope&#8217;s
+palace. He then left Rome, sending this letter to the Pope: &ldquo;Most Holy
+Father, I was this morning driven from the palace by the order of your
+Holiness. If you require me in future you can seek me elsewhere than at
+Rome.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Then he went to Florence, and the Pope sent for him again and again; but
+he did not go. Meantime he finished his design, and received the
+commission that he and Leonardo had striven for, which was to decorate the
+hall of the Grand Council with pictures. At last, in 1506, the Pope was in
+Bologna, and again sent for Michael Angelo. He went, and was forgiven for
+his offence, and received an order for a colossal statue of the Pope in
+bronze. When this was finished in 1508, and put before the Church of St.
+Petronio, Michael Angelo returned to Florence. He had not made friends in
+Bologna; his forbidding manner did not encourage others to associate with
+him; but we now know from his letters that he had great trials. His family
+was poor, and all relied on him; indeed, his life was full of care and
+sadness.</p>
+
+<p>In 1508 he was again summoned to Rome by the Pope, who insisted that he
+should paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican. Michael
+Angelo did not wish to do this, as he had done no great painting. It
+proved to be one of his most famous works; but he had a great deal of
+trouble in it. On one occasion the Pope threatened to throw the artist
+from the scaffolding. The Pope complained also that the pictures looked
+poor; to this the artist replied: &ldquo;They are only poor people whom I have
+painted there, and did not wear gold on their garments.&rdquo; His subjects were
+from the Bible. When the artist would have a leave of absence to go to
+Florence, the Pope got so angry that he struck him; but, in spite of all,
+this great painting was finished in 1512. Grimm, in his life of Michael
+Angelo, says: &ldquo;It needed the meeting of these two men; in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> one such
+perseverance in requiring, and in the other such power of fulfilling, to
+produce this monument of human art.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig39" id="Fig39"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 232px;">
+<a href="images/img39.jpg">
+<img src="images/img39_th.jpg" width="232" height="350" alt="Fig 39" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.&mdash;The Prophet Jeremiah.</span> <em>By M. Angelo.<br />
+From the Sistine Chapel.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is impossible here to follow, step by step, the life and works of this
+master. Among the other great things which he did are the tomb of Julius
+II. in the Church of S. Pietro in Vincoli, in Rome, of which the famous
+statue of Moses makes a part (<a href="#Fig40">Fig. 40</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig40" id="Fig40"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;">
+<a href="images/img40.jpg">
+<img src="images/img40_th.jpg" width="256" height="400" alt="Fig 40" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.&mdash;Statue of Moses.</span><br />
+<em>By M. Angelo.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>He made the statues in the Medici Chapel in the Church of San Lorenzo, in
+Florence, the painting of the Last Judgment on a wall of the Sistine
+Chapel, and many works as an architect; for he was called upon to attend
+to fortifications both in Florence and Rome, and at last, as his
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>greatest work of this sort, he was the architect of St. Peter&#8217;s at Rome.
+Many different artists had had a share in this work; but as it now is
+Michael Angelo may be counted as its real architect. His works are
+numerous and only a small part of them is here mentioned; but I have
+spoken of those by which he is most remembered. His life, too, was a
+stormy one for many reasons that we have not space to tell. While he lived
+there were wars and great changes in Italy; he served also under nine
+popes, and during his life thirteen men occupied the papal chair. Besides
+being great as a painter, an architect, and a sculptor, he was a poet, and
+wrote sonnets well worthy of such a genius as his. His whole life was so
+serious and sad that it gives one joy to know that in his old age he
+formed an intimate friendship with Vittoria Colonna, a wonderful woman,
+who made a sweet return to him for all the tender devotion which he
+lavished upon her.</p>
+
+<p>Italians associate the name of Michael Angelo with those of the divine
+poet Dante and the painter Raphael, and these three are spoken of as the
+three greatest men of their country in what are called the modern days.
+Michael Angelo died at Rome in 1564, when eighty-nine years old. He
+desired to be buried in Florence; but his friends feared to let this be
+known lest the Pope should forbid his removal. He was therefore buried in
+the Church of the Holy Apostles; but his nephew, Leonardo Buonarroti,
+conveyed his remains to Florence secretly, disguised as a bale of
+merchandise. At Florence, on a Sunday night, his body was borne to Santa
+Croce, in a torchlight procession, and followed by many thousands of
+citizens. There his friends once more gazed upon the face which had not
+been seen in Florence for thirty years; he looked as if quietly sleeping.
+Some days later a splendid memorial service was held in San Lorenzo,
+attended by all the court, the artists, scholars, and eminent men of the
+city. An oration was pronounced;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> rare statues and paintings were
+collected in the church; all the shops of the city were closed; and the
+squares were filled with people.</p>
+
+<p>Above his grave in Santa Croce, where he lies near Dante, Machiavelli,
+Galileo, and many other great men, the Duke and Leonardo Buonarroti
+erected a monument. It has statues of Painting, Sculpture, and
+Architecture, and a bust of the great man who sleeps beneath.</p>
+
+<p>In the court of the Uffizi his statue stands together with those of other
+great Florentines. His house in the Ghibelline Street now belongs to the
+city of Florence, and contains many treasured mementoes of his life and
+works; it is open to all who wish to visit it. In 1875 a grand festival
+was held in Florence to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of his
+birth. The ceremonies were very impressive, and at that time some
+documents which related to his life, and had never been opened, were, by
+command of Victor Emmanuel, given to proper persons to be examined.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it is that the great deeds of great men live on and on, through all
+time, and it is a joy to know that though the fourscore and nine years of
+the life of this artist had much of care and sorrow in them, his name and
+memory are still cherished, and must continue to be, while from his life
+many lessons may be drawn to benefit and encourage others&mdash;lessons which
+we cannot here write out; but they teach patience, industry, and
+faithfulness to duty, while they also warn us to avoid the bitterness and
+roughness which are blemishes on the memory of this great, good man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Daniele de Volterra</span> (1509-1566) was the best scholar of Michael Angelo.
+His principal pictures are the &ldquo;Descent from the Cross,&rdquo; in the Church of
+Trinit&agrave; di Monti, in Rome, and the &ldquo;Massacre of the Innocents,&rdquo; in the
+Uffizi Gallery; both are celebrated works.</p>
+
+<p>The next important Florentine painter was <span class="smcap">Andrea del Sarto</span> (1488-1530).
+His family name was Vannucchi; but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>because his father was a tailor, the
+Italian term for one of his trade, <em>un sarto</em>, came to be used for the
+son. Early in life Andrea was a goldsmith, as were so many artists; but,
+when he was able to study painting under Pietro di Cosimo, he became
+devoted to it, and soon developed his own style, which was very soft and
+pleasing. His pictures cannot be called great works of art, but they are
+favorites with a large number of people. He succeeded in fresco-painting,
+and decorated several buildings in Florence, among them the Scalzo, which
+was a place where the Barefooted Friars held their meetings, and was named
+from them, as they are called <em>Scalzi</em>. These frescoes are now much
+injured; but they are thought his best works of this kind.</p>
+
+<p>Probably Andrea del Sarto would have come to be a better painter if he had
+been a happier man. His wife, of whom he was very fond, was a mean,
+selfish woman who wished only to make a great show, and did not value her
+husband&#8217;s talents except for the money which they brought him. She even
+influenced him to desert his parents, to whom he had ever been a dutiful
+son. About 1518 Francis I., king of France, invited Andrea to Paris to
+execute some works for him. The painter went, and was well established
+there and very popular, when his wife insisted that he should return to
+Florence. Francis I. was very unwilling to spare him, but Andrea dared not
+refuse to go to his wife; so he solemnly took an oath to return to Paris
+and bring his wife, so that he could remain as long as pleased the king,
+and then that sovereign consented. Francis also gave the artist a large
+sum of money to buy for him all sorts of beautiful objects.</p>
+
+<p>When Andrea reached Florence his wife refused to go to France, and
+persuaded him to give her the king&#8217;s money. She soon spent it, and Andrea,
+who lived ten years more, was very unhappy, while the king never forgave
+him, and to this day this wretched story must be told, and continues<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> the
+remembrance of his dishonesty. After all he had sacrificed for his wife,
+when he became very ill, in 1530, of some contagious disease, she deserted
+him. He died alone, and with no prayer or funeral was buried in the
+Convent of the Nunziata, where he had painted some of his frescoes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig41" id="Fig41"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img41.jpg">
+<img src="images/img41_th.jpg" width="500" height="352" alt="Fig 41" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.&mdash;The Madonna del Sacco.</span> <em>By Andrea del Sarto.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>His pictures are very numerous; they are correct in drawing, very softly
+finished, and have a peculiar gray tone of color. He painted a great
+number of Holy Families, one of which is called the &ldquo;Madonna del Sacco,&rdquo;
+because St. Joseph is leaning on a sack (<a href="#Fig41">Fig. 41</a>). This is in the convent
+where he is buried. His best work is called the &ldquo;Madonna di San Francesco&rdquo;
+and hangs in the tribune of the Uffizi Gallery. This is a most honorable
+place, for near it are pictures by Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, and
+other great painters, as well as some very celebrated statues, such as the
+&ldquo;Venus de Medici&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Dancing Faun.&rdquo; Andrea del Sarto&#8217;s pictures of
+the Madonna and Child are almost numberless; they are sweet, attractive
+works, as are also his St. Barbara, St. Agnes, and others of his single
+figures.</p>
+
+<p>We will now leave the Florentine school of the sixteenth century, and
+speak of the great master of the Roman school, <span class="smcap">Raphael Sanzio</span>, or <span class="smcap">Santi</span>
+(1483-1520), who was born at Urbino on Good Friday. His father was a
+painter, and Raphael showed his taste for art very early in life. Both his
+parents died while he was still a child, and though he must have learned
+something from seeing his father and other painters at their work, we say
+that Perugino was his first master, for he was but twelve years old when
+he entered the studio of that painter in Perugia.</p>
+
+<p>Here he remained more than eight years, and about the time of leaving
+painted the very celebrated picture called &ldquo;Lo Sposalizio,&rdquo; or the
+Marriage of the Virgin, now in the Brera at Milan. This picture is famous
+the world over, and is very important in the life of the painter, because
+it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> shows the highest point he reached under Perugino, or during what is
+called his first manner in painting. Before this he had executed a large
+number of beautiful pictures, among which was the so-called &ldquo;Staffa
+Madonna.&rdquo; This is a circular picture and represents the Virgin walking in
+a springtime landscape. It remained in the Staffa Palace in Perugia three
+hundred and sixty-eight years, and in 1871 was sold to the Emperor of
+Russia for seventy thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>In 1504 Raphael returned to Urbino, where he became the favorite of the
+court, and was much employed by the ducal family. To this time belong the
+&ldquo;St. George Slaying the Dragon&rdquo; and the &ldquo;St. Michael Attacking Satan,&rdquo; now
+in the gallery of the Louvre. But the young artist soon grew weary of the
+narrowness of his life, and went to Florence, where, amid the treasures of
+art with which that city was crowded, he felt as if he was in an enchanted
+land. It is worth while to recount the wonderful things he saw; they were
+the cathedral with the dome of Brunelleschi, the tower of Giotto, the
+marbles and bronzes of Donatello, the baptistery gates of Ghiberti, the
+pictures of Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, Fra Angelico, and many other older
+masters, while Michael Angelo and Leonardo were surprising themselves and
+all others with their beautiful works.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the second manner of Raphael begun. During his first winter
+here he painted the so-called &ldquo;Madonna della Gran Duca,&rdquo; now in the Pitti
+Gallery, and thus named because the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III.,
+carried it with him on all his journeys, and said his prayers before it at
+morning and evening. He made a visit to Urbino in 1505, and wherever he
+was he worked continually, and finished a great number of pictures, which
+as yet were of religious subjects with few and unimportant exceptions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig42" id="Fig42"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a href="images/img42.jpg">
+<img src="images/img42_th.jpg" width="283" height="400" alt="Fig 42" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.&mdash;Portrait of Raphael.</span><br />
+<em>Painted by Himself.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When he returned to Florence in 1506, the cartoon of Leonardo da Vinci&#8217;s
+&ldquo;Battle of the Standard&rdquo; and Michael Angelo&#8217;s &ldquo;Bathing Soldiers&rdquo; revealed
+a new world of art<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> to Raphael. He saw that heroic, exciting scenes could
+be represented by painting, and that vigor and passion could speak from
+the canvas as powerfully as Christian love and resignation. Still he did
+not attempt any new thing immediately. In Florence he moved in the best
+circles. He received orders for some portraits of nobles and wealthy men,
+as well as for madonnas and Holy Families. Before long he visited Bologna,
+and went again to Urbino, which had become a very important city under the
+reign of Duke Guidobaldo. The king of England, Henry VIII., had sent to
+this duke the decoration of the Order of the Garter. In return for this
+honor, the duke sent the king rich gifts, among which was a picture of St.
+George and the Dragon by Raphael.</p>
+
+<p>While at Urbino, at this time, he painted his first classic subject, the
+&ldquo;Three Graces.&rdquo; Soon after, he returned the third time to Florence, and
+now held much intercourse with Fra Bartolommeo, who gave the younger
+artist valuable instruction as to his color and drapery. In 1508, among a
+great number of pictures he painted the madonna which is called &ldquo;La Belle
+Jardini&egrave;re,&rdquo; and is now one of the treasures of the Louvre. The Virgin is
+pictured in the midst of a flowery landscape, and it has been said that a
+beautiful flower-girl to whom Raphael was attached was his model for the
+picture. This picture is also a landmark in the history of Raphael, for it
+shows the perfection of his second manner, and the change that had come
+over him from his Florentine experience and associations. His earlier
+pictures had been full of a sweet, unearthly feeling, and a color which
+could be called spiritual was spread over them; now his madonnas were like
+beautiful, earthly mothers, his colors were deep and rich, and his
+landscapes were often replaced by architectural backgrounds which gave a
+stately air where all before had been simplicity. His skill in grouping,
+in color, and in drapery was now marvellous, and when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> in 1508 the Pope,
+who had seen some of his works, summoned him to Rome, he went, fully
+prepared for the great future which was before him, and now began his
+third, or Roman manner of painting.</p>
+
+<p>This pope was Julius II., who held a magnificent court and was ambitious
+for glory in every department of life&mdash;as a temporal as well as a
+spiritual ruler, and as a patron of art and letters as well as in his
+office of the Protector of the Holy Church. He had vast designs for the
+adornment of Rome, and immediately employed Raphael in the decoration of
+the first of the Stanze, or halls of the Vatican, four of which he
+ornamented with magnificent frescoes before his death. He also executed
+wall-paintings in the Chigi Palace, and in a chapel of the Church of Santa
+Maria della Pace.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of a short visit to Florence, Raphael passed the
+remainder of his life in Rome. The amount of work which he did as an
+architect, sculptor, and painter was marvellous, and would require the
+space of a volume to follow it, and name all his achievements, step by
+step, so I shall only tell you of some of his best-known works and those
+which are most often mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>While he was working upon the halls of the Vatican Julius II. died. He was
+succeeded by Leo X., who also was a generous patron to Raphael, who thus
+suffered no loss of occupation from the change of popes. The artist became
+very popular and rich; he had many pupils, and was assisted by them in his
+great frescoes, not only in the Vatican, but also in the Farnesina Villa
+or Chigi Palace. Raphael had the power to attach men to him with devoted
+affection, and his pupils gave him personal service gladly; he was often
+seen in the street with numbers of them in attendance, just as the nobles
+were followed by their squires and pages. He built himself a house in a
+quarter of the city called the Borgo, not far from the Church of St.
+Peter&#8217;s,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> and during the remainder of his life was attended by prosperity
+and success.</p>
+
+<p>One of the important works which he did for Leo X. was the making of
+cartoons, or designs to be executed in tapestry for the decoration of the
+Sistine Chapel, where Michael Angelo had painted his great frescoes. The
+Pope ordered these tapestries to be woven in the looms of Flanders, from
+the richest materials, and a quantity of gold thread was used in them.
+They were completed and sent to Rome in 1519, and were exhibited to the
+people the day after Christmas, when all the city flocked to see them. In
+1527, when the Constable de Bourbon allowed the French soldiers to sack
+Rome, these tapestries were carried away. In 1553 they were restored; but
+one was missing, and it is believed that it had been destroyed for the
+sake of the gold thread which was in it. Again, in 1798, the French
+carried them away and sold them to a Jew in Leghorn, who burned one of the
+pieces; but his gain in gold was so little that he preserved the others,
+and Pius VII. bought them and restored them to the Vatican. The cartoons,
+however, are far more important than the tapestries, because they are the
+work of Raphael himself. The weavers at Arras tossed them aside after
+using them, and some were torn; but a century later the artist Rubens
+learned that they existed, and advised King Charles I. of England to buy
+them. This he did, and thus the cartoons met with as many ups and downs as
+the tapestries had had. When they reached England they were in strips; the
+workmen had cut them for their convenience. After the king was executed
+Cromwell bought the cartoons for three hundred pounds. When Charles II.
+was king and in great need of money he was sorely tempted to sell them to
+Louis XIV., who coveted them, and wished to add them to the treasures of
+France; but Lord Danby persuaded Charles to keep them. In 1698 they were
+barely saved from fire at Whitehall, and finally,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> by command of William
+III., they were properly repaired and a room was built at Hampton Court to
+receive them, by the architect, Sir Christopher Wren. At present they are
+in the South Kensington Museum, London. Of the original eleven only seven
+remain.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig43" id="Fig43"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 247px;">
+<a href="images/img43.jpg">
+<img src="images/img43_th.jpg" width="247" height="400" alt="Fig 43" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.&mdash;The Sistine Madonna.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Both Henry VIII. and Francis I. had received presents of pictures by
+Raphael: we have told of the occasion when the St. George was sent to
+England. The &ldquo;Archangel Michael&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Large Holy Family of the Louvre&rdquo;
+were given to Francis I. by Lorenzo de Medici, who sent them overland on
+mules to the Palace of Fontainebleau. Francis was so charmed with these
+works that he presented Raphael so large a sum that he was unwilling to
+accept it without sending the king still other pictures; so he sent the
+sovereign another painting, and to the king&#8217;s sister, Queen Margaret of
+Navarre, he gave a picture of St. Margaret overcoming the dragon. Then
+Francis gave Raphael many thanks and another rich gift of money. Besides
+this he invited Raphael to come to his court, as did also the king of
+England; but the artist preferred to remain where he was already so
+prosperous and happy.</p>
+
+<p>About 1520 Raphael painted the famous Sistine Madonna, now the pride of
+the Dresden Gallery. It is named from St. Sixtus, for whose convent, at
+Piacenza, it was painted: the picture of this saint, too, is in the lower
+part of the picture, with that of St. Barbara. No sketch or drawing of
+this work was ever found, and it is believed that the great artist,
+working as if inspired, sketched it and finished it on the canvas where it
+is. It was originally intended for a <em>drappellone</em>, or procession
+standard, but the monks used it for an altar-piece (<a href="#Fig43">Fig. 43</a>).</p>
+
+<p>While Raphael accomplished so much as a painter, he by no means gave all
+his time or thought to a single art. He was made superintendent of the
+building of St. Peter&#8217;s in 1514, and made many architectural drawings for
+that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> church; he was also much interested in the excavations of ancient
+Rome, and made immense numbers of drawings of various sorts. As a sculptor
+he made models and designs, and there is in the Church of Santa Maria del
+Popolo, in Rome, a statue of Jonah sitting on a whale, said to have been
+modelled by Raphael and put into marble by Lorenzetto Latti.</p>
+
+<p>Raphael was also interested in what was happening outside the world of
+art; he corresponded with scholars of different countries, and sent men to
+make drawings of places and objects which he could not go to see. He was
+also generous to those less fortunate than himself, and gave encouragement
+and occupation to many needy men.</p>
+
+<p>At one time he expected to marry Maria de Bibiena, a niece of Cardinal
+Bibiena; but she died before the time for the marriage came.</p>
+
+<p>While Raphael was making his great successes in Rome, other famous artists
+also were there, and there came to be much discussion as to their merits,
+and especially as to the comparative worth of Michael Angelo and Raphael.
+At last, when this feeling of rivalry was at its height, the Cardinal
+Giulio de Medici, afterward Pope Clement VII., gave orders to Raphael and
+Sebastian del Piombo to paint two large pictures for the Cathedral of
+Narbonne. The subject of Sebastian&#8217;s picture was the &ldquo;Raising of Lazarus,&rdquo;
+and it has always been said that Michael Angelo made the drawing for it.</p>
+
+<p>Raphael&#8217;s picture was the &ldquo;Transfiguration,&rdquo; and proved to be his last
+work, for before it was finished he was attacked by fever, and died on
+Good Friday, 1620, which was the thirty-seventh anniversary of his birth.
+All Rome mourned for him; his body was laid in state, and the
+Transfiguration was placed near it. Those who had known him went to weep
+while they gazed upon his face for the last time.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+He had chosen his grave in the Pantheon, near to that of Maria Bibiena,
+his betrothed bride. The ceremonies of his burial were magnificent, and
+his body was followed by an immense throng dressed in mourning. Above his
+tomb was placed an inscription in Latin, written by Pietro Bembo, which
+has for its last sentence these words: &ldquo;This is that Raphael by whom
+Nature feared to be conquered while he lived, and to die when he died.&rdquo;
+Raphael had also requested Lorenzo Lorenzetti to make a statue of the
+Virgin to be placed above his resting-place. He left a large estate, and
+gave his works of art to his pupils Giulio Romano and Francesco Penni; his
+house to Cardinal Bibiena; a sum to buy another house, the rent of which
+should pay for twelve masses to be said monthly, for the repose of his
+soul, from the altar near his grave; this was observed until 1705, when
+the income from the house was not enough to support these services.</p>
+
+<p>For many years there was a skull at the Academy of St. Luke, in Rome,
+which was called that of Raphael; but there was no proof of this, and in
+1833 some antiquarians received the consent of the Pope to their searching
+for the bones of Raphael in his grave in the Pantheon. After five days of
+careful work, and removing the pavement in several places, the skeleton of
+the great master was found, and with it such proofs of its being his as
+left no room for doubt. Then a second great funeral service was held; the
+Pope, Gregory XVI., gave a marble sarcophagus in which the bones were
+placed, and reverently restored to their first resting-place. More than
+three thousand persons were present at the service, including artists of
+all nations, as well as Romans of the highest rank. They moved in
+procession about the church, bearing torches in their hands, and keeping
+time to beautiful chants from an invisible choir.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig44" id="Fig44"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<a href="images/img44.jpg">
+<img src="images/img44_th.jpg" width="263" height="400" alt="Fig 44" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.&mdash;Saint Cecilia Listening to the Singing of Angels.</span>
+<em>By Raphael.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Raphael left two hundred and eighty-seven pictures and five hundred and
+seventy-six studies and drawings, and all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> done in so short a life. In
+considering him and the story of his life, we find that it was not any one
+trait or talent that made his greatness; but it was the rare union of
+gifts of genius with a personal charm that won all hearts to him. His
+famous picture of &ldquo;St. Cecilia,&rdquo; with its sweetness of expression and
+lovely color&mdash;its union of earthly beauty with spiritual feeling, is a
+symbol of the harmonious and varied qualities of this prince of painters
+(<a href="#Fig44">Fig. 44</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Giulio Romano</span> (1492-1556) was the favorite pupil of Raphael, and the heir
+of a part of his estate; but his remaining works would not repay us for a
+study of them.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, the influence of so great a master as Raphael was felt outside
+of his own school, and, in a sense, all Italian art of his time was
+modified by him. His effect was very noticeable upon a Sienese painter,
+<span class="smcap">Bazzi</span>, or <span class="smcap">Razzi</span>, called <span class="smcap">Il Sodoma</span> (1477-1549), who went to Rome and was
+under the immediate influence of Raphael&#8217;s works. He was almost unrivalled
+in his power to represent beautiful female heads.</p>
+
+<p>His important works were frescoes, many of which are in the churches of
+Siena. Doubtless Bazzi was lost in the shadow of the great Raphael, and
+had he existed at a time a little more distant from that great man, he
+would have been more famous in his life.</p>
+
+<p>During the sixteenth century the Venetian school reached its highest
+excellence. The great difference between it and the school of Florence
+was, that the latter made beauty of form the one object of its art, while
+the Venetian painters combined with grace and ease the added charm of
+rich, brilliant color.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Giorgio Barbarelli</span>, called <span class="smcap">Giorgione</span> (1477-1511), was the first great
+artist of Venice who cast off the rigid manner of the Bellini school, and
+used his brush and colors freely, guided only by his own ideas, and
+inspired by his own genius.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+He was born at Castelfranco, and was early distinguished for his personal
+beauty. Giorgione means George the Great, and this title was given him on
+account of his noble figure. He was fond of music, played the lute well,
+and composed many of the songs he sang; he had also an intense love of
+beauty&mdash;in short, his whole nature was full of sentiment and harmony, and
+with all these gifts he was a man of pure life. Mrs. Jameson says of him:
+&ldquo;If Raphael be the Shakspeare, then Giorgione may be styled the Byron of
+painting.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There is little that can be told of his life. He was devoted to his art,
+and passionately in love with a young girl, of whom he told one of his
+artist friends, Morto da Feltri. This last proved a traitor to Giorgione,
+for he too admired the same girl, and induced her to forsake Giorgione,
+and go away with him. The double treachery of his beloved and his friend
+caused the painter such grief that he could not overcome his sadness, and
+when the plague visited Venice in 1511, he fell a victim to it in the very
+flower of his age.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the work of Giorgione has disappeared, for he executed frescoes
+which the damp atmosphere of Venice has destroyed or so injured that they
+are of no value. His smaller pictures were not numerous, and there is much
+dispute as to the genuineness of those that are called by his name. He
+painted very few historical subjects; his works are principally portraits,
+sibyls, and religious pictures. Among the last, the altar-piece at
+Castelfranco holds the first place; it represents the Virgin and Child
+between Sts. Francis and Liberale, and was painted before 1504.</p>
+
+<p>Giorgione gave an elevated tone to his heads and figures; it seemed as if
+he painted only the beings of a superior race, and as if they must all be
+fitted to do great deeds. His fancy was very fruitful, and in some of his
+works he pictured demons, sea-monsters, dogs, apes, and such creatures
+with great effect. In clearness and warmth of color Giorgione<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> is at the
+head of the Venetian painters; in truth, it seems as if the color was
+within them and showed itself without in a deep, luminous glow.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of Giorgione&#8217;s scholars was called <span class="smcap">Fra Sebastiano del
+Piombo</span>; his real name was <em>Luciani</em>, and he was a native of Venice
+(1485-1547). This artist excelled in his coloring and in the effect he
+gave to the atmosphere of his work, making it a broad <em>chiaro-scuro</em>, or
+clear-obscure, as it really means. This is an art term which is frequently
+used, and denotes a sort of mistiness which has some light in it, and is
+gradually shaded off, either into a full light or a deep shadow. But from
+the earliest efforts of this artist, it was plain that he had no gift of
+composition, neither could he give his pictures an elevated tone or
+effect. For this reason his portraits were his best works, and these were
+very fine.</p>
+
+<p>A portrait of his in the National Gallery, London, and another in the
+St&auml;del Gallery at Frankfort, are both said to be of Giulia Gonzaga, the
+most beautiful woman of her day in Italy. In 1553, Ippolito de Medici, who
+was madly in love with her, sent Sebastian with an armed force to Fondi to
+paint her portrait; it was finished in a month, and was said to be the
+best ever painted by Sebastian. It was sent to France as a gift to Francis
+I., and its present abiding-place is not known.</p>
+
+<p>While Raphael was at the height of his fame in Rome, the banker Chigi
+invited Sebastian to that city, and in the Farnesina he painted works
+which were very inferior beside Raphael&#8217;s. Then Sebastian tried to improve
+by study under Michael Angelo. This last great master would not compete
+with Raphael himself, but he was very jealous of the fame of the younger
+man, and it is said that he aided Sebastian, and even made his designs for
+him, in the hopes that thus he might eclipse Raphael. We have spoken of
+one large picture of the &ldquo;Raising of Lazarus&rdquo; said to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> have been made from
+Michael Angelo&#8217;s design, which Sebastian colored; it was painted in
+competition with Raphael&#8217;s Transfiguration, and even beside that most
+splendid work the Lazarus was much admired. This is now in the National
+Gallery, London.</p>
+
+<p>After Raphael&#8217;s death Sebastian was called the first painter in Rome, and
+was made a <em>piombatore</em>. It was necessary to be an ecclesiastic to hold
+this office, and it is on account of this that he gave up his real name,
+and became a friar. He wrote to Michael Angelo: &ldquo;If you were to see me as
+an honorable lord, you would laugh at me. I am the finest ecclesiastic in
+all Rome. Such a thing had never come into my mind. But God be praised in
+eternity! He seemed especially to have thus decreed it. And, therefore, so
+be it.&rdquo; It is not strange that he should have been so resigned to a high
+office and a salary of eight hundred scudi a year!</p>
+
+<p>Another Venetian, of the same time with Giorgione, was <span class="smcap">Jacopo Palma</span>,
+called <span class="smcap">Il Vecchio</span>, or the elder (about 1480-1528). He was born near
+Bergamo, but as an artist he was a Venetian. We do not know with whom he
+studied, and he was not a very great man, nor was he employed by the
+state&mdash;but he dwelt much in the palaces of noble families and did much
+work for them. When he died he left forty-four unfinished paintings.</p>
+
+<p>His female figures are his best works, and one of his fine pictures at
+Dresden, called the &ldquo;Three Graces,&rdquo; is said to represent his daughters.
+The work which is usually called his masterpiece is an altar-piece in the
+Church of Santa Maria Formosa, in Venice; the St. Barbara in the centre is
+very beautiful, and is said to have been painted from his daughter
+Violante.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig45" id="Fig45"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a href="images/img45.jpg">
+<img src="images/img45_th.jpg" width="323" height="400" alt="Fig 45" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.&mdash;Portrait of Titian.</span><br />
+<em>From the etching by Agostino Caracci.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The greatest master of the Venetian school is called <span class="smcap">Titian</span>, though his
+real name was <span class="smcap">Tiziano Vecelli</span>, and sometimes Cadore is added to this,
+because of his having<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> been born in that village (1477-1576). His family
+was noble and their castle was called Lodore, and was in the midst of a
+large estate surrounded by small houses; in one of these last, which is
+still preserved, the painter was born.</p>
+
+<p>As a child he was fond of drawing, and so anxious to color his pictures
+that he squeezed the juices from certain flowers, and used them as paints.
+When but nine years old he was taken to Venice to study, and from this
+time was called a Venetian; he is said by some writers to be the first
+portrait-painter of the world.</p>
+
+<p>He first studied under Sebastian Zuccato, and then under the Bellini,
+where he was a fellow-pupil with Giorgione, and the two became devoted
+friends, at the time when they were just coming to be men and were filled
+with glad hopes of future greatness. After a time, when Titian was about
+thirty years old, the two were employed on the &ldquo;Fondaco dei Tedeschi,&rdquo; or
+the exchange for German merchants in Venice. Here the frescoes of Titian
+were more admired than those of Giorgione, and the latter became so
+jealous that they ceased to live together, as they had done, and there is
+cause for believing that they were never good friends again. But after the
+early death of Giorgione, Titian completed the works he had left
+unfinished, and, no doubt, sincerely mourned for him.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most celebrated pictures by Titian is the Presentation in the
+Temple, which was painted for the Church of the Brotherhood of Charity,
+called in Italian &ldquo;La Scuola della Carit&agrave;;&rdquo; this church is now the Academy
+of Fine Arts in Venice, where the picture still remains. It represents the
+Virgin Mary when three years old entering the temple and the high priest
+receiving her at the entrance. All around below the steps is a company of
+friends who have been invited by her father and mother to attend them on
+this important occasion. The picture is full of life and action, and is
+gorgeous in its coloring. Several of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+figures are said to be portraits, one being that of Titian himself.</p>
+
+<p>Among his female portraits, that of Caterina Cornaro, Queen of Cyprus, is
+celebrated; also one called &ldquo;Flora;&rdquo; both of these are in the Uffizi
+Gallery, in Florence, while near by, in the Pitti, is &ldquo;La Bella,&rdquo; or the
+beautiful lady of Titian. He also made many portraits of his daughter
+Lavinia, who was very beautiful; sometimes he represented her as a fruit
+or flower-girl, again as Herodias and in various characters (<a href="#Fig46">Fig. 46</a>). One
+of the finest of these is at Berlin, where she is in a very rich dress,
+and holds up a plate of fruit; it is one of his best works.</p>
+
+<p>Titian&#8217;s fame extended throughout Italy, and even all over Europe, and the
+Duke of Ferrara invited him to his court. The artist went, and there
+painted two very famous mythological pictures, besides portraits and other
+works. One of these important subjects was &ldquo;Bacchus and Ariadne,&rdquo; and it
+is now in the National Gallery, London; the second was a Venus, surrounded
+by more than sixty children and cupids; some are climbing trees, others
+shoot arrows in the air, while still others twine their arms around each
+other; this is now in Madrid.</p>
+
+<p>While at Ferrara the Pope, Leo X., asked Titian to go to Rome; but he
+longed for his home&mdash;he wished for his yearly visit to Cadore, and he
+declined the honorable invitation, and returned to Venice. In 1530
+Titian&#8217;s wife died, leaving him with two sons, Pomponio and Orazio, and
+his daughter, Lavinia. In this same sad year the Emperor Charles V. and
+Pope Clement VII. met at Bologna. All the most brilliant men of Germany
+and Italy were also there, and Titian was summoned to paint portraits of
+the two great heads of Church and State, and of many of the notable men
+among their followers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig46" id="Fig46"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 292px;">
+<a href="images/img46.jpg">
+<img src="images/img46_th.jpg" width="292" height="400" alt="Fig 46" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.&mdash;Portrait of Lavinia.</span> <em>By Titian.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the painter returned to Venice he was loaded with honors and riches.
+He bought a new house at <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>Berigrande, opposite the island of Murano; it
+commanded fine views and its garden was beautiful. The landscapes of his
+pictures soon grew better than they had been, and no wonder, when he could
+always see the Friuli Alps in the distance with their snow-capped peaks
+rising to the clouds; nearer him was the Murano, like another city with
+its towers and domes, and then the canals, which at night were gay with
+lighted gondolas bearing fair ladies hither and thither. Here Titian
+entertained many people, and some of them were exalted in station. The
+house was called &ldquo;Casa Grande,&rdquo; and on one occasion, when a cardinal and
+others invited themselves to dine with him, Titian flung a purse to his
+steward, saying, &ldquo;Now prepare a feast, since all the world dines with me.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>While living at &ldquo;Casa Grande,&rdquo; the artist saw the most glorious years of
+his life. It seemed that every person of note in all Europe, both men and
+women, desired their portraits at his hand. One only, Cosmo I., Grand Duke
+of Florence, refused to sit to him. If these pictures could be collected
+together, most of the famous persons of his time would be represented in
+them.</p>
+
+<p>After he was sixty years old Titian made a second journey to Ferrara,
+Urbino, and Bologna. This time he painted a portrait of Charles V., with a
+favorite dog by his side. After this, in 1545, at an invitation from Pope
+Paul III., the great master went to Rome; while there he painted many
+wonderful pictures&mdash;among them, one of the pope with his two grandsons was
+very remarkable; it is now in the Museum of Naples. He left Rome when he
+was sixty-nine years old.</p>
+
+<p>In 1548 Charles V. summoned Titian to Augsburg, and while there made him a
+count, and gave him a yearly pension of two hundred gold ducats. The
+emperor was very fond of Titian, and spent a good deal of time with him.
+On one occasion the painter dropped his brush; the emperor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> picked it up,
+and returned it to him. The etiquette of courts forbade any one to receive
+such a service from the sovereign, and Titian was much embarrassed, when
+Charles said, &ldquo;Titian is worthy to be served by C&aelig;sar,&rdquo; this being one of
+the great ruler&#8217;s titles. Charles continued his favors to Titian through
+life, and when he resigned his crown, and retired to the monastery of
+Yuste, he took nine pictures by this master into his solitude. One of
+these, a portrait of the Empress Isabella, was so hung that the emperor
+gazed upon it when dying; this is now in the museum at Madrid, where are
+also many fine works by Titian, for Philip II. was his patron as his
+father had been.</p>
+
+<p>When eighty-five years old he finished his wonderful picture of the
+&ldquo;Martyrdom of St. Lawrence&rdquo; for the Church of the Jesuits in Venice, and
+his old age was one of strength and mental clearness. Though he had seen
+great prosperity and received many honors, he had not escaped sorrow.
+After the death of his wife, his sister Orsa, who was very dear to him,
+had kept his house; she too sickened and died; his son Pomponio was a
+worthless fellow, and caused him much grief; Lavinia had married, and the
+old man was left with Orazio alone, who was a dutiful son. He also was an
+artist, but painted so frequently on the same canvas with his father that
+his works cannot be spoken of separately.</p>
+
+<p>At length Titian&#8217;s work began to show his years, and some one told him
+that his &ldquo;Annunciation&rdquo; did not resemble his usual pictures. He was very
+angry, and, seizing a pencil, wrote upon it, &ldquo;<em>Tizianus fecit
+fecit</em>&rdquo;&mdash;meaning to say by this, &ldquo;Truly, Titian did this!&rdquo; When he was
+ninety-six years old he was visited by Henry III. of France, attended by a
+train of princes and nobles. The aged painter appeared with such grace and
+dignity as to excite the admiration of all, and when the king asked the
+price of some pictures, Titian presented them to him as one sovereign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+might make a gift to another who was his equal, and no more.</p>
+
+<p>In 1576 the plague broke out in Venice, and both Titian and Orazio fell
+victims to it. Naturally the man of ninety-eight years could not recover,
+and, though Orazio was borne off to the hospital and cared for as well as
+possible, he also died. After Titian was left alone robbers entered his
+house while he still lived, and carried away jewels, money, and pictures.
+He died August 27th, and all Venice mourned for him.</p>
+
+<p>There was a law that no person who died of the plague in Venice should be
+buried within the city; but Titian was so much honored and beloved that
+exception was made, and he was buried in the Church of Santa Maria
+Gloriosa de Frari; or as it is usually called, &ldquo;the Frari.&rdquo; He had painted
+a great picture of the Assumption for this church, which has since been
+removed to the Academy of Venice; but another work of his, called the
+Pesaro altar-piece, still remains near his grave. His burial-place is
+marked by a simple tablet, inscribed thus: &ldquo;Here lies the great Tiziano di
+Vecelli, rival of Zeuxis and Apelles.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A little more than two centuries after his death the citizens of Venice
+determined to erect a monument to Titian, and Canova made a design for it;
+but political troubles interfered, and prevented the execution of the
+plan. In 1852 the Emperor of Austria, Ferdinand I., placed a costly
+monument near his grave; it consists of a Corinthian canopy beneath which
+is a sitting statue of the painter, while several other allegorical
+figures are added to increase its magnificence. This monument was
+dedicated with imposing ceremonies, and it is curious to note that not far
+away from it the sculptor Canova is buried, and his own monument is made
+from the design which he made for that of Titian.</p>
+
+<p>Some writers consider the &ldquo;Entombment of Christ,&rdquo; in the Manfrini Palace,
+as the greatest work of Titian. At all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> events, it is the best existing
+representation of this subject, and is a picture which has had a great
+effect upon art; its chief feature is the general expression of sorrow
+which pervades the whole work.</p>
+
+<p>Titian gave a new importance to landscape-painting by making backgrounds
+to his pictures from natural scenery, and that not as if it was merely for
+the sake of a background, but in a manner which showed his love for
+Nature, and, in fact, he often rendered it with poetical significance.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Titian are very seldom sold. One subject which he oftentimes
+repeated was that of &ldquo;Dan&auml;e&rdquo; with the shower of gold falling about her;
+one of these was purchased by the Emperor of Russia for six hundred
+thousand francs. One of the most important of his religious pictures was
+that of &ldquo;St. Peter Martyr;&rdquo; this was burned in the Church of SS. Giovanni
+e Paolo in Venice in 1868. An excellent copy of it had been for a long
+time in the Museum of Florence, and this was presented to the Venetians in
+order to repair their loss as far as possible. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia
+presented nine pictures by Titian to the Duke of Marlborough, and these
+were all destroyed in 1861 when the ch&acirc;teau of Blenheim was burned. Kugler
+says: &ldquo;In the multifariousness of his powers Titian takes precedence of
+all other painters of his school; indeed, there is scarcely a line of art
+which in his long and very active life he did not enrich.&rdquo; His last work
+was not quite completed by himself, and is now in the Academy of Venice.
+It is a Piet&agrave;, and although the hand of ninety-eight years guided the
+brush uncertainly, yet it has the wonderful light this master threw around
+his figures, and the whole is conceived with his accustomed animation.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils and followers of Titian were too numerous to be spoken of one
+by one, and none of them were so great as to require their mention in
+detail here; yet they were so good that, while the other schools of Italy
+were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>decreasing in importance during the sixteenth century, that of
+Venice was flourishing, and some great masters still existed there. Among
+these was <span class="smcap">Jacopo Robusti</span> (1512-1594), who was called, and is best known as
+Tintoretto, which name was given him because his father was a dyer. He
+studied under Titian for a time, and then he attempted to follow Michael
+Angelo, and it is said that his motto was, &ldquo;The coloring of Titian, the
+drawing of Michael Angelo.&rdquo; His best pictures are slightly treated, and
+others are coarse and unfinished in the manner of painting. His portraits
+seem to be his best works, probably because they are more carefully
+finished.</p>
+
+<p>Several works of his are simply enormous; one is seventy-four by thirty
+feet; the school of St. Roch has fifty-seven large pictures by him, in
+many of which the figures are of life size. His two most famous works are
+the &ldquo;Miracle of St. Mark,&rdquo; in the Academy of Venice, and the
+&ldquo;Crucifixion,&rdquo; in the school of St. Roch. The last is, for every reason,
+his best work; there are crowds of people in it, on foot and on horseback,
+while their faces show every possible kind of expression, and their
+movements are infinitely varied. The immense painting mentioned above is
+in the Doge&#8217;s Palace, and is called &ldquo;Paradise.&rdquo; His daughter, <span class="smcap">Marietta
+Robusti</span> (1560-1590), was a pupil of her father&#8217;s, and became so good a
+portrait-painter that she was invited to the Court of Spain by Philip II.,
+but her father could not consent to a separation from her. Some excellent
+pictures of hers still exist, and her portraits of Marco dei Vescovi and
+the antiquarian Strada were celebrated pictures. When the Emperor
+Maximilian and the Archduke Ferdinand, each in turn, desired her presence
+at their courts, her father hastened to marry her to Mario Augusti, a
+wealthy German jeweller, upon the condition that she should remain in her
+father&#8217;s house. She was celebrated for her beauty, had fine musical
+talents, and was sprightly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> and enthusiastic; her father was so fond of
+having her with him that he sometimes allowed her to dress as a boy, and
+go with him to study where young girls were not admitted.</p>
+
+<p>When but thirty years old Marietta Robusti died; she was buried in the
+Church of Santa Maria dell Orto, where are several works by her father.
+Both he and her husband mourned for her all their remaining days. Many
+pictures of Tintoretto painting his daughter&#8217;s portrait after her death
+have been made by later artists.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Paoli Cagliari</span>, or <span class="smcap">Caliari</span>, called <span class="smcap">Paul Veronese</span> (1528-1588), was born at
+Verona, but as he lived mostly at Venice, he belongs to the school of that
+city. He was an imitator of Titian, whom he did not equal; still he was a
+fine painter. His excellences were in his harmonious color, his good
+arrangement of his figures in the foreground, and his fine architectural
+backgrounds. He tried to make his works magnificent, and to do this he
+painted festive scenes, with many figures in splendid costumes. He is
+buried in the Church of St. Sebastian, where there are many of his works.</p>
+
+<p>In the gallery of the Louvre is his &ldquo;Marriage at Cana.&rdquo; It is thirty by
+twenty feet in size, and many of its figures are portraits. His pictures
+are numerous and are seen in the European galleries. The &ldquo;Family of
+Darius,&rdquo; in the National Gallery, London, cost that institution the
+enormous sum of thirteen thousand six hundred and fifty pounds; it was
+formerly in the Pisani Palace, Venice, and was said to have been left
+there by Veronese as payment for his entertainment during a visit he had
+made in the palace. In 1868, at the Demidoff sale, a portrait of his
+daughter sold for two thousand five hundred and twenty-four pounds.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the sixteenth century a family of a father and four sons
+were busy painting what may rightfully be termed the earliest <em>genre</em>
+pictures of Italy. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> term is used to denote pictures that stand
+between historical and utterly imaginary subjects; that is to say, the
+representation of something that seems real to us because it is so
+familiar to our imagination, or because it is something that we know might
+have happened, that it has all the naturalness of an actual reproduction
+of a fact. There may be interior or landscape <em>genre</em> pictures. The first
+represent familiar in-door scenes&mdash;the latter are landscapes with animals
+or figures to give a life element and to tell a story.</p>
+
+<p>The name of the family of which I speak was Da Ponte, but it was called
+Bassano, from the birth-place of <span class="smcap">Jacopo da Ponte Bassano</span> (1510-1592), the
+father, who was the most important of the family. He studied in Venice,
+but returned to his native town. His portraits are fine; among them are
+those of the Doge of Venice, Ariosto, and Tasso. His works are very
+numerous and are seen in all galleries. He introduced landscapes and
+animals into most of his pictures, sometimes with great impropriety.</p>
+
+<p>We come now to <span class="smcap">Antonio Allegri</span>, called <span class="smcap">Correggio</span> (1493-1534), who was born
+at the end of the fifteenth, but did his work in the beginning of the
+sixteenth century. His name of Correggio is that of his birth-place, and
+as he was not born at any of the great art centres, and did not adopt the
+precise manner of any school, he, with his followers, stand by themselves,
+and yet, because his principal works were done at Parma, he is sometimes
+said to be of the school of Parma.</p>
+
+<p>When Correggio was thirteen years old he had learned to draw well. He
+studied under Andrea Mantegna and his son Francesco Mantegna. From these
+masters he learned to be very skilful in drawing, especially in
+foreshortening, or in representing objects seen aslant. But though he
+learned much of the science of art from his teachers, his grace and
+movement and his exquisite light<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> and shade are all his own, for they did
+not possess these qualities.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig47" id="Fig47"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;">
+<a href="images/img47.jpg">
+<img src="images/img47_th.jpg" width="330" height="400" alt="Fig 47" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.&mdash;Portrait of Correggio</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Foreshortening is so important that I must try to explain it; and, as
+Correggio is said to be the greatest master in this art since the days of
+the Greeks, it is quite proper for me to speak of it in connection with
+him. The art of foreshortening is that which makes different objects
+painted on a plane or flat surface appear as if they were at different
+distances from the eye of the person who is looking at the picture, or as
+scenes in nature appear, where one part is much farther off than another.
+To produce this effect it is often necessary to make an object&mdash;let us
+say, for example, an arm or a leg, look as if it was stretched forward,
+out of the canvas, directly toward the person who is looking at it. Now,
+the truth is that in order to produce this effect the object is often
+thrown backward in the drawing; sometimes also it is doubled up in an
+unnatural manner, and occupies a small space on the canvas, while it
+appears to be of life size when one looks at it. A &ldquo;Christ in Glory&rdquo;
+painted by Correggio in the cupola of the Church of San Giovanni
+Evangelista, in Parma, is a fine piece of foreshortening. The head is so
+thrown back, and the knees are so thrown forward, that the whole figure
+seems to be of life size; yet if the space from the top of the head to the
+soles of the feet were measured, it would be found to be much less than
+the height of the same figure would be if it were drawn in an erect
+position.</p>
+
+<p>I have already explained the meaning of chiaro-scuro, and this delicate
+manner of passing from light to shade was another quality in the works of
+Correggio. It is even seen in his early works, as, for instance, in the
+beautiful Madonna di San Francesco, now at Dresden, which he painted when
+he was but eighteen years old.</p>
+
+<p>When this master was twenty-six years old he married Girolama Nurlini, and
+about the same time he was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>summoned to Mantua by the Duke Federigo
+Gonzaga. During eleven years after his marriage he was occupied with works
+in Mantua, and with his great frescoes at Parma. In 1530 he returned to
+Correggio, and there passed the remainder of his life. That he held a high
+position is proved by certain records of his life, among which is the fact
+that in 1533 he was invited to be one of the witnesses of the marriage of
+the Lord of Correggio.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that when this painter saw one of the great works of Raphael,
+he exclaimed, enthusiastically and thankfully, &ldquo;I, too, am a painter!&rdquo; and
+no doubt he then felt himself moved to attempt such works as should make
+his name known to all the world through future centuries. When Titian saw
+Correggio&#8217;s frescoes at Parma, he said: &ldquo;Were I not Titian, I should wish
+to be Correggio.&rdquo; Annibale Caracci, also a great artist, said of
+Correggio, more than a hundred years after his death, &ldquo;He was the only
+painter!&rdquo; and declared that the children he painted seemed to breathe and
+smile with such grace that one was forced to smile and be happy with them.</p>
+
+<p>In 1534 Correggio died of a fever, and was buried in his family tomb in
+the Franciscan Convent of his native city. His grave is simply marked with
+his name and the date of his death.</p>
+
+<p>Some of his oil-paintings are very famous. One at Dresden, representing
+the &ldquo;Nativity of the Saviour,&rdquo; is called the &ldquo;Notte,&rdquo; or night, because
+the only light on the picture comes from the halo of glory around the head
+of the Holy Child. Correggio&#8217;s &ldquo;Reading Magdalen&rdquo; is in the same gallery;
+probably no one picture exists which has been more universally admired
+than this.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig48" id="Fig48"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;">
+<a href="images/img48.jpg">
+<img src="images/img48_th.jpg" width="470" height="400" alt="Fig 48" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.&mdash;Upper Part of a Fresco by Correggio.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There was a large work of his representing &ldquo;The Shepherds Adoring the
+Infant Saviour,&rdquo; at Seville, in Spain. During the Peninsular War (1808-14)
+the people of that city sent many valuable things to Cadiz for safety, and
+this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> picture, on account of its size, was cut in two. By some accident
+the two parts were separated; but both were sold, and the purchaser of
+each was promised that the other portion should be given him. From this
+much trouble arose, because both purchasers determined to keep what they
+had, and each claimed that the whole belonged to him, and as they were
+equally obstinate, the two parts of the same work have never been
+reunited. Fortunately, each half makes a picture by itself.</p>
+
+<p>The frescoes at Parma are the greatest works of this master, and it is
+very interesting to visit that quaint old city; his works are in the
+Cathedral, the Church of St. John the Evangelist, and in the parlor of the
+Convent of the Benedictine Nuns. This last is a wonderful room. The
+ceiling is arched and high, and painted to represent an arbor of vines
+with sixteen oval openings, out of which frolicsome children are peeping,
+as if, in passing around behind the vines, they had stopped to look down
+into the room. The pictures here will make you understand the effect
+(<a href="#Fig48">Figs. 48</a> and <a href="#Fig49">49</a>). Beneath each of these openings or lunettes is a
+half-circular picture of some mythological story or personage. Upon the
+wall of the parlor, above the mantel, there is a picture of Diana, the
+goddess of the moon and the protector of young animals, which is a
+beautiful picture.</p>
+
+<p>When Correggio worked on the frescoes at the Church of St. John, he lived
+much in the monastery connected with it. The monks became very fond of
+him, and made him a member of the Congregation Cassinensi; the poet Tasso
+also was a member of this fraternity. This membership gave him the right
+to share in the masses, prayers, and alms of the community, and after his
+death the same offices for the repose of his soul would be performed as if
+he had been a true monk.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig49" id="Fig49"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img49.jpg">
+<img src="images/img49_th.jpg" width="500" height="327" alt="Fig 49" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.&mdash;Lower Part of a Fresco by Correggio.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The works of Correggio are very rarely sold. The madonna in the National
+Gallery, London, known as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>&ldquo;<em>La Vierge au Panier</em>,&rdquo; was formerly in the
+Royal Gallery at Madrid. During the French invasion of Spain, Mr. Wallace,
+an English artist, obtained it. It is painted on a panel, and is 13&frac12;
+inches high by 10 inches wide. In 1813 it was offered for sale in London
+at twelve hundred pounds. In 1825 it was sold in Paris for eighty thousand
+francs, and soon after sold to the National Gallery for thirty-eight
+hundred pounds, or nearly nineteen thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>A copy of the &ldquo;Reading Magdalen&rdquo; was sold to Earl Dudley for sixteen
+hundred pounds, or more than seven thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Correggio had but few pupils, but he had many imitators. The one most
+worthy of mention was <span class="smcap">Francesco Mazzuoli</span> (1503-1540), called <span class="smcap">Il
+Parmigiano</span>, or <span class="smcap">Parmigianino</span>. He was not a great painter. The &ldquo;Vision of
+St. Jerome,&rdquo; in the National Gallery, London, is one of his best works. It
+is said that during the sack of Rome, in 1527, he was painting the figures
+of the Virgin and Child in this picture, and was so engrossed by his work
+that the invaders entered his studio, and surrounded him before he was
+aware of their approach. And they, for their part, were so moved by what
+they saw that they went away, and left him undisturbed.</p>
+
+<p>Art writers often use the term &ldquo;early masters.&rdquo; This denotes Michael
+Angelo, Raphael, and other men so great that they were very prominent in
+the history of art, and were imitated by so many followers that they had
+an unusual effect upon the world. Titian may be called the last of these
+great masters of the early school, and his life was so long that he lived
+to see a great decline in art.</p>
+
+<p>The painters of the close of the sixteenth century are called
+&ldquo;Mannerists,&rdquo; which means that they adopted or imitated the manner or
+style of some great master who had preceded them&mdash;and this was done in so
+cold and spiritless a way that it may be said that true artistic
+inspiration was dead in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> Italy. No one lived who, out of his own
+imagination, could fix upon the wall or the canvas such scenes as would
+befit a poet&#8217;s dream or serve to arouse the enthusiasm of those who saw
+the painted story born in the artist&#8217;s brain.</p>
+
+<p>About 1600, the beginning of the seventeenth century, there arose a new
+movement in Italian art, which resulted in forming two schools between
+which there came to be much bitterness of feeling, and even deadly hatred.
+On one side there were those who wished to continue the study and
+imitation of the works of the old masters, but with this they united a
+study of nature. These men were called &ldquo;Eclectics,&rdquo; because they elected
+or chose certain parts of different systems of painting, and from these
+formed a new manner of their own.</p>
+
+<p>Opposed to the Eclectics were the &ldquo;Naturalists,&rdquo; who insisted that nature
+only should be studied, and that everything should be represented in the
+most realistic way, and made to appear in the picture exactly as it did in
+reality, not being beautified or adorned by any play of fancy or
+imagination.</p>
+
+<p>The chief school of the Eclectics, of whom I will first speak, was at
+Bologna, and is known also as the &ldquo;school of the Caracci,&rdquo; because
+<span class="smcap">Ludovico Caracci</span> (1555-1619) was at the head of a large academy there, and
+was assisted by his nephews, <span class="smcap">Agostino Caracci</span> (1558-1601) and <span class="smcap">Annibale
+Caracci</span> (1560-1609), the latter being the greatest artist of the three.
+The lives of the Caracci are not of such interest as to require an account
+of them here, neither are their works so interesting that we may not leave
+these artists by saying that they have great consideration as the heads of
+the Eclectic Academy, and for the work they did in it at an important era
+in the history of Italian art; but the fruits of their work are shown in
+that of their scholars rather than in their own paintings, and in this
+view their influence can scarcely be overvalued.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+The greatest of their scholars was <span class="smcap">Domenico Zampieri</span> (1581-1641), called
+<span class="smcap">Domenichino</span>, who was born at Bologna, and was instructed by Denis Calvert,
+who forbade his drawing after the works of Annibale Caracci. Domenico
+disobeyed this command, and was so severely treated by Calvert that he
+persuaded his father to take him from that master, and place him in the
+school of the Caracci. When he entered the Academy he was so dull that his
+fellow-pupils nicknamed him &ldquo;The Ox;&rdquo; but Annibale Caracci said: &ldquo;Take
+care: this ox will surpass you all by and by, and will be an honor to his
+art.&rdquo; Domenichino soon began to win many prizes in the school, and left it
+well trained and prepared for a brilliant career.</p>
+
+<p>He gave much thought to his art, shunned private society, and if he went
+out at all he frequented public places where large numbers of people were
+gathered, thus affording him an opportunity to study their varying
+expressions. He also tried to feel in himself the emotions of the person
+he was painting. For instance, it is said that when he was painting the
+&ldquo;Scourging of St. Andrew,&rdquo; he threw himself into a passion, and used
+threatening gestures and high words. In the midst of this his master,
+Annibale Caracci, surprised him, and was so impressed with his method that
+he threw his arms about his pupil&#8217;s neck, exclaiming, &ldquo;To-day, my
+Domenichino, thou art teaching me!&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The most celebrated work by Domenichino is the &ldquo;Communion of St. Jerome,&rdquo;
+in the Vatican. It is universally considered the second picture in Rome,
+the &ldquo;Transfiguration,&rdquo; by Raphael, being the only one that is placed
+before it. The scene it represents is just before the death of the saint,
+when he was borne into the chapel to receive the sacrament of the
+communion for the last time (<a href="#Fig50">Fig. 50</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig50" id="Fig50"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 246px;">
+<a href="images/img50.jpg">
+<img src="images/img50_th.jpg" width="246" height="400" alt="Fig 50" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.&mdash;Communion of<br /> St. Jerome.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Domenichino was made very unhappy in Rome, on account of the jealousy of
+other artists, and he returned to Bologna. However, his fame had reached
+the court at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> Naples, and the viceroy of that city invited the artist to
+decorate the Chapel of St. Januarius. There was in Naples at that time an
+association of artists who had determined that no strange artist should be
+allowed to do work of any account in their city. As soon as Domenichino
+began his work, therefore, he received letters threatening his life. His
+colors were spoiled by having ruinous chemicals mixed with them, his
+sketches were stolen from his studio, and all sorts of insults and
+indignities were heaped upon him.</p>
+
+<p>After a time, the painter was so disheartened that he fled to Rome; but
+the viceroy sent for him and took every precaution possible to protect him
+and enable him to work in peace. But just as all seemed to be going well
+he sickened and died, and it has always been said that he was poisoned. Be
+this as it may, there is no doubt that the fear, vexation, and anxiety of
+his life caused his death, and on this account his tormentors were his
+murderers.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Domenichino are not numerous, and are not seen in as many
+galleries as are those of some Italian painters; but there are a
+considerable number scattered over Europe and very beautiful ones in
+several galleries in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The next painter of importance in the Eclectic school was <span class="smcap">Guido Reni</span>
+(1575-1642), born at Bologna, and the son of a professor of music. His
+father intended that Guido also should be a musician, and the poor boy was
+much persecuted on account of his love for drawing. But after many
+struggles the boy came into the Caracci school, and was soon a favorite
+pupil there.</p>
+
+<p>When still young he listened with great attention to a lecture from
+Annibale, in which he laid down the rules which should govern a true
+painter. Guido resolved to follow these rules closely, and soon he painted
+so well that he was accused of trying to establish a new system of
+painting. At last Ludovico Caracci turned against him and dismissed him
+from his school.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig51" id="Fig51"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img51.jpg">
+<img src="images/img51_th.jpg" width="500" height="235" alt="Fig 51" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.&mdash;Aurora.</span> <em>By Guido Reni.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+The young artist went to Rome; but his persecutions did not cease, and it
+seemed to be his fate to excite the jealousy of other painters. Now, when
+so much time has elapsed, we know that Guido was not a very great master,
+and had he painted in the days of Michael Angelo he would not have been
+thought so. But art had lowered its standard, and Guido&#8217;s works were
+suited to the taste of his time; he had a high conception of beauty, and
+he tried to reach it in his pictures.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of his career Guido really painted in three styles. His
+earliest pictures are the strongest; those of his middle period are
+weaker, because he seemed only to strive to represent grace and sweetness;
+his latest pictures are careless and unequal in execution, for he grew
+indifferent to fame, and became so fond of gaming that he only painted in
+order to get money to spend in this sinful folly.</p>
+
+<p>His masterpiece in Rome was the &ldquo;Aurora,&rdquo; on a ceiling of the Rospigliosi
+Palace; it represents the goddess of the dawn as floating before the
+chariot of Apollo, or Ph&oelig;bus, the god of the sun. She scatters flowers
+upon the earth, he holds the reins over four piebald and white horses,
+while Cupid, with his lighted torch, floats just above them. Around the
+chariot dance seven graceful female figures which represent the Hours, or
+Hor&aelig;. I have been asked why seven was the number; the ancients had no
+fixed number for the Hours; sometimes they were spoken of as two, again
+three, and even in some cases as ten. It has always seemed to me that ten
+was the number chosen by Guido, for in that case there would naturally be
+three out of sight, on the side of the chariot which is not seen
+(<a href="#Fig51">Fig. 51</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig52" id="Fig52"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a href="images/img52.jpg">
+<img src="images/img52_th.jpg" width="283" height="400" alt="Fig 52" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.&mdash;Beatrice Cenci.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The portrait of Beatrice Cenci is another very celebrated picture by
+Guido; it is in the gallery of the Barberini Palace, in Rome (<a href="#Fig52">Fig. 52</a>).
+The interest in the portrait of this unhappy girl is world-wide. She was
+the daughter of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> wealthy Roman noble, who after the death of her mother
+married a second time, and treated the children of his first marriage in a
+brutal way. It is even said that he hired assassins to murder two of his
+sons on their return from a journey to Spain. The story also relates that
+his cruelty to Beatrice was such that, with the aid of her step-mother and
+her brother, she killed him. At all events, these three were accused of
+this crime and were executed for it in 1599. Other accounts say that he
+was murdered by robbers, and his wife and children were made to appear as
+if guilty. Clement VII. was the pope at that time, and in spite of his
+knowledge of the cruelty of the father he would not pardon them, though
+mercy was implored of him for this lovely girl. The reason given for this
+action of the pope&#8217;s is that he wished to confiscate the Cenci estates,
+which he could do if the family suffered the death penalty. So many
+reproductions of this sad face have been made that it is very familiar to
+us, and almost seems to have been the face of some one whom we have known.</p>
+
+<p>Guido did not paint his St. Michael for the Cappucini in Rome until after
+he returned to his native city. When he sent the picture to the monks, he
+wrote: &ldquo;I wish I had the wings of an angel to have ascended into Paradise,
+and there to have beholden the forms of those beautified spirits from
+which I might have copied my archangel; but not being able to mount so
+high, it was in vain for me to search for his resemblance here below, so
+that I was forced to make an introspection into my own mind, and into that
+idea of beauty which I have formed in my own imagination.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We are told that he always tried to paint his ideal of beauty rather than
+to reproduce any human beauty that he had seen. He would pose his
+color-grinder, and draw his outlines from him, and then fill in with his
+own conceptions of what the head he was painting should be; this accounts
+for the sameness in his heads and faces.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+His passion for gaming degraded the close of his life. It led him into
+great distresses, and for the sake of money he painted many pictures which
+are not worthy of his name. He had always received generous prices for his
+pictures, but he left many debts as a blot upon his memory. His works are
+seen in the galleries of Europe, and are always admired for their feeling,
+beauty, and grace.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Francesco Albani</span> (1578-1660), born at Bologna, was another scholar of the
+Caracci school, and a friend of Guido Reni. There are many works of his in
+Rome. His pictures of landscapes with figures were his best works, and
+beauty was his characteristic. His own home had all the advantages for
+painting such works as he best succeeded in, such as Venus and the Loves,
+maids and boys, children and Cupids in unending variety.</p>
+
+<p>His villa was surrounded by charming views. His wife was very handsome,
+and they had twelve lovely children, so lovely that it is said that other
+artists besides himself made use of them for models.</p>
+
+<p>There were several other Eclectics of some importance of whom we shall not
+speak, but shall leave them with an account of <span class="smcap">Elisabetta Sirani</span>
+(1640-1665), who also was born at Bologna, and is worthy of attention on
+account of her talents, while the story of her life adds another interest
+than that which she has as an artist.</p>
+
+<p>She was an imitator of the attractive manner of Guido Reni. The heads of
+her madonnas and magdalens are charming, and, indeed, all her work speaks
+of the innate refinement of her nature. Her industry was marvellous, since
+she made one hundred and fifty pictures and etchings in a period of about
+ten years. Much has been said of the rapidity with which she worked, and
+one story relates that on a certain day the Duchess of Brunswick, the
+Duchess of Mirandola, and the Duke Cosimo de Medici, with other persons,
+met in her studio, and she sketched and shaded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> drawings of subjects which
+they named to her, with a skill and celerity which astonished and
+delighted her guests.</p>
+
+<p>Her masterpiece is a picture of &ldquo;St. Anthony Adoring the Virgin and
+Child,&rdquo; which is in the Pinacoteca of Bologna. There are pictures by her
+in the Belvedere and Lichtenstein Galleries at Vienna, in the Hermitage at
+St. Petersburg, and in the Sciarra Palace, Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In person Elisabetta Sirani was beautiful, and her character commanded the
+affection of all who knew her. She was a sweet singer, and her biographers
+increase her virtues by praising her taste in dress, and even her
+moderation in eating! She was skilful in domestic affairs, and was in the
+habit of rising early to perform her share in the household duties, never
+allowing her art to displace any occupation which properly made a part of
+her life. Her name has come down through more than two centuries as one
+whose &ldquo;devoted filial affection, feminine grace, and artless benignity of
+manner added a lustre to her great talents, and completed a personality
+which her friends regarded as an ideal of perfection.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>She died very suddenly, and the cause of her death has never been known;
+but the theory that she was poisoned has been generally accepted. Several
+reasons for the crime have been given; one is that she was the victim of
+jealous artists, as Domenichino had been; another, that a princely lover
+whom she had scorned thus revenged himself. A servant-girl in her family
+was suspected of the crime, tried, and banished; but after a time she was
+recalled to Bologna at the request of the father of Elisabetta, for he saw
+no proof of the girl&#8217;s guilt. Thus the mystery was never solved, but the
+whole city of Bologna was saddened by her death. The day of her burial was
+one of public mourning; her funeral was attended with great pomp, and she
+was buried beside Guido Reni in the splendid church of the Dominicans.
+Poems and orations in her praise were numerous,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> and a book was published,
+called &ldquo;Il Penello Lagrimate,&rdquo; which contained these, with odes, anagrams,
+and epitaphs, in both Latin and Italian, all setting forth her charms and
+virtues. Her portrait in the Ercolani Gallery at Bologna represents her
+when occupied in painting her father&#8217;s portrait; according to this picture
+she had a tall, elegant figure, and a very pretty face. She had two
+sisters, Barbara and Anna Maria, who also were artists, but her fame was
+so much greater than theirs that she quite overshadowed them.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest master of the Naturalists was <span class="smcap">Michael Angelo Amerigi</span>, called
+<span class="smcap">Caravaggio</span>, from the name of his birth-place (1569-1609). His life and
+character was not such as to make him an attractive study. His subjects
+and his manner of representing them combined in producing what has been
+called &ldquo;the poetry of the repulsive.&rdquo; He was wild in his nature and lived
+a wild life. His religious subjects, even, were coarse, though his color
+was vivid and his figures arranged with good effect. His &ldquo;False Players&rdquo;
+is one of his best works; it represents two men playing cards, while a
+third looks over the shoulder of one as if advising him what to play.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, his manner of painting was best suited to scenes from common
+life, though he made those coarse and sometimes painful; but when he
+attempted subjects of a higher order his works are positively offensive.
+Some of his sacred pictures were removed from the altars for which they
+were painted on account of their coarseness. His most celebrated work is
+the &ldquo;Entombment of Christ,&rdquo; at the Vatican; in the Gallery of the Capitol
+in Rome there is a &ldquo;Fortune Teller,&rdquo; which is also a fine work.</p>
+
+<p>Next to Caravaggio came <span class="smcap">Giuseppe Ribera</span>, called <span class="smcap">Il Spagnoletto</span>
+(1588-1656). He was a native of Valencia, and when very young made his way
+to Rome, so that, although his education as an artist was wholly Italian,
+his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> familiar name arose from his Spanish origin. While living in
+miserable poverty in Rome, and industriously copying such frescoes as he
+could gain access to, he attracted the attention of a cardinal, who took
+him to his home, and made him comfortable. But the young painter soon ran
+away, and returned to his street life. The cardinal sought him out, and
+called him an &ldquo;ungrateful little Spaniard;&rdquo; but Ribera excused his conduct
+by saying that as soon as he was made comfortable and was well fed he lost
+all ambition to work, adding that it would require the spur of poverty to
+make him a good painter. The cardinal respected his courage, and the story
+being repeated to other artists, much interest was attracted to him.</p>
+
+<p>Later he went to Naples, and joined the cabal there which had agreed to
+persecute the strange artists who should come to work in that city. If
+Ribera did not actually commit many of the crimes which were done there,
+he was responsible for them through his influence. His works are
+frequently so brutal in their subjects and treatment that one feels that
+he who painted them must have lost all the kindliness of his nature.</p>
+
+<p>He married the daughter of a rich picture dealer, and became very rich
+himself. In 1630 he was made a member of the Academy of St. Luke, at Rome,
+and in 1648 Pope Innocent X. sent him the cross of the Order of Christ.
+Few Italian artists were better known in their own country, and many of
+his pictures were sent to Spain. His greatest excellence was in his
+knowledge of anatomy, and he painted subjects that enabled him to show
+this. Among his famous works are a &ldquo;Descent from the Cross;&rdquo; &ldquo;The Flaying
+of St. Bartholomew;&rdquo; &ldquo;Ixion on the Wheel;&rdquo; and &ldquo;Cato of Utica.&rdquo; His works
+are in all the famous galleries of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Ribera&#8217;s greatest pupil was <span class="smcap">Salvator Rosa</span> (1615-1673), the landscape
+painter, who was a very gifted man, being a poet and musician as well as
+an artist. His father<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> was an educated man, and with his other relatives
+encouraged his son in his taste for art. When twenty years old he went to
+Rome, and with the exception of some intervals remained there during his
+life.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that as a youth he associated much with bandits, and, when one
+considers the wildness of many of his scenes and the character of the
+figures in their midst, it is not difficult to believe that this may have
+been true. It is certain that he painted the portrait of the famous
+Masaniello more than once, and he is believed to have joined the
+<em>Compagnia della Morte</em>, of which Falcone, one of his masters, was the
+captain.</p>
+
+<p>Salvator made many enemies by his independence and his inclination to
+satire. He wrote satires on various subjects which were not published
+until after his death, but it was known that he had written them. He
+married a Florentine woman, who was the mother of his two sons. When he
+died he was buried in the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, where a
+monument is erected to his memory.</p>
+
+<p>He painted some historical subjects and portraits in which he followed the
+Naturalists, but his principal works were landscapes. Jagged rocks and
+mountains, wild dells and lonely defiles, with here and there robbers,
+hermits, or soldiers, make his most effective pictures. There is a deep
+sense of desolation, almost of fear, in them which is very impressive.
+Sometimes he painted serene landscapes and poetic figures; but his best
+works are not of this sort. His pictures are in the principal public and
+in some private galleries. He also left about ninety etchings which are
+masterly in execution and full of expression in the heads, while the
+atmosphere is soft. When his works are sold they bring great prices. A
+large landscape with Apollo and the Sibyl in the foreground brought eight
+thousand five hundred dollars in England years ago, and is now worth much
+more than that.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+Early in the eighteenth century an artist named <span class="smcap">Antonio Canale</span>
+(1697-1768), called <span class="smcap">Canaletto</span>, began to make views of the city of Venice
+and scenes on the canals. He had two followers, <span class="smcap">Bernardo Bellotti</span>
+(1720-1780), who was his nephew, and <span class="smcap">Francesco Guardi</span> (1712-1793), and
+these three painters executed a large number of these pictures, which are
+found in many European galleries, and it is not always easy to distinguish
+their authorship. There is no doubt that many which were once attributed
+to the first master were really painted by his pupils.</p>
+
+<p>Before the commencement of the eighteenth century the decline of the
+Renaissance school in Italy had begun; in fact, the painting of the
+seventeenth century came to be mere mechanical realism. For this reason
+the portraits were the best pictures of the time, as in them it was
+requisite to be true to the object represented.</p>
+
+<p>Late in the eighteenth century a new impulse was given to Italian
+painting, chiefly through the influence of foreign artists such as Raphael
+Mengs, and the French painter David. In the beginning of our own century
+<span class="smcap">Lorenzo Benvenuti</span> (1769-1844) executed some excellent frescoes in
+Florence, Siena, and Arezzo, which was his native city. He decorated the
+ceiling of the Medici Chapel in the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, and
+Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tuscany, erected a tomb to this painter in the
+same church where he had spent so much time and talent. His portrait,
+painted by himself, is in the gallery of the Uffizi, at Florence.
+<span class="smcap">Vincenzio Cammuccini</span> (1775-1844), too, was a celebrated master of his
+time. He was a Roman by birth, and became President of the Academy of St.
+Luke; he was also a member of the Institute of France, and received
+decorations from sovereigns of various countries. He made many copies from
+the works of the great masters. His portraits were so much admired as to
+be compared to those of Rubens and Tintoretto, and his ceiling <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>frescoes
+in the Torlonia Palace, Rome, were among his important works, as was a
+&ldquo;Presentation of Christ in the Temple,&rdquo; painted for the Church of San
+Giovanni in Piacenza.</p>
+
+<p>But there has been no true restoration of Italian art. The painting of
+Italy in our time has been largely a commercial enterprise rather than an
+outcome from artistic genius or impulse, and the few works which are
+exceptions to this rule are not sufficient to encourage the hope that this
+nation can again attain to her former rank or regain the fame of her past
+in the history of modern art.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-eaglewoman.jpg" width="400" height="83" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>PAINTING IN FLANDERS, HOLLAND, AND GERMANY.</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>Flanders formerly embraced a larger part of Belgium than is contained in
+the present Belgian provinces of East and West Flanders. It also covered a
+portion of Holland and some territory in the northwest of France. The
+principal Flemish towns connected with the story of Flemish art were
+Bruges, Tournai, Louvain, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, Mechlin, Liege, and
+Utrecht.</p>
+
+<p>There are some records of Flemish painting much earlier than the fifteenth
+century, but they are so vague and uncertain that I shall pass them over,
+and begin with the family of Van Eyck, in which there were four
+painters&mdash;three brothers and a sister. The eldest, <span class="smcap">Hubert van Eyck</span>
+(1366-1426), effected a great change in the art of his time and country.
+Very little is known of him as a young man, or indeed of his personal
+history at all, except that he passed his middle life at Bruges and his
+later years at Ghent. The subjects of his pictures were mostly scriptural.
+I do not suppose that the pictures of this master would seem very
+beautiful to you if you saw them, but they are of great value. His
+greatest work was an altar-piece for Judocus Vyts and his wife Lisabetta;
+it was for the decoration of their funeral chapel in the Church of St.
+Bavon in Ghent. It was an immense work, with a centre-piece and wings that
+could be closed; the inside was divided into twelve different pictures,
+and the outside also was painted. We do not know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> how much of this was
+completed when Hubert died and left it to be finished by his brother John.
+Philip I. of Spain wished to buy this altar-piece, and when he could not
+do so, he employed Michael Coxie to copy it; this artist spent two years
+on the work, and was paid four thousand florins. Of the original work, a
+large portion remains in the Church of St. Bavon; the wings, consisting of
+six beautiful, tall panels, are in the Berlin Museum, and two outer
+compartments are in the Brussels Museum. The picture of holy men who have
+served God is on one of the wings of this altar-piece (<a href="#Fig53">Fig. 53</a>).</p>
+
+<p>But the principal interest attached to Hubert van Eyck comes from the fact
+that he made such discoveries in the use of colors as led to what we call
+the &ldquo;Invention of Oil-Painting,&rdquo; and this invention is always attributed
+to the Van Eycks, for it is probable that the discoveries of Hubert were
+perfected by <span class="smcap">Jan van Eyck</span> (1390-1440), who became a celebrated painter.
+Oil-painting had been known, it is true, a long time, but the manner of
+preparing the colors and the varnish used before the time of the Van Eycks
+was very unsatisfactory, and the improvement of these substances was the
+work of these masters.</p>
+
+<p>The pictures of Hubert van Eyck are stronger than those of Jan, who was
+really the founder of a school remarkable for delicacy and fine finish
+rather than for power. It was after the death of Hubert that the fame of
+the new colors spread abroad, and thus it happened that it was to Jan that
+other artists went to learn his secrets.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig53" id="Fig53"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 213px;">
+<a href="images/img53.jpg">
+<img src="images/img53_th.jpg" width="213" height="400" alt="Fig 53" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.&mdash;The Anchorites.</span><br />
+<em>In S. Bavon at Ghent.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Jan van Eyck was something of a diplomat as well as a painter, for when he
+was in the service of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, he was sent on
+several secret missions, and in 1428 he accompanied the ambassadors of the
+duke to Portugal in order to paint the portrait of Isabella of Portugal,
+who was betrothed to the duke. There is a goodly number of works by Jan
+van Eyck in various galleries. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> portrait of himself and wife in the
+National Gallery, London, is very interesting; they stand hand in hand,
+with a terrier dog at their feet; their dress and all the details of their
+surroundings are painted with great care. It is said that the Princess
+Mary, sister of Charles V., gave a barber who owned it a position with a
+handsome salary in exchange for the picture. Jan van Eyck, being twenty
+years younger than his brother Hubert, naturally learned all that the
+elder knew, and the story of his life gives him the appearance of being
+the more important artist, though in point of highest merit he was not the
+superior.</p>
+
+<p>Of <span class="smcap">Lambert van Eyck</span> very little is known. It is believed that he made the
+copy of Hubert&#8217;s great work which is in the Antwerp Museum; another work
+called by his name is in Louvain. <span class="smcap">Margaretha van Eyck</span> is said to have been
+a skilful artist, but no one picture can be ascribed to her; she was
+buried beside her brother Hubert in the Cathedral of Ghent.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the Van Eycks had many followers. Among them were <span class="smcap">Petrus
+Christus</span> (records 1444-1471), <span class="smcap">Gerard van der Meire</span> (records 1447-1474),
+<span class="smcap">Hugo von der Goes</span> (1405?-1482), and <span class="smcap">Justus of Ghent</span> (1468-?), all of whom
+were good artists, but I shall pass to a more important one, <span class="smcap">Rogier van
+der Weyden</span> (1400-1464), who was himself the head of a school of as great
+importance as was that of the Van Eycks. His realism was his chief
+characteristic, and this was so great as to make some of his works
+repulsive, especially his martyrdoms, in which he detailed horrors with
+great exactness. He also loved to paint pictures which illustrated the
+myths of the Middle Ages. Our illustration is from one of these works
+(<a href="#Fig54">Fig. 54</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig54" id="Fig54"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;">
+<a href="images/img54.jpg">
+<img src="images/img54_th.jpg" width="175" height="400" alt="Fig 54" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.&mdash;The Sibyl and the Emperor Augustus.</span> <em>By Rogier
+van der Weyden. In the Berlin Museum.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This picture is from the story that when the Roman Senate decreed divine
+honors to the Emperor Augustus, he consulted the Tiburtine Sibyl as to
+whether he ought to receive them or no. She replied to him that it was
+more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>becoming for him to go away silently, and told him that a Hebrew
+child should be born who should reign over the gods themselves, or that a
+king should come from heaven whose power should never end. Another
+version, which is the one this picture represents, says that the heavens
+opened, and a vision of the Virgin with the Saviour in her arms, standing
+on an altar, was shown the emperor. He worshipped it, and heard a voice
+saying, &ldquo;Haec ara filii Dei&rdquo; (This is the altar of the Son of God).
+Augustus reported this to the Senate, and erected an altar upon the spot
+in Rome where the Church of Santa Maria in Capitolio, or the &ldquo;Ara
+C&oelig;li,&rdquo; now stands.</p>
+
+<p>Many pictures by Van der Weyden are seen in European galleries. He was
+also a fine miniaturist. He was official painter to the city of Brussels,
+and was buried in its cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="smcap">Rogier van der Weyden</span> the younger, became very rich and
+benevolent. He died at <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>Brussels in 1529. His works are not numerous in
+public galleries.</p>
+
+<p>The elder Van der Weyden had a pupil, <span class="smcap">Hans Memling</span> (records 1450-1499),
+who became the greatest master in Belgium. I shall not give you a long
+account of him; but shall tell you of his greatest work, which was the
+Shrine of St. Ursula, at the Hospital of Bruges, and is the best example
+of this type of early Flemish art which still exists. It is divided into
+six compartments, with two ends, and other panels on top, all of which are
+finished with the greatest care, and give the whole story of St. Ursula
+and her eleven thousand virgins, which is that Ursula was a daughter of a
+king of Brittany who was a Christian. The young girl was educated with the
+greatest care, and the fame of her beauty and wisdom spread all over
+Europe. At length the king of England asked for her to be the wife of his
+son. The princess replied that she would wed him on three conditions:
+first, that he should give her ten virgins of noble blood for her
+companions, then to each of these virgins and to herself he should give a
+thousand maidens as attendants; second, he should allow her three years
+with these companions, with whom she should visit the shrines where the
+bodies of the saints repose; and third, the English king and his court
+should receive baptism.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot give space for all the details of this story, which is of great
+interest; but the result was that Ursula received all that she asked, and
+started on her journey to Rome, in the course of which she and the eleven
+thousand maidens met with many adventures. At last, having reached Cologne
+on their return, they encountered an army of barbarians which was
+besieging the city, and all were slain.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects of the pictures as they were painted by Memling were: 1, the
+first landing at Cologne in the beginning of the journey; 2, the landing
+at Basle; 3, the arrival in Rome; 4, the second arrival at Basle on her
+return<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> toward home; 5, commencement of the martyrdom, when Ursula and her
+train are first seen by the barbarians; 6, death of Ursula.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Memling which still remain are numerous, and are seen in many
+public galleries. After the death of this master the purity of Flemish
+painting declined. Many artists visited Italy, and the manner of Flemish
+painters was influenced by association with Italian art and artists. I
+shall, therefore, pass over a period when no very important masters
+appeared, and speak next of a great man, <span class="smcap">Quintin Matsys</span> (1466-1529), who
+began life as a blacksmith. He was born at Antwerp, and there are
+specimens of iron work there said to have been executed by him. It is said
+that he fell in love with the daughter of an artist who refused to allow
+him to marry her because he was not a painter; for this reason Matsys
+devoted himself to the study of art, and became the best Belgian master of
+his time. His pictures of religious subjects are full of tender
+earnestness and deep feeling, and his most important work was an
+altar-piece which is now in the Museum of Antwerp. His scenes from common
+life, his misers and lovers are spirited and truthful.</p>
+
+<p>His portrait and that of his second wife, both painted by himself, are in
+the gallery of the Uffizi in Florence. His works are not very numerous,
+but they are seen in the principal galleries. He was buried in the
+Cathedral of Antwerp, and a slab is inserted in the wall which tells his
+story; one sentence is, &ldquo;<em>Connubialis amor de mulcibre fecit Apellene</em>&rdquo;
+(True love changed the smith to an Apelles).</p>
+
+<p>Rubens is the next great master of whom I shall speak, but I wish to say
+that during the last part of the sixteenth century there were many Flemish
+painters of considerable note whose pictures are seen in galleries, and
+are well worth consideration, but whose lives had no circumstances of
+especial interest. Among the best of these artists were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> <span class="smcap">Antonio Moro</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Peter Pourbus</span> (1510-1583), and his son and grandson, both named Frans,
+<span class="smcap">Pieter Breughel</span> (1530-1569), and his sons Jan and Pieter the younger, and
+<span class="smcap">Paul Bril</span>, an early Flemish landscape painter.</p>
+
+<p>All the early Flemish pictures are very interesting, but in the beginning
+of the seventeenth century a new manner of painting was introduced through
+the genius of <span class="smcap">Peter Paul Rubens</span> (1577-1640). This master was descended
+from two good families: his mother was of the distinguished family
+Pypeling, and his father, John Rubens, was one of the two principal
+magistrates of Antwerp. This city was the home of Rubens, although he was
+born at Siegen, in the county of Nassau, during a time when his father was
+in exile on account of a civil war which was then raging. He was born June
+29th, the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul, and hence was named for those
+apostles.</p>
+
+<p>He was a bright, scholarly boy, and soon showed his love for drawing. When
+he began to study art under Adam van Noort he had already a good
+education. During the four years he passed with this teacher he learned
+thoroughly all the technical part of painting; then, in another four years
+under Otto V&aelig;nius, he cultivated his taste and the more poetical elements
+of his nature, for V&aelig;nius was a very learned and elegant man. In 1598,
+when twenty-one years old, Rubens was admitted to the guild of painters in
+Antwerp. Two years later he went to Venice, and, after studying the works
+of Titian and Paul Veronese there, he entered the service of the Duke of
+Mantua, to whom he had been recommended by the governor of the
+Netherlands.</p>
+
+<p>While in Mantua he painted some fine pictures, and the duke sent him to
+Rome to copy celebrated works there. Rubens also executed some other
+orders in Rome, from which place he was recalled by the duke, who wished
+to send an envoy to Spain, and had chosen the young artist for that duty.
+He showed great political ability in the way he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> conducted his embassy,
+and through his personal charms made many friends.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig55" id="Fig55"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<a href="images/img55.jpg">
+<img src="images/img55_th.jpg" width="297" height="400" alt="Fig 55" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.&mdash;Rubens and his Second Wife.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After his return from Spain he went again to Rome and then to Genoa, and
+finally, on account of the illness of his mother, he returned to Antwerp,
+having been absent seven years. His mother died before he reached her. He
+then decided to remain in Antwerp, and built himself a fine house with a
+charming studio. He soon married his first wife, Isabella Brant, and
+during the next fifteen years led a very regular and industrious life, and
+executed many important works. He also received a large number of pupils
+into his studio, and he has been accused of allowing them to paint
+pictures which he called by his own name; but it is true that Rubens, with
+his own hand, completed pictures of almost every kind, and so proved his
+power as an artist.</p>
+
+<p>He was fond of study, and could read and speak seven languages. He was in
+the habit of having some one read aloud to him while he painted, and
+preferred books of history and poetry. In 1620 he was invited to France by
+Marie de Medicis, for whom he executed many works. Among them the most
+important were scenes illustrating the life of this queen which decorate
+some apartments in the Louvre.</p>
+
+<p>In 1628 the Infanta Isabella sent him on a second mission to Spain, and
+while there he painted many grand and important pictures, which are fine
+examples of his gorgeous coloring. He proved himself so good a diplomatist
+that he was sent to England to try to make peace between that country and
+Flanders, in which he was successful. He was knighted by King Charles in
+1630, and received the same honor from the king of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In 1630 he married Helena Forment, a niece of his first wife, who was but
+sixteen years old. She became the mother of five children; he had two sons
+by his first marriage, to whom Gevartius was tutor. Rubens made so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> many
+portraits of both his wives and so often used them as models in painting
+his large pictures, that their faces are familiar to all the world
+(<a href="#Fig55">Fig. 55</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Rubens made a valuable collection of all sorts of beautiful objects, and
+lived luxuriously. After his death a portion of his collection was sold at
+private sale for more than seventy-five thousand dollars. His death
+occurred in 1640, and he was buried in a private chapel in the Church of
+St. James in Antwerp; he had decorated this chapel with some works of his
+own. His family erected a monument to him, upon which an epitaph written
+by Gevartius was inscribed.</p>
+
+<p>In painting Rubens was almost a universal genius, for he left a great
+variety of works as well as a great number. About one thousand eight
+hundred are ascribed to him: doubtless his pupils did much work on these;
+but there is something of himself in all. They include historical,
+scriptural, and mythological subjects, portraits, animals, <em>genre</em>
+pictures, and landscapes. His style is a strange mingling of northern and
+southern elements. His handling and his arrangement of his subjects was
+like that of the Italians; but his figures, even when he represented
+Christ and the holiest men, were like Spanish kings or German peasants, or
+somebody whom he had seen.</p>
+
+<p>We have not space to speak in detail of the works of Rubens. Some critics
+insist that one class of his pictures is best, and some another. Of course
+this depends largely upon the taste of those who make the judgment. It is
+certain that he was a wonderful painter, and many of his pictures give
+great pleasure to those who visit the galleries where they are seen.</p>
+
+<p>His pictures of children were so painted that they seem to have been done
+from pure love of the work. His portraits are splendid, his <em>genre</em> scenes
+delightful, and his landscapes fine; in short, the amount and variety of
+his work is a proof of his great genius and industry, such as can
+scarcely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> be equalled in the history of painting. Yet it cannot be denied
+that there is much incorrect drawing, unnatural coloring, and coarse, bad
+taste in some of his works. On the other hand, the fertility of his
+imagination, his bold design and effective execution, as well as his
+brilliant color, are all to be admired, and the name of Rubens stands high
+on the list of Flemish artists who are famous the world over.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig56" id="Fig56"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 264px;">
+<a href="images/img56.jpg">
+<img src="images/img56_th.jpg" width="264" height="400" alt="Fig 56" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.&mdash;The Return from Egypt.</span><br />
+<em>By Rubens.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Frans Snyders</span> (1579-1657) was born at Antwerp and lived in the time of
+Rubens. He was a famous painter of animals, and it sometimes happened that
+they worked together, Rubens painting the landscapes and figures and
+Snyders the animals in the same pictures. Snyders, like Rubens, excelled
+in representing animals in the most exciting moment of the combat or the
+chase, and his pictures are full of life. They are seen in all large
+European galleries, and are much prized.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jan Fyt</span> (1609-1661), also born at Antwerp, is the greatest Flemish animal
+painter after Snyders. His greyhounds cannot be equalled, while his live
+dogs are wonderful; but his best pictures represent dead game. The fur and
+feathers in his paintings are marvellously done, and his pictures are
+among the best in the world in which such subjects are treated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jacob Jordaens</span> (1593-1678), another native of Antwerp, studied under Adam
+van Noort at the same time with Rubens, but later in life he became a
+follower and a sort of assistant of his former fellow-pupil. He married a
+daughter of their old master and never visited Italy. His color was fine;
+in truth, he sometimes excelled Rubens himself in the &ldquo;golden glow&rdquo; which
+is much admired in his works. Many sacred pictures by Jordaens are seen in
+the churches of Flanders. A fine historical work of his represents scenes
+from the life of Prince Frederick Henry of Orange, and is in the House of
+the Wood, near the Hague; but the larger part of his pictures represent
+the manners and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> customs of the common people, and are seen in public
+galleries.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest artist among the pupils of Rubens, as well as one of the
+greatest of Flanders, was <span class="smcap">Anthony Vandyck</span> (1599-1641). He was born in
+Antwerp, and was the son of a silk merchant, this having been the
+occupation of the Vandycks for several generations. The mother of the
+painter was extremely skilled in various kinds of embroidery, and had such
+artistic tastes as enabled her to make many original designs, which she
+worked out with her needle in delicate and elaborate tapestry work.</p>
+
+<p>Some people believe that to this taste and talent of his mother&#8217;s Vandyck
+owed the instinct for drawing which he early showed; at all events, she
+did all she could to develop his taste, and when he was still a boy she
+persuaded her husband to place him under the teaching of Henry van Balen.</p>
+
+<p>He was still quite young when he entered the studio of Rubens, and was
+soon so much trusted by the master as to be allowed to make drawings from
+his works for the use of the engravers. This sort of drawing must be done
+with great care and exactness, and Vandyck must have had much skill to be
+fitted for it. His fellow-pupils also had great faith in him, as is shown
+by the story that one day, when Rubens had gone out, the young student
+bribed his old servant to show them the painting with which the master was
+then occupied. While jostling each other it happened that one of them hit
+the fresh picture, and injured it. They were much alarmed, and begged
+Vandyck to repair it. After some hesitation he did so, and was so
+successful that at first Rubens did not detect the fact that another had
+worked on the picture. When he did discover it, and learned the truth
+about it he forgave the offence heartily.</p>
+
+<p>When Vandyck was nineteen years old he was admitted to the Society of
+Artists in Antwerp, an unusual honor to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> one of his age. In 1620 Vandyck
+went to England, having been invited there through the Earl of Arundel.
+Little is known of this visit, and two years later he was invited to the
+Hague, where he spent several months.</p>
+
+<p>When Vandyck was passing through Haarlem he went to the studio of Franz
+Hals, who was at a tavern just then. A message was sent him saying that a
+stranger desired to have his portrait made, and had but two hours to spare
+for it. Hals hastened home and dashed off the portrait within the time
+stated. Vandyck then said, &ldquo;Portrait-painting seems to be a simple thing;
+take my place, and give me the brush for awhile.&rdquo; Hals complied with the
+request and Vandyck made his portrait with great celerity. Seeing this,
+Hals cried out, &ldquo;You are Vandyck; he alone can do such work.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The young artist was suddenly called to the death-bed of his father, who
+commanded him to paint a picture for the Dominican Sisters who had cared
+for his father in his illness. Seven years later Vandyck presented the
+Sisters with a Crucifixion. At the foot of the cross was a rock upon which
+was inscribed, in Latin, &ldquo;Lest the earth should be heavy upon the remains
+of his father, Anthony Vandyck moved this rock to the foot of the cross,
+and gave it to this place.&rdquo; When the monasteries were broken up, this
+picture was purchased for two thousand seven hundred dollars for the
+Antwerp Academy, where it now is.</p>
+
+<p>At length Vandyck prepared to set out for Italy. When he paid his farewell
+visit to Rubens he presented the master with three of his pictures, and in
+return Rubens gave him one of his finest horses. As Vandyck was on his way
+from Antwerp to Brussels he halted at the village of Saventhem, where he
+fell in love with Anna van Ophem, and so stayed on in the lovely valley of
+Flanders, week after week, as if he had forgotten that Italy existed. Anna
+persuaded him to paint a picture for the village church, and he executed
+a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> Holy Family in which the Virgin was a portrait of Anna, and St. Joachim
+and St. Anna were drawn from her father and mother. This picture pleased
+the church authorities so much that they gave the young painter an order
+for another, which represented St. Martin dividing his cloak with beggars.
+In this work the saint was a portrait of Vandyck, and the horse on which
+he rode was like that which Rubens had given him.</p>
+
+<p>This picture has quite a history. In 1758 the priest agreed to sell it to
+a collector from the Hague for one thousand eight hundred dollars; but
+when the villagers knew of it they surrounded the church with clubs and
+pitchforks, and drove the purchaser away. In 1806, when the French
+invaders tried to carry it away, the people again prevented it, and they
+were forced to call more soldiers from Brussels before they succeeded in
+taking it. The St. Martin was placed in the Gallery of the Louvre, at
+Paris, but was restored to Saventhem in 1815. About 1850 a rich American
+offered twenty thousand dollars for the picture, no matter who brought it
+to him. Upon this a set of rogues tried to steal it at night; but the dogs
+of the village gave such an alarm that the town was roused, and the
+robbers escaped with difficulty. Since then a guardian sleeps in the
+church, and the St. Martin is still there.</p>
+
+<p>The news that Vandyck was thus lingering on his way to Italy reached the
+ears of Rubens, and he sent such urgent messages to his pupil as induced
+him to continue his journey, and he also sent him letters of introduction
+to artists and to nobles whom the master had known when he made his
+studies beyond the Alps.</p>
+
+<p>Vandyck went first to Venice, where he worked hard to copy and learn to
+imitate the rich color and refined manner of Titian and other Venetian
+masters. He also painted some original pictures in Venice, and made many
+portraits which gave him fame in that and other cities. He was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> asked to
+go to other places for the painting of portraits; but he remained in
+Venice until his money was spent, and then went to Genoa, where he was
+well received and generously employed by the old friends of Rubens. His
+works are still to be seen in some of the palaces of that city, while some
+have been sold and carried to other countries&mdash;they were so fine that they
+still maintain the name which they gained for him when they were executed.
