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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/24719-8.txt b/24719-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..685c40c --- /dev/null +++ b/24719-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2762 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Amateur Fish Culture, by Charles Edward Walker + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Amateur Fish Culture + +Author: Charles Edward Walker + +Release Date: February 29, 2008 [EBook #24719] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMATEUR FISH CULTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Logan and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + +AMATEUR FISH +CULTURE + +BY CHARLES EDWARD WALKER + +AUTHOR OF "OLD FLIES IN NEW +DRESSES" "SHOOTING ON A +SMALL INCOME," ETC + + +WESTMINSTER +ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO LTD +2 WHITEHALL GARDENS + +1901 + + + + +Butler & Tanner, +The Selwood Printing Works, +Frome, and London. + + + + +PREFACE + + +My aim, in this little book, has been to give information and hints +which will prove useful to the amateur. Some of the plans and apparatus +suggested would not be suitable for fish culture on a large scale, but +my object has been to confine myself entirely to operations on a small +scale. I have to thank the Editor of _Land and Water_ for permission to +publish in book form what first appeared as a series of articles. + +CHARLES WALKER. + +Mayfield, Sussex. +_March, 1901._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I Introductory 1 + + II Stocking Waters with Food 7 + + III Suitable Fish and Suitable Waters 14 + + IV Trout. Preliminary Hints and Advice 20 + + V Trout. Rearing Ponds, Boxes, and Hatching Trays 27 + + VI Trout. Management of the Ova and Alevins 34 + + VII Trout. Management of the Fry 42 + + VIII Trout. The Management of the Fry (_Continued_) 51 + + IX Trout. The Friends and Enemies of the Fish Culturist 58 + + X Trout. Management, Feeding, and Turning out of Yearlings 67 + + XI The Rearing of the Rainbow Trout, American Brook Trout, + and Char 72 + + XII Salmon and Sea-Trout 81 + + XIII Coarse Fish 88 + + Appendix 93 + + Index 97 + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +Fish culture of a certain kind dates from very early times, but its +scientific development has only come about quite recently. Most people +know that in our own country the monks had stew ponds, where they kept +fish, principally carp, and also that the Romans kept fish in ponds. In +the latter case we hear more often of the eel than of other fish. The +breeding of trout and salmon, and the artificial spawning and hatching +of ova, are, however, an innovation of our own time. + +Much has been discovered about the procreation of fish, and in no case +have scientists worked so hard and discovered more than in the case of +_Salmonidæ_. Fish culture, particularly trout culture, has become a +trade, and a paying one. To any one who has the least idea of the +difficulties to be overcome in rearing _Salmonidæ_, this fact alone +proves that fish culture must have progressed to a very advanced stage +as a science. + +This advance has in very many, if not in the majority of cases, been +made by the bitter experience gained through failures and mishaps, for +these have led fish culturists to try many different means to prevent +mischances, or to rectify them if they have happened. Some of the most +serious difficulties experienced by the early fish culturists who bred +_Salmonidæ_ can now be almost disregarded, for they hardly exist for the +modern fish culturist, with the knowledge he possesses of the experience +of others. + +So much of what has been done in fish culture is generally known to +those who have studied and practised it, that the beginner can nowadays +commence far ahead of the point whence the first fish culturists +started. Many of his difficulties have been overcome for him already, +and though he will not, of course, meet with the success of the man of +experience, still he ought with the exercise of an average amount of +intelligence to avoid such failures as would completely disgust him. + +There are many pieces of water containing nothing but coarse fish which +are very suitable for trout of some kind. Ponds, particularly those +which have a stream running through them, will, as a rule, support a +good head of trout if properly managed. Again a water which contains +trout may become more or less depleted, and here it is necessary to +supply the deficiency of trout by some means. The easiest way is, of +course, to buy yearling or two-year-old fish from a piscicultural +establishment, of which there are many in the kingdom, but I know that +there are many fishermen who would much prefer to rear their own fish +from the ova, than to buy ready-made fish. Any one who has the time and +opportunity to rear his own fish will be amply repaid by the amusement +and interest gained, and it should be the cheaper method of stocking or +re-stocking a water. + +The same remarks apply to a certain extent to waters which will not +support trout, or where the owner wants more coarse fish. The stock of +coarse fish may be improved by fish culture just as much as a stock of +trout. + +In his first year or two, it is very possible that the amateur will not +save very much by being his own pisciculturist. If, however, he is +careful, and works with intelligence, it is quite possible that he may +succeed better than he had hoped and rear a good head of fish at a less +cost than the purchase of yearlings. In any case he will have had a +great deal of pleasure and gained experience as well as reared some +fish. + +In the present little volume, I propose to try and deal with fish +culture in such a way as to help the amateur who wishes to rear fish to +stock his own water. Much of the existing literature of the subject +deals with it on such a large scale that the amateur is frightened to +attempt what is apparently so huge an undertaking. Fish culture may, +however, be carried out on a small scale with success, and though +considerable attention is necessary, particularly with young +_Salmonidæ_, it is not a task which involves a very great proportion of +the time of any one undertaking it. It is absolutely necessary, however, +that the amateur fish culturist should live on the spot, or have some +one who is intelligent and perfectly trustworthy who does. In every case +in my experience, trusting the care of young fish to a keeper or servant +has resulted in failure, and in every failure I have seen where the fish +have not been trusted to the care of a servant, the cause has been very +obvious, and could easily have been avoided. + +The rearing of trout is the most important branch of fish culture to the +amateur, and fortunately but slight modifications are necessary in +rearing other fish. What is good enough for trout is good enough for +most fish, therefore