+The principal work done in Genoa was a picture of the Lomellini family
+which is now in Edinburgh; it is about nine feet square. His different
+visits to Genoa during his absence in Italy make up a period of about
+three years, and he did a vast amount of work there.</p>
+
+<p>When he first went to Rome Vandyck was invited to the house of Cardinal
+Bentivoglio, who had been papal nuncio to Flanders, and for whom our
+artist made a picture of the Crucifixion. The full-length portrait which
+Vandyck painted of the cardinal is now in Florence; a copy of it is in one
+of the halls of Harvard College. It is one of the finest among the many
+splendid portraits by this great master.</p>
+
+<p>Vandyck was fascinated with Rome, but he was so unpopular with the other
+Flemish painters there that he shortened his stay in the Eternal City in
+order to escape the vexations he there received. The artists disliked him
+for his ostentation, and he was called <em>Il pittore cavalieresco</em>&mdash;and he
+offended them by declining to associate with them at taverns or to join
+their coarse festivities. After leaving Rome he visited Palermo, from
+which place he was driven away by the appearance of the plague. He
+returned to Genoa, visited Florence and other cities in the north of
+Italy, and finally returned to Antwerp after an absence of four years.</p>
+
+<p>During the first years after his return he met with small success&mdash;Rubens
+was so great that he filled all the space about him&mdash;but at last, in 1628,
+Vandyck began to receive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> important commissions, and from this time was
+constantly busy with works for the churches of the Low Countries. He also
+painted portraits of many notable persons, and made great numbers of them
+in brown and white for the use of engravers. While Vandyck was thus
+executing great numbers of fine pictures for the embellishment of
+Flanders, he became so unpopular and his rivals said such hard things of
+him that he determined to go away. One of his unfortunate experiences was
+in the house of the bishop, who had sent for him to paint his portrait.
+Vandyck had first sent his implements to the care of the porter of the
+palace. When he went himself he was taken into the presence of the bishop,
+who was reclining on a sofa, and gave little attention to the artist. At
+last the bishop asked if he had not come to paint his portrait. Vandyck
+declared himself to be quite at the service of his lordship. &ldquo;Why, then,&rdquo;
+said the bishop, &ldquo;do you not go for your implements? Do you expect me to
+fetch them for you?&rdquo; Vandyck calmly replied, &ldquo;Since you have not ordered
+your servants to bring them I supposed that you wished to do it yourself.&rdquo;
+Then the bishop leaped up in anger and cried out, &ldquo;Anthony, Anthony, you
+are a little asp, but you have a great deal of venom!&rdquo; Vandyck thought it
+safe to make his escape, and after he crossed the threshold he called
+back, &ldquo;My lord Van der Burch, you are a voluminous personage, but you are
+like the cinnamon tree. The bark is the best part of you.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1629 Vandyck went to England with the hope of being employed by King
+Charles I.; but he was not able even to get an introduction to the
+sovereign, and went to the continent filled with mortification. At length,
+however, Charles called him to London, whither he went in 1632, and soon
+became the friend of the king as well as his favorite artist. He was
+assigned a city and a country residence, and within three months of the
+time of his arrival at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> court the king knighted him, and gave him a gold
+chain with a portrait of himself set in brilliants suspended from it.
+Charles was in the habit of passing much time with Vandyck, and the studio
+of the court-painter became one of the most fashionable resorts in London
+for the courtiers and other distinguished people.</p>
+
+<p>Vandyck kept up a fine establishment, and lived luxuriously. He had a
+habit of asking his sitters to dinner; thus he could study their faces and
+retouch their portraits with the more natural expressions of their
+conversational hours, for it is rare that one is natural when posing
+before an artist who is painting one&#8217;s portrait. But in the midst of his
+busy life as an artist and his gay life as a man of the world, Sir Anthony
+did not forget the needs of his brother painters. There was at that time
+no club or place where artists met socially to consult and aid each other
+in their profession. Vandyck founded the Club of St. Luke; it met at the
+Rose Tavern, and all painters of talent living in London joined it. One of
+the more personal acts of kindness which are related of him is that having
+seen by chance a picture which was painted by William Dobson, Vandyck
+sought him out, found him in a poor garret, instructed him with great
+care, introduced him to the king, and, in short, by his kind offices so
+prepared the way that Dobson was made sergeant-painter to the king after
+Vandyck&#8217;s death, and won the title of &ldquo;the English Tintoretto.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The portraits which Vandyck executed in England are numbered by hundreds
+and are magnificent pictures. Those of the royal family are very numerous
+and important, and there is scarcely a man or woman belonging to this
+period whose name has come down to us in history or literature, whose
+portrait he did not paint. He also made thirteen portraits of himself
+which are still preserved. He was very skilful in painting horses and
+dogs, and frequently introduced these animals into his portrait groups.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+There is a large collection of the pictures of Vandyck at Windsor Castle;
+there are many also in the private galleries of Great Britain and other
+countries, besides a goodly number in the public galleries of Europe. He
+executed at least thirty-six portraits of Charles I., as many as
+twenty-five of Queen Henrietta Maria, and he also painted several groups
+of the children of the royal pair. Prince Rupert of the Rhine and Thomas
+Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, were also frequently portrayed by him, and
+one of his most important large works was a family picture of the Earl of
+Pembroke and his household. It is called the Wilton Family, as it is in a
+salon at Wilton House; it contains eleven figures, and has been called
+&ldquo;the first and most magnificent historic portraiture in the world.&rdquo; Again,
+it is said to be stiff, wanting in harmony, bad in color, and so on, but
+after all it still remains a splendid monument to the skill and genius of
+Vandyck. The picture is twenty feet long by twelve feet high.</p>
+
+<p>Vandyck painted no portraits of the Puritans nor popular leaders of his
+day; neither did he of the literary men who flourished at that time, with
+the exception of the court poets, Sir John Suckling and Thomas Carew.</p>
+
+<p>I shall not give a list of Vandyck&#8217;s historical and religious pictures,
+though they are quite numerous. They are not as interesting as his
+portraits, and we have not space to give them. His ambition, however, was
+never satisfied, for he wished to do some great historical work. At one
+time his opportunity seemed to have come, for the great banqueting-room of
+Whitehall Palace, the ceiling of which Rubens had painted, still remained
+with plain walls. Vandyck desired to paint on them the history of the
+Order of the Garter. The project was laid before the king, and he desired
+sketches to be made for the work, and one of them, the &ldquo;Procession of the
+Knights of the Garter,&rdquo; was sold after the execution of the king for five
+pounds. It was owned by Sir Peter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> Lely and Sir Joshua Reynolds, and is
+now at Belvoir in the collection of the Duke of Rutland. We cannot help
+being sorry for Vandyck&#8217;s great disappointment when he knew that his work
+could not be done. He was weak in health and much in debt, for the king
+could not pay him his pension nor what he owed him for pictures. The
+artist grew sad and discouraged. He sought relief in the study of alchemy,
+and indulged the vain hope of discovering some chemical means of making
+gold from base metals. All this wasted his time and means, and it is to be
+regretted that he was less wise than his master, for when an alchemist
+tried to interest Rubens in the same subject, that great artist replied:
+&ldquo;You come too late, my good fellow; I have long since discovered the
+philosopher&#8217;s stone. My palette and brushes are worth far more than any
+other secret.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The king and all Vandyck&#8217;s friends were troubled by his state of health
+and mind, and a marriage was brought about for him with the hope that he
+would be a happier man. His wife was Maria Ruthven, a lovely Scotch girl
+who held a high position among the attendants of the queen. Not long after
+his marriage Vandyck took her to Flanders, where he enjoyed much the
+honorable reception which he met with in revisiting the scenes of his
+childhood and youth. But having learned that Louis XIII. was about to
+adorn a large gallery in the Louvre, Vandyck hastened to Paris hoping to
+obtain the commission. He was too late&mdash;the work had been given to
+Poussin, and Vandyck returned to London greatly disheartened.</p>
+
+<p>While at Antwerp he had received much attention, as, indeed, had been the
+case before, for in 1634 he had been elected Dean of the Confraternity of
+St. Luke and a great feast was held in his honor. When he came now to
+London the social atmosphere was full of sadness. The political troubles,
+which were finally so terrible in England, had <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>already become alarming.
+In a few months the Earl of Strafford was executed, and Vandyck saw the
+royal family, to whom he was so much attached, surrounded with danger and
+at last separated.</p>
+
+<p>His physical health was already delicate, and his sorrows brought on a
+disease from which he soon died. He continued to work until the very last
+days of his life. Eight days before his death his daughter was born; she
+was named Justiniana, and when she grew up married an English baronet, Sir
+John Stepney.</p>
+
+<p>A short time before Vandyck died the king came from the North to London,
+and though he was overburdened with his own cares and griefs he found time
+to sorrow for the condition of his friend and artist. He offered his
+physician three hundred pounds if he would save the life of Sir Anthony;
+but nothing availed to baffle his disease, and he died December 9, 1641.
+Two days later he was buried in St. Paul&#8217;s Cathedral. It is said that many
+nobles and artists attended his funeral, which was conducted with
+impressive ceremony. The fire which destroyed St. Paul&#8217;s made it
+impossible to say exactly where Vandyck was laid, but his coffin-plate was
+found at the time of the burial of Benjamin West.</p>
+
+<p>There were no artists of importance after the time of Rubens and his
+followers whom we call Flemish artists. There were good painters,
+certainly, belonging to the schools of Flanders; but these schools had
+reached their highest excellence and were on the decline, and so we pass
+to the Dutch school, or the painters of Holland.</p>
+
+<p>There was doubtless a very early school of Dutch painters, dating back to
+the fourteenth century even; but the records of it are so imperfect, and
+so few pictures remain from its early days, that for our purpose it is
+best to pass over the fifteenth century and say that during the sixteenth
+century the painters of Holland gave up the painting of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>sacred subjects
+very largely, and began to take on the characteristics of what is
+generally known now as the Dutch School. This school is distinguished for
+its portraits, which form a large and important part of its painting; next
+for its domestic scenes, which are realistic and true to life in an
+astonishing degree.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the seventeenth century Holland had obtained a
+position as a nation that freed its artists from the influence of the
+Romish Church and the fear of the Inquisition, and they soon used their
+freedom to establish a national art, and one which became very important
+to the world. <span class="smcap">Franz Hals</span> (1584-1666) was the most noteworthy of the
+portrait-painters. He was born at Mechlin, but passed most of his life at
+Haarlem. There was a custom in Holland of painting portraits of the
+members of guilds and societies in groups, and some such works of his at
+Haarlem are very fine. I have told a story of his rapid manner in the
+sketch of Vandyck. He was the first master to introduce that free, bold,
+sleight-of-hand manner which was afterward used by the Dutch masters, and
+is so strong in its effect. This painter led a merry, careless life. His
+portraits of single heads or figures are rare, and his small <em>genre</em>
+subjects still more so. In the H&ocirc;tel de Ville at Haarlem there are as many
+as eight of his large works, most of them having ten or a dozen portraits.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch painters of still-life&mdash;flowers, dead game and poultry, and
+metals, glass, and other beautiful objects&mdash;were very skilful, and have
+never been surpassed. The names of these masters would make a long list.
+There is little to be told of the circumstances of their lives, though
+their works are seen in most European galleries, and well repay one for
+careful examination.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig57" id="Fig57"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/img57.jpg">
+<img src="images/img57_th.jpg" width="281" height="330" alt="Fig 57" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.&mdash;Portrait of an Officer.</span><br />
+<em>By Franz Hals.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another form of Dutch art is the representation of scenes from peasant
+life, and there were some very eminent painters who devoted themselves to
+these subjects entirely.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> The interiors of inns with men smoking and
+drinking, playing cards or making jokes, were subjects many times
+repeated; dancing villagers, f&ecirc;tes, and fairs were often pictured, and in
+all these scenes everything was given exactly to the life. It follows that
+these pictures of coarse, vulgar people engaged in rude amusements cannot
+be beautiful; but they are oftentimes wonderful. Among the most noted
+names in this kind of painting are those of Adrian Brauwer, the Van
+Ostades, the Teniers, and Jan Steen. Most of these artists executed small
+pictures only. I shall speak particularly of but one of these Dutch
+<em>genre</em> painters&mdash;<span class="smcap">David Teniers</span> the younger (1610-1694), who became the
+greatest painter of his time of scenes from common life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> This is very
+great praise, because there were many Dutch and several Flemish painters
+who were noted for such pictures. This Teniers studied with his father,
+but his works show that he was much influenced by Rubens. He excelled in
+guard-house scenes and peasant life in every aspect. In representations of
+the alchemist also he was unequalled, as well as in fairs and festivals of
+every sort. He sometimes painted sacred subjects, but they are the least
+praiseworthy of all his works.</p>
+
+<p>The pictures of Teniers are very numerous. One author describes nine
+hundred of his works which are known to be genuine, and it is believed
+that there may be one hundred more. He often represented a great number of
+figures on one canvas. At Schleissheim there was a large picture, thirteen
+and a half feet by ten feet in size, which contained one thousand one
+hundred and thirty-eight figures. It was not unusual for him to paint from
+one hundred and fifty to three hundred figures in a single picture of
+moderate size. He had a light, brilliant touch, his color was exquisite,
+and his arrangement of his subjects was very picturesque. His chief fault
+was a resemblance in his heads, and for this reason those pictures with
+the fewest figures are his best works.</p>
+
+<p>Teniers had several royal patrons, and earned sufficient money to live in
+handsome style in his home in Perck, not far from Mechlin. He chose this
+place in order to be near the peasant classes, whose life was his chief
+study. He also excelled in his ability to imitate the styles of other
+masters. In the Vienna Gallery there is a curious work of his which
+represents the walls of a room hung with fifty pictures, imitating those
+of various Italian masters; in the foreground are portraits of Teniers and
+the Archduke Leopold William, who are represented as conversing with each
+other.</p>
+
+<p>Teniers reached his excellence early in life, and was but twenty-two years
+old when he was admitted to the Guild of Painters at Antwerp. That Rubens
+was his friend is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> proved by the fact that when Teniers married the
+daughter of Jan Breughel, in 1637, that great master was one of the
+witnesses to the ceremony. In 1656 he married his second wife, the
+daughter of the Secretary of State for Brabant. By his artistic and
+personal merits Teniers gained a higher place in society than was ever
+held by any other <em>genre</em> painter of the Flemish or Dutch schools. He was
+eighty-four years old when he died, and was active and industrious up to
+the close of his life.</p>
+
+<p>Although Teniers had such good fortune during his life, I fancy he would
+have been surprised if he could have known what his fame would be now, or
+what prices would be paid for his pictures about two centuries after his
+death. The &ldquo;Flemish Kermes&rdquo; was bought for the Brussels Museum in 1867 for
+twenty-five thousand dollars, and at the San Donato sale, in 1880, the
+&ldquo;Prodigal Son&rdquo; sold for sixteen thousand two hundred dollars, and the
+&ldquo;Five Senses&rdquo; for fifteen thousand dollars. It is difficult to distinguish
+the etchings of the son from those of the father, David Teniers the elder,
+though it is well known that the son executed such works.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gerard Honthorst</span> (1592-1660) was also a painter of <em>genre</em> scenes, and
+many of his works had figures of life size. His chief distinction,
+however, was that of painting the effects of artificial lights. He was
+famous in England and Italy as well as in his own country, and the
+Italians called him &ldquo;<em>Gherardo della Notte</em>,&rdquo; or Gerard of the Night,
+because he painted so many night-scenes lighted by candles, lamps, and
+torches.</p>
+
+<p>Then there was a class of Dutch artists who represented the interiors of
+fine houses&mdash;rooms with all sorts of beautiful furniture and ornaments,
+with ladies and gentlemen in splendid costumes. They tried to show the
+effects of light upon satins, glass, metals, and other shining objects.
+They painted with great care, and finished their pictures in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> most
+perfect manner. <span class="smcap">Gerhard Terburg</span> (1608-1681), <span class="smcap">Gerhard Dow</span> (1613-1675), and
+<span class="smcap">Gabriel Metsu</span> (1615-after 1667) were all remarkable for works of this
+kind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pieter de Hooge</span>, who worked from 1628 to 1671, and of whose life little is
+known, painted similar pictures of court-yards as well as of rooms in
+houses. The list of the names of all these Dutch masters cannot be given
+here, and I hasten to tell you of one whose name and fame is so great that
+when we hear of Dutch art we always think first of him, because he stands
+out as its head.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rembrandt van Ryn</span> (1607-1669) was born at Leyden, and was educated by his
+parents with the hope that he would be a scholar and a prominent man in
+Leyden. But his taste for drawing and painting would not be put aside, and
+in 1620 he entered the studio of J. J. van Swanenburg, where he learned
+the first lessons in his art, and was then placed under the teaching of
+Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, where he remained only six months, after
+which he returned to his father&#8217;s house, and there lived for seven years.
+He was not far from seventeen years old when he thus left the usual course
+of study. From this time he gave himself up to close observation of nature
+in every form.</p>
+
+<p>He studied broad landscapes&mdash;farms, groves, gardens, rivers, canals,
+sunshine, clouds, and shadows, and with and above all these, the human
+faces that he saw, as well as the varying forms, movements, and
+peculiarities of the men and women about him. That nothing escaped his
+observation is proved by the works he did in later life.</p>
+
+<p>In 1630 Rembrandt settled in Amsterdam, which was called the &ldquo;Venice of
+the North,&rdquo; and was the centre of northern commerce, civilization, and the
+activity of political and intellectual life. Rembrandt was no sooner
+established in his studio on one of the western quays than he was pressed
+with orders for pictures and applications from young men who desired his
+instructions. The years <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>following were crowded with work&mdash;with painting
+and engraving. Rembrandt is called the &ldquo;Prince of Etchers,&rdquo; and he used
+the etching needle most skilfully, but he also employed the dry-point and
+even the graver in finishing. Thus he may be said to have established a
+new school of engraving of great excellence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig58" id="Fig58"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;">
+<a href="images/img58.jpg">
+<img src="images/img58_th.jpg" width="383" height="363" alt="Fig 58" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.&mdash;One of Rembrandt&#8217;s Portraits of Himself.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It would seem that in these early years one of his amusements was to make
+etchings of himself. In one year, 1630-31, he made nineteen of these
+portraits in different costumes and positions, with as many kinds of
+expression on his face. He often repeated the portrait of his mother also.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig59" id="Fig59"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img59.jpg">
+<img src="images/img59_th.jpg" width="500" height="353" alt="Fig 59" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.&mdash;The Lecture on Anatomy.</span> <em>By Rembrandt.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1632 he painted the &ldquo;School of Anatomy,&rdquo; now one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> of the gems of the
+fine gallery at the Hague. It represents a lecture by Professor Tulp, who
+is dissecting the arm of a dead body and explaining its structure to seven
+other surgeons. It is a wonderful picture and one of the most famous works
+of this great master. In 1828 it was sold for the benefit of the fund for
+surgeons&#8217; widows, and the Dutch Government paid thirty-two thousand
+florins for it. This picture is in a certain way a portrait picture, and
+comes within the class of Dutch pictures of which I have spoken as
+portraits of guilds and societies; for Tulp was very famous, and Rembrandt
+probably attended his lectures, and was chosen by him to be the painter of
+this celebrated portrait of himself surrounded by members of his guild.</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt&#8217;s influence upon the art of his time was very great almost from
+the beginning of his career. About 1634 he introduced his manner of
+portrait-painting, with dark backgrounds and deep shadows on the face,
+with a bright light on the cheek and nose passing down to the shoulder,
+and immediately other artists adopted this manner. They considered it a
+necessity to imitate him, so much was he admired.</p>
+
+<p>In 1634 Rembrandt married Saskia van Ulenburg, who was very beautiful and
+of an aristocratic and wealthy family. She was only twenty-one years of
+age when she married, and Rembrandt painted many portraits of her besides
+making her his model for beautiful figures in his mythological and sacred
+subjects. She lived but eight years after her marriage, which were the
+happiest of the artist&#8217;s life. She left but one child, a son named Titus,
+and showed her confidence in her husband by leaving all her fortune to
+him, with the single stipulation that their son should be properly
+educated.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Saskia it seems that the only thought of the master was
+to work without rest, and in this way to drown the remembrance of his
+sorrow. There is little <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>material for a story of his life&mdash;it is told in
+his pictures. The house in which Saskia lived was very fine, and Rembrandt
+was so fond of collecting all sorts of curious and beautiful objects that
+he finally made himself poor, and his collection was sold. He never
+travelled, and some writers have said that he was ignorant of classic art;
+but the list of his collections proves that he had busts of Homer and
+Socrates and copies of ancient sculptures, such as the &ldquo;La&ouml;coon,&rdquo; a
+&ldquo;Cupid,&rdquo; and so on. He also had pictures of some of the best Italian
+masters. After the sale of his home and all his rare objects he hired a
+house on the Rosengracht near the West Church. This house still stands,
+and has a shield dated 1652, though the artist did not live there until
+1658.</p>
+
+<p>His life here was not lonely or desolate. He had many friends in Amsterdam
+who did not forget him. He was near the bastions of the city, and had not
+far to go to sketch, as he loved to do, and he was busy with his brush
+until 1662, when he did nothing of which we know. In 1666 he executed four
+pictures. Among his works of 1667 there is a portrait of himself which is
+of great interest. In October, 1668, Rembrandt died after a short illness.
+He was buried in the West Church, and his funeral was so simple that its
+cost was registered as only fifteen florins.</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt&#8217;s pictures are so numerous and so varied in their subjects that
+no adequate list or account of them can be given here. And his numerous
+engravings are as interesting as his pictures, so that a volume would
+scarcely suffice to do him justice; but I will try to tell something of
+his style. His management of light was his most striking characteristic.
+He generally threw a strong, vivid light upon the central or important
+object, whether it was a single figure or a group, and the rest of the
+picture was in shadow. This is true of all his works, almost without
+exception&mdash;portraits, pictures both large and small, and etchings.</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt loved to paint unusual things. We are apt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> to think that an
+unusual thing is not natural; but if we closely observe nature, especially
+the effect of light and shade, we shall find that no imagination could
+make pictures more wonderful than the reality we see. Rembrandt had that
+keen observation that helped him to seize upon the sharp features&mdash;the
+strong points in a scene or a person&mdash;and then he had the skill to
+reproduce these things on his canvas with great truth.</p>
+
+<p>His etchings are much prized. One of the most famous represents Christ
+healing the sick, and is called the &ldquo;Hundred Guilders Print,&rdquo; because that
+sum was the price he fixed for it; now a good impression of it is worth
+ten times as much. At his death he left about six hundred pictures and
+four hundred engravings. His landscapes are his rarest subjects. Most of
+these are in private collections, but I have seen one in the Cassel
+Gallery; the color of it is bright and glowing&mdash;the sky magnificent. In
+the foreground there is a bridge, and on an eminence are the ruins of a
+castle.</p>
+
+<p>Some fine works by Rembrandt are in England, and very large prices have
+been paid for them. In 1867 &ldquo;Christ Blessing Little Children&rdquo; was sold for
+seven thousand pounds. At the San Donato sale in Florence, in 1880,
+&ldquo;Lucretia&rdquo; brought twenty-nine thousand two hundred dollars, and a
+&ldquo;Portrait of a Young Woman&rdquo; nearly as much.</p>
+
+<p>Among Rembrandt&#8217;s pupils Gerbrandt van der Eeckhout holds a high rank, and
+his pictures are seen in many galleries.</p>
+
+<p>Among the landscape painters of Holland <span class="smcap">Albert Cuyp</span> (1605-1691) is very
+famous. He sometimes introduced figures and animals into his pictures, but
+they were of secondary importance; the scenery was his chief thought. His
+works are in many galleries, and the increase in their value is
+marvellous. Sir Robert Peel bought a landscape,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> twelve by twenty inches
+in size, for which he paid three hundred and fifty guineas: it was
+originally sold in Holland for about one English shilling! During the
+first century after his death no picture by Cuyp brought more than thirty
+florins; now they cost almost their weight in gold.</p>
+
+<p>Other fine landscape painters were Jan and Andries Both, Jan van Goyen,
+Jan Wynants, Adrian van de Velde, and, finally, <span class="smcap">Philip Wouverman</span>
+(1619-1668), who introduced much life into his works. He painted battles,
+hunting parties, and such subjects as allowed him to introduce white
+horses, for which he became noted. His works, as well as those of the
+other painters last mentioned, are valuable. There are so many in
+galleries which are attributed to Wouverman that it is doubtful if they
+are all genuine. He had animation and fine feeling for the picturesque.
+His execution was light and delicate, and there is much tenderness shown
+in his works. There were many excellent Dutch landscape painters whom we
+have not mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Paul Potter</span> (1625-1654) was born at Enkhuysen, and though he died young he
+made himself a great and enduring reputation by his pictures of animals.
+&ldquo;Paul Potter&#8217;s Bull,&rdquo; which is in the gallery at the Hague, is as well
+known as any one picture the world over. He left one hundred and eight
+pictures and eighteen etchings. He was most successful in representing
+cattle and sheep; his horses are not as fine. He never crowded his
+pictures; they have an open landscape, but few animals, and perhaps a
+shepherd, and that is all. Some of his pictures have been valued as high
+as fifty thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jacob Ruysdael</span> (1625-1681) was born in the same year with Paul Potter. His
+birth-place was Haarlem. He came to be the very best of all Dutch
+landscape painters, and though most of his pictures represent the dull,
+uninteresting scenery of Holland, they are so skilfully drawn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> and painted
+that they are really most attractive, if not cheerful. His works number
+about four hundred and forty-eight pictures and seven fine, spirited
+etchings. He was fond of giving a broad, expansive effect to his pictures,
+and frequently placed church spires in the distance. He painted a few
+marine views with rough seas and cloudy skies. Though many of his works
+are gloomy, he sometimes painted sunshine with much effect. Some of his
+finest works are in the Dresden Gallery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mindert Hobbema</span> was a pupil of Jacob Ruysdael, and this is almost all that
+is known of him personally; but his pictures show that he was a great
+landscape painter. They sell for enormous sums, and many of the best are
+in England. Most of those seen in the continental galleries are not those
+he should be judged by. At the San Donato sale in Florence, his picture of
+the &ldquo;Wind-Mills&rdquo; sold for forty-two thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The number of reputable Dutch painters is very large, but I shall mention
+no more names. After the great men whom we have spoken of there comes an
+army of those who are called &ldquo;little Dutch masters,&rdquo; and their principal
+work was making copies from the pictures of the greater artists.</p>
+
+<p>In the history of what we know as German art we find a very early school
+at Cologne, but the records of it are so scarce and imperfect that I shall
+give no account of it here. At Augsburg there was an important school of
+art which commenced with the Holbeins. The first Hans Holbein is known as
+&ldquo;Old Holbein,&rdquo; and so little is known of him that I shall merely give his
+name. The second <span class="smcap">Hans Holbein</span>, called the elder (1460-1523), painted a
+great number of religious pictures, which are seen in various churches and
+galleries in Germany. Some of the best are in the Cathedral of Augsburg.
+In one salon of the Munich Pinakothek there are sixteen panels painted by
+him. But it was <span class="smcap">Hans Holbein</span> the third, known as &ldquo;the younger,&rdquo; who
+reached<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> the perfection of his school (1495-1543). This painter was
+instructed by his father and by Hans Burgkmair. He was but fifteen years
+of age when he began to receive commissions for pictures. When he was
+about twenty-one years old he removed to Basle, and there he painted many
+pictures, though not nearly as many as have been called by his name.</p>
+
+<p>About a year after Holbein went to Basle he was called to Lucerne to
+decorate a house, and he executed other works there and at Altorf. In
+1519, when he had been three years in Basle, he became a citizen of that
+town and a member of its guild of painters. His works at Basle were mostly
+decorative, and he painted few easel pictures there.</p>
+
+<p>Holbein married a widow with one son; her name was Elizabeth Schmid. She
+had a very bad temper. It is said that she made Holbein&#8217;s life so
+miserable that he left Basle for that reason. He visited her sometimes,
+and always gave her money, but lived away from her. In 1526 Holbein went
+to England, and his friend Erasmus said that he went because he had so
+little to do in Basle. He carried a letter to Sir Thomas More, who
+received him with great kindness, and the artist made many portraits of
+Sir Thomas and his family. There is a story about one of these portraits
+of that nobleman. He had refused to be present at the marriage of Anne
+Boleyn to King Henry VIII., and she never forgave him. On the day that
+More was executed she looked at one of Holbein&#8217;s portraits of the
+ex-chancellor and exclaimed, &ldquo;Ah, me! the man seems to be still alive;&rdquo;
+and seizing the picture she threw it into the street.</p>
+
+<p>In 1530 Holbein returned to Basle to complete some unfinished frescoes,
+and this being done he went again to London. About this time he began to
+be employed by the king, and did many pictures for him from time to time.
+In 1538 Henry sent Holbein to Brussels to make a portrait<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> of the Duchess
+of Milan, of whom the king was thinking for his fourth wife. No citizen of
+Basle was allowed to enter the service of a foreign sovereign without the
+consent of the council, so in 1538 the artist went home to ask permission
+to serve the King of England. Great efforts were made to keep him in
+Basle, but at last he received permission to remain two years in England:
+the artist never went again to Basle. Henry VIII. became fond of Holbein,
+and was generous to him, even giving him a painting-room in the palace of
+Whitehall.</p>
+
+<p>In 1539 the artist was sent to paint a portrait of Anne of Cleves, whom
+the king married the next year. It has been said that the picture was so
+flattering that when the king saw the lady he was disappointed; we know
+that he was soon divorced from her.</p>
+
+<p>In 1543 the plague raged in London, and on the 7th of October Holbein
+prepared his will. He died before the 29th of November, but the facts
+concerning his death and burial are not known.</p>
+
+<p>There are several interesting anecdotes of Holbein. One relates that when
+passing through Strasburg he visited the studio of an artist, and finding
+him out, painted a fly on a picture which was on an easel. When the
+painter saw the fly he tried to brush it away, and when he found who had
+painted it he searched the city for Holbein; but he had already left for
+England. Another story shows the regard which Henry VIII. had for him. One
+day a nobleman went to Holbein&#8217;s studio, and insisted upon entering,
+though the artist told him that he was painting the portrait of a lady by
+his Majesty&#8217;s orders. The nobleman persisting, Holbein threw him down the
+stairs with great violence, and then rushed to the king, and told him what
+he had done. Soon after the nobleman was borne to the presence of the
+king; he was unable to walk, and was loud in his complaints. The king
+ridiculed him, and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>nobleman was angry, and threatened to punish the
+artist legally. Then Henry got angry, and said: &ldquo;Now you have no longer to
+deal with Holbein, but with me, your king. Do you think that this man is
+of so little consideration with us? I tell you, my lord, that out of seven
+peasants I can make seven earls in a day; but out of seven earls I could
+not make one such artist as Hans Holbein.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig60" id="Fig60"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 259px;">
+<a href="images/img60.jpg">
+<img src="images/img60_th.jpg" width="259" height="400" alt="Fig 60" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.&mdash;Burgomaster Meier Madonna.</span> <em>By Holbein.<br />
+Dresden Gallery.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At Basle one may see some of the most important of the early portraits of
+Holbein; these are in the gallery where are also his ten well-known scenes
+from the Passion of Christ. While at Basle he probably made the designs
+for the &ldquo;Dance of Death.&rdquo; For a long time it was believed that he painted
+this subject both at Basle and at Bonn, but we now know that he only made
+designs for it. He also decorated the Town Hall at Basle; of this work,
+however, but little remains.</p>
+
+<p>The most celebrated work by Holbein is the &ldquo;Meyer Madonna&rdquo; in the royal
+palace of Darmstadt, of which there is a copy in the Dresden Gallery. It
+takes its name from that of the Burgomaster Meyer, for whom it was
+painted. The Madonna, with the infant Jesus in her arms, stands in a niche
+in the centre of the picture; the burgomaster and his family kneel before
+her. This is what is called a votive picture, which means a picture made
+in the fulfilment of a vow, in gratitude for some signal blessing or to
+turn away some danger. Many of these works commemorate an escape from
+accident or a recovery from sickness.</p>
+
+<p>The picture is very beautiful, and it seems as if the Virgin wished to
+share her peace with the kneeling family, so sweet is the expression of
+her face, while the child seems to bestow a blessing with his lifted hand.
+The original was probably painted for a &ldquo;Chapel of Our Lady.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His &ldquo;Dance of Death&rdquo; was very curious, the idea being that Death is always
+near us and trying to strike down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> his prey. The pictures represent a
+skeleton clutching at his victims, who are of all ages and occupations,
+from the lovely young bride at the altar to the hard-working pedlar in the
+cut we give here, and all of them are hurried away by this frightful
+figure which stands for Death itself.</p>
+
+<p>Holbein made many wood engravings, but none so important as these. When
+the set is complete there are fifty-three cuts, but it is rare to find
+more than forty-six.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig61" id="Fig61"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;">
+<a href="images/img61.jpg">
+<img src="images/img61_th.jpg" width="189" height="250" alt="Fig 61" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.&mdash;From Holbein&#8217;s Dance of Death.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Holbein was one of the foremost of German masters. All his pictures are
+realistic, and many of them are fantastic; he gave graceful movement and
+beauty of form to many of his subjects; his drapery was well arranged; his
+color and manner of painting were good. He painted in fresco and oil
+colors, executed miniatures and engravings. His portraits were his best
+works, and in them he equalled the greatest masters. The most reliable
+portrait of this artist is in the Basle Museum. It is done in red and
+black chalk, and represents him as a man with regular, well-shaped
+features, with a cheerful expression which also shows decision of
+character.</p>
+
+<p>There were other good artists in the Augsburg school after the time of the
+Holbeins; but I shall pass immediately to the Franconian school, or that
+of Nuremburg, and to its great master, <span class="smcap">Albert D&uuml;rer</span> (1471-1528), whose
+life was very interesting, and who stands, as an artist, among the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+greatest painters of the world. The city of Nuremburg was a grand, rich
+old place even in D&uuml;rer&#8217;s time, and as a boy he was familiar with its
+scenery and architecture, which helped him to cultivate his artist tastes,
+and to make him the great man that he became. He was an author of books as
+well as an architect, sculptor, painter, and engraver.</p>
+
+<p>His father was a goldsmith, and Albert was apprenticed to the same trade;
+but he was so anxious to study painting that at length his father placed
+him as apprentice to the painter Michael Wohlgemuth. At this time Albert
+was fifteen years old, and the two years he had spent with the goldsmith
+had doubtless been of great advantage to him; for in that time he had been
+trained in the modelling of small, delicate objects, and in the accurate
+design necessary in making the small articles in precious metals which are
+the principal work of that trade.</p>
+
+<p>Albert D&uuml;rer had a very strong nature, and Michael Wohlgemuth was not a
+man who could gain much influence over such a youth. During the three
+years which D&uuml;rer passed under his teaching he learned all the modes of
+preparing and using colors, and acquired much skill in handling the brush;
+he also learned the first lessons in wood-engraving, in which he afterward
+reached so high a perfection that a large part of his present fame rests
+upon his skill in that art.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest portraits painted by D&uuml;rer is in the Albertina at
+Vienna, and bears this inscription: &ldquo;This I have drawn from myself from
+the looking-glass, in the year 1484, when I was still a child. <span class="smcap">Albert
+D&uuml;rer.</span>&rdquo; Six years later he painted the beautiful portrait of his father
+which is now in the gallery at Florence; and it is a question whether this
+is not as finely executed as any portrait of his later years.</p>
+
+<p>When D&uuml;rer left Wohlgemuth he started upon the student journey which was
+then the custom with all German<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> youths, and is still practised in a
+modified degree. These youths, after serving their apprenticeship in the
+occupation they were to follow, travelled, and worked at their trade or
+profession in the cities of other countries. D&uuml;rer was absent four years,
+but we know little of what he did or saw, for in his own account of his
+life he says only this: &ldquo;And when the three years were out my father sent
+me away. I remained abroad four years, when he recalled me; and, as I had
+left just after Easter in 1490, I returned home in 1494, just after
+Whitsuntide.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the same year, in July, D&uuml;rer was married to Agnes Frey. He was also
+admitted to the guild of painters, and we may say that he was now settled
+for life. It is a singular fact that, although D&uuml;rer painted several
+portraits of his father and himself, he is not known to have made any of
+his wife. Some of his sketches are called by her name, but there is no
+good reason for this.</p>
+
+<p>D&uuml;rer was so industrious, and executed so many pictures, copper-plates,
+and wood engravings within the six years next after his return to
+Nuremburg, that it is not possible to give an exact account of them here.
+In 1500 an event occurred which added much to his happiness and to his
+opportunities for enlarging his influence. It was the return to Nuremburg
+of Willibald Pirkheimer, one of the friends of D&uuml;rer&#8217;s childhood, between
+whom and himself there had always existed a strong affection. Pirkheimer
+was rich and influential, and at his house D&uuml;rer saw many eminent men,
+artists, scholars, reformers, and theologians, and in their society he
+gained much broader knowledge of the world, while he received the respect
+which was due to his genius and character.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig62" id="Fig62"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/img62.jpg">
+<img src="images/img62_th.jpg" width="280" height="400" alt="Fig 62" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.&mdash;A Scene from D&uuml;rer&#8217;s Wood Engravings of the Life
+of the<br /> Virgin Mary.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>D&uuml;rer&#8217;s health was not good, and his continual work proved more than he
+could bear. His father died in 1502, and this loss was a deep grief to the
+artist. So little money was left for his mother and younger brother that
+their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>support came upon him. At length, in 1505, he made a journey to
+Venice, partly for his health, and in order to study Venetian painting. He
+was well received by the painters of Venice. Giovanni Bellini and
+Carpaccio were the leading painters of that time. They were both quite
+old, but Giorgione and Titian were already coming into notice and
+preparing to fill the places of the older men. Bellini was especially
+delighted with the exquisite manner in which D&uuml;rer painted hair, and asked
+the German to give him the brush he used for that purpose. D&uuml;rer gave him
+all his brushes, but Bellini insisted upon having <em>the one</em> for painting
+hair. D&uuml;rer took a common brush, and painted a long tress of fine hair:
+Bellini declared that had he not seen this done he could not have believed
+it.</p>
+
+<p>While in Venice D&uuml;rer received an order to paint a picture for the Fondaco
+de&#8217; Tedeschi, or German Exchange. It is believed that this work was the
+famous &ldquo;Feast of Rose Garlands,&rdquo; now in the Monastery at Strahow, in
+Bohemia. The Emperor Rudolph II. bought it, and had it carried from Venice
+to Prague on men&#8217;s shoulders. In 1782 it was purchased for the Abbey of
+Strahow, and was almost lost to the world for many years. It is a
+beautiful picture, and the praise it received was a great pleasure to
+D&uuml;rer, because heretofore many painters had said that he was a good
+engraver, but could not use colors. D&uuml;rer wrote to Pirkheimer: &ldquo;There is
+no better picture of the Virgin Mary in the land, because all the artists
+praise it, as well as the nobility. They say they have never seen a more
+sublime, a more charming painting.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Venetian Government offered D&uuml;rer a handsome pension if he would
+remain in Venice, and he declined many orders for the sake of returning to
+Germany, which he believed to be his duty. From the time of his return, in
+1507, to 1520, there is very little to tell of the personal history of
+this artist. Almost all that can be said is that he labored<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> with great
+industry; it was the golden period of his art; he had many young men in
+his studio, which was the centre of art to Nuremburg. At this time he
+probably executed the best carvings which he ever did. During seven years
+he made forty-eight engravings and etchings and more than a hundred
+wood-cuts. The large demand for these works was a source of good income to
+D&uuml;rer, and gave him a position of comfort. The Reformation was at hand,
+and D&uuml;rer&#8217;s Virgins and Saints and his pictures of the sufferings of
+Christ were very well suited to the religious excitement of that period.</p>
+
+<p>The house in which D&uuml;rer lived and worked for many years is still
+preserved in Nuremburg as public property, and is used as an art gallery.
+The street on which it stands is now called the Albrecht-D&uuml;rer Strasse. On
+the square before the house stands a bronze statue of the master which was
+erected by the Nuremburgers on the three hundredth anniversary of his
+death.</p>
+
+<p>About 1509 D&uuml;rer occupied himself considerably in writing poetry; but,
+although there was much earnest feeling in his verse, it was not such as
+to give him great fame as a poet. It was at the same period that he carved
+the wonderful bas-relief of the &ldquo;Birth of John the Baptist,&rdquo; now in the
+British Museum. It is cut out of stone, is seven and one-half by five and
+one-half inches in size, and is a marvellous piece of work. Two thousand
+five hundred dollars were paid for it nearly a century ago. He made many
+exquisite little carvings in stone, ivory, and boxwood, and in these
+articles the result of his work as a goldsmith is best seen.</p>
+
+<p>In 1512 D&uuml;rer was first employed by the Emperor Maximilian, and for the
+next seven years there was a close relation between the sovereign and the
+artist; but there are few records concerning it. It is said that one day
+when the painter was making a sketch of the emperor the latter took<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> a
+charcoal crayon, and tried to draw a picture himself: he constantly broke
+the crayon, and made no progress toward his end. After watching him for a
+time D&uuml;rer took the charcoal from Maximilian, saying, &ldquo;This is my sceptre,
+your Majesty;&rdquo; and he then taught the emperor how to use it.</p>
+
+<p>D&uuml;rer executed some very remarkable drawings and engravings. Among them
+was the &ldquo;Triumphal Arch of Maximilian,&rdquo; composed of ninety-two blocks. The
+whole cut is ten and one-half feet high by nine feet wide. It shows all
+the remarkable events in the emperor&#8217;s life, just as such subjects were
+carved upon the triumphal arches of the Romans and other nations.
+Hieronymus R&ouml;sch did the engraving of this great work from D&uuml;rer&#8217;s blocks,
+and while it was in progress the emperor went often to see it. During one
+of these visits several cats ran into the room, from which happening arose
+the proverb, &ldquo;A cat may look at a king.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The emperor granted D&uuml;rer a pension; but it was never regularly paid, and
+after the emperor&#8217;s death the Council of Nuremburg refused to pay it
+unless it was confirmed by the new sovereign, Charles V. For the purpose
+of obtaining this confirmation D&uuml;rer made a journey to the Netherlands in
+the year 1520. His wife and her maid Susanna went with him. His diary
+gives a quaint account of the places they visited, the people whom they
+met, and of the honors which were paid him. In Antwerp he was received
+with great kindness, and the government of the city offered him a house
+and a liberal pension if he would remain there; but his love for his
+native town would not allow him to leave it.</p>
+
+<p>After several months D&uuml;rer received the confirmation of his pension and
+also the appointment of court-painter. This last office was of very little
+account to him. The emperor spent little time at Nuremburg, and it was
+not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> until he was older that he was seized with the passion of having his
+portrait painted, and then D&uuml;rer had died, and Titian was painter to the
+court.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig63" id="Fig63"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<a href="images/img63.jpg">
+<img src="images/img63_th.jpg" width="310" height="400" alt="Fig 63" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.&mdash;The Four Apostles.</span> <em>By D&uuml;rer.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When D&uuml;rer returned to his home there was quite an excitement over the
+collection of curious and rare objects which he had made while absent.
+Some of these he had bought, and many others were gifts to him, and he
+gave much pleasure to his friends by displaying them. There had been a
+great change in Nuremburg, for the doctrines of the Reformation were
+accepted by many of its people, and it was the first free city that
+declared itself Protestant. The change, too, was quietly made; its
+convents and churches were saved from violence, and the art treasures of
+the city were not destroyed. Among the most important Lutherans was
+Pirkheimer, D&uuml;rer&#8217;s friend. We do not know that D&uuml;rer became a Lutheran,
+but he wrote of his admiration for the great reformer in his diary, and it
+is a meaning fact that during the last six years of his life D&uuml;rer made no
+more pictures of the Madonna.</p>
+
+<p>These last years were not as full of work as the earlier ones had been. A
+few portraits and engravings and the pictures of the Four Apostles were
+about all the works of this time. He gave much attention to the
+arrangement and publication of his writings upon various subjects
+connected with the arts. These books gave him much fame as a scholar, and
+some of them were translated into several languages.</p>
+
+<p>As an architect D&uuml;rer executed but little work; but his writings upon
+architectural subjects prove that he was learned in its theories.</p>
+
+<p>During several years his health was feeble, and he exerted himself to make
+provision for his old age if he should live, or for his wife after his
+death. He was saddened by the thought that he had never been rewarded as
+he should have been for his hard, faithful labors, and his latest <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>letters
+were sad and touching. He died in April, 1528, after a brief illness, and
+was buried in the cemetery of St. John, beyond the walls, where a simple
+epitaph was inscribed upon his monument. This cemetery is an interesting
+place, and contains the graves of many men noted in the chronicles of
+Nuremburg.</p>
+
+<p>On Easter Sunday in 1828, three hundred years after his death, a D&uuml;rer
+celebration was held in Nuremburg. Artists came from all parts of Germany.
+A solemn procession proceeded to his grave, where hymns were sung, and the
+statue by Rauch, near D&uuml;rer&#8217;s house, was dedicated.</p>
+
+<p>I can give you no description of D&uuml;rer&#8217;s many works, and although it is
+true that he was a very great master, yet it is also true that his
+pictures and engravings are not noted for their beauty so much as for
+their strength and power. His subjects were often ugly and repulsive
+rather than beautiful, and his imagination was full of weird, strange
+fancies that can scarcely be understood. Indeed, some of them never have
+been explained, and one of his most famous engravings, called &ldquo;The Knight,
+Death, and the Devil,&rdquo; has never yet been satisfactorily interpreted, and
+many different theories have been made about it.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the principal galleries of Europe have D&uuml;rer&#8217;s paintings, though
+they are not as numerous as his engravings, and, indeed, his fame rests
+more upon the latter than the former, and very large sums are paid by
+collectors for good impressions of his more important plates.</p>
+
+<p>D&uuml;rer had several followers. His most gifted scholar was <span class="smcap">Lucas Sunder</span>
+(1472-1553), who is called Lucas Cranach, from the place of his birth. He
+established a school of painting in Saxony, and was appointed
+court-painter. Although there were a goodly number of German painters late
+in the sixteenth century, there were none of great eminence, and, in
+truth, there have been few since that time whose lives were of sufficient
+interest to be recounted here,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> so I shall tell you of but one more before
+passing to the artists of Spain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Angelica Kauffman</span> (1742-1808) was a very interesting woman who gained a
+good reputation as an artist; but there is such a difference of opinion
+among judges as to her merits as a painter that it is difficult to decide
+what to say of her. As a person, she excited an interest in her lifetime
+which has never died out, and Miss Thackeray&#8217;s novel, &ldquo;Miss Angel,&rdquo; tells
+what is claimed to be her story, as nearly as such stories are told in
+novels.</p>
+
+<p>She was born at Coire, in the Grisons. Her father was an artist, a native
+of Schwarzenburg, and when Angelica was born he was occupied in executing
+some frescoes at Coire. When the child was a year old he settled at
+Morbegno, in Lombardy, and ten years later, when she had shown a taste for
+music, her parents again removed to Como, where there were better
+opportunities for her instruction. Her progress in music was remarkable,
+and for a time she was unable to say whether she loved this art or that of
+painting the better. Later in life she painted a picture in which she
+represented herself, as a child, standing between allegorical figures of
+Music and Painting.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful scenery about Como, the stately palaces and charming villas,
+the lake with its pleasure boats, and all the poetry of the life there,
+tended to develop her talents rapidly, and, though she remained but two
+years, the recollection of this time was a pleasure to her through all her
+life. She was next taken to Milan, where a world of art was opened to her,
+and she saw pictures which excelled all her imaginations. The works of
+Leonardo and other great Lombard masters stirred her soul to its very
+depths. She soon attracted attention by her pictures, and Robert d&#8217;Este
+became her patron, and placed her under the care of the Duchess of
+Carrara. She was now daily associated with people of culture and elegance,
+and thus early in her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> life acquired the modest dignity and
+self-possession which enabled her in her future life to accept becomingly
+the honors and attentions which were paid her.</p>
+
+<p>Her mother&#8217;s death occurred at Milan, and her father returned to
+Schwarzenburg. The people about her were so coarse and disagreeable to
+Angelica that she passed much of her time in the grand forests. At this
+time she painted frescoes of the Twelve Apostles, copied from the
+engravings after Piazetta. Her father was not content to remain away from
+Italy, and they went again to Milan, then to Florence, and at last to
+Rome. She was now eighteen years old, and found much profit in the
+friendship of the great scholar Winckelmann, who allowed her to paint his
+portrait. Angelica visited Naples and Bologna also, and finally Venice,
+where she met Lady Wentworth, who became her friend, and afterward took
+her to England.</p>
+
+<p>She had a most brilliant career in London, where her friends were in the
+highest rank of society. De Rossi described her appearance at this time,
+and said that she was not very tall, but had a slight, elegant figure. Her
+complexion was dark and clear, her mouth well formed, her teeth white and
+even, and all her features good. He speaks of her azure eyes, so placid
+and bright that their expression had a charm which could not be described.
+No one felt like criticising her. Other artists paid her many honors, and
+she was made a member of the Academy of Arts. It has been said that
+Fuseli, the learned art critic, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, the great artist,
+both asked her hand in marriage. Some members of the royal family became
+her friends, and she was at the height of honorable success and of
+happiness.</p>
+
+<p>It is painful to turn from this bright picture of her life to all the
+sorrow and darkness which followed it. She made an unhappy marriage, her
+husband proving to be an adventurer who had assumed a distinguished name.
+For a time she was crushed by this sorrow; but her friends <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>remained true
+to her, and she found relief in absolute devotion to her art. For twelve
+years she supported herself and her father; then his health failed, and it
+was thought best for him to go to Italy. Angelica was now forty years old,
+and before leaving England she married Antonio Zucchi, an artist who had
+long been her friend. He devoted himself to her and to her father with
+untiring affection, and when the old man died he was happy in the thought
+that his beloved daughter had so true a friend as Zucchi.</p>
+
+<p>From this time their home was in Rome, where Angelica was the centre of an
+artistic and literary society of a high order. Among her visitors were
+such men as Herder and Goethe. The latter wrote of her: &ldquo;The light and
+pleasing in form and color, in design and execution, distinguish the
+numerous works of our artist. No living painter excels her in dignity or
+in the delicate taste with which she handles the pencil.&rdquo; She was very
+industrious, and her life seems to have been divided between two
+pleasures, her work and the society of her friends, until the death of her
+husband, which occurred in 1795. She lived twelve years longer, but they
+were years of great sadness. She made journeys in order to regain her
+spirits. She visited the scenes of her childhood, and remained some time
+in Venice with the family of Signor Zucchi.</p>
+
+<p>Even after her last return to Rome she worked as much as her strength
+would permit, but her life was not long. She was mourned sincerely in
+Rome; her funeral was attended by the members of the Academy of St. Luke;
+and her latest works were borne in the procession. She was buried beside
+her husband in the Church of St. Andrea dei Frati. Her bust was placed in
+the Pantheon.</p>
+
+<p>Various critics have praised her works in the most liberal manner; others
+can say nothing good of them. For myself, I cannot find the extreme of
+praise or blame a just estimate of her. No one can deny the grace of her
+design,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> which was also creditably correct. Her portraits were good; her
+poetical subjects are very pleasing; her historical pictures are not
+strong; her color was as harmonious and mellow as that of the best
+Italians, excepting a few of the greatest masters, and in all her pictures
+there is something which wins for her a certain fondness and praise, even
+while her faults are plainly seen. Her pictures are to be found in
+galleries in Rome, Florence, Vienna, Munich, and England; many are also in
+private collections. She painted several portraits of herself; one in the
+Uffizi, at Florence, is very pleasing. She represents herself seated in a
+solitary landscape, with a portfolio in one hand and a pencil in the
+other. She has an air of perfect unconsciousness, as if she thought of her
+work only. Her etchings are much valued, and sell for large prices. Many
+of her pictures were engraved by Bartolozzi, and good prints of them are
+rare. On one of her pictures she wrote: &ldquo;I will not attempt to express
+supernatural things by human inspiration, but wait for that till I reach
+heaven, if there is painting done there.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-birds.jpg" width="400" height="101" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>PAINTING IN SPAIN.</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>Spanish painting had its birth during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+and may be said to have been derived from Italy, through the influence of
+the Italian painters who went to Spain, and the Spanish artists who made
+their studies in Italy. But in spite of this strong Italian influence
+Spanish painting has its own characteristics which separate it from all
+other schools, and give it a high position on its own merits. <span class="smcap">Antonio del
+Rincon</span> (1446-1500) was the first Spanish painter of whom we know. If any
+works of his remain they are portraits of his august sovereigns now in the
+Cathedral of Granada; but it is probable that these pictures are copies of
+the originals by Rincon.</p>
+
+<p>Dating the beginning of the Spanish school from the last half of the
+fifteenth century, it is the third school in Europe as to age, it being
+about two centuries later than the Italian, and one century later than the
+Flemish school. Its importance is only exceeded by that of Italy. The
+distinguishing feature of Spanish art is its gravity, or we may almost say
+its strictly religious character, for, excepting portraits, there were few
+pictures of consequence that had not a religious meaning. Some artists
+were also priests, and, as the officers of the Inquisition appointed
+inspectors whose duty it was to report for punishment any artist who did
+not follow the rules of the Inquisition, it is easy to understand that the
+painters were careful to keep within the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> rules fixed for them. Whatever
+flights of imagination one might have in secret, he would scarcely run the
+risk of being excommunicated from the church, sent into exile for a year,
+and fined one thousand five hundred ducats for the pleasure of putting his
+fancies on canvas.</p>
+
+<p>Pacheco, who was an inspector at Seville, published minute rules for the
+representation of sacred subjects and persons, and other writers did the
+same. There was a long and grave discussion over the propriety of painting
+the devil with horns and a tail. It was decided that he should have horns
+because, according to the legend of St. Theresa, he had horns when he
+appeared to that saint; and he was allowed to have a tail because it was
+thought to be a suitable appendage to a fallen angel who had lost his
+wings. One very strict rule was that the feet of the Virgin Mary should be
+covered, and nude figures or portions of the figure were strictly
+forbidden.</p>
+
+<p>Another important influence upon the Spanish artists was their belief that
+the Virgin Mary and other holy spirits appeared to inspire them and aid
+them in painting their pictures. In fact, the church was the chief patron
+of art, and the artist was one of her most valuable teachers. A learned
+Spanish writer said: &ldquo;For the ignorant, what master is like painting? They
+may read their duty in a picture though they may not search for it in
+books.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The painters of Spain were divided between the schools of Castile,
+Seville, and Valencia. That of Castile was founded at Toledo early in the
+fifteenth century, and was maintained about two hundred years. Claudio
+Coello was of this school; he died in 1693, and has well been called &ldquo;the
+last of the old masters of Spain.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alonzo Berreguette</span> (1480-1561), born at Parades de Nava, in Castile, was
+the most eminent Spanish artist of his time. He is called the Michael
+Angelo of Spain, because he was painter, sculptor, and architect. He was
+painter to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> Philip I. Later he went to Italy, and journeyed from Florence
+to Rome with Michael Angelo in 1505. He studied in Italy many years. He
+was appointed painter and sculptor to the Emperor Charles V. Berreguette
+received four thousand four hundred ducats for the altar in the Church of
+St. Benito el Real in Valladolid, where he settled. When he was almost
+eighty years old he went to Toledo to erect a monument in the Hospital of
+St. John Baptist. He was lodged in the hospital, and died there. He left a
+large fortune, and was buried with splendid ceremonies at the expense of
+the emperor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Luis de Morales</span> (1510-1586) was called &ldquo;the divine.&rdquo; He belonged to the
+school of Castile, and very little is known of his early life. When he was
+fifty-five years old Philip II. invited him to court. When Morales
+appeared he was so splendidly dressed that the king was angry, and gave
+orders that he should be paid a certain sum and dismissed. But the poor
+painter explained that he had spent all that he had in order to come
+before the king in a dress befitting Philip&#8217;s dignity. Then Philip
+pardoned him, and allowed him to paint one picture; but as this was not
+hung in the Escorial, Morales was overcome by mortification, and almost
+forsook his painting, and fell into great poverty. In 1581 the king saw
+Morales at Badajoz, in a very different dress from that he had worn at
+court. The king said: &ldquo;Morales, you are very old.&rdquo; &ldquo;Yes, sire, and very
+poor,&rdquo; replied the painter. The king then commanded that he should have
+two hundred ducats a year from the crown rents with which to buy his
+dinners. Morales hearing this, exclaimed, &ldquo;And for supper, sire?&rdquo; This
+pleased Philip, and he added one hundred ducats to the pension. The street
+in Badajoz on which Morales lived bears his name.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all his pictures were of religious subjects, and on this account he
+was called &ldquo;the divine.&rdquo; He avoided ghastly, painful pictures, and was one
+of the most spiritual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> of the artists of Spain. Very few of his pictures
+are seen out of Spain, and they are rare even there. His masterpiece is
+&ldquo;Christ Crowned with Thorns,&rdquo; in the Queen of Spain&#8217;s Gallery at Madrid.
+In the Louvre is his &ldquo;Christ Bearing the Cross.&rdquo; At the sale of the Soult
+collection his &ldquo;Way to Calvary&rdquo; sold for nine hundred and eighty pounds
+sterling.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alonso Sanchez Coello</span> (about 1515-1590) was the first great portrait
+painter of Spain. He was painter-in-ordinary to Philip II., and that
+monarch was so fond of him that in his letters he called him &ldquo;my beloved
+son.&rdquo; At Madrid the king had a key to a private entrance to the apartments
+of Coello, so that he could surprise the painter in his studio, and at
+times even entered the family rooms of the artist. Coello never abused the
+confidence of Philip, and was a favorite of the court as well as of the
+monarch. Among his friends were the Popes Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V., the
+Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and the Dukes of Florence and Savoy. Many
+noble and even royal persons were accustomed to visit him and accept his
+hospitality. He was obliged to live in style becoming his position, and
+yet when he died he left a fortune of fifty-five thousand ducats. He had
+lived in Lisbon, and Philip sometimes called him his &ldquo;Portuguese Titian.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Very few of his portraits remain; they are graceful in pose and fine in
+color. He knew how to represent the repose and refinement of &ldquo;gentle blood
+and delicate nurture.&rdquo; Many of his works were burned in the Prado. His
+&ldquo;Marriage of St. Catherine&rdquo; is in the Gallery of Madrid. A &ldquo;St. Sebastian&rdquo;
+painted for the Church of St. Jerome, at Madrid, is considered his
+masterpiece. Lope de Vega wrote Coello&#8217;s epitaph, and called his pictures</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Eternal scenes of history divine,<br />
+ <span style="margin-left: .5em;">Wherein for aye his memory shall shine.&rdquo;</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Juan Fernandez Navarrete</span> (1526-1579), called El Mudo, because deaf and
+dumb, is a very interesting painter. He was not born a mute, but became
+deaf at three years of age, and could not learn to speak. He studied some
+years in Italy, and was in the school of Titian. In 1568 he was appointed
+painter to Philip II. His principal works were eight pictures for the
+Escorial, three of which were burned. His picture of the &ldquo;Nativity&rdquo; is
+celebrated for its lights, of which there are three; one is from the
+Divine Babe, a second from the glory above, and a third from a torch in
+the hand of St. Joseph. The group of shepherds is the best part of the
+picture, and when Tibaldi saw the picture he exclaimed, &ldquo;O! gli belli
+pastori!&rdquo; and it has since been known as the &ldquo;Beautiful Shepherds.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His picture of &ldquo;Abraham and the Three Angels&rdquo; was placed near the door
+where the monks of the Escorial received strangers. The pictures of
+Navarrete are rare. After his death Lope de Vega wrote a lament for him,
+in which he said,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;No countenance he painted that was dumb.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When the &ldquo;Last Supper&rdquo; painted by Titian reached the Escorial, it was
+found to be too large for the space it was to occupy in the refectory. The
+king ordered it to be cut, which so distressed El Mudo that he offered to
+copy it in six months, in reduced size, and to forfeit his head if he did
+not fulfil his promise. He also added that he should hope to be knighted
+if he copied in six months what Titian had taken seven years to paint. But
+Philip was resolute, and the picture was cut, to the intense grief of the
+dumb Navarrete. While the painter lived Philip did not fully appreciate
+him; but after his death the king often declared that his Italian artists
+could not equal his mute Spaniard.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Juan Carre&ntilde;o de Miranda</span> (1614-1685) is commonly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> called Carre&ntilde;o. He was of
+an ancient noble family. His earliest works were for the churches and
+convents of Madrid, and he acquired so good a name that before the death
+of Philip IV. he was appointed one of his court-painters. In 1671 the
+young king Charles gave Carre&ntilde;o the cross of Santiago, and to his office
+of court-painter added that of Deputy Aposentador. He would allow no other
+artist to paint his likeness unless Carre&ntilde;o consented to it. The pictures
+of Carre&ntilde;o were most excellent, and his character was such as to merit all
+his good fortune. His death was sincerely mourned by all who knew him.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that on one occasion he was in a house where a copy of Titian&#8217;s
+&ldquo;St. Margaret&rdquo; hung upon the wall, and those present united in saying that
+it was abominably done. Carre&ntilde;o said: &ldquo;It has at least one merit; it shows
+that no one need despair of improving in art, for I painted it myself when
+I was a beginner.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gregorio Utande, a poor artist, had painted a &ldquo;Martyrdom of St. Andrew&rdquo;
+for the nuns of Alcal&agrave;, and demanded one hundred ducats for it. The nuns
+thought the price too much, and wished to have Carre&ntilde;o value the work.
+Utande took the picture to Carre&ntilde;o, and first presenting the great master
+with a jar of honey, asked him to touch up his St. Andrew for him. Carre&ntilde;o
+consented, and, in fact, almost repainted Utande&#8217;s picture. A short time
+after Carre&ntilde;o was asked to value the St. Andrew, but declined. Then
+Herrera valued it at two hundred ducats, which price the nuns paid. After
+Utande received his money he told the whole story, and the picture was
+then known as &ldquo;La Cantarilla de Miel,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the pot of honey.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Claudio Coello</span> (1635-1693), who, as we have said, has been called the last
+of the old Spanish masters, was intended by his father for his own
+profession, that of bronze-casting. But Claudio persuaded his father to
+allow him to study painting, and before the close of his life he became<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+the most famous painter in Madrid. He was not only the court-painter, but
+also the painter to the Cathedral of Toledo and keeper of the royal
+galleries. It was not strange that he should feel that he merited the
+honor of painting the walls of the Escorial, and when this was refused him
+and Luca Giordano was selected for the work, Coello threw aside his
+brushes and paints, grew sad, then ill, and died a year later. His
+masterpiece is now in the Escorial; it represents the &ldquo;Collocation of the
+Host.&rdquo; His own portrait painted by himself is in the gallery of the
+Hermitage at St. Petersburg.</p>
+
+<p>The school of Seville was the most important school of Spain. It is also
+known as the school of Andalusia. It dates from the middle of the
+fifteenth century, and its latest master, Alonso Miguel de Tobar, died in
+1758.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Luis de Vargas</span> (1502-1568), one of the earliest of the painters of the
+school of Seville, was a devout and holy man. He was accustomed to do
+penance, and in his room after his death scourges were found with which he
+had beaten himself, and a coffin in which he had been accustomed to lie
+and meditate upon death and a future life. It is said that Vargas studied
+twenty-eight years in Italy. His pictures were fine. His female heads were
+graceful and pure, his color good, and the whole effect that of grand
+simplicity. His picture of the &ldquo;Temporal Generation of Our Lord&rdquo; is his
+best work in Seville. Adam is kneeling in the foreground, and his leg is
+so well painted that the picture has been called &ldquo;La Gamba.&rdquo; In spite of
+his seriousness Vargas was a witty man. On one occasion he was asked to
+give his opinion of a very poor picture of &ldquo;Christ on the Cross.&rdquo; Vargas
+replied: &ldquo;He looks as if he were saying, &lsquo;Forgive them, Lord, for they
+know not what they do!&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pablo de Cespedes</span> (1538-1608) was born at Cordova, and is an important
+person in the history of his time, for he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> was a divine, a poet, and a
+scholar, as well as an architect, sculptor, and painter. He was a graduate
+of the University of Alcal&agrave;, and excelled in Oriental languages. He
+studied art in Rome, and while there made a head of Seneca in marble, and
+fitted it to an antique trunk; on account of this work he was called
+&ldquo;Victor il Spagnuolo.&rdquo; Zuccaro was asked to paint a picture for the
+splendid Cathedral of Cordova; he declined, and said that while Cespedes
+was in Spain they had no need of Italian artists. The pictures of Cespedes
+which now remain are so faded and injured that a good judgment can
+scarcely be formed of them; but they do not seem to be as fine as they
+were thought to be in his day. His &ldquo;Last Supper&rdquo; is in the Cathedral of
+Cordova. In the foreground there are some jars and vases so well painted
+that visitors praised them. Cespedes was so mortified at this that he
+commanded his servant to rub them out, and only the most judicious
+admiration for the rest of the picture and earnest entreaty for the
+preservation of the jars saved them from destruction. He left many
+writings upon artistic subjects and an essay upon the antiquity of the
+Cathedral of Cordova. He was as modest as he was learned, and was much
+beloved. He was made a canon in the Cathedral of Cordova, and was received
+with &ldquo;full approbation of the Cordovese bishop and chapter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Francisco Pacheco</span> (1571-1654) was born at Seville. He was a writer on art,
+and is more famous as the master of Velasquez and on account of his books
+than for his pictures. He established a school where younger men than
+himself could have a thorough art education. Pacheco was the first in
+Spain to properly gild and paint statues and bas-reliefs. Some specimens
+of his work in this specialty still exist in Seville.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Francisco de Herrera,</span> the elder (1576-1656), was a very original painter.
+He was born at Seville, and never studied out of Andalusia. He had so bad
+a temper that he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> drove his children and his pupils away from him. He knew
+how to engrave on bronze, and made false coins; when his forgery was
+discovered, he took refuge with the Jesuits. While in their convent
+Herrera painted the history of St. Hermengild, one of the patron saints of
+Seville. When Philip IV. saw his picture he forgave him his crime, and set
+him at liberty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Francisco Zurbaran</span> (1598-1662) was one of the first among Spanish
+painters. He was skilful in the use of colors, and knew how to use sober
+tints and give them a brilliant effect. He did not often paint the
+Madonna. His female saints are like portraits of the ladies of his day. He
+was very successful in painting animals, and his pictures of drapery and
+still-life were exact in their representation of the objects he used for
+models. He painted historical and religious pictures, portraits and
+animals; but his best pictures were of monks. Stirling says: &ldquo;He studied
+the Spanish friar, and painted him with as high a relish as Titian painted
+the Venetian noble, and Vandyck the gentleman of England.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Zurbaran was appointed painter to Philip IV. before he was thirty-five
+years old. He was a great favorite with Philip, who once called Zurbaran
+&ldquo;the painter of the king, and king of painters.&rdquo; Zurbaran&#8217;s finest works
+are in the Museum of Seville. He left many pictures, and the Louvre claims
+to have ninety-two of them in its gallery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velasquez</span> (1599-1660) was born at Seville, and
+died at Madrid. His parents were of noble families; his father was Juan
+Rodriguez de Silva, and his mother Geronima Velasquez, by whose name,
+according to the custom of Andalusia, he was called. His paternal
+grandfather was a Portuguese, but so poor that he was compelled to leave
+his own country, and seek his fortune at Seville, and to this circumstance
+Spain owes her greatest painter. Velasquez&#8217;s father became a lawyer, and
+lived in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> comfort, and his mother devoted herself to his education. The
+child&#8217;s great love of drawing induced his father to place young Velasquez
+in the school of Herrera, where the pupil acquired something of his free,
+bold style. But Velasquez soon became weary, and entered the school of
+Francisco Pacheco, an inferior painter, but a learned and polished
+gentleman. Here Velasquez soon learned that untiring industry and the
+study of nature were the surest guides to perfection for an artist. Until
+1622 he painted pictures from careful studies of common life, and always
+with the model or subject before him&mdash;adhering strictly to form, color,
+and outline. He is said to have kept a peasant lad for a study, and from
+him executed a variety of heads in every posture and with every possible
+expression. This gave him wonderful skill in taking likenesses. To this
+period belong the &ldquo;Water Carrier of Seville,&rdquo; now at Apsley House, several
+pictures of beggars, and the &ldquo;Adoration of the Shepherds,&rdquo; now in the
+Louvre, where is also a &ldquo;Beggar Boy munching a piece of Pastry.&rdquo; At Vienna
+is a &ldquo;Laughing Peasant&rdquo; holding a flower (<a href="#Fig64">Fig. 64</a>), and in Munich another
+&ldquo;Beggar Boy.&rdquo; In 1622 his strong desire to see the paintings in the Royal
+Galleries led him to Madrid. Letters which he carried gave him admission
+to the works of art; but excepting securing the friendship of Fonesca, a
+noted patron of art, and an order to paint a portrait of the poet Gongora,
+he was unnoticed, and so he returned in a few months to Seville.
+Subsequently Fonesca interested the minister Olivarez in his behalf. This
+resulted in a letter summoning Velasquez to court, with an enclosure of
+fifty ducats for the journey. He was attended by his slave, Juan Pareja, a
+mulatto lad, who was his faithful attendant for many years, and who became
+an excellent painter. His former instructor, Pacheco, now his
+father-in-law, also accompanied him. His first work at the capital,
+naturally, was a portrait of his friend Fonesca, which so pleased the
+king, Philip<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> IV., that he appointed Velasquez to his service, in which
+he remained during his life. This gave him full opportunity to perfect
+himself, for the king was never weary of multiplying pictures of himself.
+Velasquez also painted many portraits of the other members of the royal
+family, in groups and singly. His life was even and prosperous, and he
+made steady advances toward perfection. He was sent to Italy to study and
+to visit the galleries and works in all the cities. A second time the king
+sent him to Italy to purchase works of art, with orders to buy anything he
+thought worth having. He was everywhere received with consideration and
+kindness. The pope sat to him for his portrait; the cardinals Barberini
+and Rospigliosi; the sculptors Bernini and Algardi; the painters Nicolas
+Poussin, Pietro da Cortona, Claude and Matteo Prete were his friends and
+associates. Upon his return to Madrid, Velasquez was appointed
+aposentador-major, with a yearly salary of three thousand ducats, and a
+key at his girdle to unlock every door in the palace. He superintended the
+ceremonies and festivals of the royal household; he arranged in the halls
+of the Alcazar the bronzes and marbles purchased in Italy; he also cast in
+bronze the models he brought from abroad, and he yet found time to paint
+his last great picture, &ldquo;Las Meni&ntilde;as,&rdquo; or the &ldquo;Maids of Honor,&rdquo; which
+represents the royal family, with the artist, maids of honor, the dwarfs,
+and a sleeping hound. It is said that when the king saw the picture he
+declared but one thing was wanting, and with his own hand significantly
+painted the cross of Santiago upon the breast of the artist. When the
+courts of France and Spain met on the Isle of Pheasants for the betrothal
+of the Infanta Maria Teresa to Louis XIV., Velasquez superintended all the
+ceremonies and all the festivities. These were of surpassing splendor, for
+these two courts were at this time the most luxurious in Europe. Stirling
+says the fatigues of the life of Velasquez shortened his days. He arrived
+at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> Madrid on his return, on June 26th, and from that time was gradually
+sinking. He died August 6th. He was buried with magnificent ceremonies in
+the Church of San Juan. His wife survived him but eight days; she was
+buried in the same grave.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig64" id="Fig64"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 305px;">
+<a href="images/img64.jpg">
+<img src="images/img64_th.jpg" width="305" height="400" alt="Fig 64" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.&mdash;Laughing Peasant.</span> <em>Velasquez.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig65" id="Fig65"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img65.jpg">
+<img src="images/img65_th.jpg" width="400" height="285" alt="Fig 65" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.&mdash;The Topers.</span> <em>By Velasquez.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The character of Velasquez was a rare combination of freedom from
+jealousy, power to conciliate, sweetness of temper, strength of will and
+intellect, and steadfastness of purpose. He was the friend of Rubens and
+of Ribera, the protector of Cano and Murillo, who succeeded and were, next
+to him, the greatest painters of Spain. As the favorite of Philip IV., in
+fact, his minister for artistic affairs, he filled his office with purity
+and disinterestedness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Juan de Pareja</span> (1610-1670) was born in Spanish South America. He was never
+a great artist; but the circumstances of his life make him interesting. He
+was the slave of Velasquez, and was employed as color-grinder. He studied
+painting secretly, and at last, on an occasion when the king visited the
+studio of his master, Pareja showed him a picture of his own painting, and
+throwing himself at Philip&#8217;s feet begged pardon for his audacity. Both
+Philip and Velasquez treated him very kindly. Velasquez gave Pareja his
+freedom; but it is said that he continued to serve his old master
+faithfully as long as he lived. Pareja succeeded best as a portrait
+painter. His works are not numerous, and are seen in few collections out
+of Spain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bartolom&eacute; Est&eacute;ban Murillo</span> (1618-1682) was born at Seville. His parents
+were Gaspar Est&eacute;ban and Maria Perez, and the name of his maternal
+grandmother, Elvira Murillo, was added to his own, according to Andalusian
+custom. From childhood he showed his inclination for art, and although
+this at first suggested to his parents that he should be educated as a
+priest, the idea was soon abandoned, as it was found that his interest in
+the paintings which adorned the churches was artistic rather than
+religious.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> He was therefore, at an early age, placed in the studio of his
+maternal uncle, Juan de Castillo, one of the leaders of the school of art
+of Seville. Castillo was then about fifty years old, and had as a student
+with Louis Fernandez acquired the Florentine style of the sixteenth
+century&mdash;combining chaste designing with cold and hard coloring. Murillo
+was thus early instructed not only in grinding colors and in indispensable
+mechanical details, but was thoroughly grounded in the important elements
+of purity of conception and dignity of treatment and arrangement. Seville
+at this time was the richest city in the Spanish empire. Its commerce with
+all Europe, and especially with Spanish America, was at its height. The
+Guadalquivir was alive with its shipping. Its palaces of semi-Moorish
+origin were occupied by a wealthy and luxurious nobility. The vast
+cathedral had been finished a century before. The tower &ldquo;La Giralda,&rdquo;
+three hundred and forty feet in height, is to this day one of the greatest
+marvels in Christendom, and with its Saracenic ornament and its &ldquo;lace work
+in stone&rdquo; is beyond all compare. The royal palace of the Alcazar, designed
+by Moorish architects, rivalled the Alhambra, and was filled with the
+finest workmanship of Grenada. There were one hundred and forty churches,
+of which many had been mosques, and were laden with the exquisite
+ornaments of their original builders. Such a city was sure to stimulate
+artists and be their home. The poorer ones were in the habit of exposing
+their works on balconies, on the steps of churches or the cathedral, or in
+any place where they would attract attention. Thus it often happened on
+festival days that a good work would command fame for an artist, and gain
+for him the patronage of some cathedral chapter or generous nobleman.
+Castillo removed to Cadiz in 1640, and Murillo, who was very poor, could
+only bring himself before the public, and earn sufficient for the bare
+necessities of life by thus exposing his pictures in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> the market of the
+Feria, as it was called, in front of the Church of All Saints. He
+struggled along in this way for two years. Early in 1640, Murillo met with
+an old fellow-pupil, Moya, who had been campaigning in Flanders in the
+Spanish army, and had there become impressed with the worth of the clear
+and strong style of the Flemish masters. Especially was he pleased with
+Vandyck, so that he followed him to England, and there studied as his
+pupil during the last six months of Vandyck&#8217;s life. Moved by Moya&#8217;s
+romancing stories of travel, adventure, and study, Murillo resolved to see
+better pictures than were to be found at Seville, and, if possible, to
+visit Italy. As a first step he painted a quantity of banners, madonnas,
+flower-pieces&mdash;anything and everything&mdash;and sold them to a ship owner, who
+sent them to Spanish America; and it is said that this and similar trades
+originated the story that Murillo once visited Mexico and other
+Spanish-American countries. Thus equipped with funds, and without
+informing his friends (his parents were dead), he started on foot across
+the mountains and the equally dreaded plains for Madrid, which he entered
+at the age of twenty-five, friendless and poor. He sought out Velasquez,
+and asked him for letters to his friends in Rome. But Velasquez, then at
+the height of his fame and influence, was so much interested in the young
+enthusiast that he offered him lodgings and an opportunity to study and
+copy in the galleries of Madrid. The Royal Galleries contained carefully
+selected pictures from the Italian and Flemish schools, so that Murillo
+was at once placed in the very best possible conditions for success.
+Murillo thus spent more than two years, mostly under the direction of
+Velasquez, and worked early and late. He copied from the Italian and
+Flemish masters, and drew from casts and from life. This for a time so
+influenced his style that even now connoisseurs are said to discern
+reminiscences of Vandyck and Velasquez in the pictures painted by him on
+his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> first return to Seville. At the end of two years Velasquez advised
+Murillo to go to Rome, and offered to assist him. But Murillo decided
+first to return to Seville, and perhaps had come to the resolution not to
+go to Italy; but this may be doubted. He knew the progress he had made; he
+was reasonably certain that, if not the superior, he was the equal of any
+of the artists he had left behind in Seville. He was sure of the wealth,
+and taste, and love for art in his native city. His only sister was living
+there. The rich and noble lady he afterward married resided near there.
+And so we can hardly wonder that the artist gave up a cherished journey to
+Italy, and returned to the scene of his early struggles with poverty.</p>
+
+<p>The first works which Murillo painted after his return were for the
+Franciscan Convent. They brought him little money but much fame. They were
+eleven in number, but even the names of some are lost. One represents St.
+Francis resting on his iron bed, listening in ecstacy to the notes of a
+violin which an angel is playing to him; another portrays St. Diego of
+Alcal&aacute;, asking a blessing on a kettle of broth he is about to give to a
+group of beggars clustered before him; another represents the death of St.
+Clara of Assisi, in the rapturous trance in which her soul passed away,
+surrounded by pale nuns and emaciated monks looking upward to a
+contrasting group of Christ and the Madonna, with a train of celestial
+virgins bearing her shining robe of immortality. The companion picture is
+a Franciscan monk who passes into a celestial ecstacy while cooking in the
+convent kitchen, and who is kneeling in the air, while angels perform his
+culinary tasks. These pictures brought Murillo into speedy notice. Artists
+and nobles flocked to see them. Orders for portraits and altar-pieces
+followed in rapid succession, and he was full of work. Notwithstanding the
+fact that he was acknowledged to be at the head of his profession in
+Seville, his style at this time was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> cold and hard. It is called <em>frio</em>
+(cold), to distinguish it from his later styles. The Franciscan Convent
+pictures were carried off by Marshal Soult, and fortunately; for the
+convent was burned in 1810. His second style, called <em>calido</em>, or warm,
+dated from about the time of his marriage, in 1648, to a lady of
+distinguished family, named Do&ntilde;a Beatriz de Cabrera y Sotomayor. She was
+possessed of considerable property, and had lived in the village of Pilas,
+a few leagues southwest of Seville. Her portrait is not known to exist;
+but several of Murillo&#8217;s madonnas which resemble each other are so
+evidently portraits, that the belief is these idealized faces were drawn
+from the countenance of the wife of the master.</p>
+
+<p>His home now became famous for its hospitable reunions, and his social
+position, added to his artistic merits, procured for him orders beyond his
+utmost ability to fill. One after another in quick succession, large,
+grand works were sent out from his studio to be the pride of churches and
+convents. At this time his pictures were noted for a portrait-like
+naturalness in their faces, perhaps lacking in idealism, but withal pure
+and pleasing; the drapery graceful and well arranged, the lights skilfully
+disposed, the tints harmonious, and the contours soft. His flesh tints
+were heightened by dark gray backgrounds, so amazingly true that an
+admirer has said they were painted in blood and milk. The <em>calido</em>, or
+warm manner, was preserved for eight or ten years. In this style were
+painted an &ldquo;Immaculate Conception,&rdquo; for the Franciscan Convent; &ldquo;The
+Nativity of the Virgin,&rdquo; for the high altar of the Seville Cathedral; a
+&ldquo;St. Anthony of Padua&rdquo; for the same church, and very many others equally
+famous. In 1874 the St. Anthony was stolen from the cathedral, and for
+some time was unheard of, until two men offered to sell it for two hundred
+and fifty dollars to Mr. Schaus, the picture dealer in New York. He
+purchased the work and turned it over to the Spanish <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>Consul, who
+immediately returned it to the Seville Cathedral, to the great joy of the
+Sevillians. In 1658 Murillo turned his attention to the founding of an
+Academy of Art, and, though he met with many obstacles, the institution
+was finally opened for instruction in 1660, and Murillo was its first
+president. At this time he was taking on his latest manner, called the
+<em>vaporoso</em>, or vapory, which was first used in some of his pictures
+executed for the Church of Sta. Maria la Blanca. In this manner the rigid
+outlines of his first style is gone; there is a feathery lightness of
+touch as if the brush had swept the canvas smoothly and with unbroken
+evenness: this softness is enhanced by frequent contrasts with harder and
+heavier groups in the same picture.</p>
+
+<p>But the highest point in the art was reached by Murillo in the eleven
+pictures which he painted in the Hospital de la Caridad. Six of these are
+now in their original places; five were stolen by Soult and carried to
+France; some were returned to Spain, but not to the hospital.</p>
+
+<p>The convent of the Capuchins at Seville at one time possessed twenty
+pictures by this master. The larger part of them are now in the Museum of
+Seville, and form the finest existing collection of his works. This museum
+was once a church, and the statue of Murillo is placed in front of it.
+Although the lighting of this museum is far inferior to that of Madrid and
+many others, yet here one must go to realize fully the glory of this
+master. Among the pictures is the &ldquo;Virgen de la Sevillet&aacute;,&rdquo; or Virgin of
+the Napkin. It is said that the cook of the convent had become the friend
+of the painter, and begged of him some memento of his good feeling; the
+artist had no canvas, and the cook gave him a napkin upon which this great
+work was done.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig66" id="Fig66"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/img66.jpg">
+<img src="images/img66_th.jpg" width="267" height="400" alt="Fig 66" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.&mdash;The Immaculate Conception.</span> <em>By Murillo.<br />
+In the Louvre.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Murillo&#8217;s representation of that extremely spiritual and mystical subject
+called the Immaculate Conception, has so far excelled that of any other
+artist that he has sometimes been called &ldquo;the painter of the Conception.&rdquo;
+His attention<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> was especially called to this subject by the fact that the
+doctrine it sets forth was a pet with the clergy of Seville, who, when
+Pope Paul V., in 1617, published a bill making this doctrine obligatory,
+celebrated the occasion with all possible pomp in the churches; the nobles
+also gave entertainments, and the whole city was alive with a fervor of
+religious zeal and a desire to manifest its love for this dogma. The
+directions given by the Inspector of the Holy Office for the
+representation of this subject were extremely precise; but Murillo
+complied with them in general effect only, and disregarded details when it
+pleased him: for example, the rules prescribed the age of the Virgin to be
+from twelve to thirteen, and the hair to be of golden hue. Murillo
+sometimes pictured her as a dark-haired woman. It is said that when he
+painted the Virgin as very young his daughter Francesca was his model;
+later the daughter became a nun in the convent of the Madre de Dios.</p>
+
+<p>The few portraits painted by Murillo are above all praise; his pictures of
+humble life, too, would of themselves have sufficed to make him famous. No
+Spanish artist, except Velasquez, has painted better landscapes than he.
+But so grand and vast were his religious works that his fame rests
+principally on them. It is true, however, that in England and in other
+countries out of Spain he was first made famous by his beggar boys and
+kindred subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Murillo and Velasquez may be said to hold equivalent positions in the
+annals of Spanish Art&mdash;Murillo as the painter for the church, and
+Velasquez as that of the court. As a delineator of religious subjects
+Murillo ranked only a very little below the greatest Italian masters, and
+even beside them he excels in one direction; for he is able more generally
+and fully to arouse religious emotions and sympathies. This stamps his
+genius as that of the first order, and it should also be placed to his
+credit, in estimating his native talent, that he never saw anything of all
+the Classic Art<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> which was such a source of inspiration to the artists of
+Italy. Stirling says: &ldquo;All his ideas were of home growth: his mode of
+expression was purely national and Spanish; his model&mdash;nature, as it
+existed in and around Seville.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>While painting a marriage of St. Catherine for the Capuchin Church of
+Cadiz, Murillo fell from the scaffold, and soon died from his injuries: he
+was buried in the Church of Sta. Cruz, and it is a sad coincidence that
+this church and that of San Juan, at Madrid, in which Velasquez was
+interred, were both destroyed by the French under the command of Soult.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Murillo was such as to command the greatest respect, and
+though he was not associated with as many royal personages as Velasquez,
+he was invited to court, and received many flattering acknowledgments of
+his genius. His fame was not confined to his own country, and his portrait
+was engraved in Flanders during the last year of his life. He had many
+strong personal friends, and his interest in the academy and his
+generosity to other artists prove him to have been above all mean
+jealousies: he loved Art because it was Art, and did all in his power for
+its elevation in his own country. It is probable that since his death more
+money has been paid for a single picture by him than he received for the
+entire work of his life. The Immaculate Conception, now in the Louvre, was
+sold from the Soult collection for six hundred and fifteen thousand three
+hundred francs, or more than one hundred and twenty-three thousand
+dollars. At the time of its sale it was believed to be the largest price
+ever paid for a picture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sebastian Gomez</span> (about 1620) was a mulatto slave of Murillo&#8217;s, and like
+Pareja he secretly learned to paint. At last one day when Murillo left a
+sketch of a head of the Virgin on his easel Gomez dared to finish it.
+Murillo was glad to find that he had made a painter of his slave, and
+though the pictures of Gomez were full of faults his color<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> was much like
+that of his master. Two of his pictures are in the Museum of Seville. He
+did not live long after Murillo&#8217;s death in 1682.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Don Alonso Miguel de Tobar</span> (1678-1758) never attained to greatness. His
+best original pictures were portraits. He made a great number of copies of
+the works of Murillo, and was chiefly famous for these pictures. There is
+little doubt that many pictures attributed to Murillo are <em>replicas</em>, or
+copies by the hand of Tobar.</p>
+
+<p>The school of Valencia flourished from 1506 to 1680. <span class="smcap">Vicente de Joanes</span>
+(about 1506-1579) was a painter of religious pictures who is scarcely
+known out of Spain, and in that country his pictures are, almost without
+exception, in churches and convents. He was very devout, and began his
+works with fasting and prayer. It is related that on one occasion a Jesuit
+of Valencia had a vision in which the Virgin Mary appeared to him, and
+commanded him to have a picture painted of her in a dress like that she
+then wore, which was a white robe with a blue mantle. She was to be
+represented standing on a crescent with the mystic dove floating above
+her; her Son was to crown her, while the Father was to lean from the
+clouds above all.</p>
+
+<p>The Jesuit selected Joanes to be the painter of this work, and though he
+fasted and prayed much he could not paint it so as to please himself or
+the Jesuit. At last his pious zeal overcame all obstacles, and his picture
+was hung above the altar of the Immaculate in the convent of the Jesuits.
+It was very beautiful&mdash;the artists praised it, the monks believed that it
+had a miraculous power, and it was known as &ldquo;La Purisima,&rdquo; or the
+perfectly pure one.</p>
+
+<p>Joanes excelled in his pictures of Christ. He seemed to have conceived the
+very Christ of the Scriptures, the realization of the visions of St. John,
+or of the poetry of Solomon. In these pictures he combined majesty with
+grace and love with strength. Joanes frequently represented the Last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
+Supper, and introduced a cup which is known as the Holy Chalice of
+Valencia. It is made of agate and adorned with gold and gems, and was
+believed to have been used by Christ at his Last Supper with his
+disciples. Some of the portraits painted by Joanes are very fine. In
+manner and general effect his works are strangely like those of the great
+Raphael.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Francisco de Ribalta</span> (1550-1628) was really the head of the school of
+Valencia, and one of the best historical painters of Spain. He studied his
+art first in Valencia, and there fell in love with the daughter of his
+master. The father refused him his suit, and the young couple parted in
+deep sorrow. Ribalta went to Italy, where he made such progress, and
+gained such fame that when he returned to Valencia he had no trouble in
+marrying his old master&#8217;s daughter. Valencia has more pictures by Ribalta
+than are found elsewhere. Out of Spain they are very rare. One of his
+works is at Magdalene College, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>One peculiarity of the Spanish painters was that they painted the extremes
+of emotion. Their subjects represented the ecstacy of bliss or the most
+excruciating agony. They did not seem to have as much middle ground or to
+know as much of moderate emotions as the painters of other nations.
+Ribalta was no exception to this rule, and some of his pictures are
+painful to look at. His portraits are fine, and represent the most
+powerful men of Valencia of the time in which he lived.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Josef de Ribera</span> was a native of Valencia, but lived and studied in Italy,
+and so became more of an Italian than a Spanish master. I have spoken of
+him in connection with the Naturalists and their school at Naples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alonso Cano</span> (1601-1667) was a very important artist, and cannot be said to
+belong to any school. He was born at Granada, and studied under masters of
+Seville, both in painting and sculpture. He became the best Spanish
+artist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> who studied in Spain only. He was something of an architect also,
+and his various talents acquired a high place for him among artists; but
+his temper was such as to cause him much trouble, and it so interfered
+with his life that he did not attain to the position to which his artistic
+gifts entitled him.</p>
+
+<p>In 1637 he fought a duel, and was obliged to flee from Madrid, and in 1644
+his wife was found murdered in her bed. Cano was suspected of the crime,
+and although he fled he was found, and brought back, and put to the
+torture. He made no confession, and was set at liberty; but many people
+believed in his guilt. He still held his office as painter to the king,
+and was sometimes employed on important works; but he determined to remove
+to his native Granada and become a priest. Philip IV. appointed him canon,
+and after he held this office he was still employed as a painter and
+sculptor by private persons, as well as by religious bodies, and was even
+sent to Malaga to superintend improvements in the cathedral there. But his
+temper led him into so many broils that at length, in 1659, the chapter of
+Granada deprived him of his office. He went to the king with his
+complaints, and was again made a canon; but he was so angry that he never
+would use his brush or his chisel in the service of the Cathedral of
+Granada.</p>
+
+<p>His life was now devoted to charity and good works. He gave away all his
+money as soon as he received it. When his purse was empty he would go into
+a shop, and beg a pencil and paper, and sketching a head or other design
+would mark the price on it, and give it to a beggar with directions for
+finding a purchaser for it. After his death large numbers of these charity
+works were collected.</p>
+
+<p>One of his strong characteristics was hatred of the Jews. He would cross
+the street, in order not to meet one of them, and would throw away a
+garment that had brushed against one of the race. One day he went home,
+and found his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> housekeeper bargaining with a Jew; he chased him away with
+great fury, sent the woman off to be purified, repaved the spot where the
+Jew had stood, and gave the shoes in which he had chased him to a servant.
+When about to die Cano would not receive the sacrament from the priest who
+was present, because he had communicated with Jews, and when a rude
+crucifix was held before him he pushed it away. When he was reproved for
+this he said: &ldquo;Vex me not with this thing; but give me a simple cross that
+I may adore it, both as it is, and as I can figure it in my mind.&rdquo; When
+this was done, it is said that he died in a most edifying manner.</p>
+
+<p>Very few of Cano&#8217;s architectural works remain; a few drawings of this sort
+are in the Louvre which are simple and elegant in style. The finest
+carving by him is a small figure of the Virgin, now in the Cathedral of
+Granada. Eight of his pictures are in the Queen of Spain&#8217;s gallery at
+Madrid, and the Church of Getafe, the Cathedral of Granada and that of
+Malaga have his works. A beautiful madonna, which was one of his latest
+works, is in the chapel of the Cathedral of Valencia, and is lighted by
+votive tapers only. His pictures are rare out of Spain. One of his
+portraits is in the Louvre. Other works are in Berlin, Dresden, Munich,
+and the Hermitage, St. Petersburg.</p>
+
+<p>The last Spanish painter of whom I shall speak belongs to a much later
+period. <span class="smcap">Francisco Goya y Lucientes</span> (1746-1828) was a student in Rome, and
+after his return to Spain lived in fine style in a villa near Madrid. He
+was painter to Charles IV., and was always employed on orders from the
+nobility. He painted portraits and religious pictures, but his chief
+excellence was in painting caricatures. He was never weary of painting the
+priests and monks in all sorts of ridiculous ways. He made them in the
+form of apes and asses, and may be called the Hogarth of Spain, so well
+did he hold up the people about him to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> ridicule. He painted with great
+boldness and could use a sponge or stick in place of a brush. Sometimes he
+made a picture with his palette-knife, and put in the fine touches with
+his thumb. He executed engravings also, and published eighty prints which
+he called &ldquo;Caprices.&rdquo; These were very famous; they were satires upon all
+Spanish laws and customs. He also made a series of plates about the French
+invasion, thirty-three prints of scenes in the bull-ring, and etchings of
+some of the works of Velasquez. Portraits of Charles IV. and his queen by
+Goya are in the museum at Madrid. Works of his are in the Louvre and in
+the National Gallery in London. His pictures sell for large prices. In
+1870 his picture of Charlotte Corday sold for five hundred and eighty-four
+pounds.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-deer.jpg" width="400" height="94" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>PAINTING IN FRANCE.</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>The French school of painting does not date earlier than the sixteenth
+century, and the painters of that time were few in number, and little is
+known of them. Before the time when a French school could be said to exist
+the kings of France employed foreign artists to decorate their palaces and
+churches, and they naturally turned to the Italians for all that they
+needed. Hence it happened that in its earliest days the French school was
+almost entirely under Italian influence, and I shall first speak of French
+masters who studied in Italy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nicholas Poussin</span> (1594-1665) may be said to belong to the seventeenth
+century, since he was born so late in the preceding one. Poussin was born
+in Normandy, and early began to draw and paint. He studied somewhat in
+France, and when thirty years old went to Rome, where, in reality, his
+artistic career began. He was a pupil of Andrea Sacchi, and received some
+instruction from Domenichino also; but he formed his style principally by
+studying the works of the ancients and those of the great Raphael. He was
+so devoted to the study of the habits and customs of the Greeks that he
+almost became one of them in his modes of thought.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig67" id="Fig67"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img67.jpg">
+<img src="images/img67_th.jpg" width="400" height="316" alt="Fig 67" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.&mdash;Arcadian Shepherds.</span> <em>Poussin.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>He was very poor when he first went to Rome; but he worked hard, and began
+to be known and to receive orders for pictures. Louis XIII. heard of
+Poussin, and invited him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> to Paris, where he gave him apartments in the
+Tuileries. But the artist longed to return to Rome, and made a plea of
+going for his wife. Soon after he left, Louis died, and Poussin never
+returned to France. Poussin was always busy; but he asked such moderate
+prices that he was never rich, and, when a great man pitied the artist
+because he had so few servants, Poussin pitied him in return for having so
+many. His portrait painted by himself is in the Louvre, where are many of
+his mythological pictures. His love for the classic manner makes these
+subjects his best works. His paintings are seen in many European
+galleries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Claude Lorraine</span> (1600-1682), whose real name was Claude Gel&eacute;e, was born in
+Champagne in Lorraine. His parents were very poor, and died when he was
+still young: he was apprenticed to a pastry-cook, and so travelled to Rome
+as servant to some young gentlemen. Not long after his arrival he engaged
+himself to the painter Agostino Tassi, for whom he cooked, and mixed
+colors. After a time he himself began to paint. Nature was his teacher; he
+studied her with unchanging devotion; he knew all her changes, and was in
+the habit of sitting for a whole day watching one scene, so that he could
+paint from memory its different aspects at the various hours of the day.
+His works brought him into notice when he was still young. He received
+many orders, and when about twenty-seven years old some pictures he
+painted for Pope Urban VIII. established his fame as an artist of high
+rank. His character was above reproach, and his feelings were as tender as
+many of his pictures. He was attractive in person, though his face was
+grave in its expression. It would seem that he should have left a large
+fortune, but he did not. This was partly because he suffered much from
+gout, and was often unable to paint; but a better reason probably is that
+he gave so much to his needy relations that he could not save large sums.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
+Claude Lorraine has been called the prince and poet of landscape painters.
+L&uuml;bke, the German art writer, praises him very much, and his praise is
+more valuable than it would be if it came from one of Claude&#8217;s own
+countrymen. He says: &ldquo;Far more profoundly than all other masters did
+Claude Gel&eacute;e penetrate into the secrets of nature, and by the enchanting
+play of sunlight, the freshness of his dewy foregrounds, and the charm of
+his atmospheric distances, he obtained a tone of feeling which influences
+the mind like an eternal Sabbath rest. In his works there is all the
+splendor, light, untroubled brightness, and harmony of the first morning
+of creation in Paradise. His masses of foliage have a glorious richness
+and freshness, and even in the deepest shadows are interwoven with a
+golden glimmer of light. But they serve only as a mighty framework, for,
+more freely than with other masters, the eye wanders through a rich
+foreground into the far distance, the utmost limits of which fade away in
+golden mist.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His two great charms are the immense space which he represents in his
+pictures and his beautiful color. The latter appears as if he had first
+used a silvery gray, and then put his other colors over that, which gives
+his works a soft, lovely atmospheric effect, such as no other artist has
+surpassed. When he introduced buildings into his pictures they were well
+done; but his figures and animals were so imperfect that he was accustomed
+to say that he sold the landscape, and gave away the figures.</p>
+
+<p>Before his death his pictures were so much valued that other artists tried
+to imitate them, and he was accustomed to keep a book of sketches by which
+his works could be proved. He called this book &ldquo;Liber Veritatis,&rdquo; and
+before his death it reached six volumes; one of these containing two
+hundred drawings is at Chatsworth. A catalogue of his works describes more
+than four hundred landscapes. All the principal galleries of Europe have
+his pictures, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> there are a great number of them in England, both in
+public and private collections.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sebastian Bourdon</span> (1616-1671), who was born at Montpelier, made his
+studies in Rome. He brought himself into notice by a picture of the
+Crucifixion of St Peter, which is now in the Louvre. He was one of the
+earliest members of the French Academy. Bourdon resided in Sweden for some
+years; but was in Paris, and held the position of Rector of the Academy
+when he died. He painted a few <em>genre</em> subjects, and two of his portraits
+by himself are in the Louvre; but his best works were landscapes, and in
+these his style was like that of Salvator Rosa. It has been said that
+Rigaud assisted him in his portraits of himself. Bourdon made some
+engravings, and collectors prize his plates very much.</p>
+
+<p>There were other French painters who studied in Italy, but those that I
+have mentioned are the important ones. Of those who studied in their own
+country only, <span class="smcap">Eustache le Sueur</span> (1617-1655) was the first of any
+importance; but his life was short and uneventful, and he was not
+appreciated. His most important works are in the Louvre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Charles le Brun</span> (1619-1690) was very prominent in his day. His father was
+a sculptor, and was employed by the Chancellor Segnier. This nobleman&#8217;s
+attention was attracted to the son, and he at length sent the young Le
+Brun to Italy to study. He remained there six years, and after his return
+to Paris he was made painter to the king, and became the favorite of the
+court. He used his opportunities to persuade Louis XIV. to found the Royal
+Academy at Paris, which was done in 1648. All his principal pictures are
+in the Louvre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pierre Mignard</span> (1612-1695) has been called &ldquo;the Roman,&rdquo; because he lived
+in Rome twenty-two years, and while there was patronized by three
+successive popes. In 1664 he was made President of the Academy of St. Luke
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> Rome. At length Louis XIV. invited him to return to France. In 1690 he
+succeeded Le Brun as court painter, and was made Chancellor of the
+Academy. His portraits are his best works, and these are seen in the
+galleries of various European countries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hyacinthe Rigaud</span> (1659-1743) became the most distinguished French portrait
+painter of his time; but his pictures are not very attractive or
+interesting in our day. He finished them too much, and so gave them an
+artificial appearance. Then, too, the costume of his day was such that his
+portraits seem to be the portraits of wigs and not of people. They are
+very numerous. He often painted the portrait of Louis XIV., and had
+illustrious people from all parts of Europe among his sitters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antoine Watteau</span> (1684-1721) was the first to practise a new style of
+painting. The habit of the French court was to pass much time in elegant
+out-door amusements. Watteau represented the scenes of the <em>f&ecirc;tes
+galantes</em> and reunions then so much in fashion. His pictures are crowded
+with figures in beautiful costumes. There are groups of ladies and
+gentlemen promenading, dancing, love-making, and lounging in pleasant
+grounds with temples and fountains and everything beautiful about them.
+The pictures of Watteau are fine, and are seen in many galleries. His
+color is brilliant, and to their worth as pictures is added the historical
+interest which belongs to them, because they give us the best idea of
+court life, dress, and manners of the reign of Louis XIV. which can be had
+from any paintings.</p>
+
+<p>The followers of Watteau were numerous, but are not of great importance.
+There were a few painters of animals and flowers in the French school; but
+we shall pass to the <em>genre</em> painters, among whom <span class="smcap">Jean-Baptiste Greuze</span>
+(1725-1805) was important. He painted very beautiful pictures of young
+girls and children. His color is very agreeable, and some of his works are
+finished as finely as if they were done<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> on ivory. Most of his pictures
+are in private galleries, but they are seen in some public collections.
+Probably the &ldquo;Broken Jug,&rdquo; in the Louvre, is his best known work. His
+pictures sell for very large prices. At the Forster sale in 1876, &ldquo;A
+Little Girl with a Lap Dog in her Arms&rdquo; brought six thousand seven hundred
+and twenty pounds; in 1772 the same picture was sold for three hundred
+pounds, and in 1832 it was again sold for seven hundred and three pounds.
+Thus we see that in fifty-four years its value had increased to more than
+nine times its price, and in one hundred and four years it brought
+twenty-two times as much as it was first sold for.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Claude Joseph Vernet</span> (1714-1789) was the best marine painter of the French
+school. Louis XV. commissioned him to paint the seaports of France.
+Fifteen of these pictures are in the Louvre. There have been many
+engravings after his works. His pictures of Italian seaports and views
+near Rome and Tivoli are among his best paintings. His color has little
+variety; but his drawing is correct, and his finish is very careful and
+fine. Vernet also made a few etchings.</p>
+
+<p>In the early part of the eighteenth century <span class="smcap">Joseph Marie Vien</span> (1716-1809)
+returned to the classic style of painting, and created a feeling against
+the pretty manner which had been the chief feature of French pictures for
+some time. His pictures are very numerous in the churches and galleries of
+Paris. He was not a great painter, but he marks a change in the spirit of
+French painting. Vien was the teacher of <span class="smcap">Jacques Louis David</span> (1748-1825),
+who was considered the first painter in modern art at the close of the
+eighteenth century. He was so devoted to the classic style that he took
+the remains of ancient art as models for the figures in his pictures. His
+groups are like groups of statues, and his flesh looks like marble, it is
+so hard and lifeless. During the time of the first Napoleon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> this style
+was carried to excess in everything connected with the arts. David was
+such a favorite with the emperor that after the return of the Bourbons he
+was banished, and his family were not allowed to bury him in France. He
+lived in Brussels, and executed many of his best pictures there.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig68" id="Fig68"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img68.jpg">
+<img src="images/img68_th.jpg" width="400" height="295" alt="Fig 68" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.&mdash;The Sabine Women.</span> <em>David.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antoine Jean Gros</span> (1771-1835) was a great admirer of David, and first
+attracted attention in 1801 by a picture of &ldquo;Bonaparte on the Bridge of
+Arcola.&rdquo; After this Gros painted many such works, and principally
+represented military events. Many of his pictures are very coarse. The
+&ldquo;Plague at Jaffa&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Field of Eylau&rdquo; are of this type, and the first
+is disgusting. Among his best works is &ldquo;Francis I. and Charles V. visiting
+the Tombs at St. Denis.&rdquo; But although he received many honors, and was
+made a baron by Charles X., he could not bear the criticism which was made
+upon his pictures, and finally drowned himself in the Seine near Meudon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Paul Delaroche</span> (1797-1856) was born at Paris, and studied under Baron
+Gros. He became a celebrated artist and was made a member of the Institute
+of France, a Professor in l&#8217;&Eacute;cole des Beaux-Arts, and an officer of the
+Legion of Honor. His principal works represent scenes of important
+historical interest, and he so arranged them that they appeal to one&#8217;s
+sympathies with great power. Among these pictures are the &ldquo;Condemnation of
+Marie Antoinette,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Death of the Duke of Guise,&rdquo; &ldquo;Cromwell
+Contemplating the Remains of Charles I.,&rdquo; and other similar historical
+incidents. His design was according to academical rules; but he was not
+entirely conventional, and in some of his religious pictures there was
+much expression and deep feeling.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig69" id="Fig69"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img69.jpg">
+<img src="images/img69_th.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt="Fig 69" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.&mdash;Death of the Duke of Guise.</span> <em>Delaroche.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>His largest and most famous work is the &ldquo;Hemicycle,&rdquo; in l&#8217;&Eacute;cole des
+Beaux-Arts, Paris. He was occupied with this painting during three years;
+it contains seventy-five figures of life size. The arts of different
+countries and ages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> are represented in it by portraits of the artists of
+the times and nations typified. Thus it is very interesting when
+considered merely as a great collection of portraits. Delaroche married
+the daughter of Horace Vernet, and it is said that the figure which stands
+for Gothic Architecture is a portrait of her. The Hemicycle is richly
+colored, and has a great deal of fine painting in it; but from its very
+nature it has no dramatic power, and does not arouse any deep sentiment in
+one who studies it. Delaroche was paid only about fifteen thousand dollars
+for this great labor, and refused to have any further reward.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps none of his works are more powerful than the &ldquo;Death of the Duke of
+Guise.&rdquo; You will easily recall the circumstances of his assassination: the
+painter has so represented it that one really forgets that it is a
+picture, and can only remember the horror of the crime. The corpse of the
+duke is on one side of the immense chamber, near the bed; the assassins
+are in a terrified group on the other side, and with them the cowardly
+king, who was absolutely afraid of the dead body of his victim. The
+picture is a remarkable instance of the power that may be given to what is
+sometimes called historical-genre art. This picture was sold in 1853 for
+ten thousand five hundred dollars (<a href="#Fig69">Fig. 69</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jean Louis G&eacute;ricault</span> (1791-1824). He was born at Rouen, and studied first
+under Gu&eacute;rin and then in Rome. He was the first master of any power who
+entirely dismissed the influence of the art of David with its marble flesh
+and statuesque effect. The one great work by which he is known is the
+&ldquo;Wreck of the Medusa,&rdquo; which is in the Louvre, and which may be said to
+mark the advent of the modern French school.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eugene Delacroix</span> (1799-1863) was the son of a Minister of Foreign Affairs,
+and was born to position and wealth. But through misfortunes all this was
+changed, and he was forced to work hard for his living. At last he
+managed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> to study under Gu&eacute;rin, and in the studio of the master became the
+friend of G&eacute;ricault. The first work which brought Delacroix fame was a
+picture of a scene from Dante&#8217;s &ldquo;Inferno,&rdquo; in which Dante sees some of his
+old acquaintances who were condemned to float upon the lake which
+surrounds the infernal city. This work was exhibited in 1822, and was
+bought for the Gallery of the Luxembourg. Baron Gros tried to be his
+friend; but Delacroix wished to follow his own course, and for some time
+had but small success.</p>
+
+<p>He travelled in Spain, Algiers, and Morocco, and at length was
+commissioned by Thiers to do some decorative work in the throne-room of
+the Chamber of Deputies. He was much criticised, but at length was
+accepted as a great artist, and was made a member of the Institute in
+1857. He received another important order for the Chamber of Peers. Some
+of his works are at Versailles, and others are seen in various churches of
+Paris. When they are considered as a whole they are effective, but they do
+not bear examination; his design was free and spirited and his color good,
+and he painted a variety of subjects, and was able to vary the expression
+of his work to suit the impression he wished to produce.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">&Eacute;mile Jean Horace Vernet</span> (1789-1863) was born in the Louvre. He studied
+under his father, Carle Vernet, who was the son of Claude Joseph Vernet.
+Carle was a witty man, and it is said that when he was dying he exclaimed,
+&ldquo;How much I resemble the Grand Dauphin&mdash;son of a king, father of a king,
+and never a king myself!&rdquo; In spite of his being less than his father or
+his son, he was a good painter of horses. When Horace Vernet was but
+fifteen years old he supported himself by drawing; he studied with
+Vincent, and drew from living models. In 1814 he showed such bravery at
+the Barriere of Clichy that he was decorated with the Cross of the Legion
+of Honor:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> before he died he was a grand officer of the order on account
+of his artistic merits. He was also a member of the Institute and Director
+of the Academy of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>His best works were executed in Rome, where he spent seven years; he
+travelled in Algiers, Syria, Egypt, Palestine, Russia, and England, and
+was everywhere received with the honors which his genius merited. His
+works embraced a great variety of subjects, and it is said that he often
+finished his picture the first time he went over it, and did not retouch
+it. There is no doubt that in certain ways the excellence of Vernet has
+been overestimated, and he has been too much praised; but his remarkable
+memory, which enabled him truthfully to paint scenes he had witnessed, and
+his facility of execution, are worthy of honorable mention.</p>
+
+<p>When twenty years old Vernet was married, and from this time he kept an
+expense account in which all the prices he received for his works are set
+down. The smallest is twenty-four sous for a tulip; the largest is fifty
+thousand francs for the portrait of the Empress of Russia.</p>
+
+<p>About 1817 Vernet became the favorite of the Duke of Orleans, and was
+therefore unpopular with the royal party. In 1820 he had made himself so
+displeasing to the king by some lithographs which were scattered among the
+people, that it was thought best for him to leave Paris. However, he
+overcame all this, and four years later Charles X. sat to him for his
+portrait. From this time orders and money flowed in from all sides.</p>
+
+<p>The Vernets had originated in Avignon, and in 1826, when the museum there
+was opened, Horace and his father were invited to be present. Every honor
+was shown them; poems were read in their praise; they were conducted to
+the home of their ancestors, which they piously saluted, and inscribed
+their names upon the door-posts. After they returned to Paris they
+received rich gifts in return for the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>pictures they had given to Avignon.
+The Gallery Vernet, which contains works by Antoine, Fran&ccedil;ois, Joseph,
+Carle, and Horace Vernet, is regarded as a sacred place by the people of
+that region.</p>
+
+<p>When Horace Vernet was Director of the Academy in Rome he held <em>salons</em>
+weekly; they were very gay, and all people of distinction who lived in
+Rome or visited that city were seen at these receptions, dancing and
+amusing themselves in the lively French manner. But after 1830 he felt
+that the Villa Medici was a prison. He wished to follow the French army in
+the East, and three years later did go to Algiers. In the same year the
+king decided to convert the palace at Versailles into an historical
+museum, and from this time Vernet had but two ideas, the East and
+Versailles. Almost every work he did was connected with these two
+thoughts.</p>
+
+<p>Louis Philippe now desired him to paint four battle-pieces; but Vernet
+objected that no room was large enough to please him: for this reason a
+floor was removed, two stories turned into one, and the grand Gallery of
+Battles made. At length he had a difficulty with the king and went to
+Russia; but hearing that his father was dying he returned to Paris, and
+was made welcome back to Versailles, where he was really necessary.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot stay to recount the honors which were showered upon him, and
+which he always received with great modesty of demeanor. He went from one
+triumph to another until 1848, when the Revolution almost broke his heart;
+he worked on, but his happiness was over. In the great Exposition of 1855
+he had a whole <em>salon</em> devoted to his works, and men from all the world
+came to see and to praise. He lived still eight years; he made pictures of
+incidents in the Crimean War; he painted a portrait of Napoleon III., but
+he wrote of himself: &ldquo;When time has worn out a portion of our faculties we
+are not entirely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> destroyed; but it is necessary to know how to leave the
+first rank and content one&#8217;s self with the fourth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His industry and the amount of work he did are simply marvellous. He loved
+excitement and adventure, and the works which have these elements were his
+best&mdash;and he liked best to do them. His color cannot be praised; he had no
+lofty intellectual aims; he was clever to a high degree, but he was not
+great; he was one to whom the happy medium of praise should be given, for
+he neither merits severity of criticism nor immoderate praise; he was
+simply a gifted painter and &ldquo;the greatest and last of the Vernets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>He is also the last French painter of whom we shall speak, as we do not
+propose to take up the excellent artists of our own day, who would require
+a volume devoted strictly to themselves.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-rabbits.jpg" width="400" height="96" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>PAINTING IN ENGLAND.</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>In early days in England there were miniature-painters, and in the last
+half of the sixteenth century there were some very important English
+painters of this kind. Before the days of Charles I. the English kings
+were much in the habit of inviting foreign artists to England, and
+commissions were given to them. The painters who were most prominent in
+England were of the Flemish school, and even under Charles I., as we have
+seen, Rubens and Vandyck were the principal painters in England. But in
+the reign of this king some native artists made names for themselves, and
+what we call the English school of painting may really be dated from this
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Before speaking of painters I must mention one miniaturist whose works
+were in demand in other countries, as well as in England. <span class="smcap">Samuel Cooper</span>
+(1609-1672) has been called &ldquo;the Vandyck in little,&rdquo; and there is far more
+breadth in his works than is usual in miniature. He painted likenesses of
+many eminent persons, and his works now have an honorable place in many
+collections.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">William Dobson</span> (1610-1646) has been mentioned in our account of Vandyck as
+a painter whom the great master befriended and recommended to Charles I.
+He became a good portrait-painter, and after Vandyck&#8217;s death was appointed
+sergeant-painter to the king. His portraits are full of dignity; the face
+shadows are dark, and his color <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>excellent. He did not excel in painting
+historical subjects. Vandyck was succeeded at court by two foreign artists
+who are so closely associated with England that they are always spoken of
+as English artists.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig70" id="Fig70"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 272px;">
+<a href="images/img70.jpg">
+<img src="images/img70_th.jpg" width="272" height="400" alt="Fig  70" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.&mdash;Sir Joshua Reynolds.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Peter van der Faes</span> (1618-1680), who was born in Westphalia, is known to us
+as Sir <span class="smcap">Peter Lely</span>. He became the most celebrated portrait-painter after
+Vandyck, and his &ldquo;Beauties at Hampton Court&rdquo; are pictures which are known
+the world over. He has been accused of not painting eyes as he ought; but
+the ladies of his day had an affectation in the use of their eyes. They
+tried to have &ldquo;the sleepy eye that spoke the melting soul,&rdquo; so Sir Peter
+Lely was not to blame for painting them as these ladies wished them to be.
+He was knighted by Charles II., and became very rich. His portraits of men
+were not equal to those of women. When Cromwell gave him a commission to
+paint his portrait, he said: &ldquo;Mr. Lely, I desire you will use all your
+skill to paint my picture truly like me, and not flatter me at all; but
+remark all these roughnesses, pimples, warts, and everything as you see
+me, otherwise I will never pay you a farthing for it.&rdquo; Sir Peter Lely was
+buried in Covent Garden, where there is a monument to his memory with a
+bust by Gibbon.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">Godfrey Kneller</span> (1646-1723), born at L&uuml;beck, was a rival to Sir Peter
+Lely, and had the honor of painting the portraits of eight crowned heads
+and a very great number of other people of importance. He had studied both
+the Dutch and Italian manner; for he was the pupil of Rembrandt and Bol,
+of Carlo Maratti and Bernini. Some critics praise his pictures very much,
+while others point out many defects in them. He painted very rapidly, and
+he sometimes hurried his pictures off for the sake of money; but his
+finished works are worthy of remark. He especially excelled in painting
+hair; his drawing was correct; some of his groups of children are fine
+pictures; and some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> madonnas that he painted, using his sitters as models,
+are works of merit. His monument was made by Rysbrach, and was placed in
+Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Both Sir Peter Lely and Sir Godfrey Kneller had pupils and followers; but
+there was no original English artist before the time of <span class="smcap">William Hogarth</span>
+(1697-1764), and he may really be named as the first master of a purely
+English school of painting. When Hogarth was fifteen years old he was
+apprenticed to a silversmith, and the grotesque designs which he copied
+for armorial bearings helped to increase his natural love for all that was
+ridiculous and strange. After 1718 he was much occupied in engraving for
+booksellers, and at length he began to paint small <em>genre</em> pictures and
+some portraits, in which he made good success, but he felt that he was
+fitted for other work. In 1730 he married the daughter of the artist, Sir
+James Thornhill, without the consent of her father.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after this he began his series of pictures called the &ldquo;Harlot&#8217;s
+Progress,&rdquo; and when Sir James saw them he was so satisfied with the talent
+of Hogarth that he declared that such an artist could support a wife who
+had no dower, and the two painters were soon reconciled to each other.
+Before 1744 Hogarth had also painted the series of the &ldquo;Rake&#8217;s Progress&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Marriage &agrave; la Mode&rdquo; (<a href="#Fig71">Fig. 71</a>).</p>
+
+<p>These are all pictures which hold up the customs of the time to ridicule
+and satire, and his works of this kind are almost numberless. He explains
+as follows the cause of his painting in this way: &ldquo;The reasons which
+induced me to adopt this mode of designing were that I thought both
+critics and painters had, in the historical style, quite overlooked that
+intermediate species of subjects which may be placed between the sublime
+and the grotesque. I therefore wished to compose pictures on canvas
+similar to representations on the stage; and further hope that they will
+be tried by the same test and criticised by the same criticism.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig71" id="Fig71"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img71.jpg">
+<img src="images/img71_th.jpg" width="400" height="295" alt="Fig 71" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.&mdash;The Marriage Contract.</span> <em>No. 1 of The Marriage &agrave;
+la Mode. By Hogarth. In the National Gallery.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+It was in this sort of picture that Hogarth made himself great, though he
+supported himself for several years by portrait-painting, in which art he
+holds a reputable place. Most of his important pictures are in public
+galleries.</p>
+
+<p>Hogarth was a fine engraver, and left many plates after his own works,
+which are far better and more spirited than another artist could have made
+them. The pictures of Hogarth have good qualities aside from their
+peculiar features. He made his interiors spacious, and the furniture and
+all the details were well arranged; his costumes were exact, as was also
+the expression of his faces; his painting was good, and his color
+excellent. In 1753 he published a book called the &ldquo;Analysis of Beauty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ever after his first success his career was a prosperous one. He rode in
+his carriage, and was the associate and friend of men in good positions.
+Hogarth was buried in Chiswick Churchyard, and on his tombstone are these
+lines, written by David Garrick:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">&ldquo;Farewell, great painter of mankind!</span><br />
+ Who reach&#8217;d the noblest point of Art,<br />
+ Whose pictur&#8217;d morals charm the mind,<br />
+ And through the eye, correct the heart.<br />
+ If Genius fire thee, reader, stay;<br />
+ If Nature touch thee, drop a tear;<br />
+ If neither move thee, turn away,<br />
+ For Hogarth&#8217;s honour&#8217;d dust lies here.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The next important English painter was <span class="smcap">Richard Wilson</span> (1713-1782), and he
+was important not so much for what he painted as for the fact that he was
+one of the earliest landscape-painters among English artists. He never
+attained wealth or great reputation, although after his return from
+studying in Italy he was made a member of the Royal Academy.</p>
+
+<p>We come now to Sir <span class="smcap">Joshua Reynolds</span>
+(1723-1792),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
+born at Plympton, in
+Devonshire. His father was a clergyman and the master of the grammar
+school at Plympton. Joshua was destined for the medical profession by his
+parents; but his love of drawing was so marked that, as the opportunity
+offered for him to go to London and study under Hudson, his father allowed
+him to do so. After various changes, in 1749 he was able to go to Rome,
+and remained in Italy three years (<a href="#Fig70">Fig. 70</a>).</p>
+
+<p>When he returned to England he soon attracted attention to his pictures,
+and it was not long before both fame and fortune were secured to him. His
+life was a very quiet one, with little of incident that can be related
+here. His sister kept his house for him, and he lived generously, having
+company to dinner almost daily. His friends were among the best people of
+the time, including such persons as Dr. Johnson, Percy, Goldsmith,
+Garrick, the Burkes, and many others. The day before Johnson died he told
+Reynolds that he had three requests to make of him: that he would forgive
+him thirty pounds which he had lent him, would read the Scriptures daily,
+and would not paint on Sunday. Sir Joshua promised to do these things, and
+remembered his promise.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Joshua was skilful in compliments. When he painted his famous picture
+of Mrs. Siddons as the &ldquo;Tragic Muse&rdquo; he put his name on the border of her
+garment. The actress went near the picture to examine it, and when she saw
+the name she smiled. The artist said: &ldquo;I could not lose the opportunity of
+sending my name to posterity on the hem of your garment.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig72" id="Fig72"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;">
+<a href="images/img72.jpg">
+<img src="images/img72_th.jpg" width="277" height="400" alt="Fig 72" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.&mdash;&ldquo;Muscipula.</span>&rdquo; <em>By Reynolds.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sir Joshua Reynolds&#8217; fame rests upon his portraits, and in these he is
+almost unrivalled. His pictures of children are especially fine. It was
+his custom to receive six sitters daily. He kept a list of those who were
+sitting and of others who waited for an opportunity to have their
+portraits made by him. He also had sketches of the different <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>portraits
+he had painted, and when new-comers had looked them over and chosen the
+position they wished, he sketched it on canvas and then made the likeness
+to correspond. In this way, when at his best, he was able to paint a
+portrait in about four hours. His sitters&#8217; chairs moved on casters, and
+were placed on a platform a foot and a half above the floor. He worked
+standing, and used brushes with handles eighteen inches long, moving them
+with great rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>In 1768 Sir Joshua was made the first President of the Royal Academy, and
+it was then that he was knighted by the king. He read lectures at the
+Academy until 1790, when he took his leave. During these years he sent two
+hundred and forty-four pictures to the various exhibitions. In 1782 he had
+a slight shock of paralysis, but was quite well until 1789, when he feared
+that he should be blind, and from this time he did not paint. He was ill
+about three months before his death, which occurred in February, 1792. His
+remains were laid in state at the Royal Academy, and then buried in St.
+Paul&#8217;s Cathedral, near the tomb of Sir Christopher Wren.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that the colors used by Sir Joshua Reynolds are now
+much faded in many of his pictures. Those in the National Gallery, in
+London, are, however, in good preservation. Naturally, since so many of
+his pictures were portraits they are in the collections of private
+families in England, and but few of them are seen in European galleries.
+There is an excellent opportunity to study his manner in the pictures at
+the South Kensington Museum, where there are several portraits, some
+pictures of children, and the &ldquo;Graces Decorating a Statue of Hymen.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is very satisfactory to think of a great artist as a genial, happy man,
+who is dear to his friends, and has a full, rich life outside of his
+profession. Such a life had Sir Joshua Reynolds, and one writer says of
+him: &ldquo;They made him a knight&mdash;this famous painter; they buried him &lsquo;with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>
+an empire&#8217;s lamentation;&rsquo; but nothing honors him more than the &lsquo;folio
+English dictionary of the last revision&rsquo; which Johnson left to him in his
+will, the dedication that poor, loving Goldsmith placed in the &lsquo;Deserted
+Village,&rsquo; and the tears which five years after his death even Burke could
+not forbear to shed over his memory.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Gainsborough</span> (1727-1788) was born in Sudbury, in Suffolk, and when
+still quite young went to London, and studied under Francis Hayman, who
+was not an eminent painter. Gainsborough became one of the most important
+masters of the English school, especially in landscape painting and the
+representation of rustic figures. His portraits were not as good in color
+as those of Sir Joshua Reynolds; they have a bluish-gray hue in the flesh
+tints; but they are always graceful and charming. His landscapes are not
+like those of any other master. They are not exact in the detail of leaves
+and flowers&mdash;a botanist could find many faults in them&mdash;but they are like
+nature in spirit: they seem to have the air blowing through them, they are
+fresh and dewy when it is morning in them, and quiet and peaceful when
+evening comes under his brush. In many of his pictures he put a cart and a
+white animal.</p>
+
+<p>His rustic figures have the true country life in them: they seem to have
+fed upon the air, and warmed themselves in the sun until they are plump
+and rosy as country lads and lasses should be. His best <em>genre</em> pictures
+are the &ldquo;Cottage Girl,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Woodman and Dog in a Storm,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Cottage
+Door,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Shepherd Boy in a Shower.&rdquo; He painted a picture of a &ldquo;Girl
+and Pigs,&rdquo; for which Sir Joshua Reynolds paid him one hundred guineas.</p>
+
+<p>In character Gainsborough was very attractive, though somewhat
+contradictory in his moods. He was generous and genial, lovable and
+affectionate; he was also contradictory and impulsive, not to say
+capricious. His wife and he had little quarrels which they settled in this
+wise: When<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> Gainsborough had spoken to her unkindly, he would quickly
+repent, and write a note to say so, and address it to his wife&#8217;s spaniel,
+called &ldquo;Tristram,&rdquo; and sign it with the name of his pet dog, &ldquo;Fox.&rdquo; Then
+Margaret Gainsborough would answer: &ldquo;My own, dear Fox, you are always
+loving and good, and I am a naughty little female ever to worry you as I
+too often do, so we will kiss, and say no more about it; your own
+affectionate Tris.&rdquo; Like Reynolds, Gainsborough had many warm friends, and
+when he died Sir Joshua himself watched by his bedside, and bent to catch
+his last word, which was the name of Vandyck.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">John Singleton Copley</span> (1737-1815) was born in Boston, Mass., U. S., to
+which place his parents are said to have immigrated from Limerick,
+Ireland. The father was descended from the Copleys of Yorkshire, England,
+and the mother from the Singletons of County Clare, both families of note.
+When young Copley was eleven years old his mother was married to Peter
+Pelham, a widower with three sons&mdash;Peter, Charles, and William&mdash;and who
+subsequently became the father of another son, Henry, by this second
+marriage. Mr. Pelham was a portrait painter and a mezzotint engraver of
+unusual merit. One authority calls him &ldquo;the founder of those arts in New
+England.&rdquo; Mr. Pelham was also a man of education, a land surveyor, and a
+mathematician. He was thus well qualified to educate, assist, and
+stimulate young Copley in the pursuit of studies so natural and congenial
+to him. He is said to have been studious and quiet, and to have made rapid
+advances. When he was fifteen years old he painted a portrait of his
+step-brother, Charles Pelham, now in the family of a great-grandson, Mr.
+Charles Pelham Curtis, of Boston. At sixteen he published an engraving of
+Rev. William Welsteed, from a portrait painted by himself. The same year
+he painted the portrait of a child&mdash;afterward Dr. de Mountfort&mdash;now owned
+in Detroit. In 1754 he painted an allegorical picture of Mars,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> Venus, and
+Vulcan, thirty inches long by twenty-five wide, now owned in Bridgewater,
+Mass. The next year he painted a miniature of George Washington, who was
+on a visit to Governor Shirley at the time. This picture now belongs to
+the family of the late George P. Putnam, of New York City. In 1756 he
+painted a three-quarters length portrait of General William Brattle, life
+size, signed and dated, and now owned by Mr. William S. Appleton. He now
+improved rapidly. A crayon portrait of Miss Rebecca Gardiner, afterward
+Mrs. Philip Dumaresq, an oil painting of Mrs. Edmund Perkins, a portrait
+of Rebecca Boylston, afterward wife of Governor Gill, portraits of Colonel
+and Mrs. Lee, grandparents of General William Raymond Lee, all exist and
+attest the continued growth of his powers. These date between 1763 and
+1769. During this time he had access to and was a visitor in houses where
+were portraits by Saribest, Blackburn, Liopoldt, and even by Vandyck and
+Sir Godfrey Kneller. Mr. Augustus Thorndike Perkins, in his carefully
+written monograph on Copley, says that our artist must have seen all these
+pictures, since, as Dr. Gardiner says, &ldquo;his genial disposition and his
+courtly manners make him a welcome guest everywhere.&rdquo; Mr. Perkins remarks
+that Copley must have studied with Blackburn; that he imitated, but in
+some respects surpassed him. &ldquo;Both frequently used, either as the lining
+of a dress or as drapery, a certain shade of mauve pink; Blackburn uses
+this shade feebly, while Copley dashes it on with the hand of a master.&rdquo;
+On November 16, 1769, Copley married Susan (or Susannah, as it is
+sometimes written), the daughter of Mr. Richard Clarke, a distinguished
+merchant of Boston, to whom, as agent of the East India Company of London,
+was consigned the tea thrown overboard in Boston harbor. From all accounts
+he soon began to live in good style; and as, in 1771, Colonel Trumbull
+found him living opposite the Common, it is probable that he purchased at
+about that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> time the property which afterward became so valuable, although
+long after Copley had ceased to be the owner. In 1773, says the late
+eminent conveyancer, Nathaniel Ingersoll Bowditch, &ldquo;Copley owned all the
+land bounded on the west by Charles River, thence by Beacon Street to
+Walnut Street, thence by Walnut Street to Mt. Vernon Street, thence by Mt.
+Vernon Street to Louisburg Square, thence by Louisburg Square to Pinckney
+Street, thence by Pinckney Street to the water, containing about eleven
+acres of land.&rdquo; This land is now covered with handsome residences, and is
+of great value. An agent of Copley&#8217;s sold his property after he went
+abroad without being authorized to do so, and, although his son came over
+in 1795 to look into the matter, he was only able to secure a compromise
+by which a further sum of three thousand guineas was paid in final
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his marriage Copley painted his picture of a &ldquo;Boy with a
+Squirrel,&rdquo; which he sent anonymously to Benjamin West, in London, for
+exhibition. West judged from the wood on which the picture was stretched
+and from the kind of squirrel that the work was American, and so excellent
+was the painting that a rule of the institution was set aside, and the
+picture exhibited. This picture is now in the possession of Mrs. James S.
+Amory, of Boston, a granddaughter of the artist. The boy in the picture
+was his half-brother Henry. The picture was so favorably received that
+Copley was advised to go to England. He sailed in 1774, and never
+returned.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Copley, soon after his arrival in London, passed over to the
+Continent, and through Italy, studying in Parma and in Rome. He visited
+Naples and P&aelig;stum also. It is said that he studied so diligently that he
+was with difficulty persuaded to paint two portraits in Rome. In 1775 he
+travelled and studied in Germany, in Holland, and in France. This same
+year his wife and family joined him in England. These consisted of his
+wife, his son, John Singleton, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> afterward became the famous Lord
+Chancellor Lyndhurst; his daughter Elizabeth, afterward married to a
+distinguished merchant in Boston, and who survived to a great age; Mary
+Copley, who lived unmarried to the great age of ninety-four; and another
+son who died young. In 1777 he was made an Associate of the Royal Academy,
+and six years later an Academician. He was now in the full tide of
+success. He was offered five hundred guineas to paint a family group of
+six persons. The well-known group of Copley&#8217;s family, called the &ldquo;Family
+Picture,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Death of Lord Chatham,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Watson and the Shark,&rdquo; were on
+his easel in 1780. The picture of Lord Chatham falling senseless in the
+House of Lords was commenced soon after his death in 1778. It was engraved
+by Bartolozzi, and twenty-five hundred copies were sold in a few weeks.
+Copley exhibited the picture, to his own profit as well as fame.</p>
+
+<p>In 1781 occurred the death of Major Pierson, shot in the moment of victory
+over the French troops who had invaded the island of Jersey. His death was
+instantly avenged by his black servant, and of this scene Copley made one
+of his finest pictures. He took pains, with his usual honesty, to go to
+St. Helier&#8217;s, and make a drawing of the locality. The picture is
+thoroughly realistic, although painful. His large picture of the &ldquo;Repulse
+and Defeat of the Spanish Floating Batteries at Gibraltar&rdquo; was painted on
+commission from the city of London. It is twenty-five feet long by
+twenty-two and a half feet high; but there are so many figures and so much
+distance to be shown in the painting that the artist really needed more
+room. Of the commander, Lord Heathfield, Sir Robert Royd, Sir William
+Green, and some twelve or fifteen others, the artist made careful
+portraits.</p>
+
+<p>The story told by Elkanah Watson shows Copley&#8217;s strong sympathy for
+America. In 1782 Watson was in London, and Copley made a full-length
+portrait of him, and in his journal Watson says: &ldquo;The painting was
+finished in most <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>exquisite style in every part, except the background,
+which Copley and I designed to represent a ship bearing to America the
+acknowledgments of our independence. The sun was just rising upon the
+stripes of the Union streaming from her gaff. All was complete save the
+flag, which Copley did not deem proper to hoist under the present
+circumstances, as his gallery was the constant resort of the royal family
+and the nobility. I dined with the artist on the glorious 5th of December,
+1782. After listening with him to the speech of the king formally
+recognizing the United States of America as in the rank of nations,
+previous to dinner, and immediately after our return from the House of
+Lords, he invited me into his studio, and there, with a bold hand, a
+master&#8217;s touch, and, I believe, an American heart, he attached to the ship
+the stars and stripes. This was, I imagine, the first American flag
+hoisted in Old England.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Copley purchased, for a London residence, the mansion-house in George
+Street belonging to Lord Fauconburg. It afterward became more widely known
+as the residence of his son, Lord Lyndhurst. Lord Mansfield&#8217;s residence
+was near by, and among the many commissions from public men was one to
+paint his lordship&#8217;s portrait. Perhaps one of the most interesting of all
+his commissions was one to paint the picture of Charles I. demanding the
+five obnoxious members from the Long Parliament, for which a number of
+gentlemen in Boston paid one thousand five hundred pounds. It is said that
+every face in this great picture was taken from a portrait at that time
+extant; and Mrs. Gardiner Greene narrates that she and her father were
+driven in a post-chaise over a considerable part of England, visiting
+every house in which there was a picture of a member of the famous
+Parliament, and were always received as honored guests. Copley&#8217;s painting
+of the death of Lord Chatham was much admired. So numerous were the
+subscriptions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> for the engraving that it is said Copley must have received
+nearly, or quite, eleven thousand pounds for the picture and the engraved
+copies. It was quite natural for Copley to be popular with New Englanders;
+indeed, almost every Bostonian, at one time, on visiting London, made a
+point to bring home his portrait by Copley, if possible. There are known
+to exist in this country two hundred and sixty-nine oil-paintings,
+thirty-five crayons, and fourteen miniatures by him. These pictures are
+carefully cherished, as are indeed all memorials of this generous and
+kindly gentleman. Although his life was mostly passed in England, where he
+obtained wealth and renown, yet in a strong sense he could be claimed for
+Boston, as it was there he was born; it was there he received his artistic
+bias and education; it was there he was married, and had three children
+born to him; and, finally, it was there that he acquired a fair amount of
+fame and property solely by his brush. It will be worth while for the
+readers of this volume to take pains to see some of the more noteworthy
+Copleys.</p>
+
+<p>A portrait of John Adams, full length, painted in London in 1783, is now
+in possession of Harvard College. A portrait of Samuel Adams,
+three-quarters length, spirited and beautiful, standing by a table, and
+holding a paper, hangs in Faneuil Hall. Another picture of Samuel Adams is
+in Harvard College, which also owns several other Copleys. A portrait of
+James Allen, a man of fortune, a patriot, and a scholar, is now owned by
+the Massachusetts Historical Society. The &ldquo;Copley Family,&rdquo; one of the
+artist&#8217;s very best pictures, is now owned in Boston by Mr. Amory, and, in
+fact, Mrs. James S. Amory owns a number of his best works.</p>
+
+<p>Copley was a man of elegance and dignity, fond of the beautiful,
+particular in his dress, hospitable, and a lover of poetry and the arts.
+His favorite book was said to be &ldquo;Paradise Lost.&rdquo; His last picture was on
+the subject of the Resurrection.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Benjamin West</span> (1738-1820) was born at Springfield, Pennsylvania, of Quaker
+parentage. In the various narratives of his successful life many stories
+are told which appear somewhat fabulous, and most of which have nothing to
+do with his subsequent career. He is said to have made a pen-and-ink
+portrait of his little niece at the age of seven years; to have shaved the
+cat&#8217;s tail for paint brushes; to have received instruction in painting and
+archery from the Indians; to have so far conquered the prejudices of his
+relatives and their co-religionists to his adoption of an artist&#8217;s life
+that he was solemnly consecrated to it by the laying on of hands by the
+men, and the simultaneous kissing of the women. His love for art must have
+been very strong, and he was finally indulged, and assisted in it by his
+relatives, so that at the age of eighteen he was established as a
+portrait-painter in Philadelphia. By the kindness of friends in that city
+and in New York he was enabled to go to Italy, where he remained three
+years, making friends and reputation everywhere. Parma, Florence, and
+Bologna elected him a member of their Academies. He was only twenty-five
+years old when he went to England, on his way back to America. But he was
+so well received that he finally determined to remain in England, and a
+young lady named Elizabeth Shewell, to whom he had become engaged before
+going abroad, was kind and judicious enough to join him in London, where
+she became his wife, and was his faithful helpmate for fifty years. In
+1766 he exhibited his &ldquo;Orestes and Pylades,&rdquo; which on account of its
+novelty and merit produced a sensation. He painted &ldquo;Agrippina weeping over
+the Urn of Germanicus,&rdquo; and by the Archbishop of York was introduced to
+George III. as its author. He immediately gained favor with the king, and
+was installed at Windsor as the court-painter with a salary of one
+thousand pounds per annum. This salary and position was continued for
+thirty-three years. He painted a series of subjects on a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> grand scale from
+the life of Edward III. for St. George&#8217;s Hall, and twenty-eight scriptural
+subjects, besides nine portrait pictures of the royal family. In 1792, on
+the death of Reynolds, he was elected President of the Royal Academy, a
+position which, except a brief interregnum, he held until his death in
+March, 1820. He was greatly praised in his day, and doubtless thought
+himself a great artist. He painted a vast number of portraits and quite a
+number of pictures of classical and historical subjects. His &ldquo;Lear&rdquo; is in
+the Boston Athen&aelig;um; his &ldquo;Hamlet and Ophelia&rdquo; is in the Longworth
+collection in Cincinnati; &ldquo;Christ Healing the Sick&rdquo; is in the Pennsylvania
+Hospital; and the &ldquo;Rejected Christ&rdquo; is or was owned by Mr. Harrison, of
+Philadelphia. There are two portraits of West, one by Allston and one by
+Leslie, in the Boston Athen&aelig;um, and a full-length, by Sir Thomas Lawrence,
+in the Wadsworth Gallery in Hartford, Conn. One of West&#8217;s pictures did a
+great deal for his reputation, although it was quite a departure from the
+treatment and ideas then in vogue; this was the &ldquo;Death of General Wolfe&rdquo;
+on the Plains of Abraham. When it was known to artists and amateurs that
+his purpose was to depict the scene as it really might have happened he
+was greatly ridiculed. Even Sir Joshua Reynolds expressed an opinion
+against it; but when he saw the picture he owned that West was right.
+Hitherto no one had painted a scene from contemporary history with figures
+dressed in the costume of the day. But West depicted each officer and
+soldier in his uniform, and gave every man his pig-tail who wore one. The
+picture is spirited and well grouped. West was just such a practical,
+thoughtful, and kindly man as we might expect from his ancestry and
+surroundings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">George Romney</span> (1734-1802), born in Beckside, near Dalton, in Cumberland.
+He married when he was twenty-two, and in his twenty-seventh year went to
+London with only thirty pounds in his pocket, leaving his wife with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>seventy pounds and two young children. He returned home to die in 1799,
+and in the meantime saw his wife but twice. The year after his arrival in
+London he carried off the fifty-guinea prize on the subject of the &ldquo;Death
+of Wolfe&rdquo; from the Society of Arts. Through the influence of Sir Joshua
+Reynolds this was reconsidered, and the fifty-guinea prize was awarded to
+Mortimer for his &ldquo;Edward the Confessor,&rdquo; while Romney was put off with a
+gratuity of twenty-five guineas. This produced a feud between the two
+artists. Romney showed his resentment by exhibiting in a house in Spring
+Gardens, and never sending a picture to the Academy, while Reynolds would
+not so much as mention his name, but spoke of him as &ldquo;the man in Cavendish
+Square.&rdquo; This was after his return from the Continent; but before going to
+Italy he was distinctly the rival of Sir Joshua, so much so that there
+were two factions, and Romney&#8217;s studio, in Great Newport Street, was
+crowded with sitters, among whom was the famous Lord Chancellor Thurlow,
+whose full-length portrait is the pride of its possessor. At this time he
+was making about twelve hundred pounds a year, a very good income for
+those days. In 1773 he went to Rome with a letter to the Pope from the
+Duke of Richmond. His diary, which he kept for a friend, shows how
+conscientious and close was his observation and how great his zeal. He
+made a copy of the &ldquo;Transfiguration,&rdquo; for which he refused one hundred
+guineas, and which finally sold for six guineas after his death. On his
+return to London in 1775 he took the house in Cavendish Square, where he
+had great success. He painted a series of portraits of the Gower family,
+the largest being a group of children dancing, which Allan Cunningham
+commended as being &ldquo;masterly and graceful.&rdquo; Some of his portraits have a
+charm beyond his rivals. He painted portraits of Lady Hamilton, the friend
+of Lord Nelson&mdash;&ldquo;the maid of all work, model, mistress, ambassadress, and
+pauper&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>&mdash;scores of times, and in different attitudes and a variety of
+characters, as Hebe, a Bacchante, a Sibyl, as Joan of Arc, as
+&ldquo;Sensibility,&rdquo; as a St. Cecilia, as Cassandra, as Iphigenia, as Constance,
+as Calypso, as Circe, and as Mary Magdalen, and in some of these
+characters many times. He often worked thirteen hours a day, and did his
+fancy sketches when sitters disappointed him. He would paint a portrait of
+a gentleman in four sittings. He was extremely fond of portraying
+Shakespeare&#8217;s characters, and contributed to the Shakespeare Gallery
+formed by Alderman Boydell. He went to Paris in 1790, where Lord and Lady
+Gower introduced him to Louis Philippe, and through him to all the art
+treasures of the French capital. On his return to London he formed a plan
+of an art museum, to be furnished with casts of the finest statues in
+Rome, and spent a good deal of money in the erection of a large building
+for the purpose. His powers as an artist gradually waned. He left his
+Cavendish Square residence in 1797, and in 1799 returned to his family and
+home at Kendall. From this time to the close of his life in 1802 he was a
+mere wreck, and his artist life was over.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">George Morland</span> (1763-1804) was born in London, and the son of an artist.
+His father was unsuccessful, and poor George was articled to his father,
+after the English fashion, and was kept close at home and at work. It is
+said that his father stimulated him with rich food and drink to coax him
+to work. He was very precocious, and really had unusual talents. His
+subjects were those of rustic life, and his pictures contain animals
+wonderfully well painted, but his pigs surpass all. His character was
+pitiful; he was simply, at his best, a mere machine to make pictures. As
+for goodness, truth, or nobleness of any sort, there is not a syllable
+recorded in his favor. Strange to say, the pictures of his best time are
+masterpieces in their way, and have been sold at large prices.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
+Sir <span class="smcap">Thomas Lawrence</span> (1769-1830), born at Bristol, England, in the White
+Hart Inn, of which his father was landlord. He was wonderfully precocious,
+and as a child of five years would recite odes, and declaim passages from
+Milton and Shakespeare. Even at this early period he made chalk or pencil
+portraits, and at nine he finally decided to become a painter from having
+seen a picture by Rubens. At this period he made a colored chalk portrait
+of the beautiful Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, which still hangs in
+Chiswick House, in the room in which Charles Fox died. His father was the
+son of a clergyman, and was bred a lawyer, but had never prospered; still
+his culture and education gave a certain zest and tone to the mind of
+young Lawrence, and made him, with his elegant figure and handsome face,
+the successful courtier that he afterward became. He worked hard, with
+considerable success, and with but little instruction until, at the age of
+eighteen, he went to London for the first time. At that period he was
+described as being extremely handsome in person, with fine, regular
+features, brilliant eyes, and long, chestnut-colored hair falling to his
+shoulders. He lodged close by Sir Joshua Reynolds&mdash;then near the end of
+his career, and from him received much valuable advice. During Lawrence&#8217;s
+first years in London he attempted pictures illustrating classic art, but
+without much success. Indeed he was never successful in large, imaginative
+pictures, and during most of his career of more than forty years, confined
+himself to portraits. The time was propitious for him: Gainsborough was
+dead; Reynolds was almost blind, and had given up painting; and Romney had
+no hold on the court and the leaders of fashion. Lawrence raised his
+prices, and had all he could do. He adopted a more expensive style of
+dress, and in fact lived so extravagantly that he never arrived at what
+may be called easy circumstances&mdash;his open-handed generosity contributed
+to this result. He early received commissions from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> royal family. In
+1791 he was elected an Associate, and in 1794 an Academician. The next
+year George III. appointed him painter in ordinary to his Majesty. He was
+thus fairly launched on a career that promised the highest success. In a
+certain sense he had it, but largely in a limited sense. He painted the
+portraits of people as he saw them; but he never looked behind the costume
+and the artificial society manner. He reproduced the pyramidically shaped
+coats and collars, the overlapping waistcoats of different colors, the
+Hessian boots, and the velvet coats, adorned with furs and frogs, of the
+fine gentlemen; and the turbans with birds-of-Paradise feathers, the gowns
+without waists, the bare arms and long gloves, the short leg-of-mutton
+sleeves, and other monstrosities of the ladies. And for thirty years his
+sitters were attired in red, or green, or blue, or purple. He absolutely
+revelled in the ugliness of fashion. Occasionally Lawrence did some very
+good things, as when he painted the Irish orator and patriot, Curran, in
+one sitting, in which, according to Williams, &ldquo;he finished the most
+extraordinary likeness of the most extraordinary face within the memory of
+man.&rdquo; He always painted standing, and often kept his sitters for three
+hours at a stretch, and sometimes required as many as nine sittings. On
+one occasion he is said to have worked all through one day, through that
+night, the next day, and through all the night following! By command of
+the prince regent he painted the allied sovereigns, their statesmen,
+princes, and generals&mdash;all the leading personages, in fact, in alliance
+against Napoleon. His pictures in the exhibition of 1815 were Mrs. Wolfe,
+the Prince Regent, Metternich, the Duke of Wellington, Blucher, the Hetman
+Platoff, and Mr. Hart Davis. During the Congress that met at
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, Lawrence was commissioned by the Prince Regent to
+paint its principal heads for an especial gallery. He thus had for sitters
+nearly all the leading statesmen of Europe. From Aix-la-Chapelle he went
+to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> Vienna, and thence to Rome in 1819, where among others he painted
+likenesses of the Pope, of Cardinal Gonsalvi, and of Canova. Of the
+latter, Canova cried out, &ldquo;Per Baccho, che nomo e questo!&rdquo; It was
+considered a marvellous likeness; and without violating good taste he
+worked into the picture crimson velvet and damask, gold, precious marble,
+and fur, with a most brilliant effect. Before reaching home in London he
+was elected President of the Royal Academy. At this time he had been
+elected a member of the Roman Academy of St. Luke&#8217;s, of the Academy of
+Fine Arts in Florence, and of the Fine Arts in New York. He continued to
+improve as a painter, and between 1825 and the year of his death, painted
+and exhibited some of his finest works. He usually exhibited eight
+pictures each year, and although without a rival, gave evidence of anxious
+care to sustain his reputation. He was especially successful with
+children, and many of these pictures&mdash;as well as of celebrities&mdash;were
+engraved, and have thus become known all over the world. Of his eight
+pictures exhibited in 1829&mdash;the last he ever contributed&mdash;Williams says:
+&ldquo;It is difficult to imagine a more undeviating excellence, an infallible
+accuracy of likeness, with an elevation of art below which it seemed
+impossible for him to descend.&rdquo; Lawrence died on the morning of the 7th of
+January, 1830, with but little warning, from ossification of the heart; he
+was buried with much pomp and honor in St. Paul&#8217;s Cathedral, by the side
+of Sir Joshua Reynolds.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig73" id="Fig73"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a href="images/img73.jpg">
+<img src="images/img73_th.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="Fig 73" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.&mdash;Portrait of Turner.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Joseph M. W. Turner, R.A.</span> (1775-1851).&mdash;It is believed, by those who have
+investigated the question most carefully, that this eminent artist and
+most remarkable man was born in Maiden Lane, London, April 3, 1775,
+although the artist himself has stated that he was born in Devonshire,
+April 23, 1769. Turner&#8217;s father, William Turner, was a native of
+Devonshire, but came to London while young, and did a fair business in the
+Covent <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>Garden district as a hair-dresser, wig-maker, and in shaving
+people. The father was garrulous, like the traditional hair-dresser, with
+a pleasant laugh, and a fresh, smiling face. He had a parrot nose and a
+projecting chin. Turner&#8217;s mother was a Miss Mallord (or Marshall), of good
+family, but a violent-tempered woman, with a hawk nose and a fierce
+visage. Her life ended in a lunatic asylum. The artist, who was always
+impatient of inquiry into his domestic matters, resented any allusion to
+his mother, and never spoke of her. The manifest peculiarities of his
+parents had an impression upon Turner, and would have made him eccentric
+had there been no other influences of a kindred nature. The parents were
+under-sized, and of limited mental range; they were of very little
+personal assistance to their gifted son, although the father in later
+years busied himself in mixing colors, adjusting pictures to frames, and
+sometimes he was entrusted with certain rough work at filling in
+backgrounds. When Turner was but five years old he is said to have made,
+from memory, a fair copy of a lion rampant engraved on a silver salver,
+which he had seen while accompanying his father to the house of a
+customer. Presently the boy began to copy pictures in water-colors, and
+then to make sketches from nature of scenes along the river Thames. In his
+ninth year he drew a picture of Margate Church. When he was ten years old
+he was sent to school at Brentford-Butts, where he remained two years,
+boarding with his uncle, the local butcher. His leisure hours were spent
+in dreamy wanderings and in making countless sketches of birds, trees,
+flowers, and domestic fowls. He acquired a smattering of the classics and
+some knowledge of legends and ancient history. On his return to London he
+received instruction from Palice in painting flowers, and, after a year or
+two, was sent to Margate, in Kent, to Coleman&#8217;s school. Here he had more
+scope and a wider range, and made pictures of the sea, the chalk cliffs,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>
+the undulations of the coast, and the glorious effects of cloud scenery.
+On his return from Margate he began to earn money by coloring engravings
+and by painting skies in amateurs&#8217; drawings and in architects&#8217; plans at
+half a crown an evening. He always deemed this good practice, as he thus
+acquired facility and skill in gradations. His father at one time thought
+to make an architect of him, and sent him to Tom Malton to study
+perspective. But he failed in the exact branch of the profession, and
+neither with Malton nor with the architect Hardwick did he give
+satisfaction. While with Hardwick he drew careful sketches of old houses
+and churches, and this practice must have been of much use to him in
+after-life. His father finally sent him to the Royal Academy, where he
+studied hard, drawing from Greek models and the formal classic
+architecture. About this time he was employed, at half a crown an evening,
+with supper thrown in, to make copies of pictures by Dr. Munro, of Adelphi
+Terrace. Munro was one of the physicians employed in the care of George
+III. when he had a crazy spell, and owned many valuable pictures by
+Salvator-Rosa, Rembrandt, Snyder, Gainsborough, Hearne, Cozens, and
+others. He had also portfolios full of drawings of castles and cathedrals,
+and of Swiss and Italian scenery, and of sketches by Claude and Titian.
+Turner was also employed to sketch from nature in all directions about
+London. In these tasks he had for a constant companion &ldquo;Honest Tom
+Girtin,&rdquo; a young fellow of Turner&#8217;s own age, who afterward married a
+wealthy lady, had rich patrons, and died before he was thirty. Had he
+lived to mature years, Girtin would have been a powerful rival to Turner.
+They were most excellent friends, and when Girtin died in Rome, Turner was
+one of his most sincere mourners. Toward the close of Sir Joshua Reynolds&#8217;
+life, Turner frequented his studio, copied pictures, and acquired some art
+secrets. He began to teach water-color drawing in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> schools, while still a
+boy, at from a crown to a guinea a lesson. He made hundreds of sketches in
+a part of London now built over compactly with houses in streets and
+squares, but then picturesque in hills and dells, in wooded fields and
+green lanes. With all his baggage tied in a handkerchief on the end of his
+walking-stick, he made a sketching tour through the towns of Rochester,
+Canterbury, Margate, and others, in Kent, in 1793, and about this time
+began to paint in oil. His first contribution to the Royal Academy was a
+water-color sketch in 1790. Within the next ten years he exhibited over
+sixty pictures of castles, cathedrals, and landscapes. All through his
+life he made sketches. Wherever he was, if he saw a fine or an unusual
+effect, he treasured it up for use. He sketched on any bit of paper, or
+even on his thumb-nail, if he had nothing better. Nothing escaped his
+attention, whether of earth, or sea, or sky. Probably no artist that ever
+lived gave nature such careful and profound study. His studies of cloud
+scenery were almost a revelation to mankind. In all this Turner drew his
+instruction as well as his inspiration from nature. The critics did
+nothing for him; he rather opened the eyes of even such men as Ruskin to
+the wonders of the natural world. But these results all came later, and
+were the fruit of and resulted from his constant and incessant studies.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig74" id="Fig74"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;">
+<a href="images/img74.jpg">
+<img src="images/img74_th.jpg" width="296" height="400" alt="Fig 74" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.&mdash;Nantes.</span> <em>By Turner.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1794 and 1795 he made elaborate drawings of Rochester, Chepstow,
+Birmingham, Worcester, Guildford, Cambridge, and other towns, for
+magazines. In 1796 he did the same for Chester, Bristol, Leith,
+Peterborough, and Windsor. Within the next four years he completed the
+circuit of twenty-six counties in England and Wales, and he also exhibited
+twenty-three highly finished drawings of cathedrals and churches. He was
+slow to undertake oil-painting, preferring the more rapid touch and the
+light-and-shade effect of the crayon, or the delicate and beautiful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+effects of water-colors. He was always greater as a painter in
+water-colors than in oils, and it is claimed by Redgrave that &ldquo;the art all
+but began with him,&rdquo; and that his water-color paintings &ldquo;epitomize the
+whole mystery of landscape art.&rdquo; Some of his paintings in this line have
+been sold at enormous prices, and even in his own day his water-color
+picture of Tivoli sold for eighteen hundred guineas. Turner became as fond
+of Northern Yorkshire&mdash;which he first visited in 1797&mdash;as he was of
+Southern Kent. He found there a great variety of scenery, from the sweet
+and peaceful to the ennobling and grand. He visited and made studies from
+all the old cathedrals, castles, and abbeys, and in 1798 he exhibited
+pictures of Fountain and Kirkstall Abbeys, Holy Island Cathedral,
+Buttermere Lake, Dunstanborough Castle, as well as &ldquo;Morning Among the
+Corriston Fells.&rdquo; He found in Yorkshire also some of his warmest friends
+and most munificent patrons, notably Mr. Hawkesworth Fawkes, of Farnley
+Hall, whose house was adorned with fifty thousand dollars&#8217; worth of
+Turner&#8217;s pictures. Some additions to Farnley Hall were designed by Turner,
+and he was always a welcome visitor. Here he sketched, and at intervals
+enjoyed himself greatly in hunting and fishing. It is said that the
+Farnley portfolios still contain sketches not only of the hall and its
+precincts, but of coast scenes, Swiss views, drawings of birds,
+illustrations of the Civil War, and, more especially, of fifty-three
+remarkable drawings of the Rhineland regions, done at the rate of three a
+day; these last were offered by Turner to Mr. Fawkes on his return from
+the Continent for the sum of five hundred pounds, and the bargain was
+closed at once. When Mr. Fawkes visited London he spent hours in Turner&#8217;s
+private gallery, but was never shown into the painting-room. Indeed, very
+few persons were ever allowed there. Once, when Turner dined at a hotel
+with Mr. Fawkes, the artist took too much wine, and reeled about,
+exclaiming, &ldquo;Hawkey, I am the real lion&mdash;I am the great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> lion of the day,
+Hawkey.&rdquo; When Mr. Fawkes died, ended Turner&#8217;s visits to Farnley. He never
+went there again, but when the younger Fawkes brought the Rhine drawings
+up to London for him to see again, he passed his hand over the &ldquo;Lorelei
+Twilight,&rdquo; saying, with tears in his eyes, &ldquo;But Hawkey! but Hawkey!&rdquo; When
+Mr. Wells, an artist of Addiscomb, died he mourned his loss bitterly, and
+exclaimed to his daughter: &ldquo;Oh, Clara, Clara, these are iron tears! I have
+lost the best friend I ever had in my life!&rdquo; In this family all the
+children loved him. He would lie on the floor, and play with them, and the
+oldest daughter afterward said: &ldquo;Of all the light-hearted, merry creatures
+I ever knew, Turner was the most so.&rdquo; But in 1797 Turner had a bitter
+disappointment which warped and distorted all his after-life. A young lady
+to whom he had become attached while a schoolboy at Margate, was engaged
+to be married to him. He had been absent for two years on sketching tours,
+and the step-mother of the young lady had intercepted and destroyed his
+letters, so that at last she believed the representations made that Turner
+had deserted her. She became engaged to another, and was about to be
+married, when Turner appeared, and pleaded passionately that she would
+return to him. She thought that she had been trifled with, and held by her
+refusal, and did not find out the wrongs done by the step-mother until it
+was too late. This disappointment led to greater self-concentration and
+stingy money-getting until it became the absorbing passion of his life, so
+that the artist passion was dominated by it.</p>
+
+<p>It would take up too large a portion of this book to describe even briefly
+Turner&#8217;s travels and works. Only a bare outline can be given. In 1800 he
+became an Associate of the Royal Academy. He moved into a more commodious
+house at 64 Harley Street. During this year he exhibited pictures of
+Caernarvon Castle and the &ldquo;Fifth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> Plague of Egypt;&rdquo; also fine views of
+Fonthill Abbey, the new palace of Beckford, with whom he spent much time.
+The only portrait for which Turner ever sat was painted in 1800 by George
+Dance. It shows a handsome young man, with a full but receding forehead,
+arched eyebrows, a prominent nose, a massive chin, and a sensual mouth.
+His thick and wiry hair is tied behind, and he wears a coat with an
+immense cape. By this time full-bottomed wigs had gone out of fashion, and
+the old barber abandoned his business to go and live with his artist son.
+In 1801 Turner exhibited pictures of St. Donat&#8217;s Castle and Pembroke
+Castle in Wales, the Salisbury Chapter-house, an autumn morning in London,
+the destruction of the Median army, and Dutch fishing-boats in a gale. He
+had begun his contest with Claude by painting pictures of classical
+subjects in Claude&#8217;s manner. Turner was elected Royal Academician in 1802,
+and exhibited several notable oil-paintings, signed with all his initials,
+which he thenceforth used. The Academy had been quick to recognize
+Turner&#8217;s genius, and he was always its faithful, conservative, and zealous
+friend. As an auditor, councillor, or a visitor he was scrupulous, and he
+attended general meetings and formal dinners with the same promptitude and
+certainty with which for forty-five years he sent his pictures to the
+annual exhibitions. He was a peacemaker in debates, but in business he was
+irresolute. In 1802 he visited the Continent for the first time,
+travelling in France, Switzerland, and Italy, and everywhere making
+sketches. At this time he carried sketch-books in which he jotted
+everything&mdash;all manner of drawings and outlines of nature and
+architecture, notes of local gossip, chemical memoranda, notes of
+expenses, tavern bills, views of coasts and cities, ruins, castles,
+manufacturing works, and detached figures. One book gives views about the
+Simplon Pass, another the sea-coast from Nice to Genoa, another contains
+countless jottings from the pictures in the Vatican,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> another is taken up
+with views in Paris and Rouen, and several are devoted to Scottish
+scenery.</p>
+
+<p>In 1806 Turner began his <em>Liber Studiorum</em>, in rivalship of Claude&#8217;s
+<em>Liber Veritatis</em>; it was issued in parts in dark blue covers, each part
+containing five plates. It was discontinued in 1814, after seventy plates
+had been issued. Although not remunerative at the time, in later days as
+high as three thousand pounds has been paid for a single copy of the
+<em>Liber</em>, while the subscription price was only seventeen pounds ten
+shillings; even before Turner died a copy of it was worth over thirty
+guineas. Charles Turner, the engraver, used the proofs for kindling-paper;
+but some years later Colnaghi, the print dealer, paid him fifteen hundred
+pounds for his remaining &ldquo;rubbish,&rdquo; as he considered it. &ldquo;Good God!&rdquo; cried
+the old engraver; &ldquo;I have been burning bank-notes all my life!&rdquo; In 1878
+Professor Norton, of Harvard University, published a set of thirty-three
+of the best of the <em>Liber</em> studies, reproduced in Boston by the heliotype
+process. The <em>Liber Studiorum</em> was intended to manifest Turner&#8217;s command
+of the whole compass of the landscape art, and was divided into six heads:
+historical, pastoral, elegant pastoral, mountain, marine, and
+architectural.</p>
+
+<p>In 1808 Turner was appointed Professor of Perspective in the Royal
+Academy. During two or three years only, out of the thirty in which he
+held the professorship, did he deliver lectures. He spoke in a deep and
+mumbling voice, was confused and tedious in manner, and frequently became
+hopelessly entangled in blind mazes of obscure words. Sometimes when he
+had written out his lectures he was unable to read them. Once, after
+fumbling in his pockets, he exclaimed: &ldquo;Gentlemen, I&#8217;ve been and left my
+lecture in the hackney-coach.&rdquo; Still he was interested in this work, and
+Ruskin says: &ldquo;The zealous care with which Turner endeavored to do his duty
+is proved by a large existing series of drawings, exquisitely tinted, and
+often completely colored,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> all by his own hand, of the most difficult
+perspective subjects&mdash;illustrating not only directions of light, but
+effects of light, with a care and completion which would put the work of
+any ordinary teacher to utter shame.&rdquo; During this year he took a house at
+Hammersmith, Upper Mall, the garden of which ran down to the Thames, but
+still retained his residence in Harley Street. In 1812 he first occupied
+the house No. 47 Queen Anne Street, and this house he retained for forty
+years. It was dull, dingy, unpainted, weather-beaten, sooty, with unwashed
+windows and shaky doors, and seemed the very abode of poverty, and yet
+when Turner died his estate was sworn as under one hundred and forty
+thousand pounds&mdash;seven hundred thousand dollars. When Turner&#8217;s father died
+in 1830 he was succeeded by a withered and sluttish old woman named Danby.
+The whole house was dreary, dirty, damp, and full of litter. The master
+had a fancy for tailless&mdash;Manx&mdash;cats, and these made their beds everywhere
+without disturbance. In the gallery were thirty thousand fine proofs of
+engravings piled up and rotting. His studio had a fair north light from
+two windows, and was surrounded by water-color drawings. His sherry-bottle
+was kept in an old second-hand buffet.</p>
+
+<p>About 1813 or 1814 Turner purchased a place at Twickenham; he rebuilt the
+house, and called it Solus Lodge. The rooms were small, and contained
+models of rigged ships which he used in his marine views; in his
+jungle-like garden he grew aquatic plants which he often copied in
+foregrounds. He kept a boat for fishing and marine sketching; also a gig
+and an old cropped-eared horse, with which he made sketching excursions.
+He made at this time the acquaintance of Rev. Mr. Trimmer, the rector of
+the church at Heston, who was a lover of art, and often took journeys with
+Turner. While visiting at the rectory Turner regularly attended church in
+proper form; and finally he wrote a note to Mr. Trimmer, alluding to his
+affection for one of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>rector&#8217;s kinswomen, and suggesting: &ldquo;If
+Miss&nbsp;&mdash;&mdash; would but waive bashfulness, or in other words make
+an offer instead of expecting one, the same [Lodge] might change
+occupiers.&rdquo; But Turner was doomed to disappointment, and never made
+another attempt at matrimony. In 1814 Turner commenced his contributions
+of drawings to illustrate &ldquo;Cook&#8217;s Southern Coast,&rdquo; and continued this
+congenial work for twelve years, making forty drawings at the rate of
+about twenty guineas each; the drawings were returned to the artist after
+being engraved. In 1815 he exhibited the &ldquo;Dido Building Carthage,&rdquo; and in
+1817 a companion picture, the &ldquo;Decline of the Carthaginian Empire,&rdquo; and
+for these two pictures the artist refused five thousand pounds, having
+secretly willed them to the National Gallery.</p>
+
+<p>Ruskin divides Turner&#8217;s art life into three periods: that of study, from
+1800 to 1820; that of working out art theories toward an ideal, from 1820
+to 1835; and that of recording his own impressions of nature, from 1835 to
+1845, preceded by a period of development, and followed by a period of
+decline, from 1845 to 1850. Besides his pictures painted on private
+commission, Turner exhibited two hundred and seventy-five pictures at the
+Academy. The &ldquo;Rivers of England&rdquo; was published in 1824, with sixteen
+engravings after Turner; another series contained six illustrations of the
+&ldquo;Ports of England&rdquo;&mdash;second-class cities. In 1826 the &ldquo;Provincial
+Antiquities of Scotland&rdquo; was published, with thirteen illustrations by
+Turner. The same year he sold his house at Twickenham, because, he said,
+&ldquo;Dad&rdquo; was always working in the garden, and catching abominable colds. In
+1827 Turner commenced the &ldquo;England and Wales&rdquo; on his own account, and
+continued it for eleven years. It consisted of a hundred plates,
+illustrating ports, castles, abbeys, cathedrals, palaces, coast views, and
+lakes. In 1828 Turner went to Rome by way of Nismes, Avignon, Marseilles,
+Nice, and Genoa; and this year painted his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> &ldquo;Ulysses Dividing Polyphemus,&rdquo;
+of which Thornbury says: &ldquo;For color, for life and shade, for composition,
+this seems to me to be the most wonderful and admirable of Turner&#8217;s
+realisms.&rdquo; Ruskin calls it his central picture, illustrating his perfect
+power.</p>
+
+<p>Of Turner&#8217;s wonderful versatility, Ruskin says: &ldquo;There is architecture,
+including a large number of formal &lsquo;gentlemen&#8217;s seats;&rsquo; then lowland
+pastoral scenery of every kind, including nearly all farming operations,
+plowing, harrowing, hedging and ditching, felling trees, sheep-washing,
+and I know not what else; there are all kinds of town life, court-yards of
+inns, starting of mail coaches, interiors of shops, house-buildings,
+fairs, and elections; then all kinds of inner domestic life, interiors of
+rooms, studies of costumes, of still-life and heraldry, including
+multitudes of symbolical vignettes; then marine scenery of every kind,
+full of local incident&mdash;every kind of boat, and the methods of fishing for
+particular fish being specifically drawn&mdash;round the whole coast of
+England; pilchard-fishing at St. Ives, whiting-fishing at Margate, herring
+at Loch Fyne, and all kinds of shipping, including studies of every
+separate part of the vessels, and many marine battle-pieces; then all
+kinds of mountain scenery, some idealized into compositions, others of
+definite localities, together with classical compositions; Romes and
+Carthages, and such others by the myriad, with mythological, historical,
+or allegorical figures; nymphs, monsters, and spectres, heroes and
+divinities.... Throughout the whole period with which we are at present
+concerned, Turner appears as a man of sympathy absolutely infinite&mdash;a
+sympathy so all-embracing that I know nothing but that of Shakespeare
+comparable with it. A soldier&#8217;s wife resting by the roadside is not
+beneath it; Rizpah watching the dead bodies of her sons, not above it.
+Nothing can possibly be so mean as that it will not interest his whole
+mind and carry his whole heart; nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> so great or solemn but that he
+can raise himself into harmony with it; and it is impossible to prophesy
+of him at any moment whether the next he will be in laughter or tears.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1832 Turner made a will in which he bequeathed the bulk of his estate
+for the founding of an institution &ldquo;for the Maintenance and Support of
+Poor and Decayed Male Artists being born in England and of English parents
+only, and of lawful issue.&rdquo; It was to be called &ldquo;Turner&#8217;s Gift,&rdquo; and for
+the next twenty years the artist pinched, and economized to increase the
+fund for his noble purpose. At this time he was entering upon his third
+manner&mdash;that of his highest excellence, when he &ldquo;went to the cataract for
+its iris, and the conflagration for its flames; asked of the sky its
+intensest azure, of the sun its clearest gold.&rdquo; It is remarked by Ruskin,
+who has made most profound study of Turner&#8217;s works, that he had an
+underlying meaning or moral in his groups of foreign pictures; in
+Carthage, he illustrated the danger of the pursuit of wealth; in Rome, the
+fate of unbridled ambition; and in Venice, the vanity of pleasure and
+luxury. The Venetian pictures began in 1833, with a painting of the Doge&#8217;s
+Palace, Dogana, Campanile, and Bridge of Sighs; and with these were
+exhibited &ldquo;Van Tromp Returning from Battle,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Rotterdam Ferry-boat,&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;Mouth of the Seine.&rdquo; In 1830 or 1831 he made, on commission from
+the publisher Cadell, twenty-four sketches to illustrate Walter Scott&#8217;s
+poems&mdash;published in 1834&mdash;and while doing this he was entertained royally
+at Abbotsford, and made excursions with Scott and Lockhart to Dryburgh
+Abbey and other points of interest. He went as far north as the Isle of
+Skye, where he drew Loch Corriskin, and nearly lost his life by a fall.
+About this time he made a series of illustrations for Scott&#8217;s &ldquo;Life of
+Napoleon.&rdquo; Turner spent some time in Edinburgh, frequently sketching with
+Thomson, a clergyman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> and local artist, who was preferred by some of the
+Scotch amateurs to Turner. He one day called at Thomson&#8217;s house to examine
+his paintings, but instead of expected praises he merely remarked, &ldquo;You
+beat me in frames.&rdquo; Turner made thirty-three illustrations for Rogers&#8217;s
+&ldquo;Poems&rdquo; (<a href="#Fig75">Fig. 75</a>), and seventeen for an extended edition of Byron. He was
+in the habit at this time of frequently walking to Cowley Hall, the
+residence of a Mr. Rose, where he was kindly welcomed. He was there called
+&ldquo;Old Pogey.&rdquo; One day Mrs. Rose asked him to paint her favorite spaniel; in
+amazement he cried, &ldquo;My dear madam, you do not know what you ask;&rdquo; and
+always after this the lady went by the title of &ldquo;My dear madam.&rdquo; Mr. Rose
+tells how he and Turner sat up one night until two o&#8217;clock drinking cognac
+and water, and talking of their travels. When Mrs. Rose and a lady, a
+friend, visited Turner in a house in Harley Street, in mid-winter, they
+were entertained with wine and biscuits in a cold room, without a fire,
+where they saw seven tailless cats, which Turner said were brought from
+the Isle of Man.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig75" id="Fig75"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;">
+<a href="images/img75.jpg">
+<img src="images/img75_th.jpg" width="329" height="400" alt="Fig 75" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.&mdash;Illustration from Rogers&#8217;s Poems.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For three years Turner travelled in France, and made studies and sketches
+up and down its rivers. These were first published as &ldquo;Turner&#8217;s Annual
+Tour,&rdquo; but were afterward brought out by Bohn as &ldquo;Liber Fluviorum.&rdquo; These
+sketches have been highly praised by Ruskin; but Hammerton, who certainly
+knows French scenery far more accurately than Ruskin, while praising the
+exquisite beauty of Turner&#8217;s work, challenges its accuracy, and especially
+as to color, saying that &ldquo;Turner, as a colorist, was splendid and
+powerful, but utterly unfaithful.&rdquo; Leitch Ritchie, who was associated with
+Turner in this work, could not travel with him, their tastes were so
+unlike; and he says that Turner&#8217;s drawings were marvellously exaggerated,
+that he would make a splendid picture of a place without a single correct
+detail, trebling the height of spires and throwing in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> imaginary
+accessories. Turner always claimed the right to change the groupings of
+his landscapes and architecture at will, preferring to give a general and
+idealized view of the landscape rather than a precise copy thereof.</p>
+
+<p>In 1835 he exhibited &ldquo;Heidelberg Castle in the Olden Time,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Ehrenbreitstein,&rdquo; &ldquo;Venice from the Salute Church,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Line-fishing off
+Hastings.&rdquo; In 1836 he exhibited a &ldquo;View of Rome from the Aventine Hill,&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;Burning of the House of Lords and Commons,&rdquo; which last was almost
+entirely painted on the walls of the exhibition. At this time it was the
+custom to have what were called &ldquo;varnishing days&rdquo; at the exhibition,
+during which time artists retouched, and finished up their pictures. They
+were periods of fun and practical jokes, and Turner always enjoyed, and
+made the most of them. He frequently sent his canvas to the Academy merely
+sketched out and grounded, and then coming in as early as four in the
+morning on varnishing days, he would put his nose to the sketch and work
+steadily with thousands of imperceptible touches until nightfall, while
+his picture would begin to glow as by magic. About this time he exhibited
+many pictures founded on classical subjects, or with the scenes laid in
+Italy or Greece, as &ldquo;Apollo and Daphne in the Vale of Tempe,&rdquo; &ldquo;Regulus
+Leaving Rome to Return to Carthage,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Parting of Hero and Leander,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Phryne Going to the Public Baths as Venus,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Banishment of Ovid from
+Rome, with Views of the Bridge and Castle of St. Angelo.&rdquo; A year later he
+exhibited pictures of &ldquo;Ancient Rome,&rdquo; a vast dreamy pile of palaces, and
+&ldquo;Modern Rome,&rdquo; with a view of the &ldquo;Forum in Ruins.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>One of the most celebrated of Turner&#8217;s pictures was that of the &ldquo;Old
+T&eacute;m&eacute;raire,&rdquo; an old and famous line-of-battle ship, which in the battle of
+Trafalgar ran in between and captured the French frigates Redoubtable and
+Fougueux. Turner saw the T&eacute;m&eacute;raire in the Thames after she had <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>become
+old, and was condemned to be dismantled. The scene is laid at sunset, when
+the smouldering, red light is vividly reflected on the river, and
+contrasts with the quiet, gray and pearly tints about the low-hung moon.
+The majestic old ship looms up through these changing lights, bathed in
+splendor. The artist refused a large price for this picture by Mr. Lennox,
+of New York, and finally bequeathed it to the nation. In 1840 Turner
+exhibited the &ldquo;Bacchus and Ariadne,&rdquo; two marine scenes, and two views in
+Venice; also the well-known &ldquo;Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and
+Dying, a Typhoon Coming On&rdquo; (<a href="#Fig76">Fig. 76</a>), which is now in the Museum of Fine
+Arts of Boston. Of this picture Thackeray says: &ldquo;I don&#8217;t know whether it
+is sublime or ridiculous.&rdquo; But Ruskin, in &ldquo;Modern Painters,&rdquo; says: &ldquo;I
+believe if I were reduced to test Turner&#8217;s immortality upon any single
+work, I should choose the &lsquo;Slave Ship.&rsquo; Its daring conception, ideal in
+the highest sense of the word, is based on the purest truth, and wrought
+out with the concentrated knowledge of a life. Its color is absolutely
+perfect, not one false or morbid hue in any part or line, and so modulated
+that every square inch of canvas is a perfect composition; its drawing as
+accurate as fearless; the ship buoyant, bending, and full of motion; its
+tones as true as they are wonderful; and the whole picture dedicated to
+the most sublime of subjects and impressions (completing thus the perfect
+system of all truth which we have shown to be formed by Turner&#8217;s works),
+the power, majesty, and deathfulness of the open, deep, illimitable sea.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig76" id="Fig76"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;">
+<a href="images/img76.jpg">
+<img src="images/img76_th.jpg" width="399" height="400" alt="Fig 76" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.&mdash;The Slave Ship.</span> <em>By Turner.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>No painter of modern times, or perhaps of any time, has ever provoked the
+discussion of his merits which Turner did. When he was at his best his
+great merits and his originality procured for him the strongest defenders,
+and finally brought his pictures into favor with the wealthy middle class
+of England, so that he obtained high prices, and since his death these
+prices have doubled, and even quadrupled. At<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> a sale of Mr. Bicknell&#8217;s
+collection in 1836, ten of Turner&#8217;s pictures, which had been bought for
+three thousand seven hundred and forty-nine pounds, were sold for
+seventeen thousand and ninety-four pounds. As Turner grew older and his
+manner deteriorated he was assailed by the wits, the art critics, and the
+amateurs with cruel badinage, and to these censures Turner was morbidly
+sensitive. But even Ruskin admits that the pictures of his last five years
+are of &ldquo;wholly inferior value,&rdquo; with unsatisfactory foliage, chalky faces,
+and general indications of feebleness of hand.</p>
+
+<p>Wornum, in his <em>Epochs of Painting</em>, said: &ldquo;In the last ten years of his
+career, and occasionally before, Turner was extravagant to an extreme
+degree; he played equally with nature and with his colors. Light, with all
+its prismatic varieties, seems to have been the chief object of his
+studies; individuality of form or color he was wholly indifferent to. The
+looseness of execution in his latest works has not even the apology of
+having been attempted on scientific principles; he did not work upon a
+particular point of a picture as a focus and leave the rest obscure, as a
+foil to enhance it, on a principle of unity; on the contrary, all is
+equally obscure and wild alike. These last productions are a calamity to
+his reputation; yet we may, perhaps, safely assert that since Rembrandt
+there has been no painter of such originality and power as Turner.&rdquo; Dr.
+Waagen says in his <em>Treasury of Art in Great Britain</em>: &ldquo;No landscape
+painter has yet appeared with such versatility of talent. His historical
+landscapes exhibit the most exquisite feeling for beauty of hues and
+effect of lighting, at the same time that he has the power of making them
+express the most varied moods of nature.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Toward the last part of his life Turner&#8217;s peculiarities increased; he
+became more morose, more jealous. He was always unwilling to have even his
+most intimate friends visit his studio, but he finally withdrew from his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+own house and home. Of late years he had frequently left his house for
+months at a time, and secreted himself in some distant quarter, taking
+care that he should not be followed or known. When the great Exhibition of
+1851 opened, Turner left orders with his housekeeper that no one should be
+admitted to see his pictures. For twenty years the rain had been streaming
+in upon them through the leaky roof, and many were hopelessly ruined. He
+sent no pictures to the exhibition of that year, and he was hardly to be
+recognized when he appeared in the gallery. Finally his prolonged absence
+from the Academy meetings alarmed his friends; but no one dared seek him
+out. His housekeeper alone, of all that had known him, had the interest to
+hunt up the old artist. Taking a hint from a letter in one of his coats,
+she went to Chelsea, and, after careful search, found his hiding-place,
+with but one more day of life in him. It is said that, feeling the need of
+purer air than that of Queen Anne Street, he went out to Chelsea and found
+an eligible, little cottage by the side of the river, with a railed-in
+roof whence he could observe the sky. The landlady demanded references
+from the shabby, old man, when he testily replied, &ldquo;My good woman, I&#8217;ll
+buy the house outright.&rdquo; She then demanded his name&mdash;&ldquo;in case, sir, any
+gentleman should call, you know.&rdquo; &ldquo;Name?&rdquo; said he, &ldquo;what&#8217;s your name?&rdquo; &ldquo;My
+name is Mrs. Booth.&rdquo; &ldquo;Then I am Mr. Booth.&rdquo; And so he was known, the boys
+along the river-side calling him &ldquo;Puggy Booth,&rdquo; and the tradesmen &ldquo;Admiral
+Booth,&rdquo; the theory being that he was an old admiral in reduced
+circumstances. In a low studded, attic room, poorly furnished, with a
+single roof window, the great artist was found in his mortal sickness. He
+sent for his favorite doctor from Margate, who frankly told him that death
+was at hand. &ldquo;Go down stairs,&rdquo; exclaimed Turner, &ldquo;take a glass of sherry,
+and then look at me again.&rdquo; But no stimulant could change the verdict of
+the physician. An<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> hour before he died he was wheeled to the window for a
+last look at the Thames, bathed in sunshine and dotted with sails. Up to
+the last sickness the lonely, old man rose at daybreak to watch, from the
+roof of the cottage, the sun rise and the purple flush of the coming day.
+The funeral, from the house in Queen Anne Street, was imposing, with a
+long line of carriages, and conducted with the ritual of the English
+Church in St. Paul&#8217;s Cathedral. Dean Milman read the service, and at its
+conclusion the coffin was borne to the catacombs, and placed between the
+tombs of James Barry and Sir Joshua Reynolds. Turner&#8217;s will, with its
+codicils, was so confused and vague that the lawyers fought it in the
+courts for four years, and it was finally settled by compromise. The real
+estate went to the heir-at-law, the pictures and drawings to the National
+Gallery, one thousand pounds for a monument in St. Paul&#8217;s Cathedral, and
+twenty thousand pounds to the Royal Academy for annuities to poor artists.
+Turner&#8217;s gift to the British nation included ninety-eight finished
+paintings and two hundred and seventy pictures in various stages of
+progress. Ruskin, while arranging and classifying Turner&#8217;s drawings, found
+more than nineteen thousand sketches and fragments by the master&#8217;s hand,
+some covered with the dust of thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">David Wilkie</span> (1785-1841) has been called the &ldquo;prince of British
+<em>genre</em> painters.&rdquo; His father was a minister, and David was placed in the
+Trustees&#8217; Academy in Edinburgh in 1799. In 1805 he entered the Royal
+Academy in London, and was much noticed on account of his &ldquo;Village
+Politicians,&rdquo; exhibited the next year. From this time his fame and
+popularity were established, and each new work was simply a new triumph
+for him. The &ldquo;Card Players,&rdquo; &ldquo;Rent Day,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Village Festival,&rdquo; and
+others were rapidly painted and exhibited.</p>
+
+<p>In 1825 Wilkie went to the Continent, and remained three years. He visited
+France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> after his return he painted a new
+class of subjects in a new manner. He made many portraits, and his other
+works were historical subjects. His most celebrated works in this second
+manner were &ldquo;John Knox Preaching,&rdquo; &ldquo;Napoleon and the Pope at
+Fontainebleau,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Peep-o&#8217;-Day Boy&#8217;s Cabin.&rdquo; The portrait of the
+landscape painter William Daniell is a good picture.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 Wilkie succeeded Sir Thomas Lawrence as painter to the king, as he
+had been limner to the King of Scotland since 1822. He was not knighted
+until 1836. In 1840 he visited Constantinople, and made a portrait of the
+sultan; he went then to the Holy Land and Egypt. While at Alexandria, on
+his way home, Wilkie complained of illness, and on shipboard, off
+Gibraltar, he died, and was buried at sea. This burial is the subject of
+one of Turner&#8217;s pictures, and is now in the National Gallery.</p>
+
+<p>The name of Landseer is an important one in British art. <span class="smcap">John Landseer</span>
+(1761-1852) was an eminent engraver; his son <span class="smcap">Thomas</span> (1795-1880) followed
+the profession of his father and arrived at great celebrity in it.
+<span class="smcap">Charles</span>, born in 1799, another son of John Landseer, became a painter and
+devoted himself to a sort of historical genre line of subjects, such as
+&ldquo;Cromwell at the House of Sir Walter Stewart in 1651,&rdquo; &ldquo;Surrender of
+Arundel Castle in 1643,&rdquo; and various others of a like nature. Charles
+Landseer travelled in Portugal and Brazil when a young man; he was made a
+member of the Royal Academy in 1845; from 1851 to 1871 he was keeper of
+the Academy, and has been an industrious and respected artist. But the
+great genius of the family was:</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">Edwin Landseer</span> (1802-1873), the youngest son of John Landseer, the
+engraver. He received his first drawing lessons from his father, and from
+a very early age showed a great talent for sketching and that love for the
+brute creation which have been his chief characteristics as an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> artist. He
+had the power to understand his dumb subjects as well as if they spoke
+some language together, and then he had the ability to fix the meaning of
+all they had told him upon his canvas, by means of the sketching lines
+which gave the precise form of it all and by his finishing shades which
+put in the expression. If his animals were prosperous and gladsome, he
+represented their good fortune with hearty pleasure; if they were
+suffering, sad, or bereaved, he painted their woes with a sympathy such as
+none but a true friend can give.</p>
+
+<p>When Edwin and Thomas were old enough that their father thought other
+instruction than his own should be given them, he placed them with Haydon,
+and in these early days the master predicted that Edwin Landseer would be
+the Snyders of England. Edwin sent his first picture to the Royal Academy
+when he was but thirteen years old, and during the following fifty-eight
+years there were but six exhibitions to which he did not contribute. When
+he began his studies at the Royal Academy he was fourteen years old, and
+already famous as an animal painter. He was a bright, curly-headed, manly
+lad, and the aged Fuseli, then keeper of the Academy, grew to be very fond
+of him; he would often ask, &ldquo;Where is my little dog-boy?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Edwin Landseer now worked on diligently and quietly; his works were
+constantly praised, and he received all the patronage that he desired.
+Through the advice of his master, Haydon, he had the habit of dissecting
+animals, and learning their anatomy with all the exactness with which
+other artists study that of human beings. About 1820 a lion died in the
+Exeter Change Menagerie, and Edwin Landseer secured the body for
+dissection. He then painted three large pictures of lions, and during the
+year in which he became eighteen years old, he exhibited these pictures
+and others of horses, dogs, donkeys, deer, goats, wolves, and vultures.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
+When nineteen, in 1821, he painted &ldquo;Pointers, To-ho!&rdquo; a hunting scene,
+which was sold in 1872, the year before his death, for two thousand and
+sixteen pounds. In 1822 Landseer gained the prize of the British
+Institution, one hundred and fifty pounds, by his picture of &ldquo;The Larder
+Invaded.&rdquo; He made the first sketch for this on a child&#8217;s slate, which is
+still preserved as a treasure. But the most famous of this master&#8217;s early
+works is the &ldquo;Cat&#8217;s Paw,&rdquo; in which a monkey uses a cat&#8217;s paw to draw
+chestnuts from a hot stove. Landseer was paid one hundred pounds; its
+present value is three thousand pounds, and it is kept at the seat of the
+Earl of Essex, Cashiobury.</p>
+
+<p>This picture of the &ldquo;Cat&#8217;s Paw&rdquo; had an important result for the young
+artist, as it happened that it was exhibited when Sir Walter Scott was in
+London, and he was so much pleased with it that he made Landseer&#8217;s
+acquaintance, and invited him to visit Abbotsford. Accordingly, in 1824,
+Landseer visited Sir Walter in company with Leslie, who then painted a
+portrait of the great novelist, which now belongs to the Ticknor family of
+Boston. It was at this time that Sir Walter wrote in his journal:
+&ldquo;Landseer&#8217;s dogs were the most magnificent things I ever saw, leaping, and
+bounding, and grinning all over the canvas.&rdquo; Out of this visit came a
+picture called &ldquo;A Scene at Abbotsford,&rdquo; in which the dog Maida, so loved
+by Scott, was the prominent figure; six weeks after it was finished the
+dog died.</p>
+
+<p>At this time Sir Walter was not known as the author of the &ldquo;Waverley
+Novels,&rdquo; but in later years Landseer painted a picture which he called
+&ldquo;Extract from a Journal whilst at Abbotsford,&rdquo; to which the following was
+attached: &ldquo;Found the great poet in his study, laughing at a collie dog
+playing with Maida, his favorite old greyhound, given him by Glengarry,
+and quoting Shakespeare&mdash;&lsquo;Crabbed old age and youth cannot agree.&rsquo; On the
+floor was the cover of a proof-sheet, sent for correction by Constable,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>
+of the novel then in progress. N. B.&mdash;This took place before he was the
+acknowledged author of the &lsquo;Waverley Novels.&rsquo;&rdquo; Landseer early suspected
+Scott of the authorship of the novels, and without doubt he came to this
+conclusion from what he saw at Abbotsford.</p>
+
+<p>Landseer repeated his visits to Scotland for many years, and saw all parts
+of that country at various seasons. From the time of his first visit there
+was a new feeling in his works&mdash;a breadth and power was in them which he
+gained from nature, and a refinement and elevation which he undoubtedly
+received from his friendship with Sir Walter and the impetus it gave him.
+He also became so interested in the Gaelic people that he painted good
+pictures of them. At first these men did not know what to make of a
+huntsman who would throw away his gun when fine game appeared, and draw
+out pencils and paper to make pictures of what others were so eager to
+shoot. This tendency made him a poor hunter; but he was intensely
+interested in the chase, and especially in deer-stalking. He insisted that
+deer had intelligence, and the question was whether the game or the hunter
+happened to have the superior mind. When in London the artist was a quiet,
+society gentleman; but each year he broke away from all city habits, and
+went to the Highlands, where he divided his days between the chase and
+painting portraits of his friends there with their children and pets, or
+putting frescoes on the walls of their houses.</p>
+
+<p>Landseer continued to live in his father&#8217;s house long after he was a
+famous man. The senior artist conducted all business matters&mdash;sold
+pictures, and took the money for them as if his son was still a boy. At
+length, through the advice of a friend, Edwin Landseer removed to No. 1
+St. John&#8217;s Wood Road, to which he gave the name of Maida Vale; he
+enlarged, and improved this home from time to time, and had no other for
+nearly fifty years.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fig77" id="Fig77"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img77.jpg">
+<img src="images/img77_th.jpg" width="400" height="265" alt="Fig 77" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.&mdash;The Eagle and Dead Stag.</span> <em>By Landseer.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1826 Landseer painted &ldquo;Chevy Chase;&rdquo; it was the only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> historical
+painting he ever did, and still remains at Woburn Abbey, where it
+originally went. The animals in the picture are excellent of course, but
+this sort of painting was not that in which Landseer showed his best. This
+year of 1826 was an important one to this master. He was twenty-four years
+old, and was immediately admitted an Associate of the Royal Academy. No
+one can be a candidate for this honor at a younger age, and very few
+others have attained it so early. Before he was thirty Landseer was a full
+member, and his diploma picture, &ldquo;The Dead Warrior&rdquo; is in the Royal
+Academy. But this year saw a great change in his pictures, as may be seen
+in that of &ldquo;The Chief&#8217;s Return from Deer-stalking,&rdquo; which he sent to the
+next exhibition. It was free, broad, and effective beyond any previous
+work, and this manner was his best. Many judges fix the year 1834 as the
+very prime in the art of Landseer, and one of the works of that year,
+called &ldquo;Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time,&rdquo; is very famous. It represents the
+vassals of the abbey bringing in their tributes of game, fish, and fruits,
+which the jolly, old monks gladly receive.</p>
+
+<p>There is no question but that Landseer&#8217;s best pictures are of dogs, and we
+can but echo the words of Hamerton when he says: &ldquo;The best commentators on
+Landseer, the best defenders of his genius, are the dogs themselves; and
+so long as there exist terriers, deer-hounds, blood-hounds, his fame will
+need little assistance from writers on art.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Landseer had a long and happy intimacy with Queen Victoria and the royal
+family. He painted portraits of the various members of the queen&#8217;s
+household in all possible ways, with dogs and on horseback, in fancy dress
+and hunting costume&mdash;in short, these portraits are far too numerous to be
+mentioned in detail. Ever after 1835 Landseer was called upon to paint
+pictures of the pets of the royal family, and these works became very
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>numerous. While he was thus favored as an artist he was also a friend of
+the queen and her immediate family; he was often summoned to play
+billiards with Prince Albert. The queen&#8217;s Journal of Life in the Highlands
+frequently mentions him, and we are sure that if we could read Landseer&#8217;s
+diary it would tell us many interesting things of the queen and her
+family. Naturally it followed that an artist thus favored by the queen
+would be patronized by the nobility, and it is true that much of
+Landseer&#8217;s time, both as an artist and as a gentleman of society, was
+passed in the company of people of the highest positions in Great Britain;
+and with the one exception of Sir Joshua Reynolds, no artist in England
+was ever visited by so many people of rank. His house was really a social
+centre, and no one felt above accepting his hasty invitations to his
+parties, which were almost always gotten up on an impulse and the guests
+invited at the last possible moment.</p>
+
+<p>Among Landseer&#8217;s friends were Dickens and Thackeray, and Sydney Smith was
+very fond of the artist; and it is said that when the great wit was asked
+to sit to Landseer for his portrait, he replied in the words of the
+haughty Syrian: &ldquo;Is thy servant a <em>dog</em> that he should do this thing?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When at his best Landseer had a facility in drawing and painting that was
+marvellous. He could draw two entirely different objects at the same
+moment, his left hand being equally skilful with the right. He was seen to
+draw a horse&#8217;s head with one hand and a stag&#8217;s head with antlers at
+exactly the same time&mdash;and this at an evening party to prove that it could
+be done. He once sent to an exhibition a picture of rabbits under which he
+wrote, &ldquo;Painted in three-quarters of an hour.&rdquo; He painted a life-size
+picture of a fallow-deer in three hours, and it required no retouching.
+One of his comrades said: &ldquo;Sir Edwin has a fine hand, a correct eye,
+refined perceptions, and can do almost anything but dance on the slack
+wire. He is a fine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> billiard player, plays at chess, sings when with his
+intimate friends, and has considerable humor.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We have passed over the best and most pleasant part of the life of this
+great painter, for in 1840 he had an attack of illness from which he never
+recovered. He travelled, and endeavored in every way to go on with his
+work; but he was always subject to attacks of depression which were
+sometimes so serious that his friends feared loss of reason. Of course
+there was a different tone in his works&mdash;a seriousness and pathos, and at
+times a religious element, which was very acceptable to some persons, and
+he gained admirers where he had not found them before. But it can scarcely
+be said that his last days were his best days, though he executed some
+famous pictures.</p>
+
+<p>In 1866 he exhibited a model of a stag at bay which was afterward cast in
+bronze. The lions at the base of the Nelson monument in Trafalgar Square
+may be called the work of Sir Edwin, for he modelled one of the colossal
+beasts from which the others were formed with but slight changes, and the
+whole were cast under the care of Baron Marochetti.</p>
+
+<p>In 1872 he painted &ldquo;The Font,&rdquo; which is a religious subject. It represents
+the sheep and lambs of the Gospel gathering round a font, upon the edge of
+which are doves. A rainbow spans the sky; on the sides of the font are a
+mask of the face of Christ and the symbols of the Atonement. This is a
+painful picture, for while it is exquisite in conception its execution
+shows the weakness of the painter, who so soon after he made it was
+released from all his darkness and suffering.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Edwin Landseer was buried in St. Paul&#8217;s Cathedral with all the honors
+which his genius and character merited. His works are known to almost
+every child in America by means of the engravings which have been made
+from them. His brother Thomas engraved hundreds of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> designs of Edwin
+and made them popular all over the world, and a large part of this success
+was due to the skill and sympathy which Thomas devoted to what was largely
+a work of love. Of course many other engravers have worked after Landseer,
+and almost all his pictures have been reproduced in one style of engraving
+or another.</p>
+
+<p>There are nine portraits of Sir Edwin Landseer in existence&mdash;one by J.
+Hayter when Landseer was thirteen years old and is represented as a
+cricketer; one painted a year later by Leslie, in which Edwin Landseer is
+the Rutland in the work called &ldquo;Henry VI.&rdquo; It is owned by the Philadelphia
+Academy. The next were not made until 1843, when Count d&#8217;Orsay painted two
+portraits of him; in 1830 Dupper had made a drawing, and in 1835 a
+photograph was taken; Baron Marochetti made a bust portrait of Landseer
+which is in the Royal Academy, and in his picture called the
+&ldquo;Connoisseurs&rdquo; Sir Edwin painted his own portrait, with dogs on each side
+who stand as critics of his work. This was painted in 1865.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Edwin Landseer left an estate of two hundred and fifty thousand
+pounds, and the works unsold at his death brought about seventy thousand
+pounds. His will made but a few bequests, and the remainder of this large
+sum was divided between his brother and three sisters. With the account of
+Sir Edwin I shall close the account of painters given in this volume.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how few actual remains of the painting of ancient nations are
+now in existence. Almost nothing is left even from the times of the
+Greeks; in truth, there is more upon the tombs of Egypt than in the land
+of Hellas. We read accounts of classic painting which arouse our deepest
+interest one moment, only to remember in the next that we can see but the
+merest scraps of all this wealth of beauty which moved the cultured Greeks
+to write of it with such enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>
+After the days of classic art we have endeavored to trace painting through
+a period when it could scarcely be termed an art, so little of it was
+done, and that little was so far below our ideal. Again, this decline was
+followed by a Renaissance&mdash;an awakening&mdash;and from that day in the
+fourteenth century when the Madonna of Cimabue was carried in triumph
+through the streets of Florence, this art moved on with progressive steps
+until Michael Angelo, Leonardo, Raphael, Titian, and others highly gifted,
+had set up the standards which have remained as beacons and guides to all
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>In tracing this progress we have seen that Italy, the German nations,
+Spain, France, and England have all striven to dream dreams of beauty and
+grandeur, of tenderness and love, and to fix them in fitting colors where
+all the world could see them.</p>
+
+<p>The past is always fascinating. No stories are so pleasantly begun as
+those that say, &ldquo;A long time ago there lived,&rdquo; etc. One can have the most
+complete satisfaction in the study of what has happened so far in the past
+that we can see all its effects and judge of it by the tests which time is
+sure to bring to everything. It is such a study that has been made in
+these pages, and I would suggest that it has a second use scarcely less
+important than the study of history&mdash;that is, the preparation it affords
+for judging of what is done in the present. A knowledge of what has been
+achieved enables us by comparison to decide upon the merits of new works.</p>
+
+<p>The painting of to-day offers an immense field for investigation. When we
+remember that five centuries ago the painters of the world could be
+counted by tens, and are told that now there is an average of twenty-five
+hundred painters in some foreign cities, we see that a lifetime is
+scarcely sufficient in which to study the painting of our own era.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
+Have we not reason to hope that works are now being produced which shall
+be studied and admired in the future as we study and admire those of the
+past? Is it not true that the artistic works of any period show forth the
+spirit of the time? If, then, the close of the Dark Ages and the dawn of a
+better life could bring forth the treasures which remain from those days,
+what ought to be the result of the more universal learning and the
+advancing civilization of the nineteenth century? And so, in leaving this
+book, I hope that it may be useful to all who read it for one purpose that
+I have suggested or the other; either to present an outline of what has
+been done in the past, or aid in the understanding of the painting of the
+present.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 305]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/imgdec-gryffon.jpg" width="400" height="94" alt="page decoration" title="" />
+</div>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><strong><span class="smcap">By</span> L. E. JONES.</strong></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<table style="width:75%;" border="1" summary="Index">
+	<tr>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_A">A</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_B">B</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_C">C</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_D">D</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_E">E</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_F">F</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_G">G</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_H">H</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_I">I</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_J">J</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_K">K</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_L">L</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_M">M</a></td>
+	</tr>
+	<tr>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_N">N</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_O">O</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_P">P</a></td>
+		<td>  -</td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_R">R</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_S">S</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_T">T</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_U">U</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_V">V</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_W">W</a></td>
+		<td>  -</td>
+		<td>  -</td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_Z">Z</a></td>
+	</tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li>&ldquo;<a id="IX_A"></a>Abraham and the Three Angels&rdquo; (Navarrete), <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Academia Leonardi Vinci, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>Adams, John, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Adams, Samuel, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Adoration of the Kings&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Adoration of the Shepherds&rdquo; (Velasquez), <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Agrippina Weeping over the Urn of Germanicus&rdquo; (West), <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li>Albani, Francesco, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Aldobrandini Marriage,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li>Alexander the Great, portrait by Apelles, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li>Allen, James, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Allston, portrait of West, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Analysis of Beauty&rdquo; (Hogarth), <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Ancient painting, <a href="#CHAPTER_I">1-40</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Ancient Rome&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Andalusia school of painting, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Angelico, Fra, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li>Animal painters&mdash;
+  <ul><li>Snyders and Fyt, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+  <li>Potter, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+  <li>Landseer, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Anne of Cleves, portrait by Holbein, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Annunciation&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Apelles, <a href="#Page_18">18-20</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Apollo and Daphne in the Vale of Tempe&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Apollodorus, <a href="#Page_13">13-14</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Archangel Michael&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>Architecture, a fine art, <a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a>;
+  <ul><li>more advanced than painting among Oriental nations, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
+  <li>development of Greek, from Egyptian and Assyrian, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+  <li>during the Romanesque period, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+  <li><em>See also</em> <a href="#GothicI">Gothic</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Ariosto, portrait by Bassano, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>Aristides, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li>Assisi, wall-paintings of Cimabue in Upper Church at, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;
+  <ul><li>frescoes of Giotto in Lower Church at, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Assyrian painting, <a href="#Page_9">9-11</a></li>
+
+<li>Augsburg Cathedral contains earliest painted windows, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Augsburg school of art, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Augustine, St., quoted, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Aurora&rdquo; (Guido Reni), <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li>Avignon, the Vernet Gallery at, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_B"></a>Babylonian painting, <a href="#Page_11">11-13</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Bacchus and Ariadne&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Bacchus and Ariadne&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>Balen, Henry van, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Banishment of Ovid from Rome&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Baptism of Christ,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_84">84-86</a></li>
+
+<li>Barbarelli, Giorgio, <a href="#Page_118">118-120</a></li>
+
+<li>Bartolommeo, Fra, <a href="#Page_93">93-94</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Raphael, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Bartolozzi, engraved pictures of Angelica Kauffman, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>Bas-reliefs in Egyptian painting, <a href="#Fig3">3-5</a></li>
+
+<li>Bassano family, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Bathing Soldiers&rdquo; (Michael Angelo), <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Battle of the Standard&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li>Bazzi, or Razzi, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Beauties at Hampton Court&rdquo; (Lely), <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Beggar Boy&rdquo; (Velasquez), <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Beggar Boy Munching a Piece of Pastry&rdquo; (Velasquez), <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Belgium. <em>See</em> <a href="#FlandersI">Flanders</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Bella, La&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Belle Ferroni&egrave;re, La&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Belle Jardini&egrave;re, La&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li>Bellini, Gentile, <a href="#Page_80">80-81</a></li>
+
+<li>Bellini, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81-82</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Titian, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+  <li>and D&uuml;rer, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Bellini, Jacopo, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li>Bellotti, Bernardo, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Beltraffio, Giovanni Antonio, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Bembo, Pietro, epitaph on Raphael, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Benci, Ginevra&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Bentivoglio, Cardinal, and Vandyck, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>Benvenuti, Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Bernardo di Daddo, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Berreguette, Alonzo, <a href="#Page_208">208-209</a></li>
+
+<li>Bertoldo, <a href="#Page_96">96-97</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Birth of John the Baptist&rdquo; (D&uuml;rer), <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Birth of the Virgin Mary,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Blucher, portrait by Lawrence, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Boleyn, Anne, and Holbein, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Bologna school, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Bonaparte on the Bridge of Arcola&rdquo; (Gros), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Borgia, C&aelig;sar, appoints Da Vinci engineer, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Borgognone, Ambrogio, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Both, Jan and Andries, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Botticelli, Sandro, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>Bourdon, Sebastian, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li>Bowditch, N. I., quoted, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Boy with a Squirrel&rdquo; (Copley), <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li>Boylston, Miss Rebecca, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Brattle, General William, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Brauwer, Adrian, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Brenghel, Jan, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Brenghel, Pieter, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Bril, Paul, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Broken Jug&rdquo; (Greuze), <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Brunn, cited, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Bull, The&rdquo; (Potter), <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Burch, Bishop Van der, and Vandyck, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li>Burgkmair, Hans, instructor of Holbein, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Burial-places, medi&aelig;val paintings in, <a href="#CHAPTER_II">41</a>.
+  <ul><li><em>See also</em> <a href="#CatacombsI">Catacombs</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Burning of the House of Lords and Commons&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Byron&#8217;s Works illustrated by Turner, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_C"></a>&ldquo;Calumny&rdquo; (Apelles), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li>Calvert, Denis, instructor of Domenichino, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li>Cammuccini, Vincenzio, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Canaletto, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Cano, Alonso, <a href="#Page_230">230-232</a></li>
+
+<li>Canova, designed a monument for Titian, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;
+  <ul><li>portrait by Lawrence, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Cantarilla de Miel, La&rdquo; (Utande), <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Capitoline Doves,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Caprices&rdquo; (Goya), <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Caracci, Annibale, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;
+  <ul><li>quoted on Correggio, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+  <li>on Domenichino, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+  <li>instructor of Guido Reni, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Caracci family and school, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li>Caravaggio, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Card Players&rdquo; (Wilkie), <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Carew, Thomas, portrait by Vandyck, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Carre&ntilde;o, Juan de, <a href="#Page_211">211-212</a></li>
+
+<li>Carvings of D&uuml;rer, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Casa Grande, the home of Titian, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li>Castelfranco, altar-piece painted by Giorgione, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li>Castile school of painting, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Castillo, Juan de, instructor of Murillo, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="CatacombsI" id="CatacombsI"></a>Catacombs, paintings of, <a href="#Page_42">42-45</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Cato of Utica&rdquo; (Ribera), <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Cat&#8217;s Paw&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Celtic illuminated MSS., early, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Cenci, Beatrice, portrait by Guido Reni, <a href="#Page_145">145-147</a></li>
+
+<li>Cennino, quoted, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li>Central period of Middle Ages.
+  <ul><li><em>See</em> <a href="#Romanesquei">Romanesque</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Cespedes, Pablo de, <a href="#Page_213">213-214</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles I., and Rubens, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Vandyck, <a href="#Page_172">172-173</a>;</li>
+  <li>portraits by Vandyck, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Dobson, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles II. and Lely, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles IV. and Goya, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles V., and Titian, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126-127</a>;
+  <ul><li>and D&uuml;rer, <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Berreguette, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles X., and Gros, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Vernet, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Chartres Cathedral, glass-painting in, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Chevy Chase&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_296">296-298</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Chief&#8217;s (The) Return from Deer-stalking&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li>Christ, paintings by Joanes of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Christ Bearing the Cross&rdquo; (Morales), <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Christ Blessing Little Children&rdquo; (Rembrandt), <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Christ Crowned with Thorns&rdquo; (Morales), <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Christ Healing the Sick&rdquo; (West), <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Christ in Glory&rdquo; (Correggio), <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Christian art. <em>See</em> <a href="#Earlyi">Early</a></li>
+
+<li>Church decoration in Gothic period of Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Cimabue, G., <a href="#Page_61">61-64</a></li>
+
+<li>Cistercian monks, painted windows in churches of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li>Clay used by Babylonian tile-painters, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li>Clement VII., portrait by Titian, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Club of St. Luke founded by Vandyck, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>Coello, Alonso Sanchez, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Coello, Claudio, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212-213</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Collocation of the Host&rdquo; (Coello), <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Cologne school of art, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Colonna, Vittoria, friendship with Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Colors, Egyptian rules for use of, <a href="#Fig2">5-7</a>;
+  <ul><li>in Assyrian paintings, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Pompeian wall-paintings, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+  <li>in illumination, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+  <li>Raphael&#8217;s skill in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>discoveries by Hubert van Eyck in use of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Communion of St. Jerome&rdquo; (Domenichino), <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Condemnation of Marie Antoinette&rdquo; (Delaroche), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Consalvi, Cardinal, portrait by Lawrence, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Cook&#8217;s &ldquo;Southern Coast,&rdquo; illustrated by Turner, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Cooper, Samuel, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Copley, John Singleton, <a href="#Page_259">259-264</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Copley Family&rdquo; (Copley), <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Corday, Charlotte, portrait by Goya, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Cornaro, Caterina, portrait by Titian, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Correggio, <a href="#Page_132">132-139</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Cottage Door&rdquo; (Gainsborough), <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Cottage Girl&rdquo; (Gainsborough), <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Court influence upon art during Romanesque period, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>Coxie, Michael, copies Van Eyck&#8217;s altar-piece for Philip I., <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Cranach, Lucas, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Cromwell at the House of Sir Walter Stewart&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Cromwell Contemplating the Remains of Charles I.&rdquo; (Delaroche), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Cromwell&#8217;s directions to Lely for painting his portrait, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li>Crucifixion as represented by Giotto, <a href="#Page_68">68-69</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Crucifixion&rdquo; (Fra Angelico), <a href="#Page_75">75-76</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Crucifixion&rdquo; (Tintoretto), <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Crucifixion&rdquo; (Vandyck), <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Crucifixion of St. Peter&rdquo; (Bourdon), <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li>Cunningham, Allan, quoted, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li>Cupid, statue of, by Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a></li>
+
+<li>Curran, portrait by Lawrence, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Cuyp, Albert, <a href="#Page_186">186-187</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_D"></a>Damophilos, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Dan&auml;e&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Dance, George, portrait of Turner, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Dance of Death&rdquo; (Holbein), <a href="#Page_192">192-193</a></li>
+
+<li>Daniell, William, portrait by Wilkie, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Dante, portrait by Giotto, <a href="#Page_64">64-66</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Dante&#8217;s &ldquo;Inferno,&rdquo; painting by Delacroix of scene from, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li>David, Jacques Louis, <a href="#Page_240">240-242</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;David&rdquo; (Michael Angelo), <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Dead Warrior, The&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Death of the Duke of Guise&rdquo; (Delaroche), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Death of Lord Chatham&rdquo; (Copley), <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Death of Wolfe&rdquo; (Romney), <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Death of Wolfe&rdquo; (West), <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Decline of the Carthaginian Empire&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Decoration of a Roof,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_44">44-45</a></li>
+
+<li>Delacroix, Eugene, <a href="#Page_244">244-245</a></li>
+
+<li>Delaroche, Paul, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Demeter Enthroned,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Descent from the Cross&rdquo; (Ribera), <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Descent from the Cross&rdquo; (Volterra), <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Dido Building Carthage&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Dionysus, or Bacchus&rdquo; (Aristides), <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Discovery of the Herb Mandragora,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_47">47-48</a></li>
+
+<li>Dobson, William, <a href="#Page_249">249-251</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Vandyck, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Dodwell Vase (The),&rdquo; <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Domenichino, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Poussin, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Dorian school of Sikyon, <a href="#Page_15">15-17</a></li>
+
+<li>Dow, Gerhard, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawing first regularly taught in Sikyon school, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Drunken Bacchus&rdquo; (Michael Angelo), <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Duccio, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Dupper, portrait of Landseer, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>D&uuml;rer, Albert, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Dutch. <em>See</em> <a href="#Hollandi">Holland</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_E"></a><a name="Earlyi" id="Earlyi"></a>Early Christian art, <a href="#CHAPTER_II">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42-49</a></li>
+
+<li>Early period of Middle Ages. <em>See</em> <a href="#Earlyi">Early Christian art</a></li>
+
+<li>Eastern. <em>See</em> <a href="#Orientali">Oriental</a></li>
+
+<li>Eclectics of the seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Edward the Confessor&rdquo; (Mortimer), <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li>Edward III., paintings by West from the life of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>Eeckhout, Gerbrandt van der, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>Eginhard, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Egyptian mosaics, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li>Egyptian painting, <a href="#fig1">3-9</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Ehrenbreitstein&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Ekphantos, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li>Encaustic paintings of Nikias, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li>England, painting in, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a>;
+  <ul><li>glass-painting in, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+  <li>wall-painting in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;England and Wales&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Engravings, by Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;
+  <ul><li>by D&uuml;rer, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li>by Hogarth, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+  <li><em>See also</em> <a href="#Etchingsi">Etchings</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Entombment of Christ&rdquo; (Caravaggio), <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Entombment of Christ&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_128">128-129</a></li>
+
+<li>Erasmus and Holbein, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Escorial, Giordano painted walls of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Etching, Rembrandt&#8217;s use of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Etchingsi" id="Etchingsi"></a>Etchings, of Salvator Rosa, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;
+  <ul><li>of Teniers, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+  <li>of Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Etruscan tombs, decorated with mural paintings, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;
+  <ul><li>stone-paintings found in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Etruscans introduced painting into Italy from Greece, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20-21</a></li>
+
+<li>Euphranor, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Extract from a Journal whilst at Abbotsford&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Eyck, Hubert van, <a href="#Page_155">155-156</a></li>
+
+<li>Eyck, Jan van, <a href="#Page_156">156-158</a></li>
+
+<li>Eyck, Lambert van, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Eyck, Margaretha van, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_F"></a>Faes, Peter van der, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;False Players&rdquo; (Caravaggio), <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Family of Darius&rdquo; (Veronese), <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Family Picture&rdquo; (Copley), <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li>Farnesina Villa, frescoes by Raphael in, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>Farrari, Gaudenzio, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Fawkes, H., friend and patron of Turner, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Feast of Rose Garlands&rdquo; (D&uuml;rer), <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li>Fernandez, Louis, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Ferrara, Duke of, and Titian, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Field of Eylau&rdquo; (Gros), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Fifth Plague of Egypt&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_178">278-279</a></li>
+
+<li>Figure-painting in ancient Greece, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li>Final period of Middle Ages. <em>See</em> <a href="#Gothicii">Gothic</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Five Senses&rdquo; (Teniers), <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="FlandersI" id="FlandersI"></a>Flanders, painting in, <a href="#Page_155">155-176</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Flaying of St. Bartholomew&rdquo; (Ribera), <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Flemish Kermes&rdquo; (Teniers), <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Flora&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Florentine school, <a href="#Page_72">72-80</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Fonesca, portrait by Velasquez, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Font, The&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Foreshortening of Correggio, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Fortune Teller&rdquo; (Caravaggio), <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Four Apostles, The&rdquo; (D&uuml;rer), <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>France, painting in, <a href="#Page_234">234-248</a>;
+  <ul><li>glass-painting in, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+  <li><em>See also</em> <a href="#Gauli">Gaul</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Francia, Francisco, <a href="#Page_82">82-83</a></li>
+
+<li>Francis I., and Da Vinci, <a href="#Page_90">90-92</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Sarto, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Raphael, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Francis I. and Charles V. Visiting the Tombs at St. Denis&rdquo; (Gros), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Franconian school, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li>Frederick Henry, Prince, scenes from the life of, painted by Jordaens, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Fuseli, and Angelica Kauffman, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Landseer, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Fyt, Jan, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_G"></a>Gaddi, A., <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Gaddi, T., <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Gainsborough, Thomas, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Gamba, La&rdquo; (Vargas), <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Gardiner, quoted, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Gardiner, Miss Rebecca, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Gargasos, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li>Garrick, David, epitaph on Hogarth, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Gauli" id="Gauli"></a>Gaul, miniature-painting in, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>George III., and West, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Lawrence, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>G&eacute;ricault, Jean Louis, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li>German illuminated MSS., early, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Germany, painting in, <a href="#Page_188">188-206</a>;
+  <ul><li>glass-painting in, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+  <li>wall-painting in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Gel&eacute;e, Claude. <em>See</em> <a href="#Lorrainei">Lorraine</a></li>
+
+<li>Ghirlandajo, Domenico, <a href="#Page_79">79-80</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Giordano, Luca, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Giorgione, <a href="#Page_118">118-120</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Titian, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Giotteschi, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Giotto di Bondone, <a href="#Page_64">64-69</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Girl and Pigs&rdquo; (Gainsborough), <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Girtin, Tom, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Glassi" id="Glassi"></a>Glass-painting, <a href="#Page_51">51-54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58-60</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Glykera&rdquo; (Pausias), <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li>Goes, Hugo van der, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Goethe, quoted, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Goldsmith, Oliver, and Reynolds, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Gomez, Sebastian, <a href="#Page_228">228-229</a></li>
+
+<li>Gongora, portrait by Velasquez, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Gonzaga, Giulia, portraits by Piombo, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="GothicI" id="GothicI"></a>Gothic architecture, its influence upon painting and sculpture in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;
+  <ul><li>its influence upon glass-painting, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Gothicii" id="Gothicii"></a>Gothic period of Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54-71</a></li>
+
+<li>Gower family, portraits by Romney, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li>Goya y Lucientes, Francisco, <a href="#Page_232">232-233</a></li>
+
+<li>Goyen, Jan van, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Gozzoli, Benozzo, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Graces Decorating a Statue of Hymen&rdquo; (Reynolds), <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>Granacci, Francisco, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Great Book of the Hours, illumination of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Greek painting, ancient, <a href="#Page_13">13-34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;
+  <ul><li>on stone, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, <a href="#Page_239">239-240</a></li>
+
+<li>Grimm, quoted, <a href="#Page_100">100-101</a></li>
+
+<li>Grisaille glass, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li>Gros, Antoine Jean, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Guardi, Francesco, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Gu&eacute;rin, instructor of G&eacute;ricault, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;
+  <ul><li>of Delacroix, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Guido, Tommaso, <a href="#Page_78">78-79</a></li>
+
+<li>Guido of Siena, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Guido Reni, <a href="#Page_143">143-148</a></li>
+
+<li>Guilds among painters in Gothic period of Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_H"></a>Hals, Franz, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Vandyck, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Hamerton, on Turner, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+  <ul><li>on Landseer, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Hamilton, Lady, portraits by Romney, <a href="#Page_267">267-268</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Hamlet and Ophelia&rdquo; (West), <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Harlot&#8217;s Progress&rdquo; (Hogarth), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>Haydon, instructor of Landseer, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Hayman, Francis, instructor of Gainsborough, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Hayter, J., portrait of Landseer, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Heidelberg Castle in the Olden Time&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Hellenic school, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Hemicycle&rdquo; (Delaroche), <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a></li>
+
+<li>Henrietta Maria, Queen, portraits by Vandyck, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Henry I.,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_54">54-55</a></li>
+
+<li>Henry III. and Titian, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Henry VIII. and Holbein, <a href="#Page_189">189-192</a></li>
+
+<li>Hercules, statue of, by Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li>Herrera, Francisco de, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214-215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Hobbema, Mindert, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Hogarth, William, <a href="#Page_252">252-254</a></li>
+
+<li>Holbein, Hans, <a href="#Page_188">188-193</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Hollandi" id="Hollandi"></a>Holland, painting in, <a href="#Page_176">176-188</a>;
+  <ul><li>fidelity to detail, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Holy Family&rdquo; (Vandyck), <a href="#Page_169">169-170</a></li>
+
+<li>Honthorst, Gerard, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Hooge, Pieter de, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Houssaye, A., <a href="#Page_192">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Hudson, instructor of Reynolds, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Hundred Guilders Print&rdquo; (Rembrandt), <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_I"></a><a name="Illuminationi" id="Illuminationi"></a>Illumination of MSS., <a href="#CHAPTER_II">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46-49</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Illustrations used in Egyptian papyrus rolls, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Immaculate Conception&rdquo; (Murillo), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225-227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li>Inquisition, its influence on Spanish painting, <a href="#Page_207">207-208</a></li>
+
+<li>Intaglios in Egyptian painting, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li>Interiors, Dutch painters of, <a href="#Page_180">180-181</a></li>
+
+<li>Ionian school, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>Ireland, miniature-painting in ancient, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Isabella, Empress, portrait by Titian, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Isabella, Infanta, sends Rubens to Spain, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li>Isabella of Portugal, portrait by Jan van Eyck, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Italiani" id="Italiani"></a>Italy, painting in, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Ixion on the Wheel&rdquo; (Ribera), <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_J"></a>Jameson, Mrs., quoted, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li>Joanes, Vicente de, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;John Knox Preaching&rdquo; (Wilkie), <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Johnson, Samuel, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li>Jonah, statue of, modelled by Raphael, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>Jordaens, Jacob, <a href="#Page_167">167-168</a></li>
+
+<li>Julius II., Pope, and Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_99">99-100</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Raphael, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Julius II., Tomb of,&rdquo; (Michael Angelo), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Justinian, Theodora, and Attendants,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_45">45-46</a></li>
+
+<li>Justus of Ghent, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_K"></a>Kauffman, Angelica, <a href="#Page_203">203-206</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;King David,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Kneller, Sir Godfrey, <a href="#Page_251">251-252</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Knight (The), Death, and the Devil&rdquo; (D&uuml;rer), <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Kugler, quoted, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_L"></a>Landseer, Charles, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Landseer, Sir Edwin, <a href="#Page_293">293-301</a></li>
+
+<li>Landseer, John, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Landseer, Thomas, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Landscape-painting, in ancient Greece, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;
+  <ul><li>in ancient Rome, <a href="#Page_27">27-29</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Holland, <a href="#Page_186">186-187</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Larder Invaded&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Large Holy Family of the Louvre&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Last Judgment&rdquo; (Michael Angelo), <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Last Supper&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Last Supper&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Last Supper&rdquo; (Cespedes), <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Last Supper, paintings by Joanes of, <a href="#Page_229">229-230</a></li>
+
+<li>Lastman, Pieter, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Laughing Peasant&rdquo; (Velasquez), <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Lawrence, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_269">269-271</a>;
+  <ul><li>portrait of West, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Lear&rdquo; (West), <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>Le Brun, Charles, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li>Lee, Colonel and Mrs., portraits by Copley, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Lely, Sir Peter, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li>Leo X., and Da Vinci, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Raphael, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Titian, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Leonardo da Vinci, <a href="#Page_84">84-93</a></li>
+
+<li>Leopold William, Archduke, portrait by Teniers, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Leslie, portrait of West, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;
+  <ul><li>portrait by Landseer, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Le Sueur, Eustache, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Liber Fluviorum&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Liber Studiorum&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Liber Veritatis&rdquo; (Claude Lorraine), <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Line-fishing off Hastings&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Lippi, Fillipino, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>Lippi, Filippo, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Little Girl with a Lap Dog in her Arms&rdquo; (Greuze), <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Lombard school, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Lomellini Family&rdquo; (Vandyck), <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Lorelei Twilight&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Lorenzo di Credi, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Lorrainei" id="Lorrainei"></a>Lorraine, Claude, <a href="#Page_236">236-238</a></li>
+
+<li>Louis XII. and Da Vinci, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Louis XIII. and Poussin, <a href="#Page_234">234-236</a></li>
+
+<li>Louis XIV., and Le Brun, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Mignard, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+  <li>portraits by Rigaud, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Louis XV. and Vernet, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Louis Philippe and Vernet, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>L&uuml;bke, quoted, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Lucretia&rdquo; (Rembrandt), <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Ludiusi" id="Ludiusi"></a>Ludius, <a href="#Page_21">21-23</a></li>
+
+<li>Luini, Bernardino, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Luther, D&uuml;rer&#8217;s admiration for, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_M"></a>Madonna del Sacco (Sarto), <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Madonna della Gran Duca&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Madonna di San Francesco&rdquo; (Correggio), <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Madonna di San Francesco&rdquo; (Sarto), <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Madonna Enthroned&rdquo; (Cimabue), <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Madonnas of Fra Bartolommeo, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Madonnas of Raphael, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li>Madonnas of Elisabetta Sirani, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Maids of Honor&rdquo; (Velasquez), <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Mannerists, <a href="#Page_139">139-140</a></li>
+
+<li>Mansfield, Lord, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Mantegna, Andrea, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>Mantua, Duke of, a patron of Rubens, <a href="#Page_162">162-164</a></li>
+
+<li>Manuscripts. <em>See</em> <a href="#Illuminationi">Illumination</a></li>
+
+<li>Margaritone of Arezzo, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Marochetti, Baron, portrait of Landseer, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Marriage at Cana&rdquo; (Veronese), <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Marriage &agrave; la Mode&rdquo; (Hogarth), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Marriage of St. Catharine&rdquo; (Coello), <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Mars, Venus, and Vulcan&rdquo; (Copley), <a href="#Page_259">259-260</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Martyrdom of St. Andrew&rdquo; (Utande), <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Martyrdom of St. Lawrence&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Masaccio, <a href="#Page_78">78-79</a></li>
+
+<li>Maso, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Masolino, <a href="#Page_78">78-79</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Massacre of the Innocents&rdquo; (Volterra), <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>Matsys, Quintin, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Maximilian, Emperor, and D&uuml;rer, <a href="#Page_198">198-199</a></li>
+
+<li>Mazzuoli, Francesco, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Mediaevali" id="Mediaevali"></a>Medi&aelig;val painting, <a href="#CHAPTER_II">41-71</a></li>
+
+<li>Medici, Lorenzo de, patron of Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_96">96-97</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Medusa&#8217;s Head&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li>Meire, Gerard van der, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Memling, Hans, <a href="#Page_160">160-161</a></li>
+
+<li>Memorial windows, origin of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Mengs, Raphael, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Meni&ntilde;as, Las&rdquo; (Velasquez), <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Metsu, Gabriel, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Meyer Madonna&rdquo; (Holbein), <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li>Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_94">94-104</a>;
+  <ul><li>his frescoes of Sistine Chapel, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Raphael, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Piombo, <a href="#Page_120">120-121</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Middle Ages. <em>See</em> <a href="#Mediaevali">Medi&aelig;val</a></li>
+
+<li>Mignard, Pierre, <a href="#Page_238">238-239</a></li>
+
+<li>Milan, Academia Leonardi Vinci, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>Miniaturists in England, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.
+  <ul><li><em>See also</em> <a href="#Illuminationi">Illumination</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Miracle of St. Mark&rdquo; (Tintoretto), <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Miranda, Juan Carre&ntilde;o de, <a href="#Page_211">211-212</a></li>
+
+<li>Modena school, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Modern Rome&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Mona Lisa&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_89">89-90</a></li>
+
+<li>Morales, Luis de, <a href="#Page_209">209-210</a></li>
+
+<li>More, Sir Thomas, portraits by Holbein, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Morland, George, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Morning Among the Corriston Fells&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Moro, Antonio, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Mosaics, found in ancient Italy, <a href="#Page_34">34-36</a>;
+  <ul><li>of the Middle Ages, <a href="#CHAPTER_II">41</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45-46</a>;</li>
+  <li>none by early Germans or Celts left, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+  <li>transparent, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Moses,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_42">42-44</a></li>
+
+<li>Mountfort, Dr. de, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Mouth of the Seine&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Murali" id="Murali"></a>Mural paintings, Egyptian, <a href="#fig1">3</a>;
+  <ul><li>Assyrian, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+  <li>Oriental, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+  <li>Pompeian, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+  <li>ancient Greek, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
+  <li>of Ludius, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+  <li>ancient Italian, <a href="#Page_23">23-24</a>;</li>
+  <li>mosaics as, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+  <li>in catacombs, <a href="#Page_44">44-45</a>;</li>
+  <li>no early German or Celtic left, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_60">60-61</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Murillo, <a href="#Page_220">220-228</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_N"></a>&ldquo;Napoleon and the Pope at Fontainebleau&rdquo; (Wilkie), <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Napoleon III., portrait by Horace Vernet, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Nativity&rdquo; (Navarrete), <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Nativity of the Saviour&rdquo; (Correggio), <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Nativity of the Virgin&rdquo; (Murillo), <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Naturalists of the seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li>Navarrete, Juan Fernandez, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Navicella&rdquo; (Giotto), <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Nest of Cupids,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Nicholas V., epitaph on Fra Angelico, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li>Nikias, <a href="#Page_17">17-18</a></li>
+
+<li>Nikomachos, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Nile Mosaic (The),&rdquo; <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Niobe,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li>Noort, Adam van, instructor of Rubens, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;
+  <ul><li>of Jordaens, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Notte&rdquo; (Correggio), <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li>Nude paintings forbidden by Spanish Inquisition, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Nuremburg school, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_O"></a>&ldquo;Old T&eacute;m&eacute;raire&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287-288</a></li>
+
+<li>Ophem, Anna van, and Vandyck, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Oppert, J., quoted, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Orcagna, Andrea, <a href="#Page_70">70-71</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Orestes and Pylades&rdquo; (West), <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Orientali" id="Orientali"></a>Oriental nations more advanced in architecture and sculpture than in painting, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li>Oriental origin of mosaics, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Orsay, Count d&#8217;, portrait of Landseer, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>Ostades, Van, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Outline drawing the best part of Egyptian painting, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_P"></a>Pacheco, Francisco, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Palma, Jacopo, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Panel-pictures, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50-51</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li>Papyrus rolls, Egyptian illustrations in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Paradise&rdquo; (Tintoretto), <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Pareja, Juan de, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Parmigianino, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Parrhasius, <a href="#Page_14">14-15</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Parting of Hero and Leander&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Paul III., portrait by Titian, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li>Pausias, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li>Pavement mosaics, <a href="#Page_35">35-36</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Peep-o&#8217;-Day Boy&#8217;s Cabin&rdquo; (Wilkie), <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Pelham, Charles, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Pembroke, Earl of. <em>See</em> <a href="#Wiltoni">Wilton Family</a></li>
+
+<li>Perkins, A. T., quoted, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Perkins, C. C., quoted, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li>Perkins, Mrs. Edmund, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Perspective, unknown to Egyptians, <a href="#Fig2">5</a>;
+  <ul><li>and to Oriental nations, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+  <li>first used by Apollodorus, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
+  <li>its use in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+  <li>Turner&#8217;s lectures on, <a href="#Page_280">280-281</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Perugino, Pietro, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li>Petrus, Christus, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Philip I., and Berreguette, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;
+  <ul><li>employs Coxie to copy Van Eyck&#8217;s altar-piece, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Philip II., and Titian, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Morales, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Coello, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Navarrete, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Philip IV., and Carre&ntilde;o, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Zurbaran, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Herrera, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Velasquez, <a href="#Page_216">216-218</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Cano, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Philip of Burgundy, employs Jan van Eyck, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Philip of Macedon, portraits by Apelles, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Phryne Going to the Public Baths as Venus&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Piet&agrave;, La&rdquo; (Michael Angelo), <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Pirkheimer, Willibald, and D&uuml;rer, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Plague at Jaffa&rdquo; (Gros), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Pliny, quoted, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21-23</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Pointers, To-ho!&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Pollajuolo, Antonio, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>Ponte, Da, family, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Portrait of Dante&rdquo; (Giotto), <a href="#Page_64">64-66</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Portrait of a Young Woman&rdquo; (Rembrandt), <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Ports of England&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Potter, Paul, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Pourbus, Frans, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Pourbus, Peter, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Poussin, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234-236</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Presentation in the Temple&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Presentation of Christ in the Temple&rdquo; (Cammuccini), <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Prodigal Son&rdquo; (Teniers), <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Protogenes, <a href="#Page_19">19-20</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Provincial Antiquities of Scotland,&rdquo; illustrated by Turner, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Purisima, La&rdquo; (Joanes), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_R"></a>&ldquo;Raising of Lazarus&rdquo; (Piombo), <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Rake&#8217;s Progress&rdquo; (Hogarth), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>Raphael, <a href="#Page_107">107-118</a></li>
+
+<li>Razzi, or Bazzi, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Reading Magdalen&rdquo; (Correggio), <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Redgrave, quoted, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Regulus Leaving Rome to Return to Carthage&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Rejected Christ&rdquo; (West), <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>Religious influence, upon Egyptian artists, <a href="#Page_8">8-9</a>;
+  <ul><li>in Romanesque period, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Gothic period, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+  <li>upon Spanish painters, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_181">181-186</a></li>
+
+<li>Renaissance, <a href="#CHAPTER_II">41</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Rent Day&rdquo; (Wilkie), <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Repulse and Defeat of the Spanish Floating Batteries at Gibraltar&rdquo; (Copley), <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li>Reynolds, Sir Joshua, <a href="#Page_151">251-258</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Angelica Kauffman, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+  <li>portrait of, <a href="#Fig70">250</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Romney, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Ribalta, Francisco de, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Ribera, Giuseppe, <a href="#Page_150">150-151</a></li>
+
+<li>Ribera, Josef de, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Rigaud, Hyacinthe, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>Rincon, Antonio del, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Ritchie, Leitch, on Ruskin, <a href="#Page_286">286-287</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Rivers of England&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Robusti, Jacopo, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Robusti, Marietta, <a href="#Page_130">130-131</a></li>
+
+<li>Rogers&#8217;s &ldquo;Poems,&rdquo; illustrated by Turner, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li>Roman painting, ancient. <em>See</em> <a href="#Italiani">Italian</a></li>
+
+<li>Roman school, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Romanesquei" id="Romanesquei"></a>Romanesque period of Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50-54</a></li>
+
+<li>Romano, Giulio, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>Romney, George, <a href="#Page_266">266-268</a></li>
+
+<li>Rosselli, Cosimo, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li>Rossi, de, quoted, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Rotello del Fico&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Rotterdam Ferry-boat&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li>Rubens, <a href="#Page_162">162-167</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Vandyck, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+  <li>as an alchemist, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li>in England, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Rubrics, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li>Rupert, Prince, portraits by Vandyck, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Ruskin, on Turner, <a href="#Page_280">280-281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283-284</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>Ruysdael, Jacob, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_S"></a>Sacchi, Andrea, instructor of Poussin, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Sacrifice of Iphigenia&rdquo; (Timanthes), <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Anthony Adoring the Virgin and Child&rdquo; (Sirani), <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Anthony of Padua&rdquo; (Murillo), <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Cecilia&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Clara of Assisi&rdquo; (Murillo), <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Diego of Alcal&aacute;&rdquo; (Murillo), <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Francis&rdquo; (Murillo), <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. George Slaying the Dragon&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Hermengild&rdquo; (Herrera), <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Margaret&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Margaret Overcoming the Dragon&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Martin&rdquo; (Vandyck), <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Michael&rdquo; (Guido Reni), <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Michael Attacking Satan&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Peter Martyr&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>St. Peter&#8217;s, Michael Angelo the architect of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+  <ul><li>supervision of building by Raphael, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Sebastian&rdquo; (Coello), <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;St. Sebastian&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Salvator Rosa, <a href="#Page_151">151-152</a></li>
+
+<li>Sarto, Andrea del, <a href="#Page_104">104-107</a></li>
+
+<li>Savonarola, <a href="#Page_94">94-97</a></li>
+
+<li>Saxony, school of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Scene at Abbotsford&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Scene in the Lower World,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;School of Anatomy&rdquo; (Rembrandt), <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a></li>
+
+<li>Scott, Walter, &ldquo;Poems&rdquo; and &ldquo;Life of Napoleon&rdquo; illustrated by Turner, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;
+  <ul><li>portrait by Leslie, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+  <li>and Landseer, <a href="#Page_295">295-296</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Scourging of St. Andrew&rdquo; (Domenichino), <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li>Sculpture, more advanced than painting among Oriental nations, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;
+  <ul><li>Greek, developed from Egyptian and Assyrian, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Sebastian del Piombo, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120-121</a></li>
+
+<li>Segnier, Chancellor, and Le Brun, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li>Seneca, head by Cespedes, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Seville in time of Murillo, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Seville Academy of Art, founded by Murillo, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li>Seville school of painting, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare&#8217;s characters, painted by Romney, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Shepherd Boy in a Shower&rdquo; (Gainsborough), <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Shepherds Adoring the Infant Saviour&rdquo; (Correggio), <a href="#Page_135">135-137</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Shrine of St. Ursula&rdquo; (Memling), <a href="#Page_160">160-161</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Sibyl (The) and the Emperor&rdquo; (Van der Weyden), <a href="#Page_158">158-159</a></li>
+
+<li>Siddons, Mrs., portrait by Reynolds, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li>Signorelli, Luca, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li>Sikyon school, <a href="#Page_15">15-17</a></li>
+
+<li>Simone, Martini, <a href="#Page_69">69-70</a></li>
+
+<li>Sirani, Elisabetta, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Sistine Madonna&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Slave Ship&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_288">288-289</a></li>
+
+<li>Smith, Sydney, and Landseer, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+<li>Snyders, Frans, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Solario, Andrea, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Sosos, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Spain, painting in, <a href="#Page_207">207-233</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Sposalizio, Lo&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_107">107-108</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Staffa Madonna&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li>Steen, Jan, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Still-life, Dutch excellence in painting, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Stirling, quoted, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li>Stone, paintings on, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li>Strada, portrait by Marietta Robusti, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Strafford, Earl of. <em>See</em> <a href="#Wentworthi">Wentworth, Thomas</a></li>
+
+<li>Studius. <em>See</em> <a href="#Ludiusi">Ludius</a></li>
+
+<li>Suckling, Sir John, portrait by Vandyck, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Suger, Abbot, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>Sunder, Lucas, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Surrender of Arundel Castle&rdquo; (Landseer), <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Swanenburg, J. J. van, instructor of Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_T"></a>Tadius. <em>See</em> <a href="#Ludiusi">Ludius</a></li>
+
+<li>Tafi, A., <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Tasso, portrait by Bassano, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Temporal Generation of Our Lord&rdquo; (Vargas), <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Teniers, David, <a href="#Page_178">178-180</a></li>
+
+<li>Terburg, Gerhard, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Thackeray&#8217;s (Miss) &ldquo;Miss Angel&rdquo; the story of Angelica Kauffman, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Thornbury, quoted, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Thornhill, Sir James, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Three Graces&rdquo; (Palma), <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Three Graces&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li>Thurlow, Lord Chancellor, portrait by Romney, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li>Tile-painting, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_9">9-11</a>;
+  <ul><li>Babylonian, <a href="#Page_11">11-12</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Timanthes, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>Tintoretto, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Titian, <a href="#Page_121">121-130</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Correggio, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+  <li>his &ldquo;Last Supper,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+  <li>instructor of Navarrete, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+  <li>Carre&ntilde;o&#8217;s copy of his &ldquo;St. Margaret,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Tobar, Alonzo Miguel de, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Toledo, Coello painter to the Cathedral of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Torrigiano, Pi&egrave;tro, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Tragic Muse&rdquo; (Reynolds), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Transfiguration&rdquo; (Raphael), <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>Transitional period, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Trattato della Pittura&rdquo; (Vinci), <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Triumphal Arch of Maximilian&rdquo; (D&uuml;rer), <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Tulp, Professor, portrait by Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>Turner, Charles, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li>Turner, J. M. W., <a href="#Page_271">271-292</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Turner&#8217;s Annual Tour,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_U"></a>Uccello, Paolo, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Ulysses Dividing Polyphemus&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Ulysses in the Under-world&rdquo; (Nikias), <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li>Umbrian school, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li>Urban VIII. and Claude Lorraine, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li>Utande, Gregorio, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_V"></a>V&aelig;nius, Otto, instructor of Rubens, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Velde, Adrian van de, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>Valencia school, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Vandyck, Anthony, <a href="#Page_168">168-176</a>;
+  <ul><li>in England, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Vargas, Luis de, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Varnish, improvements by the Van Eycks in the use of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Vasari, quoted, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li>Vase-painting by the ancients, <a href="#Page_36">36-40</a></li>
+
+<li>Vatican, decoration by Raphael of the halls of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>Vega, Lope de, on Coello, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;
+  <ul><li>on Navarrete, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Velasquez, <a href="#Page_215">215-220</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Murillo, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Venice from the Salute Church&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Venetian school, <a href="#Page_80">80-82</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Venus&rdquo; (Titian), <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Venus Anadyomene&rdquo; (Apelles), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li>Vernet, Carle, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li>Vernet, Claude Joseph, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Vernet, Horace, <a href="#Page_245">245-248</a></li>
+
+<li>Veronese, Paul, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>Verrocchio, Andrea, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li>Vescovi, Marco dei, portrait by Marietta Robusti, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Victoria, Queen, and Landseer, <a href="#Page_298">298-299</a></li>
+
+<li>Vien, Joseph Marie, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Vierge, La, au Panier&rdquo; (Correggio), <a href="#Page_137">137-139</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;View of Rome from the Aventine Hill&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Village Festival&rdquo; (Wilkie), <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Village Politicians&rdquo; (Wilkie), <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Vincent, instructor of Horace Vernet, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li>Vinci, Leonardo da, <a href="#Page_84">84-93</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Virgin, pictures by Murillo of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;
+  <ul><li>by Joanes, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Virgen de la Sevillet&aacute;&rdquo; (Murillo), <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Vision of St. Jerome&rdquo; (Parmigianino), <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Vitruvius, quoted, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li>Volterra, Daniele de, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Von Tromp Returning from Battle&rdquo; (Turner), <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_W"></a>Waagen, Dr., on Turner, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li>Walls. <em>See</em> <a href="#Murali">Mural</a></li>
+
+<li>Washington, George, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Water, Egyptian painting of, <a href="#Fig2">5</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Water Carrier of Seville&rdquo; (Velasquez), <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Watson, Elkanah, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_262">262-263</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Watson and the Shark&rdquo; (Copley), <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li>Watteau, Antoine, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Way to Calvary&rdquo; (Morales), <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Wellington, Duke of, portrait by Lawrence, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Wells and Turner, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Welsteed, Rev. William, portrait by Copley, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Wentworthi" id="Wentworthi"></a>Wentworth, Thomas, portrait by Vandyck, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Wentworth, Lady, and Angelica Kauffman, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>West, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_265">265-266</a>;
+  <ul><li>and Copley, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Weyden, Rogier van der, <a href="#Page_158">158-159</a></li>
+
+<li>Weyden, Rogier van der, the younger, <a href="#Page_159">159-160</a></li>
+
+<li>Wilkie, Sir David, <a href="#Page_292">292-293</a></li>
+
+<li>Williams, quoted, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Wilson, Richard, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>"<a name="Wiltoni" id="Wiltoni"></a>Wilton Family, The" (Vandyck), <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Winckelmann and Angelica Kauffman, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Wind-Mills&rdquo; (Hobbema), <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Window-painting. <em>See</em> <a href="#Glassi">Glass</a></li>
+
+<li>Wohlgemuth, Michael, instructor of D&uuml;rer, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Woodman and Dog in a Storm&rdquo; (Gainsborough), <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Wornum, on Turner, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li>Wouverman, Philip, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Wreck of the Medusa&rdquo; (G&eacute;ricault), <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li>Wynants, Jan, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li><a id="IX_Z"></a>Zeuxis, <a href="#Page_14">14-15</a></li>
+
+<li>Zuccaro, on Cespedes, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Zuccato, Sebastian, instructor of Titian, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>Zurbaran, Francisco, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="bti"><a href="#INDEX">Back to Index</a></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+</div>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A History of Art for Beginners and
+Students: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture: Painting, by Clara
+Erskine Clement
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A History of Art for Beginners and Students: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture
+       Painting
+
+
+Author: Clara Erskine Clement
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 1, 2008  [eBook #24726]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART FOR BEGINNERS AND
+STUDENTS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Anne Storer, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 24726-h.htm or 24726-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/7/2/24726/24726-h/24726-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/7/2/24726/24726-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+A HISTORY OF ART FOR BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS
+
+Painting--Sculpture--Architecture
+
+With Complete Indexes and Numerous Illustrations
+
+by
+
+CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT
+
+Author of "Handbook of Legendary and Mythological Art,"
+"Painters, Sculptors, Engravers, Architects and Their Works,"
+"Artists of the Nineteenth Century," Etc.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+New York
+Frederick A. Stokes Company
+MDCCCXCI
+
+Copyright, 1887,
+by Frederick A. Stokes,
+Successor to White, Stokes, & Allen.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ CHAPTER I.
+                                            PAGE
+ ANCIENT PAINTING, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES
+   TO THE CHRISTIAN ERA,                       1
+ EGYPT,                                        3
+ ASSYRIA,                                      9
+ BABYLON,                                     11
+ ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY,                    13
+ MOSAICS,                                     34
+ PAINTINGS ON STONE,                          36
+ VASE-PAINTING,                               36
+
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+
+ MEDIAEVAL PAINTING, FROM THE BEGINNING
+   OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE RENAISSANCE,   41
+ THE EARLY PERIOD,                            42
+ THE CENTRAL, OR ROMANESQUE PERIOD,           50
+ THE FINAL, OR GOTHIC PERIOD,                 54
+
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+
+ PAINTING IN ITALY, FROM THE BEGINNING
+   OF THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT CENTURY, 72
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+
+ PAINTING IN FLANDERS, HOLLAND, AND GERMANY, 155
+
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+
+ PAINTING IN SPAIN,                          207
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+
+ PAINTING IN FRANCE,                         234
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII.
+
+ PAINTING IN ENGLAND,                        249
+
+
+ INDEX,                                      305
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+                                            PAGE
+ Harp-player (from an Egyptian painting),      3
+ King Ramesses II. and his Sons Storming
+   a Fortress (from Abousimbel),               5
+ Fragment of an Assyrian Tile-painting,       10
+ Sacrifice of Iphigenia
+   (from a Pompeian wall-painting),           16
+ Etruscan Wall-painting,                      22
+ Human Sacrifice Offered by Achilles to
+   the Shade of Patroklos (from an
+   Etruscan wall-painting),                   24
+ The Aldobrandini Marriage
+   (from a wall-painting in the Vatican),     26
+ Landscape Illustration to the Odyssey
+   (from a wall-painting discovered on
+   the Esquiline at Rome),                    28
+ The Flight of AEneas (from a wall-painting),  30
+ Demeter Enthroned
+   (from a Pompeian wall-painting),           31
+ Pompeian Wall-painting,                      32
+ Nest of Cupids
+   (from a Pompeian wall-painting),           33
+ Doves Seated on a Bowl (from a
+   mosaic picture in the Capitol, Rome),      35
+ Niobe (from a picture on a slab of
+   granite at Pompeii),                       37
+ The Dodwell Vase,                            38
+ Scene in the Lower World (from a vase
+   of the style of Lower Italy),              39
+ Moses (from a painting in the
+   Catacomb of S. Agnes),                     43
+ Decoration of a Roof
+   (Catacomb of S. Domitilla),                44
+ Justinian, Theodora, and Attendants
+   (from a mosaic picture at S. Vitalis,
+   Ravenna),                                  46
+ The Discovery of the Herb Mandragora
+   (from a MS. of Dioskorides, at Vienna),    48
+ King David (from a window in
+   Augsburg Cathedral),                       51
+ Window (from the Cathedral of St. Denis),    52
+ Figure of Henry I. in west window of
+   Strasbourg Cathedral,                      55
+ Birth of the Virgin (from the
+   Grandes Heures of the Duc de Berri),       57
+ The Annunciation (from the Mariale of
+   Archbishop Arnestus of Prague),            59
+ Painted Window at Konigsfelden,              60
+ Portrait of Cimabue,                         61
+ The Madonna of the Church of
+   Santa Maria Novella,                       63
+ Portrait of Dante, painted by Giotto,        65
+ Giotto's Campanile and the Duomo (Florence), 67
+ Fra Angelico (from the representation of
+   him in the fresco of the "Last
+   Judgment" by Fra Bartolommeo),             74
+ An Angel (Fra Angelico),                     77
+ Christ (Gio. Bellini),                       81
+ Madonna (Perugino),                          83
+ Leonardo da Vinci,                           85
+ The Last Supper (Da Vinci),                  88
+ Mona Lisa (Da Vinci),                        91
+ Portrait of Michael Angelo,                  95
+ The Prophet Jeremiah (Michael Angelo),      101
+ Statue of Moses (Michael Angelo),           102
+ The Madonna del Sacco (Sarto),              106
+ Portrait of Raphael, painted by himself,    109
+ The Sistine Madonna (Raphael),              113
+ St. Cecilia Listening to the Singing
+   of Angels (Raphael),                      117
+ Portrait of Titian (Caracci),               122
+ Portrait of Lavinia (Titian),               125
+ Portrait of Correggio,                      133
+ Upper Part of a Fresco by Correggio,        136
+ Lower Part of a Fresco by Correggio,        138
+ Communion of St. Jerome (Domenichino),      142
+ Aurora (Guido Reni),                        144
+ Beatrice Cenci (Guido Reni),                146
+ The Anchorites (Van Eyck),                  157
+ The Sibyl and the Emperor Augustus
+   (Van der Weyden),                         159
+ Rubens and his Second Wife,                 163
+ The Return from Egypt (Rubens),             166
+ Portrait of an Officer (Hals),              178
+ One of Rembrandt's Portraits of Himself,    182
+ The Lecture on Anatomy (Rembrandt),         183
+ Burgomaster Meier Madonna (Holbein),        191
+ From Holbein's Dance of Death,              193
+ A Scene from Duerer's Wood Engravings
+   of the Life of the Virgin Mary,           196
+ The Four Apostles (Duerer),                  200
+ Laughing Peasant (Velasquez),               217
+ The Topers (Velasquez),                     219
+ The Immaculate Conception (Murillo),        226
+ Arcadian Shepherds (Poussin),               235
+ The Sabine Women (David),                   241
+ Death of the Duke of Guise (Delaroche),     243
+ Sir Joshua Reynolds,                        250
+ The Marriage Contract (Hogarth),            253
+ Muscipula (Reynolds),                       256
+ Portrait of Turner,                         272
+ Nantes (Turner),                            276
+ Illustration from Rogers's Poems,           285
+ The Slave Ship (Turner),                    289
+ The Eagle and Dead Stag (Landseer),         297
+
+
+
+
+
+PAINTING.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ANCIENT PAINTING, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE CHRISTIAN ERA.
+
+
+In speaking of art we often contrast the useful or mechanical arts with
+the Fine Arts; by these terms we denote the difference between the arts
+which are used in making such things as are necessary and useful in
+civilized life, and the arts by which ornamental and beautiful things are
+made.
+
+The fine arts are Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Poetry, and Music,
+and though we could live if none of these existed, yet life would be far
+from the pleasant experience that it is often made to be through the
+enjoyment of these arts.
+
+In speaking of Painting, just here I wish to include the more general idea
+of pictures of various sorts, and it seems to me that while picture-making
+belongs to the fine or beautiful arts, it is now made a very useful art in
+many ways. For example, when a school-book is illustrated, how much more
+easily we understand the subject we are studying through the help we get
+from pictures of objects or places that we have not seen, and yet wish to
+know about. Pictures of natural scenery bring all countries before our
+eyes in such a way that by looking at them, while reading books of travel,
+we may know a great deal more about lands we have never seen, and may
+never be able to visit.
+
+Who does not love pictures? and what a pleasure it is to open a magazine
+or book filled with fine illustrations. St. Augustine, who wrote in the
+fourth century after Christ, said that "pictures are the books of the
+simple or unlearned;" this is just as true now as then, and we should
+regard pictures as one of the most agreeable means of education. Thus one
+of the uses of pictures is that they give us a clear idea of what we have
+not seen; a second use is that they excite our imaginations, and often
+help us to forget disagreeable circumstances and unpleasant surroundings.
+The cultivation of the imagination is very important, because in this way
+we can add much to our individual happiness. Through this power, if we are
+in a dark, narrow street, in a house which is not to our liking, or in the
+midst of any unpleasant happenings, we are able to fix our thoughts upon a
+photograph or picture that may be there, and by studying it we are able to
+imagine ourselves far, far away, in some spot where nature makes
+everything pleasant and soothes us into forgetfulness of all that can
+disturb our happiness. Many an invalid--many an unfortunate one is thus
+made content by pictures during hours that would otherwise be wretched.
+This is the result of cultivating the perceptive and imaginative
+faculties, and when once this is done, we have a source of pleasure within
+ourselves and not dependent on others which can never be taken from us.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--HARP-PLAYER. _From an Egyptian painting._]
+
+It often happens that we see two persons who do the same work and are
+situated in the same way in the world who are very different in their
+manner; one is light-hearted and happy, the other heavy and sad. If you
+can find out the truth, it will result that the sad one is matter-of-fact,
+and has no imagination--he can only think of his work and what concerns
+him personally; but the merry one would surprise you if you could read his
+thoughts--if you could know the distances they have passed over, and what
+a vast difference there is between his thought and his work. So while it
+is natural for almost every one to exclaim joyfully at the beauty of
+pictures, and to enjoy looking at them simply, I wish my readers to think
+of their uses also, and understand the benefits that may be derived from
+them. I have only hinted at a few of these uses, but many others will
+occur to you.
+
+When pictures are composed of beautiful colors, such as we usually think
+of when we speak of the art of painting, the greatest charm of pictures is
+reached, and all civilized people have admired and encouraged this art. It
+is true that the remains of ancient art now existing are principally those
+of architecture or sculpture, yet there are a sufficient number of
+pictures in color to prove how old the art of painting is.
+
+
+EGYPT.
+
+Egyptian painting is principally found on the walls of temples and tombs,
+upon columns and cornices, and on small articles found in burial places.
+There is no doubt that it was used as a decoration; but it was also
+intended to be useful, and was so employed as to tell the history of the
+country;--its wars, with their conquests and triumphs, and the lives of
+the kings, and many other stories, are just as distinctly told by pictures
+as by the hieroglyphics or Egyptian writings. We can scarcely say that
+Egyptian painting is beautiful; but it certainly is very interesting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--KING RAMESSES II. AND HIS SONS STORMING A FORTRESS.
+_From Abousimbel._]
+
+The Egyptians had three kinds of painting: one on flat surfaces, a second
+on bas-reliefs, or designs a little raised and then colored, and a third
+on designs in _intaglio_, or hollowed out from the flat surface and the
+colors applied to the figures thus cut out. They had no knowledge of what
+we call perspective, that is, the art of representing a variety of objects
+on one flat surface, and making them appear to be at different distances
+from us--and you will see from the illustrations given here that their
+drawing and their manner of expressing the meaning of what they painted
+were very crude. As far as the pictorial effect is concerned, there is
+very little difference between the three modes of Egyptian painting; their
+general appearance is very nearly the same.
+
+The Egyptian artist sacrificed everything to the one consideration of
+telling his story clearly; the way in which he did this was sometimes very
+amusing, such as the making one man twice as tall as another in order to
+signify that he was of high position, such as a king or an officer of high
+rank. When figures are represented as following each other, those that are
+behind are frequently taller than those in front, and sometimes those that
+are farthest back are ranged in rows, with the feet of one row entirely
+above the heads of the others. This illustration of the storming of a fort
+by a king and his sons will show you what I mean. The sons are intended to
+be represented as following the father, and are in a row, one above the
+other (Fig. 2).
+
+For the representation of water, a strip of blue filled in with
+perpendicular zigzag black lines was used. From these few facts you can
+understand how unformed and awkward Egyptian pictures seem if we compare
+them with the existing idea of what is beautiful. There appear to have
+been certain fixed rules for the use of colors, and certain objects were
+always painted in the colors prescribed for them. The background of a
+picture was always of a single, solid color; Egyptian men were painted in
+a reddish brown, and horses were of the same shade; women were generally
+yellow, sometimes a lighter brown than the men; negroes were black, the
+Asiatic races yellow, and but one instance is known of a white skin, blue
+eyes, and yellow hair. The draperies about the figures were painted in
+pleasing colors, and were sometimes transparent, so that the figures could
+be seen through them.
+
+The execution of Egyptian paintings was very mechanical. One set of
+workmen prepared the plaster on the wall for the reception of the colors;
+another set drew all the outlines in red; then, if chiselling was to be
+done, another class performed this labor; and, finally, still others put
+on the colors. Of course nothing could be more matter-of-fact than such
+painting as this, and under such rules an artist of the most lofty genius
+and imagination would find it impossible to express his conceptions in his
+work. We know all this because some of these pictures exist in an
+unfinished condition, and are left in the various stages of execution;
+then, too, there are other pictures of the painters at their work, and all
+these different processes are shown in them. The outline drawing is the
+best part of Egyptian painting, and this is frequently very cleverly done.
+
+As I have intimated, the greatest value of Egyptian painting is that it
+gives us a clear record of the habits and customs of a very ancient
+people--of a civilization which has long since passed away, and of which
+we should have a comparatively vague and unsatisfactory notion but for
+this picture-history of it. The religion, the political history, and the
+domestic life of the ancient Egyptians are all placed before us in these
+paintings. Through a study of them we know just how they hunted and
+fished, gathered their fruits, tilled the soil, and cooked the food,
+played games, danced, and practised gymnastics, conducted their scenes of
+festivity and mourning--in short, how they lived under all circumstances.
+Thus you see that Egyptian painting is a very important example of the way
+in which pictures can teach us; you will also notice that it is not even
+necessary that they should be pretty in order that we may learn from
+them.
+
+Another use made of Egyptian painting was the illustration of the papyrus
+rolls upon which historical and other documents were written. These rolls,
+found in the tombs, are now placed in museums and collections of curious
+things; the paintings upon them may be called the oldest book
+illustrations in the world. Sometimes a single color is used, such as red
+or black; but others are in a variety of colors which have been put on
+with a brush. Indeed, some rolls exist which have pictures only, and are
+entirely without hieroglyphics or writing characters; one such is more
+than twenty yards long, and contains nothing but pictures of funeral
+ceremonies.
+
+The ancient Egyptians were so serious a people that it is a pleasant
+surprise to find that some of these pictures are intended for jokes and
+satires, somewhat like those of the comic papers of to-day; for example,
+there is one in the British Museum, London, representing cats and rats
+fighting, which is intended to ridicule the soldiers and heroes of the
+Egyptian army.
+
+One cannot study Egyptian painting without feeling sorry for the painters;
+for in all the enormous amount of work done by them no one man was
+recognized--no one is now remembered. We know some of the names of great
+Egyptian architects which are written in the historical rolls; but no
+painter's name has been thus preserved. The fact that no greater progress
+was made is a proof of the discouraging influences that must have been
+around these artists, for it is not possible that none of them had
+imagination or originality: there must have been some whose souls were
+filled with poetic visions, for some of the Egyptian writings show that
+poetry existed in ancient Egypt. But of what use could imagination be to
+artists who were governed by the laws of a narrow priesthood, and hedged
+about by a superstitious religion which even laid down rules for art?
+
+For these reasons we know something of Egyptian art and nothing of
+Egyptian artists, and from all these influences it follows that Egyptian
+painting is little more than an illuminated alphabet or a child's
+picture-history. In the hieroglyphics, or writing characters of Egypt, it
+often occurs that small pictures of certain animals or other objects stand
+for whole words, and it appears that this idea was carried into Egyptian
+painting, which by this means became simply a picture chronicle, and never
+reached a point where it could be called truly artistic or a high art.
+
+
+ASSYRIA.
+
+The remains of Assyrian painting are so few that they scarcely serve any
+other purpose than to prove that the Assyrians were accustomed to decorate
+their walls with pictures. Sometimes the walls were prepared with plaster,
+and the designs were painted on that; in other cases the painting was done
+upon the brick itself. The paintings on plaster were usually on the inner
+walls, and many of these which have been discovered during the excavations
+have disappeared when exposed to the air after their long burial from the
+sight and knowledge of the world.
+
+Speaking of these pictures, the writer on art, J. Oppert, says that some
+paintings were found in the Palace of Sargon; they represented gods,
+lions, rosettes, and various other designs; but when he reached Nineveh,
+one year after these discoveries, the pictures had all disappeared--the
+colors which had been buried twenty-five hundred years lasted but a few
+days after they were uncovered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--FRAGMENT OF AN ASSYRIAN TILE-PAINTING.]
+
+Assyrian tile-painting was more durable than the wall-painting; but in
+all the excavations that have been made these have been found only in
+fragments, and from these fragments no complete picture has been put
+together. The largest one was found at Nimrud, and our illustration is
+taken from it. It represents a king, as we know by the tiara he wears, and
+two servants who follow him. The pictures to which the existing fragments
+belong could not have been large: the figures in our picture are but nine
+inches high. A few pieces have been found which must have belonged to
+larger pictures, and there is one which shows a part of a face belonging
+to a figure at least three feet high; but this is very unusual.
+
+The Assyrian paintings have a broad outline which is of a lighter color
+than the rest of the picture; it is generally white or yellow. There are
+very few colors used in them. This does not accord with our notions of the
+dresses and stuffs of the Assyrians, for we suppose that they were rich
+and varied in color--probably they had so few pigments that they could not
+represent in their paintings all the colors they knew.
+
+No one can give a very satisfactory account of Assyrian painting; but,
+judging from the little of it which remains, and from the immense number
+of Assyrian sculptures which exist, we may conclude that the chief aim of
+Assyrian artists was to represent each object they saw with absolute
+realism. The Dutch painters were remarkable for this trait and for the
+patient attention which they gave to the details of their work, and for
+this reason Oppert has called the Assyrians the Dutchmen of antiquity.
+
+
+BABYLON.
+
+In Babylon, in the sixth century B.C., under the reign of Nebuchadnezzar,
+the art of tile-painting reached a high state of perfection. The
+Babylonians had no such splendid alabaster as had the Assyrians, neither
+had they lime-stone; so they could not make fine sculptured slabs, such as
+are found at Nineveh and in other Assyrian ruins. But the Babylonians had
+a fine clay, and they learned how to use it to the best advantage. The
+city of Babylon shone with richly colored tiles, and one traveller writes:
+"By the side of Assyria, her colder and severer sister of the North,
+Babylon showed herself a true child of the South,--rich, glowing, careless
+of the rules of taste, only desiring to awaken admiration by the dazzling
+brilliance of her appearance."
+
+Many of the Babylonish tiles are in regular, set patterns in rich tints;
+some are simply in solid colors. These last are found in the famous
+terrace-temple of Borsippe, near Babylon. We know from ancient writings
+that there were decorative paintings in Babylon which represented hunting
+scenes and like subjects, and, according to the prophet Ezekiel, chap.
+xxiii., verse 14, there were "men portrayed upon the wall, the images of
+the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their
+loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all of them princes to
+look to, after the manner of the Babylonians of Chaldea, the land of their
+nativity." Some writers assume that this must have been a description of
+tapestries; but most authorities believe them to have been glazed
+tile-paintings.
+
+A whole cargo of fragments of Babylonish tile-paintings was once collected
+for the gallery of the Louvre at Paris, and, when on board a ship and
+ready to be sent away, by some accident the whole was sunk. From the
+descriptions of them which were written, we find that there were portions
+of pictures of human faces and other parts of the body, of animals,
+mountains, and forests, of water, walls, and trees.
+
+Judging from what still remains, the art of painting was far less
+important and much less advanced among the Eastern or Oriental nations
+than were those of architecture and sculpture. It is very strange that
+these peoples, who seem to have observed nature closely, and to have
+mastered the mathematical sciences, made no steps toward the discovery of
+the laws of perspective; neither did they know how to give any expression
+of thought or feeling to the human face. In truth, their pictures were
+a mere repetition of set figures, and were only valuable as pieces of
+colored decorations for walls, adding a pleasing richness and variety by
+their different tints, but almost worthless as works of art.
+
+
+ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY.
+
+The painting of Greece and that of ancient Italy are so much the same that
+it is almost impossible to speak of them separately; the art of painting
+was carried from Greece to Italy by the Etruscans, and the art of ancient
+Rome was simply that of Greece transplanted. If Greek artists were
+employed by Romans, certainly their works were Greek; and if Romans
+painted they aimed to imitate the Greeks exactly, so that Italian painting
+before the time of the Christian era must be considered together with that
+of Greece.
+
+In architecture and sculpture the ancient Greeks accepted what had been
+done by the Egyptians and Assyrians as a foundation, and went on to
+perfect the work of the older nations through the aid of poetic and
+artistic imaginations. But in painting the Greeks followed nothing that
+had preceded them. They were the first to make pictures which were a
+life-like reproduction of what they saw about them: they were the first to
+separate painting from sculpture, and to give it such importance as would
+permit it to have its own place, quite free from the influence of any
+other art, and in its own way as grand and as beautiful as its sister
+arts.
+
+There are writers who trace the origin and progress of Greek painting from
+the very earliest times; but I shall begin with Apollodorus, who is spoken
+of as the first Greek painter worthy of fame, because he was the first
+one who knew how to make his pictures appear to be real, and to follow the
+rules of perspective so as to have a background from which his figures
+stood out, and to shade his colors and soften his outlines. He was very
+famous, and was called _skiagraphos_, which means shadow painter.
+
+Apollodorus was an Athenian, and lived at about the close of the fifth
+century B.C. Although he was a remarkable artist then, we must not fancy
+that his pictures would have satisfied our idea of the beautiful--in fact,
+Pliny, the historian, who saw his pictures six hundred years later, at
+Pergamos, says that Apollodorus was but the gatekeeper who threw open the
+gates of painting to the famous artists who lived after him.
+
+Zeuxis was a pupil of Apollodorus, and a great artist also. He was born at
+Heraclea, probably in Lower Italy. When young he led a wandering life; he
+studied at Athens under Apollodorus, and settled in Ephesus. He was in the
+habit of putting his pictures on exhibition, and charging an admittance
+fee, just as artists do now: he called himself "the unsurpassable," and
+said and did many vain and foolish things. Near the end of his life he
+considered his pictures as beyond any price, and so gave them away. Upon
+one of his works he wrote, "Easier to carp at than to copy." It is said
+that he actually laughed himself to death from amusement at one of his own
+pictures, which represented an old woman.
+
+Zeuxis had a rival in the painter Parrhasius, and their names are often
+associated. On one occasion they made trial of their artistic skill.
+Zeuxis painted a bunch of grapes so naturally that the birds came to peck
+at them. Then Parrhasius painted a hanging curtain, and when his picture
+was exposed to the public Zeuxis asked him to draw aside his curtain,
+fully believing it to be of cloth and concealing a picture behind it. Thus
+it was judged that Parrhasius was the best artist, for he had deceived
+Zeuxis, while the latter had only deceived the birds.
+
+From these stories it appears that these artists tried to imitate objects
+with great exactness. Parrhasius, too, was a vain man, and went about in
+a purple robe with a gold wreath about his head and gold clasps on his
+sandals; he painted his own portrait, and called it the god Hermes, or
+Mercury; he wrote praises of himself in which he called himself by many
+high-sounding names, for all of which he was much ridiculed by others.
+
+However, both these artists were surpassed by Timanthes, according to the
+ancient writers, who relate that he engaged in a trial of skill with
+Parrhasius, and came off the victor in it. The fame of his picture of the
+"Sacrifice of Iphigenia" was very great, and its one excellence seems to
+have been in the varied expression of its faces. The descriptions of this
+great work lead to the belief that this Pompeian wall-painting, from which
+we give a cut, closely resembles that of Timanthes, which no longer
+exists.
+
+The story of Iphigenia says that when her father, King Agamemnon, killed
+a hart which was sacred to Diana, or Artemis, that goddess becalmed his
+fleet so that he could not sail to Troy. Then the seer, Calchas, advised
+the king to sacrifice his daughter in order to appease the wrath of Diana.
+Agamemnon consented; but it is said that the goddess was so sorry for the
+maiden that she bore her away to Tauris, and made her a priestess, and
+left a hart to be sacrificed instead of Iphigenia. In our cut you see
+Calchas on the right; two men are bearing the maiden to her doom, while
+her father stands on the left with his head veiled from sight (Fig. 4).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--SACRIFICE OF IPHIGENIA. _From a Pompeian
+wall-painting._]
+
+Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Timanthes belonged to the Ionian school of
+painting, which flourished during the Peloponnesian war. This school was
+excelled by that of Sikyon, which reached its highest prosperity between
+the end of the Peloponnesian war and the death of Alexander the Great.
+The chief reason why this Dorian school at Sikyon was so fine was that
+here, for the first time, the pupils followed a regular course of study,
+and were trained in drawing and mathematics, and taught to observe nature
+with the strictest attention. The most famous master of this school was
+Pausias; some of his works were carried to Rome, where they were much
+admired. His picture of the garland-weaver, Glykera, gained him a great
+name, and by it he earned the earliest reputation as a flower-painter that
+is known in the history of art.
+
+Nikomachos, who lived at Thebes about 360 B.C., was famous for
+the rapidity with which he painted pictures that were excellent in their
+completeness and beauty. Aristides, the son or brother of Nikomachos, was
+so good an artist that Attalus, king of Pergamos, offered more than twenty
+thousand pounds, or about one hundred thousand dollars, for his picture of
+Dionysus, or Bacchus. This wonderful picture was carried to Rome, and
+preserved in the temple of Ceres; but it no longer exists. Euphranor was
+another great painter, and was distinguished for his power to give great
+expression to the faces and a manly force to the figures which he painted.
+
+Nikias, the Athenian, is said to have been so devoted to his art that he
+could think of nothing else: he would ask his servants if he had bathed or
+eaten, not being able to remember for himself. He was very rich, and when
+King Ptolemy of Egypt offered him more than sixty thousand dollars for his
+picture of Ulysses in the under-world, he refused this great sum, and gave
+the painting to his native city. Nikias seems to have greatly exalted and
+respected his art, for he contended that painters should not fritter away
+time and talent on insignificant subjects, but ought rather to choose some
+grand event, such as a battle or a sea-fight. His figures of women and his
+pictures of animals, especially those of dogs, were much praised. Some of
+his paintings were encaustic, that is to say, the colors were burned in;
+thus they must have been made on plaster or pottery of some sort. Nikias
+outlived Alexander the Great, and saw the beginning of the school of
+painters to which the great Apelles belonged--that which is called the
+Hellenic school, in which Greek art reached its highest point.
+
+Apelles was the greatest of all Greek painters. He was born at Kolophon;
+but as he made his first studies at Ephesus he has been called an
+Ephesian: later he studied in the school of Sikyon, but even when a pupil
+there he was said to be the equal of all his instructors. Philip of
+Macedon heard of his fame, and persuaded Apelles to remove to his capital
+city, which was called Pella. While there Apelles became the friend of the
+young Alexander, and when the latter came to the throne he made Apelles
+his court-painter, and is said to have issued an edict forbidding all
+other artists from painting his portrait. Later on Apelles removed to
+Ephesus.
+
+During the early part of his artistic life Apelles did little else than
+paint such pictures as exalted the fame of Philip, and afterward that of
+Alexander. He painted many portraits of both these great men; for one of
+Alexander he received nearly twenty-five thousand dollars; in it the
+monarch was represented as grasping the thunderbolt, as Jupiter might have
+done, and the hand appeared to be stretched out from the picture. This
+portrait was in the splendid temple of Diana, or Artemis, at Ephesus.
+Alexander was accustomed to say of it, "There are two Alexanders, one
+invincible, the living son of Philip--the other immutable, the picture of
+Apelles."
+
+Later in his life Apelles painted many pictures of mythological subjects.
+He visited Alexandria, in Egypt; he did not win the favor of King Ptolemy,
+and his enemies in the Egyptian court played cruel practical jokes upon
+him. On one occasion he received an invitation to a feast at which the
+king had not desired his presence. The monarch was angry; but Apelles told
+him the truth, and appeased his wrath by sketching on the wall the exact
+likeness of the servant who had carried the invitation to him. However,
+Ptolemy remained unfavorable to him, and Apelles painted a great picture,
+called Calumny, in which he represented those who had been his enemies,
+and thus held them up to the scorn of the world. Apelles visited Rhodes
+and Athens, but is thought to have died in the island of Kos, where he had
+painted two very beautiful pictures of the goddess Venus. One of these is
+called the Venus Anadyomene, or Venus rising from the sea. The emperor
+Augustus carried this picture to Rome, and placed so high a value on it
+that he lessened the tribute-money of the people of Kos a hundred talents
+on account of it. This sum was about equal to one hundred thousand dollars
+of our money.
+
+The art of Apelles was full of grace and sweetness, and the finish of his
+pictures was exquisite. The saying, "leave off in time," originated in his
+criticism of Protogenes, of whom he said that he was his superior except
+that he did not know when to leave off, and by too much finishing lessened
+the effect of his work. Apelles was modest and generous: he was the first
+to praise Protogenes, and conferred a great benefit upon the latter by
+buying up his pictures, and giving out word that he was going to sell them
+as his own. Apelles was never afraid to correct those who were ignorant,
+and was equally ready to learn from any one who could teach him anything.
+It is said that on one occasion, when Alexander was in his studio, and
+talked of art, Apelles advised him to be silent lest his color-grinder
+should laugh at him. Again, when he had painted a picture, and exposed it
+to public view, a cobbler pointed out a defect in the shoe-latchet;
+Apelles changed it, but when the man next proceeded to criticise the leg
+of the figure, Apelles replied, "Cobbler, stick to your last." These
+sayings have descended to our own day, and have become classical. All
+these anecdotes from so remote a time are in a sense doubtful; but they
+are very interesting--young people ought to be familiar with them, but it
+is also right to say that they are not known to be positively true.
+
+Protogenes of Rhodes, to whom Apelles was so friendly, came to be thought
+a great painter. It is said that when Demetrius made war against Rhodes
+the artist did not trouble himself to leave his house, which was in the
+very midst of the enemy's camp. When questioned as to his fearlessness he
+replied, "Demetrius makes war against the Rhodians, and not against the
+Arts." It is also said that after hearing of this reply Demetrius
+refrained from burning the town, in order to preserve the pictures of
+Protogenes.
+
+The ancient writers mention many other Greek painters, but none as
+important as those of whom we have spoken. Greek painting never reached a
+higher point than it had gained at the beginning of the Hellenistic age.
+Every kind of painting except landscape-painting had been practised by
+Greek artists; but that received no attention until figure-painting had
+declined. Vitruvius mentions that the ancients had some very important
+wall-paintings consisting of simple landscapes, and that others had
+landscape backgrounds with figures illustrating scenes from the poems of
+Homer. But we have no reason to believe that Greek landscape-painting was
+ever more than scenic or decorative work, and thus fell far short of what
+is now the standard for such painting.
+
+The painting of the early Romans was principally derived from or through
+the early Etruscans, and the Etruscans are believed to have first learned
+their art from Greek artists, who introduced plastic art into Italy as
+early as B.C. 655, when Demaratus was expelled from Corinth--and later,
+Etruscan art was influenced by the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia. So it
+is fair to say that Etruscan art and early Roman art were essentially
+Greek art. The earliest artists who are known to have painted in Rome had
+Greek names, such as Ekphantos, Damophilos, and Gargasos. Later on in
+history there are painters mentioned with Latin names, but there is little
+of interest related concerning them; in truth, Ludius (who is also called
+by various authors Tadius and Studius) is the only really interesting
+ancient Roman painter of whom we know. He lived in the time of Augustus,
+and Pliny said of him: "Ludius, too, who lived in the age of the divine
+Augustus, must not be cheated of his fame. He was the first to bring in a
+singularly delightful fashion of wall-painting--villas, colonnades,
+examples of landscape-gardening, woods and sacred groves, reservoirs,
+straits, rivers, coasts, all according to the heart's desire--and amidst
+them passengers of all kinds on foot, in boats, driving in carriages, or
+riding on asses to visit their country properties; furthermore fishermen,
+bird-catchers, hunters, vintagers; or, again, he exhibits stately villas,
+to which the approach is through a swamp, with men staggering under the
+weight of the frightened women whom they have bargained to carry on their
+shoulders; and many another excellent and entertaining device of the same
+kind. The same artist also set the fashion of painting views--and that
+wonderfully cheap--of seaside towns in broad daylight."
+
+We cannot think that Ludius was the first painter, though he may have been
+the first Roman painter, who made this sort of pictures, and he probably
+is the only one of whose work any part remains. Brunn and other good
+authorities believe that the wall-painting of Prima Porta, in Rome, was
+executed by Ludius. It represents a garden, and covers the four walls of a
+room. It is of the decorative order of painting, as Pliny well understood,
+for he speaks of the difference between the work of Ludius and that of
+the true artists who painted panel pictures and not wall-paintings. After
+the time of Ludius we can give no trustworthy account of any fine, Roman
+painter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ETRUSCAN WALL-PAINTING.]
+
+The works of the ancient painters which still remain in various countries
+are wall-paintings, paintings on vases, mosaics, paintings on stone, and
+certain so-called miniatures; and besides these principal works there are
+many small articles, such as mirrors, toilet-cases, and other useful
+objects, which are decorated in colors.
+
+We will first speak of the mural, or wall-paintings, as they are the most
+important and interesting remains of ancient painting. We shall only
+consider such as have been found in Italy, as those of other countries are
+few and unimportant.
+
+The Etruscan tombs which have been opened contain many beautiful objects
+of various kinds, and were frequently decorated with mural pictures. They
+often consist of several rooms, and have the appearance of being prepared
+as a home for the living rather than for the dead. I shall give you no
+long or wordy description of them; because if what I tell you leads you to
+wish to know more about them, there are many excellent books describing
+them which you can read. So I will simply give you two cuts from these
+Etruscan paintings, and tell you about them.
+
+Fig. 5 is in a tomb known as the _Grotta della Querciola_. The upper part
+represents a feast, and the lower portion a boar-hunt in a wood, which is
+indicated by the few trees and the little twigs which are intended to
+represent the underbrush of the forest. If we compare these pictures with
+the works of the best Italian masters, they seem very crude and almost
+childish in their simplicity; but, if we contrast them with the paintings
+of the Egyptians and Assyrians, we see that a great advance has been made
+since the earliest paintings of which we know were done. The pose and
+action of the figures and their grace of movement, as well as the folding
+of the draperies, are far better than anything earlier than the Greek
+painting of which there is any knowledge; for, as we have said, these
+Etruscan works are essentially Greek.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--HUMAN SACRIFICE OFFERED BY ACHILLES TO THE SHADE
+OF PATROKLOS. _From an Etruscan wall-painting._]
+
+Fig. 6 belongs to a later period than the other, and is taken from a tomb
+at Vulci which was opened in 1857 by Francois. This tomb has seven
+different chambers, several of which are decorated with wall-paintings of
+mythological subjects. A square chamber at the end of the tomb has the
+most important pictures. On one side the human sacrifices which were
+customary at Etruscan funerals are represented: the pictures are very
+painful, and the terror and agony of the poor victims who are being put to
+death make them really repulsive to see. On an opposite wall is the
+painting from which our cut is taken. This represents the sacrifices made
+before Troy by Achilles, on account of the death of his dear friend
+Patroklos. The figure with the hammer is Charon, who stands ready to
+receive the sacrifice which is intended to win his favor. Your mythology
+will tell you the story, which is too long to be given here. The realism
+of this picture is shocking in its effect, and yet there is something
+about the manner of the drawing and the arrangement of the whole design
+that fixes our attention even while it makes us shudder.
+
+The ancient wall-paintings which have been found in Rome are far more
+varied than are those of Etruria; for, while some of the Roman pictures
+are found in tombs, others are taken from baths, palaces, and villas. They
+generally belong to one period, and that is about the close of the
+Republic and the beginning of the Empire. Modern excavations have revealed
+many of these ancient paintings; but so many of them crumble and fade away
+so soon after they are exposed to the air, that few remain in a condition
+to afford any satisfaction in seeing them. But fortunately drawings have
+been made of nearly all these pictures before they fell into decay.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE ALDOBRANDINI MARRIAGE. _From a wall-painting
+in the Vatican._]
+
+Some of the ancient paintings have been carefully removed from the walls
+where they were found, and placed in museums and other collections. One of
+the finest of these is in the Vatican, and is called the Aldobrandini
+Marriage. It received this name from the fact that Cardinal Aldobrandini
+was its first possessor after its discovery, near the Arch of Gallienus,
+in 1606.
+
+As you will see from Fig. 7, from it, there are three distinct groups
+represented. In the centre the bride veiled, with her head modestly bowed
+down, is seated on a couch with a woman beside her who seems to be
+arranging some part of her toilet, while another stands near holding
+ointment and a bowl. At the head of the couch the bridegroom is seated on
+a threshold. The upper part of his figure is bare, and he has a garland
+upon his head. On the right of the picture an ante-room is represented in
+which are three women with musical instruments, singing sacrificial songs.
+To the left, in another apartment, three other women are preparing a bath.
+This is charming on account of the sweet, serious way in which the whole
+story is placed before us; but as a painting it is an inferior work of
+art--not in the least above the style which we should call house
+decoration.
+
+Although ancient writers had spoken of landscape paintings, it was not
+until 1848-1850, when a series of them was discovered on the Esquiline in
+Rome, that any very satisfactory specimens could be shown. These pictures
+number eight: six are complete, of the seventh but half remains, and the
+eighth is in a very imperfect state. They may be called historical
+landscapes, because each one has a complete landscape as well as figures
+which tell a story. They illustrate certain passages from the Odyssey of
+Homer. The one from which our cut is taken shows the visit of Ulysses to
+the lower world. When on the wall the pictures were divided by
+pilasters, and finished at the top by a border or frieze. The pilasters
+are bright red, and the chief colors in the picture are a yellowish brown
+and a greenish blue. In this scene the way in which the light streams
+through the entrance to the lower world is very striking, and shows the
+many figures there with the best possible effect. Even those in the far
+distance on the right are distinctly seen. This collection of Esquiline
+wall-paintings is now in the Vatican Library.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--LANDSCAPE ILLUSTRATION TO THE ODYSSEY. _From a
+wall-painting discovered on the Esquiline at Rome._]
+
+Besides the ancient mural paintings which have been placed in the museums
+of Rome, there are others which still remain where they were painted, in
+palaces, villas, and tombs. Perhaps those in the house of Livia are the
+most interesting; they represent mythological stories, and one frieze has
+different scenes of street life in an ancient town. Though these
+decorations are done in a mechanical sort of painting, such as is
+practised by the ordinary fresco painters of our own time, yet there was
+sufficient artistic feeling in their authors to prevent their repeating
+any one design.
+
+One circumstance proves that this class of picture was not thought very
+important when it was made, which is that the name of the artist is rarely
+found upon his work: in but one instance either in Rome or Pompeii has
+this occurred, namely, in a chamber which was excavated in the gardens of
+the Farnesina Palace at Rome, and the name is Seleucus.
+
+We have not space to speak of all the Italian cities in which these
+remains are discovered, and, as Pompeii is the one most frequently visited
+and that in which a very large proportion of the ancient pictures have
+been found, I will give a few illustrations from them, and leave the
+subject of ancient, mural paintings there. Many of the Pompeian pictures
+have been removed to the Museum of Naples, though many still remain where
+they were first painted.
+
+The variety of subjects at Pompeii is large: there are landscapes, hunting
+scenes, mythological subjects, numerous kinds of single figures, such as
+dancing girls, the hours, or seasons, graces, satyrs, and many others;
+devotional pictures, such as representations of the ancient divinities,
+lares, penates, and genii; pictures of tavern scenes, of mechanics at
+their work; rope-dancers and representations of various games,
+gladiatorial contests, _genre_ scenes from the lives of children, youths,
+and women, festival ceremonies, actors, poets, and stage scenes, and last,
+but not least, many caricatures, of which I here give you an example (Fig.
+9).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--THE FLIGHT OF AENEAS. _From a wall-painting._]
+
+The largest dog is AEneas, who leads the little Ascanius by the hand and
+carries his father, Anchises, on his shoulder. Frequently in the ancient
+caricatures monkeys are made to take the part of historical and imaginary
+heroes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--DEMETER ENTHRONED. _From a Pompeian
+wall-painting._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--POMPEIAN WALL-PAINTING.]
+
+Fig. 11 shows you how these painted walls were sometimes divided; the
+principal subjects were surrounded by ornamental borders, and the spaces
+between filled in with all sorts of little compartments. The small spaces
+in this picture are quite regular in form; but frequently they are of
+varied shapes, and give a very decorative effect to the whole work. The
+colors used upon these different panels, as they may be called, were
+usually red, yellow, black, and white--more rarely blue and green.
+Sometimes the entire decoration consisted of these small, variously
+colored spaces, divided by some graceful little border, with a very small
+figure, plant, or other object in the centre of each space.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--NEST OF CUPIDS. _From a Pompeian
+wall-painting._]
+
+Fig. 10, of Demeter, or Ceres, enthroned is an example of such devotional
+paintings as were placed above the altars and shrines for private worship
+in the houses of Pompeii, or at the street corners, just as we now see
+pictures and sacred figures in street shrines in Roman Catholic countries.
+In ancient days, as now, these pictures were often done in a coarse and
+careless manner, as if religious use, and not art, was the object in the
+mind of the artist.
+
+Fig. 12, of a Nest of Cupids is a very interesting example of Pompeian
+painting, and to my mind it more nearly resembles pictures of later times
+than does any other ancient painting of which I know.
+
+
+MOSAICS.
+
+The pictures known as mosaics are made by fitting together bits of marble,
+stone, or glass of different colors and so arranging them as to represent
+figures and objects of various kinds, so that at a distance they have much
+the same effect as that of pictures painted with brush and colors. The art
+of making mosaics is very ancient, and was probably invented in the East,
+where it was used for borders and other decorations in regular set
+patterns. It was not until after the time of Alexander the Great that the
+Greeks used this process for making pictures. At first, too, mosaics were
+used for floors or pavements only, and the designs in them were somewhat
+like those of the tile pavements of our own time.
+
+This picture of doves will give you a good idea of a mosaic; this subject
+is a very interesting one, because it is said to have been first made by
+Sosos in Pergamos. It was often repeated in later days, and that from
+which our cut is taken was found in the ruins of Hadrian's villa at
+Tivoli, near Rome; it is known as the Capitoline Doves, from the fact that
+it is now in the Capitoline Museum in Rome. Few works of ancient art are
+more admired and as frequently copied as this mosaic: it is not unusual to
+see ladies wear brooches with this design in fine mosaic work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--DOVES SEATED ON A BOWL. _From a mosaic picture in
+the Capitol, Rome._]
+
+A few examples of ancient mosaics which were used for wall decorations
+have been found; they may almost be said not to exceed a dozen; but
+pavement mosaics are very numerous, and are still seen in the places for
+which they were designed and where they have been during many centuries,
+as well as in museums to which they have been removed. They are so hard in
+outline and so mechanical in every way that they are not very attractive
+if we think of them as pictures, and their chief interest is in the skill
+and patience with which mosaic workers combine the numberless particles
+of one substance and another which go to make up the whole.
+
+Mosaic pictures, as a rule, are not large; but one found at Palestrina,
+which is called the Nile mosaic, is six by five metres inside. Its subject
+is the inundation of a village on the river Nile. There are an immense
+number of figures and a variety of scenes in it; there are Egyptians
+hunting the Nile horse, a party of revellers in a bower draped with vines,
+bands of warriors and other groups of men occupied in different pursuits,
+and all represented at the season when the Nile overflows its banks. This
+is a very remarkable work, and it has been proved that a portion of the
+original is in the Berlin Museum, and has been replaced by a copy at
+Palestrina.
+
+
+PAINTINGS ON STONE.
+
+It is well known that much of the decoration of Greek edifices was in
+colors. Of course these paintings were put upon the marble and stone of
+which the structures were made. The Greeks also made small pictures and
+painted them on stone, just as canvas and panels of wood are now used.
+Such painted slabs have been found in Herculaneum, in Corneto, and in
+different Etruscan tombs; but the most important and satisfactory one was
+found at Pompeii in 1872. Since then the colors have almost vanished; but
+Fig. 14, from it, will show you how it appeared when found. It represents
+the mythological story of the punishment of Niobe, and is very beautiful
+in its design.
+
+
+VASE-PAINTING.
+
+Vase-painting was another art very much practised by the ancients. So much
+can be said of it that it would require more space than we can give for
+its history even in outline. So I shall only say that it fills an
+important place in historic art, because from the thousands of ancient
+vases that have been found in one country and another, much has been
+learned concerning the history of these lands and the manners and customs
+of their people; occasionally inscriptions are found upon decorated vases
+which are of great value to scholars who study the history of the past.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--NIOBE. _From a picture on a slab of granite at
+Pompeii._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--THE DODWELL VASE. _At Munich._]
+
+The Dodwell vase shows you the more simple style of decoration which was
+used in the earlier times. Gradually the designs came to be more and more
+elaborate, until whole stories were as distinctly told by the pictures on
+vases as if they had been written out in books. The next cut, which is
+made from a vase-painting, will show what I mean.
+
+The subject of Fig. 16 is connected with the service of the dead, and
+shows a scene in the under world, such as accorded with ancient religious
+notions. In the upper portion the friends of the deceased are grouped
+around a little temple. Scholars trace the manufacture of these vases back
+to very ancient days, and down to its decline, about two centuries before
+Christ. I do not mean that vase-painting ceased then, for its latest
+traces come down to 65 B.C.; but like all other ancient arts, it was then
+in a state of decadence. Though vase-painting was one of the lesser
+arts, its importance can scarcely be overestimated, and it fully merits
+the devoted study and admiration which it receives from those who are
+learned in its history.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--SCENE IN THE LOWER WORLD. _From a vase of the
+style of Lower Italy._]
+
+From what we know of ancient Greek painting we may believe that this art
+first reached perfection in Greece. If we could see the best works of
+Apelles, who reached the highest excellence of any Greek painter, we might
+find some lack of the truest science of the art when judged by more modern
+standards; but the Greeks must still be credited with having been the
+first to create a true art of painting. After the decline of Greek art
+fifteen centuries elapsed before painting was again raised to the rank
+which the Greeks had given it, and if, according to our ideas, the later
+Italian painting is in any sense superior to the Greek, we must at least
+admit that the study of the works of antiquity which still remained in
+Italy, excited the great masters of the Renaissance to the splendid
+achievements which they attained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+MEDIAEVAL PAINTING, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE
+RENAISSANCE.
+
+
+The Middle Ages extend from the latter part of the fifth century to the
+time of the Renaissance, or about the fifteenth century. The painting of
+this period has little to attract attention if regarded only from an
+artistic stand-point, for we may truly say that, comparing it with the
+Greek art which had preceded it, or with the Italian art which followed
+it, that of the Middle Ages had no claim to the beautiful. On the other
+hand, it is full of interest to students, because it has its part in the
+history of art; therefore I shall give a mere outline of it, so that this
+link in the chain which unites ancient and modern painting may not be
+entirely wanting in our book.
+
+Early mediaeval painting, down to about A.D. 950, consists principally of
+paintings in burial-places, mosaics (usually in churches), and of
+miniatures, or the illustration and illumination of _MSS._, which were the
+books of that time, and were almost without exception religious writings.
+This period is called the Early Period of the Middle Ages, and the
+pictures are often called the works of Early Christian Art.
+
+About 1050 a revival of intellectual pursuits began in some parts of
+Europe, and from that time it may be said that the Renaissance, or new
+birth of art and letters, was in its A B Cs, or very smallest beginnings.
+The period between 950 and 1250 is often called the Central or Romanesque
+Period of the Middle Ages, and it was during this time that glass-painting
+originated; it is one of the most interesting features of art in mediaeval
+times.
+
+From 1250 to 1400 comes the Final or Gothic Period of the Middle Ages, and
+this has some very interesting features which foretell the coming glory of
+the great Renaissance.
+
+
+THE EARLY PERIOD.
+
+The paintings of the catacombs date from the third and fourth centuries
+after Christ. The catacombs, or burial-places of the early Christians,
+consist of long, narrow, subterranean passages, cut with regularity, and
+crossing each other like streets in a city. The graves are in the sides of
+these passages, and there are some larger rooms or chambers into which the
+narrow passages run. There are about sixty of the catacombs in and near
+Rome; they are generally called by the name of some saint who is buried in
+them. The paintings are in the chambers, of which there are sometimes
+several quite near each other. The reason for their being in these
+underground places was that Christians were so persecuted under the
+Romans, that they were obliged to do secretly all that they did as
+Christians, so that no attention should be attracted to them.
+
+The principal characteristics of these pictures are a simple majesty and
+earnestness of effect; perhaps spirituality is the word to use, for by
+these paintings the early Christians desired to express their belief in
+the religion of Christ, and especially in the immortality of the soul,
+which was a very precious doctrine to them. The catacombs of Rome were
+more numerous and important than those of any other city.
+
+Many of the paintings in the catacombs had a symbolic meaning, beyond the
+plainer intention which appeared at the first sight of them: you will know
+what I mean when I say that not only was this picture of Moses striking
+the rock intended to represent an historical fact in the life of Moses,
+but the flowing water was also regarded as a type of the blessing of
+Christian baptism.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--MOSES. _From a painting in the Catacomb of S.
+Agnes._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--DECORATION OF A ROOF. _Catacomb of S.
+Domitilla._]
+
+The walls of the chambers of the catacombs are laid out in such a manner
+as to have the effect of decorated apartments, just as was done in the
+pagan tombs, and sometimes the pictures were a strange union of pagan and
+Christian devices.
+
+The above cut, from the Catacomb of S. Domitilla, has in the centre the
+pagan god Orpheus playing his lyre, while in the alternate compartments of
+the border are the following Christian subjects: 1, David with the Sling;
+2, Moses Striking the Rock; 3, Daniel in the Lion's Den; 4, The Raising of
+Lazarus. The other small divisions have pictures of sacrificial animals.
+These two cuts will give you an idea of the catacomb wall-paintings.
+
+The mosaics of the Middle Ages were of a purely ornamental character down
+to the time of Constantine. Then, when the protection of a Christian
+emperor enabled the Christians to express themselves without fear, the
+doctrines of the church and the stories of the life of Christ and the
+histories of the saints, as well as many other instructive religious
+subjects, were made in mosaics, and placed in prominent places in churches
+and basilicas. Mosaics are very durable, and many belonging to the early
+Christian era still remain.
+
+The mosaics at Ravenna form the most connected series, and are the best
+preserved of those that still exist. While it is true in a certain sense
+that Rome was always the art centre of Italy, it is also true that at
+Ravenna the works of art have not suffered from devastation and
+restoration as have those of Rome. After the invasion of the Visigoths in
+A.D. 404, Honorius transferred the imperial court to Ravenna, and that
+city then became distinguished for its learning and art. The Ravenna
+mosaics are so numerous that I shall only speak of one series, from which
+I give an illustration (Fig. 19).
+
+This mosaic is in the church of S. Vitalis, which was built between A.D.
+526 and 547. In the dome of the church there is a grand representation of
+Christ enthroned; below Him are the sacred rivers of Paradise; near Him
+are two angels and S. Vitalis, to whom the Saviour is presenting a crown;
+Bishop Ecclesius, the founder of the church, is also represented near by
+with a model of the church in his hand.
+
+On a lower wall there are two pictures in which the Emperor Justinian and
+the Empress Theodosia are represented: our cut is from one of these, and
+shows the emperor and empress in magnificent costumes, each followed by a
+train of attendants. This emperor never visited Ravenna; but he sent such
+rich gifts to this church that he and his wife are represented as its
+donors.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--JUSTINIAN, THEODORA, AND ATTENDANTS. _From a
+mosaic picture at S. Vitalis, Ravenna._]
+
+After the time of Justinian (A.D. 527-565) mosaics began to be less
+artistic, and those of the later time degenerated, as did everything else
+during the Middle or Dark Ages, and at last all works of art show less and
+less of the Greek or Classic influence.
+
+When we use the word miniature as an art term, it does not mean simply a
+small picture as it does in ordinary conversation; it means the pictures
+executed by the hand of an illuminator or _miniator_ of manuscripts, and
+he is so called from the _minium_ or cinnabar which he used in making
+colors.
+
+In the days of antiquity, as I have told you in speaking of Egypt, it was
+customary to illustrate manuscripts, and during the Middle Ages this art
+was very extensively practised. Many monks spent their whole lives in
+illuminating religious books, and in Constantinople and other eastern
+cities this art reached a high degree of perfection. Some manuscripts have
+simple borders and colored initial letters only; sometimes but a single
+color is used, and is generally red, from which comes our word rubric,
+which means any writing or printing in red ink, and is derived from the
+Latin _rubrum_, or red. This was the origin of illumination or
+miniature-painting, which went on from one step to another until, at its
+highest state, most beautiful pictures were painted in manuscripts in
+which rich colors were used on gold or silver backgrounds, and the effect
+of the whole was as rich and ornamental as it is possible to imagine.
+
+Many of these old manuscripts are seen in museums, libraries, and various
+collections; they are very precious and costly, as well as interesting;
+their study is fascinating, for almost every one of the numberless designs
+that are used in them has its own symbolic meaning. The most ancient,
+artistic miniatures of which we know are those on a manuscript of a part
+of the book of Genesis; it is in the Imperial Library at Vienna, and was
+made at the end of the fifth century. In the same collection there is a
+very extraordinary manuscript, from which I give an illustration.
+
+This manuscript is a treatise on botany, and was written by Dioskorides
+for his pupil, the Princess Juliana Anicia, a granddaughter of the Emperor
+Valentine III. As this princess died at Constantinople A.D. 527, this
+manuscript dates from the beginning of the sixth century. This picture
+from it represents Dioskorides dressed in white robes and seated in a
+chair of gold; before him stands a woman in a gold tunic and scarlet
+mantle, who represents the genius of discovery; she presents the legendary
+mandrake root, or mandragora, to the learned man, while between them is
+the dog that has pulled the root, and falls dead, according to the
+fabulous story. This manuscript was painted by a masterly hand, and is
+curious and interesting; the plants, snakes, birds, and insects must have
+been painted from nature, and the whole is most skilfully done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--THE DISCOVERY OF THE HERB MANDRAGORA. _From a MS.
+of Dioskorides, at Vienna._]
+
+During the Middle Ages the arts as practised in Rome were carried into all
+the different countries in which the Romans made conquests or sent their
+monks and missionaries to establish churches, convents, and schools. Thus
+the mediaeval arts were practised in Gaul, Spain, Germany, and Great
+Britain. No wall-paintings or mosaics remain from the early German or
+Celtic peoples; but their illuminated manuscripts are very numerous:
+miniature-painting was extensively done in Ireland, and many Irish
+manuscripts remain in the collections of Great Britain.
+
+When Charlemagne became the king of the Franks in 768, there was little
+knowledge of any art among his northern subjects; in 800 he made himself
+emperor of the Romans, also, and when the Franks saw all the splendor of
+Rome and other parts of Italy, it was not difficult for the great emperor
+to introduce the arts into the Frankish portion of his empire. All sorts
+of beautiful objects were carried from Italy by the Franks, and great
+workshops were established at Aix-la-Chapelle, the capital, and were
+placed under the care of Eginhard, who was skilled in bronze-casting,
+modelling, and other arts; he was called Bezaleel, after the builder of
+the Tabernacle. We have many accounts of the wall-paintings and mosaics of
+the Franks; but there are no remains of them that can be identified with
+positive accuracy.
+
+Miniature-painting flourished under the rule of Charlemagne and his
+family, and reached a point of great magnificence in effect, though it was
+never as artistic as the work of the Italian miniators; and, indeed,
+gradually everything connected with art was declining in all parts of the
+world; and as we study its history, we can understand why the terms Dark
+Ages and Middle Ages are used to denote the same epoch, remarkable as it
+is for the decay and extinction of so many beautiful things.
+
+
+THE CENTRAL, OR ROMANESQUE PERIOD.
+
+During the Romanesque Period (950-1250) architecture was pursued according
+to laws which had grown out of the achievements and experiences of earlier
+ages, and had reached such a perfection as entitled it to the rank of a
+noble art. But this was not true of painting, which was then but little
+more than the painting of the Egyptians had been, that is, a sort of
+picture-writing, which was principally used to illustrate the doctrines of
+religion, and by this means to teach them to peoples who had no books, and
+could not have read them had they existed.
+
+During all this time the art of painting was largely under the control of
+the priests. Some artists were priests themselves, and those who were not
+were under the direction of some church dignitary. Popes, bishops, abbots,
+and so on, were the principal patrons of art, and they suggested to the
+artists the subjects to be painted, and then the pictures were used for
+the decoration of churches and other buildings used by the religious
+orders. The monks were largely occupied in miniature-painting; artists
+frequented the monasteries, and, indeed, when they were engaged upon
+religious subjects, they were frequently under the same discipline as that
+of the monks themselves.
+
+Next to the influence of the church came that of the court; but in a way
+it was much the same, for the clergy had great influence at court, and,
+although painting was used to serve the luxury of sovereigns and nobles,
+it was also true that these high personages often employed artists to
+decorate chapels and to paint altar-pieces for churches at their expense,
+for during the Romanesque period there was some painting on panels. At
+first these panel-pictures were placed on the front of the altar where
+draperies had formerly been used: later they were raised above the altar,
+and also put in various parts of the church. The painting of the
+Romanesque period was merely a decline, and there can be little more said
+of it than is told by that one word.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--KING DAVID. _From a window in Augsburg
+Cathedral._]
+
+Glass-painting dates from this time. The very earliest specimens of which
+we know are from the eleventh century. Before that time there had been
+transparent mosaics made by putting together bits of colored glass, and
+arranging them in simple, set and ornamental patterns. Such mosaics date
+from the earliest days of Christianity, and were in use as soon as glass
+was used for windows. From ancient writings we know that some windows were
+made with pictures upon them as long ago as A.D. 989; but nothing now
+remains from that remote date.
+
+There is a doubt as to whether glass-painting originated in France or
+Germany. Some French authors ascribe its invention to Germany, while some
+German writers accord the same honor to France. Remains of glass-painting
+of the eleventh century have been found in both these countries; but it is
+probable that five windows in the Cathedral of Augsburg date from 1065,
+and are a little older than any others of which we know. This picture of
+David is from one of them, and is probably as old as any painted window in
+existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--WINDOW. _From the Cathedral of St. Denis._]
+
+The oldest glass-painting in France is probably a single fragment in the
+Cathedral of Le Mans. This cathedral was completed in 1093, but was badly
+burned in 1136, so that but a single piece of its windows remains; this
+has been inserted in a new window in the choir, and is thus preserved.
+With the beginning of the twelfth century, glass-painting became more
+frequent in Europe, and near the end of this century it was introduced
+into England, together with the Gothic style of architecture. Very soon a
+highly decorative effect was given to glass-painting, and the designs upon
+many windows were very much like those used in the miniatures of the same
+time. The stained glass in the Cathedral of St. Denis, near Paris, is very
+important. It dates from about 1140-1151, and was executed under the care
+of the famous Abbot Suger. He employed both French and German workmen, and
+decorated the entire length of the walls with painted windows. St. Denis
+was the first French cathedral in the full Gothic style of architecture.
+The present windows in St. Denis can scarcely be said to be the original
+ones, as the cathedral has suffered much from revolutions; but some of
+them have been restored as nearly as possible, and our illustration (Fig.
+22) will give you a good idea of what its windows were.
+
+The stripes which run across the ground in this window are red and blue,
+and the leaf border is in a light tone of color. There are nine
+medallions; the three upper ones have simply ornamental designs upon them,
+and the six lower ones have pictures of sacred subjects. The one given
+here is an Annunciation, in which the Abbot Suger kneels at the feet of
+the Virgin Mary. His figure interferes with the border of the medallion in
+a very unusual manner.
+
+Perhaps the most important ancient glass-painting remaining in France is
+that of the west front of the Cathedral of Chartres. It dates from about
+1125, when this front was begun; there are three windows, and their color
+is far superior to the glass of a later period, which is in the same
+cathedral. The earliest painted glass in England dates from about 1180.
+Some of the windows in Canterbury Cathedral correspond to those in the
+Cathedral of St. Denis.
+
+In the Strasbourg Cathedral there are some splendid remains of painted
+glass of the Romanesque period, although they were much injured by the
+bombardment of 1870. Fig. 23 is from one of the west windows, and
+represents King Henry I.
+
+This is an unusually fine example of the style of the period before the
+more elaborate Gothic manner had arisen; the quiet regularity of the
+drapery and the dignified air of the whole figure is very impressive.
+
+An entirely different sort of colored windows was used in the churches and
+edifices which belonged to the Cistercian order of monks. The rule of this
+order was severe, and while they wished to soften the light within their
+churches, they believed it to be wrong to use anything which denoted pomp
+or splendor in the decoration of the house of God. For these reasons they
+invented what is called the _grisaille_ glass: it is painted in regular
+patterns in gray tones of color. Sometimes these windows are varied by a
+leaf pattern in shades of green and brown, with occasional touches of
+bright color; but this is used very sparingly. Some of these _grisaille_
+windows are seen in France; but the finest are in Germany in the Cathedral
+of Heiligenkreuz: they date from the first half of the thirteenth century.
+
+
+THE FINAL, OR GOTHIC PERIOD.
+
+The Gothic order of architecture, which was perfected during this period,
+had a decided influence upon the painting and sculpture of the time; but
+this influence was not felt until Gothic architecture had reached a high
+point in its development. France was now the leading country of the world,
+and Paris came to be the most important of all cities: it was the centre
+from which went forth edicts as to the customs of society, the laws of
+dress and conduct, and even of the art of love. From France came the codes
+of chivalry, and the crusades, which spread to other lands, originated
+there. Thus, for the time, Paris overshadowed Rome and the older centres
+of art, industry, and science, with a world-wide influence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--FIGURE OF HENRY I. IN WEST WINDOW OF STRASBOURG
+CATHEDRAL.]
+
+Although the painting of this period had largely the same characteristics
+as that of the Romanesque period, it had a different spirit, and it was no
+longer under the control of the clergy. Before this time, too, painters
+had frequently been skilled in other arts; now it became the custom for
+them to be painters only, and besides this they were divided into certain
+classes of painters, and were then associated with other craftsmen who
+were engaged in the trade which was connected with their art. That is, the
+glass-painters painted glass only, and were associated with the
+glass-blowers; those who decorated shields, with the shield or scutcheon
+makers, and so on; while the painters, pure and simple, worked at
+wall-painting, and a little later at panel-painting also. From this
+association of artists and tradesmen there grew up brotherhoods which
+supported their members in all difficulties, and stood by each other like
+friends. Each brotherhood had its altar in some church; they had their
+funerals and festivals in common, and from these brotherhoods grew up the
+more powerful societies which were called guilds. These guilds became
+powerful organizations; they had definite rights and duties, and even
+judicial authority as to such matters as belonged to their special trades.
+
+All this led to much greater individuality among artists than had ever
+existed before: it came to be understood that a painter could, and had a
+right to, paint a picture as he wished, and was not governed by any
+priestly law. Religious subjects were still painted more frequently than
+others, and the decoration of religious edifices was the chief employment
+of the artists; but they worked with more independence of thought and
+spirit. The painters studied more from nature, and though the change was
+very slow, it is still true that a certain softness of effect, an easy
+flow of drapery, and a new grace of pose did appear, and about A.D. 1350 a
+new idea of the uses and aims of painting influenced artists everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--BIRTH OF THE VIRGIN. _From the Grandes Heures of
+the Duc de Berri._]
+
+About that time they attempted to represent distances, and to create
+different planes in their works; to reproduce such things as they
+represented far more exactly than they had done before, and to put them in
+just relations to surrounding places and objects; in a word, they seemed
+to awake to an appreciation of the true office of painting and to its
+infinite possibilities.
+
+During this Gothic period some of the most exquisite manuscripts were made
+in France and Germany, and they are now the choicest treasures of their
+kind in various European collections.
+
+Fig. 24, of the birth of the Virgin Mary, is from one of the most splendid
+books of the time which was painted for the Duke de Berry and called the
+Great Book of the Hours. The wealth of ornament in the border is a
+characteristic of the French miniatures of the time. The Germans used a
+simpler style, as you will see by Fig. 25, of the Annunciation.
+
+The influence of the Gothic order of architecture upon glass-painting was
+very pronounced. Under this order the windows became much more important
+than they had been, and it was not unusual to see a series of windows
+painted in such pictures as illustrated the whole teaching of the
+doctrines of the church. It was at this time that the custom arose of
+donating memorial windows to religious edifices. Sometimes they were the
+gift of a person or a family, and the portraits of the donors were painted
+in the lower part of the window, and usually in a kneeling posture; at
+other times windows were given by guilds, and it is very odd to see
+craftsmen of various sorts at work in a cathedral window: such pictures
+exist at Chartres, Bourges, Amiens, and other places.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--THE ANNUNCIATION. _From the Mariale of Archbishop
+Arnestus of Prague._]
+
+About A.D. 1300 it began to be the custom to represent architectural
+effects upon colored windows. Our cut is from a window at Konigsfelden,
+and will show exactly what I mean (Fig. 26).
+
+This style of decoration was not as effective as the earlier ones had
+been, and, indeed, from about this time glass-painting became less
+satisfactory than before, from the fact that it had more resemblance to
+panel-painting, and so lost a part of the individuality which had belonged
+to it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--PAINTED WINDOW AT KONIGSFELDEN.]
+
+Wall-paintings were rare in the Gothic period, for its architecture left
+no good spaces where the pictures could be placed, and so the interior
+painting of the churches was almost entirely confined to borders and
+decorative patterns scattered here and there and used with great effect.
+In Germany and England wall-painting was more used for the decoration of
+castles, halls, chambers, and chapels; but as a whole mural painting was
+of little importance at this time in comparison with its earlier days.
+
+About A.D. 1350 panel pictures began to be more numerous, and from this
+time there are vague accounts of schools of painting at Prague and
+Cologne, and a few remnants exist which prove that such works were
+executed in France and Flanders; but I shall pass over what is often
+called the Transitional Period, by which we mean the time in which new
+influences were beginning to act, and hereafter I will tell our story by
+giving accounts of the lives of separate painters; for from about the
+middle of the thirteenth century it is possible to trace the history of
+painting through the study of individual artists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--PORTRAIT OF CIMABUE.]
+
+GIOVANNI CIMABUE, the first painter of whom I shall tell you, was born in
+Florence in 1240. He is sometimes called the "Father of Modern Painting,"
+because he was the first who restored that art to any degree of the
+beauty to which it had attained before the Dark Ages. The Cimabui were a
+noble family, and Giovanni was allowed to follow his own taste, and became
+a painter; he was also skilled in mosaic work, and during the last years
+of his life held the office of master of the mosaic workers in the
+Cathedral of Pisa, where some of his own mosaics still remain.
+
+Of his wall-paintings I shall say nothing except to tell you that the
+finest are in the Upper Church at Assisi, where one sees the first step in
+the development of the art of Tuscany. But I wish to tell the story of one
+of his panel pictures, which is very interesting. It is now in the
+Rucellai Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria Novella, in Florence, and it
+is only just in me to say that if one of my readers walked through that
+church and did not know about this picture, it is doubtful if he would
+stop to look at it--certainly he would not admire it. The story is that
+when Cimabue was about thirty years old he was busy in painting this
+picture of the Madonna Enthroned, and he would not allow any one to see
+what he was doing.
+
+It happened, however, that Charles of Anjou, being on his way to Naples,
+stopped in Florence, where the nobles did everything in their power for
+his entertainment. Among other places they took him to the studio of
+Cimabue, who uncovered his picture for the first time. Many persons then
+flocked to see it, and were so loud in their joyful expressions of
+admiration for it that the part of the city in which the studio was has
+since been called the _Borgo Allegri_, or the "joyous quarter."
+
+When the picture was completed the day was celebrated as a festival; a
+procession was formed; bands of music played joyful airs; the magistrates
+of Florence honored the occasion with their presence; and the picture was
+borne in triumph to the church. Cimabue must have been very happy at this
+great appreciation of his art, and from that time he was famous in all
+Italy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE MADONNA OF THE CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA
+NOVELLA.]
+
+Another madonna by this master is in the Academy of Florence, and one
+attributed to him is in the Louvre, in Paris.
+
+Cimabue died about 1302, and was buried in the Church of Santa Maria del
+Fiore, or the Cathedral of Florence. Above his tomb these words were
+inscribed: "Cimabue thought himself master of the field of painting. While
+living, he was so. Now he holds his place among the stars of heaven."
+
+Other artists who were important in this early time of the revival of
+painting were ANDREA TAFI, a mosaist of Florence, MARGARITONE OF AREZZO,
+GUIDO OF SIENA, and of the same city DUCCIO, the son of Buoninsegna. This
+last painter flourished from 1282 to 1320; his altar-piece for the
+Cathedral of Siena was also carried to its place in solemn procession,
+with the sound of trumpet, drum, and bell.
+
+GIOTTO DI BONDONE was the next artist in whom we have an unusual interest.
+He was born at Del Colle, in the commune of Vespignano, probably about
+1266, though the date is usually given ten years later. One of the best
+reasons for calling Cimabue the "Father of Painting" is that he acted the
+part of a father to Giotto, who proved to be so great an artist that from
+his time painting made a rapid advance. The story is that one day when
+Cimabue rode in the valley of Vespignano he saw a shepherd-boy who was
+drawing a portrait of one of his sheep on a flat rock, by means of a
+pointed bit of slate for a pencil. The sketch was so good that Cimabue
+offered to take the boy to Florence, and teach him to paint. The boy's
+father consented, and henceforth the little Giotto lived with Cimabue, who
+instructed him in painting, and put him to study letters under Brunetto
+Latini, who was also the teacher of the great poet, Dante.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--PORTRAIT OF DANTE, PAINTED BY GIOTTO.]
+
+The picture which we give here is from the earliest work by Giotto of
+which we have any knowledge. In it were the portraits of Dante, Latini,
+and several others. This picture was painted on a wall of the Podesta at
+Florence, and when Dante was exiled from that city his portrait was
+covered with whitewash; in 1841 it was restored to the light, having been
+hidden for centuries. It is a precious memento of the friendship between
+the great artist and the divine poet, who expressed his admiration of
+Giotto in these lines:--
+
+      "In painting Cimabue fain had thought
+         To lord the field; now Giotto has the cry,
+       So that the other's fame in shade is brought."
+
+Giotto did much work in Florence; he also, about 1300, executed frescoes
+in the Lower Church at Assisi; from 1303-1306 he painted his beautiful
+pictures in the Cappella dell' Arena, at Padua, by which the genius of
+Giotto is now most fully shown. He worked at Rimini also, and about 1330
+was employed by King Robert of Naples, who conferred many honors upon him,
+and made him a member of his own household. In 1334 Giotto was made the
+chief master of the cathedral works in Florence, as well as of the city
+fortifications and all architectural undertakings by the city authorities.
+He held this high position but three years, as he died on January 8, 1337.
+
+Giotto was also a great architect, as is well known from his tower in
+Florence, for which he made all the designs and a part of the working
+models, while some of the sculptures and reliefs upon it prove that he was
+skilled in modelling and carving. He worked in mosaics also, and the
+famous "Navicella," in the vestibule of St. Peter's at Rome, was
+originally made by him, but has now been so much restored that it is
+doubtful if any part of what remains was done by Giotto's hands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--GIOTTO'S CAMPANILE AND THE DUOMO. _Florence._]
+
+The works of Giotto are too numerous to be mentioned here, and his
+merits as an artist too important to be discussed in our limits; but his
+advance in painting was so great that he deserved the great compliment of
+Cennino, who said that Giotto "had done or translated the art of painting
+from Greek into Latin."
+
+I shall, however, tell you of one excellent thing that he did, which was
+to make the representation of the crucifix far more refined and
+Christ-like than it had ever been. Before his time every effort had been
+made to picture physical agony alone. Giotto gave a gentle face, full of
+suffering, it is true, but also expressive of tenderness and resignation,
+and it would not be easy to paint a better crucifix than those of this
+master.
+
+In person Giotto was so ugly that his admirers made jokes about it; but he
+was witty and attractive in conversation, and so modest that his friends
+were always glad to praise him while he lived, and since his death his
+fame has been cherished by all who have written of him. There are many
+anecdotes told of Giotto. One is that on a very hot day in Naples, King
+Robert said to the painter, "Giotto, if I were you, I would leave work,
+and rest." Giotto quickly replied, "So would I, sire, _if I were you_."
+
+When the same king asked him to paint a picture which would represent his
+kingdom, Giotto drew an ass bearing a saddle on which were a crown and
+sceptre, while at the feet of the ass there was a new saddle with a
+shining new crown and sceptre, at which the ass was eagerly smelling. By
+this he intended to show that the Neapolitans were so fickle that they
+were always looking for a new king.
+
+There is a story which has been often repeated which says, that in order
+to paint his crucifixes so well, he persuaded a man to be bound to a cross
+for an hour as a model; and when he had him there he stabbed him, in order
+to see such agony as he wished to paint. When the Pope saw the picture he
+was so pleased with it that he wished to have it for his own chapel; then
+Giotto confessed what he had done, and showed the body of the dead man.
+The Pope was so angry that he threatened the painter with the same death,
+upon which Giotto brushed the picture over so that it seemed to be
+destroyed. Then the Pope so regretted the loss of the crucifix that he
+promised to pardon Giotto if he would paint him another as good. Giotto
+exacted the promise in writing, and then, with a wet sponge, removed the
+wash he had used, and the picture was as good as before. According to
+tradition all famous crucifixes were drawn from this picture ever after.
+
+When Boniface VIII. sent a messenger to invite Giotto to Rome, the
+messenger asked Giotto to show him something of the art which had made him
+so famous. Giotto, with a pencil, by a single motion drew so perfect a
+circle that it was thought to be a miracle, and this gave rise to a
+proverb still much used in Italy:--_Piu tondo che l'O di Giotto_, or,
+"Rounder than the O of Giotto."
+
+Giotto had a wife and eight children, of whom nothing is known but that
+his son Francesco became a painter. Giotto died in 1337, and was buried
+with great honors in the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore. Lorenzo de
+Medici erected a monument to his memory. The pupils and followers of
+Giotto were very numerous, and were called Giotteschi; among these TADDEO
+GADDI, and his son AGNOLO, are most famous: others were MASO and BERNARDO
+DI DADDO; but I shall not speak in detail of these artists.
+
+While Giotto was making the art of Florence famous, there was an artist in
+Siena who raised the school of that city to a place of great honor. This
+was SIMONE MARTINI, who lived from 1283 to 1344, and is often called
+SIMONE MEMMI because he married a sister of another painter, LIPPO MEMMI.
+The most important works of Simone which remain are at Siena in the
+Palazzo Pubblico and in the Lower Church at Assisi. There is one
+beautiful work of his in the Royal Institution, at Liverpool, which
+illustrates the text, "Behold, thy father and I have sought Thee,
+sorrowing."
+
+While the Papal court was at Avignon, in 1338, Simone removed to that
+city. Here he became the friend of Petrarch and of Laura, and has been
+praised by this poet as Giotto was by Dante.
+
+Another eminent Florentine artist was ANDREA ORCAGNA, as he is called,
+though his real name was ANDREA ARCAGNUOLO DI CIONE. He was born about
+1329, and died about 1368. It has long been the custom to attribute to
+Orcagna some of the most important frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa;
+but it is so doubtful whether he worked there that I shall not speak of
+them. His father was a goldsmith, and Orcagna first studied his father's
+craft; he was also an architect, sculptor, mosaist, and poet, as well as a
+painter. He made an advance in color and in the painting of atmosphere
+that gives him high rank as a painter; as a sculptor, his tabernacle in
+the Church of Or San Michele speaks his praise. Mr. C. C. Perkins thus
+describes it: "Built of white marble in the Gothic style, enriched with
+every kind of ornament, and storied with bas-reliefs illustrative of the
+Madonna's history from her birth to her death, it rises in stately beauty
+toward the roof of the church, and, whether considered from an
+architectural, sculptural, or symbolic point of view, must excite the
+warmest admiration in all who can appreciate the perfect unity of
+conception through which its bas-reliefs, statuettes, busts, intaglios,
+mosaics, and incrustations of _pietre dure_, gilded glass, and enamels are
+welded into a unique whole."
+
+But perhaps it is as an architect that Orcagna is most interesting to us,
+for he it was who made the designs for the Loggia de Lanzi in Florence.
+This was built as a place for public assembly, and the discussion of the
+topics of the day in rainy weather; it received its name on account of
+its nearness to the German guard-house which was called that of the
+Landsknechts (in German), or Lanzi, as it was given in Italian. Orcagna
+probably died before the Loggia was completed, and his brother Bernardo
+succeeded him as architect of the commune. This Loggia is one of the most
+interesting places in Florence, fully in sight of the Palazzo Signoria,
+near the gallery of the Uffizi, and itself the storehouse of precious
+works of sculpture.
+
+There were also in these early days of the fourteenth century schools of
+art at Bologna and Modena; but we know so little of them in detail that I
+shall not attempt to give any account of them here, but will pass to the
+early artists who may be said to belong to the true Renaissance in Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+PAINTING IN ITALY, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE RENAISSANCE
+TO THE PRESENT CENTURY.
+
+
+The reawakening of Art in Italy which followed the darkness of the Middle
+Ages, dates from about the beginning of the fifteenth century and is
+called the Renaissance. The Italians have a method of reckoning the
+centuries which differs from ours. Thus we call 1800 the first year of the
+nineteenth century, but they call it the first of the eighteenth; so the
+painters of what was to us the fifteenth century are called by Italians
+the "_quattrocentisti_," or men of the fourteenth century, and while to us
+the term "_cinquecento_" means the style of the sixteenth century, to the
+Italians the same century, which begins with 1500, is the fifteenth
+century.
+
+I shall use our own method of reckoning in my writing; but this fact
+should be known to all who read or study art.
+
+The first painter of whom I shall now speak is known to us as FRA
+ANGELICO. His name was Guido, the son of Pietro, and he was born at
+Vicchio in the province of Mugello, in the year 1387. We know that his
+family was in such circumstances that the young Guido could have led a
+life of ease; but he early determined to become a preaching friar.
+Meantime, even as a boy, he showed his taste for art, and there are six
+years in his life, from the age of fourteen to twenty, of which no one can
+tell the story. However, from what followed it is plain that during this
+time he must somewhere have devoted himself to the study of painting and
+to preparation for his life as a monk.
+
+Before he was fully twenty years old, he entered the convent at Fiesole,
+and took the name of Fra, or Brother Giovanni; soon after, his elder
+brother joined him there, and became Fra Benedetto. Later on our artist
+was called Fra Angelico, and again _Il Beato Angelico_, and then,
+according to Italian custom, the name of the town from which he came was
+added, so that he was at last called _Il Beato Giovanni, detto Angelico,
+da Fiesole_, which means, "The Blessed John, called the Angelic, of
+Fiesole." The title _Il Beato_ is usually conferred by the church, but it
+was given to Fra Angelico by the people, because of his saintly character
+and works.
+
+It was in 1407 that Fra Angelico was admitted to the convent in Fiesole,
+and after seven years of peaceful life there he was obliged to flee with
+his companions to Foligno. It was at the time when three different popes
+claimed the authority over the Church of Rome, and the city of Florence
+declared itself in favor of Alexander V.; but the monks of Fiesole adhered
+to Gregory XII., and for this reason were driven from their convent. Six
+years they dwelt at Foligno; then the plague broke out in the country
+about them, and again they fled to Cortona. Pictures painted by Fra
+Angelico at this time still remain in the churches of Cortona.
+
+After an absence of ten years the monks returned to Fiesole, where our
+artist passed the next eighteen years. This was the richest period of his
+life: his energy was untiring, and his zeal both as an artist and as a
+priest burned with a steady fire. His works were sought for far and wide,
+and most of his easel-pictures were painted during this time. Fra Angelico
+would never accept the money which was paid for his work; it was given
+into the treasury of his convent; neither did he accept any commission
+without the consent of the prior. Naturally, the monk-artist executed
+works for the adornment of his own convent. Some of these have been sold
+and carried to other cities and countries, and those which remain have
+been too much injured and too much restored to be considered important
+now.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--FRA ANGELICO. _From the representation of him in
+the fresco of the "Last Judgment," by Fra Bartolommeo, in Santa Maria
+Nuova, Florence._]
+
+He painted so many pictures during this second residence at Fiesole, not
+only for public places, but for private citizens, that Vasari wrote: "This
+Father painted so many pictures, which are dispersed through the houses of
+the Florentines, that sometimes I am lost in wonder when I think how works
+so good and so many could, though in the course of many years, have been
+brought to perfection by one man alone."
+
+In 1436 the great Cosimo de Medici insisted that the monks of Fiesole
+should again leave their convent, and remove to that of San Marco, in
+Florence. Most unwillingly the brethren submitted, and immediately Cosimo
+set architects and builders to work to erect a new convent, for the old
+one was in a ruinous state. The new cloisters offered a noble field to the
+genius of Fra Angelico, and he labored for their decoration with his whole
+soul; though the rule of the order was so strict that the pictures in the
+cells could be seen only by the monks, he put all his skill into them, and
+labored as devotedly as if the whole world could see and praise them, as
+indeed has since been done. His pictures in this convent are so numerous
+that we must not describe them, but will say that the Crucifixion in the
+chapter-room is usually called his masterpiece. It is nearly twenty-five
+feet square, and, besides the usual figures in this subject, the Saviour
+and the thieves, with the executioners, there are holy women, the founders
+of various orders, the patrons of the convent, and companies of saints. In
+the frame there are medallions with several saints and a Sibyl, each
+bearing an inscription from the prophecies relating to Christ's death;
+while below all, St. Dominic, the founder of the artist's order, bears a
+genealogical tree with many portraits of those who had been eminent among
+his followers. For this reason this picture has great historic value.
+
+At last, in 1445, Pope Eugenius IV., who had dedicated the new convent of
+San Marco and seen the works of Angelico, summoned him to Rome. It is said
+that the Pope not only wished for some of his paintings, but he also
+desired to honor Angelico by giving him the archbishopric of Florence; but
+when this high position was offered him, Fra Angelico would not accept of
+it: he declared himself unequal to its duties, and begged the Pope to
+appoint Fra Antonino in his stead. This request was granted, and Angelico
+went on with his work as before, in all humility fulfilling his
+heaven-born mission to lead men to better lives through the sweet
+influence of his divine art.
+
+The honor which had been tendered him was great--one which the noblest men
+were striving for--but if he realized this he did not regret his decision,
+neither was he made bold or vain by the royal tribute which the Pope had
+paid him.
+
+From this time the most important works of Fra Angelico were done in the
+chapel of Pope Nicholas V., in the Vatican, and in the chapel which he
+decorated in the Cathedral of Orvieto. He worked there one summer, and the
+work was continued by Luca Signorelli. The remainder of his life was
+passed so quietly that little can be told of it. It is not even known with
+certainty whether he ever returned to Florence, and by some strange fate
+the key to the chapel which he painted in the Vatican was lost during two
+centuries, and the pictures could only be seen by entering through a
+window. Thus it would seem that his last years were passed in the quiet
+work which he best loved.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--AN ANGEL. _In the Uffizi, Florence. By Fra
+Angelico._]
+
+When his final illness was upon him, the brethren of Santa Maria Sopra
+Minerva, where he resided, gathered about him, and chanted the _Salve
+Regina_. He died on the 18th of February, 1455, when sixty-seven years
+old. His tombstone is in the church of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva, in Rome;
+on it lies the figure of a Dominican monk in marble. Pope Nicholas V.
+wrote his epitaph in Latin. The following translation is by Professor
+Norton:
+
+      "Not mine be the praise that I was a second Apelles,
+       But that I gave all my gains to thine, O Christ!
+       One work is for the earth, another for heaven.
+       The city, the Flower of Tuscany, bore me--John."
+
+In the Convent of San Marco in Florence there are twenty-five pictures by
+this master; in the Academy of Florence there are about sixty; there are
+eleven in the chapel of Nicholas V., and still others in the Vatican
+gallery. The Church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, the Cathedral of
+Orvieto, the Church of St. Domenico in Perugia, and that of Cortona, are
+all rich in his works. Besides these a few exist in some of the principal
+European galleries; but I love best to see them in San Marco, where he
+painted them for his brethren, and where they seem most at home.
+
+The chief merit of the pictures of Fra Angelico is the sweet and tender
+expression of the faces of his angels and saints, or any beings who are
+holy and good; he never succeeded in painting evil and sin in such a way
+as to terrify one; his gentle nature did not permit him to represent that
+which it could not comprehend, and the very spirit of purity seems to
+breathe through every picture.
+
+Two other Florentine artists of the same era with Fra Angelico were
+MASOLINO, whose real name was PANICALE, and TOMMASO GUIDI, called MASACCIO
+on account of his want of neatness. The style of these two masters was
+much the same, but Masaccio became so much the greater that little is
+said of Masolino. The principal works of Masaccio are a series of frescoes
+in the Brancacci Chapel in Florence. They represent "The Expulsion from
+Paradise," "The Tribute Money," "Peter Baptizing," "Peter Curing the Blind
+and Lame," "The Death of Ananias," "Simon Magus," and the "Resuscitation
+of the King's Son." There is a fresco by Masolino in the same chapel; it
+is "The Preaching of Peter." Masaccio was in fact a remarkable painter.
+Some one has said that he seemed to hold Giotto by one hand, and reach
+forward to Raphael with the other; and considering the pictures which were
+painted before his time, his works are as wonderful as Raphael's are
+beautiful. He died in 1429.
+
+PAOLO UCCELLO (1396-1479) and FILIPPO LIPPI (1412-1469) were also good
+painters, and SANDRO BOTTICELLI (1447-1515), a pupil of Filippo, was
+called the best Florentine painter of his time. FILLIPINO LIPPI
+(1460-1505) was a pupil of Botticelli and a very important artist. ANDREA
+VERROCCHIO, LORENZO DI CREDI, and ANTONIO POLLAJUOLO were all good
+painters of the Florentine school of the last half of the fifteenth
+century.
+
+Of the same period was DOMENICO GHIRLANDAJO (1449-1494), who ranks very
+high on account of his skill in the composition of his works and as a
+colorist. He made his pictures very interesting also to those of his own
+time, and to those of later days, by introducing portraits of certain
+citizens of Florence into pictures which he painted in the Church of Santa
+Maria Novella and other public places in the city. He did not usually make
+them actors in the scene he represented, but placed them in detached
+groups as if they were looking at the picture themselves. While his scenes
+were laid in the streets known to us, and his architecture was familiar,
+he did not run into the fantastic or lose the picturesque effect which is
+always pleasing. Without being one of the greatest of the Italian masters
+Ghirlandajo was a very important painter. He was also a teacher of the
+great Michael Angelo.
+
+Other prominent Florentine painters of the close of the fifteenth century
+were FRANCISCO GRANACCI (1477-1543), LUCA SIGNORELLI (1441-1521), BENOZZO
+GOZZOLI (1424-1485), and COSIMO ROSSELLI (1439-1506).
+
+Some good painters worked in Venice from the last half of the fourteenth
+century; but I shall begin to speak of the Venetian school with some
+account of the Bellini. The father of this family was JACOPO BELLINI
+(1395-1470), and his sons were GENTILE BELLINI (1421-1507) and GIOVANNI
+BELLINI (1426-1516).
+
+The sketch-book of the father is one of the treasures of the British
+Museum. It has 99 pages, 17 by 13 inches in size, and contains sketches of
+almost everything--still and animal life, nature, ancient sculpture,
+buildings and human figures, stories of the Scriptures, of mythology, and
+of the lives of the saints are all illustrated in its sketches, as well as
+hawking parties, village scenes, apes, eagles, dogs, and cats. In this
+book the excellence of his drawing is seen; but so few of his works remain
+that we cannot judge of him as a colorist. It is certain that he laid the
+foundation of the excellence of the Venetian school, which his son
+Giovanni and the great Titian carried to perfection.
+
+The elder son, Gentile, was a good artist, and gained such a reputation by
+his pictures in the great council-chamber of Venice, that when, in 1479,
+Sultan Mehemet, the conqueror of Constantinople, sent to Venice for a good
+painter, the Doge sent to him Gentile Bellini. With him he sent two
+assistants, and gave him honorable conduct in galleys belonging to the
+State. In Constantinople Gentile was much honored, and he painted the
+portraits of many remarkable people. At length it happened that when he
+had finished a picture of the head of John the Baptist in a charger, and
+showed it to the Sultan, that ruler said that the neck was not well
+painted, and when he saw that Gentile did not agree with him he called a
+slave and had his head instantly struck off, to prove to the artist what
+would be the true action of the muscles under such circumstances. This act
+made Gentile unwilling to remain near the Sultan, and after a year in his
+service he returned home. Mehemet, at parting, gave him many gifts, and
+begged him to ask for whatever would best please him. Gentile asked but
+for a letter of praise to the Doge and Signoria of Venice. After his
+return to Venice he worked much in company with his brother. It is said
+that Titian studied with Gentile: it is certain that he was always
+occupied with important commissions, and worked until the day of his
+death, when he was more than eighty years old.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--CHRIST. _By Gio. Bellini._]
+
+But Giovanni Bellini was the greatest of his family, and must stand as the
+founder of true Venetian painting. His works may be divided into two
+periods, those that were done before, and those after he learned the use
+of oil colors. His masterpieces, which can still be seen in the Academy
+and the churches of Venice, were painted after he was sixty-five years
+old. The works of Giovanni Bellini are numerous in Venice, and are also
+seen in the principal galleries of Europe. He did not paint a great
+variety of subjects, neither was his imagination very poetical, but there
+was a moral beauty in his figures; he seems to have made humanity as
+elevated as it can be, and to have stopped just on the line which
+separates earthly excellence from the heavenly. He often painted the
+single figure of Christ, of which Luebke says: "By grand nobleness of
+expression, solemn bearing, and an excellent arrangement of the drapery,
+he reached a dignity which has rarely been surpassed." Near the close of
+his life he painted a few subjects which represent gay and festive scenes,
+and are more youthful in spirit than the works of his earlier years. The
+two brothers were buried side by side, in the Church of SS. Giovanni e
+Paolo, in Venice.
+
+There were also good painters in Padua, Ferrara, and Verona in the
+fifteenth century.
+
+ANDREA MANTEGNA, of Padua (1430-1506), was a very important artist. He
+spent the best part of his life in the service of the Duke of Mantua; but
+his influence was felt in all Italy, for his marriage with the daughter of
+Jacopo Bellini brought him into relations with many artists. His services
+were sought by various sovereigns, whose offers he refused until Pope
+Innocent VIII. summoned him to Rome to paint a chapel in the Vatican.
+After two years there he returned to Mantua, where he died. His pictures
+are in all large collections; his finest works are madonnas at the Louvre,
+Paris, and in the Church of St. Zeno at Verona. Mantegna was a fine
+engraver also, and his plates are now very valuable.
+
+In the Umbrian school Pietro Perugino (1446-1524) was a notable painter;
+he was important on account of his own work, and because he was the master
+of the great Raphael. His pictures were simple and devout in their spirit,
+and brilliant in color; in fact, he is considered as the founder of the
+style which Raphael perfected. His works are in the principal galleries of
+Europe, and he had many followers of whom we have not space to speak.
+
+FRANCISCO FRANCIA (1450-1518) was the founder of the school of Bologna.
+His true name was Francisco di Marco Raibolini, and he was a goldsmith of
+repute before he was a painter. He was also master of the mint to the
+Bentivoglio and to Pope Julius II. at Bologna. It is not possible to say
+when he began to paint; but his earliest known work is dated 1490 or 1494,
+and is in the Gallery of Bologna. His pictures resemble those of Perugino
+and Raphael, and it is said that he died of sorrow because he felt himself
+so inferior to the great painter of Urbino. Raphael sent his St. Cecilia
+to Francia, and asked him to care for it and see it hung in its place; he
+did so, but did not live long after this. It is well known that these two
+masters were good friends and corresponded, but it is not certain that
+they ever met. Francia's pictures are numerous; his portraits are
+excellent. Many of his works are still in Bologna.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--MADONNA. _By Perugino. In the Pitti Gallery,
+Florence._]
+
+We come now to one of the most celebrated masters of Italy, LEONARDO DA
+VINCI (1452-1519), the head of the Lombard or Milanese school. He was not
+the equal of the great masters, Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Titian; but
+he stands between them and the painters who preceded him or those of his
+own day.
+
+In some respects, however, he was the most extraordinary man of his time.
+His talents were many-sided; for he was not only a great artist, but also
+a fine scholar in mathematics and mechanics; he wrote poetry and composed
+music, and was with all this so attractive personally, and so brilliant in
+his manner, that he was a favorite wherever he went. It is probable that
+this versatility prevented his being very great in any one thing, while he
+was remarkable in many things.
+
+When still very young Leonardo showed his artistic talent. The paper upon
+which he worked out his sums was frequently bordered with little pictures
+which he drew while thinking on his lessons, and these sketches at last
+attracted his father's attention, and he showed them to his friend Andrea
+Verrocchio, an artist of Florence, who advised that the boy should become
+a painter. Accordingly, in 1470, when eighteen years old, Leonardo was
+placed under the care of Verrocchio, who was like a kind father to his
+pupils: he was not only a painter, but also an architect and sculptor, a
+musician and a geometer, and he especially excelled in making exquisite
+cups of gold and silver, crucifixes and statuettes such as were in great
+demand for the use of the priesthood in those days.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--LEONARDO DA VINCI. _From a drawing in red chalk
+by himself. In the Royal Library, Turin._]
+
+Pietro Perugino was a fellow-pupil with Leonardo, and they two soon
+surpassed their master in painting, and at last, when Verrocchio was
+painting a picture for the monks of Vallambrosa, and desired Leonardo to
+execute an angel in it, the work of his pupil was so much better than his
+own that the old painter desired to throw his brush aside forever. The
+picture is now in the Academy of Florence, and represents "The Baptism
+of Christ." With all his refinement and sweetness, Leonardo had a liking
+for the horrible. It once happened that a countryman brought to his father
+a circular piece of wood cut from a fig-tree, and desired to have it
+painted for a shield; it was handed over to Leonardo, who collected in his
+room a number of lizards, snakes, bats, hedgehogs, and other frightful
+creatures, and from these painted an unknown monster having certain
+characteristics of the horrid things he had about him. The hideous
+creature was surrounded by fire, and was breathing out flames. When his
+father saw it he ran away in a fright, and Leonardo was greatly pleased at
+this. The countryman received an ordinary shield, and this _Rotello del
+Fico_ (or shield of fig-tree wood) was sold to a merchant for one hundred
+ducats, and again to the Duke of Milan for three times that sum. This
+shield has now been lost for more than three centuries; but another
+horror, the "Medusa's Head," is in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, and is
+a head surrounded by interlacing serpents, the eyes being glassy and
+deathlike and the mouth most revolting in expression.
+
+While in Florence Leonardo accomplished much, but was at times diverted
+from his painting by his love of science, sometimes making studies in
+astronomy and again in natural history and botany; he also went much into
+society, and lived extravagantly. He had the power to remember faces that
+he had seen accidentally, and could make fine portraits from memory; he
+was also accustomed to invite to his house people from the lower classes;
+he would amuse them while he sketched their faces, making good portraits
+at times, and again ridiculous caricatures. He even went so far, for the
+sake of his art, as to accompany criminals to the place of execution, in
+order to study their expressions.
+
+After a time Leonardo wished to secure some fixed income, and wrote to the
+Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, called Il Moro, offering his services to
+that prince. This resulted in his going to Milan, where he received a
+generous salary, and became very popular with the Duke and all the court,
+both as a painter and as a gentleman. The Duke governed as the regent for
+his young nephew, and gathered about him talented men for the benefit of
+the young prince. He also led a gay life, and his court was the scene of
+constant festivities. Leonardo's varied talents were very useful to the
+Duke; he could assist him in everything--by advice at his council, by
+plans for adorning his city, by music and poetry in his leisure hours, and
+by painting the portraits of his favorites. Some of these last are now
+famous pictures--that of Lucrezia Crevelli is believed to be in the Louvre
+at Paris, where it is called "La Belle Ferroniere."
+
+The Duke conferred a great honor on Leonardo by choosing him to be the
+founder and director of an academy which he had long wished to establish.
+It was called the "Academia Leonardi Vinci," and had for its purpose the
+bringing together of distinguished artists and men of letters. Leonardo
+was appointed superintendent of all the fetes and entertainments given by
+the court, and in this department he did some marvellous things. He also
+superintended a great work in engineering which he brought to perfection,
+to the wonder of all Italy: it was no less an undertaking than bringing
+the waters of the Adda from Mortisana to Milan, a distance of nearly two
+hundred miles. In spite of all these occupations the artist found time to
+study anatomy and to write some valuable works. At length Il Moro became
+the established duke, and at his brilliant court Leonardo led a most
+agreeable life; but he was so occupied with many things that he painted
+comparatively few pictures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--THE LAST SUPPER. _By Leonardo da Vinci._]
+
+At length the Duke desired him to paint a picture of the Last Supper on
+the wall of the refectory in the Convent of the Madonna delle Grazie. This
+was his greatest work in Milan and a wonderful masterpiece. It was
+commenced about 1496, and was finished in a very short time. We must now
+judge of it from copies and engravings, for it has been so injured as to
+give no satisfaction to one who sees it. Some good copies were made before
+it was thus ruined, and numerous engravings make it familiar to all the
+world. A copy in the Royal Academy, London, was made by one of Leonardo's
+pupils, and is the size of the original. It is said that the prior of the
+convent complained to the Duke of the length of time the artist was
+spending upon this picture; when the Duke questioned the painter he said
+that he was greatly troubled to find a face which pleased him for that of
+Judas Iscariot; he added that he was willing to allow the prior to sit for
+this figure and thus hasten the work; this answer pleased the Duke and
+silenced the prior.
+
+After a time misfortunes overtook the Duke, and Leonardo was reduced to
+poverty; finally Il Moro was imprisoned; and in 1500 Leonardo returned to
+Florence, where he was honorably received. He was not happy here, however,
+for he was not the one important artist. He had been absent nineteen
+years, and great changes had taken place; Michael Angelo and Raphael were
+just becoming famous, and they with other artists welcomed Leonardo, for
+his fame had reached them from Milan. However, he painted some fine
+pictures at this time; among them were the "Adoration of the Kings," now
+in the Uffizi Gallery, and a portrait of Ginevra Benci, also in the same
+gallery. This lady must have been very beautiful; Ghirlandajo introduced
+her portrait into two of his frescoes.
+
+But the most remarkable portrait was that known as Mona Lisa del Giocondo,
+which is in the Louvre, and is called by some critics the finest work of
+this master. The lady was the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, a lovely
+woman, and some suppose that she was very dear to Leonardo. He worked upon
+it for four years, and still thought it unfinished: the face has a deep,
+thoughtful expression--the eyelids are a little weary, perhaps, and
+through it all there is a suggestion of something not quite understood--a
+mystery: the hands are graceful and of perfect form, and the rocky
+background gives an unusual fascination to the whole picture. Leonardo
+must have loved the picture himself, and it is not strange that he
+lavished more time upon it than he gave to the great picture of the Last
+Supper (Fig. 37).
+
+Leonardo sold this picture to Francis I. for nine thousand dollars, which
+was then an enormous sum, though now one could scarcely fix a price upon
+it. In 1860 the Emperor of Russia paid twelve thousand dollars for a St.
+Sebastian by Leonardo, and in 1865 a madonna by him was sold in Paris for
+about sixteen thousand dollars. Of course his pictures are rarely sold;
+but, when they are, great sums are given for them.
+
+In 1502 Caesar Borgia appointed Leonardo his engineer and sent him to
+travel through Central Italy to inspect his fortresses; but this usurper
+soon fled to Spain, and in 1503 our painter was again in Florence. In 1504
+his father died. From 1507 to 1512 Leonardo was at the summit of his
+greatness. Louis XII. appointed him his painter, and he labored for this
+monarch also to improve the water-works of Milan. For seven years he dwelt
+at Milan, making frequent journeys to Florence. But the political troubles
+of the time made Lombardy an uncongenial home for any artist, and
+Leonardo, with a few pupils, went to Florence and then on to Rome. Pope
+Leo X. received him cordially enough, and told him to "work for the glory
+of God, Italy, Leo X., and Leonardo da Vinci." But Leonardo was not happy
+in Rome, where Michael Angelo and Raphael were in great favor, and when
+Francis I. made his successes in Italy in 1515, Leonardo hastened to
+Lombardy to meet him. The new king of France restored him to the office to
+which Louis XII. had appointed him, and gave him an annual pension of
+seven hundred gold crowns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--MONA LISA.--"LA BELLE JOCONDE."]
+
+When Francis returned to France he desired to cut out the wall on which
+the Last Supper was painted, and carry it to his own country: this proved
+to be impossible, and it is much to be regretted, as it is probable that
+if it could have been thus removed it would have been better preserved.
+However, not being able to take the artist's great work, the king took
+Leonardo himself, together with his favorite pupils and friends and his
+devoted servant. In France, Leonardo was treated with consideration. He
+resided near Amboise, where he could mingle with the court. It is said
+that, old though he was, he was so much admired that the courtiers
+imitated his dress and the cut of his beard and hair. He was given the
+charge of all artistic matters in France, and doubtless Francis hoped that
+he would found an Academy as he had done at Milan. But he seems to have
+left all his energy, all desire for work, on the Italian side of the Alps.
+He made a few plans; but he brought no great thing to pass, and soon his
+health failed, and he fell into a decline. He gave great attention to
+religious matters, received the sacrament, and then made his will, and put
+his worldly affairs in order.
+
+The king was accustomed to visit him frequently, and on the last day of
+his life, when the sovereign entered the room, Leonardo desired to be
+raised up as a matter of respect to the king: sitting, he conversed of his
+sufferings, and lamented that he had done so little for God and man. Just
+then he was seized with an attack of pain--the king rose to support him,
+and thus, in the arms of Francis, the great master breathed his last. This
+has sometimes been doubted; but the modern French critics agree with the
+ancient writers who give this account of his end.
+
+He was buried in the Church of St. Florentin at Amboise, and it is not
+known that any monument was erected over him. In 1808 the church was
+destroyed; in 1863 Arsine Houssaye, with others, made a search for the
+grave of Leonardo, and it is believed that his remains were found. In
+1873 a noble monument was erected in Milan to the memory of Da Vinci. It
+is near the entrance to the Arcade of Victor Emmanuel: the statue of the
+master stands on a high pedestal in a thoughtful attitude, the head bowed
+down and the arms crossed on the breast. Below are other statues and rich
+bas-reliefs, and one inscription speaks of him as the "Renewer of the Arts
+and Sciences."
+
+Many of his writings are in the libraries of Europe in manuscript form:
+his best known work is the "Trattato della Pittura," and has been
+translated into English. As an engineer his canal of Mortesana was enough
+to give him fame; as an artist he may be called the "Poet of Painters,"
+and, if those who followed him surpassed him, it should be remembered that
+it is easier to advance in a path once opened than to discover a new path.
+Personally he was much beloved, and, though he lived when morals were at a
+low estimate, he led a proper and reputable life. His pictures were pure
+in their spirit, and he seemed only to desire the progress of art and
+science, and it is a pleasure to read and learn of him, as it is to see
+his works.
+
+Other good artists of the Lombard school in the fifteenth century were
+BERNARDINO LUINI (about 1460-1530), who was the best pupil of Leonardo,
+GIOVANNI ANTONIO BELTRAFFIO (1467-1516), GAUDENZIO FARRARI (1484-1549),
+AMBROGIO BORGOGNONE (works dated about 1500), and ANDREA SOLARIO, whose
+age is not known.
+
+We return now to the Florentine school at a time when the most remarkable
+period of its existence was about to begin. We shall speak first of FRA
+BARTOLOMMEO or BACCIO DELLA PORTA, also called IL FRATE (1469-1517). He
+was born at Savignano, and studied at Florence under Cosimo Rosselli, but
+was much influenced by the works of Leonardo da Vinci. This painter became
+famous for the beauty of his pictures of the Madonna, and at the time
+when the great Savonarola went to Florence Bartolommeo was employed in the
+Convent of San Marco, where the preacher lived. The artist became the
+devoted friend of the preacher, and, when the latter was seized, tortured,
+and burned, Bartolommeo became a friar, and left his pictures to be
+finished by his pupil Albertinelli. For four years he lived the most
+austere life, and did not touch his brush: then his superior commanded him
+to resume his art; but the painter had no interest in it. About this time
+Raphael sought him out, and became his friend; he also instructed the monk
+in perspective, and in turn Raphael learned from him, for Fra Bartolommeo
+was the first artist who used lay figures in arranging his draperies; he
+also told Raphael some secrets of colors.
+
+About 1513 Bartolommeo went to Rome, and after his return to his convent
+he began what promised to be a wonderful artistic career; but he only
+lived four years more, and the amount of his work was so small that his
+pictures are now rare. His madonnas, saints, and angels are holy in their
+effect; his representations of architecture are grand, and while his works
+are not strong or powerful, they give much pleasure to those who see them.
+
+MICHAEL ANGELO BUONARROTI was born at the Castle of Caprese in 1475. His
+father, who was of a noble family of Florence, was then governor of
+Caprese and Chiusi, and, when the Buonarroti household returned to
+Florence, the little Angelo was left with his nurse on one of his father's
+estates at Settignano. The father and husband of his nurse were
+stone-masons, and thus in infancy the future artist was in the midst of
+blocks of stone and marble and the implements which he later used with so
+much skill. For many years rude sketches were shown upon the walls of the
+nurse's house made by her baby charge, and he afterward said that he
+imbibed a love for marble with his earliest food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--PORTRAIT OF MICHAEL ANGELO BUONARROTI.]
+
+At the proper age Angelo was taken to Florence and placed in school; but
+he spent his time mostly in drawing, and having made the acquaintance of
+Francesco Granacci, at that time a pupil with Ghirlandajo, he borrowed
+from him designs and materials by which to carry on his beloved pursuits.
+Michael Angelo's desire to become an artist was violently opposed by his
+father and his uncles, for they desired him to be a silk and woollen
+merchant, and sustain the commercial reputation of the family. But so
+determined was he that finally his father yielded, and in 1488 placed him
+in the studio of Ghirlandajo. Here the boy of thirteen worked with great
+diligence; he learned how to prepare colors and to lay the groundwork of
+frescoes, and he was set to copy drawings. Very soon he wearied of this,
+and began to make original designs after his own ideas. At one time he
+corrected a drawing of his master's: when he saw this, sixty years later,
+he said, "I almost think that I knew more of art in my youth than I do in
+my old age."
+
+When Michael Angelo went to Ghirlandajo, that master was employed on the
+restoration of the choir of Santa Maria Novella, so that the boy came at
+once into the midst of important work. One day he drew a picture of the
+scaffolding and all that belonged to it, with the painters at work
+thereon: when his master saw it he exclaimed, "He already understands more
+than I do myself." This excellence in the scholar roused the jealousy of
+the master, as well as of his other pupils, and it was a relief to Michael
+Angelo when, in answer to a request from Lorenzo de Medici, he and
+Francesco Granacci were named by Ghirlandajo as his two most promising
+scholars, and were then sent to the Academy which the duke had
+established. The art treasures which Lorenzo gave for the use of the
+students were arranged in the gardens of San Marco, and here, under the
+instruction of the old Bertoldo, Angelo forgot painting in his enthusiasm
+for sculpture. He first copied the face of a faun; but he changed it
+somewhat, and opened the mouth so that the teeth could be seen. When
+Lorenzo visited the garden he praised the work, but said, "You have made
+your faun so old, and yet you have left him all his teeth; you should have
+known that at such an advanced age there are generally some wanting." The
+next time he came there was a gap in the teeth, and so well done that he
+was delighted. This work is now in the Uffizi Gallery.
+
+Lorenzo now sent for the father of Angelo, and asked that the son might
+live in the Medici palace under his own care. Somewhat reluctantly the
+father consented, and the duke gave him an office in the custom-house.
+From this time for three years, Angelo sat daily at the duke's table, and
+was treated as one of his own family; he was properly clothed, and had an
+allowance of five ducats a month for pocket-money. It was the custom with
+Lorenzo to give an entertainment every day; he took the head of the table,
+and whoever came first had a seat next him. It often happened that Michael
+Angelo had this place. Lorenzo was the head of Florence, and Florence was
+the head of art, poetry, and all scholarly thought. Thus, in the home of
+the Medici, the young artist heard learned talk upon all subjects of
+interest; he saw there all the celebrated men who lived in the city or
+visited it, and his life so near Lorenzo, for a thoughtful youth, as he
+was, amounted to an education.
+
+The society of Florence at this time was not of a high moral tone, and in
+the year in which Michael Angelo entered the palace, a monk called
+Savonarola came to Florence to preach against the customs and the crimes
+of the city. Michael Angelo was much affected by this, and throughout his
+long life remembered Savonarola with true respect and affection, and his
+brother, Leonardo Buonarroti, was so far influenced that he withdrew from
+the world and became a Dominican monk.
+
+Michael Angelo's diligence was great; he not only studied sculpture, but
+he found time to copy some of the fine old frescoes in the Church of the
+Carmine. He gave great attention to the study of anatomy, and he was known
+throughout the city for his talents, and for his pride and bad temper. He
+held himself aloof from his fellow-pupils, and one day, in a quarrel with
+Pietro Torrigiano, the latter gave Angelo a blow and crushed his nose so
+badly that he was disfigured for life. Torrigiano was banished for this
+offence and went to England; he ended his life in a Spanish prison.
+
+In the spring of 1492 Lorenzo de Medici died. Michael Angelo was deeply
+grieved at the loss of his best friend; he left the Medici palace, and
+opened a studio in his father's house, where he worked diligently for two
+years, making a statue of Hercules and two madonnas. After two years there
+came a great snow-storm, and Piero de Medici sent for the artist to make a
+snow statue in his court-yard. He also invited Michael Angelo to live
+again in the palace, and the invitation was accepted; but all was so
+changed there that he embraced the first opportunity to leave, and during
+a political disturbance fled from the city with two friends, and made his
+way to Venice. There he met the noble Aldovrandi of Bologna, who invited
+the sculptor to his home, where he remained about a year, and then
+returned to his studio in Florence.
+
+Soon after this he made a beautiful, sleeping Cupid, and when the young
+Lorenzo de Medici saw it he advised Michael Angelo to bury it in the
+ground for a season, and thus make it look like an antique marble; after
+this was done, Lorenzo sent it to Rome and sold it to the Cardinal Riario,
+and gave the sculptor thirty ducats. In some way the truth of the matter
+reached the ears of the Cardinal, who sent his agent to Florence to find
+the artist. When Michael Angelo heard that two hundred ducats had been
+paid for his Cupid, he knew that he had been deceived. The Cardinal's
+agent invited him to go to Rome, and he gladly went. The oldest existing
+writing from the hand of Michael Angelo is the letter which he wrote to
+Lorenzo to inform him of his arrival in Rome. He was then twenty-one years
+old, and spoke with joy of all the beautiful things he had seen.
+
+Not long after he reached Rome he made the statue of the "Drunken
+Bacchus," now in the Uffizi Gallery, and then the Virgin Mary sitting near
+the place of the cross and holding the body of the dead Christ. The
+art-term for this subject is "La Pieta." From the time that Michael Angelo
+made this beautiful work he was the first sculptor of the world, though he
+was but twenty-four years old. The Pieta was placed in St. Peter's Church,
+where it still remains. The next year he returned to Florence. He was
+occupied with both painting and sculpture, and was soon employed on his
+"David," one of his greatest works. This statue weighed eighteen thousand
+pounds, and its removal from the studio in which it was made to the place
+where it was to stand, next the gate of the Palazzo Vecchio, was a
+difficult undertaking. It was at last put in place on May 18, 1504; there
+it remained until a few years ago, when, on account of its crumbling from
+the effect of the weather, it was removed to the Academy of Fine Arts by
+means of a railroad built for the purpose.
+
+About this time a rivalry sprang up between Michael Angelo and Leonardo da
+Vinci. They were very unlike in their characters and mode of life. Michael
+Angelo was bitter, ironical, and liked to be alone; Leonardo loved to be
+gay and to see the world; Michael Angelo lived so that when he was old he
+said, "Rich as I am, I have always lived like a poor man;" Leonardo
+enjoyed luxury, and kept a fine house, with horses and servants. They had
+entered into a competition which was likely to result in serious trouble,
+when Pope Julius II. summoned Michael Angelo to Rome. The Pope gave him an
+order to build him a splendid tomb; but the enemies of the sculptor made
+trouble for him, and one morning he was refused admission to the Pope's
+palace. He then left Rome, sending this letter to the Pope: "Most Holy
+Father, I was this morning driven from the palace by the order of your
+Holiness. If you require me in future you can seek me elsewhere than at
+Rome."
+
+Then he went to Florence, and the Pope sent for him again and again; but
+he did not go. Meantime he finished his design, and received the
+commission that he and Leonardo had striven for, which was to decorate the
+hall of the Grand Council with pictures. At last, in 1506, the Pope was in
+Bologna, and again sent for Michael Angelo. He went, and was forgiven for
+his offence, and received an order for a colossal statue of the Pope in
+bronze. When this was finished in 1508, and put before the Church of St.
+Petronio, Michael Angelo returned to Florence. He had not made friends in
+Bologna; his forbidding manner did not encourage others to associate with
+him; but we now know from his letters that he had great trials. His family
+was poor, and all relied on him; indeed, his life was full of care and
+sadness.
+
+In 1508 he was again summoned to Rome by the Pope, who insisted that he
+should paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican. Michael
+Angelo did not wish to do this, as he had done no great painting. It
+proved to be one of his most famous works; but he had a great deal of
+trouble in it. On one occasion the Pope threatened to throw the artist
+from the scaffolding. The Pope complained also that the pictures looked
+poor; to this the artist replied: "They are only poor people whom I have
+painted there, and did not wear gold on their garments." His subjects were
+from the Bible. When the artist would have a leave of absence to go to
+Florence, the Pope got so angry that he struck him; but, in spite of all,
+this great painting was finished in 1512. Grimm, in his life of Michael
+Angelo, says: "It needed the meeting of these two men; in the one such
+perseverance in requiring, and in the other such power of fulfilling, to
+produce this monument of human art."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--THE PROPHET JEREMIAH. _By M. Angelo. From the
+Sistine Chapel._]
+
+It is impossible here to follow, step by step, the life and works of this
+master. Among the other great things which he did are the tomb of Julius
+II. in the Church of S. Pietro in Vincoli, in Rome, of which the famous
+statue of Moses makes a part (Fig. 40).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--STATUE OF MOSES. _By M. Angelo._]
+
+He made the statues in the Medici Chapel in the Church of San Lorenzo, in
+Florence, the painting of the Last Judgment on a wall of the Sistine
+Chapel, and many works as an architect; for he was called upon to attend
+to fortifications both in Florence and Rome, and at last, as his
+greatest work of this sort, he was the architect of St. Peter's at Rome.
+Many different artists had had a share in this work; but as it now is
+Michael Angelo may be counted as its real architect. His works are
+numerous and only a small part of them is here mentioned; but I have
+spoken of those by which he is most remembered. His life, too, was a
+stormy one for many reasons that we have not space to tell. While he lived
+there were wars and great changes in Italy; he served also under nine
+popes, and during his life thirteen men occupied the papal chair. Besides
+being great as a painter, an architect, and a sculptor, he was a poet, and
+wrote sonnets well worthy of such a genius as his. His whole life was so
+serious and sad that it gives one joy to know that in his old age he
+formed an intimate friendship with Vittoria Colonna, a wonderful woman,
+who made a sweet return to him for all the tender devotion which he
+lavished upon her.
+
+Italians associate the name of Michael Angelo with those of the divine
+poet Dante and the painter Raphael, and these three are spoken of as the
+three greatest men of their country in what are called the modern days.
+Michael Angelo died at Rome in 1564, when eighty-nine years old. He
+desired to be buried in Florence; but his friends feared to let this be
+known lest the Pope should forbid his removal. He was therefore buried in
+the Church of the Holy Apostles; but his nephew, Leonardo Buonarroti,
+conveyed his remains to Florence secretly, disguised as a bale of
+merchandise. At Florence, on a Sunday night, his body was borne to Santa
+Croce, in a torchlight procession, and followed by many thousands of
+citizens. There his friends once more gazed upon the face which had not
+been seen in Florence for thirty years; he looked as if quietly sleeping.
+Some days later a splendid memorial service was held in San Lorenzo,
+attended by all the court, the artists, scholars, and eminent men of the
+city. An oration was pronounced; rare statues and paintings were
+collected in the church; all the shops of the city were closed; and the
+squares were filled with people.
+
+Above his grave in Santa Croce, where he lies near Dante, Machiavelli,
+Galileo, and many other great men, the Duke and Leonardo Buonarroti
+erected a monument. It has statues of Painting, Sculpture, and
+Architecture, and a bust of the great man who sleeps beneath.
+
+In the court of the Uffizi his statue stands together with those of other
+great Florentines. His house in the Ghibelline Street now belongs to the
+city of Florence, and contains many treasured mementoes of his life and
+works; it is open to all who wish to visit it. In 1875 a grand festival
+was held in Florence to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of his
+birth. The ceremonies were very impressive, and at that time some
+documents which related to his life, and had never been opened, were, by
+command of Victor Emmanuel, given to proper persons to be examined.
+
+Thus it is that the great deeds of great men live on and on, through all
+time, and it is a joy to know that though the fourscore and nine years of
+the life of this artist had much of care and sorrow in them, his name and
+memory are still cherished, and must continue to be, while from his life
+many lessons may be drawn to benefit and encourage others--lessons which
+we cannot here write out; but they teach patience, industry, and
+faithfulness to duty, while they also warn us to avoid the bitterness and
+roughness which are blemishes on the memory of this great, good man.
+
+DANIELE DE VOLTERRA (1509-1566) was the best scholar of Michael Angelo.
+His principal pictures are the "Descent from the Cross," in the Church of
+Trinita di Monti, in Rome, and the "Massacre of the Innocents," in the
+Uffizi Gallery; both are celebrated works.
+
+The next important Florentine painter was ANDREA DEL SARTO (1488-1530).
+His family name was Vannucchi; but because his father was a tailor, the
+Italian term for one of his trade, _un sarto_, came to be used for the
+son. Early in life Andrea was a goldsmith, as were so many artists; but,
+when he was able to study painting under Pietro di Cosimo, he became
+devoted to it, and soon developed his own style, which was very soft and
+pleasing. His pictures cannot be called great works of art, but they are
+favorites with a large number of people. He succeeded in fresco-painting,
+and decorated several buildings in Florence, among them the Scalzo, which
+was a place where the Barefooted Friars held their meetings, and was named
+from them, as they are called _Scalzi_. These frescoes are now much
+injured; but they are thought his best works of this kind.
+
+Probably Andrea del Sarto would have come to be a better painter if he had
+been a happier man. His wife, of whom he was very fond, was a mean,
+selfish woman who wished only to make a great show, and did not value her
+husband's talents except for the money which they brought him. She even
+influenced him to desert his parents, to whom he had ever been a dutiful
+son. About 1518 Francis I., king of France, invited Andrea to Paris to
+execute some works for him. The painter went, and was well established
+there and very popular, when his wife insisted that he should return to
+Florence. Francis I. was very unwilling to spare him, but Andrea dared not
+refuse to go to his wife; so he solemnly took an oath to return to Paris
+and bring his wife, so that he could remain as long as pleased the king,
+and then that sovereign consented. Francis also gave the artist a large
+sum of money to buy for him all sorts of beautiful objects.
+
+When Andrea reached Florence his wife refused to go to France, and
+persuaded him to give her the king's money. She soon spent it, and Andrea,
+who lived ten years more, was very unhappy, while the king never forgave
+him, and to this day this wretched story must be told, and continues the
+remembrance of his dishonesty. After all he had sacrificed for his wife,
+when he became very ill, in 1530, of some contagious disease, she deserted
+him. He died alone, and with no prayer or funeral was buried in the
+Convent of the Nunziata, where he had painted some of his frescoes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--THE MADONNA DEL SACCO. _By Andrea del Sarto._]
+
+His pictures are very numerous; they are correct in drawing, very softly
+finished, and have a peculiar gray tone of color. He painted a great
+number of Holy Families, one of which is called the "Madonna del Sacco,"
+because St. Joseph is leaning on a sack (Fig. 41). This is in the convent
+where he is buried. His best work is called the "Madonna di San Francesco"
+and hangs in the tribune of the Uffizi Gallery. This is a most honorable
+place, for near it are pictures by Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, and
+other great painters, as well as some very celebrated statues, such as the
+"Venus de Medici" and the "Dancing Faun." Andrea del Sarto's pictures of
+the Madonna and Child are almost numberless; they are sweet, attractive
+works, as are also his St. Barbara, St. Agnes, and others of his single
+figures.
+
+We will now leave the Florentine school of the sixteenth century, and
+speak of the great master of the Roman school, RAPHAEL SANZIO, or SANTI
+(1483-1520), who was born at Urbino on Good Friday. His father was a
+painter, and Raphael showed his taste for art very early in life. Both his
+parents died while he was still a child, and though he must have learned
+something from seeing his father and other painters at their work, we say
+that Perugino was his first master, for he was but twelve years old when
+he entered the studio of that painter in Perugia.
+
+Here he remained more than eight years, and about the time of leaving
+painted the very celebrated picture called "Lo Sposalizio," or the
+Marriage of the Virgin, now in the Brera at Milan. This picture is famous
+the world over, and is very important in the life of the painter, because
+it shows the highest point he reached under Perugino, or during what is
+called his first manner in painting. Before this he had executed a large
+number of beautiful pictures, among which was the so-called "Staffa
+Madonna." This is a circular picture and represents the Virgin walking in
+a springtime landscape. It remained in the Staffa Palace in Perugia three
+hundred and sixty-eight years, and in 1871 was sold to the Emperor of
+Russia for seventy thousand dollars.
+
+In 1504 Raphael returned to Urbino, where he became the favorite of the
+court, and was much employed by the ducal family. To this time belong the
+"St. George Slaying the Dragon" and the "St. Michael Attacking Satan," now
+in the gallery of the Louvre. But the young artist soon grew weary of the
+narrowness of his life, and went to Florence, where, amid the treasures of
+art with which that city was crowded, he felt as if he was in an enchanted
+land. It is worth while to recount the wonderful things he saw; they were
+the cathedral with the dome of Brunelleschi, the tower of Giotto, the
+marbles and bronzes of Donatello, the baptistery gates of Ghiberti, the
+pictures of Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, Fra Angelico, and many other older
+masters, while Michael Angelo and Leonardo were surprising themselves and
+all others with their beautiful works.
+
+At this time the second manner of Raphael begun. During his first winter
+here he painted the so-called "Madonna della Gran Duca," now in the Pitti
+Gallery, and thus named because the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III.,
+carried it with him on all his journeys, and said his prayers before it at
+morning and evening. He made a visit to Urbino in 1505, and wherever he
+was he worked continually, and finished a great number of pictures, which
+as yet were of religious subjects with few and unimportant exceptions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--PORTRAIT OF RAPHAEL. _Painted by Himself._]
+
+When he returned to Florence in 1506, the cartoon of Leonardo da Vinci's
+"Battle of the Standard" and Michael Angelo's "Bathing Soldiers" revealed
+a new world of art to Raphael. He saw that heroic, exciting scenes could
+be represented by painting, and that vigor and passion could speak from
+the canvas as powerfully as Christian love and resignation. Still he did
+not attempt any new thing immediately. In Florence he moved in the best
+circles. He received orders for some portraits of nobles and wealthy men,
+as well as for madonnas and Holy Families. Before long he visited Bologna,
+and went again to Urbino, which had become a very important city under the
+reign of Duke Guidobaldo. The king of England, Henry VIII., had sent to
+this duke the decoration of the Order of the Garter. In return for this
+honor, the duke sent the king rich gifts, among which was a picture of St.
+George and the Dragon by Raphael.
+
+While at Urbino, at this time, he painted his first classic subject, the
+"Three Graces." Soon after, he returned the third time to Florence, and
+now held much intercourse with Fra Bartolommeo, who gave the younger
+artist valuable instruction as to his color and drapery. In 1508, among a
+great number of pictures he painted the madonna which is called "La Belle
+Jardiniere," and is now one of the treasures of the Louvre. The Virgin is
+pictured in the midst of a flowery landscape, and it has been said that a
+beautiful flower-girl to whom Raphael was attached was his model for the
+picture. This picture is also a landmark in the history of Raphael, for it
+shows the perfection of his second manner, and the change that had come
+over him from his Florentine experience and associations. His earlier
+pictures had been full of a sweet, unearthly feeling, and a color which
+could be called spiritual was spread over them; now his madonnas were like
+beautiful, earthly mothers, his colors were deep and rich, and his
+landscapes were often replaced by architectural backgrounds which gave a
+stately air where all before had been simplicity. His skill in grouping,
+in color, and in drapery was now marvellous, and when in 1508 the Pope,
+who had seen some of his works, summoned him to Rome, he went, fully
+prepared for the great future which was before him, and now began his
+third, or Roman manner of painting.
+
+This pope was Julius II., who held a magnificent court and was ambitious
+for glory in every department of life--as a temporal as well as a
+spiritual ruler, and as a patron of art and letters as well as in his
+office of the Protector of the Holy Church. He had vast designs for the
+adornment of Rome, and immediately employed Raphael in the decoration of
+the first of the Stanze, or halls of the Vatican, four of which he
+ornamented with magnificent frescoes before his death. He also executed
+wall-paintings in the Chigi Palace, and in a chapel of the Church of Santa
+Maria della Pace.
+
+With the exception of a short visit to Florence, Raphael passed the
+remainder of his life in Rome. The amount of work which he did as an
+architect, sculptor, and painter was marvellous, and would require the
+space of a volume to follow it, and name all his achievements, step by
+step, so I shall only tell you of some of his best-known works and those
+which are most often mentioned.
+
+While he was working upon the halls of the Vatican Julius II. died. He was
+succeeded by Leo X., who also was a generous patron to Raphael, who thus
+suffered no loss of occupation from the change of popes. The artist became
+very popular and rich; he had many pupils, and was assisted by them in his
+great frescoes, not only in the Vatican, but also in the Farnesina Villa
+or Chigi Palace. Raphael had the power to attach men to him with devoted
+affection, and his pupils gave him personal service gladly; he was often
+seen in the street with numbers of them in attendance, just as the nobles
+were followed by their squires and pages. He built himself a house in a
+quarter of the city called the Borgo, not far from the Church of St.
+Peter's, and during the remainder of his life was attended by prosperity
+and success.
+
+One of the important works which he did for Leo X. was the making of
+cartoons, or designs to be executed in tapestry for the decoration of the
+Sistine Chapel, where Michael Angelo had painted his great frescoes. The
+Pope ordered these tapestries to be woven in the looms of Flanders, from
+the richest materials, and a quantity of gold thread was used in them.
+They were completed and sent to Rome in 1519, and were exhibited to the
+people the day after Christmas, when all the city flocked to see them. In
+1527, when the Constable de Bourbon allowed the French soldiers to sack
+Rome, these tapestries were carried away. In 1553 they were restored; but
+one was missing, and it is believed that it had been destroyed for the
+sake of the gold thread which was in it. Again, in 1798, the French
+carried them away and sold them to a Jew in Leghorn, who burned one of the
+pieces; but his gain in gold was so little that he preserved the others,
+and Pius VII. bought them and restored them to the Vatican. The cartoons,
+however, are far more important than the tapestries, because they are the
+work of Raphael himself. The weavers at Arras tossed them aside after
+using them, and some were torn; but a century later the artist Rubens
+learned that they existed, and advised King Charles I. of England to buy
+them. This he did, and thus the cartoons met with as many ups and downs as
+the tapestries had had. When they reached England they were in strips; the
+workmen had cut them for their convenience. After the king was executed
+Cromwell bought the cartoons for three hundred pounds. When Charles II.
+was king and in great need of money he was sorely tempted to sell them to
+Louis XIV., who coveted them, and wished to add them to the treasures of
+France; but Lord Danby persuaded Charles to keep them. In 1698 they were
+barely saved from fire at Whitehall, and finally, by command of William
+III., they were properly repaired and a room was built at Hampton Court to
+receive them, by the architect, Sir Christopher Wren. At present they are
+in the South Kensington Museum, London. Of the original eleven only seven
+remain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE SISTINE MADONNA.]
+
+Both Henry VIII. and Francis I. had received presents of pictures by
+Raphael: we have told of the occasion when the St. George was sent to
+England. The "Archangel Michael" and the "Large Holy Family of the Louvre"
+were given to Francis I. by Lorenzo de Medici, who sent them overland on
+mules to the Palace of Fontainebleau. Francis was so charmed with these
+works that he presented Raphael so large a sum that he was unwilling to
+accept it without sending the king still other pictures; so he sent the
+sovereign another painting, and to the king's sister, Queen Margaret of
+Navarre, he gave a picture of St. Margaret overcoming the dragon. Then
+Francis gave Raphael many thanks and another rich gift of money. Besides
+this he invited Raphael to come to his court, as did also the king of
+England; but the artist preferred to remain where he was already so
+prosperous and happy.
+
+About 1520 Raphael painted the famous Sistine Madonna, now the pride of
+the Dresden Gallery. It is named from St. Sixtus, for whose convent, at
+Piacenza, it was painted: the picture of this saint, too, is in the lower
+part of the picture, with that of St. Barbara. No sketch or drawing of
+this work was ever found, and it is believed that the great artist,
+working as if inspired, sketched it and finished it on the canvas where it
+is. It was originally intended for a _drappellone_, or procession
+standard, but the monks used it for an altar-piece (Fig. 43).
+
+While Raphael accomplished so much as a painter, he by no means gave all
+his time or thought to a single art. He was made superintendent of the
+building of St. Peter's in 1514, and made many architectural drawings for
+that church; he was also much interested in the excavations of ancient
+Rome, and made immense numbers of drawings of various sorts. As a sculptor
+he made models and designs, and there is in the Church of Santa Maria del
+Popolo, in Rome, a statue of Jonah sitting on a whale, said to have been
+modelled by Raphael and put into marble by Lorenzetto Latti.
+
+Raphael was also interested in what was happening outside the world of
+art; he corresponded with scholars of different countries, and sent men to
+make drawings of places and objects which he could not go to see. He was
+also generous to those less fortunate than himself, and gave encouragement
+and occupation to many needy men.
+
+At one time he expected to marry Maria de Bibiena, a niece of Cardinal
+Bibiena; but she died before the time for the marriage came.
+
+While Raphael was making his great successes in Rome, other famous artists
+also were there, and there came to be much discussion as to their merits,
+and especially as to the comparative worth of Michael Angelo and Raphael.
+At last, when this feeling of rivalry was at its height, the Cardinal
+Giulio de Medici, afterward Pope Clement VII., gave orders to Raphael and
+Sebastian del Piombo to paint two large pictures for the Cathedral of
+Narbonne. The subject of Sebastian's picture was the "Raising of Lazarus,"
+and it has always been said that Michael Angelo made the drawing for it.
+
+Raphael's picture was the "Transfiguration," and proved to be his last
+work, for before it was finished he was attacked by fever, and died on
+Good Friday, 1620, which was the thirty-seventh anniversary of his birth.
+All Rome mourned for him; his body was laid in state, and the
+Transfiguration was placed near it. Those who had known him went to weep
+while they gazed upon his face for the last time.
+
+He had chosen his grave in the Pantheon, near to that of Maria Bibiena,
+his betrothed bride. The ceremonies of his burial were magnificent, and
+his body was followed by an immense throng dressed in mourning. Above his
+tomb was placed an inscription in Latin, written by Pietro Bembo, which
+has for its last sentence these words: "This is that Raphael by whom
+Nature feared to be conquered while he lived, and to die when he died."
+Raphael had also requested Lorenzo Lorenzetti to make a statue of the
+Virgin to be placed above his resting-place. He left a large estate, and
+gave his works of art to his pupils Giulio Romano and Francesco Penni; his
+house to Cardinal Bibiena; a sum to buy another house, the rent of which
+should pay for twelve masses to be said monthly, for the repose of his
+soul, from the altar near his grave; this was observed until 1705, when
+the income from the house was not enough to support these services.
+
+For many years there was a skull at the Academy of St. Luke, in Rome,
+which was called that of Raphael; but there was no proof of this, and in
+1833 some antiquarians received the consent of the Pope to their searching
+for the bones of Raphael in his grave in the Pantheon. After five days of
+careful work, and removing the pavement in several places, the skeleton of
+the great master was found, and with it such proofs of its being his as
+left no room for doubt. Then a second great funeral service was held; the
+Pope, Gregory XVI., gave a marble sarcophagus in which the bones were
+placed, and reverently restored to their first resting-place. More than
+three thousand persons were present at the service, including artists of
+all nations, as well as Romans of the highest rank. They moved in
+procession about the church, bearing torches in their hands, and keeping
+time to beautiful chants from an invisible choir.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--SAINT CECILIA LISTENING TO THE SINGING OF ANGELS.
+_By Raphael._]
+
+Raphael left two hundred and eighty-seven pictures and five hundred and
+seventy-six studies and drawings, and all done in so short a life. In
+considering him and the story of his life, we find that it was not any one
+trait or talent that made his greatness; but it was the rare union of
+gifts of genius with a personal charm that won all hearts to him. His
+famous picture of "St. Cecilia," with its sweetness of expression and
+lovely color--its union of earthly beauty with spiritual feeling, is a
+symbol of the harmonious and varied qualities of this prince of painters
+(Fig. 44).
+
+GIULIO ROMANO (1492-1556) was the favorite pupil of Raphael, and the heir
+of a part of his estate; but his remaining works would not repay us for a
+study of them.
+
+Of course, the influence of so great a master as Raphael was felt outside
+of his own school, and, in a sense, all Italian art of his time was
+modified by him. His effect was very noticeable upon a Sienese painter,
+BAZZI, or RAZZI, called IL SODOMA (1477-1549), who went to Rome and was
+under the immediate influence of Raphael's works. He was almost unrivalled
+in his power to represent beautiful female heads.
+
+His important works were frescoes, many of which are in the churches of
+Siena. Doubtless Bazzi was lost in the shadow of the great Raphael, and
+had he existed at a time a little more distant from that great man, he
+would have been more famous in his life.
+
+During the sixteenth century the Venetian school reached its highest
+excellence. The great difference between it and the school of Florence
+was, that the latter made beauty of form the one object of its art, while
+the Venetian painters combined with grace and ease the added charm of
+rich, brilliant color.
+
+GIORGIO BARBARELLI, called GIORGIONE (1477-1511), was the first great
+artist of Venice who cast off the rigid manner of the Bellini school, and
+used his brush and colors freely, guided only by his own ideas, and
+inspired by his own genius.
+
+He was born at Castelfranco, and was early distinguished for his personal
+beauty. Giorgione means George the Great, and this title was given him on
+account of his noble figure. He was fond of music, played the lute well,
+and composed many of the songs he sang; he had also an intense love of
+beauty--in short, his whole nature was full of sentiment and harmony, and
+with all these gifts he was a man of pure life. Mrs. Jameson says of him:
+"If Raphael be the Shakspeare, then Giorgione may be styled the Byron of
+painting."
+
+There is little that can be told of his life. He was devoted to his art,
+and passionately in love with a young girl, of whom he told one of his
+artist friends, Morto da Feltri. This last proved a traitor to Giorgione,
+for he too admired the same girl, and induced her to forsake Giorgione,
+and go away with him. The double treachery of his beloved and his friend
+caused the painter such grief that he could not overcome his sadness, and
+when the plague visited Venice in 1511, he fell a victim to it in the very
+flower of his age.
+
+Much of the work of Giorgione has disappeared, for he executed frescoes
+which the damp atmosphere of Venice has destroyed or so injured that they
+are of no value. His smaller pictures were not numerous, and there is much
+dispute as to the genuineness of those that are called by his name. He
+painted very few historical subjects; his works are principally portraits,
+sibyls, and religious pictures. Among the last, the altar-piece at
+Castelfranco holds the first place; it represents the Virgin and Child
+between Sts. Francis and Liberale, and was painted before 1504.
+
+Giorgione gave an elevated tone to his heads and figures; it seemed as if
+he painted only the beings of a superior race, and as if they must all be
+fitted to do great deeds. His fancy was very fruitful, and in some of his
+works he pictured demons, sea-monsters, dogs, apes, and such creatures
+with great effect. In clearness and warmth of color Giorgione is at the
+head of the Venetian painters; in truth, it seems as if the color was
+within them and showed itself without in a deep, luminous glow.
+
+The most important of Giorgione's scholars was called FRA SEBASTIANO DEL
+PIOMBO; his real name was _Luciani_, and he was a native of Venice
+(1485-1547). This artist excelled in his coloring and in the effect he
+gave to the atmosphere of his work, making it a broad _chiaro-scuro_, or
+clear-obscure, as it really means. This is an art term which is frequently
+used, and denotes a sort of mistiness which has some light in it, and is
+gradually shaded off, either into a full light or a deep shadow. But from
+the earliest efforts of this artist, it was plain that he had no gift of
+composition, neither could he give his pictures an elevated tone or
+effect. For this reason his portraits were his best works, and these were
+very fine.
+
+A portrait of his in the National Gallery, London, and another in the
+Staedel Gallery at Frankfort, are both said to be of Giulia Gonzaga, the
+most beautiful woman of her day in Italy. In 1553, Ippolito de Medici, who
+was madly in love with her, sent Sebastian with an armed force to Fondi to
+paint her portrait; it was finished in a month, and was said to be the
+best ever painted by Sebastian. It was sent to France as a gift to Francis
+I., and its present abiding-place is not known.
+
+While Raphael was at the height of his fame in Rome, the banker Chigi
+invited Sebastian to that city, and in the Farnesina he painted works
+which were very inferior beside Raphael's. Then Sebastian tried to improve
+by study under Michael Angelo. This last great master would not compete
+with Raphael himself, but he was very jealous of the fame of the younger
+man, and it is said that he aided Sebastian, and even made his designs for
+him, in the hopes that thus he might eclipse Raphael. We have spoken of
+one large picture of the "Raising of Lazarus" said to have been made from
+Michael Angelo's design, which Sebastian colored; it was painted in
+competition with Raphael's Transfiguration, and even beside that most
+splendid work the Lazarus was much admired. This is now in the National
+Gallery, London.
+
+After Raphael's death Sebastian was called the first painter in Rome, and
+was made a _piombatore_. It was necessary to be an ecclesiastic to hold
+this office, and it is on account of this that he gave up his real name,
+and became a friar. He wrote to Michael Angelo: "If you were to see me as
+an honorable lord, you would laugh at me. I am the finest ecclesiastic in
+all Rome. Such a thing had never come into my mind. But God be praised in
+eternity! He seemed especially to have thus decreed it. And, therefore, so
+be it." It is not strange that he should have been so resigned to a high
+office and a salary of eight hundred scudi a year!
+
+Another Venetian, of the same time with Giorgione, was JACOPO PALMA,
+called IL VECCHIO, or the elder (about 1480-1528). He was born near
+Bergamo, but as an artist he was a Venetian. We do not know with whom he
+studied, and he was not a very great man, nor was he employed by the
+state--but he dwelt much in the palaces of noble families and did much
+work for them. When he died he left forty-four unfinished paintings.
+
+His female figures are his best works, and one of his fine pictures at
+Dresden, called the "Three Graces," is said to represent his daughters.
+The work which is usually called his masterpiece is an altar-piece in the
+Church of Santa Maria Formosa, in Venice; the St. Barbara in the centre is
+very beautiful, and is said to have been painted from his daughter
+Violante.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--PORTRAIT OF TITIAN. _From the etching by Agostino
+Caracci._]
+
+The greatest master of the Venetian school is called TITIAN, though his
+real name was TIZIANO VECELLI, and sometimes Cadore is added to this,
+because of his having been born in that village (1477-1576). His family
+was noble and their castle was called Lodore, and was in the midst of a
+large estate surrounded by small houses; in one of these last, which is
+still preserved, the painter was born.
+
+As a child he was fond of drawing, and so anxious to color his pictures
+that he squeezed the juices from certain flowers, and used them as paints.
+When but nine years old he was taken to Venice to study, and from this
+time was called a Venetian; he is said by some writers to be the first
+portrait-painter of the world.
+
+He first studied under Sebastian Zuccato, and then under the Bellini,
+where he was a fellow-pupil with Giorgione, and the two became devoted
+friends, at the time when they were just coming to be men and were filled
+with glad hopes of future greatness. After a time, when Titian was about
+thirty years old, the two were employed on the "Fondaco dei Tedeschi," or
+the exchange for German merchants in Venice. Here the frescoes of Titian
+were more admired than those of Giorgione, and the latter became so
+jealous that they ceased to live together, as they had done, and there is
+cause for believing that they were never good friends again. But after the
+early death of Giorgione, Titian completed the works he had left
+unfinished, and, no doubt, sincerely mourned for him.
+
+One of the most celebrated pictures by Titian is the Presentation in the
+Temple, which was painted for the Church of the Brotherhood of Charity,
+called in Italian "La Scuola della Carita;" this church is now the Academy
+of Fine Arts in Venice, where the picture still remains. It represents the
+Virgin Mary when three years old entering the temple and the high priest
+receiving her at the entrance. All around below the steps is a company of
+friends who have been invited by her father and mother to attend them on
+this important occasion. The picture is full of life and action, and is
+gorgeous in its coloring. Several of the figures are said to be
+portraits, one being that of Titian himself.
+
+Among his female portraits, that of Caterina Cornaro, Queen of Cyprus, is
+celebrated; also one called "Flora;" both of these are in the Uffizi
+Gallery, in Florence, while near by, in the Pitti, is "La Bella," or the
+beautiful lady of Titian. He also made many portraits of his daughter
+Lavinia, who was very beautiful; sometimes he represented her as a fruit
+or flower-girl, again as Herodias and in various characters (Fig. 46). One
+of the finest of these is at Berlin, where she is in a very rich dress,
+and holds up a plate of fruit; it is one of his best works.
+
+Titian's fame extended throughout Italy, and even all over Europe, and the
+Duke of Ferrara invited him to his court. The artist went, and there
+painted two very famous mythological pictures, besides portraits and other
+works. One of these important subjects was "Bacchus and Ariadne," and it
+is now in the National Gallery, London; the second was a Venus, surrounded
+by more than sixty children and cupids; some are climbing trees, others
+shoot arrows in the air, while still others twine their arms around each
+other; this is now in Madrid.
+
+While at Ferrara the Pope, Leo X., asked Titian to go to Rome; but he
+longed for his home--he wished for his yearly visit to Cadore, and he
+declined the honorable invitation, and returned to Venice. In 1530
+Titian's wife died, leaving him with two sons, Pomponio and Orazio, and
+his daughter, Lavinia. In this same sad year the Emperor Charles V. and
+Pope Clement VII. met at Bologna. All the most brilliant men of Germany
+and Italy were also there, and Titian was summoned to paint portraits of
+the two great heads of Church and State, and of many of the notable men
+among their followers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--PORTRAIT OF LAVINIA. _By Titian._]
+
+When the painter returned to Venice he was loaded with honors and riches.
+He bought a new house at Berigrande, opposite the island of Murano; it
+commanded fine views and its garden was beautiful. The landscapes of his
+pictures soon grew better than they had been, and no wonder, when he could
+always see the Friuli Alps in the distance with their snow-capped peaks
+rising to the clouds; nearer him was the Murano, like another city with
+its towers and domes, and then the canals, which at night were gay with
+lighted gondolas bearing fair ladies hither and thither. Here Titian
+entertained many people, and some of them were exalted in station. The
+house was called "Casa Grande," and on one occasion, when a cardinal and
+others invited themselves to dine with him, Titian flung a purse to his
+steward, saying, "Now prepare a feast, since all the world dines with me."
+
+While living at "Casa Grande," the artist saw the most glorious years of
+his life. It seemed that every person of note in all Europe, both men and
+women, desired their portraits at his hand. One only, Cosmo I., Grand Duke
+of Florence, refused to sit to him. If these pictures could be collected
+together, most of the famous persons of his time would be represented in
+them.
+
+After he was sixty years old Titian made a second journey to Ferrara,
+Urbino, and Bologna. This time he painted a portrait of Charles V., with a
+favorite dog by his side. After this, in 1545, at an invitation from Pope
+Paul III., the great master went to Rome; while there he painted many
+wonderful pictures--among them, one of the pope with his two grandsons was
+very remarkable; it is now in the Museum of Naples. He left Rome when he
+was sixty-nine years old.
+
+In 1548 Charles V. summoned Titian to Augsburg, and while there made him a
+count, and gave him a yearly pension of two hundred gold ducats. The
+emperor was very fond of Titian, and spent a good deal of time with him.
+On one occasion the painter dropped his brush; the emperor picked it up,
+and returned it to him. The etiquette of courts forbade any one to receive
+such a service from the sovereign, and Titian was much embarrassed, when
+Charles said, "Titian is worthy to be served by Caesar," this being one of
+the great ruler's titles. Charles continued his favors to Titian through
+life, and when he resigned his crown, and retired to the monastery of
+Yuste, he took nine pictures by this master into his solitude. One of
+these, a portrait of the Empress Isabella, was so hung that the emperor
+gazed upon it when dying; this is now in the museum at Madrid, where are
+also many fine works by Titian, for Philip II. was his patron as his
+father had been.
+
+When eighty-five years old he finished his wonderful picture of the
+"Martyrdom of St. Lawrence" for the Church of the Jesuits in Venice, and
+his old age was one of strength and mental clearness. Though he had seen
+great prosperity and received many honors, he had not escaped sorrow.
+After the death of his wife, his sister Orsa, who was very dear to him,
+had kept his house; she too sickened and died; his son Pomponio was a
+worthless fellow, and caused him much grief; Lavinia had married, and the
+old man was left with Orazio alone, who was a dutiful son. He also was an
+artist, but painted so frequently on the same canvas with his father that
+his works cannot be spoken of separately.
+
+At length Titian's work began to show his years, and some one told him
+that his "Annunciation" did not resemble his usual pictures. He was very
+angry, and, seizing a pencil, wrote upon it, "_Tizianus fecit
+fecit_"--meaning to say by this, "Truly, Titian did this!" When he was
+ninety-six years old he was visited by Henry III. of France, attended by a
+train of princes and nobles. The aged painter appeared with such grace and
+dignity as to excite the admiration of all, and when the king asked the
+price of some pictures, Titian presented them to him as one sovereign
+might make a gift to another who was his equal, and no more.
+
+In 1576 the plague broke out in Venice, and both Titian and Orazio fell
+victims to it. Naturally the man of ninety-eight years could not recover,
+and, though Orazio was borne off to the hospital and cared for as well as
+possible, he also died. After Titian was left alone robbers entered his
+house while he still lived, and carried away jewels, money, and pictures.
+He died August 27th, and all Venice mourned for him.
+
+There was a law that no person who died of the plague in Venice should be
+buried within the city; but Titian was so much honored and beloved that
+exception was made, and he was buried in the Church of Santa Maria
+Gloriosa de Frari; or as it is usually called, "the Frari." He had painted
+a great picture of the Assumption for this church, which has since been
+removed to the Academy of Venice; but another work of his, called the
+Pesaro altar-piece, still remains near his grave. His burial-place is
+marked by a simple tablet, inscribed thus: "Here lies the great Tiziano di
+Vecelli, rival of Zeuxis and Apelles."
+
+A little more than two centuries after his death the citizens of Venice
+determined to erect a monument to Titian, and Canova made a design for it;
+but political troubles interfered, and prevented the execution of the
+plan. In 1852 the Emperor of Austria, Ferdinand I., placed a costly
+monument near his grave; it consists of a Corinthian canopy beneath which
+is a sitting statue of the painter, while several other allegorical
+figures are added to increase its magnificence. This monument was
+dedicated with imposing ceremonies, and it is curious to note that not far
+away from it the sculptor Canova is buried, and his own monument is made
+from the design which he made for that of Titian.
+
+Some writers consider the "Entombment of Christ," in the Manfrini Palace,
+as the greatest work of Titian. At all events, it is the best existing
+representation of this subject, and is a picture which has had a great
+effect upon art; its chief feature is the general expression of sorrow
+which pervades the whole work.
+
+Titian gave a new importance to landscape-painting by making backgrounds
+to his pictures from natural scenery, and that not as if it was merely for
+the sake of a background, but in a manner which showed his love for
+Nature, and, in fact, he often rendered it with poetical significance.
+
+The works of Titian are very seldom sold. One subject which he oftentimes
+repeated was that of "Danae" with the shower of gold falling about her;
+one of these was purchased by the Emperor of Russia for six hundred
+thousand francs. One of the most important of his religious pictures was
+that of "St. Peter Martyr;" this was burned in the Church of SS. Giovanni
+e Paolo in Venice in 1868. An excellent copy of it had been for a long
+time in the Museum of Florence, and this was presented to the Venetians in
+order to repair their loss as far as possible. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia
+presented nine pictures by Titian to the Duke of Marlborough, and these
+were all destroyed in 1861 when the chateau of Blenheim was burned. Kugler
+says: "In the multifariousness of his powers Titian takes precedence of
+all other painters of his school; indeed, there is scarcely a line of art
+which in his long and very active life he did not enrich." His last work
+was not quite completed by himself, and is now in the Academy of Venice.
+It is a Pieta, and although the hand of ninety-eight years guided the
+brush uncertainly, yet it has the wonderful light this master threw around
+his figures, and the whole is conceived with his accustomed animation.
+
+The pupils and followers of Titian were too numerous to be spoken of one
+by one, and none of them were so great as to require their mention in
+detail here; yet they were so good that, while the other schools of Italy
+were decreasing in importance during the sixteenth century, that of
+Venice was flourishing, and some great masters still existed there. Among
+these was JACOPO ROBUSTI (1512-1594), who was called, and is best known as
+Tintoretto, which name was given him because his father was a dyer. He
+studied under Titian for a time, and then he attempted to follow Michael
+Angelo, and it is said that his motto was, "The coloring of Titian, the
+drawing of Michael Angelo." His best pictures are slightly treated, and
+others are coarse and unfinished in the manner of painting. His portraits
+seem to be his best works, probably because they are more carefully
+finished.
+
+Several works of his are simply enormous; one is seventy-four by thirty
+feet; the school of St. Roch has fifty-seven large pictures by him, in
+many of which the figures are of life size. His two most famous works are
+the "Miracle of St. Mark," in the Academy of Venice, and the
+"Crucifixion," in the school of St. Roch. The last is, for every reason,
+his best work; there are crowds of people in it, on foot and on horseback,
+while their faces show every possible kind of expression, and their
+movements are infinitely varied. The immense painting mentioned above is
+in the Doge's Palace, and is called "Paradise." His daughter, MARIETTA
+ROBUSTI (1560-1590), was a pupil of her father's, and became so good a
+portrait-painter that she was invited to the Court of Spain by Philip II.,
+but her father could not consent to a separation from her. Some excellent
+pictures of hers still exist, and her portraits of Marco dei Vescovi and
+the antiquarian Strada were celebrated pictures. When the Emperor
+Maximilian and the Archduke Ferdinand, each in turn, desired her presence
+at their courts, her father hastened to marry her to Mario Augusti, a
+wealthy German jeweller, upon the condition that she should remain in her
+father's house. She was celebrated for her beauty, had fine musical
+talents, and was sprightly and enthusiastic; her father was so fond of
+having her with him that he sometimes allowed her to dress as a boy, and
+go with him to study where young girls were not admitted.
+
+When but thirty years old Marietta Robusti died; she was buried in the
+Church of Santa Maria dell Orto, where are several works by her father.
+Both he and her husband mourned for her all their remaining days. Many
+pictures of Tintoretto painting his daughter's portrait after her death
+have been made by later artists.
+
+PAOLI CAGLIARI, or CALIARI, called PAUL VERONESE (1528-1588), was born at
+Verona, but as he lived mostly at Venice, he belongs to the school of that
+city. He was an imitator of Titian, whom he did not equal; still he was a
+fine painter. His excellences were in his harmonious color, his good
+arrangement of his figures in the foreground, and his fine architectural
+backgrounds. He tried to make his works magnificent, and to do this he
+painted festive scenes, with many figures in splendid costumes. He is
+buried in the Church of St. Sebastian, where there are many of his works.
+
+In the gallery of the Louvre is his "Marriage at Cana." It is thirty by
+twenty feet in size, and many of its figures are portraits. His pictures
+are numerous and are seen in the European galleries. The "Family of
+Darius," in the National Gallery, London, cost that institution the
+enormous sum of thirteen thousand six hundred and fifty pounds; it was
+formerly in the Pisani Palace, Venice, and was said to have been left
+there by Veronese as payment for his entertainment during a visit he had
+made in the palace. In 1868, at the Demidoff sale, a portrait of his
+daughter sold for two thousand five hundred and twenty-four pounds.
+
+At the close of the sixteenth century a family of a father and four sons
+were busy painting what may rightfully be termed the earliest _genre_
+pictures of Italy. This term is used to denote pictures that stand
+between historical and utterly imaginary subjects; that is to say, the
+representation of something that seems real to us because it is so
+familiar to our imagination, or because it is something that we know might
+have happened, that it has all the naturalness of an actual reproduction
+of a fact. There may be interior or landscape _genre_ pictures. The first
+represent familiar in-door scenes--the latter are landscapes with animals
+or figures to give a life element and to tell a story.
+
+The name of the family of which I speak was Da Ponte, but it was called
+Bassano, from the birth-place of JACOPO DA PONTE BASSANO (1510-1592), the
+father, who was the most important of the family. He studied in Venice,
+but returned to his native town. His portraits are fine; among them are
+those of the Doge of Venice, Ariosto, and Tasso. His works are very
+numerous and are seen in all galleries. He introduced landscapes and
+animals into most of his pictures, sometimes with great impropriety.
+
+We come now to ANTONIO ALLEGRI, called CORREGGIO (1493-1534), who was born
+at the end of the fifteenth, but did his work in the beginning of the
+sixteenth century. His name of Correggio is that of his birth-place, and
+as he was not born at any of the great art centres, and did not adopt the
+precise manner of any school, he, with his followers, stand by themselves,
+and yet, because his principal works were done at Parma, he is sometimes
+said to be of the school of Parma.
+
+When Correggio was thirteen years old he had learned to draw well. He
+studied under Andrea Mantegna and his son Francesco Mantegna. From these
+masters he learned to be very skilful in drawing, especially in
+foreshortening, or in representing objects seen aslant. But though he
+learned much of the science of art from his teachers, his grace and
+movement and his exquisite light and shade are all his own, for they did
+not possess these qualities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--PORTRAIT OF CORREGGIO.]
+
+Foreshortening is so important that I must try to explain it; and, as
+Correggio is said to be the greatest master in this art since the days of
+the Greeks, it is quite proper for me to speak of it in connection with
+him. The art of foreshortening is that which makes different objects
+painted on a plane or flat surface appear as if they were at different
+distances from the eye of the person who is looking at the picture, or as
+scenes in nature appear, where one part is much farther off than another.
+To produce this effect it is often necessary to make an object--let us
+say, for example, an arm or a leg, look as if it was stretched forward,
+out of the canvas, directly toward the person who is looking at it. Now,
+the truth is that in order to produce this effect the object is often
+thrown backward in the drawing; sometimes also it is doubled up in an
+unnatural manner, and occupies a small space on the canvas, while it
+appears to be of life size when one looks at it. A "Christ in Glory"
+painted by Correggio in the cupola of the Church of San Giovanni
+Evangelista, in Parma, is a fine piece of foreshortening. The head is so
+thrown back, and the knees are so thrown forward, that the whole figure
+seems to be of life size; yet if the space from the top of the head to the
+soles of the feet were measured, it would be found to be much less than
+the height of the same figure would be if it were drawn in an erect
+position.
+
+I have already explained the meaning of chiaro-scuro, and this delicate
+manner of passing from light to shade was another quality in the works of
+Correggio. It is even seen in his early works, as, for instance, in the
+beautiful Madonna di San Francesco, now at Dresden, which he painted when
+he was but eighteen years old.
+
+When this master was twenty-six years old he married Girolama Nurlini, and
+about the same time he was summoned to Mantua by the Duke Federigo
+Gonzaga. During eleven years after his marriage he was occupied with works
+in Mantua, and with his great frescoes at Parma. In 1530 he returned to
+Correggio, and there passed the remainder of his life. That he held a high
+position is proved by certain records of his life, among which is the fact
+that in 1533 he was invited to be one of the witnesses of the marriage of
+the Lord of Correggio.
+
+It is said that when this painter saw one of the great works of Raphael,
+he exclaimed, enthusiastically and thankfully, "I, too, am a painter!" and
+no doubt he then felt himself moved to attempt such works as should make
+his name known to all the world through future centuries. When Titian saw
+Correggio's frescoes at Parma, he said: "Were I not Titian, I should wish
+to be Correggio." Annibale Caracci, also a great artist, said of
+Correggio, more than a hundred years after his death, "He was the only
+painter!" and declared that the children he painted seemed to breathe and
+smile with such grace that one was forced to smile and be happy with them.
+
+In 1534 Correggio died of a fever, and was buried in his family tomb in
+the Franciscan Convent of his native city. His grave is simply marked with
+his name and the date of his death.
+
+Some of his oil-paintings are very famous. One at Dresden, representing
+the "Nativity of the Saviour," is called the "Notte," or night, because
+the only light on the picture comes from the halo of glory around the head
+of the Holy Child. Correggio's "Reading Magdalen" is in the same gallery;
+probably no one picture exists which has been more universally admired
+than this.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--UPPER PART OF A FRESCO BY CORREGGIO.]
+
+There was a large work of his representing "The Shepherds Adoring the
+Infant Saviour," at Seville, in Spain. During the Peninsular War (1808-14)
+the people of that city sent many valuable things to Cadiz for safety, and
+this picture, on account of its size, was cut in two. By some accident
+the two parts were separated; but both were sold, and the purchaser of
+each was promised that the other portion should be given him. From this
+much trouble arose, because both purchasers determined to keep what they
+had, and each claimed that the whole belonged to him, and as they were
+equally obstinate, the two parts of the same work have never been
+reunited. Fortunately, each half makes a picture by itself.
+
+The frescoes at Parma are the greatest works of this master, and it is
+very interesting to visit that quaint old city; his works are in the
+Cathedral, the Church of St. John the Evangelist, and in the parlor of the
+Convent of the Benedictine Nuns. This last is a wonderful room. The
+ceiling is arched and high, and painted to represent an arbor of vines
+with sixteen oval openings, out of which frolicsome children are peeping,
+as if, in passing around behind the vines, they had stopped to look down
+into the room. The pictures here will make you understand the effect
+(Figs. 48 and 49). Beneath each of these openings or lunettes is a
+half-circular picture of some mythological story or personage. Upon the
+wall of the parlor, above the mantel, there is a picture of Diana, the
+goddess of the moon and the protector of young animals, which is a
+beautiful picture.
+
+When Correggio worked on the frescoes at the Church of St. John, he lived
+much in the monastery connected with it. The monks became very fond of
+him, and made him a member of the Congregation Cassinensi; the poet Tasso
+also was a member of this fraternity. This membership gave him the right
+to share in the masses, prayers, and alms of the community, and after his
+death the same offices for the repose of his soul would be performed as if
+he had been a true monk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--LOWER PART OF A FRESCO BY CORREGGIO.]
+
+The works of Correggio are very rarely sold. The madonna in the National
+Gallery, London, known as "_La Vierge au Panier_," was formerly in the
+Royal Gallery at Madrid. During the French invasion of Spain, Mr. Wallace,
+an English artist, obtained it. It is painted on a panel, and is 13-1/2
+inches high by 10 inches wide. In 1813 it was offered for sale in London
+at twelve hundred pounds. In 1825 it was sold in Paris for eighty thousand
+francs, and soon after sold to the National Gallery for thirty-eight
+hundred pounds, or nearly nineteen thousand dollars.
+
+A copy of the "Reading Magdalen" was sold to Earl Dudley for sixteen
+hundred pounds, or more than seven thousand dollars.
+
+Correggio had but few pupils, but he had many imitators. The one most
+worthy of mention was FRANCESCO MAZZUOLI (1503-1540), called IL
+PARMIGIANO, or PARMIGIANINO. He was not a great painter. The "Vision of
+St. Jerome," in the National Gallery, London, is one of his best works. It
+is said that during the sack of Rome, in 1527, he was painting the figures
+of the Virgin and Child in this picture, and was so engrossed by his work
+that the invaders entered his studio, and surrounded him before he was
+aware of their approach. And they, for their part, were so moved by what
+they saw that they went away, and left him undisturbed.
+
+Art writers often use the term "early masters." This denotes Michael
+Angelo, Raphael, and other men so great that they were very prominent in
+the history of art, and were imitated by so many followers that they had
+an unusual effect upon the world. Titian may be called the last of these
+great masters of the early school, and his life was so long that he lived
+to see a great decline in art.
+
+The painters of the close of the sixteenth century are called
+"Mannerists," which means that they adopted or imitated the manner or
+style of some great master who had preceded them--and this was done in so
+cold and spiritless a way that it may be said that true artistic
+inspiration was dead in Italy. No one lived who, out of his own
+imagination, could fix upon the wall or the canvas such scenes as would
+befit a poet's dream or serve to arouse the enthusiasm of those who saw
+the painted story born in the artist's brain.
+
+About 1600, the beginning of the seventeenth century, there arose a new
+movement in Italian art, which resulted in forming two schools between
+which there came to be much bitterness of feeling, and even deadly hatred.
+On one side there were those who wished to continue the study and
+imitation of the works of the old masters, but with this they united a
+study of nature. These men were called "Eclectics," because they elected
+or chose certain parts of different systems of painting, and from these
+formed a new manner of their own.
+
+Opposed to the Eclectics were the "Naturalists," who insisted that nature
+only should be studied, and that everything should be represented in the
+most realistic way, and made to appear in the picture exactly as it did in
+reality, not being beautified or adorned by any play of fancy or
+imagination.
+
+The chief school of the Eclectics, of whom I will first speak, was at
+Bologna, and is known also as the "school of the Caracci," because
+LUDOVICO CARACCI (1555-1619) was at the head of a large academy there, and
+was assisted by his nephews, AGOSTINO CARACCI (1558-1601) and ANNIBALE
+CARACCI (1560-1609), the latter being the greatest artist of the three.
+The lives of the Caracci are not of such interest as to require an account
+of them here, neither are their works so interesting that we may not leave
+these artists by saying that they have great consideration as the heads of
+the Eclectic Academy, and for the work they did in it at an important era
+in the history of Italian art; but the fruits of their work are shown in
+that of their scholars rather than in their own paintings, and in this
+view their influence can scarcely be overvalued.
+
+The greatest of their scholars was DOMENICO ZAMPIERI (1581-1641), called
+DOMENICHINO, who was born at Bologna, and was instructed by Denis Calvert,
+who forbade his drawing after the works of Annibale Caracci. Domenico
+disobeyed this command, and was so severely treated by Calvert that he
+persuaded his father to take him from that master, and place him in the
+school of the Caracci. When he entered the Academy he was so dull that his
+fellow-pupils nicknamed him "The Ox;" but Annibale Caracci said: "Take
+care: this ox will surpass you all by and by, and will be an honor to his
+art." Domenichino soon began to win many prizes in the school, and left it
+well trained and prepared for a brilliant career.
+
+He gave much thought to his art, shunned private society, and if he went
+out at all he frequented public places where large numbers of people were
+gathered, thus affording him an opportunity to study their varying
+expressions. He also tried to feel in himself the emotions of the person
+he was painting. For instance, it is said that when he was painting the
+"Scourging of St. Andrew," he threw himself into a passion, and used
+threatening gestures and high words. In the midst of this his master,
+Annibale Caracci, surprised him, and was so impressed with his method that
+he threw his arms about his pupil's neck, exclaiming, "To-day, my
+Domenichino, thou art teaching me!"
+
+The most celebrated work by Domenichino is the "Communion of St. Jerome,"
+in the Vatican. It is universally considered the second picture in Rome,
+the "Transfiguration," by Raphael, being the only one that is placed
+before it. The scene it represents is just before the death of the saint,
+when he was borne into the chapel to receive the sacrament of the
+communion for the last time (Fig. 50).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--COMMUNION OF ST. JEROME.]
+
+Domenichino was made very unhappy in Rome, on account of the jealousy of
+other artists, and he returned to Bologna. However, his fame had reached
+the court at Naples, and the viceroy of that city invited the artist to
+decorate the Chapel of St. Januarius. There was in Naples at that time an
+association of artists who had determined that no strange artist should be
+allowed to do work of any account in their city. As soon as Domenichino
+began his work, therefore, he received letters threatening his life. His
+colors were spoiled by having ruinous chemicals mixed with them, his
+sketches were stolen from his studio, and all sorts of insults and
+indignities were heaped upon him.
+
+After a time, the painter was so disheartened that he fled to Rome; but
+the viceroy sent for him and took every precaution possible to protect him
+and enable him to work in peace. But just as all seemed to be going well
+he sickened and died, and it has always been said that he was poisoned. Be
+this as it may, there is no doubt that the fear, vexation, and anxiety of
+his life caused his death, and on this account his tormentors were his
+murderers.
+
+The works of Domenichino are not numerous, and are not seen in as many
+galleries as are those of some Italian painters; but there are a
+considerable number scattered over Europe and very beautiful ones in
+several galleries in Rome.
+
+The next painter of importance in the Eclectic school was GUIDO RENI
+(1575-1642), born at Bologna, and the son of a professor of music. His
+father intended that Guido also should be a musician, and the poor boy was
+much persecuted on account of his love for drawing. But after many
+struggles the boy came into the Caracci school, and was soon a favorite
+pupil there.
+
+When still young he listened with great attention to a lecture from
+Annibale, in which he laid down the rules which should govern a true
+painter. Guido resolved to follow these rules closely, and soon he painted
+so well that he was accused of trying to establish a new system of
+painting. At last Ludovico Caracci turned against him and dismissed him
+from his school.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--AURORA. _By Guido Reni._]
+
+The young artist went to Rome; but his persecutions did not cease, and it
+seemed to be his fate to excite the jealousy of other painters. Now, when
+so much time has elapsed, we know that Guido was not a very great master,
+and had he painted in the days of Michael Angelo he would not have been
+thought so. But art had lowered its standard, and Guido's works were
+suited to the taste of his time; he had a high conception of beauty, and
+he tried to reach it in his pictures.
+
+In the course of his career Guido really painted in three styles. His
+earliest pictures are the strongest; those of his middle period are
+weaker, because he seemed only to strive to represent grace and sweetness;
+his latest pictures are careless and unequal in execution, for he grew
+indifferent to fame, and became so fond of gaming that he only painted in
+order to get money to spend in this sinful folly.
+
+His masterpiece in Rome was the "Aurora," on a ceiling of the Rospigliosi
+Palace; it represents the goddess of the dawn as floating before the
+chariot of Apollo, or Phoebus, the god of the sun. She scatters flowers
+upon the earth, he holds the reins over four piebald and white horses,
+while Cupid, with his lighted torch, floats just above them. Around the
+chariot dance seven graceful female figures which represent the Hours, or
+Horae. I have been asked why seven was the number; the ancients had no
+fixed number for the Hours; sometimes they were spoken of as two, again
+three, and even in some cases as ten. It has always seemed to me that ten
+was the number chosen by Guido, for in that case there would naturally be
+three out of sight, on the side of the chariot which is not seen (Fig.
+51).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--BEATRICE CENCI.]
+
+The portrait of Beatrice Cenci is another very celebrated picture by
+Guido; it is in the gallery of the Barberini Palace, in Rome (Fig. 52).
+The interest in the portrait of this unhappy girl is world-wide. She was
+the daughter of a wealthy Roman noble, who after the death of her mother
+married a second time, and treated the children of his first marriage in a
+brutal way. It is even said that he hired assassins to murder two of his
+sons on their return from a journey to Spain. The story also relates that
+his cruelty to Beatrice was such that, with the aid of her step-mother and
+her brother, she killed him. At all events, these three were accused of
+this crime and were executed for it in 1599. Other accounts say that he
+was murdered by robbers, and his wife and children were made to appear as
+if guilty. Clement VII. was the pope at that time, and in spite of his
+knowledge of the cruelty of the father he would not pardon them, though
+mercy was implored of him for this lovely girl. The reason given for this
+action of the pope's is that he wished to confiscate the Cenci estates,
+which he could do if the family suffered the death penalty. So many
+reproductions of this sad face have been made that it is very familiar to
+us, and almost seems to have been the face of some one whom we have known.
+
+Guido did not paint his St. Michael for the Cappucini in Rome until after
+he returned to his native city. When he sent the picture to the monks, he
+wrote: "I wish I had the wings of an angel to have ascended into Paradise,
+and there to have beholden the forms of those beautified spirits from
+which I might have copied my archangel; but not being able to mount so
+high, it was in vain for me to search for his resemblance here below, so
+that I was forced to make an introspection into my own mind, and into that
+idea of beauty which I have formed in my own imagination."
+
+We are told that he always tried to paint his ideal of beauty rather than
+to reproduce any human beauty that he had seen. He would pose his
+color-grinder, and draw his outlines from him, and then fill in with his
+own conceptions of what the head he was painting should be; this accounts
+for the sameness in his heads and faces.
+
+His passion for gaming degraded the close of his life. It led him into
+great distresses, and for the sake of money he painted many pictures which
+are not worthy of his name. He had always received generous prices for his
+pictures, but he left many debts as a blot upon his memory. His works are
+seen in the galleries of Europe, and are always admired for their feeling,
+beauty, and grace.
+
+FRANCESCO ALBANI (1578-1660), born at Bologna, was another scholar of the
+Caracci school, and a friend of Guido Reni. There are many works of his in
+Rome. His pictures of landscapes with figures were his best works, and
+beauty was his characteristic. His own home had all the advantages for
+painting such works as he best succeeded in, such as Venus and the Loves,
+maids and boys, children and Cupids in unending variety.
+
+His villa was surrounded by charming views. His wife was very handsome,
+and they had twelve lovely children, so lovely that it is said that other
+artists besides himself made use of them for models.
+
+There were several other Eclectics of some importance of whom we shall not
+speak, but shall leave them with an account of ELISABETTA SIRANI
+(1640-1665), who also was born at Bologna, and is worthy of attention on
+account of her talents, while the story of her life adds another interest
+than that which she has as an artist.
+
+She was an imitator of the attractive manner of Guido Reni. The heads of
+her madonnas and magdalens are charming, and, indeed, all her work speaks
+of the innate refinement of her nature. Her industry was marvellous, since
+she made one hundred and fifty pictures and etchings in a period of about
+ten years. Much has been said of the rapidity with which she worked, and
+one story relates that on a certain day the Duchess of Brunswick, the
+Duchess of Mirandola, and the Duke Cosimo de Medici, with other persons,
+met in her studio, and she sketched and shaded drawings of subjects which
+they named to her, with a skill and celerity which astonished and
+delighted her guests.
+
+Her masterpiece is a picture of "St. Anthony Adoring the Virgin and
+Child," which is in the Pinacoteca of Bologna. There are pictures by her
+in the Belvedere and Lichtenstein Galleries at Vienna, in the Hermitage at
+St. Petersburg, and in the Sciarra Palace, Rome.
+
+In person Elisabetta Sirani was beautiful, and her character commanded the
+affection of all who knew her. She was a sweet singer, and her biographers
+increase her virtues by praising her taste in dress, and even her
+moderation in eating! She was skilful in domestic affairs, and was in the
+habit of rising early to perform her share in the household duties, never
+allowing her art to displace any occupation which properly made a part of
+her life. Her name has come down through more than two centuries as one
+whose "devoted filial affection, feminine grace, and artless benignity of
+manner added a lustre to her great talents, and completed a personality
+which her friends regarded as an ideal of perfection."
+
+She died very suddenly, and the cause of her death has never been known;
+but the theory that she was poisoned has been generally accepted. Several
+reasons for the crime have been given; one is that she was the victim of
+jealous artists, as Domenichino had been; another, that a princely lover
+whom she had scorned thus revenged himself. A servant-girl in her family
+was suspected of the crime, tried, and banished; but after a time she was
+recalled to Bologna at the request of the father of Elisabetta, for he saw
+no proof of the girl's guilt. Thus the mystery was never solved, but the
+whole city of Bologna was saddened by her death. The day of her burial was
+one of public mourning; her funeral was attended with great pomp, and she
+was buried beside Guido Reni in the splendid church of the Dominicans.
+Poems and orations in her praise were numerous, and a book was published,
+called "Il Penello Lagrimate," which contained these, with odes, anagrams,
+and epitaphs, in both Latin and Italian, all setting forth her charms and
+virtues. Her portrait in the Ercolani Gallery at Bologna represents her
+when occupied in painting her father's portrait; according to this picture
+she had a tall, elegant figure, and a very pretty face. She had two
+sisters, Barbara and Anna Maria, who also were artists, but her fame was
+so much greater than theirs that she quite overshadowed them.
+
+The earliest master of the Naturalists was MICHAEL ANGELO AMERIGI, called
+CARAVAGGIO, from the name of his birth-place (1569-1609). His life and
+character was not such as to make him an attractive study. His subjects
+and his manner of representing them combined in producing what has been
+called "the poetry of the repulsive." He was wild in his nature and lived
+a wild life. His religious subjects, even, were coarse, though his color
+was vivid and his figures arranged with good effect. His "False Players"
+is one of his best works; it represents two men playing cards, while a
+third looks over the shoulder of one as if advising him what to play.
+
+Naturally, his manner of painting was best suited to scenes from common
+life, though he made those coarse and sometimes painful; but when he
+attempted subjects of a higher order his works are positively offensive.
+Some of his sacred pictures were removed from the altars for which they
+were painted on account of their coarseness. His most celebrated work is
+the "Entombment of Christ," at the Vatican; in the Gallery of the Capitol
+in Rome there is a "Fortune Teller," which is also a fine work.
+
+Next to Caravaggio came GIUSEPPE RIBERA, called IL SPAGNOLETTO
+(1588-1656). He was a native of Valencia, and when very young made his way
+to Rome, so that, although his education as an artist was wholly Italian,
+his familiar name arose from his Spanish origin. While living in
+miserable poverty in Rome, and industriously copying such frescoes as he
+could gain access to, he attracted the attention of a cardinal, who took
+him to his home, and made him comfortable. But the young painter soon ran
+away, and returned to his street life. The cardinal sought him out, and
+called him an "ungrateful little Spaniard;" but Ribera excused his conduct
+by saying that as soon as he was made comfortable and was well fed he lost
+all ambition to work, adding that it would require the spur of poverty to
+make him a good painter. The cardinal respected his courage, and the story
+being repeated to other artists, much interest was attracted to him.
+
+Later he went to Naples, and joined the cabal there which had agreed to
+persecute the strange artists who should come to work in that city. If
+Ribera did not actually commit many of the crimes which were done there,
+he was responsible for them through his influence. His works are
+frequently so brutal in their subjects and treatment that one feels that
+he who painted them must have lost all the kindliness of his nature.
+
+He married the daughter of a rich picture dealer, and became very rich
+himself. In 1630 he was made a member of the Academy of St. Luke, at Rome,
+and in 1648 Pope Innocent X. sent him the cross of the Order of Christ.
+Few Italian artists were better known in their own country, and many of
+his pictures were sent to Spain. His greatest excellence was in his
+knowledge of anatomy, and he painted subjects that enabled him to show
+this. Among his famous works are a "Descent from the Cross;" "The Flaying
+of St. Bartholomew;" "Ixion on the Wheel;" and "Cato of Utica." His works
+are in all the famous galleries of the world.
+
+Ribera's greatest pupil was SALVATOR ROSA (1615-1673), the landscape
+painter, who was a very gifted man, being a poet and musician as well as
+an artist. His father was an educated man, and with his other relatives
+encouraged his son in his taste for art. When twenty years old he went to
+Rome, and with the exception of some intervals remained there during his
+life.
+
+It is said that as a youth he associated much with bandits, and, when one
+considers the wildness of many of his scenes and the character of the
+figures in their midst, it is not difficult to believe that this may have
+been true. It is certain that he painted the portrait of the famous
+Masaniello more than once, and he is believed to have joined the
+_Compagnia della Morte_, of which Falcone, one of his masters, was the
+captain.
+
+Salvator made many enemies by his independence and his inclination to
+satire. He wrote satires on various subjects which were not published
+until after his death, but it was known that he had written them. He
+married a Florentine woman, who was the mother of his two sons. When he
+died he was buried in the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, where a
+monument is erected to his memory.
+
+He painted some historical subjects and portraits in which he followed the
+Naturalists, but his principal works were landscapes. Jagged rocks and
+mountains, wild dells and lonely defiles, with here and there robbers,
+hermits, or soldiers, make his most effective pictures. There is a deep
+sense of desolation, almost of fear, in them which is very impressive.
+Sometimes he painted serene landscapes and poetic figures; but his best
+works are not of this sort. His pictures are in the principal public and
+in some private galleries. He also left about ninety etchings which are
+masterly in execution and full of expression in the heads, while the
+atmosphere is soft. When his works are sold they bring great prices. A
+large landscape with Apollo and the Sibyl in the foreground brought eight
+thousand five hundred dollars in England years ago, and is now worth much
+more than that.
+
+Early in the eighteenth century an artist named ANTONIO CANALE
+(1697-1768), called CANALETTO, began to make views of the city of Venice
+and scenes on the canals. He had two followers, BERNARDO BELLOTTI
+(1720-1780), who was his nephew, and FRANCESCO GUARDI (1712-1793), and
+these three painters executed a large number of these pictures, which are
+found in many European galleries, and it is not always easy to distinguish
+their authorship. There is no doubt that many which were once attributed
+to the first master were really painted by his pupils.
+
+Before the commencement of the eighteenth century the decline of the
+Renaissance school in Italy had begun; in fact, the painting of the
+seventeenth century came to be mere mechanical realism. For this reason
+the portraits were the best pictures of the time, as in them it was
+requisite to be true to the object represented.
+
+Late in the eighteenth century a new impulse was given to Italian
+painting, chiefly through the influence of foreign artists such as Raphael
+Mengs, and the French painter David. In the beginning of our own century
+LORENZO BENVENUTI (1769-1844) executed some excellent frescoes in
+Florence, Siena, and Arezzo, which was his native city. He decorated the
+ceiling of the Medici Chapel in the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, and
+Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tuscany, erected a tomb to this painter in the
+same church where he had spent so much time and talent. His portrait,
+painted by himself, is in the gallery of the Uffizi, at Florence.
+VINCENZIO CAMMUCCINI (1775-1844), too, was a celebrated master of his
+time. He was a Roman by birth, and became President of the Academy of St.
+Luke; he was also a member of the Institute of France, and received
+decorations from sovereigns of various countries. He made many copies from
+the works of the great masters. His portraits were so much admired as to
+be compared to those of Rubens and Tintoretto, and his ceiling frescoes
+in the Torlonia Palace, Rome, were among his important works, as was a
+"Presentation of Christ in the Temple," painted for the Church of San
+Giovanni in Piacenza.
+
+But there has been no true restoration of Italian art. The painting of
+Italy in our time has been largely a commercial enterprise rather than an
+outcome from artistic genius or impulse, and the few works which are
+exceptions to this rule are not sufficient to encourage the hope that this
+nation can again attain to her former rank or regain the fame of her past
+in the history of modern art.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PAINTING IN FLANDERS, HOLLAND, AND GERMANY.
+
+
+Flanders formerly embraced a larger part of Belgium than is contained in
+the present Belgian provinces of East and West Flanders. It also covered a
+portion of Holland and some territory in the northwest of France. The
+principal Flemish towns connected with the story of Flemish art were
+Bruges, Tournai, Louvain, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, Mechlin, Liege, and
+Utrecht.
+
+There are some records of Flemish painting much earlier than the fifteenth
+century, but they are so vague and uncertain that I shall pass them over,
+and begin with the family of Van Eyck, in which there were four
+painters--three brothers and a sister. The eldest, HUBERT VAN EYCK
+(1366-1426), effected a great change in the art of his time and country.
+Very little is known of him as a young man, or indeed of his personal
+history at all, except that he passed his middle life at Bruges and his
+later years at Ghent. The subjects of his pictures were mostly scriptural.
+I do not suppose that the pictures of this master would seem very
+beautiful to you if you saw them, but they are of great value. His
+greatest work was an altar-piece for Judocus Vyts and his wife Lisabetta;
+it was for the decoration of their funeral chapel in the Church of St.
+Bavon in Ghent. It was an immense work, with a centre-piece and wings that
+could be closed; the inside was divided into twelve different pictures,
+and the outside also was painted. We do not know how much of this was
+completed when Hubert died and left it to be finished by his brother John.
+Philip I. of Spain wished to buy this altar-piece, and when he could not
+do so, he employed Michael Coxie to copy it; this artist spent two years
+on the work, and was paid four thousand florins. Of the original work, a
+large portion remains in the Church of St. Bavon; the wings, consisting of
+six beautiful, tall panels, are in the Berlin Museum, and two outer
+compartments are in the Brussels Museum. The picture of holy men who have
+served God is on one of the wings of this altar-piece (Fig. 53).
+
+But the principal interest attached to Hubert van Eyck comes from the fact
+that he made such discoveries in the use of colors as led to what we call
+the "Invention of Oil-Painting," and this invention is always attributed
+to the Van Eycks, for it is probable that the discoveries of Hubert were
+perfected by JAN VAN EYCK (1390-1440), who became a celebrated painter.
+Oil-painting had been known, it is true, a long time, but the manner of
+preparing the colors and the varnish used before the time of the Van Eycks
+was very unsatisfactory, and the improvement of these substances was the
+work of these masters.
+
+The pictures of Hubert van Eyck are stronger than those of Jan, who was
+really the founder of a school remarkable for delicacy and fine finish
+rather than for power. It was after the death of Hubert that the fame of
+the new colors spread abroad, and thus it happened that it was to Jan that
+other artists went to learn his secrets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--THE ANCHORITES. _In S. Bavon at Ghent._]
+
+Jan van Eyck was something of a diplomat as well as a painter, for when he
+was in the service of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, he was sent on
+several secret missions, and in 1428 he accompanied the ambassadors of the
+duke to Portugal in order to paint the portrait of Isabella of Portugal,
+who was betrothed to the duke. There is a goodly number of works by Jan
+van Eyck in various galleries. The portrait of himself and wife in the
+National Gallery, London, is very interesting; they stand hand in hand,
+with a terrier dog at their feet; their dress and all the details of their
+surroundings are painted with great care. It is said that the Princess
+Mary, sister of Charles V., gave a barber who owned it a position with a
+handsome salary in exchange for the picture. Jan van Eyck, being twenty
+years younger than his brother Hubert, naturally learned all that the
+elder knew, and the story of his life gives him the appearance of being
+the more important artist, though in point of highest merit he was not the
+superior.
+
+Of LAMBERT VAN EYCK very little is known. It is believed that he made the
+copy of Hubert's great work which is in the Antwerp Museum; another work
+called by his name is in Louvain. MARGARETHA VAN EYCK is said to have been
+a skilful artist, but no one picture can be ascribed to her; she was
+buried beside her brother Hubert in the Cathedral of Ghent.
+
+Of course the Van Eycks had many followers. Among them were PETRUS
+CHRISTUS (records 1444-1471), GERARD VAN DER MEIRE (records 1447-1474),
+HUGO VON DER GOES (1405?-1482), and JUSTUS OF GHENT (1468-?), all of whom
+were good artists, but I shall pass to a more important one, ROGIER VAN
+DER WEYDEN (1400-1464), who was himself the head of a school of as great
+importance as was that of the Van Eycks. His realism was his chief
+characteristic, and this was so great as to make some of his works
+repulsive, especially his martyrdoms, in which he detailed horrors with
+great exactness. He also loved to paint pictures which illustrated the
+myths of the Middle Ages. Our illustration is from one of these works
+(Fig. 54).
+
+This picture is from the story that when the Roman Senate decreed divine
+honors to the Emperor Augustus, he consulted the Tiburtine Sibyl as to
+whether he ought to receive them or no. She replied to him that it was
+more becoming for him to go away silently, and told him that a Hebrew
+child should be born who should reign over the gods themselves, or that a
+king should come from heaven whose power should never end. Another
+version, which is the one this picture represents, says that the heavens
+opened, and a vision of the Virgin with the Saviour in her arms, standing
+on an altar, was shown the emperor. He worshipped it, and heard a voice
+saying, "Haec ara filii Dei" (This is the altar of the Son of God).
+Augustus reported this to the Senate, and erected an altar upon the spot
+in Rome where the Church of Santa Maria in Capitolio, or the "Ara
+Coeli," now stands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--THE SIBYL AND THE EMPEROR AUGUSTUS. _By Rogier
+van der Weyden. In the Berlin Museum._]
+
+Many pictures by Van der Weyden are seen in European galleries. He was
+also a fine miniaturist. He was official painter to the city of Brussels,
+and was buried in its cathedral.
+
+His son, ROGIER VAN DER WEYDEN the younger, became very rich and
+benevolent. He died at Brussels in 1529. His works are not numerous in
+public galleries.
+
+The elder Van der Weyden had a pupil, HANS MEMLING (records 1450-1499),
+who became the greatest master in Belgium. I shall not give you a long
+account of him; but shall tell you of his greatest work, which was the
+Shrine of St. Ursula, at the Hospital of Bruges, and is the best example
+of this type of early Flemish art which still exists. It is divided into
+six compartments, with two ends, and other panels on top, all of which are
+finished with the greatest care, and give the whole story of St. Ursula
+and her eleven thousand virgins, which is that Ursula was a daughter of a
+king of Brittany who was a Christian. The young girl was educated with the
+greatest care, and the fame of her beauty and wisdom spread all over
+Europe. At length the king of England asked for her to be the wife of his
+son. The princess replied that she would wed him on three conditions:
+first, that he should give her ten virgins of noble blood for her
+companions, then to each of these virgins and to herself he should give a
+thousand maidens as attendants; second, he should allow her three years
+with these companions, with whom she should visit the shrines where the
+bodies of the saints repose; and third, the English king and his court
+should receive baptism.
+
+I cannot give space for all the details of this story, which is of great
+interest; but the result was that Ursula received all that she asked, and
+started on her journey to Rome, in the course of which she and the eleven
+thousand maidens met with many adventures. At last, having reached Cologne
+on their return, they encountered an army of barbarians which was
+besieging the city, and all were slain.
+
+The subjects of the pictures as they were painted by Memling were: 1, the
+first landing at Cologne in the beginning of the journey; 2, the landing
+at Basle; 3, the arrival in Rome; 4, the second arrival at Basle on her
+return toward home; 5, commencement of the martyrdom, when Ursula and her
+train are first seen by the barbarians; 6, death of Ursula.
+
+The works of Memling which still remain are numerous, and are seen in many
+public galleries. After the death of this master the purity of Flemish
+painting declined. Many artists visited Italy, and the manner of Flemish
+painters was influenced by association with Italian art and artists. I
+shall, therefore, pass over a period when no very important masters
+appeared, and speak next of a great man, QUINTIN MATSYS (1466-1529), who
+began life as a blacksmith. He was born at Antwerp, and there are
+specimens of iron work there said to have been executed by him. It is said
+that he fell in love with the daughter of an artist who refused to allow
+him to marry her because he was not a painter; for this reason Matsys
+devoted himself to the study of art, and became the best Belgian master of
+his time. His pictures of religious subjects are full of tender
+earnestness and deep feeling, and his most important work was an
+altar-piece which is now in the Museum of Antwerp. His scenes from common
+life, his misers and lovers are spirited and truthful.
+
+His portrait and that of his second wife, both painted by himself, are in
+the gallery of the Uffizi in Florence. His works are not very numerous,
+but they are seen in the principal galleries. He was buried in the
+Cathedral of Antwerp, and a slab is inserted in the wall which tells his
+story; one sentence is, "_Connubialis amor de mulcibre fecit Apellene_"
+(True love changed the smith to an Apelles).
+
+Rubens is the next great master of whom I shall speak, but I wish to say
+that during the last part of the sixteenth century there were many Flemish
+painters of considerable note whose pictures are seen in galleries, and
+are well worth consideration, but whose lives had no circumstances of
+especial interest. Among the best of these artists were ANTONIO MORO,
+PETER POURBUS (1510-1583), and his son and grandson, both named Frans,
+PIETER BREUGHEL (1530-1569), and his sons Jan and Pieter the younger, and
+PAUL BRIL, an early Flemish landscape painter.
+
+All the early Flemish pictures are very interesting, but in the beginning
+of the seventeenth century a new manner of painting was introduced through
+the genius of PETER PAUL RUBENS (1577-1640). This master was descended
+from two good families: his mother was of the distinguished family
+Pypeling, and his father, John Rubens, was one of the two principal
+magistrates of Antwerp. This city was the home of Rubens, although he was
+born at Siegen, in the county of Nassau, during a time when his father was
+in exile on account of a civil war which was then raging. He was born June
+29th, the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul, and hence was named for those
+apostles.
+
+He was a bright, scholarly boy, and soon showed his love for drawing. When
+he began to study art under Adam van Noort he had already a good
+education. During the four years he passed with this teacher he learned
+thoroughly all the technical part of painting; then, in another four years
+under Otto Vaenius, he cultivated his taste and the more poetical elements
+of his nature, for Vaenius was a very learned and elegant man. In 1598,
+when twenty-one years old, Rubens was admitted to the guild of painters in
+Antwerp. Two years later he went to Venice, and, after studying the works
+of Titian and Paul Veronese there, he entered the service of the Duke of
+Mantua, to whom he had been recommended by the governor of the
+Netherlands.
+
+While in Mantua he painted some fine pictures, and the duke sent him to
+Rome to copy celebrated works there. Rubens also executed some other
+orders in Rome, from which place he was recalled by the duke, who wished
+to send an envoy to Spain, and had chosen the young artist for that duty.
+He showed great political ability in the way he conducted his embassy,
+and through his personal charms made many friends.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--RUBENS AND HIS SECOND WIFE.]
+
+After his return from Spain he went again to Rome and then to Genoa, and
+finally, on account of the illness of his mother, he returned to Antwerp,
+having been absent seven years. His mother died before he reached her. He
+then decided to remain in Antwerp, and built himself a fine house with a
+charming studio. He soon married his first wife, Isabella Brant, and
+during the next fifteen years led a very regular and industrious life, and
+executed many important works. He also received a large number of pupils
+into his studio, and he has been accused of allowing them to paint
+pictures which he called by his own name; but it is true that Rubens, with
+his own hand, completed pictures of almost every kind, and so proved his
+power as an artist.
+
+He was fond of study, and could read and speak seven languages. He was in
+the habit of having some one read aloud to him while he painted, and
+preferred books of history and poetry. In 1620 he was invited to France by
+Marie de Medicis, for whom he executed many works. Among them the most
+important were scenes illustrating the life of this queen which decorate
+some apartments in the Louvre.
+
+In 1628 the Infanta Isabella sent him on a second mission to Spain, and
+while there he painted many grand and important pictures, which are fine
+examples of his gorgeous coloring. He proved himself so good a diplomatist
+that he was sent to England to try to make peace between that country and
+Flanders, in which he was successful. He was knighted by King Charles in
+1630, and received the same honor from the king of Spain.
+
+In 1630 he married Helena Forment, a niece of his first wife, who was but
+sixteen years old. She became the mother of five children; he had two sons
+by his first marriage, to whom Gevartius was tutor. Rubens made so many
+portraits of both his wives and so often used them as models in painting
+his large pictures, that their faces are familiar to all the world (Fig.
+55).
+
+Rubens made a valuable collection of all sorts of beautiful objects, and
+lived luxuriously. After his death a portion of his collection was sold at
+private sale for more than seventy-five thousand dollars. His death
+occurred in 1640, and he was buried in a private chapel in the Church of
+St. James in Antwerp; he had decorated this chapel with some works of his
+own. His family erected a monument to him, upon which an epitaph written
+by Gevartius was inscribed.
+
+In painting Rubens was almost a universal genius, for he left a great
+variety of works as well as a great number. About one thousand eight
+hundred are ascribed to him: doubtless his pupils did much work on these;
+but there is something of himself in all. They include historical,
+scriptural, and mythological subjects, portraits, animals, _genre_
+pictures, and landscapes. His style is a strange mingling of northern and
+southern elements. His handling and his arrangement of his subjects was
+like that of the Italians; but his figures, even when he represented
+Christ and the holiest men, were like Spanish kings or German peasants, or
+somebody whom he had seen.
+
+We have not space to speak in detail of the works of Rubens. Some critics
+insist that one class of his pictures is best, and some another. Of course
+this depends largely upon the taste of those who make the judgment. It is
+certain that he was a wonderful painter, and many of his pictures give
+great pleasure to those who visit the galleries where they are seen.
+
+His pictures of children were so painted that they seem to have been done
+from pure love of the work. His portraits are splendid, his _genre_ scenes
+delightful, and his landscapes fine; in short, the amount and variety of
+his work is a proof of his great genius and industry, such as can
+scarcely be equalled in the history of painting. Yet it cannot be denied
+that there is much incorrect drawing, unnatural coloring, and coarse, bad
+taste in some of his works. On the other hand, the fertility of his
+imagination, his bold design and effective execution, as well as his
+brilliant color, are all to be admired, and the name of Rubens stands high
+on the list of Flemish artists who are famous the world over.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. _By Rubens._]
+
+FRANS SNYDERS (1579-1657) was born at Antwerp and lived in the time of
+Rubens. He was a famous painter of animals, and it sometimes happened that
+they worked together, Rubens painting the landscapes and figures and
+Snyders the animals in the same pictures. Snyders, like Rubens, excelled
+in representing animals in the most exciting moment of the combat or the
+chase, and his pictures are full of life. They are seen in all large
+European galleries, and are much prized.
+
+JAN FYT (1609-1661), also born at Antwerp, is the greatest Flemish animal
+painter after Snyders. His greyhounds cannot be equalled, while his live
+dogs are wonderful; but his best pictures represent dead game. The fur and
+feathers in his paintings are marvellously done, and his pictures are
+among the best in the world in which such subjects are treated.
+
+JACOB JORDAENS (1593-1678), another native of Antwerp, studied under Adam
+van Noort at the same time with Rubens, but later in life he became a
+follower and a sort of assistant of his former fellow-pupil. He married a
+daughter of their old master and never visited Italy. His color was fine;
+in truth, he sometimes excelled Rubens himself in the "golden glow" which
+is much admired in his works. Many sacred pictures by Jordaens are seen in
+the churches of Flanders. A fine historical work of his represents scenes
+from the life of Prince Frederick Henry of Orange, and is in the House of
+the Wood, near the Hague; but the larger part of his pictures represent
+the manners and customs of the common people, and are seen in public
+galleries.
+
+The greatest artist among the pupils of Rubens, as well as one of the
+greatest of Flanders, was ANTHONY VANDYCK (1599-1641). He was born in
+Antwerp, and was the son of a silk merchant, this having been the
+occupation of the Vandycks for several generations. The mother of the
+painter was extremely skilled in various kinds of embroidery, and had such
+artistic tastes as enabled her to make many original designs, which she
+worked out with her needle in delicate and elaborate tapestry work.
+
+Some people believe that to this taste and talent of his mother's Vandyck
+owed the instinct for drawing which he early showed; at all events, she
+did all she could to develop his taste, and when he was still a boy she
+persuaded her husband to place him under the teaching of Henry van Balen.
+
+He was still quite young when he entered the studio of Rubens, and was
+soon so much trusted by the master as to be allowed to make drawings from
+his works for the use of the engravers. This sort of drawing must be done
+with great care and exactness, and Vandyck must have had much skill to be
+fitted for it. His fellow-pupils also had great faith in him, as is shown
+by the story that one day, when Rubens had gone out, the young student
+bribed his old servant to show them the painting with which the master was
+then occupied. While jostling each other it happened that one of them hit
+the fresh picture, and injured it. They were much alarmed, and begged
+Vandyck to repair it. After some hesitation he did so, and was so
+successful that at first Rubens did not detect the fact that another had
+worked on the picture. When he did discover it, and learned the truth
+about it he forgave the offence heartily.
+
+When Vandyck was nineteen years old he was admitted to the Society of
+Artists in Antwerp, an unusual honor to one of his age. In 1620 Vandyck
+went to England, having been invited there through the Earl of Arundel.
+Little is known of this visit, and two years later he was invited to the
+Hague, where he spent several months.
+
+When Vandyck was passing through Haarlem he went to the studio of Franz
+Hals, who was at a tavern just then. A message was sent him saying that a
+stranger desired to have his portrait made, and had but two hours to spare
+for it. Hals hastened home and dashed off the portrait within the time
+stated. Vandyck then said, "Portrait-painting seems to be a simple thing;
+take my place, and give me the brush for awhile." Hals complied with the
+request and Vandyck made his portrait with great celerity. Seeing this,
+Hals cried out, "You are Vandyck; he alone can do such work."
+
+The young artist was suddenly called to the death-bed of his father, who
+commanded him to paint a picture for the Dominican Sisters who had cared
+for his father in his illness. Seven years later Vandyck presented the
+Sisters with a Crucifixion. At the foot of the cross was a rock upon which
+was inscribed, in Latin, "Lest the earth should be heavy upon the remains
+of his father, Anthony Vandyck moved this rock to the foot of the cross,
+and gave it to this place." When the monasteries were broken up, this
+picture was purchased for two thousand seven hundred dollars for the
+Antwerp Academy, where it now is.
+
+At length Vandyck prepared to set out for Italy. When he paid his farewell
+visit to Rubens he presented the master with three of his pictures, and in
+return Rubens gave him one of his finest horses. As Vandyck was on his way
+from Antwerp to Brussels he halted at the village of Saventhem, where he
+fell in love with Anna van Ophem, and so stayed on in the lovely valley of
+Flanders, week after week, as if he had forgotten that Italy existed. Anna
+persuaded him to paint a picture for the village church, and he executed
+a Holy Family in which the Virgin was a portrait of Anna, and St. Joachim
+and St. Anna were drawn from her father and mother. This picture pleased
+the church authorities so much that they gave the young painter an order
+for another, which represented St. Martin dividing his cloak with beggars.
+In this work the saint was a portrait of Vandyck, and the horse on which
+he rode was like that which Rubens had given him.
+
+This picture has quite a history. In 1758 the priest agreed to sell it to
+a collector from the Hague for one thousand eight hundred dollars; but
+when the villagers knew of it they surrounded the church with clubs and
+pitchforks, and drove the purchaser away. In 1806, when the French
+invaders tried to carry it away, the people again prevented it, and they
+were forced to call more soldiers from Brussels before they succeeded in
+taking it. The St. Martin was placed in the Gallery of the Louvre, at
+Paris, but was restored to Saventhem in 1815. About 1850 a rich American
+offered twenty thousand dollars for the picture, no matter who brought it
+to him. Upon this a set of rogues tried to steal it at night; but the dogs
+of the village gave such an alarm that the town was roused, and the
+robbers escaped with difficulty. Since then a guardian sleeps in the
+church, and the St. Martin is still there.
+
+The news that Vandyck was thus lingering on his way to Italy reached the
+ears of Rubens, and he sent such urgent messages to his pupil as induced
+him to continue his journey, and he also sent him letters of introduction
+to artists and to nobles whom the master had known when he made his
+studies beyond the Alps.
+
+Vandyck went first to Venice, where he worked hard to copy and learn to
+imitate the rich color and refined manner of Titian and other Venetian
+masters. He also painted some original pictures in Venice, and made many
+portraits which gave him fame in that and other cities. He was asked to
+go to other places for the painting of portraits; but he remained in
+Venice until his money was spent, and then went to Genoa, where he was
+well received and generously employed by the old friends of Rubens. His
+works are still to be seen in some of the palaces of that city, while some
+have been sold and carried to other countries--they were so fine that they
+still maintain the name which they gained for him when they were executed.
+The principal work done in Genoa was a picture of the Lomellini family
+which is now in Edinburgh; it is about nine feet square. His different
+visits to Genoa during his absence in Italy make up a period of about
+three years, and he did a vast amount of work there.
+
+When he first went to Rome Vandyck was invited to the house of Cardinal
+Bentivoglio, who had been papal nuncio to Flanders, and for whom our
+artist made a picture of the Crucifixion. The full-length portrait which
+Vandyck painted of the cardinal is now in Florence; a copy of it is in one
+of the halls of Harvard College. It is one of the finest among the many
+splendid portraits by this great master.
+
+Vandyck was fascinated with Rome, but he was so unpopular with the other
+Flemish painters there that he shortened his stay in the Eternal City in
+order to escape the vexations he there received. The artists disliked him
+for his ostentation, and he was called _Il pittore cavalieresco_--and he
+offended them by declining to associate with them at taverns or to join
+their coarse festivities. After leaving Rome he visited Palermo, from
+which place he was driven away by the appearance of the plague. He
+returned to Genoa, visited Florence and other cities in the north of
+Italy, and finally returned to Antwerp after an absence of four years.
+
+During the first years after his return he met with small success--Rubens
+was so great that he filled all the space about him--but at last, in 1628,
+Vandyck began to receive important commissions, and from this time was
+constantly busy with works for the churches of the Low Countries. He also
+painted portraits of many notable persons, and made great numbers of them
+in brown and white for the use of engravers. While Vandyck was thus
+executing great numbers of fine pictures for the embellishment of
+Flanders, he became so unpopular and his rivals said such hard things of
+him that he determined to go away. One of his unfortunate experiences was
+in the house of the bishop, who had sent for him to paint his portrait.
+Vandyck had first sent his implements to the care of the porter of the
+palace. When he went himself he was taken into the presence of the bishop,
+who was reclining on a sofa, and gave little attention to the artist. At
+last the bishop asked if he had not come to paint his portrait. Vandyck
+declared himself to be quite at the service of his lordship. "Why, then,"
+said the bishop, "do you not go for your implements? Do you expect me to
+fetch them for you?" Vandyck calmly replied, "Since you have not ordered
+your servants to bring them I supposed that you wished to do it yourself."
+Then the bishop leaped up in anger and cried out, "Anthony, Anthony, you
+are a little asp, but you have a great deal of venom!" Vandyck thought it
+safe to make his escape, and after he crossed the threshold he called
+back, "My lord Van der Burch, you are a voluminous personage, but you are
+like the cinnamon tree. The bark is the best part of you."
+
+In 1629 Vandyck went to England with the hope of being employed by King
+Charles I.; but he was not able even to get an introduction to the
+sovereign, and went to the continent filled with mortification. At length,
+however, Charles called him to London, whither he went in 1632, and soon
+became the friend of the king as well as his favorite artist. He was
+assigned a city and a country residence, and within three months of the
+time of his arrival at court the king knighted him, and gave him a gold
+chain with a portrait of himself set in brilliants suspended from it.
+Charles was in the habit of passing much time with Vandyck, and the studio
+of the court-painter became one of the most fashionable resorts in London
+for the courtiers and other distinguished people.
+
+Vandyck kept up a fine establishment, and lived luxuriously. He had a
+habit of asking his sitters to dinner; thus he could study their faces and
+retouch their portraits with the more natural expressions of their
+conversational hours, for it is rare that one is natural when posing
+before an artist who is painting one's portrait. But in the midst of his
+busy life as an artist and his gay life as a man of the world, Sir Anthony
+did not forget the needs of his brother painters. There was at that time
+no club or place where artists met socially to consult and aid each other
+in their profession. Vandyck founded the Club of St. Luke; it met at the
+Rose Tavern, and all painters of talent living in London joined it. One of
+the more personal acts of kindness which are related of him is that having
+seen by chance a picture which was painted by William Dobson, Vandyck
+sought him out, found him in a poor garret, instructed him with great
+care, introduced him to the king, and, in short, by his kind offices so
+prepared the way that Dobson was made sergeant-painter to the king after
+Vandyck's death, and won the title of "the English Tintoretto."
+
+The portraits which Vandyck executed in England are numbered by hundreds
+and are magnificent pictures. Those of the royal family are very numerous
+and important, and there is scarcely a man or woman belonging to this
+period whose name has come down to us in history or literature, whose
+portrait he did not paint. He also made thirteen portraits of himself
+which are still preserved. He was very skilful in painting horses and
+dogs, and frequently introduced these animals into his portrait groups.
+
+There is a large collection of the pictures of Vandyck at Windsor Castle;
+there are many also in the private galleries of Great Britain and other
+countries, besides a goodly number in the public galleries of Europe. He
+executed at least thirty-six portraits of Charles I., as many as
+twenty-five of Queen Henrietta Maria, and he also painted several groups
+of the children of the royal pair. Prince Rupert of the Rhine and Thomas
+Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, were also frequently portrayed by him, and
+one of his most important large works was a family picture of the Earl of
+Pembroke and his household. It is called the Wilton Family, as it is in a
+salon at Wilton House; it contains eleven figures, and has been called
+"the first and most magnificent historic portraiture in the world." Again,
+it is said to be stiff, wanting in harmony, bad in color, and so on, but
+after all it still remains a splendid monument to the skill and genius of
+Vandyck. The picture is twenty feet long by twelve feet high.
+
+Vandyck painted no portraits of the Puritans nor popular leaders of his
+day; neither did he of the literary men who flourished at that time, with
+the exception of the court poets, Sir John Suckling and Thomas Carew.
+
+I shall not give a list of Vandyck's historical and religious pictures,
+though they are quite numerous. They are not as interesting as his
+portraits, and we have not space to give them. His ambition, however, was
+never satisfied, for he wished to do some great historical work. At one
+time his opportunity seemed to have come, for the great banqueting-room of
+Whitehall Palace, the ceiling of which Rubens had painted, still remained
+with plain walls. Vandyck desired to paint on them the history of the
+Order of the Garter. The project was laid before the king, and he desired
+sketches to be made for the work, and one of them, the "Procession of the
+Knights of the Garter," was sold after the execution of the king for five
+pounds. It was owned by Sir Peter Lely and Sir Joshua Reynolds, and is
+now at Belvoir in the collection of the Duke of Rutland. We cannot help
+being sorry for Vandyck's great disappointment when he knew that his work
+could not be done. He was weak in health and much in debt, for the king
+could not pay him his pension nor what he owed him for pictures. The
+artist grew sad and discouraged. He sought relief in the study of alchemy,
+and indulged the vain hope of discovering some chemical means of making
+gold from base metals. All this wasted his time and means, and it is to be
+regretted that he was less wise than his master, for when an alchemist
+tried to interest Rubens in the same subject, that great artist replied:
+"You come too late, my good fellow; I have long since discovered the
+philosopher's stone. My palette and brushes are worth far more than any
+other secret."
+
+The king and all Vandyck's friends were troubled by his state of health
+and mind, and a marriage was brought about for him with the hope that he
+would be a happier man. His wife was Maria Ruthven, a lovely Scotch girl
+who held a high position among the attendants of the queen. Not long after
+his marriage Vandyck took her to Flanders, where he enjoyed much the
+honorable reception which he met with in revisiting the scenes of his
+childhood and youth. But having learned that Louis XIII. was about to
+adorn a large gallery in the Louvre, Vandyck hastened to Paris hoping to
+obtain the commission. He was too late--the work had been given to
+Poussin, and Vandyck returned to London greatly disheartened.
+
+While at Antwerp he had received much attention, as, indeed, had been the
+case before, for in 1634 he had been elected Dean of the Confraternity of
+St. Luke and a great feast was held in his honor. When he came now to
+London the social atmosphere was full of sadness. The political troubles,
+which were finally so terrible in England, had already become alarming.
+In a few months the Earl of Strafford was executed, and Vandyck saw the
+royal family, to whom he was so much attached, surrounded with danger and
+at last separated.
+
+His physical health was already delicate, and his sorrows brought on a
+disease from which he soon died. He continued to work until the very last
+days of his life. Eight days before his death his daughter was born; she
+was named Justiniana, and when she grew up married an English baronet, Sir
+John Stepney.
+
+A short time before Vandyck died the king came from the North to London,
+and though he was overburdened with his own cares and griefs he found time
+to sorrow for the condition of his friend and artist. He offered his
+physician three hundred pounds if he would save the life of Sir Anthony;
+but nothing availed to baffle his disease, and he died December 9, 1641.
+Two days later he was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. It is said that many
+nobles and artists attended his funeral, which was conducted with
+impressive ceremony. The fire which destroyed St. Paul's made it
+impossible to say exactly where Vandyck was laid, but his coffin-plate was
+found at the time of the burial of Benjamin West.
+
+There were no artists of importance after the time of Rubens and his
+followers whom we call Flemish artists. There were good painters,
+certainly, belonging to the schools of Flanders; but these schools had
+reached their highest excellence and were on the decline, and so we pass
+to the Dutch school, or the painters of Holland.
+
+There was doubtless a very early school of Dutch painters, dating back to
+the fourteenth century even; but the records of it are so imperfect, and
+so few pictures remain from its early days, that for our purpose it is
+best to pass over the fifteenth century and say that during the sixteenth
+century the painters of Holland gave up the painting of sacred subjects
+very largely, and began to take on the characteristics of what is
+generally known now as the Dutch School. This school is distinguished for
+its portraits, which form a large and important part of its painting; next
+for its domestic scenes, which are realistic and true to life in an
+astonishing degree.
+
+At the beginning of the seventeenth century Holland had obtained a
+position as a nation that freed its artists from the influence of the
+Romish Church and the fear of the Inquisition, and they soon used their
+freedom to establish a national art, and one which became very important
+to the world. FRANZ HALS (1584-1666) was the most noteworthy of the
+portrait-painters. He was born at Mechlin, but passed most of his life at
+Haarlem. There was a custom in Holland of painting portraits of the
+members of guilds and societies in groups, and some such works of his at
+Haarlem are very fine. I have told a story of his rapid manner in the
+sketch of Vandyck. He was the first master to introduce that free, bold,
+sleight-of-hand manner which was afterward used by the Dutch masters, and
+is so strong in its effect. This painter led a merry, careless life. His
+portraits of single heads or figures are rare, and his small _genre_
+subjects still more so. In the Hotel de Ville at Haarlem there are as many
+as eight of his large works, most of them having ten or a dozen portraits.
+
+The Dutch painters of still-life--flowers, dead game and poultry, and
+metals, glass, and other beautiful objects--were very skilful, and have
+never been surpassed. The names of these masters would make a long list.
+There is little to be told of the circumstances of their lives, though
+their works are seen in most European galleries, and well repay one for
+careful examination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--PORTRAIT OF AN OFFICER. _By Franz Hals._]
+
+Another form of Dutch art is the representation of scenes from peasant
+life, and there were some very eminent painters who devoted themselves to
+these subjects entirely. The interiors of inns with men smoking and
+drinking, playing cards or making jokes, were subjects many times
+repeated; dancing villagers, fetes, and fairs were often pictured, and in
+all these scenes everything was given exactly to the life. It follows that
+these pictures of coarse, vulgar people engaged in rude amusements cannot
+be beautiful; but they are oftentimes wonderful. Among the most noted
+names in this kind of painting are those of Adrian Brauwer, the Van
+Ostades, the Teniers, and Jan Steen. Most of these artists executed small
+pictures only. I shall speak particularly of but one of these Dutch
+_genre_ painters--DAVID TENIERS the younger (1610-1694), who became the
+greatest painter of his time of scenes from common life. This is very
+great praise, because there were many Dutch and several Flemish painters
+who were noted for such pictures. This Teniers studied with his father,
+but his works show that he was much influenced by Rubens. He excelled in
+guard-house scenes and peasant life in every aspect. In representations of
+the alchemist also he was unequalled, as well as in fairs and festivals of
+every sort. He sometimes painted sacred subjects, but they are the least
+praiseworthy of all his works.
+
+The pictures of Teniers are very numerous. One author describes nine
+hundred of his works which are known to be genuine, and it is believed
+that there may be one hundred more. He often represented a great number of
+figures on one canvas. At Schleissheim there was a large picture, thirteen
+and a half feet by ten feet in size, which contained one thousand one
+hundred and thirty-eight figures. It was not unusual for him to paint from
+one hundred and fifty to three hundred figures in a single picture of
+moderate size. He had a light, brilliant touch, his color was exquisite,
+and his arrangement of his subjects was very picturesque. His chief fault
+was a resemblance in his heads, and for this reason those pictures with
+the fewest figures are his best works.
+
+Teniers had several royal patrons, and earned sufficient money to live in
+handsome style in his home in Perck, not far from Mechlin. He chose this
+place in order to be near the peasant classes, whose life was his chief
+study. He also excelled in his ability to imitate the styles of other
+masters. In the Vienna Gallery there is a curious work of his which
+represents the walls of a room hung with fifty pictures, imitating those
+of various Italian masters; in the foreground are portraits of Teniers and
+the Archduke Leopold William, who are represented as conversing with each
+other.
+
+Teniers reached his excellence early in life, and was but twenty-two years
+old when he was admitted to the Guild of Painters at Antwerp. That Rubens
+was his friend is proved by the fact that when Teniers married the
+daughter of Jan Breughel, in 1637, that great master was one of the
+witnesses to the ceremony. In 1656 he married his second wife, the
+daughter of the Secretary of State for Brabant. By his artistic and
+personal merits Teniers gained a higher place in society than was ever
+held by any other _genre_ painter of the Flemish or Dutch schools. He was
+eighty-four years old when he died, and was active and industrious up to
+the close of his life.
+
+Although Teniers had such good fortune during his life, I fancy he would
+have been surprised if he could have known what his fame would be now, or
+what prices would be paid for his pictures about two centuries after his
+death. The "Flemish Kermes" was bought for the Brussels Museum in 1867 for
+twenty-five thousand dollars, and at the San Donato sale, in 1880, the
+"Prodigal Son" sold for sixteen thousand two hundred dollars, and the
+"Five Senses" for fifteen thousand dollars. It is difficult to distinguish
+the etchings of the son from those of the father, David Teniers the elder,
+though it is well known that the son executed such works.
+
+GERARD HONTHORST (1592-1660) was also a painter of _genre_ scenes, and
+many of his works had figures of life size. His chief distinction,
+however, was that of painting the effects of artificial lights. He was
+famous in England and Italy as well as in his own country, and the
+Italians called him "_Gherardo della Notte_," or Gerard of the Night,
+because he painted so many night-scenes lighted by candles, lamps, and
+torches.
+
+Then there was a class of Dutch artists who represented the interiors of
+fine houses--rooms with all sorts of beautiful furniture and ornaments,
+with ladies and gentlemen in splendid costumes. They tried to show the
+effects of light upon satins, glass, metals, and other shining objects.
+They painted with great care, and finished their pictures in the most
+perfect manner. GERHARD TERBURG (1608-1681), GERHARD DOW (1613-1675), and
+GABRIEL METSU (1615-after 1667) were all remarkable for works of this
+kind.
+
+PIETER DE HOOGE, who worked from 1628 to 1671, and of whose life little is
+known, painted similar pictures of court-yards as well as of rooms in
+houses. The list of the names of all these Dutch masters cannot be given
+here, and I hasten to tell you of one whose name and fame is so great that
+when we hear of Dutch art we always think first of him, because he stands
+out as its head.
+
+REMBRANDT VAN RYN (1607-1669) was born at Leyden, and was educated by his
+parents with the hope that he would be a scholar and a prominent man in
+Leyden. But his taste for drawing and painting would not be put aside, and
+in 1620 he entered the studio of J. J. van Swanenburg, where he learned
+the first lessons in his art, and was then placed under the teaching of
+Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, where he remained only six months, after
+which he returned to his father's house, and there lived for seven years.
+He was not far from seventeen years old when he thus left the usual course
+of study. From this time he gave himself up to close observation of nature
+in every form.
+
+He studied broad landscapes--farms, groves, gardens, rivers, canals,
+sunshine, clouds, and shadows, and with and above all these, the human
+faces that he saw, as well as the varying forms, movements, and
+peculiarities of the men and women about him. That nothing escaped his
+observation is proved by the works he did in later life.
+
+In 1630 Rembrandt settled in Amsterdam, which was called the "Venice of
+the North," and was the centre of northern commerce, civilization, and the
+activity of political and intellectual life. Rembrandt was no sooner
+established in his studio on one of the western quays than he was pressed
+with orders for pictures and applications from young men who desired his
+instructions. The years following were crowded with work--with painting
+and engraving. Rembrandt is called the "Prince of Etchers," and he used
+the etching needle most skilfully, but he also employed the dry-point and
+even the graver in finishing. Thus he may be said to have established a
+new school of engraving of great excellence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--ONE OF REMBRANDT'S PORTRAITS OF HIMSELF.]
+
+It would seem that in these early years one of his amusements was to make
+etchings of himself. In one year, 1630-31, he made nineteen of these
+portraits in different costumes and positions, with as many kinds of
+expression on his face. He often repeated the portrait of his mother also.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE LECTURE ON ANATOMY. _By Rembrandt._]
+
+In 1632 he painted the "School of Anatomy," now one of the gems of the
+fine gallery at the Hague. It represents a lecture by Professor Tulp, who
+is dissecting the arm of a dead body and explaining its structure to seven
+other surgeons. It is a wonderful picture and one of the most famous works
+of this great master. In 1828 it was sold for the benefit of the fund for
+surgeons' widows, and the Dutch Government paid thirty-two thousand
+florins for it. This picture is in a certain way a portrait picture, and
+comes within the class of Dutch pictures of which I have spoken as
+portraits of guilds and societies; for Tulp was very famous, and Rembrandt
+probably attended his lectures, and was chosen by him to be the painter of
+this celebrated portrait of himself surrounded by members of his guild.
+
+Rembrandt's influence upon the art of his time was very great almost from
+the beginning of his career. About 1634 he introduced his manner of
+portrait-painting, with dark backgrounds and deep shadows on the face,
+with a bright light on the cheek and nose passing down to the shoulder,
+and immediately other artists adopted this manner. They considered it a
+necessity to imitate him, so much was he admired.
+
+In 1634 Rembrandt married Saskia van Ulenburg, who was very beautiful and
+of an aristocratic and wealthy family. She was only twenty-one years of
+age when she married, and Rembrandt painted many portraits of her besides
+making her his model for beautiful figures in his mythological and sacred
+subjects. She lived but eight years after her marriage, which were the
+happiest of the artist's life. She left but one child, a son named Titus,
+and showed her confidence in her husband by leaving all her fortune to
+him, with the single stipulation that their son should be properly
+educated.
+
+After the death of Saskia it seems that the only thought of the master was
+to work without rest, and in this way to drown the remembrance of his
+sorrow. There is little material for a story of his life--it is told in
+his pictures. The house in which Saskia lived was very fine, and Rembrandt
+was so fond of collecting all sorts of curious and beautiful objects that
+he finally made himself poor, and his collection was sold. He never
+travelled, and some writers have said that he was ignorant of classic art;
+but the list of his collections proves that he had busts of Homer and
+Socrates and copies of ancient sculptures, such as the "Laocoon," a
+"Cupid," and so on. He also had pictures of some of the best Italian
+masters. After the sale of his home and all his rare objects he hired a
+house on the Rosengracht near the West Church. This house still stands,
+and has a shield dated 1652, though the artist did not live there until
+1658.
+
+His life here was not lonely or desolate. He had many friends in Amsterdam
+who did not forget him. He was near the bastions of the city, and had not
+far to go to sketch, as he loved to do, and he was busy with his brush
+until 1662, when he did nothing of which we know. In 1666 he executed four
+pictures. Among his works of 1667 there is a portrait of himself which is
+of great interest. In October, 1668, Rembrandt died after a short illness.
+He was buried in the West Church, and his funeral was so simple that its
+cost was registered as only fifteen florins.
+
+Rembrandt's pictures are so numerous and so varied in their subjects that
+no adequate list or account of them can be given here. And his numerous
+engravings are as interesting as his pictures, so that a volume would
+scarcely suffice to do him justice; but I will try to tell something of
+his style. His management of light was his most striking characteristic.
+He generally threw a strong, vivid light upon the central or important
+object, whether it was a single figure or a group, and the rest of the
+picture was in shadow. This is true of all his works, almost without
+exception--portraits, pictures both large and small, and etchings.
+
+Rembrandt loved to paint unusual things. We are apt to think that an
+unusual thing is not natural; but if we closely observe nature, especially
+the effect of light and shade, we shall find that no imagination could
+make pictures more wonderful than the reality we see. Rembrandt had that
+keen observation that helped him to seize upon the sharp features--the
+strong points in a scene or a person--and then he had the skill to
+reproduce these things on his canvas with great truth.
+
+His etchings are much prized. One of the most famous represents Christ
+healing the sick, and is called the "Hundred Guilders Print," because that
+sum was the price he fixed for it; now a good impression of it is worth
+ten times as much. At his death he left about six hundred pictures and
+four hundred engravings. His landscapes are his rarest subjects. Most of
+these are in private collections, but I have seen one in the Cassel
+Gallery; the color of it is bright and glowing--the sky magnificent. In
+the foreground there is a bridge, and on an eminence are the ruins of a
+castle.
+
+Some fine works by Rembrandt are in England, and very large prices have
+been paid for them. In 1867 "Christ Blessing Little Children" was sold for
+seven thousand pounds. At the San Donato sale in Florence, in 1880,
+"Lucretia" brought twenty-nine thousand two hundred dollars, and a
+"Portrait of a Young Woman" nearly as much.
+
+Among Rembrandt's pupils Gerbrandt van der Eeckhout holds a high rank, and
+his pictures are seen in many galleries.
+
+Among the landscape painters of Holland ALBERT CUYP (1605-1691) is very
+famous. He sometimes introduced figures and animals into his pictures, but
+they were of secondary importance; the scenery was his chief thought. His
+works are in many galleries, and the increase in their value is
+marvellous. Sir Robert Peel bought a landscape, twelve by twenty inches
+in size, for which he paid three hundred and fifty guineas: it was
+originally sold in Holland for about one English shilling! During the
+first century after his death no picture by Cuyp brought more than thirty
+florins; now they cost almost their weight in gold.
+
+Other fine landscape painters were Jan and Andries Both, Jan van Goyen,
+Jan Wynants, Adrian van de Velde, and, finally, PHILIP WOUVERMAN
+(1619-1668), who introduced much life into his works. He painted battles,
+hunting parties, and such subjects as allowed him to introduce white
+horses, for which he became noted. His works, as well as those of the
+other painters last mentioned, are valuable. There are so many in
+galleries which are attributed to Wouverman that it is doubtful if they
+are all genuine. He had animation and fine feeling for the picturesque.
+His execution was light and delicate, and there is much tenderness shown
+in his works. There were many excellent Dutch landscape painters whom we
+have not mentioned.
+
+PAUL POTTER (1625-1654) was born at Enkhuysen, and though he died young he
+made himself a great and enduring reputation by his pictures of animals.
+"Paul Potter's Bull," which is in the gallery at the Hague, is as well
+known as any one picture the world over. He left one hundred and eight
+pictures and eighteen etchings. He was most successful in representing
+cattle and sheep; his horses are not as fine. He never crowded his
+pictures; they have an open landscape, but few animals, and perhaps a
+shepherd, and that is all. Some of his pictures have been valued as high
+as fifty thousand dollars.
+
+JACOB RUYSDAEL (1625-1681) was born in the same year with Paul Potter. His
+birth-place was Haarlem. He came to be the very best of all Dutch
+landscape painters, and though most of his pictures represent the dull,
+uninteresting scenery of Holland, they are so skilfully drawn and painted
+that they are really most attractive, if not cheerful. His works number
+about four hundred and forty-eight pictures and seven fine, spirited
+etchings. He was fond of giving a broad, expansive effect to his pictures,
+and frequently placed church spires in the distance. He painted a few
+marine views with rough seas and cloudy skies. Though many of his works
+are gloomy, he sometimes painted sunshine with much effect. Some of his
+finest works are in the Dresden Gallery.
+
+MINDERT HOBBEMA was a pupil of Jacob Ruysdael, and this is almost all that
+is known of him personally; but his pictures show that he was a great
+landscape painter. They sell for enormous sums, and many of the best are
+in England. Most of those seen in the continental galleries are not those
+he should be judged by. At the San Donato sale in Florence, his picture of
+the "Wind-Mills" sold for forty-two thousand dollars.
+
+The number of reputable Dutch painters is very large, but I shall mention
+no more names. After the great men whom we have spoken of there comes an
+army of those who are called "little Dutch masters," and their principal
+work was making copies from the pictures of the greater artists.
+
+In the history of what we know as German art we find a very early school
+at Cologne, but the records of it are so scarce and imperfect that I shall
+give no account of it here. At Augsburg there was an important school of
+art which commenced with the Holbeins. The first Hans Holbein is known as
+"Old Holbein," and so little is known of him that I shall merely give his
+name. The second HANS HOLBEIN, called the elder (1460-1523), painted a
+great number of religious pictures, which are seen in various churches and
+galleries in Germany. Some of the best are in the Cathedral of Augsburg.
+In one salon of the Munich Pinakothek there are sixteen panels painted by
+him. But it was HANS HOLBEIN the third, known as "the younger," who
+reached the perfection of his school (1495-1543). This painter was
+instructed by his father and by Hans Burgkmair. He was but fifteen years
+of age when he began to receive commissions for pictures. When he was
+about twenty-one years old he removed to Basle, and there he painted many
+pictures, though not nearly as many as have been called by his name.
+
+About a year after Holbein went to Basle he was called to Lucerne to
+decorate a house, and he executed other works there and at Altorf. In
+1519, when he had been three years in Basle, he became a citizen of that
+town and a member of its guild of painters. His works at Basle were mostly
+decorative, and he painted few easel pictures there.
+
+Holbein married a widow with one son; her name was Elizabeth Schmid. She
+had a very bad temper. It is said that she made Holbein's life so
+miserable that he left Basle for that reason. He visited her sometimes,
+and always gave her money, but lived away from her. In 1526 Holbein went
+to England, and his friend Erasmus said that he went because he had so
+little to do in Basle. He carried a letter to Sir Thomas More, who
+received him with great kindness, and the artist made many portraits of
+Sir Thomas and his family. There is a story about one of these portraits
+of that nobleman. He had refused to be present at the marriage of Anne
+Boleyn to King Henry VIII., and she never forgave him. On the day that
+More was executed she looked at one of Holbein's portraits of the
+ex-chancellor and exclaimed, "Ah, me! the man seems to be still alive;"
+and seizing the picture she threw it into the street.
+
+In 1530 Holbein returned to Basle to complete some unfinished frescoes,
+and this being done he went again to London. About this time he began to
+be employed by the king, and did many pictures for him from time to time.
+In 1538 Henry sent Holbein to Brussels to make a portrait of the Duchess
+of Milan, of whom the king was thinking for his fourth wife. No citizen of
+Basle was allowed to enter the service of a foreign sovereign without the
+consent of the council, so in 1538 the artist went home to ask permission
+to serve the King of England. Great efforts were made to keep him in
+Basle, but at last he received permission to remain two years in England:
+the artist never went again to Basle. Henry VIII. became fond of Holbein,
+and was generous to him, even giving him a painting-room in the palace of
+Whitehall.
+
+In 1539 the artist was sent to paint a portrait of Anne of Cleves, whom
+the king married the next year. It has been said that the picture was so
+flattering that when the king saw the lady he was disappointed; we know
+that he was soon divorced from her.
+
+In 1543 the plague raged in London, and on the 7th of October Holbein
+prepared his will. He died before the 29th of November, but the facts
+concerning his death and burial are not known.
+
+There are several interesting anecdotes of Holbein. One relates that when
+passing through Strasburg he visited the studio of an artist, and finding
+him out, painted a fly on a picture which was on an easel. When the
+painter saw the fly he tried to brush it away, and when he found who had
+painted it he searched the city for Holbein; but he had already left for
+England. Another story shows the regard which Henry VIII. had for him. One
+day a nobleman went to Holbein's studio, and insisted upon entering,
+though the artist told him that he was painting the portrait of a lady by
+his Majesty's orders. The nobleman persisting, Holbein threw him down the
+stairs with great violence, and then rushed to the king, and told him what
+he had done. Soon after the nobleman was borne to the presence of the
+king; he was unable to walk, and was loud in his complaints. The king
+ridiculed him, and the nobleman was angry, and threatened to punish the
+artist legally. Then Henry got angry, and said: "Now you have no longer to
+deal with Holbein, but with me, your king. Do you think that this man is
+of so little consideration with us? I tell you, my lord, that out of seven
+peasants I can make seven earls in a day; but out of seven earls I could
+not make one such artist as Hans Holbein."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--BURGOMASTER MEIER MADONNA. _By Holbein. Dresden
+Gallery._]
+
+At Basle one may see some of the most important of the early portraits of
+Holbein; these are in the gallery where are also his ten well-known scenes
+from the Passion of Christ. While at Basle he probably made the designs
+for the "Dance of Death." For a long time it was believed that he painted
+this subject both at Basle and at Bonn, but we now know that he only made
+designs for it. He also decorated the Town Hall at Basle; of this work,
+however, but little remains.
+
+The most celebrated work by Holbein is the "Meyer Madonna" in the royal
+palace of Darmstadt, of which there is a copy in the Dresden Gallery. It
+takes its name from that of the Burgomaster Meyer, for whom it was
+painted. The Madonna, with the infant Jesus in her arms, stands in a niche
+in the centre of the picture; the burgomaster and his family kneel before
+her. This is what is called a votive picture, which means a picture made
+in the fulfilment of a vow, in gratitude for some signal blessing or to
+turn away some danger. Many of these works commemorate an escape from
+accident or a recovery from sickness.
+
+The picture is very beautiful, and it seems as if the Virgin wished to
+share her peace with the kneeling family, so sweet is the expression of
+her face, while the child seems to bestow a blessing with his lifted hand.
+The original was probably painted for a "Chapel of Our Lady."
+
+His "Dance of Death" was very curious, the idea being that Death is always
+near us and trying to strike down his prey. The pictures represent a
+skeleton clutching at his victims, who are of all ages and occupations,
+from the lovely young bride at the altar to the hard-working pedlar in the
+cut we give here, and all of them are hurried away by this frightful
+figure which stands for Death itself.
+
+Holbein made many wood engravings, but none so important as these. When
+the set is complete there are fifty-three cuts, but it is rare to find
+more than forty-six.
+
+Holbein was one of the foremost of German masters. All his pictures are
+realistic, and many of them are fantastic; he gave graceful movement and
+beauty of form to many of his subjects; his drapery was well arranged; his
+color and manner of painting were good. He painted in fresco and oil
+colors, executed miniatures and engravings. His portraits were his best
+works, and in them he equalled the greatest masters. The most reliable
+portrait of this artist is in the Basle Museum. It is done in red and
+black chalk, and represents him as a man with regular, well-shaped
+features, with a cheerful expression which also shows decision of
+character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--FROM HOLBEIN'S DANCE OF DEATH.]
+
+There were other good artists in the Augsburg school after the time of the
+Holbeins; but I shall pass immediately to the Franconian school, or that
+of Nuremburg, and to its great master, ALBERT DUERER (1471-1528), whose
+life was very interesting, and who stands, as an artist, among the
+greatest painters of the world. The city of Nuremburg was a grand, rich
+old place even in Duerer's time, and as a boy he was familiar with its
+scenery and architecture, which helped him to cultivate his artist tastes,
+and to make him the great man that he became. He was an author of books as
+well as an architect, sculptor, painter, and engraver.
+
+His father was a goldsmith, and Albert was apprenticed to the same trade;
+but he was so anxious to study painting that at length his father placed
+him as apprentice to the painter Michael Wohlgemuth. At this time Albert
+was fifteen years old, and the two years he had spent with the goldsmith
+had doubtless been of great advantage to him; for in that time he had been
+trained in the modelling of small, delicate objects, and in the accurate
+design necessary in making the small articles in precious metals which are
+the principal work of that trade.
+
+Albert Duerer had a very strong nature, and Michael Wohlgemuth was not a
+man who could gain much influence over such a youth. During the three
+years which Duerer passed under his teaching he learned all the modes of
+preparing and using colors, and acquired much skill in handling the brush;
+he also learned the first lessons in wood-engraving, in which he afterward
+reached so high a perfection that a large part of his present fame rests
+upon his skill in that art.
+
+One of the earliest portraits painted by Duerer is in the Albertina at
+Vienna, and bears this inscription: "This I have drawn from myself from
+the looking-glass, in the year 1484, when I was still a child. ALBERT
+DUERER." Six years later he painted the beautiful portrait of his father
+which is now in the gallery at Florence; and it is a question whether this
+is not as finely executed as any portrait of his later years.
+
+When Duerer left Wohlgemuth he started upon the student journey which was
+then the custom with all German youths, and is still practised in a
+modified degree. These youths, after serving their apprenticeship in the
+occupation they were to follow, travelled, and worked at their trade or
+profession in the cities of other countries. Duerer was absent four years,
+but we know little of what he did or saw, for in his own account of his
+life he says only this: "And when the three years were out my father sent
+me away. I remained abroad four years, when he recalled me; and, as I had
+left just after Easter in 1490, I returned home in 1494, just after
+Whitsuntide."
+
+In the same year, in July, Duerer was married to Agnes Frey. He was also
+admitted to the guild of painters, and we may say that he was now settled
+for life. It is a singular fact that, although Duerer painted several
+portraits of his father and himself, he is not known to have made any of
+his wife. Some of his sketches are called by her name, but there is no
+good reason for this.
+
+Duerer was so industrious, and executed so many pictures, copper-plates,
+and wood engravings within the six years next after his return to
+Nuremburg, that it is not possible to give an exact account of them here.
+In 1500 an event occurred which added much to his happiness and to his
+opportunities for enlarging his influence. It was the return to Nuremburg
+of Willibald Pirkheimer, one of the friends of Duerer's childhood, between
+whom and himself there had always existed a strong affection. Pirkheimer
+was rich and influential, and at his house Duerer saw many eminent men,
+artists, scholars, reformers, and theologians, and in their society he
+gained much broader knowledge of the world, while he received the respect
+which was due to his genius and character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A SCENE FROM DUERER'S WOOD ENGRAVINGS OF THE
+LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY.]
+
+Duerer's health was not good, and his continual work proved more than he
+could bear. His father died in 1502, and this loss was a deep grief to the
+artist. So little money was left for his mother and younger brother that
+their support came upon him. At length, in 1505, he made a journey to
+Venice, partly for his health, and in order to study Venetian painting. He
+was well received by the painters of Venice. Giovanni Bellini and
+Carpaccio were the leading painters of that time. They were both quite
+old, but Giorgione and Titian were already coming into notice and
+preparing to fill the places of the older men. Bellini was especially
+delighted with the exquisite manner in which Duerer painted hair, and asked
+the German to give him the brush he used for that purpose. Duerer gave him
+all his brushes, but Bellini insisted upon having _the one_ for painting
+hair. Duerer took a common brush, and painted a long tress of fine hair:
+Bellini declared that had he not seen this done he could not have believed
+it.
+
+While in Venice Duerer received an order to paint a picture for the Fondaco
+de' Tedeschi, or German Exchange. It is believed that this work was the
+famous "Feast of Rose Garlands," now in the Monastery at Strahow, in
+Bohemia. The Emperor Rudolph II. bought it, and had it carried from Venice
+to Prague on men's shoulders. In 1782 it was purchased for the Abbey of
+Strahow, and was almost lost to the world for many years. It is a
+beautiful picture, and the praise it received was a great pleasure to
+Duerer, because heretofore many painters had said that he was a good
+engraver, but could not use colors. Duerer wrote to Pirkheimer: "There is
+no better picture of the Virgin Mary in the land, because all the artists
+praise it, as well as the nobility. They say they have never seen a more
+sublime, a more charming painting."
+
+The Venetian Government offered Duerer a handsome pension if he would
+remain in Venice, and he declined many orders for the sake of returning to
+Germany, which he believed to be his duty. From the time of his return, in
+1507, to 1520, there is very little to tell of the personal history of
+this artist. Almost all that can be said is that he labored with great
+industry; it was the golden period of his art; he had many young men in
+his studio, which was the centre of art to Nuremburg. At this time he
+probably executed the best carvings which he ever did. During seven years
+he made forty-eight engravings and etchings and more than a hundred
+wood-cuts. The large demand for these works was a source of good income to
+Duerer, and gave him a position of comfort. The Reformation was at hand,
+and Duerer's Virgins and Saints and his pictures of the sufferings of
+Christ were very well suited to the religious excitement of that period.
+
+The house in which Duerer lived and worked for many years is still
+preserved in Nuremburg as public property, and is used as an art gallery.
+The street on which it stands is now called the Albrecht-Duerer Strasse. On
+the square before the house stands a bronze statue of the master which was
+erected by the Nuremburgers on the three hundredth anniversary of his
+death.
+
+About 1509 Duerer occupied himself considerably in writing poetry; but,
+although there was much earnest feeling in his verse, it was not such as
+to give him great fame as a poet. It was at the same period that he carved
+the wonderful bas-relief of the "Birth of John the Baptist," now in the
+British Museum. It is cut out of stone, is seven and one-half by five and
+one-half inches in size, and is a marvellous piece of work. Two thousand
+five hundred dollars were paid for it nearly a century ago. He made many
+exquisite little carvings in stone, ivory, and boxwood, and in these
+articles the result of his work as a goldsmith is best seen.
+
+In 1512 Duerer was first employed by the Emperor Maximilian, and for the
+next seven years there was a close relation between the sovereign and the
+artist; but there are few records concerning it. It is said that one day
+when the painter was making a sketch of the emperor the latter took a
+charcoal crayon, and tried to draw a picture himself: he constantly broke
+the crayon, and made no progress toward his end. After watching him for a
+time Duerer took the charcoal from Maximilian, saying, "This is my sceptre,
+your Majesty;" and he then taught the emperor how to use it.
+
+Duerer executed some very remarkable drawings and engravings. Among them
+was the "Triumphal Arch of Maximilian," composed of ninety-two blocks. The
+whole cut is ten and one-half feet high by nine feet wide. It shows all
+the remarkable events in the emperor's life, just as such subjects were
+carved upon the triumphal arches of the Romans and other nations.
+Hieronymus Roesch did the engraving of this great work from Duerer's blocks,
+and while it was in progress the emperor went often to see it. During one
+of these visits several cats ran into the room, from which happening arose
+the proverb, "A cat may look at a king."
+
+The emperor granted Duerer a pension; but it was never regularly paid, and
+after the emperor's death the Council of Nuremburg refused to pay it
+unless it was confirmed by the new sovereign, Charles V. For the purpose
+of obtaining this confirmation Duerer made a journey to the Netherlands in
+the year 1520. His wife and her maid Susanna went with him. His diary
+gives a quaint account of the places they visited, the people whom they
+met, and of the honors which were paid him. In Antwerp he was received
+with great kindness, and the government of the city offered him a house
+and a liberal pension if he would remain there; but his love for his
+native town would not allow him to leave it.
+
+After several months Duerer received the confirmation of his pension and
+also the appointment of court-painter. This last office was of very little
+account to him. The emperor spent little time at Nuremburg, and it was
+not until he was older that he was seized with the passion of having his
+portrait painted, and then Duerer had died, and Titian was painter to the
+court.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--THE FOUR APOSTLES. _By Duerer._]
+
+When Duerer returned to his home there was quite an excitement over the
+collection of curious and rare objects which he had made while absent.
+Some of these he had bought, and many others were gifts to him, and he
+gave much pleasure to his friends by displaying them. There had been a
+great change in Nuremburg, for the doctrines of the Reformation were
+accepted by many of its people, and it was the first free city that
+declared itself Protestant. The change, too, was quietly made; its
+convents and churches were saved from violence, and the art treasures of
+the city were not destroyed. Among the most important Lutherans was
+Pirkheimer, Duerer's friend. We do not know that Duerer became a Lutheran,
+but he wrote of his admiration for the great reformer in his diary, and it
+is a meaning fact that during the last six years of his life Duerer made no
+more pictures of the Madonna.
+
+These last years were not as full of work as the earlier ones had been. A
+few portraits and engravings and the pictures of the Four Apostles were
+about all the works of this time. He gave much attention to the
+arrangement and publication of his writings upon various subjects
+connected with the arts. These books gave him much fame as a scholar, and
+some of them were translated into several languages.
+
+As an architect Duerer executed but little work; but his writings upon
+architectural subjects prove that he was learned in its theories.
+
+During several years his health was feeble, and he exerted himself to make
+provision for his old age if he should live, or for his wife after his
+death. He was saddened by the thought that he had never been rewarded as
+he should have been for his hard, faithful labors, and his latest letters
+were sad and touching. He died in April, 1528, after a brief illness, and
+was buried in the cemetery of St. John, beyond the walls, where a simple
+epitaph was inscribed upon his monument. This cemetery is an interesting
+place, and contains the graves of many men noted in the chronicles of
+Nuremburg.
+
+On Easter Sunday in 1828, three hundred years after his death, a Duerer
+celebration was held in Nuremburg. Artists came from all parts of Germany.
+A solemn procession proceeded to his grave, where hymns were sung, and the
+statue by Rauch, near Duerer's house, was dedicated.
+
+I can give you no description of Duerer's many works, and although it is
+true that he was a very great master, yet it is also true that his
+pictures and engravings are not noted for their beauty so much as for
+their strength and power. His subjects were often ugly and repulsive
+rather than beautiful, and his imagination was full of weird, strange
+fancies that can scarcely be understood. Indeed, some of them never have
+been explained, and one of his most famous engravings, called "The Knight,
+Death, and the Devil," has never yet been satisfactorily interpreted, and
+many different theories have been made about it.
+
+Many of the principal galleries of Europe have Duerer's paintings, though
+they are not as numerous as his engravings, and, indeed, his fame rests
+more upon the latter than the former, and very large sums are paid by
+collectors for good impressions of his more important plates.
+
+Duerer had several followers. His most gifted scholar was LUCAS SUNDER
+(1472-1553), who is called Lucas Cranach, from the place of his birth. He
+established a school of painting in Saxony, and was appointed
+court-painter. Although there were a goodly number of German painters late
+in the sixteenth century, there were none of great eminence, and, in
+truth, there have been few since that time whose lives were of sufficient
+interest to be recounted here, so I shall tell you of but one more before
+passing to the artists of Spain.
+
+ANGELICA KAUFFMAN (1742-1808) was a very interesting woman who gained a
+good reputation as an artist; but there is such a difference of opinion
+among judges as to her merits as a painter that it is difficult to decide
+what to say of her. As a person, she excited an interest in her lifetime
+which has never died out, and Miss Thackeray's novel, "Miss Angel," tells
+what is claimed to be her story, as nearly as such stories are told in
+novels.
+
+She was born at Coire, in the Grisons. Her father was an artist, a native
+of Schwarzenburg, and when Angelica was born he was occupied in executing
+some frescoes at Coire. When the child was a year old he settled at
+Morbegno, in Lombardy, and ten years later, when she had shown a taste for
+music, her parents again removed to Como, where there were better
+opportunities for her instruction. Her progress in music was remarkable,
+and for a time she was unable to say whether she loved this art or that of
+painting the better. Later in life she painted a picture in which she
+represented herself, as a child, standing between allegorical figures of
+Music and Painting.
+
+The beautiful scenery about Como, the stately palaces and charming villas,
+the lake with its pleasure boats, and all the poetry of the life there,
+tended to develop her talents rapidly, and, though she remained but two
+years, the recollection of this time was a pleasure to her through all her
+life. She was next taken to Milan, where a world of art was opened to her,
+and she saw pictures which excelled all her imaginations. The works of
+Leonardo and other great Lombard masters stirred her soul to its very
+depths. She soon attracted attention by her pictures, and Robert d'Este
+became her patron, and placed her under the care of the Duchess of
+Carrara. She was now daily associated with people of culture and elegance,
+and thus early in her life acquired the modest dignity and
+self-possession which enabled her in her future life to accept becomingly
+the honors and attentions which were paid her.
+
+Her mother's death occurred at Milan, and her father returned to
+Schwarzenburg. The people about her were so coarse and disagreeable to
+Angelica that she passed much of her time in the grand forests. At this
+time she painted frescoes of the Twelve Apostles, copied from the
+engravings after Piazetta. Her father was not content to remain away from
+Italy, and they went again to Milan, then to Florence, and at last to
+Rome. She was now eighteen years old, and found much profit in the
+friendship of the great scholar Winckelmann, who allowed her to paint his
+portrait. Angelica visited Naples and Bologna also, and finally Venice,
+where she met Lady Wentworth, who became her friend, and afterward took
+her to England.
+
+She had a most brilliant career in London, where her friends were in the
+highest rank of society. De Rossi described her appearance at this time,
+and said that she was not very tall, but had a slight, elegant figure. Her
+complexion was dark and clear, her mouth well formed, her teeth white and
+even, and all her features good. He speaks of her azure eyes, so placid
+and bright that their expression had a charm which could not be described.
+No one felt like criticising her. Other artists paid her many honors, and
+she was made a member of the Academy of Arts. It has been said that
+Fuseli, the learned art critic, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, the great artist,
+both asked her hand in marriage. Some members of the royal family became
+her friends, and she was at the height of honorable success and of
+happiness.
+
+It is painful to turn from this bright picture of her life to all the
+sorrow and darkness which followed it. She made an unhappy marriage, her
+husband proving to be an adventurer who had assumed a distinguished name.
+For a time she was crushed by this sorrow; but her friends remained true
+to her, and she found relief in absolute devotion to her art. For twelve
+years she supported herself and her father; then his health failed, and it
+was thought best for him to go to Italy. Angelica was now forty years old,
+and before leaving England she married Antonio Zucchi, an artist who had
+long been her friend. He devoted himself to her and to her father with
+untiring affection, and when the old man died he was happy in the thought
+that his beloved daughter had so true a friend as Zucchi.
+
+From this time their home was in Rome, where Angelica was the centre of an
+artistic and literary society of a high order. Among her visitors were
+such men as Herder and Goethe. The latter wrote of her: "The light and
+pleasing in form and color, in design and execution, distinguish the
+numerous works of our artist. No living painter excels her in dignity or
+in the delicate taste with which she handles the pencil." She was very
+industrious, and her life seems to have been divided between two
+pleasures, her work and the society of her friends, until the death of her
+husband, which occurred in 1795. She lived twelve years longer, but they
+were years of great sadness. She made journeys in order to regain her
+spirits. She visited the scenes of her childhood, and remained some time
+in Venice with the family of Signor Zucchi.
+
+Even after her last return to Rome she worked as much as her strength
+would permit, but her life was not long. She was mourned sincerely in
+Rome; her funeral was attended by the members of the Academy of St. Luke;
+and her latest works were borne in the procession. She was buried beside
+her husband in the Church of St. Andrea dei Frati. Her bust was placed in
+the Pantheon.
+
+Various critics have praised her works in the most liberal manner; others
+can say nothing good of them. For myself, I cannot find the extreme of
+praise or blame a just estimate of her. No one can deny the grace of her
+design, which was also creditably correct. Her portraits were good; her
+poetical subjects are very pleasing; her historical pictures are not
+strong; her color was as harmonious and mellow as that of the best
+Italians, excepting a few of the greatest masters, and in all her pictures
+there is something which wins for her a certain fondness and praise, even
+while her faults are plainly seen. Her pictures are to be found in
+galleries in Rome, Florence, Vienna, Munich, and England; many are also in
+private collections. She painted several portraits of herself; one in the
+Uffizi, at Florence, is very pleasing. She represents herself seated in a
+solitary landscape, with a portfolio in one hand and a pencil in the
+other. She has an air of perfect unconsciousness, as if she thought of her
+work only. Her etchings are much valued, and sell for large prices. Many
+of her pictures were engraved by Bartolozzi, and good prints of them are
+rare. On one of her pictures she wrote: "I will not attempt to express
+supernatural things by human inspiration, but wait for that till I reach
+heaven, if there is painting done there."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PAINTING IN SPAIN.
+
+
+Spanish painting had its birth during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+and may be said to have been derived from Italy, through the influence of
+the Italian painters who went to Spain, and the Spanish artists who made
+their studies in Italy. But in spite of this strong Italian influence
+Spanish painting has its own characteristics which separate it from all
+other schools, and give it a high position on its own merits. ANTONIO DEL
+RINCON (1446-1500) was the first Spanish painter of whom we know. If any
+works of his remain they are portraits of his august sovereigns now in the
+Cathedral of Granada; but it is probable that these pictures are copies of
+the originals by Rincon.
+
+Dating the beginning of the Spanish school from the last half of the
+fifteenth century, it is the third school in Europe as to age, it being
+about two centuries later than the Italian, and one century later than the
+Flemish school. Its importance is only exceeded by that of Italy. The
+distinguishing feature of Spanish art is its gravity, or we may almost say
+its strictly religious character, for, excepting portraits, there were few
+pictures of consequence that had not a religious meaning. Some artists
+were also priests, and, as the officers of the Inquisition appointed
+inspectors whose duty it was to report for punishment any artist who did
+not follow the rules of the Inquisition, it is easy to understand that the
+painters were careful to keep within the rules fixed for them. Whatever
+flights of imagination one might have in secret, he would scarcely run the
+risk of being excommunicated from the church, sent into exile for a year,
+and fined one thousand five hundred ducats for the pleasure of putting his
+fancies on canvas.
+
+Pacheco, who was an inspector at Seville, published minute rules for the
+representation of sacred subjects and persons, and other writers did the
+same. There was a long and grave discussion over the propriety of painting
+the devil with horns and a tail. It was decided that he should have horns
+because, according to the legend of St. Theresa, he had horns when he
+appeared to that saint; and he was allowed to have a tail because it was
+thought to be a suitable appendage to a fallen angel who had lost his
+wings. One very strict rule was that the feet of the Virgin Mary should be
+covered, and nude figures or portions of the figure were strictly
+forbidden.
+
+Another important influence upon the Spanish artists was their belief that
+the Virgin Mary and other holy spirits appeared to inspire them and aid
+them in painting their pictures. In fact, the church was the chief patron
+of art, and the artist was one of her most valuable teachers. A learned
+Spanish writer said: "For the ignorant, what master is like painting? They
+may read their duty in a picture though they may not search for it in
+books."
+
+The painters of Spain were divided between the schools of Castile,
+Seville, and Valencia. That of Castile was founded at Toledo early in the
+fifteenth century, and was maintained about two hundred years. Claudio
+Coello was of this school; he died in 1693, and has well been called "the
+last of the old masters of Spain."
+
+ALONZO BERREGUETTE (1480-1561), born at Parades de Nava, in Castile, was
+the most eminent Spanish artist of his time. He is called the Michael
+Angelo of Spain, because he was painter, sculptor, and architect. He was
+painter to Philip I. Later he went to Italy, and journeyed from Florence
+to Rome with Michael Angelo in 1505. He studied in Italy many years. He
+was appointed painter and sculptor to the Emperor Charles V. Berreguette
+received four thousand four hundred ducats for the altar in the Church of
+St. Benito el Real in Valladolid, where he settled. When he was almost
+eighty years old he went to Toledo to erect a monument in the Hospital of
+St. John Baptist. He was lodged in the hospital, and died there. He left a
+large fortune, and was buried with splendid ceremonies at the expense of
+the emperor.
+
+LUIS DE MORALES (1510-1586) was called "the divine." He belonged to the
+school of Castile, and very little is known of his early life. When he was
+fifty-five years old Philip II. invited him to court. When Morales
+appeared he was so splendidly dressed that the king was angry, and gave
+orders that he should be paid a certain sum and dismissed. But the poor
+painter explained that he had spent all that he had in order to come
+before the king in a dress befitting Philip's dignity. Then Philip
+pardoned him, and allowed him to paint one picture; but as this was not
+hung in the Escorial, Morales was overcome by mortification, and almost
+forsook his painting, and fell into great poverty. In 1581 the king saw
+Morales at Badajoz, in a very different dress from that he had worn at
+court. The king said: "Morales, you are very old." "Yes, sire, and very
+poor," replied the painter. The king then commanded that he should have
+two hundred ducats a year from the crown rents with which to buy his
+dinners. Morales hearing this, exclaimed, "And for supper, sire?" This
+pleased Philip, and he added one hundred ducats to the pension. The street
+in Badajoz on which Morales lived bears his name.
+
+Nearly all his pictures were of religious subjects, and on this account he
+was called "the divine." He avoided ghastly, painful pictures, and was one
+of the most spiritual of the artists of Spain. Very few of his pictures
+are seen out of Spain, and they are rare even there. His masterpiece is
+"Christ Crowned with Thorns," in the Queen of Spain's Gallery at Madrid.
+In the Louvre is his "Christ Bearing the Cross." At the sale of the Soult
+collection his "Way to Calvary" sold for nine hundred and eighty pounds
+sterling.
+
+ALONSO SANCHEZ COELLO (about 1515-1590) was the first great portrait
+painter of Spain. He was painter-in-ordinary to Philip II., and that
+monarch was so fond of him that in his letters he called him "my beloved
+son." At Madrid the king had a key to a private entrance to the apartments
+of Coello, so that he could surprise the painter in his studio, and at
+times even entered the family rooms of the artist. Coello never abused the
+confidence of Philip, and was a favorite of the court as well as of the
+monarch. Among his friends were the Popes Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V., the
+Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and the Dukes of Florence and Savoy. Many
+noble and even royal persons were accustomed to visit him and accept his
+hospitality. He was obliged to live in style becoming his position, and
+yet when he died he left a fortune of fifty-five thousand ducats. He had
+lived in Lisbon, and Philip sometimes called him his "Portuguese Titian."
+
+Very few of his portraits remain; they are graceful in pose and fine in
+color. He knew how to represent the repose and refinement of "gentle blood
+and delicate nurture." Many of his works were burned in the Prado. His
+"Marriage of St. Catherine" is in the Gallery of Madrid. A "St. Sebastian"
+painted for the Church of St. Jerome, at Madrid, is considered his
+masterpiece. Lope de Vega wrote Coello's epitaph, and called his pictures
+
+      "Eternal scenes of history divine,
+       Wherein for aye his memory shall shine."
+
+JUAN FERNANDEZ NAVARRETE (1526-1579), called El Mudo, because deaf and
+dumb, is a very interesting painter. He was not born a mute, but became
+deaf at three years of age, and could not learn to speak. He studied some
+years in Italy, and was in the school of Titian. In 1568 he was appointed
+painter to Philip II. His principal works were eight pictures for the
+Escorial, three of which were burned. His picture of the "Nativity" is
+celebrated for its lights, of which there are three; one is from the
+Divine Babe, a second from the glory above, and a third from a torch in
+the hand of St. Joseph. The group of shepherds is the best part of the
+picture, and when Tibaldi saw the picture he exclaimed, "O! gli belli
+pastori!" and it has since been known as the "Beautiful Shepherds."
+
+His picture of "Abraham and the Three Angels" was placed near the door
+where the monks of the Escorial received strangers. The pictures of
+Navarrete are rare. After his death Lope de Vega wrote a lament for him,
+in which he said,
+
+      "No countenance he painted that was dumb."
+
+When the "Last Supper" painted by Titian reached the Escorial, it was
+found to be too large for the space it was to occupy in the refectory. The
+king ordered it to be cut, which so distressed El Mudo that he offered to
+copy it in six months, in reduced size, and to forfeit his head if he did
+not fulfil his promise. He also added that he should hope to be knighted
+if he copied in six months what Titian had taken seven years to paint. But
+Philip was resolute, and the picture was cut, to the intense grief of the
+dumb Navarrete. While the painter lived Philip did not fully appreciate
+him; but after his death the king often declared that his Italian artists
+could not equal his mute Spaniard.
+
+JUAN CARRENO DE MIRANDA (1614-1685) is commonly called Carreno. He was of
+an ancient noble family. His earliest works were for the churches and
+convents of Madrid, and he acquired so good a name that before the death
+of Philip IV. he was appointed one of his court-painters. In 1671 the
+young king Charles gave Carreno the cross of Santiago, and to his office
+of court-painter added that of Deputy Aposentador. He would allow no other
+artist to paint his likeness unless Carreno consented to it. The pictures
+of Carreno were most excellent, and his character was such as to merit all
+his good fortune. His death was sincerely mourned by all who knew him.
+
+It is said that on one occasion he was in a house where a copy of Titian's
+"St. Margaret" hung upon the wall, and those present united in saying that
+it was abominably done. Carreno said: "It has at least one merit; it shows
+that no one need despair of improving in art, for I painted it myself when
+I was a beginner."
+
+Gregorio Utande, a poor artist, had painted a "Martyrdom of St. Andrew"
+for the nuns of Alcala, and demanded one hundred ducats for it. The nuns
+thought the price too much, and wished to have Carreno value the work.
+Utande took the picture to Carreno, and first presenting the great master
+with a jar of honey, asked him to touch up his St. Andrew for him. Carreno
+consented, and, in fact, almost repainted Utande's picture. A short time
+after Carreno was asked to value the St. Andrew, but declined. Then
+Herrera valued it at two hundred ducats, which price the nuns paid. After
+Utande received his money he told the whole story, and the picture was
+then known as "La Cantarilla de Miel," or "the pot of honey."
+
+CLAUDIO COELLO (1635-1693), who, as we have said, has been called the last
+of the old Spanish masters, was intended by his father for his own
+profession, that of bronze-casting. But Claudio persuaded his father to
+allow him to study painting, and before the close of his life he became
+the most famous painter in Madrid. He was not only the court-painter, but
+also the painter to the Cathedral of Toledo and keeper of the royal
+galleries. It was not strange that he should feel that he merited the
+honor of painting the walls of the Escorial, and when this was refused him
+and Luca Giordano was selected for the work, Coello threw aside his
+brushes and paints, grew sad, then ill, and died a year later. His
+masterpiece is now in the Escorial; it represents the "Collocation of the
+Host." His own portrait painted by himself is in the gallery of the
+Hermitage at St. Petersburg.
+
+The school of Seville was the most important school of Spain. It is also
+known as the school of Andalusia. It dates from the middle of the
+fifteenth century, and its latest master, Alonso Miguel de Tobar, died in
+1758.
+
+LUIS DE VARGAS (1502-1568), one of the earliest of the painters of the
+school of Seville, was a devout and holy man. He was accustomed to do
+penance, and in his room after his death scourges were found with which he
+had beaten himself, and a coffin in which he had been accustomed to lie
+and meditate upon death and a future life. It is said that Vargas studied
+twenty-eight years in Italy. His pictures were fine. His female heads were
+graceful and pure, his color good, and the whole effect that of grand
+simplicity. His picture of the "Temporal Generation of Our Lord" is his
+best work in Seville. Adam is kneeling in the foreground, and his leg is
+so well painted that the picture has been called "La Gamba." In spite of
+his seriousness Vargas was a witty man. On one occasion he was asked to
+give his opinion of a very poor picture of "Christ on the Cross." Vargas
+replied: "He looks as if he were saying, 'Forgive them, Lord, for they
+know not what they do!'"
+
+PABLO DE CESPEDES (1538-1608) was born at Cordova, and is an important
+person in the history of his time, for he was a divine, a poet, and a
+scholar, as well as an architect, sculptor, and painter. He was a graduate
+of the University of Alcala, and excelled in Oriental languages. He
+studied art in Rome, and while there made a head of Seneca in marble, and
+fitted it to an antique trunk; on account of this work he was called
+"Victor il Spagnuolo." Zuccaro was asked to paint a picture for the
+splendid Cathedral of Cordova; he declined, and said that while Cespedes
+was in Spain they had no need of Italian artists. The pictures of Cespedes
+which now remain are so faded and injured that a good judgment can
+scarcely be formed of them; but they do not seem to be as fine as they
+were thought to be in his day. His "Last Supper" is in the Cathedral of
+Cordova. In the foreground there are some jars and vases so well painted
+that visitors praised them. Cespedes was so mortified at this that he
+commanded his servant to rub them out, and only the most judicious
+admiration for the rest of the picture and earnest entreaty for the
+preservation of the jars saved them from destruction. He left many
+writings upon artistic subjects and an essay upon the antiquity of the
+Cathedral of Cordova. He was as modest as he was learned, and was much
+beloved. He was made a canon in the Cathedral of Cordova, and was received
+with "full approbation of the Cordovese bishop and chapter."
+
+FRANCISCO PACHECO (1571-1654) was born at Seville. He was a writer on art,
+and is more famous as the master of Velasquez and on account of his books
+than for his pictures. He established a school where younger men than
+himself could have a thorough art education. Pacheco was the first in
+Spain to properly gild and paint statues and bas-reliefs. Some specimens
+of his work in this specialty still exist in Seville.
+
+FRANCISCO DE HERRERA, the elder (1576-1656), was a very original painter.
+He was born at Seville, and never studied out of Andalusia. He had so bad
+a temper that he drove his children and his pupils away from him. He knew
+how to engrave on bronze, and made false coins; when his forgery was
+discovered, he took refuge with the Jesuits. While in their convent
+Herrera painted the history of St. Hermengild, one of the patron saints of
+Seville. When Philip IV. saw his picture he forgave him his crime, and set
+him at liberty.
+
+FRANCISCO ZURBARAN (1598-1662) was one of the first among Spanish
+painters. He was skilful in the use of colors, and knew how to use sober
+tints and give them a brilliant effect. He did not often paint the
+Madonna. His female saints are like portraits of the ladies of his day. He
+was very successful in painting animals, and his pictures of drapery and
+still-life were exact in their representation of the objects he used for
+models. He painted historical and religious pictures, portraits and
+animals; but his best pictures were of monks. Stirling says: "He studied
+the Spanish friar, and painted him with as high a relish as Titian painted
+the Venetian noble, and Vandyck the gentleman of England."
+
+Zurbaran was appointed painter to Philip IV. before he was thirty-five
+years old. He was a great favorite with Philip, who once called Zurbaran
+"the painter of the king, and king of painters." Zurbaran's finest works
+are in the Museum of Seville. He left many pictures, and the Louvre claims
+to have ninety-two of them in its gallery.
+
+DIEGO RODRIGUEZ DE SILVA Y VELASQUEZ (1599-1660) was born at Seville, and
+died at Madrid. His parents were of noble families; his father was Juan
+Rodriguez de Silva, and his mother Geronima Velasquez, by whose name,
+according to the custom of Andalusia, he was called. His paternal
+grandfather was a Portuguese, but so poor that he was compelled to leave
+his own country, and seek his fortune at Seville, and to this circumstance
+Spain owes her greatest painter. Velasquez's father became a lawyer, and
+lived in comfort, and his mother devoted herself to his education. The
+child's great love of drawing induced his father to place young Velasquez
+in the school of Herrera, where the pupil acquired something of his free,
+bold style. But Velasquez soon became weary, and entered the school of
+Francisco Pacheco, an inferior painter, but a learned and polished
+gentleman. Here Velasquez soon learned that untiring industry and the
+study of nature were the surest guides to perfection for an artist. Until
+1622 he painted pictures from careful studies of common life, and always
+with the model or subject before him--adhering strictly to form, color,
+and outline. He is said to have kept a peasant lad for a study, and from
+him executed a variety of heads in every posture and with every possible
+expression. This gave him wonderful skill in taking likenesses. To this
+period belong the "Water Carrier of Seville," now at Apsley House, several
+pictures of beggars, and the "Adoration of the Shepherds," now in the
+Louvre, where is also a "Beggar Boy munching a piece of Pastry." At Vienna
+is a "Laughing Peasant" holding a flower (Fig. 64), and in Munich another
+"Beggar Boy." In 1622 his strong desire to see the paintings in the Royal
+Galleries led him to Madrid. Letters which he carried gave him admission
+to the works of art; but excepting securing the friendship of Fonesca, a
+noted patron of art, and an order to paint a portrait of the poet Gongora,
+he was unnoticed, and so he returned in a few months to Seville.
+Subsequently Fonesca interested the minister Olivarez in his behalf. This
+resulted in a letter summoning Velasquez to court, with an enclosure of
+fifty ducats for the journey. He was attended by his slave, Juan Pareja, a
+mulatto lad, who was his faithful attendant for many years, and who became
+an excellent painter. His former instructor, Pacheco, now his
+father-in-law, also accompanied him. His first work at the capital,
+naturally, was a portrait of his friend Fonesca, which so pleased the
+king, Philip IV., that he appointed Velasquez to his service, in which
+he remained during his life. This gave him full opportunity to perfect
+himself, for the king was never weary of multiplying pictures of himself.
+Velasquez also painted many portraits of the other members of the royal
+family, in groups and singly. His life was even and prosperous, and he
+made steady advances toward perfection. He was sent to Italy to study and
+to visit the galleries and works in all the cities. A second time the king
+sent him to Italy to purchase works of art, with orders to buy anything he
+thought worth having. He was everywhere received with consideration and
+kindness. The pope sat to him for his portrait; the cardinals Barberini
+and Rospigliosi; the sculptors Bernini and Algardi; the painters Nicolas
+Poussin, Pietro da Cortona, Claude and Matteo Prete were his friends and
+associates. Upon his return to Madrid, Velasquez was appointed
+aposentador-major, with a yearly salary of three thousand ducats, and a
+key at his girdle to unlock every door in the palace. He superintended the
+ceremonies and festivals of the royal household; he arranged in the halls
+of the Alcazar the bronzes and marbles purchased in Italy; he also cast in
+bronze the models he brought from abroad, and he yet found time to paint
+his last great picture, "Las Meninas," or the "Maids of Honor," which
+represents the royal family, with the artist, maids of honor, the dwarfs,
+and a sleeping hound. It is said that when the king saw the picture he
+declared but one thing was wanting, and with his own hand significantly
+painted the cross of Santiago upon the breast of the artist. When the
+courts of France and Spain met on the Isle of Pheasants for the betrothal
+of the Infanta Maria Teresa to Louis XIV., Velasquez superintended all the
+ceremonies and all the festivities. These were of surpassing splendor, for
+these two courts were at this time the most luxurious in Europe. Stirling
+says the fatigues of the life of Velasquez shortened his days. He arrived
+at Madrid on his return, on June 26th, and from that time was gradually
+sinking. He died August 6th. He was buried with magnificent ceremonies in
+the Church of San Juan. His wife survived him but eight days; she was
+buried in the same grave.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--LAUGHING PEASANT. _Velasquez._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--THE TOPERS. _By Velasquez._]
+
+The character of Velasquez was a rare combination of freedom from
+jealousy, power to conciliate, sweetness of temper, strength of will and
+intellect, and steadfastness of purpose. He was the friend of Rubens and
+of Ribera, the protector of Cano and Murillo, who succeeded and were, next
+to him, the greatest painters of Spain. As the favorite of Philip IV., in
+fact, his minister for artistic affairs, he filled his office with purity
+and disinterestedness.
+
+JUAN DE PAREJA (1610-1670) was born in Spanish South America. He was never
+a great artist; but the circumstances of his life make him interesting. He
+was the slave of Velasquez, and was employed as color-grinder. He studied
+painting secretly, and at last, on an occasion when the king visited the
+studio of his master, Pareja showed him a picture of his own painting, and
+throwing himself at Philip's feet begged pardon for his audacity. Both
+Philip and Velasquez treated him very kindly. Velasquez gave Pareja his
+freedom; but it is said that he continued to serve his old master
+faithfully as long as he lived. Pareja succeeded best as a portrait
+painter. His works are not numerous, and are seen in few collections out
+of Spain.
+
+BARTOLOME ESTEBAN MURILLO (1618-1682) was born at Seville. His parents
+were Gaspar Esteban and Maria Perez, and the name of his maternal
+grandmother, Elvira Murillo, was added to his own, according to Andalusian
+custom. From childhood he showed his inclination for art, and although
+this at first suggested to his parents that he should be educated as a
+priest, the idea was soon abandoned, as it was found that his interest in
+the paintings which adorned the churches was artistic rather than
+religious. He was therefore, at an early age, placed in the studio of his
+maternal uncle, Juan de Castillo, one of the leaders of the school of art
+of Seville. Castillo was then about fifty years old, and had as a student
+with Louis Fernandez acquired the Florentine style of the sixteenth
+century--combining chaste designing with cold and hard coloring. Murillo
+was thus early instructed not only in grinding colors and in indispensable
+mechanical details, but was thoroughly grounded in the important elements
+of purity of conception and dignity of treatment and arrangement. Seville
+at this time was the richest city in the Spanish empire. Its commerce with
+all Europe, and especially with Spanish America, was at its height. The
+Guadalquivir was alive with its shipping. Its palaces of semi-Moorish
+origin were occupied by a wealthy and luxurious nobility. The vast
+cathedral had been finished a century before. The tower "La Giralda,"
+three hundred and forty feet in height, is to this day one of the greatest
+marvels in Christendom, and with its Saracenic ornament and its "lace work
+in stone" is beyond all compare. The royal palace of the Alcazar, designed
+by Moorish architects, rivalled the Alhambra, and was filled with the
+finest workmanship of Grenada. There were one hundred and forty churches,
+of which many had been mosques, and were laden with the exquisite
+ornaments of their original builders. Such a city was sure to stimulate
+artists and be their home. The poorer ones were in the habit of exposing
+their works on balconies, on the steps of churches or the cathedral, or in
+any place where they would attract attention. Thus it often happened on
+festival days that a good work would command fame for an artist, and gain
+for him the patronage of some cathedral chapter or generous nobleman.
+Castillo removed to Cadiz in 1640, and Murillo, who was very poor, could
+only bring himself before the public, and earn sufficient for the bare
+necessities of life by thus exposing his pictures in the market of the
+Feria, as it was called, in front of the Church of All Saints. He
+struggled along in this way for two years. Early in 1640, Murillo met with
+an old fellow-pupil, Moya, who had been campaigning in Flanders in the
+Spanish army, and had there become impressed with the worth of the clear
+and strong style of the Flemish masters. Especially was he pleased with
+Vandyck, so that he followed him to England, and there studied as his
+pupil during the last six months of Vandyck's life. Moved by Moya's
+romancing stories of travel, adventure, and study, Murillo resolved to see
+better pictures than were to be found at Seville, and, if possible, to
+visit Italy. As a first step he painted a quantity of banners, madonnas,
+flower-pieces--anything and everything--and sold them to a ship owner, who
+sent them to Spanish America; and it is said that this and similar trades
+originated the story that Murillo once visited Mexico and other
+Spanish-American countries. Thus equipped with funds, and without
+informing his friends (his parents were dead), he started on foot across
+the mountains and the equally dreaded plains for Madrid, which he entered
+at the age of twenty-five, friendless and poor. He sought out Velasquez,
+and asked him for letters to his friends in Rome. But Velasquez, then at
+the height of his fame and influence, was so much interested in the young
+enthusiast that he offered him lodgings and an opportunity to study and
+copy in the galleries of Madrid. The Royal Galleries contained carefully
+selected pictures from the Italian and Flemish schools, so that Murillo
+was at once placed in the very best possible conditions for success.
+Murillo thus spent more than two years, mostly under the direction of
+Velasquez, and worked early and late. He copied from the Italian and
+Flemish masters, and drew from casts and from life. This for a time so
+influenced his style that even now connoisseurs are said to discern
+reminiscences of Vandyck and Velasquez in the pictures painted by him on
+his first return to Seville. At the end of two years Velasquez advised
+Murillo to go to Rome, and offered to assist him. But Murillo decided
+first to return to Seville, and perhaps had come to the resolution not to
+go to Italy; but this may be doubted. He knew the progress he had made; he
+was reasonably certain that, if not the superior, he was the equal of any
+of the artists he had left behind in Seville. He was sure of the wealth,
+and taste, and love for art in his native city. His only sister was living
+there. The rich and noble lady he afterward married resided near there.
+And so we can hardly wonder that the artist gave up a cherished journey to
+Italy, and returned to the scene of his early struggles with poverty.
+
+The first works which Murillo painted after his return were for the
+Franciscan Convent. They brought him little money but much fame. They were
+eleven in number, but even the names of some are lost. One represents St.
+Francis resting on his iron bed, listening in ecstacy to the notes of a
+violin which an angel is playing to him; another portrays St. Diego of
+Alcala, asking a blessing on a kettle of broth he is about to give to a
+group of beggars clustered before him; another represents the death of St.
+Clara of Assisi, in the rapturous trance in which her soul passed away,
+surrounded by pale nuns and emaciated monks looking upward to a
+contrasting group of Christ and the Madonna, with a train of celestial
+virgins bearing her shining robe of immortality. The companion picture is
+a Franciscan monk who passes into a celestial ecstacy while cooking in the
+convent kitchen, and who is kneeling in the air, while angels perform his
+culinary tasks. These pictures brought Murillo into speedy notice. Artists
+and nobles flocked to see them. Orders for portraits and altar-pieces
+followed in rapid succession, and he was full of work. Notwithstanding the
+fact that he was acknowledged to be at the head of his profession in
+Seville, his style at this time was cold and hard. It is called _frio_
+(cold), to distinguish it from his later styles. The Franciscan Convent
+pictures were carried off by Marshal Soult, and fortunately; for the
+convent was burned in 1810. His second style, called _calido_, or warm,
+dated from about the time of his marriage, in 1648, to a lady of
+distinguished family, named Dona Beatriz de Cabrera y Sotomayor. She was
+possessed of considerable property, and had lived in the village of Pilas,
+a few leagues southwest of Seville. Her portrait is not known to exist;
+but several of Murillo's madonnas which resemble each other are so
+evidently portraits, that the belief is these idealized faces were drawn
+from the countenance of the wife of the master.
+
+His home now became famous for its hospitable reunions, and his social
+position, added to his artistic merits, procured for him orders beyond his
+utmost ability to fill. One after another in quick succession, large,
+grand works were sent out from his studio to be the pride of churches and
+convents. At this time his pictures were noted for a portrait-like
+naturalness in their faces, perhaps lacking in idealism, but withal pure
+and pleasing; the drapery graceful and well arranged, the lights skilfully
+disposed, the tints harmonious, and the contours soft. His flesh tints
+were heightened by dark gray backgrounds, so amazingly true that an
+admirer has said they were painted in blood and milk. The _calido_, or
+warm manner, was preserved for eight or ten years. In this style were
+painted an "Immaculate Conception," for the Franciscan Convent; "The
+Nativity of the Virgin," for the high altar of the Seville Cathedral; a
+"St. Anthony of Padua" for the same church, and very many others equally
+famous. In 1874 the St. Anthony was stolen from the cathedral, and for
+some time was unheard of, until two men offered to sell it for two hundred
+and fifty dollars to Mr. Schaus, the picture dealer in New York. He
+purchased the work and turned it over to the Spanish Consul, who
+immediately returned it to the Seville Cathedral, to the great joy of the
+Sevillians. In 1658 Murillo turned his attention to the founding of an
+Academy of Art, and, though he met with many obstacles, the institution
+was finally opened for instruction in 1660, and Murillo was its first
+president. At this time he was taking on his latest manner, called the
+_vaporoso_, or vapory, which was first used in some of his pictures
+executed for the Church of Sta. Maria la Blanca. In this manner the rigid
+outlines of his first style is gone; there is a feathery lightness of
+touch as if the brush had swept the canvas smoothly and with unbroken
+evenness: this softness is enhanced by frequent contrasts with harder and
+heavier groups in the same picture.
+
+But the highest point in the art was reached by Murillo in the eleven
+pictures which he painted in the Hospital de la Caridad. Six of these are
+now in their original places; five were stolen by Soult and carried to
+France; some were returned to Spain, but not to the hospital.
+
+The convent of the Capuchins at Seville at one time possessed twenty
+pictures by this master. The larger part of them are now in the Museum of
+Seville, and form the finest existing collection of his works. This museum
+was once a church, and the statue of Murillo is placed in front of it.
+Although the lighting of this museum is far inferior to that of Madrid and
+many others, yet here one must go to realize fully the glory of this
+master. Among the pictures is the "Virgen de la Sevilleta," or Virgin of
+the Napkin. It is said that the cook of the convent had become the friend
+of the painter, and begged of him some memento of his good feeling; the
+artist had no canvas, and the cook gave him a napkin upon which this great
+work was done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. _By Murillo. In the
+Louvre._]
+
+Murillo's representation of that extremely spiritual and mystical subject
+called the Immaculate Conception, has so far excelled that of any other
+artist that he has sometimes been called "the painter of the Conception."
+His attention was especially called to this subject by the fact that the
+doctrine it sets forth was a pet with the clergy of Seville, who, when
+Pope Paul V., in 1617, published a bill making this doctrine obligatory,
+celebrated the occasion with all possible pomp in the churches; the nobles
+also gave entertainments, and the whole city was alive with a fervor of
+religious zeal and a desire to manifest its love for this dogma. The
+directions given by the Inspector of the Holy Office for the
+representation of this subject were extremely precise; but Murillo
+complied with them in general effect only, and disregarded details when it
+pleased him: for example, the rules prescribed the age of the Virgin to be
+from twelve to thirteen, and the hair to be of golden hue. Murillo
+sometimes pictured her as a dark-haired woman. It is said that when he
+painted the Virgin as very young his daughter Francesca was his model;
+later the daughter became a nun in the convent of the Madre de Dios.
+
+The few portraits painted by Murillo are above all praise; his pictures of
+humble life, too, would of themselves have sufficed to make him famous. No
+Spanish artist, except Velasquez, has painted better landscapes than he.
+But so grand and vast were his religious works that his fame rests
+principally on them. It is true, however, that in England and in other
+countries out of Spain he was first made famous by his beggar boys and
+kindred subjects.
+
+Murillo and Velasquez may be said to hold equivalent positions in the
+annals of Spanish Art--Murillo as the painter for the church, and
+Velasquez as that of the court. As a delineator of religious subjects
+Murillo ranked only a very little below the greatest Italian masters, and
+even beside them he excels in one direction; for he is able more generally
+and fully to arouse religious emotions and sympathies. This stamps his
+genius as that of the first order, and it should also be placed to his
+credit, in estimating his native talent, that he never saw anything of all
+the Classic Art which was such a source of inspiration to the artists of
+Italy. Stirling says: "All his ideas were of home growth: his mode of
+expression was purely national and Spanish; his model--nature, as it
+existed in and around Seville."
+
+While painting a marriage of St. Catherine for the Capuchin Church of
+Cadiz, Murillo fell from the scaffold, and soon died from his injuries: he
+was buried in the Church of Sta. Cruz, and it is a sad coincidence that
+this church and that of San Juan, at Madrid, in which Velasquez was
+interred, were both destroyed by the French under the command of Soult.
+
+The character of Murillo was such as to command the greatest respect, and
+though he was not associated with as many royal personages as Velasquez,
+he was invited to court, and received many flattering acknowledgments of
+his genius. His fame was not confined to his own country, and his portrait
+was engraved in Flanders during the last year of his life. He had many
+strong personal friends, and his interest in the academy and his
+generosity to other artists prove him to have been above all mean
+jealousies: he loved Art because it was Art, and did all in his power for
+its elevation in his own country. It is probable that since his death more
+money has been paid for a single picture by him than he received for the
+entire work of his life. The Immaculate Conception, now in the Louvre, was
+sold from the Soult collection for six hundred and fifteen thousand three
+hundred francs, or more than one hundred and twenty-three thousand
+dollars. At the time of its sale it was believed to be the largest price
+ever paid for a picture.
+
+SEBASTIAN GOMEZ (about 1620) was a mulatto slave of Murillo's, and like
+Pareja he secretly learned to paint. At last one day when Murillo left a
+sketch of a head of the Virgin on his easel Gomez dared to finish it.
+Murillo was glad to find that he had made a painter of his slave, and
+though the pictures of Gomez were full of faults his color was much like
+that of his master. Two of his pictures are in the Museum of Seville. He
+did not live long after Murillo's death in 1682.
+
+DON ALONSO MIGUEL DE TOBAR (1678-1758) never attained to greatness. His
+best original pictures were portraits. He made a great number of copies of
+the works of Murillo, and was chiefly famous for these pictures. There is
+little doubt that many pictures attributed to Murillo are _replicas_, or
+copies by the hand of Tobar.
+
+The school of Valencia flourished from 1506 to 1680. VICENTE DE JOANES
+(about 1506-1579) was a painter of religious pictures who is scarcely
+known out of Spain, and in that country his pictures are, almost without
+exception, in churches and convents. He was very devout, and began his
+works with fasting and prayer. It is related that on one occasion a Jesuit
+of Valencia had a vision in which the Virgin Mary appeared to him, and
+commanded him to have a picture painted of her in a dress like that she
+then wore, which was a white robe with a blue mantle. She was to be
+represented standing on a crescent with the mystic dove floating above
+her; her Son was to crown her, while the Father was to lean from the
+clouds above all.
+
+The Jesuit selected Joanes to be the painter of this work, and though he
+fasted and prayed much he could not paint it so as to please himself or
+the Jesuit. At last his pious zeal overcame all obstacles, and his picture
+was hung above the altar of the Immaculate in the convent of the Jesuits.
+It was very beautiful--the artists praised it, the monks believed that it
+had a miraculous power, and it was known as "La Purisima," or the
+perfectly pure one.
+
+Joanes excelled in his pictures of Christ. He seemed to have conceived the
+very Christ of the Scriptures, the realization of the visions of St. John,
+or of the poetry of Solomon. In these pictures he combined majesty with
+grace and love with strength. Joanes frequently represented the Last
+Supper, and introduced a cup which is known as the Holy Chalice of
+Valencia. It is made of agate and adorned with gold and gems, and was
+believed to have been used by Christ at his Last Supper with his
+disciples. Some of the portraits painted by Joanes are very fine. In
+manner and general effect his works are strangely like those of the great
+Raphael.
+
+FRANCISCO DE RIBALTA (1550-1628) was really the head of the school of
+Valencia, and one of the best historical painters of Spain. He studied his
+art first in Valencia, and there fell in love with the daughter of his
+master. The father refused him his suit, and the young couple parted in
+deep sorrow. Ribalta went to Italy, where he made such progress, and
+gained such fame that when he returned to Valencia he had no trouble in
+marrying his old master's daughter. Valencia has more pictures by Ribalta
+than are found elsewhere. Out of Spain they are very rare. One of his
+works is at Magdalene College, Oxford.
+
+One peculiarity of the Spanish painters was that they painted the extremes
+of emotion. Their subjects represented the ecstacy of bliss or the most
+excruciating agony. They did not seem to have as much middle ground or to
+know as much of moderate emotions as the painters of other nations.
+Ribalta was no exception to this rule, and some of his pictures are
+painful to look at. His portraits are fine, and represent the most
+powerful men of Valencia of the time in which he lived.
+
+JOSEF DE RIBERA was a native of Valencia, but lived and studied in Italy,
+and so became more of an Italian than a Spanish master. I have spoken of
+him in connection with the Naturalists and their school at Naples.
+
+ALONSO CANO (1601-1667) was a very important artist, and cannot be said to
+belong to any school. He was born at Granada, and studied under masters of
+Seville, both in painting and sculpture. He became the best Spanish
+artist who studied in Spain only. He was something of an architect also,
+and his various talents acquired a high place for him among artists; but
+his temper was such as to cause him much trouble, and it so interfered
+with his life that he did not attain to the position to which his artistic
+gifts entitled him.
+
+In 1637 he fought a duel, and was obliged to flee from Madrid, and in 1644
+his wife was found murdered in her bed. Cano was suspected of the crime,
+and although he fled he was found, and brought back, and put to the
+torture. He made no confession, and was set at liberty; but many people
+believed in his guilt. He still held his office as painter to the king,
+and was sometimes employed on important works; but he determined to remove
+to his native Granada and become a priest. Philip IV. appointed him canon,
+and after he held this office he was still employed as a painter and
+sculptor by private persons, as well as by religious bodies, and was even
+sent to Malaga to superintend improvements in the cathedral there. But his
+temper led him into so many broils that at length, in 1659, the chapter of
+Granada deprived him of his office. He went to the king with his
+complaints, and was again made a canon; but he was so angry that he never
+would use his brush or his chisel in the service of the Cathedral of
+Granada.
+
+His life was now devoted to charity and good works. He gave away all his
+money as soon as he received it. When his purse was empty he would go into
+a shop, and beg a pencil and paper, and sketching a head or other design
+would mark the price on it, and give it to a beggar with directions for
+finding a purchaser for it. After his death large numbers of these charity
+works were collected.
+
+One of his strong characteristics was hatred of the Jews. He would cross
+the street, in order not to meet one of them, and would throw away a
+garment that had brushed against one of the race. One day he went home,
+and found his housekeeper bargaining with a Jew; he chased him away with
+great fury, sent the woman off to be purified, repaved the spot where the
+Jew had stood, and gave the shoes in which he had chased him to a servant.
+When about to die Cano would not receive the sacrament from the priest who
+was present, because he had communicated with Jews, and when a rude
+crucifix was held before him he pushed it away. When he was reproved for
+this he said: "Vex me not with this thing; but give me a simple cross that
+I may adore it, both as it is, and as I can figure it in my mind." When
+this was done, it is said that he died in a most edifying manner.
+
+Very few of Cano's architectural works remain; a few drawings of this sort
+are in the Louvre which are simple and elegant in style. The finest
+carving by him is a small figure of the Virgin, now in the Cathedral of
+Granada. Eight of his pictures are in the Queen of Spain's gallery at
+Madrid, and the Church of Getafe, the Cathedral of Granada and that of
+Malaga have his works. A beautiful madonna, which was one of his latest
+works, is in the chapel of the Cathedral of Valencia, and is lighted by
+votive tapers only. His pictures are rare out of Spain. One of his
+portraits is in the Louvre. Other works are in Berlin, Dresden, Munich,
+and the Hermitage, St. Petersburg.
+
+The last Spanish painter of whom I shall speak belongs to a much later
+period. FRANCISCO GOYA Y LUCIENTES (1746-1828) was a student in Rome, and
+after his return to Spain lived in fine style in a villa near Madrid. He
+was painter to Charles IV., and was always employed on orders from the
+nobility. He painted portraits and religious pictures, but his chief
+excellence was in painting caricatures. He was never weary of painting the
+priests and monks in all sorts of ridiculous ways. He made them in the
+form of apes and asses, and may be called the Hogarth of Spain, so well
+did he hold up the people about him to ridicule. He painted with great
+boldness and could use a sponge or stick in place of a brush. Sometimes he
+made a picture with his palette-knife, and put in the fine touches with
+his thumb. He executed engravings also, and published eighty prints which
+he called "Caprices." These were very famous; they were satires upon all
+Spanish laws and customs. He also made a series of plates about the French
+invasion, thirty-three prints of scenes in the bull-ring, and etchings of
+some of the works of Velasquez. Portraits of Charles IV. and his queen by
+Goya are in the museum at Madrid. Works of his are in the Louvre and in
+the National Gallery in London. His pictures sell for large prices. In
+1870 his picture of Charlotte Corday sold for five hundred and eighty-four
+pounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+PAINTING IN FRANCE.
+
+
+The French school of painting does not date earlier than the sixteenth
+century, and the painters of that time were few in number, and little is
+known of them. Before the time when a French school could be said to exist
+the kings of France employed foreign artists to decorate their palaces and
+churches, and they naturally turned to the Italians for all that they
+needed. Hence it happened that in its earliest days the French school was
+almost entirely under Italian influence, and I shall first speak of French
+masters who studied in Italy.
+
+NICHOLAS POUSSIN (1594-1665) may be said to belong to the seventeenth
+century, since he was born so late in the preceding one. Poussin was born
+in Normandy, and early began to draw and paint. He studied somewhat in
+France, and when thirty years old went to Rome, where, in reality, his
+artistic career began. He was a pupil of Andrea Sacchi, and received some
+instruction from Domenichino also; but he formed his style principally by
+studying the works of the ancients and those of the great Raphael. He was
+so devoted to the study of the habits and customs of the Greeks that he
+almost became one of them in his modes of thought.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--ARCADIAN SHEPHERDS. _Poussin._]
+
+He was very poor when he first went to Rome; but he worked hard, and began
+to be known and to receive orders for pictures. Louis XIII. heard of
+Poussin, and invited him to Paris, where he gave him apartments in the
+Tuileries. But the artist longed to return to Rome, and made a plea of
+going for his wife. Soon after he left, Louis died, and Poussin never
+returned to France. Poussin was always busy; but he asked such moderate
+prices that he was never rich, and, when a great man pitied the artist
+because he had so few servants, Poussin pitied him in return for having so
+many. His portrait painted by himself is in the Louvre, where are many of
+his mythological pictures. His love for the classic manner makes these
+subjects his best works. His paintings are seen in many European
+galleries.
+
+CLAUDE LORRAINE (1600-1682), whose real name was Claude Gelee, was born in
+Champagne in Lorraine. His parents were very poor, and died when he was
+still young: he was apprenticed to a pastry-cook, and so travelled to Rome
+as servant to some young gentlemen. Not long after his arrival he engaged
+himself to the painter Agostino Tassi, for whom he cooked, and mixed
+colors. After a time he himself began to paint. Nature was his teacher; he
+studied her with unchanging devotion; he knew all her changes, and was in
+the habit of sitting for a whole day watching one scene, so that he could
+paint from memory its different aspects at the various hours of the day.
+His works brought him into notice when he was still young. He received
+many orders, and when about twenty-seven years old some pictures he
+painted for Pope Urban VIII. established his fame as an artist of high
+rank. His character was above reproach, and his feelings were as tender as
+many of his pictures. He was attractive in person, though his face was
+grave in its expression. It would seem that he should have left a large
+fortune, but he did not. This was partly because he suffered much from
+gout, and was often unable to paint; but a better reason probably is that
+he gave so much to his needy relations that he could not save large sums.
+
+Claude Lorraine has been called the prince and poet of landscape painters.
+Luebke, the German art writer, praises him very much, and his praise is
+more valuable than it would be if it came from one of Claude's own
+countrymen. He says: "Far more profoundly than all other masters did
+Claude Gelee penetrate into the secrets of nature, and by the enchanting
+play of sunlight, the freshness of his dewy foregrounds, and the charm of
+his atmospheric distances, he obtained a tone of feeling which influences
+the mind like an eternal Sabbath rest. In his works there is all the
+splendor, light, untroubled brightness, and harmony of the first morning
+of creation in Paradise. His masses of foliage have a glorious richness
+and freshness, and even in the deepest shadows are interwoven with a
+golden glimmer of light. But they serve only as a mighty framework, for,
+more freely than with other masters, the eye wanders through a rich
+foreground into the far distance, the utmost limits of which fade away in
+golden mist."
+
+His two great charms are the immense space which he represents in his
+pictures and his beautiful color. The latter appears as if he had first
+used a silvery gray, and then put his other colors over that, which gives
+his works a soft, lovely atmospheric effect, such as no other artist has
+surpassed. When he introduced buildings into his pictures they were well
+done; but his figures and animals were so imperfect that he was accustomed
+to say that he sold the landscape, and gave away the figures.
+
+Before his death his pictures were so much valued that other artists tried
+to imitate them, and he was accustomed to keep a book of sketches by which
+his works could be proved. He called this book "Liber Veritatis," and
+before his death it reached six volumes; one of these containing two
+hundred drawings is at Chatsworth. A catalogue of his works describes more
+than four hundred landscapes. All the principal galleries of Europe have
+his pictures, and there are a great number of them in England, both in
+public and private collections.
+
+SEBASTIAN BOURDON (1616-1671), who was born at Montpelier, made his
+studies in Rome. He brought himself into notice by a picture of the
+Crucifixion of St Peter, which is now in the Louvre. He was one of the
+earliest members of the French Academy. Bourdon resided in Sweden for some
+years; but was in Paris, and held the position of Rector of the Academy
+when he died. He painted a few _genre_ subjects, and two of his portraits
+by himself are in the Louvre; but his best works were landscapes, and in
+these his style was like that of Salvator Rosa. It has been said that
+Rigaud assisted him in his portraits of himself. Bourdon made some
+engravings, and collectors prize his plates very much.
+
+There were other French painters who studied in Italy, but those that I
+have mentioned are the important ones. Of those who studied in their own
+country only, EUSTACHE LE SUEUR (1617-1655) was the first of any
+importance; but his life was short and uneventful, and he was not
+appreciated. His most important works are in the Louvre.
+
+CHARLES LE BRUN (1619-1690) was very prominent in his day. His father was
+a sculptor, and was employed by the Chancellor Segnier. This nobleman's
+attention was attracted to the son, and he at length sent the young Le
+Brun to Italy to study. He remained there six years, and after his return
+to Paris he was made painter to the king, and became the favorite of the
+court. He used his opportunities to persuade Louis XIV. to found the Royal
+Academy at Paris, which was done in 1648. All his principal pictures are
+in the Louvre.
+
+PIERRE MIGNARD (1612-1695) has been called "the Roman," because he lived
+in Rome twenty-two years, and while there was patronized by three
+successive popes. In 1664 he was made President of the Academy of St. Luke
+in Rome. At length Louis XIV. invited him to return to France. In 1690 he
+succeeded Le Brun as court painter, and was made Chancellor of the
+Academy. His portraits are his best works, and these are seen in the
+galleries of various European countries.
+
+HYACINTHE RIGAUD (1659-1743) became the most distinguished French portrait
+painter of his time; but his pictures are not very attractive or
+interesting in our day. He finished them too much, and so gave them an
+artificial appearance. Then, too, the costume of his day was such that his
+portraits seem to be the portraits of wigs and not of people. They are
+very numerous. He often painted the portrait of Louis XIV., and had
+illustrious people from all parts of Europe among his sitters.
+
+ANTOINE WATTEAU (1684-1721) was the first to practise a new style of
+painting. The habit of the French court was to pass much time in elegant
+out-door amusements. Watteau represented the scenes of the _fetes
+galantes_ and reunions then so much in fashion. His pictures are crowded
+with figures in beautiful costumes. There are groups of ladies and
+gentlemen promenading, dancing, love-making, and lounging in pleasant
+grounds with temples and fountains and everything beautiful about them.
+The pictures of Watteau are fine, and are seen in many galleries. His
+color is brilliant, and to their worth as pictures is added the historical
+interest which belongs to them, because they give us the best idea of
+court life, dress, and manners of the reign of Louis XIV. which can be had
+from any paintings.
+
+The followers of Watteau were numerous, but are not of great importance.
+There were a few painters of animals and flowers in the French school; but
+we shall pass to the _genre_ painters, among whom JEAN-BAPTISTE GREUZE
+(1725-1805) was important. He painted very beautiful pictures of young
+girls and children. His color is very agreeable, and some of his works are
+finished as finely as if they were done on ivory. Most of his pictures
+are in private galleries, but they are seen in some public collections.
+Probably the "Broken Jug," in the Louvre, is his best known work. His
+pictures sell for very large prices. At the Forster sale in 1876, "A
+Little Girl with a Lap Dog in her Arms" brought six thousand seven hundred
+and twenty pounds; in 1772 the same picture was sold for three hundred
+pounds, and in 1832 it was again sold for seven hundred and three pounds.
+Thus we see that in fifty-four years its value had increased to more than
+nine times its price, and in one hundred and four years it brought
+twenty-two times as much as it was first sold for.
+
+CLAUDE JOSEPH VERNET (1714-1789) was the best marine painter of the French
+school. Louis XV. commissioned him to paint the seaports of France.
+Fifteen of these pictures are in the Louvre. There have been many
+engravings after his works. His pictures of Italian seaports and views
+near Rome and Tivoli are among his best paintings. His color has little
+variety; but his drawing is correct, and his finish is very careful and
+fine. Vernet also made a few etchings.
+
+In the early part of the eighteenth century JOSEPH MARIE VIEN (1716-1809)
+returned to the classic style of painting, and created a feeling against
+the pretty manner which had been the chief feature of French pictures for
+some time. His pictures are very numerous in the churches and galleries of
+Paris. He was not a great painter, but he marks a change in the spirit of
+French painting. Vien was the teacher of JACQUES LOUIS DAVID (1748-1825),
+who was considered the first painter in modern art at the close of the
+eighteenth century. He was so devoted to the classic style that he took
+the remains of ancient art as models for the figures in his pictures. His
+groups are like groups of statues, and his flesh looks like marble, it is
+so hard and lifeless. During the time of the first Napoleon this style
+was carried to excess in everything connected with the arts. David was
+such a favorite with the emperor that after the return of the Bourbons he
+was banished, and his family were not allowed to bury him in France. He
+lived in Brussels, and executed many of his best pictures there.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--THE SABINE WOMEN. _David._]
+
+ANTOINE JEAN GROS (1771-1835) was a great admirer of David, and first
+attracted attention in 1801 by a picture of "Bonaparte on the Bridge of
+Arcola." After this Gros painted many such works, and principally
+represented military events. Many of his pictures are very coarse. The
+"Plague at Jaffa" and the "Field of Eylau" are of this type, and the first
+is disgusting. Among his best works is "Francis I. and Charles V. visiting
+the Tombs at St. Denis." But although he received many honors, and was
+made a baron by Charles X., he could not bear the criticism which was made
+upon his pictures, and finally drowned himself in the Seine near Meudon.
+
+PAUL DELAROCHE (1797-1856) was born at Paris, and studied under Baron
+Gros. He became a celebrated artist and was made a member of the Institute
+of France, a Professor in l'Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and an officer of the
+Legion of Honor. His principal works represent scenes of important
+historical interest, and he so arranged them that they appeal to one's
+sympathies with great power. Among these pictures are the "Condemnation of
+Marie Antoinette," the "Death of the Duke of Guise," "Cromwell
+Contemplating the Remains of Charles I.," and other similar historical
+incidents. His design was according to academical rules; but he was not
+entirely conventional, and in some of his religious pictures there was
+much expression and deep feeling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--DEATH OF THE DUKE OF GUISE. _Delaroche._]
+
+His largest and most famous work is the "Hemicycle," in l'Ecole des
+Beaux-Arts, Paris. He was occupied with this painting during three years;
+it contains seventy-five figures of life size. The arts of different
+countries and ages are represented in it by portraits of the artists of
+the times and nations typified. Thus it is very interesting when
+considered merely as a great collection of portraits. Delaroche married
+the daughter of Horace Vernet, and it is said that the figure which stands
+for Gothic Architecture is a portrait of her. The Hemicycle is richly
+colored, and has a great deal of fine painting in it; but from its very
+nature it has no dramatic power, and does not arouse any deep sentiment in
+one who studies it. Delaroche was paid only about fifteen thousand dollars
+for this great labor, and refused to have any further reward.
+
+Perhaps none of his works are more powerful than the "Death of the Duke of
+Guise." You will easily recall the circumstances of his assassination: the
+painter has so represented it that one really forgets that it is a
+picture, and can only remember the horror of the crime. The corpse of the
+duke is on one side of the immense chamber, near the bed; the assassins
+are in a terrified group on the other side, and with them the cowardly
+king, who was absolutely afraid of the dead body of his victim. The
+picture is a remarkable instance of the power that may be given to what is
+sometimes called historical-genre art. This picture was sold in 1853 for
+ten thousand five hundred dollars (Fig. 69).
+
+JEAN LOUIS GERICAULT (1791-1824). He was born at Rouen, and studied first
+under Guerin and then in Rome. He was the first master of any power who
+entirely dismissed the influence of the art of David with its marble flesh
+and statuesque effect. The one great work by which he is known is the
+"Wreck of the Medusa," which is in the Louvre, and which may be said to
+mark the advent of the modern French school.
+
+EUGENE DELACROIX (1799-1863) was the son of a Minister of Foreign Affairs,
+and was born to position and wealth. But through misfortunes all this was
+changed, and he was forced to work hard for his living. At last he
+managed to study under Guerin, and in the studio of the master became the
+friend of Gericault. The first work which brought Delacroix fame was a
+picture of a scene from Dante's "Inferno," in which Dante sees some of his
+old acquaintances who were condemned to float upon the lake which
+surrounds the infernal city. This work was exhibited in 1822, and was
+bought for the Gallery of the Luxembourg. Baron Gros tried to be his
+friend; but Delacroix wished to follow his own course, and for some time
+had but small success.
+
+He travelled in Spain, Algiers, and Morocco, and at length was
+commissioned by Thiers to do some decorative work in the throne-room of
+the Chamber of Deputies. He was much criticised, but at length was
+accepted as a great artist, and was made a member of the Institute in
+1857. He received another important order for the Chamber of Peers. Some
+of his works are at Versailles, and others are seen in various churches of
+Paris. When they are considered as a whole they are effective, but they do
+not bear examination; his design was free and spirited and his color good,
+and he painted a variety of subjects, and was able to vary the expression
+of his work to suit the impression he wished to produce.
+
+EMILE JEAN HORACE VERNET (1789-1863) was born in the Louvre. He studied
+under his father, Carle Vernet, who was the son of Claude Joseph Vernet.
+Carle was a witty man, and it is said that when he was dying he exclaimed,
+"How much I resemble the Grand Dauphin--son of a king, father of a king,
+and never a king myself!" In spite of his being less than his father or
+his son, he was a good painter of horses. When Horace Vernet was but
+fifteen years old he supported himself by drawing; he studied with
+Vincent, and drew from living models. In 1814 he showed such bravery at
+the Barriere of Clichy that he was decorated with the Cross of the Legion
+of Honor: before he died he was a grand officer of the order on account
+of his artistic merits. He was also a member of the Institute and Director
+of the Academy of Rome.
+
+His best works were executed in Rome, where he spent seven years; he
+travelled in Algiers, Syria, Egypt, Palestine, Russia, and England, and
+was everywhere received with the honors which his genius merited. His
+works embraced a great variety of subjects, and it is said that he often
+finished his picture the first time he went over it, and did not retouch
+it. There is no doubt that in certain ways the excellence of Vernet has
+been overestimated, and he has been too much praised; but his remarkable
+memory, which enabled him truthfully to paint scenes he had witnessed, and
+his facility of execution, are worthy of honorable mention.
+
+When twenty years old Vernet was married, and from this time he kept an
+expense account in which all the prices he received for his works are set
+down. The smallest is twenty-four sous for a tulip; the largest is fifty
+thousand francs for the portrait of the Empress of Russia.
+
+About 1817 Vernet became the favorite of the Duke of Orleans, and was
+therefore unpopular with the royal party. In 1820 he had made himself so
+displeasing to the king by some lithographs which were scattered among the
+people, that it was thought best for him to leave Paris. However, he
+overcame all this, and four years later Charles X. sat to him for his
+portrait. From this time orders and money flowed in from all sides.
+
+The Vernets had originated in Avignon, and in 1826, when the museum there
+was opened, Horace and his father were invited to be present. Every honor
+was shown them; poems were read in their praise; they were conducted to
+the home of their ancestors, which they piously saluted, and inscribed
+their names upon the door-posts. After they returned to Paris they
+received rich gifts in return for the pictures they had given to Avignon.
+The Gallery Vernet, which contains works by Antoine, Francois, Joseph,
+Carle, and Horace Vernet, is regarded as a sacred place by the people of
+that region.
+
+When Horace Vernet was Director of the Academy in Rome he held _salons_
+weekly; they were very gay, and all people of distinction who lived in
+Rome or visited that city were seen at these receptions, dancing and
+amusing themselves in the lively French manner. But after 1830 he felt
+that the Villa Medici was a prison. He wished to follow the French army in
+the East, and three years later did go to Algiers. In the same year the
+king decided to convert the palace at Versailles into an historical
+museum, and from this time Vernet had but two ideas, the East and
+Versailles. Almost every work he did was connected with these two
+thoughts.
+
+Louis Philippe now desired him to paint four battle-pieces; but Vernet
+objected that no room was large enough to please him: for this reason a
+floor was removed, two stories turned into one, and the grand Gallery of
+Battles made. At length he had a difficulty with the king and went to
+Russia; but hearing that his father was dying he returned to Paris, and
+was made welcome back to Versailles, where he was really necessary.
+
+We cannot stay to recount the honors which were showered upon him, and
+which he always received with great modesty of demeanor. He went from one
+triumph to another until 1848, when the Revolution almost broke his heart;
+he worked on, but his happiness was over. In the great Exposition of 1855
+he had a whole _salon_ devoted to his works, and men from all the world
+came to see and to praise. He lived still eight years; he made pictures of
+incidents in the Crimean War; he painted a portrait of Napoleon III., but
+he wrote of himself: "When time has worn out a portion of our faculties we
+are not entirely destroyed; but it is necessary to know how to leave the
+first rank and content one's self with the fourth."
+
+His industry and the amount of work he did are simply marvellous. He loved
+excitement and adventure, and the works which have these elements were his
+best--and he liked best to do them. His color cannot be praised; he had no
+lofty intellectual aims; he was clever to a high degree, but he was not
+great; he was one to whom the happy medium of praise should be given, for
+he neither merits severity of criticism nor immoderate praise; he was
+simply a gifted painter and "the greatest and last of the Vernets."
+
+He is also the last French painter of whom we shall speak, as we do not
+propose to take up the excellent artists of our own day, who would require
+a volume devoted strictly to themselves.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+PAINTING IN ENGLAND.
+
+
+In early days in England there were miniature-painters, and in the last
+half of the sixteenth century there were some very important English
+painters of this kind. Before the days of Charles I. the English kings
+were much in the habit of inviting foreign artists to England, and
+commissions were given to them. The painters who were most prominent in
+England were of the Flemish school, and even under Charles I., as we have
+seen, Rubens and Vandyck were the principal painters in England. But in
+the reign of this king some native artists made names for themselves, and
+what we call the English school of painting may really be dated from this
+time.
+
+Before speaking of painters I must mention one miniaturist whose works
+were in demand in other countries, as well as in England. SAMUEL COOPER
+(1609-1672) has been called "the Vandyck in little," and there is far more
+breadth in his works than is usual in miniature. He painted likenesses of
+many eminent persons, and his works now have an honorable place in many
+collections.
+
+WILLIAM DOBSON (1610-1646) has been mentioned in our account of Vandyck as
+a painter whom the great master befriended and recommended to Charles I.
+He became a good portrait-painter, and after Vandyck's death was appointed
+sergeant-painter to the king. His portraits are full of dignity; the face
+shadows are dark, and his color excellent. He did not excel in painting
+historical subjects. Vandyck was succeeded at court by two foreign artists
+who are so closely associated with England that they are always spoken of
+as English artists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS.]
+
+PETER VAN DER FAES (1618-1680), who was born in Westphalia, is known to us
+as Sir PETER LELY. He became the most celebrated portrait-painter after
+Vandyck, and his "Beauties at Hampton Court" are pictures which are known
+the world over. He has been accused of not painting eyes as he ought; but
+the ladies of his day had an affectation in the use of their eyes. They
+tried to have "the sleepy eye that spoke the melting soul," so Sir Peter
+Lely was not to blame for painting them as these ladies wished them to be.
+He was knighted by Charles II., and became very rich. His portraits of men
+were not equal to those of women. When Cromwell gave him a commission to
+paint his portrait, he said: "Mr. Lely, I desire you will use all your
+skill to paint my picture truly like me, and not flatter me at all; but
+remark all these roughnesses, pimples, warts, and everything as you see
+me, otherwise I will never pay you a farthing for it." Sir Peter Lely was
+buried in Covent Garden, where there is a monument to his memory with a
+bust by Gibbon.
+
+Sir GODFREY KNELLER (1646-1723), born at Luebeck, was a rival to Sir Peter
+Lely, and had the honor of painting the portraits of eight crowned heads
+and a very great number of other people of importance. He had studied both
+the Dutch and Italian manner; for he was the pupil of Rembrandt and Bol,
+of Carlo Maratti and Bernini. Some critics praise his pictures very much,
+while others point out many defects in them. He painted very rapidly, and
+he sometimes hurried his pictures off for the sake of money; but his
+finished works are worthy of remark. He especially excelled in painting
+hair; his drawing was correct; some of his groups of children are fine
+pictures; and some madonnas that he painted, using his sitters as models,
+are works of merit. His monument was made by Rysbrach, and was placed in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+Both Sir Peter Lely and Sir Godfrey Kneller had pupils and followers; but
+there was no original English artist before the time of WILLIAM HOGARTH
+(1697-1764), and he may really be named as the first master of a purely
+English school of painting. When Hogarth was fifteen years old he was
+apprenticed to a silversmith, and the grotesque designs which he copied
+for armorial bearings helped to increase his natural love for all that was
+ridiculous and strange. After 1718 he was much occupied in engraving for
+booksellers, and at length he began to paint small _genre_ pictures and
+some portraits, in which he made good success, but he felt that he was
+fitted for other work. In 1730 he married the daughter of the artist, Sir
+James Thornhill, without the consent of her father.
+
+Soon after this he began his series of pictures called the "Harlot's
+Progress," and when Sir James saw them he was so satisfied with the talent
+of Hogarth that he declared that such an artist could support a wife who
+had no dower, and the two painters were soon reconciled to each other.
+Before 1744 Hogarth had also painted the series of the "Rake's Progress"
+and "Marriage a la Mode" (Fig. 71).
+
+These are all pictures which hold up the customs of the time to ridicule
+and satire, and his works of this kind are almost numberless. He explains
+as follows the cause of his painting in this way: "The reasons which
+induced me to adopt this mode of designing were that I thought both
+critics and painters had, in the historical style, quite overlooked that
+intermediate species of subjects which may be placed between the sublime
+and the grotesque. I therefore wished to compose pictures on canvas
+similar to representations on the stage; and further hope that they will
+be tried by the same test and criticised by the same criticism."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--THE MARRIAGE CONTRACT. _No. 1 of The Marriage a
+la Mode. By Hogarth. In the National Gallery._]
+
+It was in this sort of picture that Hogarth made himself great, though he
+supported himself for several years by portrait-painting, in which art he
+holds a reputable place. Most of his important pictures are in public
+galleries.
+
+Hogarth was a fine engraver, and left many plates after his own works,
+which are far better and more spirited than another artist could have made
+them. The pictures of Hogarth have good qualities aside from their
+peculiar features. He made his interiors spacious, and the furniture and
+all the details were well arranged; his costumes were exact, as was also
+the expression of his faces; his painting was good, and his color
+excellent. In 1753 he published a book called the "Analysis of Beauty."
+
+Ever after his first success his career was a prosperous one. He rode in
+his carriage, and was the associate and friend of men in good positions.
+Hogarth was buried in Chiswick Churchyard, and on his tombstone are these
+lines, written by David Garrick:
+
+      "Farewell, great painter of mankind!
+       Who reach'd the noblest point of Art,
+       Whose pictur'd morals charm the mind,
+       And through the eye, correct the heart.
+       If Genius fire thee, reader, stay;
+       If Nature touch thee, drop a tear;
+       If neither move thee, turn away,
+       For Hogarth's honour'd dust lies here."
+
+The next important English painter was RICHARD WILSON (1713-1782), and he
+was important not so much for what he painted as for the fact that he was
+one of the earliest landscape-painters among English artists. He never
+attained wealth or great reputation, although after his return from
+studying in Italy he was made a member of the Royal Academy.
+
+We come now to Sir JOSHUA REYNOLDS (1723-1792), born at Plympton, in
+Devonshire. His father was a clergyman and the master of the grammar
+school at Plympton. Joshua was destined for the medical profession by his
+parents; but his love of drawing was so marked that, as the opportunity
+offered for him to go to London and study under Hudson, his father allowed
+him to do so. After various changes, in 1749 he was able to go to Rome,
+and remained in Italy three years (Fig. 70).
+
+When he returned to England he soon attracted attention to his pictures,
+and it was not long before both fame and fortune were secured to him. His
+life was a very quiet one, with little of incident that can be related
+here. His sister kept his house for him, and he lived generously, having
+company to dinner almost daily. His friends were among the best people of
+the time, including such persons as Dr. Johnson, Percy, Goldsmith,
+Garrick, the Burkes, and many others. The day before Johnson died he told
+Reynolds that he had three requests to make of him: that he would forgive
+him thirty pounds which he had lent him, would read the Scriptures daily,
+and would not paint on Sunday. Sir Joshua promised to do these things, and
+remembered his promise.
+
+Sir Joshua was skilful in compliments. When he painted his famous picture
+of Mrs. Siddons as the "Tragic Muse" he put his name on the border of her
+garment. The actress went near the picture to examine it, and when she saw
+the name she smiled. The artist said: "I could not lose the opportunity of
+sending my name to posterity on the hem of your garment."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--"MUSCIPULA." _By Reynolds._]
+
+Sir Joshua Reynolds' fame rests upon his portraits, and in these he is
+almost unrivalled. His pictures of children are especially fine. It was
+his custom to receive six sitters daily. He kept a list of those who were
+sitting and of others who waited for an opportunity to have their
+portraits made by him. He also had sketches of the different portraits
+he had painted, and when new-comers had looked them over and chosen the
+position they wished, he sketched it on canvas and then made the likeness
+to correspond. In this way, when at his best, he was able to paint a
+portrait in about four hours. His sitters' chairs moved on casters, and
+were placed on a platform a foot and a half above the floor. He worked
+standing, and used brushes with handles eighteen inches long, moving them
+with great rapidity.
+
+In 1768 Sir Joshua was made the first President of the Royal Academy, and
+it was then that he was knighted by the king. He read lectures at the
+Academy until 1790, when he took his leave. During these years he sent two
+hundred and forty-four pictures to the various exhibitions. In 1782 he had
+a slight shock of paralysis, but was quite well until 1789, when he feared
+that he should be blind, and from this time he did not paint. He was ill
+about three months before his death, which occurred in February, 1792. His
+remains were laid in state at the Royal Academy, and then buried in St.
+Paul's Cathedral, near the tomb of Sir Christopher Wren.
+
+It is to be regretted that the colors used by Sir Joshua Reynolds are now
+much faded in many of his pictures. Those in the National Gallery, in
+London, are, however, in good preservation. Naturally, since so many of
+his pictures were portraits they are in the collections of private
+families in England, and but few of them are seen in European galleries.
+There is an excellent opportunity to study his manner in the pictures at
+the South Kensington Museum, where there are several portraits, some
+pictures of children, and the "Graces Decorating a Statue of Hymen."
+
+It is very satisfactory to think of a great artist as a genial, happy man,
+who is dear to his friends, and has a full, rich life outside of his
+profession. Such a life had Sir Joshua Reynolds, and one writer says of
+him: "They made him a knight--this famous painter; they buried him 'with
+an empire's lamentation;' but nothing honors him more than the 'folio
+English dictionary of the last revision' which Johnson left to him in his
+will, the dedication that poor, loving Goldsmith placed in the 'Deserted
+Village,' and the tears which five years after his death even Burke could
+not forbear to shed over his memory."
+
+THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH (1727-1788) was born in Sudbury, in Suffolk, and when
+still quite young went to London, and studied under Francis Hayman, who
+was not an eminent painter. Gainsborough became one of the most important
+masters of the English school, especially in landscape painting and the
+representation of rustic figures. His portraits were not as good in color
+as those of Sir Joshua Reynolds; they have a bluish-gray hue in the flesh
+tints; but they are always graceful and charming. His landscapes are not
+like those of any other master. They are not exact in the detail of leaves
+and flowers--a botanist could find many faults in them--but they are like
+nature in spirit: they seem to have the air blowing through them, they are
+fresh and dewy when it is morning in them, and quiet and peaceful when
+evening comes under his brush. In many of his pictures he put a cart and a
+white animal.
+
+His rustic figures have the true country life in them: they seem to have
+fed upon the air, and warmed themselves in the sun until they are plump
+and rosy as country lads and lasses should be. His best _genre_ pictures
+are the "Cottage Girl," the "Woodman and Dog in a Storm," the "Cottage
+Door," and the "Shepherd Boy in a Shower." He painted a picture of a "Girl
+and Pigs," for which Sir Joshua Reynolds paid him one hundred guineas.
+
+In character Gainsborough was very attractive, though somewhat
+contradictory in his moods. He was generous and genial, lovable and
+affectionate; he was also contradictory and impulsive, not to say
+capricious. His wife and he had little quarrels which they settled in this
+wise: When Gainsborough had spoken to her unkindly, he would quickly
+repent, and write a note to say so, and address it to his wife's spaniel,
+called "Tristram," and sign it with the name of his pet dog, "Fox." Then
+Margaret Gainsborough would answer: "My own, dear Fox, you are always
+loving and good, and I am a naughty little female ever to worry you as I
+too often do, so we will kiss, and say no more about it; your own
+affectionate Tris." Like Reynolds, Gainsborough had many warm friends, and
+when he died Sir Joshua himself watched by his bedside, and bent to catch
+his last word, which was the name of Vandyck.
+
+JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY (1737-1815) was born in Boston, Mass., U. S., to
+which place his parents are said to have immigrated from Limerick,
+Ireland. The father was descended from the Copleys of Yorkshire, England,
+and the mother from the Singletons of County Clare, both families of note.
+When young Copley was eleven years old his mother was married to Peter
+Pelham, a widower with three sons--Peter, Charles, and William--and who
+subsequently became the father of another son, Henry, by this second
+marriage. Mr. Pelham was a portrait painter and a mezzotint engraver of
+unusual merit. One authority calls him "the founder of those arts in New
+England." Mr. Pelham was also a man of education, a land surveyor, and a
+mathematician. He was thus well qualified to educate, assist, and
+stimulate young Copley in the pursuit of studies so natural and congenial
+to him. He is said to have been studious and quiet, and to have made rapid
+advances. When he was fifteen years old he painted a portrait of his
+step-brother, Charles Pelham, now in the family of a great-grandson, Mr.
+Charles Pelham Curtis, of Boston. At sixteen he published an engraving of
+Rev. William Welsteed, from a portrait painted by himself. The same year
+he painted the portrait of a child--afterward Dr. de Mountfort--now owned
+in Detroit. In 1754 he painted an allegorical picture of Mars, Venus, and
+Vulcan, thirty inches long by twenty-five wide, now owned in Bridgewater,
+Mass. The next year he painted a miniature of George Washington, who was
+on a visit to Governor Shirley at the time. This picture now belongs to
+the family of the late George P. Putnam, of New York City. In 1756 he
+painted a three-quarters length portrait of General William Brattle, life
+size, signed and dated, and now owned by Mr. William S. Appleton. He now
+improved rapidly. A crayon portrait of Miss Rebecca Gardiner, afterward
+Mrs. Philip Dumaresq, an oil painting of Mrs. Edmund Perkins, a portrait
+of Rebecca Boylston, afterward wife of Governor Gill, portraits of Colonel
+and Mrs. Lee, grandparents of General William Raymond Lee, all exist and
+attest the continued growth of his powers. These date between 1763 and
+1769. During this time he had access to and was a visitor in houses where
+were portraits by Saribest, Blackburn, Liopoldt, and even by Vandyck and
+Sir Godfrey Kneller. Mr. Augustus Thorndike Perkins, in his carefully
+written monograph on Copley, says that our artist must have seen all these
+pictures, since, as Dr. Gardiner says, "his genial disposition and his
+courtly manners make him a welcome guest everywhere." Mr. Perkins remarks
+that Copley must have studied with Blackburn; that he imitated, but in
+some respects surpassed him. "Both frequently used, either as the lining
+of a dress or as drapery, a certain shade of mauve pink; Blackburn uses
+this shade feebly, while Copley dashes it on with the hand of a master."
+On November 16, 1769, Copley married Susan (or Susannah, as it is
+sometimes written), the daughter of Mr. Richard Clarke, a distinguished
+merchant of Boston, to whom, as agent of the East India Company of London,
+was consigned the tea thrown overboard in Boston harbor. From all accounts
+he soon began to live in good style; and as, in 1771, Colonel Trumbull
+found him living opposite the Common, it is probable that he purchased at
+about that time the property which afterward became so valuable, although
+long after Copley had ceased to be the owner. In 1773, says the late
+eminent conveyancer, Nathaniel Ingersoll Bowditch, "Copley owned all the
+land bounded on the west by Charles River, thence by Beacon Street to
+Walnut Street, thence by Walnut Street to Mt. Vernon Street, thence by Mt.
+Vernon Street to Louisburg Square, thence by Louisburg Square to Pinckney
+Street, thence by Pinckney Street to the water, containing about eleven
+acres of land." This land is now covered with handsome residences, and is
+of great value. An agent of Copley's sold his property after he went
+abroad without being authorized to do so, and, although his son came over
+in 1795 to look into the matter, he was only able to secure a compromise
+by which a further sum of three thousand guineas was paid in final
+settlement.
+
+Soon after his marriage Copley painted his picture of a "Boy with a
+Squirrel," which he sent anonymously to Benjamin West, in London, for
+exhibition. West judged from the wood on which the picture was stretched
+and from the kind of squirrel that the work was American, and so excellent
+was the painting that a rule of the institution was set aside, and the
+picture exhibited. This picture is now in the possession of Mrs. James S.
+Amory, of Boston, a granddaughter of the artist. The boy in the picture
+was his half-brother Henry. The picture was so favorably received that
+Copley was advised to go to England. He sailed in 1774, and never
+returned.
+
+Mr. Copley, soon after his arrival in London, passed over to the
+Continent, and through Italy, studying in Parma and in Rome. He visited
+Naples and Paestum also. It is said that he studied so diligently that he
+was with difficulty persuaded to paint two portraits in Rome. In 1775 he
+travelled and studied in Germany, in Holland, and in France. This same
+year his wife and family joined him in England. These consisted of his
+wife, his son, John Singleton, who afterward became the famous Lord
+Chancellor Lyndhurst; his daughter Elizabeth, afterward married to a
+distinguished merchant in Boston, and who survived to a great age; Mary
+Copley, who lived unmarried to the great age of ninety-four; and another
+son who died young. In 1777 he was made an Associate of the Royal Academy,
+and six years later an Academician. He was now in the full tide of
+success. He was offered five hundred guineas to paint a family group of
+six persons. The well-known group of Copley's family, called the "Family
+Picture," the "Death of Lord Chatham," and "Watson and the Shark," were on
+his easel in 1780. The picture of Lord Chatham falling senseless in the
+House of Lords was commenced soon after his death in 1778. It was engraved
+by Bartolozzi, and twenty-five hundred copies were sold in a few weeks.
+Copley exhibited the picture, to his own profit as well as fame.
+
+In 1781 occurred the death of Major Pierson, shot in the moment of victory
+over the French troops who had invaded the island of Jersey. His death was
+instantly avenged by his black servant, and of this scene Copley made one
+of his finest pictures. He took pains, with his usual honesty, to go to
+St. Helier's, and make a drawing of the locality. The picture is
+thoroughly realistic, although painful. His large picture of the "Repulse
+and Defeat of the Spanish Floating Batteries at Gibraltar" was painted on
+commission from the city of London. It is twenty-five feet long by
+twenty-two and a half feet high; but there are so many figures and so much
+distance to be shown in the painting that the artist really needed more
+room. Of the commander, Lord Heathfield, Sir Robert Royd, Sir William
+Green, and some twelve or fifteen others, the artist made careful
+portraits.
+
+The story told by Elkanah Watson shows Copley's strong sympathy for
+America. In 1782 Watson was in London, and Copley made a full-length
+portrait of him, and in his journal Watson says: "The painting was
+finished in most exquisite style in every part, except the background,
+which Copley and I designed to represent a ship bearing to America the
+acknowledgments of our independence. The sun was just rising upon the
+stripes of the Union streaming from her gaff. All was complete save the
+flag, which Copley did not deem proper to hoist under the present
+circumstances, as his gallery was the constant resort of the royal family
+and the nobility. I dined with the artist on the glorious 5th of December,
+1782. After listening with him to the speech of the king formally
+recognizing the United States of America as in the rank of nations,
+previous to dinner, and immediately after our return from the House of
+Lords, he invited me into his studio, and there, with a bold hand, a
+master's touch, and, I believe, an American heart, he attached to the ship
+the stars and stripes. This was, I imagine, the first American flag
+hoisted in Old England."
+
+Copley purchased, for a London residence, the mansion-house in George
+Street belonging to Lord Fauconburg. It afterward became more widely known
+as the residence of his son, Lord Lyndhurst. Lord Mansfield's residence
+was near by, and among the many commissions from public men was one to
+paint his lordship's portrait. Perhaps one of the most interesting of all
+his commissions was one to paint the picture of Charles I. demanding the
+five obnoxious members from the Long Parliament, for which a number of
+gentlemen in Boston paid one thousand five hundred pounds. It is said that
+every face in this great picture was taken from a portrait at that time
+extant; and Mrs. Gardiner Greene narrates that she and her father were
+driven in a post-chaise over a considerable part of England, visiting
+every house in which there was a picture of a member of the famous
+Parliament, and were always received as honored guests. Copley's painting
+of the death of Lord Chatham was much admired. So numerous were the
+subscriptions for the engraving that it is said Copley must have received
+nearly, or quite, eleven thousand pounds for the picture and the engraved
+copies. It was quite natural for Copley to be popular with New Englanders;
+indeed, almost every Bostonian, at one time, on visiting London, made a
+point to bring home his portrait by Copley, if possible. There are known
+to exist in this country two hundred and sixty-nine oil-paintings,
+thirty-five crayons, and fourteen miniatures by him. These pictures are
+carefully cherished, as are indeed all memorials of this generous and
+kindly gentleman. Although his life was mostly passed in England, where he
+obtained wealth and renown, yet in a strong sense he could be claimed for
+Boston, as it was there he was born; it was there he received his artistic
+bias and education; it was there he was married, and had three children
+born to him; and, finally, it was there that he acquired a fair amount of
+fame and property solely by his brush. It will be worth while for the
+readers of this volume to take pains to see some of the more noteworthy
+Copleys.
+
+A portrait of John Adams, full length, painted in London in 1783, is now
+in possession of Harvard College. A portrait of Samuel Adams,
+three-quarters length, spirited and beautiful, standing by a table, and
+holding a paper, hangs in Faneuil Hall. Another picture of Samuel Adams is
+in Harvard College, which also owns several other Copleys. A portrait of
+James Allen, a man of fortune, a patriot, and a scholar, is now owned by
+the Massachusetts Historical Society. The "Copley Family," one of the
+artist's very best pictures, is now owned in Boston by Mr. Amory, and, in
+fact, Mrs. James S. Amory owns a number of his best works.
+
+Copley was a man of elegance and dignity, fond of the beautiful,
+particular in his dress, hospitable, and a lover of poetry and the arts.
+His favorite book was said to be "Paradise Lost." His last picture was on
+the subject of the Resurrection.
+
+BENJAMIN WEST (1738-1820) was born at Springfield, Pennsylvania, of Quaker
+parentage. In the various narratives of his successful life many stories
+are told which appear somewhat fabulous, and most of which have nothing to
+do with his subsequent career. He is said to have made a pen-and-ink
+portrait of his little niece at the age of seven years; to have shaved the
+cat's tail for paint brushes; to have received instruction in painting and
+archery from the Indians; to have so far conquered the prejudices of his
+relatives and their co-religionists to his adoption of an artist's life
+that he was solemnly consecrated to it by the laying on of hands by the
+men, and the simultaneous kissing of the women. His love for art must have
+been very strong, and he was finally indulged, and assisted in it by his
+relatives, so that at the age of eighteen he was established as a
+portrait-painter in Philadelphia. By the kindness of friends in that city
+and in New York he was enabled to go to Italy, where he remained three
+years, making friends and reputation everywhere. Parma, Florence, and
+Bologna elected him a member of their Academies. He was only twenty-five
+years old when he went to England, on his way back to America. But he was
+so well received that he finally determined to remain in England, and a
+young lady named Elizabeth Shewell, to whom he had become engaged before
+going abroad, was kind and judicious enough to join him in London, where
+she became his wife, and was his faithful helpmate for fifty years. In
+1766 he exhibited his "Orestes and Pylades," which on account of its
+novelty and merit produced a sensation. He painted "Agrippina weeping over
+the Urn of Germanicus," and by the Archbishop of York was introduced to
+George III. as its author. He immediately gained favor with the king, and
+was installed at Windsor as the court-painter with a salary of one
+thousand pounds per annum. This salary and position was continued for
+thirty-three years. He painted a series of subjects on a grand scale from
+the life of Edward III. for St. George's Hall, and twenty-eight scriptural
+subjects, besides nine portrait pictures of the royal family. In 1792, on
+the death of Reynolds, he was elected President of the Royal Academy, a
+position which, except a brief interregnum, he held until his death in
+March, 1820. He was greatly praised in his day, and doubtless thought
+himself a great artist. He painted a vast number of portraits and quite a
+number of pictures of classical and historical subjects. His "Lear" is in
+the Boston Athenaeum; his "Hamlet and Ophelia" is in the Longworth
+collection in Cincinnati; "Christ Healing the Sick" is in the Pennsylvania
+Hospital; and the "Rejected Christ" is or was owned by Mr. Harrison, of
+Philadelphia. There are two portraits of West, one by Allston and one by
+Leslie, in the Boston Athenaeum, and a full-length, by Sir Thomas Lawrence,
+in the Wadsworth Gallery in Hartford, Conn. One of West's pictures did a
+great deal for his reputation, although it was quite a departure from the
+treatment and ideas then in vogue; this was the "Death of General Wolfe"
+on the Plains of Abraham. When it was known to artists and amateurs that
+his purpose was to depict the scene as it really might have happened he
+was greatly ridiculed. Even Sir Joshua Reynolds expressed an opinion
+against it; but when he saw the picture he owned that West was right.
+Hitherto no one had painted a scene from contemporary history with figures
+dressed in the costume of the day. But West depicted each officer and
+soldier in his uniform, and gave every man his pig-tail who wore one. The
+picture is spirited and well grouped. West was just such a practical,
+thoughtful, and kindly man as we might expect from his ancestry and
+surroundings.
+
+GEORGE ROMNEY (1734-1802), born in Beckside, near Dalton, in Cumberland.
+He married when he was twenty-two, and in his twenty-seventh year went to
+London with only thirty pounds in his pocket, leaving his wife with
+seventy pounds and two young children. He returned home to die in 1799,
+and in the meantime saw his wife but twice. The year after his arrival in
+London he carried off the fifty-guinea prize on the subject of the "Death
+of Wolfe" from the Society of Arts. Through the influence of Sir Joshua
+Reynolds this was reconsidered, and the fifty-guinea prize was awarded to
+Mortimer for his "Edward the Confessor," while Romney was put off with a
+gratuity of twenty-five guineas. This produced a feud between the two
+artists. Romney showed his resentment by exhibiting in a house in Spring
+Gardens, and never sending a picture to the Academy, while Reynolds would
+not so much as mention his name, but spoke of him as "the man in Cavendish
+Square." This was after his return from the Continent; but before going to
+Italy he was distinctly the rival of Sir Joshua, so much so that there
+were two factions, and Romney's studio, in Great Newport Street, was
+crowded with sitters, among whom was the famous Lord Chancellor Thurlow,
+whose full-length portrait is the pride of its possessor. At this time he
+was making about twelve hundred pounds a year, a very good income for
+those days. In 1773 he went to Rome with a letter to the Pope from the
+Duke of Richmond. His diary, which he kept for a friend, shows how
+conscientious and close was his observation and how great his zeal. He
+made a copy of the "Transfiguration," for which he refused one hundred
+guineas, and which finally sold for six guineas after his death. On his
+return to London in 1775 he took the house in Cavendish Square, where he
+had great success. He painted a series of portraits of the Gower family,
+the largest being a group of children dancing, which Allan Cunningham
+commended as being "masterly and graceful." Some of his portraits have a
+charm beyond his rivals. He painted portraits of Lady Hamilton, the friend
+of Lord Nelson--"the maid of all work, model, mistress, ambassadress, and
+pauper"--scores of times, and in different attitudes and a variety of
+characters, as Hebe, a Bacchante, a Sibyl, as Joan of Arc, as
+"Sensibility," as a St. Cecilia, as Cassandra, as Iphigenia, as Constance,
+as Calypso, as Circe, and as Mary Magdalen, and in some of these
+characters many times. He often worked thirteen hours a day, and did his
+fancy sketches when sitters disappointed him. He would paint a portrait of
+a gentleman in four sittings. He was extremely fond of portraying
+Shakespeare's characters, and contributed to the Shakespeare Gallery
+formed by Alderman Boydell. He went to Paris in 1790, where Lord and Lady
+Gower introduced him to Louis Philippe, and through him to all the art
+treasures of the French capital. On his return to London he formed a plan
+of an art museum, to be furnished with casts of the finest statues in
+Rome, and spent a good deal of money in the erection of a large building
+for the purpose. His powers as an artist gradually waned. He left his
+Cavendish Square residence in 1797, and in 1799 returned to his family and
+home at Kendall. From this time to the close of his life in 1802 he was a
+mere wreck, and his artist life was over.
+
+GEORGE MORLAND (1763-1804) was born in London, and the son of an artist.
+His father was unsuccessful, and poor George was articled to his father,
+after the English fashion, and was kept close at home and at work. It is
+said that his father stimulated him with rich food and drink to coax him
+to work. He was very precocious, and really had unusual talents. His
+subjects were those of rustic life, and his pictures contain animals
+wonderfully well painted, but his pigs surpass all. His character was
+pitiful; he was simply, at his best, a mere machine to make pictures. As
+for goodness, truth, or nobleness of any sort, there is not a syllable
+recorded in his favor. Strange to say, the pictures of his best time are
+masterpieces in their way, and have been sold at large prices.
+
+Sir THOMAS LAWRENCE (1769-1830), born at Bristol, England, in the White
+Hart Inn, of which his father was landlord. He was wonderfully precocious,
+and as a child of five years would recite odes, and declaim passages from
+Milton and Shakespeare. Even at this early period he made chalk or pencil
+portraits, and at nine he finally decided to become a painter from having
+seen a picture by Rubens. At this period he made a colored chalk portrait
+of the beautiful Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, which still hangs in
+Chiswick House, in the room in which Charles Fox died. His father was the
+son of a clergyman, and was bred a lawyer, but had never prospered; still
+his culture and education gave a certain zest and tone to the mind of
+young Lawrence, and made him, with his elegant figure and handsome face,
+the successful courtier that he afterward became. He worked hard, with
+considerable success, and with but little instruction until, at the age of
+eighteen, he went to London for the first time. At that period he was
+described as being extremely handsome in person, with fine, regular
+features, brilliant eyes, and long, chestnut-colored hair falling to his
+shoulders. He lodged close by Sir Joshua Reynolds--then near the end of
+his career, and from him received much valuable advice. During Lawrence's
+first years in London he attempted pictures illustrating classic art, but
+without much success. Indeed he was never successful in large, imaginative
+pictures, and during most of his career of more than forty years, confined
+himself to portraits. The time was propitious for him: Gainsborough was
+dead; Reynolds was almost blind, and had given up painting; and Romney had
+no hold on the court and the leaders of fashion. Lawrence raised his
+prices, and had all he could do. He adopted a more expensive style of
+dress, and in fact lived so extravagantly that he never arrived at what
+may be called easy circumstances--his open-handed generosity contributed
+to this result. He early received commissions from the royal family. In
+1791 he was elected an Associate, and in 1794 an Academician. The next
+year George III. appointed him painter in ordinary to his Majesty. He was
+thus fairly launched on a career that promised the highest success. In a
+certain sense he had it, but largely in a limited sense. He painted the
+portraits of people as he saw them; but he never looked behind the costume
+and the artificial society manner. He reproduced the pyramidically shaped
+coats and collars, the overlapping waistcoats of different colors, the
+Hessian boots, and the velvet coats, adorned with furs and frogs, of the
+fine gentlemen; and the turbans with birds-of-Paradise feathers, the gowns
+without waists, the bare arms and long gloves, the short leg-of-mutton
+sleeves, and other monstrosities of the ladies. And for thirty years his
+sitters were attired in red, or green, or blue, or purple. He absolutely
+revelled in the ugliness of fashion. Occasionally Lawrence did some very
+good things, as when he painted the Irish orator and patriot, Curran, in
+one sitting, in which, according to Williams, "he finished the most
+extraordinary likeness of the most extraordinary face within the memory of
+man." He always painted standing, and often kept his sitters for three
+hours at a stretch, and sometimes required as many as nine sittings. On
+one occasion he is said to have worked all through one day, through that
+night, the next day, and through all the night following! By command of
+the prince regent he painted the allied sovereigns, their statesmen,
+princes, and generals--all the leading personages, in fact, in alliance
+against Napoleon. His pictures in the exhibition of 1815 were Mrs. Wolfe,
+the Prince Regent, Metternich, the Duke of Wellington, Blucher, the Hetman
+Platoff, and Mr. Hart Davis. During the Congress that met at
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, Lawrence was commissioned by the Prince Regent to
+paint its principal heads for an especial gallery. He thus had for sitters
+nearly all the leading statesmen of Europe. From Aix-la-Chapelle he went
+to Vienna, and thence to Rome in 1819, where among others he painted
+likenesses of the Pope, of Cardinal Gonsalvi, and of Canova. Of the
+latter, Canova cried out, "Per Baccho, che nomo e questo!" It was
+considered a marvellous likeness; and without violating good taste he
+worked into the picture crimson velvet and damask, gold, precious marble,
+and fur, with a most brilliant effect. Before reaching home in London he
+was elected President of the Royal Academy. At this time he had been
+elected a member of the Roman Academy of St. Luke's, of the Academy of
+Fine Arts in Florence, and of the Fine Arts in New York. He continued to
+improve as a painter, and between 1825 and the year of his death, painted
+and exhibited some of his finest works. He usually exhibited eight
+pictures each year, and although without a rival, gave evidence of anxious
+care to sustain his reputation. He was especially successful with
+children, and many of these pictures--as well as of celebrities--were
+engraved, and have thus become known all over the world. Of his eight
+pictures exhibited in 1829--the last he ever contributed--Williams says:
+"It is difficult to imagine a more undeviating excellence, an infallible
+accuracy of likeness, with an elevation of art below which it seemed
+impossible for him to descend." Lawrence died on the morning of the 7th of
+January, 1830, with but little warning, from ossification of the heart; he
+was buried with much pomp and honor in St. Paul's Cathedral, by the side
+of Sir Joshua Reynolds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--PORTRAIT OF TURNER.]
+
+JOSEPH M. W. TURNER, R.A. (1775-1851).--It is believed, by those who have
+investigated the question most carefully, that this eminent artist and
+most remarkable man was born in Maiden Lane, London, April 3, 1775,
+although the artist himself has stated that he was born in Devonshire,
+April 23, 1769. Turner's father, William Turner, was a native of
+Devonshire, but came to London while young, and did a fair business in the
+Covent Garden district as a hair-dresser, wig-maker, and in shaving
+people. The father was garrulous, like the traditional hair-dresser, with
+a pleasant laugh, and a fresh, smiling face. He had a parrot nose and a
+projecting chin. Turner's mother was a Miss Mallord (or Marshall), of good
+family, but a violent-tempered woman, with a hawk nose and a fierce
+visage. Her life ended in a lunatic asylum. The artist, who was always
+impatient of inquiry into his domestic matters, resented any allusion to
+his mother, and never spoke of her. The manifest peculiarities of his
+parents had an impression upon Turner, and would have made him eccentric
+had there been no other influences of a kindred nature. The parents were
+under-sized, and of limited mental range; they were of very little
+personal assistance to their gifted son, although the father in later
+years busied himself in mixing colors, adjusting pictures to frames, and
+sometimes he was entrusted with certain rough work at filling in
+backgrounds. When Turner was but five years old he is said to have made,
+from memory, a fair copy of a lion rampant engraved on a silver salver,
+which he had seen while accompanying his father to the house of a
+customer. Presently the boy began to copy pictures in water-colors, and
+then to make sketches from nature of scenes along the river Thames. In his
+ninth year he drew a picture of Margate Church. When he was ten years old
+he was sent to school at Brentford-Butts, where he remained two years,
+boarding with his uncle, the local butcher. His leisure hours were spent
+in dreamy wanderings and in making countless sketches of birds, trees,
+flowers, and domestic fowls. He acquired a smattering of the classics and
+some knowledge of legends and ancient history. On his return to London he
+received instruction from Palice in painting flowers, and, after a year or
+two, was sent to Margate, in Kent, to Coleman's school. Here he had more
+scope and a wider range, and made pictures of the sea, the chalk cliffs,
+the undulations of the coast, and the glorious effects of cloud scenery.
+On his return from Margate he began to earn money by coloring engravings
+and by painting skies in amateurs' drawings and in architects' plans at
+half a crown an evening. He always deemed this good practice, as he thus
+acquired facility and skill in gradations. His father at one time thought
+to make an architect of him, and sent him to Tom Malton to study
+perspective. But he failed in the exact branch of the profession, and
+neither with Malton nor with the architect Hardwick did he give
+satisfaction. While with Hardwick he drew careful sketches of old houses
+and churches, and this practice must have been of much use to him in
+after-life. His father finally sent him to the Royal Academy, where he
+studied hard, drawing from Greek models and the formal classic
+architecture. About this time he was employed, at half a crown an evening,
+with supper thrown in, to make copies of pictures by Dr. Munro, of Adelphi
+Terrace. Munro was one of the physicians employed in the care of George
+III. when he had a crazy spell, and owned many valuable pictures by
+Salvator-Rosa, Rembrandt, Snyder, Gainsborough, Hearne, Cozens, and
+others. He had also portfolios full of drawings of castles and cathedrals,
+and of Swiss and Italian scenery, and of sketches by Claude and Titian.
+Turner was also employed to sketch from nature in all directions about
+London. In these tasks he had for a constant companion "Honest Tom
+Girtin," a young fellow of Turner's own age, who afterward married a
+wealthy lady, had rich patrons, and died before he was thirty. Had he
+lived to mature years, Girtin would have been a powerful rival to Turner.
+They were most excellent friends, and when Girtin died in Rome, Turner was
+one of his most sincere mourners. Toward the close of Sir Joshua Reynolds'
+life, Turner frequented his studio, copied pictures, and acquired some art
+secrets. He began to teach water-color drawing in schools, while still a
+boy, at from a crown to a guinea a lesson. He made hundreds of sketches in
+a part of London now built over compactly with houses in streets and
+squares, but then picturesque in hills and dells, in wooded fields and
+green lanes. With all his baggage tied in a handkerchief on the end of his
+walking-stick, he made a sketching tour through the towns of Rochester,
+Canterbury, Margate, and others, in Kent, in 1793, and about this time
+began to paint in oil. His first contribution to the Royal Academy was a
+water-color sketch in 1790. Within the next ten years he exhibited over
+sixty pictures of castles, cathedrals, and landscapes. All through his
+life he made sketches. Wherever he was, if he saw a fine or an unusual
+effect, he treasured it up for use. He sketched on any bit of paper, or
+even on his thumb-nail, if he had nothing better. Nothing escaped his
+attention, whether of earth, or sea, or sky. Probably no artist that ever
+lived gave nature such careful and profound study. His studies of cloud
+scenery were almost a revelation to mankind. In all this Turner drew his
+instruction as well as his inspiration from nature. The critics did
+nothing for him; he rather opened the eyes of even such men as Ruskin to
+the wonders of the natural world. But these results all came later, and
+were the fruit of and resulted from his constant and incessant studies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--NANTES. _By Turner._]
+
+In 1794 and 1795 he made elaborate drawings of Rochester, Chepstow,
+Birmingham, Worcester, Guildford, Cambridge, and other towns, for
+magazines. In 1796 he did the same for Chester, Bristol, Leith,
+Peterborough, and Windsor. Within the next four years he completed the
+circuit of twenty-six counties in England and Wales, and he also exhibited
+twenty-three highly finished drawings of cathedrals and churches. He was
+slow to undertake oil-painting, preferring the more rapid touch and the
+light-and-shade effect of the crayon, or the delicate and beautiful
+effects of water-colors. He was always greater as a painter in
+water-colors than in oils, and it is claimed by Redgrave that "the art all
+but began with him," and that his water-color paintings "epitomize the
+whole mystery of landscape art." Some of his paintings in this line have
+been sold at enormous prices, and even in his own day his water-color
+picture of Tivoli sold for eighteen hundred guineas. Turner became as fond
+of Northern Yorkshire--which he first visited in 1797--as he was of
+Southern Kent. He found there a great variety of scenery, from the sweet
+and peaceful to the ennobling and grand. He visited and made studies from
+all the old cathedrals, castles, and abbeys, and in 1798 he exhibited
+pictures of Fountain and Kirkstall Abbeys, Holy Island Cathedral,
+Buttermere Lake, Dunstanborough Castle, as well as "Morning Among the
+Corriston Fells." He found in Yorkshire also some of his warmest friends
+and most munificent patrons, notably Mr. Hawkesworth Fawkes, of Farnley
+Hall, whose house was adorned with fifty thousand dollars' worth of
+Turner's pictures. Some additions to Farnley Hall were designed by Turner,
+and he was always a welcome visitor. Here he sketched, and at intervals
+enjoyed himself greatly in hunting and fishing. It is said that the
+Farnley portfolios still contain sketches not only of the hall and its
+precincts, but of coast scenes, Swiss views, drawings of birds,
+illustrations of the Civil War, and, more especially, of fifty-three
+remarkable drawings of the Rhineland regions, done at the rate of three a
+day; these last were offered by Turner to Mr. Fawkes on his return from
+the Continent for the sum of five hundred pounds, and the bargain was
+closed at once. When Mr. Fawkes visited London he spent hours in Turner's
+private gallery, but was never shown into the painting-room. Indeed, very
+few persons were ever allowed there. Once, when Turner dined at a hotel
+with Mr. Fawkes, the artist took too much wine, and reeled about,
+exclaiming, "Hawkey, I am the real lion--I am the great lion of the day,
+Hawkey." When Mr. Fawkes died, ended Turner's visits to Farnley. He never
+went there again, but when the younger Fawkes brought the Rhine drawings
+up to London for him to see again, he passed his hand over the "Lorelei
+Twilight," saying, with tears in his eyes, "But Hawkey! but Hawkey!" When
+Mr. Wells, an artist of Addiscomb, died he mourned his loss bitterly, and
+exclaimed to his daughter: "Oh, Clara, Clara, these are iron tears! I have
+lost the best friend I ever had in my life!" In this family all the
+children loved him. He would lie on the floor, and play with them, and the
+oldest daughter afterward said: "Of all the light-hearted, merry creatures
+I ever knew, Turner was the most so." But in 1797 Turner had a bitter
+disappointment which warped and distorted all his after-life. A young lady
+to whom he had become attached while a schoolboy at Margate, was engaged
+to be married to him. He had been absent for two years on sketching tours,
+and the step-mother of the young lady had intercepted and destroyed his
+letters, so that at last she believed the representations made that Turner
+had deserted her. She became engaged to another, and was about to be
+married, when Turner appeared, and pleaded passionately that she would
+return to him. She thought that she had been trifled with, and held by her
+refusal, and did not find out the wrongs done by the step-mother until it
+was too late. This disappointment led to greater self-concentration and
+stingy money-getting until it became the absorbing passion of his life, so
+that the artist passion was dominated by it.
+
+It would take up too large a portion of this book to describe even briefly
+Turner's travels and works. Only a bare outline can be given. In 1800 he
+became an Associate of the Royal Academy. He moved into a more commodious
+house at 64 Harley Street. During this year he exhibited pictures of
+Caernarvon Castle and the "Fifth Plague of Egypt;" also fine views of
+Fonthill Abbey, the new palace of Beckford, with whom he spent much time.
+The only portrait for which Turner ever sat was painted in 1800 by George
+Dance. It shows a handsome young man, with a full but receding forehead,
+arched eyebrows, a prominent nose, a massive chin, and a sensual mouth.
+His thick and wiry hair is tied behind, and he wears a coat with an
+immense cape. By this time full-bottomed wigs had gone out of fashion, and
+the old barber abandoned his business to go and live with his artist son.
+In 1801 Turner exhibited pictures of St. Donat's Castle and Pembroke
+Castle in Wales, the Salisbury Chapter-house, an autumn morning in London,
+the destruction of the Median army, and Dutch fishing-boats in a gale. He
+had begun his contest with Claude by painting pictures of classical
+subjects in Claude's manner. Turner was elected Royal Academician in 1802,
+and exhibited several notable oil-paintings, signed with all his initials,
+which he thenceforth used. The Academy had been quick to recognize
+Turner's genius, and he was always its faithful, conservative, and zealous
+friend. As an auditor, councillor, or a visitor he was scrupulous, and he
+attended general meetings and formal dinners with the same promptitude and
+certainty with which for forty-five years he sent his pictures to the
+annual exhibitions. He was a peacemaker in debates, but in business he was
+irresolute. In 1802 he visited the Continent for the first time,
+travelling in France, Switzerland, and Italy, and everywhere making
+sketches. At this time he carried sketch-books in which he jotted
+everything--all manner of drawings and outlines of nature and
+architecture, notes of local gossip, chemical memoranda, notes of
+expenses, tavern bills, views of coasts and cities, ruins, castles,
+manufacturing works, and detached figures. One book gives views about the
+Simplon Pass, another the sea-coast from Nice to Genoa, another contains
+countless jottings from the pictures in the Vatican, another is taken up
+with views in Paris and Rouen, and several are devoted to Scottish
+scenery.
+
+In 1806 Turner began his _Liber Studiorum_, in rivalship of Claude's
+_Liber Veritatis_; it was issued in parts in dark blue covers, each part
+containing five plates. It was discontinued in 1814, after seventy plates
+had been issued. Although not remunerative at the time, in later days as
+high as three thousand pounds has been paid for a single copy of the
+_Liber_, while the subscription price was only seventeen pounds ten
+shillings; even before Turner died a copy of it was worth over thirty
+guineas. Charles Turner, the engraver, used the proofs for kindling-paper;
+but some years later Colnaghi, the print dealer, paid him fifteen hundred
+pounds for his remaining "rubbish," as he considered it. "Good God!" cried
+the old engraver; "I have been burning bank-notes all my life!" In 1878
+Professor Norton, of Harvard University, published a set of thirty-three
+of the best of the _Liber_ studies, reproduced in Boston by the heliotype
+process. The _Liber Studiorum_ was intended to manifest Turner's command
+of the whole compass of the landscape art, and was divided into six heads:
+historical, pastoral, elegant pastoral, mountain, marine, and
+architectural.
+
+In 1808 Turner was appointed Professor of Perspective in the Royal
+Academy. During two or three years only, out of the thirty in which he
+held the professorship, did he deliver lectures. He spoke in a deep and
+mumbling voice, was confused and tedious in manner, and frequently became
+hopelessly entangled in blind mazes of obscure words. Sometimes when he
+had written out his lectures he was unable to read them. Once, after
+fumbling in his pockets, he exclaimed: "Gentlemen, I've been and left my
+lecture in the hackney-coach." Still he was interested in this work, and
+Ruskin says: "The zealous care with which Turner endeavored to do his duty
+is proved by a large existing series of drawings, exquisitely tinted, and
+often completely colored, all by his own hand, of the most difficult
+perspective subjects--illustrating not only directions of light, but
+effects of light, with a care and completion which would put the work of
+any ordinary teacher to utter shame." During this year he took a house at
+Hammersmith, Upper Mall, the garden of which ran down to the Thames, but
+still retained his residence in Harley Street. In 1812 he first occupied
+the house No. 47 Queen Anne Street, and this house he retained for forty
+years. It was dull, dingy, unpainted, weather-beaten, sooty, with unwashed
+windows and shaky doors, and seemed the very abode of poverty, and yet
+when Turner died his estate was sworn as under one hundred and forty
+thousand pounds--seven hundred thousand dollars. When Turner's father died
+in 1830 he was succeeded by a withered and sluttish old woman named Danby.
+The whole house was dreary, dirty, damp, and full of litter. The master
+had a fancy for tailless--Manx--cats, and these made their beds everywhere
+without disturbance. In the gallery were thirty thousand fine proofs of
+engravings piled up and rotting. His studio had a fair north light from
+two windows, and was surrounded by water-color drawings. His sherry-bottle
+was kept in an old second-hand buffet.
+
+About 1813 or 1814 Turner purchased a place at Twickenham; he rebuilt the
+house, and called it Solus Lodge. The rooms were small, and contained
+models of rigged ships which he used in his marine views; in his
+jungle-like garden he grew aquatic plants which he often copied in
+foregrounds. He kept a boat for fishing and marine sketching; also a gig
+and an old cropped-eared horse, with which he made sketching excursions.
+He made at this time the acquaintance of Rev. Mr. Trimmer, the rector of
+the church at Heston, who was a lover of art, and often took journeys with
+Turner. While visiting at the rectory Turner regularly attended church in
+proper form; and finally he wrote a note to Mr. Trimmer, alluding to his
+affection for one of the rector's kinswomen, and suggesting: "If
+Miss ---- would but waive bashfulness, or in other words make
+an offer instead of expecting one, the same [Lodge] might change
+occupiers." But Turner was doomed to disappointment, and never made
+another attempt at matrimony. In 1814 Turner commenced his contributions
+of drawings to illustrate "Cook's Southern Coast," and continued this
+congenial work for twelve years, making forty drawings at the rate of
+about twenty guineas each; the drawings were returned to the artist after
+being engraved. In 1815 he exhibited the "Dido Building Carthage," and in
+1817 a companion picture, the "Decline of the Carthaginian Empire," and
+for these two pictures the artist refused five thousand pounds, having
+secretly willed them to the National Gallery.
+
+Ruskin divides Turner's art life into three periods: that of study, from
+1800 to 1820; that of working out art theories toward an ideal, from 1820
+to 1835; and that of recording his own impressions of nature, from 1835 to
+1845, preceded by a period of development, and followed by a period of
+decline, from 1845 to 1850. Besides his pictures painted on private
+commission, Turner exhibited two hundred and seventy-five pictures at the
+Academy. The "Rivers of England" was published in 1824, with sixteen
+engravings after Turner; another series contained six illustrations of the
+"Ports of England"--second-class cities. In 1826 the "Provincial
+Antiquities of Scotland" was published, with thirteen illustrations by
+Turner. The same year he sold his house at Twickenham, because, he said,
+"Dad" was always working in the garden, and catching abominable colds. In
+1827 Turner commenced the "England and Wales" on his own account, and
+continued it for eleven years. It consisted of a hundred plates,
+illustrating ports, castles, abbeys, cathedrals, palaces, coast views, and
+lakes. In 1828 Turner went to Rome by way of Nismes, Avignon, Marseilles,
+Nice, and Genoa; and this year painted his "Ulysses Dividing Polyphemus,"
+of which Thornbury says: "For color, for life and shade, for composition,
+this seems to me to be the most wonderful and admirable of Turner's
+realisms." Ruskin calls it his central picture, illustrating his perfect
+power.
+
+Of Turner's wonderful versatility, Ruskin says: "There is architecture,
+including a large number of formal 'gentlemen's seats;' then lowland
+pastoral scenery of every kind, including nearly all farming operations,
+plowing, harrowing, hedging and ditching, felling trees, sheep-washing,
+and I know not what else; there are all kinds of town life, court-yards of
+inns, starting of mail coaches, interiors of shops, house-buildings,
+fairs, and elections; then all kinds of inner domestic life, interiors of
+rooms, studies of costumes, of still-life and heraldry, including
+multitudes of symbolical vignettes; then marine scenery of every kind,
+full of local incident--every kind of boat, and the methods of fishing for
+particular fish being specifically drawn--round the whole coast of
+England; pilchard-fishing at St. Ives, whiting-fishing at Margate, herring
+at Loch Fyne, and all kinds of shipping, including studies of every
+separate part of the vessels, and many marine battle-pieces; then all
+kinds of mountain scenery, some idealized into compositions, others of
+definite localities, together with classical compositions; Romes and
+Carthages, and such others by the myriad, with mythological, historical,
+or allegorical figures; nymphs, monsters, and spectres, heroes and
+divinities.... Throughout the whole period with which we are at present
+concerned, Turner appears as a man of sympathy absolutely infinite--a
+sympathy so all-embracing that I know nothing but that of Shakespeare
+comparable with it. A soldier's wife resting by the roadside is not
+beneath it; Rizpah watching the dead bodies of her sons, not above it.
+Nothing can possibly be so mean as that it will not interest his whole
+mind and carry his whole heart; nothing so great or solemn but that he
+can raise himself into harmony with it; and it is impossible to prophesy
+of him at any moment whether the next he will be in laughter or tears."
+
+In 1832 Turner made a will in which he bequeathed the bulk of his estate
+for the founding of an institution "for the Maintenance and Support of
+Poor and Decayed Male Artists being born in England and of English parents
+only, and of lawful issue." It was to be called "Turner's Gift," and for
+the next twenty years the artist pinched, and economized to increase the
+fund for his noble purpose. At this time he was entering upon his third
+manner--that of his highest excellence, when he "went to the cataract for
+its iris, and the conflagration for its flames; asked of the sky its
+intensest azure, of the sun its clearest gold." It is remarked by Ruskin,
+who has made most profound study of Turner's works, that he had an
+underlying meaning or moral in his groups of foreign pictures; in
+Carthage, he illustrated the danger of the pursuit of wealth; in Rome, the
+fate of unbridled ambition; and in Venice, the vanity of pleasure and
+luxury. The Venetian pictures began in 1833, with a painting of the Doge's
+Palace, Dogana, Campanile, and Bridge of Sighs; and with these were
+exhibited "Van Tromp Returning from Battle," the "Rotterdam Ferry-boat,"
+and the "Mouth of the Seine." In 1830 or 1831 he made, on commission from
+the publisher Cadell, twenty-four sketches to illustrate Walter Scott's
+poems--published in 1834--and while doing this he was entertained royally
+at Abbotsford, and made excursions with Scott and Lockhart to Dryburgh
+Abbey and other points of interest. He went as far north as the Isle of
+Skye, where he drew Loch Corriskin, and nearly lost his life by a fall.
+About this time he made a series of illustrations for Scott's "Life of
+Napoleon." Turner spent some time in Edinburgh, frequently sketching with
+Thomson, a clergyman and local artist, who was preferred by some of the
+Scotch amateurs to Turner. He one day called at Thomson's house to examine
+his paintings, but instead of expected praises he merely remarked, "You
+beat me in frames." Turner made thirty-three illustrations for Rogers's
+"Poems" (Fig. 75), and seventeen for an extended edition of Byron. He was
+in the habit at this time of frequently walking to Cowley Hall, the
+residence of a Mr. Rose, where he was kindly welcomed. He was there called
+"Old Pogey." One day Mrs. Rose asked him to paint her favorite spaniel; in
+amazement he cried, "My dear madam, you do not know what you ask;" and
+always after this the lady went by the title of "My dear madam." Mr. Rose
+tells how he and Turner sat up one night until two o'clock drinking cognac
+and water, and talking of their travels. When Mrs. Rose and a lady, a
+friend, visited Turner in a house in Harley Street, in mid-winter, they
+were entertained with wine and biscuits in a cold room, without a fire,
+where they saw seven tailless cats, which Turner said were brought from
+the Isle of Man.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--ILLUSTRATION FROM ROGERS'S POEMS.]
+
+For three years Turner travelled in France, and made studies and sketches
+up and down its rivers. These were first published as "Turner's Annual
+Tour," but were afterward brought out by Bohn as "Liber Fluviorum." These
+sketches have been highly praised by Ruskin; but Hammerton, who certainly
+knows French scenery far more accurately than Ruskin, while praising the
+exquisite beauty of Turner's work, challenges its accuracy, and especially
+as to color, saying that "Turner, as a colorist, was splendid and
+powerful, but utterly unfaithful." Leitch Ritchie, who was associated with
+Turner in this work, could not travel with him, their tastes were so
+unlike; and he says that Turner's drawings were marvellously exaggerated,
+that he would make a splendid picture of a place without a single correct
+detail, trebling the height of spires and throwing in imaginary
+accessories. Turner always claimed the right to change the groupings of
+his landscapes and architecture at will, preferring to give a general and
+idealized view of the landscape rather than a precise copy thereof.
+
+In 1835 he exhibited "Heidelberg Castle in the Olden Time,"
+"Ehrenbreitstein," "Venice from the Salute Church," and "Line-fishing off
+Hastings." In 1836 he exhibited a "View of Rome from the Aventine Hill,"
+and the "Burning of the House of Lords and Commons," which last was almost
+entirely painted on the walls of the exhibition. At this time it was the
+custom to have what were called "varnishing days" at the exhibition,
+during which time artists retouched, and finished up their pictures. They
+were periods of fun and practical jokes, and Turner always enjoyed, and
+made the most of them. He frequently sent his canvas to the Academy merely
+sketched out and grounded, and then coming in as early as four in the
+morning on varnishing days, he would put his nose to the sketch and work
+steadily with thousands of imperceptible touches until nightfall, while
+his picture would begin to glow as by magic. About this time he exhibited
+many pictures founded on classical subjects, or with the scenes laid in
+Italy or Greece, as "Apollo and Daphne in the Vale of Tempe," "Regulus
+Leaving Rome to Return to Carthage," the "Parting of Hero and Leander,"
+"Phryne Going to the Public Baths as Venus," the "Banishment of Ovid from
+Rome, with Views of the Bridge and Castle of St. Angelo." A year later he
+exhibited pictures of "Ancient Rome," a vast dreamy pile of palaces, and
+"Modern Rome," with a view of the "Forum in Ruins."
+
+One of the most celebrated of Turner's pictures was that of the "Old
+Temeraire," an old and famous line-of-battle ship, which in the battle of
+Trafalgar ran in between and captured the French frigates Redoubtable and
+Fougueux. Turner saw the Temeraire in the Thames after she had become
+old, and was condemned to be dismantled. The scene is laid at sunset, when
+the smouldering, red light is vividly reflected on the river, and
+contrasts with the quiet, gray and pearly tints about the low-hung moon.
+The majestic old ship looms up through these changing lights, bathed in
+splendor. The artist refused a large price for this picture by Mr. Lennox,
+of New York, and finally bequeathed it to the nation. In 1840 Turner
+exhibited the "Bacchus and Ariadne," two marine scenes, and two views in
+Venice; also the well-known "Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and
+Dying, a Typhoon Coming On" (Fig. 76), which is now in the Museum of Fine
+Arts of Boston. Of this picture Thackeray says: "I don't know whether it
+is sublime or ridiculous." But Ruskin, in "Modern Painters," says: "I
+believe if I were reduced to test Turner's immortality upon any single
+work, I should choose the 'Slave Ship.' Its daring conception, ideal in
+the highest sense of the word, is based on the purest truth, and wrought
+out with the concentrated knowledge of a life. Its color is absolutely
+perfect, not one false or morbid hue in any part or line, and so modulated
+that every square inch of canvas is a perfect composition; its drawing as
+accurate as fearless; the ship buoyant, bending, and full of motion; its
+tones as true as they are wonderful; and the whole picture dedicated to
+the most sublime of subjects and impressions (completing thus the perfect
+system of all truth which we have shown to be formed by Turner's works),
+the power, majesty, and deathfulness of the open, deep, illimitable sea."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE SLAVE SHIP. _By Turner._]
+
+No painter of modern times, or perhaps of any time, has ever provoked the
+discussion of his merits which Turner did. When he was at his best his
+great merits and his originality procured for him the strongest defenders,
+and finally brought his pictures into favor with the wealthy middle class
+of England, so that he obtained high prices, and since his death these
+prices have doubled, and even quadrupled. At a sale of Mr. Bicknell's
+collection in 1836, ten of Turner's pictures, which had been bought for
+three thousand seven hundred and forty-nine pounds, were sold for
+seventeen thousand and ninety-four pounds. As Turner grew older and his
+manner deteriorated he was assailed by the wits, the art critics, and the
+amateurs with cruel badinage, and to these censures Turner was morbidly
+sensitive. But even Ruskin admits that the pictures of his last five years
+are of "wholly inferior value," with unsatisfactory foliage, chalky faces,
+and general indications of feebleness of hand.
+
+Wornum, in his _Epochs of Painting_, said: "In the last ten years of his
+career, and occasionally before, Turner was extravagant to an extreme
+degree; he played equally with nature and with his colors. Light, with all
+its prismatic varieties, seems to have been the chief object of his
+studies; individuality of form or color he was wholly indifferent to. The
+looseness of execution in his latest works has not even the apology of
+having been attempted on scientific principles; he did not work upon a
+particular point of a picture as a focus and leave the rest obscure, as a
+foil to enhance it, on a principle of unity; on the contrary, all is
+equally obscure and wild alike. These last productions are a calamity to
+his reputation; yet we may, perhaps, safely assert that since Rembrandt
+there has been no painter of such originality and power as Turner." Dr.
+Waagen says in his _Treasury of Art in Great Britain_: "No landscape
+painter has yet appeared with such versatility of talent. His historical
+landscapes exhibit the most exquisite feeling for beauty of hues and
+effect of lighting, at the same time that he has the power of making them
+express the most varied moods of nature."
+
+Toward the last part of his life Turner's peculiarities increased; he
+became more morose, more jealous. He was always unwilling to have even his
+most intimate friends visit his studio, but he finally withdrew from his
+own house and home. Of late years he had frequently left his house for
+months at a time, and secreted himself in some distant quarter, taking
+care that he should not be followed or known. When the great Exhibition of
+1851 opened, Turner left orders with his housekeeper that no one should be
+admitted to see his pictures. For twenty years the rain had been streaming
+in upon them through the leaky roof, and many were hopelessly ruined. He
+sent no pictures to the exhibition of that year, and he was hardly to be
+recognized when he appeared in the gallery. Finally his prolonged absence
+from the Academy meetings alarmed his friends; but no one dared seek him
+out. His housekeeper alone, of all that had known him, had the interest to
+hunt up the old artist. Taking a hint from a letter in one of his coats,
+she went to Chelsea, and, after careful search, found his hiding-place,
+with but one more day of life in him. It is said that, feeling the need of
+purer air than that of Queen Anne Street, he went out to Chelsea and found
+an eligible, little cottage by the side of the river, with a railed-in
+roof whence he could observe the sky. The landlady demanded references
+from the shabby, old man, when he testily replied, "My good woman, I'll
+buy the house outright." She then demanded his name--"in case, sir, any
+gentleman should call, you know." "Name?" said he, "what's your name?" "My
+name is Mrs. Booth." "Then I am Mr. Booth." And so he was known, the boys
+along the river-side calling him "Puggy Booth," and the tradesmen "Admiral
+Booth," the theory being that he was an old admiral in reduced
+circumstances. In a low studded, attic room, poorly furnished, with a
+single roof window, the great artist was found in his mortal sickness. He
+sent for his favorite doctor from Margate, who frankly told him that death
+was at hand. "Go down stairs," exclaimed Turner, "take a glass of sherry,
+and then look at me again." But no stimulant could change the verdict of
+the physician. An hour before he died he was wheeled to the window for a
+last look at the Thames, bathed in sunshine and dotted with sails. Up to
+the last sickness the lonely, old man rose at daybreak to watch, from the
+roof of the cottage, the sun rise and the purple flush of the coming day.
+The funeral, from the house in Queen Anne Street, was imposing, with a
+long line of carriages, and conducted with the ritual of the English
+Church in St. Paul's Cathedral. Dean Milman read the service, and at its
+conclusion the coffin was borne to the catacombs, and placed between the
+tombs of James Barry and Sir Joshua Reynolds. Turner's will, with its
+codicils, was so confused and vague that the lawyers fought it in the
+courts for four years, and it was finally settled by compromise. The real
+estate went to the heir-at-law, the pictures and drawings to the National
+Gallery, one thousand pounds for a monument in St. Paul's Cathedral, and
+twenty thousand pounds to the Royal Academy for annuities to poor artists.
+Turner's gift to the British nation included ninety-eight finished
+paintings and two hundred and seventy pictures in various stages of
+progress. Ruskin, while arranging and classifying Turner's drawings, found
+more than nineteen thousand sketches and fragments by the master's hand,
+some covered with the dust of thirty years.
+
+Sir DAVID WILKIE (1785-1841) has been called the "prince of British
+_genre_ painters." His father was a minister, and David was placed in the
+Trustees' Academy in Edinburgh in 1799. In 1805 he entered the Royal
+Academy in London, and was much noticed on account of his "Village
+Politicians," exhibited the next year. From this time his fame and
+popularity were established, and each new work was simply a new triumph
+for him. The "Card Players," "Rent Day," the "Village Festival," and
+others were rapidly painted and exhibited.
+
+In 1825 Wilkie went to the Continent, and remained three years. He visited
+France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, and after his return he painted a new
+class of subjects in a new manner. He made many portraits, and his other
+works were historical subjects. His most celebrated works in this second
+manner were "John Knox Preaching," "Napoleon and the Pope at
+Fontainebleau," and "Peep-o'-Day Boy's Cabin." The portrait of the
+landscape painter William Daniell is a good picture.
+
+In 1830 Wilkie succeeded Sir Thomas Lawrence as painter to the king, as he
+had been limner to the King of Scotland since 1822. He was not knighted
+until 1836. In 1840 he visited Constantinople, and made a portrait of the
+sultan; he went then to the Holy Land and Egypt. While at Alexandria, on
+his way home, Wilkie complained of illness, and on shipboard, off
+Gibraltar, he died, and was buried at sea. This burial is the subject of
+one of Turner's pictures, and is now in the National Gallery.
+
+The name of Landseer is an important one in British art. JOHN LANDSEER
+(1761-1852) was an eminent engraver; his son THOMAS (1795-1880) followed
+the profession of his father and arrived at great celebrity in it.
+CHARLES, born in 1799, another son of John Landseer, became a painter and
+devoted himself to a sort of historical genre line of subjects, such as
+"Cromwell at the House of Sir Walter Stewart in 1651," "Surrender of
+Arundel Castle in 1643," and various others of a like nature. Charles
+Landseer travelled in Portugal and Brazil when a young man; he was made a
+member of the Royal Academy in 1845; from 1851 to 1871 he was keeper of
+the Academy, and has been an industrious and respected artist. But the
+great genius of the family was:
+
+Sir EDWIN LANDSEER (1802-1873), the youngest son of John Landseer, the
+engraver. He received his first drawing lessons from his father, and from
+a very early age showed a great talent for sketching and that love for the
+brute creation which have been his chief characteristics as an artist. He
+had the power to understand his dumb subjects as well as if they spoke
+some language together, and then he had the ability to fix the meaning of
+all they had told him upon his canvas, by means of the sketching lines
+which gave the precise form of it all and by his finishing shades which
+put in the expression. If his animals were prosperous and gladsome, he
+represented their good fortune with hearty pleasure; if they were
+suffering, sad, or bereaved, he painted their woes with a sympathy such as
+none but a true friend can give.
+
+When Edwin and Thomas were old enough that their father thought other
+instruction than his own should be given them, he placed them with Haydon,
+and in these early days the master predicted that Edwin Landseer would be
+the Snyders of England. Edwin sent his first picture to the Royal Academy
+when he was but thirteen years old, and during the following fifty-eight
+years there were but six exhibitions to which he did not contribute. When
+he began his studies at the Royal Academy he was fourteen years old, and
+already famous as an animal painter. He was a bright, curly-headed, manly
+lad, and the aged Fuseli, then keeper of the Academy, grew to be very fond
+of him; he would often ask, "Where is my little dog-boy?"
+
+Edwin Landseer now worked on diligently and quietly; his works were
+constantly praised, and he received all the patronage that he desired.
+Through the advice of his master, Haydon, he had the habit of dissecting
+animals, and learning their anatomy with all the exactness with which
+other artists study that of human beings. About 1820 a lion died in the
+Exeter Change Menagerie, and Edwin Landseer secured the body for
+dissection. He then painted three large pictures of lions, and during the
+year in which he became eighteen years old, he exhibited these pictures
+and others of horses, dogs, donkeys, deer, goats, wolves, and vultures.
+
+When nineteen, in 1821, he painted "Pointers, To-ho!" a hunting scene,
+which was sold in 1872, the year before his death, for two thousand and
+sixteen pounds. In 1822 Landseer gained the prize of the British
+Institution, one hundred and fifty pounds, by his picture of "The Larder
+Invaded." He made the first sketch for this on a child's slate, which is
+still preserved as a treasure. But the most famous of this master's early
+works is the "Cat's Paw," in which a monkey uses a cat's paw to draw
+chestnuts from a hot stove. Landseer was paid one hundred pounds; its
+present value is three thousand pounds, and it is kept at the seat of the
+Earl of Essex, Cashiobury.
+
+This picture of the "Cat's Paw" had an important result for the young
+artist, as it happened that it was exhibited when Sir Walter Scott was in
+London, and he was so much pleased with it that he made Landseer's
+acquaintance, and invited him to visit Abbotsford. Accordingly, in 1824,
+Landseer visited Sir Walter in company with Leslie, who then painted a
+portrait of the great novelist, which now belongs to the Ticknor family of
+Boston. It was at this time that Sir Walter wrote in his journal:
+"Landseer's dogs were the most magnificent things I ever saw, leaping, and
+bounding, and grinning all over the canvas." Out of this visit came a
+picture called "A Scene at Abbotsford," in which the dog Maida, so loved
+by Scott, was the prominent figure; six weeks after it was finished the
+dog died.
+
+At this time Sir Walter was not known as the author of the "Waverley
+Novels," but in later years Landseer painted a picture which he called
+"Extract from a Journal whilst at Abbotsford," to which the following was
+attached: "Found the great poet in his study, laughing at a collie dog
+playing with Maida, his favorite old greyhound, given him by Glengarry,
+and quoting Shakespeare--'Crabbed old age and youth cannot agree.' On the
+floor was the cover of a proof-sheet, sent for correction by Constable,
+of the novel then in progress. N. B.--This took place before he was the
+acknowledged author of the 'Waverley Novels.'" Landseer early suspected
+Scott of the authorship of the novels, and without doubt he came to this
+conclusion from what he saw at Abbotsford.
+
+Landseer repeated his visits to Scotland for many years, and saw all parts
+of that country at various seasons. From the time of his first visit there
+was a new feeling in his works--a breadth and power was in them which he
+gained from nature, and a refinement and elevation which he undoubtedly
+received from his friendship with Sir Walter and the impetus it gave him.
+He also became so interested in the Gaelic people that he painted good
+pictures of them. At first these men did not know what to make of a
+huntsman who would throw away his gun when fine game appeared, and draw
+out pencils and paper to make pictures of what others were so eager to
+shoot. This tendency made him a poor hunter; but he was intensely
+interested in the chase, and especially in deer-stalking. He insisted that
+deer had intelligence, and the question was whether the game or the hunter
+happened to have the superior mind. When in London the artist was a quiet,
+society gentleman; but each year he broke away from all city habits, and
+went to the Highlands, where he divided his days between the chase and
+painting portraits of his friends there with their children and pets, or
+putting frescoes on the walls of their houses.
+
+Landseer continued to live in his father's house long after he was a
+famous man. The senior artist conducted all business matters--sold
+pictures, and took the money for them as if his son was still a boy. At
+length, through the advice of a friend, Edwin Landseer removed to No. 1
+St. John's Wood Road, to which he gave the name of Maida Vale; he
+enlarged, and improved this home from time to time, and had no other for
+nearly fifty years.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--THE EAGLE AND DEAD STAG. _By Landseer._]
+
+In 1826 Landseer painted "Chevy Chase;" it was the only historical
+painting he ever did, and still remains at Woburn Abbey, where it
+originally went. The animals in the picture are excellent of course, but
+this sort of painting was not that in which Landseer showed his best. This
+year of 1826 was an important one to this master. He was twenty-four years
+old, and was immediately admitted an Associate of the Royal Academy. No
+one can be a candidate for this honor at a younger age, and very few
+others have attained it so early. Before he was thirty Landseer was a full
+member, and his diploma picture, "The Dead Warrior" is in the Royal
+Academy. But this year saw a great change in his pictures, as may be seen
+in that of "The Chief's Return from Deer-stalking," which he sent to the
+next exhibition. It was free, broad, and effective beyond any previous
+work, and this manner was his best. Many judges fix the year 1834 as the
+very prime in the art of Landseer, and one of the works of that year,
+called "Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time," is very famous. It represents the
+vassals of the abbey bringing in their tributes of game, fish, and fruits,
+which the jolly, old monks gladly receive.
+
+There is no question but that Landseer's best pictures are of dogs, and we
+can but echo the words of Hamerton when he says: "The best commentators on
+Landseer, the best defenders of his genius, are the dogs themselves; and
+so long as there exist terriers, deer-hounds, blood-hounds, his fame will
+need little assistance from writers on art."
+
+Landseer had a long and happy intimacy with Queen Victoria and the royal
+family. He painted portraits of the various members of the queen's
+household in all possible ways, with dogs and on horseback, in fancy dress
+and hunting costume--in short, these portraits are far too numerous to be
+mentioned in detail. Ever after 1835 Landseer was called upon to paint
+pictures of the pets of the royal family, and these works became very
+numerous. While he was thus favored as an artist he was also a friend of
+the queen and her immediate family; he was often summoned to play
+billiards with Prince Albert. The queen's Journal of Life in the Highlands
+frequently mentions him, and we are sure that if we could read Landseer's
+diary it would tell us many interesting things of the queen and her
+family. Naturally it followed that an artist thus favored by the queen
+would be patronized by the nobility, and it is true that much of
+Landseer's time, both as an artist and as a gentleman of society, was
+passed in the company of people of the highest positions in Great Britain;
+and with the one exception of Sir Joshua Reynolds, no artist in England
+was ever visited by so many people of rank. His house was really a social
+centre, and no one felt above accepting his hasty invitations to his
+parties, which were almost always gotten up on an impulse and the guests
+invited at the last possible moment.
+
+Among Landseer's friends were Dickens and Thackeray, and Sydney Smith was
+very fond of the artist; and it is said that when the great wit was asked
+to sit to Landseer for his portrait, he replied in the words of the
+haughty Syrian: "Is thy servant a _dog_ that he should do this thing?"
+
+When at his best Landseer had a facility in drawing and painting that was
+marvellous. He could draw two entirely different objects at the same
+moment, his left hand being equally skilful with the right. He was seen to
+draw a horse's head with one hand and a stag's head with antlers at
+exactly the same time--and this at an evening party to prove that it could
+be done. He once sent to an exhibition a picture of rabbits under which he
+wrote, "Painted in three-quarters of an hour." He painted a life-size
+picture of a fallow-deer in three hours, and it required no retouching.
+One of his comrades said: "Sir Edwin has a fine hand, a correct eye,
+refined perceptions, and can do almost anything but dance on the slack
+wire. He is a fine billiard player, plays at chess, sings when with his
+intimate friends, and has considerable humor."
+
+We have passed over the best and most pleasant part of the life of this
+great painter, for in 1840 he had an attack of illness from which he never
+recovered. He travelled, and endeavored in every way to go on with his
+work; but he was always subject to attacks of depression which were
+sometimes so serious that his friends feared loss of reason. Of course
+there was a different tone in his works--a seriousness and pathos, and at
+times a religious element, which was very acceptable to some persons, and
+he gained admirers where he had not found them before. But it can scarcely
+be said that his last days were his best days, though he executed some
+famous pictures.
+
+In 1866 he exhibited a model of a stag at bay which was afterward cast in
+bronze. The lions at the base of the Nelson monument in Trafalgar Square
+may be called the work of Sir Edwin, for he modelled one of the colossal
+beasts from which the others were formed with but slight changes, and the
+whole were cast under the care of Baron Marochetti.
+
+In 1872 he painted "The Font," which is a religious subject. It represents
+the sheep and lambs of the Gospel gathering round a font, upon the edge of
+which are doves. A rainbow spans the sky; on the sides of the font are a
+mask of the face of Christ and the symbols of the Atonement. This is a
+painful picture, for while it is exquisite in conception its execution
+shows the weakness of the painter, who so soon after he made it was
+released from all his darkness and suffering.
+
+Sir Edwin Landseer was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral with all the honors
+which his genius and character merited. His works are known to almost
+every child in America by means of the engravings which have been made
+from them. His brother Thomas engraved hundreds of the designs of Edwin
+and made them popular all over the world, and a large part of this success
+was due to the skill and sympathy which Thomas devoted to what was largely
+a work of love. Of course many other engravers have worked after Landseer,
+and almost all his pictures have been reproduced in one style of engraving
+or another.
+
+There are nine portraits of Sir Edwin Landseer in existence--one by J.
+Hayter when Landseer was thirteen years old and is represented as a
+cricketer; one painted a year later by Leslie, in which Edwin Landseer is
+the Rutland in the work called "Henry VI." It is owned by the Philadelphia
+Academy. The next were not made until 1843, when Count d'Orsay painted two
+portraits of him; in 1830 Dupper had made a drawing, and in 1835 a
+photograph was taken; Baron Marochetti made a bust portrait of Landseer
+which is in the Royal Academy, and in his picture called the
+"Connoisseurs" Sir Edwin painted his own portrait, with dogs on each side
+who stand as critics of his work. This was painted in 1865.
+
+Sir Edwin Landseer left an estate of two hundred and fifty thousand
+pounds, and the works unsold at his death brought about seventy thousand
+pounds. His will made but a few bequests, and the remainder of this large
+sum was divided between his brother and three sisters. With the account of
+Sir Edwin I shall close the account of painters given in this volume.
+
+We have seen how few actual remains of the painting of ancient nations are
+now in existence. Almost nothing is left even from the times of the
+Greeks; in truth, there is more upon the tombs of Egypt than in the land
+of Hellas. We read accounts of classic painting which arouse our deepest
+interest one moment, only to remember in the next that we can see but the
+merest scraps of all this wealth of beauty which moved the cultured Greeks
+to write of it with such enthusiasm.
+
+After the days of classic art we have endeavored to trace painting through
+a period when it could scarcely be termed an art, so little of it was
+done, and that little was so far below our ideal. Again, this decline was
+followed by a Renaissance--an awakening--and from that day in the
+fourteenth century when the Madonna of Cimabue was carried in triumph
+through the streets of Florence, this art moved on with progressive steps
+until Michael Angelo, Leonardo, Raphael, Titian, and others highly gifted,
+had set up the standards which have remained as beacons and guides to all
+the world.
+
+In tracing this progress we have seen that Italy, the German nations,
+Spain, France, and England have all striven to dream dreams of beauty and
+grandeur, of tenderness and love, and to fix them in fitting colors where
+all the world could see them.
+
+The past is always fascinating. No stories are so pleasantly begun as
+those that say, "A long time ago there lived," etc. One can have the most
+complete satisfaction in the study of what has happened so far in the past
+that we can see all its effects and judge of it by the tests which time is
+sure to bring to everything. It is such a study that has been made in
+these pages, and I would suggest that it has a second use scarcely less
+important than the study of history--that is, the preparation it affords
+for judging of what is done in the present. A knowledge of what has been
+achieved enables us by comparison to decide upon the merits of new works.
+
+The painting of to-day offers an immense field for investigation. When we
+remember that five centuries ago the painters of the world could be
+counted by tens, and are told that now there is an average of twenty-five
+hundred painters in some foreign cities, we see that a lifetime is
+scarcely sufficient in which to study the painting of our own era.
+
+Have we not reason to hope that works are now being produced which shall
+be studied and admired in the future as we study and admire those of the
+past? Is it not true that the artistic works of any period show forth the
+spirit of the time? If, then, the close of the Dark Ages and the dawn of a
+better life could bring forth the treasures which remain from those days,
+what ought to be the result of the more universal learning and the
+advancing civilization of the nineteenth century? And so, in leaving this
+book, I hope that it may be useful to all who read it for one purpose that
+I have suggested or the other; either to present an outline of what has
+been done in the past, or aid in the understanding of the painting of the
+present.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+BY L. E. JONES.
+
+
+"Abraham and the Three Angels" (Navarrete), 211
+
+Academia Leonardi Vinci, 87
+
+Adams, John, portrait by Copley, 264
+
+Adams, Samuel, portrait by Copley, 264
+
+"Adoration of the Kings" (Vinci), 89
+
+"Adoration of the Shepherds" (Velasquez), 216
+
+"Agrippina Weeping over the Urn of Germanicus" (West), 265
+
+Albani, Francesco, 148
+
+"Aldobrandini Marriage," 27
+
+Alexander the Great, portrait by Apelles, 18
+
+Allen, James, portrait by Copley, 264
+
+Allston, portrait of West, 266
+
+"Analysis of Beauty" (Hogarth), 254
+
+Ancient painting, 1-40
+
+"Ancient Rome" (Turner), 287
+
+Andalusia school of painting, 213
+
+Angelico, Fra, 72-78
+
+Animal painters--
+  Snyders and Fyt, 167;
+  Potter, 187;
+  Landseer, 293
+
+Anne of Cleves, portrait by Holbein, 190
+
+"Annunciation" (Titian), 127
+
+Apelles, 18-20, 40
+
+"Apollo and Daphne in the Vale of Tempe" (Turner), 287
+
+Apollodorus, 13-14
+
+"Archangel Michael" (Raphael), 114
+
+Architecture, a fine art, 1;
+  more advanced than painting among Oriental nations, 12;
+  development of Greek, from Egyptian and Assyrian, 13;
+  during the Romanesque period, 150.
+  _See also_ Gothic
+
+Ariosto, portrait by Bassano, 132
+
+Aristides, 17
+
+Assisi, wall-paintings of Cimabue in Upper Church at, 62;
+  frescoes of Giotto in Lower Church at, 66
+
+Assyrian painting, 9-11
+
+Augsburg Cathedral contains earliest painted windows, 51
+
+Augsburg school of art, 188
+
+Augustine, St., quoted, 2
+
+"Aurora" (Guido Reni), 145
+
+Avignon, the Vernet Gallery at, 247
+
+
+Babylonian painting, 11-13
+
+"Bacchus and Ariadne" (Titian), 124
+
+"Bacchus and Ariadne" (Turner), 288
+
+Balen, Henry van, 168
+
+"Banishment of Ovid from Rome" (Turner), 287
+
+"Baptism of Christ," 84-86
+
+Barbarelli, Giorgio, 118-120
+
+Bartolommeo, Fra, 93-94;
+  and Raphael, 110
+
+Bartolozzi, engraved pictures of Angelica Kauffman, 206
+
+Bas-reliefs in Egyptian painting, 3-5
+
+Bassano family, 132
+
+"Bathing Soldiers" (Michael Angelo), 108
+
+"Battle of the Standard" (Vinci), 108
+
+Bazzi, or Razzi, 118
+
+"Beauties at Hampton Court" (Lely), 251
+
+"Beggar Boy" (Velasquez), 216
+
+"Beggar Boy Munching a Piece of Pastry" (Velasquez), 216
+
+Belgium. _See_ Flanders
+
+"Bella, La" (Titian), 124
+
+"Belle Ferroniere, La" (Vinci), 87
+
+"Belle Jardiniere, La" (Raphael), 110
+
+Bellini, Gentile, 80-81
+
+Bellini, Giovanni, 80, 81-82;
+  and Titian, 123;
+  and Duerer, 197
+
+Bellini, Jacopo, 80
+
+Bellotti, Bernardo, 153
+
+Beltraffio, Giovanni Antonio, 93
+
+Bembo, Pietro, epitaph on Raphael, 116
+
+"Benci, Ginevra" (Vinci), 89
+
+Bentivoglio, Cardinal, and Vandyck, 171
+
+Benvenuti, Lorenzo, 153
+
+Bernardo di Daddo, 69
+
+Berreguette, Alonzo, 208-209
+
+Bertoldo, 96-97
+
+"Birth of John the Baptist" (Duerer), 198
+
+"Birth of the Virgin Mary," 58
+
+Blucher, portrait by Lawrence, 270
+
+Boleyn, Anne, and Holbein, 189
+
+Bologna school, 71, 82
+
+"Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time" (Landseer), 298
+
+"Bonaparte on the Bridge of Arcola" (Gros), 242
+
+Borgia, Caesar, appoints Da Vinci engineer, 90
+
+Borgognone, Ambrogio, 93
+
+Both, Jan and Andries, 187
+
+Botticelli, Sandro, 79
+
+Bourdon, Sebastian, 238
+
+Bowditch, N. I., quoted, 261
+
+"Boy with a Squirrel" (Copley), 261
+
+Boylston, Miss Rebecca, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Brattle, General William, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Brauwer, Adrian, 178
+
+Brenghel, Jan, 162
+
+Brenghel, Pieter, 162
+
+Bril, Paul, 162
+
+"Broken Jug" (Greuze), 240
+
+Brunn, cited, 21
+
+"Bull, The" (Potter), 187
+
+Burch, Bishop Van der, and Vandyck, 172
+
+Burgkmair, Hans, instructor of Holbein, 189
+
+Burial-places, mediaeval paintings in, 41.
+  _See also_ Catacombs
+
+"Burning of the House of Lords and Commons" (Turner), 287
+
+Byron's Works illustrated by Turner, 286
+
+
+"Calumny" (Apelles), 19
+
+Calvert, Denis, instructor of Domenichino, 141
+
+Cammuccini, Vincenzio, 153
+
+Canaletto, 153
+
+Cano, Alonso, 230-232
+
+Canova, designed a monument for Titian, 128;
+  portrait by Lawrence, 271
+
+"Cantarilla de Miel, La" (Utande), 212
+
+"Capitoline Doves," 34
+
+"Caprices" (Goya), 233
+
+Caracci, Annibale, 140;
+  quoted on Correggio, 135;
+  on Domenichino, 141;
+  instructor of Guido Reni, 143
+
+Caracci family and school, 140
+
+Caravaggio, 150
+
+"Card Players" (Wilkie), 292
+
+Carew, Thomas, portrait by Vandyck, 174
+
+Carreno, Juan de, 211-212
+
+Carvings of Duerer, 198
+
+Casa Grande, the home of Titian, 126
+
+Castelfranco, altar-piece painted by Giorgione, 119
+
+Castile school of painting, 208
+
+Castillo, Juan de, instructor of Murillo, 221
+
+Catacombs, paintings of, 42-45
+
+"Cato of Utica" (Ribera), 151
+
+"Cat's Paw" (Landseer), 295
+
+Celtic illuminated MSS., early, 49
+
+Cenci, Beatrice, portrait by Guido Reni, 145-147
+
+Cennino, quoted, 68
+
+Central period of Middle Ages.
+  _See_ Romanesque
+
+Cespedes, Pablo de, 213-214
+
+Charles I., and Rubens, 164;
+  and Vandyck, 172-173;
+  portraits by Vandyck, 174;
+  and Dobson, 249
+
+Charles II. and Lely, 251
+
+Charles IV. and Goya, 232
+
+Charles V., and Titian, 124, 126-127;
+  and Duerer, 199-201;
+  and Berreguette, 209
+
+Charles X., and Gros, 242;
+  and Vernet, 246
+
+Chartres Cathedral, glass-painting in, 53
+
+"Chevy Chase" (Landseer), 296-298
+
+"Chief's (The) Return from Deer-stalking" (Landseer), 298
+
+Christ, paintings by Joanes of, 229
+
+"Christ Bearing the Cross" (Morales), 210
+
+"Christ Blessing Little Children" (Rembrandt), 186
+
+"Christ Crowned with Thorns" (Morales), 210
+
+"Christ Healing the Sick" (West), 266
+
+"Christ in Glory" (Correggio), 134
+
+Christian art. _See_ Early
+
+Church decoration in Gothic period of Middle Ages, 60
+
+Cimabue, G., 61-64
+
+Cistercian monks, painted windows in churches of, 54
+
+Clay used by Babylonian tile-painters, 12
+
+Clement VII., portrait by Titian, 124
+
+Club of St. Luke founded by Vandyck, 173
+
+Coello, Alonso Sanchez, 210
+
+Coello, Claudio, 208, 212-213
+
+"Collocation of the Host" (Coello), 213
+
+Cologne school of art, 188
+
+Colonna, Vittoria, friendship with Michael Angelo, 103
+
+Colors, Egyptian rules for use of, 5-7;
+  in Assyrian paintings, 11;
+  in Pompeian wall-paintings, 32;
+  in illumination, 47;
+  Raphael's skill in, 110;
+  discoveries by Hubert van Eyck in use of, 156
+
+"Communion of St. Jerome" (Domenichino), 141
+
+"Condemnation of Marie Antoinette" (Delaroche), 242
+
+Consalvi, Cardinal, portrait by Lawrence, 271
+
+Cook's "Southern Coast," illustrated by Turner, 282
+
+Cooper, Samuel, 249
+
+Copley, John Singleton, 259-264
+
+"Copley Family" (Copley), 264
+
+Corday, Charlotte, portrait by Goya, 233
+
+Cornaro, Caterina, portrait by Titian, 124
+
+Correggio, 132-139
+
+"Cottage Door" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+"Cottage Girl" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+Court influence upon art during Romanesque period, 50
+
+Coxie, Michael, copies Van Eyck's altar-piece for Philip I., 156
+
+Cranach, Lucas, 202
+
+"Cromwell at the House of Sir Walter Stewart" (Landseer), 293
+
+"Cromwell Contemplating the Remains of Charles I." (Delaroche), 242
+
+Cromwell's directions to Lely for painting his portrait, 251
+
+Crucifixion as represented by Giotto, 68-69
+
+"Crucifixion" (Fra Angelico), 75-76
+
+"Crucifixion" (Tintoretto), 130
+
+"Crucifixion" (Vandyck), 169, 171
+
+"Crucifixion of St. Peter" (Bourdon), 238
+
+Cunningham, Allan, quoted, 267
+
+Cupid, statue of, by Michael Angelo, 98-99
+
+Curran, portrait by Lawrence, 270
+
+Cuyp, Albert, 186-187
+
+
+Damophilos, 21
+
+"Danae" (Titian), 129
+
+Dance, George, portrait of Turner, 279
+
+"Dance of Death" (Holbein), 192-193
+
+Daniell, William, portrait by Wilkie, 293
+
+Dante, portrait by Giotto, 64-66;
+  and Michael Angelo, 103
+
+Dante's "Inferno," painting by Delacroix of scene from, 245
+
+David, Jacques Louis, 240-242
+
+"David" (Michael Angelo), 99
+
+"Dead Warrior, The" (Landseer), 298
+
+"Death of the Duke of Guise" (Delaroche), 242, 244
+
+"Death of Lord Chatham" (Copley), 262
+
+"Death of Wolfe" (Romney), 267
+
+"Death of Wolfe" (West), 266
+
+"Decline of the Carthaginian Empire" (Turner), 282
+
+"Decoration of a Roof," 44-45
+
+Delacroix, Eugene, 244-245
+
+Delaroche, Paul, 242
+
+"Demeter Enthroned," 34
+
+"Descent from the Cross" (Ribera), 151
+
+"Descent from the Cross" (Volterra), 104
+
+"Dido Building Carthage" (Turner), 282
+
+"Dionysus, or Bacchus" (Aristides), 17
+
+"Discovery of the Herb Mandragora," 47-48
+
+Dobson, William, 249-251;
+  and Vandyck, 173
+
+"Dodwell Vase (The)," 38
+
+Domenichino, 141-143;
+  and Poussin, 234
+
+Dorian school of Sikyon, 15-17
+
+Dow, Gerhard, 181
+
+Drawing first regularly taught in Sikyon school, 17
+
+"Drunken Bacchus" (Michael Angelo), 99
+
+Duccio, 64
+
+Dupper, portrait of Landseer, 301
+
+Duerer, Albert, 193-202
+
+Dutch. _See_ Holland
+
+
+Early Christian art, 41, 42-49
+
+Early period of Middle Ages. _See_ Early Christian art
+
+Eastern. _See_ Oriental
+
+Eclectics of the seventeenth century, 140
+
+"Edward the Confessor" (Mortimer), 267
+
+Edward III., paintings by West from the life of, 266
+
+Eeckhout, Gerbrandt van der, 186
+
+Eginhard, 49
+
+Egyptian mosaics, 36
+
+Egyptian painting, 3-9
+
+"Ehrenbreitstein" (Turner), 287
+
+Ekphantos, 21
+
+Encaustic paintings of Nikias, 18
+
+England, painting in, 249-303;
+  glass-painting in, 53;
+  wall-painting in, 60
+
+"England and Wales" (Turner), 282
+
+Engravings, by Rembrandt, 185;
+  by Duerer, 194, 198;
+  by Hogarth, 254.
+  _See also_ Etchings
+
+"Entombment of Christ" (Caravaggio), 150
+
+"Entombment of Christ" (Titian), 128-129
+
+Erasmus and Holbein, 189
+
+Escorial, Giordano painted walls of, 213
+
+Etching, Rembrandt's use of, 182
+
+Etchings, of Salvator Rosa, 152;
+  of Teniers, 180;
+  of Rembrandt, 186
+
+Etruscan tombs, decorated with mural paintings, 23;
+  stone-paintings found in, 36
+
+Etruscans introduced painting into Italy from Greece, 13, 20-21
+
+Euphranor, 17
+
+"Extract from a Journal whilst at Abbotsford" (Landseer), 295
+
+Eyck, Hubert van, 155-156
+
+Eyck, Jan van, 156-158
+
+Eyck, Lambert van, 158
+
+Eyck, Margaretha van, 158
+
+
+Faes, Peter van der, 251
+
+"False Players" (Caravaggio), 150
+
+"Family of Darius" (Veronese), 131
+
+"Family Picture" (Copley), 262
+
+Farnesina Villa, frescoes by Raphael in, 111
+
+Farrari, Gaudenzio, 93
+
+Fawkes, H., friend and patron of Turner, 277
+
+"Feast of Rose Garlands" (Duerer), 197
+
+Fernandez, Louis, 221
+
+Ferrara, Duke of, and Titian, 124
+
+"Field of Eylau" (Gros), 242
+
+"Fifth Plague of Egypt" (Turner), 278-279
+
+Figure-painting in ancient Greece, 20
+
+Final period of Middle Ages. _See_ Gothic
+
+"Five Senses" (Teniers), 180
+
+Flanders, painting in, 155-176
+
+"Flaying of St. Bartholomew" (Ribera), 151
+
+"Flemish Kermes" (Teniers), 180
+
+"Flora" (Titian), 124
+
+Florentine school, 72-80, 93
+
+Fonesca, portrait by Velasquez, 216
+
+"Font, The" (Landseer), 300
+
+Foreshortening of Correggio, 134
+
+"Fortune Teller" (Caravaggio), 150
+
+"Four Apostles, The" (Duerer), 201
+
+France, painting in, 234-248;
+  glass-painting in, 51.
+  _See also_ Gaul
+
+Francia, Francisco, 82-83
+
+Francis I., and Da Vinci, 90-92;
+  and Sarto, 105;
+  and Raphael, 114
+
+"Francis I. and Charles V. Visiting the Tombs at St. Denis" (Gros), 242
+
+Franconian school, 193
+
+Frederick Henry, Prince, scenes from the life of, painted by Jordaens, 167
+
+Fuseli, and Angelica Kauffman, 204;
+  and Landseer, 294
+
+Fyt, Jan, 167
+
+
+Gaddi, A., 69
+
+Gaddi, T., 69
+
+Gainsborough, Thomas, 258
+
+"Gamba, La" (Vargas), 213
+
+Gardiner, quoted, 260
+
+Gardiner, Miss Rebecca, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Gargasos, 21
+
+Garrick, David, epitaph on Hogarth, 254
+
+Gaul, miniature-painting in, 49
+
+George III., and West, 265;
+  and Lawrence, 270
+
+Gericault, Jean Louis, 244
+
+German illuminated MSS., early, 49
+
+Germany, painting in, 188-206;
+  glass-painting in, 51;
+  wall-painting in, 60
+
+Gelee, Claude. _See_ Lorraine
+
+Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 79-80, 96
+
+Giordano, Luca, 213
+
+Giorgione, 118-120;
+  and Titian, 123
+
+Giotteschi, 69
+
+Giotto di Bondone, 64-69
+
+"Girl and Pigs" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+Girtin, Tom, 274
+
+Glass-painting, 51-54, 58-60
+
+"Glykera" (Pausias), 17
+
+Goes, Hugo van der, 158
+
+Goethe, quoted, 205
+
+Goldsmith, Oliver, and Reynolds, 258
+
+Gomez, Sebastian, 228-229
+
+Gongora, portrait by Velasquez, 216
+
+Gonzaga, Giulia, portraits by Piombo, 120
+
+Gothic architecture,
+  its influence upon painting and sculpture in Middle Ages, 54;
+  its influence upon glass-painting, 58
+
+Gothic period of Middle Ages, 42, 54-71
+
+Gower family, portraits by Romney, 267
+
+Goya y Lucientes, Francisco, 232-233
+
+Goyen, Jan van, 187
+
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, 80
+
+"Graces Decorating a Statue of Hymen" (Reynolds), 257
+
+Granacci, Francisco, 80, 96
+
+Great Book of the Hours, illumination of, 58
+
+Greek painting, ancient, 13-34, 40;
+  on stone, 36
+
+Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, 239-240
+
+Grimm, quoted, 100-101
+
+Grisaille glass, 54
+
+Gros, Antoine Jean, 242
+
+Guardi, Francesco, 153
+
+Guerin, instructor of Gericault, 244;
+  of Delacroix, 245
+
+Guido, Tommaso, 78-79
+
+Guido of Siena, 64
+
+Guido Reni, 143-148
+
+Guilds among painters in Gothic period of Middle Ages, 56
+
+
+Hals, Franz, 177;
+  and Vandyck, 169
+
+Hamerton, on Turner, 286;
+  on Landseer, 298
+
+Hamilton, Lady, portraits by Romney, 267-268
+
+"Hamlet and Ophelia" (West), 266
+
+"Harlot's Progress" (Hogarth), 252
+
+Haydon, instructor of Landseer, 294
+
+Hayman, Francis, instructor of Gainsborough, 258
+
+Hayter, J., portrait of Landseer, 301
+
+"Heidelberg Castle in the Olden Time" (Turner), 287
+
+Hellenic school, 18
+
+"Hemicycle" (Delaroche), 242-244
+
+Henrietta Maria, Queen, portraits by Vandyck, 174
+
+"Henry I.," 54-55
+
+Henry III. and Titian, 127
+
+Henry VIII. and Holbein, 189-192
+
+Hercules, statue of, by Michael Angelo, 98
+
+Herrera, Francisco de, 212, 214-215, 216
+
+Hobbema, Mindert, 188
+
+Hogarth, William, 252-254
+
+Holbein, Hans, 188-193
+
+Holland, painting in, 176-188;
+  fidelity to detail, 11
+
+"Holy Family" (Vandyck), 169-170
+
+Honthorst, Gerard, 180
+
+Hooge, Pieter de, 181
+
+Houssaye, A., 92
+
+Hudson, instructor of Reynolds, 255
+
+"Hundred Guilders Print" (Rembrandt), 186
+
+
+Illumination of MSS., 41, 46-49, 58
+
+Illustrations used in Egyptian papyrus rolls, 8
+
+"Immaculate Conception" (Murillo), 224, 225-227, 228
+
+Inquisition, its influence on Spanish painting, 207-208
+
+Intaglios in Egyptian painting, 6
+
+Interiors, Dutch painters of, 180-181
+
+Ionian school, 15
+
+Ireland, miniature-painting in ancient, 49
+
+Isabella, Empress, portrait by Titian, 127
+
+Isabella, Infanta, sends Rubens to Spain, 164
+
+Isabella of Portugal, portrait by Jan van Eyck, 156
+
+Italy, painting in, 13-34, 40, 72-154
+
+"Ixion on the Wheel" (Ribera), 151
+
+
+Jameson, Mrs., quoted, 119
+
+Joanes, Vicente de, 229
+
+"John Knox Preaching" (Wilkie), 293
+
+Johnson, Samuel, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, 255
+
+Jonah, statue of, modelled by Raphael, 115
+
+Jordaens, Jacob, 167-168
+
+Julius II., Pope, and Michael Angelo, 99-100;
+  and Raphael, 111
+
+"Julius II., Tomb of," (Michael Angelo), 100, 101
+
+"Justinian, Theodora, and Attendants," 45-46
+
+Justus of Ghent, 158
+
+
+Kauffman, Angelica, 203-206
+
+"King David," 51
+
+Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 251-252
+
+"Knight (The), Death, and the Devil" (Duerer), 202
+
+Kugler, quoted, 129
+
+
+Landseer, Charles, 293
+
+Landseer, Sir Edwin, 293-301
+
+Landseer, John, 293
+
+Landseer, Thomas, 293
+
+Landscape-painting, in ancient Greece, 20;
+  in ancient Rome, 27-29;
+  in Holland, 186-187
+
+"Larder Invaded" (Landseer), 295
+
+"Large Holy Family of the Louvre" (Raphael), 114
+
+"Last Judgment" (Michael Angelo), 101
+
+"Last Supper" (Vinci), 87-89, 92
+
+"Last Supper" (Titian), 211
+
+"Last Supper" (Cespedes), 214
+
+Last Supper, paintings by Joanes of, 229-230
+
+Lastman, Pieter, 181
+
+"Laughing Peasant" (Velasquez), 216
+
+Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 269-271;
+  portrait of West, 266
+
+"Lear" (West), 266
+
+Le Brun, Charles, 238
+
+Lee, Colonel and Mrs., portraits by Copley, 260
+
+Lely, Sir Peter, 251
+
+Leo X., and Da Vinci, 90;
+  and Raphael, 111;
+  and Titian, 124
+
+Leonardo da Vinci, 84-93
+
+Leopold William, Archduke, portrait by Teniers, 179
+
+Leslie, portrait of West, 266;
+  portrait by Landseer, 301
+
+Le Sueur, Eustache, 238
+
+"Liber Fluviorum" (Turner), 286
+
+"Liber Studiorum" (Turner), 280
+
+"Liber Veritatis" (Claude Lorraine), 237
+
+"Line-fishing off Hastings" (Turner), 287
+
+Lippi, Fillipino, 79
+
+Lippi, Filippo, 79
+
+"Little Girl with a Lap Dog in her Arms" (Greuze), 240
+
+Lombard school, 93
+
+"Lomellini Family" (Vandyck), 171
+
+"Lorelei Twilight" (Turner), 278
+
+Lorenzo di Credi, 79
+
+Lorraine, Claude, 236-238
+
+Louis XII. and Da Vinci, 90
+
+Louis XIII. and Poussin, 234-236
+
+Louis XIV., and Le Brun, 238;
+  and Mignard, 239;
+  portraits by Rigaud, 239
+
+Louis XV. and Vernet, 240
+
+Louis Philippe and Vernet, 246
+
+Luebke, quoted, 82, 237
+
+"Lucretia" (Rembrandt), 186
+
+Ludius, 21-23
+
+Luini, Bernardino, 93
+
+Luther, Duerer's admiration for, 201
+
+
+Madonna del Sacco (Sarto), 107
+
+"Madonna della Gran Duca" (Raphael), 108
+
+"Madonna di San Francesco" (Correggio), 134
+
+"Madonna di San Francesco" (Sarto), 107
+
+"Madonna Enthroned" (Cimabue), 62
+
+Madonnas of Fra Bartolommeo, 93
+
+Madonnas of Raphael, 110
+
+Madonnas of Elisabetta Sirani, 148
+
+"Maids of Honor" (Velasquez), 218
+
+Mannerists, 139-140
+
+Mansfield, Lord, portrait by Copley, 263
+
+Mantegna, Andrea, 82, 132
+
+Mantua, Duke of, a patron of Rubens, 162-164
+
+Manuscripts. _See_ Illumination
+
+Margaritone of Arezzo, 64
+
+Marochetti, Baron, portrait of Landseer, 301
+
+"Marriage at Cana" (Veronese), 131
+
+"Marriage a la Mode" (Hogarth), 252
+
+"Marriage of St. Catharine" (Coello), 210
+
+"Mars, Venus, and Vulcan" (Copley), 259-260
+
+"Martyrdom of St. Andrew" (Utande), 212
+
+"Martyrdom of St. Lawrence" (Titian), 127
+
+Masaccio, 78-79
+
+Maso, 69
+
+Masolino, 78-79
+
+"Massacre of the Innocents" (Volterra), 104
+
+Matsys, Quintin, 161
+
+Maximilian, Emperor, and Duerer, 198-199
+
+Mazzuoli, Francesco, 139
+
+Mediaeval painting, 41-71
+
+Medici, Lorenzo de, patron of Michael Angelo, 96-97
+
+"Medusa's Head" (Vinci), 86
+
+Meire, Gerard van der, 158
+
+Memling, Hans, 160-161
+
+Memorial windows, origin of, 58
+
+Mengs, Raphael, 153
+
+"Meninas, Las" (Velasquez), 218
+
+Metsu, Gabriel, 181
+
+"Meyer Madonna" (Holbein), 192
+
+Michael Angelo, 94-104;
+  his frescoes of Sistine Chapel, 112;
+  and Raphael, 115;
+  and Piombo, 120-121
+
+Middle Ages. _See_ Mediaeval
+
+Mignard, Pierre, 238-239
+
+Milan, Academia Leonardi Vinci, 87
+
+Miniaturists in England, 249.
+  _See also_ Illumination
+
+"Miracle of St. Mark" (Tintoretto), 130
+
+Miranda, Juan Carreno de, 211-212
+
+Modena school, 71
+
+"Modern Rome" (Turner), 287
+
+"Mona Lisa" (Vinci), 89-90
+
+Morales, Luis de, 209-210
+
+More, Sir Thomas, portraits by Holbein, 189
+
+Morland, George, 268
+
+"Morning Among the Corriston Fells" (Turner), 277
+
+Moro, Antonio, 162
+
+Mosaics, found in ancient Italy, 34-36;
+  of the Middle Ages, 41, 45-46;
+  none by early Germans or Celts left, 49;
+  transparent, 51
+
+"Moses," 42-44
+
+Mountfort, Dr. de, portrait by Copley, 259
+
+"Mouth of the Seine" (Turner), 284
+
+Mural paintings, Egyptian, 3;
+  Assyrian, 9;
+  Oriental, 13;
+  Pompeian, 15;
+  ancient Greek, 20;
+  of Ludius, 21;
+  ancient Italian, 23-24;
+  mosaics as, 35;
+  in catacombs, 44-45;
+  no early German or Celtic left, 49;
+  in Middle Ages, 60-61
+
+Murillo, 220-228
+
+
+"Napoleon and the Pope at Fontainebleau" (Wilkie), 293
+
+Napoleon III., portrait by Horace Vernet, 247
+
+"Nativity" (Navarrete), 211
+
+"Nativity of the Saviour" (Correggio), 135
+
+"Nativity of the Virgin" (Murillo), 224
+
+Naturalists of the seventeenth century, 140, 150
+
+Navarrete, Juan Fernandez, 211
+
+"Navicella" (Giotto), 66
+
+"Nest of Cupids," 34
+
+Nicholas V., epitaph on Fra Angelico, 78
+
+Nikias, 17-18
+
+Nikomachos, 17
+
+"Nile Mosaic (The)," 36
+
+"Niobe," 36
+
+Noort, Adam van, instructor of Rubens, 162;
+  of Jordaens, 167
+
+"Notte" (Correggio), 135
+
+Nude paintings forbidden by Spanish Inquisition, 208
+
+Nuremburg school, 193
+
+
+"Old Temeraire" (Turner), 287-288
+
+Ophem, Anna van, and Vandyck, 169
+
+Oppert, J., quoted, 9, 11
+
+Orcagna, Andrea, 70-71
+
+"Orestes and Pylades" (West), 265
+
+Oriental nations more advanced in architecture and sculpture
+  than in painting, 2
+
+Oriental origin of mosaics, 34
+
+Orsay, Count d', portrait of Landseer, 301
+
+Ostades, Van, 178
+
+Outline drawing the best part of Egyptian painting, 7
+
+
+Pacheco, Francisco, 208, 214, 216
+
+Palma, Jacopo, 121
+
+Panel-pictures, 23, 50-51, 60, 61
+
+Papyrus rolls, Egyptian illustrations in, 8
+
+"Paradise" (Tintoretto), 130
+
+Pareja, Juan de, 220
+
+Parmigianino, 139
+
+Parrhasius, 14-15
+
+"Parting of Hero and Leander" (Turner), 287
+
+Paul III., portrait by Titian, 126
+
+Pausias, 17
+
+Pavement mosaics, 35-36
+
+"Peep-o'-Day Boy's Cabin" (Wilkie), 293
+
+Pelham, Charles, portrait by Copley, 259
+
+Pembroke, Earl of. _See_ Wilton Family
+
+Perkins, A. T., quoted, 260
+
+Perkins, C. C., quoted, 70
+
+Perkins, Mrs. Edmund, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Perspective, unknown to Egyptians, 5;
+  and to Oriental nations, 13;
+  first used by Apollodorus, 14;
+  its use in Middle Ages, 58;
+  Turner's lectures on, 280-281
+
+Perugino, Pietro, 82, 84, 107
+
+Petrus, Christus, 158
+
+Philip I., and Berreguette, 209;
+  employs Coxie to copy Van Eyck's altar-piece, 156
+
+Philip II., and Titian, 127;
+  and Morales, 209;
+  and Coello, 210;
+  and Navarrete, 211
+
+Philip IV., and Carreno, 212;
+  and Zurbaran, 215;
+  and Herrera, 215;
+  and Velasquez, 216-218;
+  and Cano, 231
+
+Philip of Burgundy, employs Jan van Eyck, 156
+
+Philip of Macedon, portraits by Apelles, 18
+
+"Phryne Going to the Public Baths as Venus" (Turner), 287
+
+"Pieta, La" (Michael Angelo), 99
+
+Pirkheimer, Willibald, and Duerer, 195
+
+"Plague at Jaffa" (Gros), 242
+
+Pliny, quoted, 14, 21-23
+
+"Pointers, To-ho!" (Landseer), 295
+
+Pollajuolo, Antonio, 79
+
+Ponte, Da, family, 132
+
+"Portrait of Dante" (Giotto), 64-66
+
+"Portrait of a Young Woman" (Rembrandt), 186
+
+"Ports of England" (Turner), 282
+
+Potter, Paul, 187
+
+Pourbus, Frans, 162
+
+Pourbus, Peter, 162
+
+Poussin, Nicholas, 175, 234-236
+
+"Presentation in the Temple" (Titian), 123
+
+"Presentation of Christ in the Temple" (Cammuccini), 154
+
+"Prodigal Son" (Teniers), 180
+
+Protogenes, 19-20
+
+"Provincial Antiquities of Scotland," illustrated by Turner, 282
+
+"Purisima, La" (Joanes), 229
+
+
+"Raising of Lazarus" (Piombo), 115
+
+"Rake's Progress" (Hogarth), 252
+
+Raphael, 107-118
+
+Razzi, or Bazzi, 118
+
+"Reading Magdalen" (Correggio), 135, 139
+
+Redgrave, quoted, 277
+
+"Regulus Leaving Rome to Return to Carthage" (Turner), 287
+
+"Rejected Christ" (West), 266
+
+Religious influence, upon Egyptian artists, 8-9;
+  in Romanesque period, 50;
+  in Gothic period, 56;
+  upon Spanish painters, 207
+
+Rembrandt, 181-186
+
+Renaissance, 41, 72
+
+"Rent Day" (Wilkie), 292
+
+"Repulse and Defeat of the Spanish Floating Batteries
+  at Gibraltar" (Copley), 262
+
+Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 251-258;
+  and Angelica Kauffman, 204;
+  portrait of, 250;
+  and Romney, 267
+
+Ribalta, Francisco de, 230
+
+Ribera, Giuseppe, 150-151
+
+Ribera, Josef de, 230
+
+Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 238, 239
+
+Rincon, Antonio del, 207
+
+Ritchie, Leitch, on Ruskin, 286-287
+
+"Rivers of England" (Turner), 282
+
+Robusti, Jacopo, 130
+
+Robusti, Marietta, 130-131
+
+Rogers's "Poems," illustrated by Turner, 286
+
+Roman painting, ancient. _See_ Italian
+
+Roman school, 107
+
+Romanesque period of Middle Ages, 42, 50-54
+
+Romano, Giulio, 116, 118
+
+Romney, George, 266-268
+
+Rosselli, Cosimo, 80
+
+Rossi, de, quoted, 204
+
+"Rotello del Fico" (Vinci), 86
+
+"Rotterdam Ferry-boat" (Turner), 284
+
+Rubens, 162-167;
+  and Vandyck, 168, 169;
+  as an alchemist, 175;
+  in England, 249
+
+Rubrics, 47
+
+Rupert, Prince, portraits by Vandyck, 174
+
+Ruskin, on Turner, 280-281, 282, 283-284, 288
+
+Ruysdael, Jacob, 187-188
+
+
+Sacchi, Andrea, instructor of Poussin, 234
+
+"Sacrifice of Iphigenia" (Timanthes), 15
+
+"St. Anthony Adoring the Virgin and Child" (Sirani), 149
+
+"St. Anthony of Padua" (Murillo), 224
+
+"St. Cecilia" (Raphael), 118
+
+"St. Clara of Assisi" (Murillo), 223
+
+"St. Diego of Alcala" (Murillo), 223
+
+"St. Francis" (Murillo), 223
+
+"St. George Slaying the Dragon" (Raphael), 108, 110
+
+"St. Hermengild" (Herrera), 215
+
+"St. Margaret" (Titian), 212
+
+"St. Margaret Overcoming the Dragon" (Raphael), 114
+
+"St. Martin" (Vandyck), 170
+
+"St. Michael" (Guido Reni), 147
+
+"St. Michael Attacking Satan" (Raphael), 108
+
+"St. Peter Martyr" (Titian), 129
+
+St. Peter's, Michael Angelo the architect of, 103;
+  supervision of building by Raphael, 114
+
+"St. Sebastian" (Coello), 210
+
+"St. Sebastian" (Vinci), 90
+
+Salvator Rosa, 151-152
+
+Sarto, Andrea del, 104-107
+
+Savonarola, 94-97
+
+Saxony, school of, 202
+
+"Scene at Abbotsford" (Landseer), 295
+
+"Scene in the Lower World," 38
+
+"School of Anatomy" (Rembrandt), 182-184
+
+Scott, Walter, "Poems" and "Life of Napoleon" illustrated by Turner, 284;
+  portrait by Leslie, 295;
+  and Landseer, 295-296
+
+"Scourging of St. Andrew" (Domenichino), 141
+
+Sculpture, more advanced than painting among Oriental nations, 112;
+  Greek, developed from Egyptian and Assyrian, 13
+
+Sebastian del Piombo, 115, 120-121
+
+Segnier, Chancellor, and Le Brun, 238
+
+Seneca, head by Cespedes, 214
+
+Seville in time of Murillo, 221
+
+Seville Academy of Art, founded by Murillo, 225
+
+Seville school of painting, 208, 213
+
+Shakespeare's characters, painted by Romney, 268
+
+"Shepherd Boy in a Shower" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+"Shepherds Adoring the Infant Saviour" (Correggio), 135-137
+
+"Shrine of St. Ursula" (Memling), 160-161
+
+"Sibyl (The) and the Emperor" (Van der Weyden), 158-159
+
+Siddons, Mrs., portrait by Reynolds, 255
+
+Signorelli, Luca, 76, 80
+
+Sikyon school, 15-17
+
+Simone, Martini, 69-70
+
+Sirani, Elisabetta, 148-150
+
+"Sistine Madonna" (Raphael), 114
+
+"Slave Ship" (Turner), 288-289
+
+Smith, Sydney, and Landseer, 299
+
+Snyders, Frans, 167
+
+Solario, Andrea, 93
+
+Sosos, 34
+
+Spain, painting in, 207-233
+
+"Sposalizio, Lo" (Raphael), 107-108
+
+"Staffa Madonna" (Raphael), 108
+
+Steen, Jan, 178
+
+Still-life, Dutch excellence in painting, 177
+
+Stirling, quoted, 215, 218, 228
+
+Stone, paintings on, 36
+
+Strada, portrait by Marietta Robusti, 130
+
+Strafford, Earl of. _See_ Wentworth, Thomas
+
+Studius. _See_ Ludius
+
+Suckling, Sir John, portrait by Vandyck, 174
+
+Suger, Abbot, 53
+
+Sunder, Lucas, 202
+
+"Surrender of Arundel Castle" (Landseer), 293
+
+Swanenburg, J. J. van, instructor of Rembrandt, 181
+
+
+Tadius. _See_ Ludius
+
+Tafi, A., 64
+
+Tasso, portrait by Bassano, 132
+
+"Temporal Generation of Our Lord" (Vargas), 213
+
+Teniers, David, 178-180
+
+Terburg, Gerhard, 181
+
+Thackeray's (Miss) "Miss Angel" the story of Angelica Kauffman, 203
+
+Thornbury, quoted, 283
+
+Thornhill, Sir James, 252
+
+"Three Graces" (Palma), 121
+
+"Three Graces" (Raphael), 110
+
+Thurlow, Lord Chancellor, portrait by Romney, 267
+
+Tile-painting, Assyrian, 9-11;
+  Babylonian, 11-12
+
+Timanthes, 15
+
+Tintoretto, 130
+
+Titian, 121-130;
+  and Correggio, 135;
+  his "Last Supper," 211;
+  instructor of Navarrete, 211;
+  Carreno's copy of his "St. Margaret," 212
+
+Tobar, Alonzo Miguel de, 213, 229
+
+Toledo, Coello painter to the Cathedral of, 213
+
+Torrigiano, Pietro, 98
+
+"Tragic Muse" (Reynolds), 255
+
+"Transfiguration" (Raphael), 115
+
+Transitional period, 61
+
+"Trattato della Pittura" (Vinci), 93
+
+"Triumphal Arch of Maximilian" (Duerer), 199
+
+Tulp, Professor, portrait by Rembrandt, 184
+
+Turner, Charles, 280
+
+Turner, J. M. W., 271-292
+
+"Turner's Annual Tour," 286
+
+
+Uccello, Paolo, 79
+
+"Ulysses Dividing Polyphemus" (Turner), 283
+
+"Ulysses in the Under-world" (Nikias), 17
+
+Umbrian school, 82
+
+Urban VIII. and Claude Lorraine, 236
+
+Utande, Gregorio, 212
+
+
+Vaenius, Otto, instructor of Rubens, 162
+
+Velde, Adrian van de, 186
+
+Valencia school, 208, 229
+
+Vandyck, Anthony, 168-176;
+  in England, 249
+
+Vargas, Luis de, 213
+
+Varnish, improvements by the Van Eycks in the use of, 156
+
+Vasari, quoted, 75
+
+Vase-painting by the ancients, 36-40
+
+Vatican, decoration by Raphael of the halls of, 111
+
+Vega, Lope de, on Coello, 210;
+  on Navarrete, 211
+
+Velasquez, 215-220;
+  and Murillo, 222, 227
+
+"Venice from the Salute Church" (Turner), 287
+
+Venetian school, 80-82, 118
+
+"Venus" (Titian), 124
+
+"Venus Anadyomene" (Apelles), 19
+
+Vernet, Carle, 245
+
+Vernet, Claude Joseph, 240
+
+Vernet, Horace, 245-248
+
+Veronese, Paul, 131
+
+Verrocchio, Andrea, 79, 84
+
+Vescovi, Marco dei, portrait by Marietta Robusti, 130
+
+Victoria, Queen, and Landseer, 298-299
+
+Vien, Joseph Marie, 240
+
+"Vierge, La, au Panier" (Correggio), 137-139
+
+"View of Rome from the Aventine Hill" (Turner), 287
+
+"Village Festival" (Wilkie), 292
+
+"Village Politicians" (Wilkie), 292
+
+Vincent, instructor of Horace Vernet, 245
+
+Vinci, Leonardo da, 84-93, 99
+
+Virgin, pictures by Murillo of, 227;
+  by Joanes, 229
+
+"Virgen de la Sevilleta" (Murillo), 225
+
+"Vision of St. Jerome" (Parmigianino), 139
+
+Vitruvius, quoted, 20
+
+Volterra, Daniele de, 104
+
+"Von Tromp Returning from Battle" (Turner), 284
+
+
+Waagen, Dr., on Turner, 290
+
+Walls. _See_ Mural
+
+Washington, George, portrait by Copley, 260
+
+Water, Egyptian painting of, 5
+
+"Water Carrier of Seville" (Velasquez), 216
+
+Watson, Elkanah, portrait by Copley, 262-263
+
+"Watson and the Shark" (Copley), 262
+
+Watteau, Antoine, 239
+
+"Way to Calvary" (Morales), 210
+
+Wellington, Duke of, portrait by Lawrence, 270
+
+Wells and Turner, 278
+
+Welsteed, Rev. William, portrait by Copley, 259
+
+Wentworth, Thomas, portrait by Vandyck, 174
+
+Wentworth, Lady, and Angelica Kauffman, 204
+
+West, Benjamin, 265-266;
+  and Copley, 261
+
+Weyden, Rogier van der, 158-159
+
+Weyden, Rogier van der, the younger, 159-160
+
+Wilkie, Sir David, 292-293
+
+Williams, quoted, 270
+
+Wilson, Richard, 254
+
+"Wilton Family, The" (Vandyck), 174
+
+Winckelmann and Angelica Kauffman, 204
+
+"Wind-Mills" (Hobbema), 188
+
+Window-painting. _See_ Glass
+
+Wohlgemuth, Michael, instructor of Duerer, 194
+
+"Woodman and Dog in a Storm" (Gainsborough), 258
+
+Wornum, on Turner, 290
+
+Wouverman, Philip, 187
+
+"Wreck of the Medusa" (Gericault), 244
+
+Wynants, Jan, 187
+
+
+Zeuxis, 14-15
+
+Zuccaro, on Cespedes, 214
+
+Zuccato, Sebastian, instructor of Titian, 123
+
+Zurbaran, Francisco, 215
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART FOR BEGINNERS AND
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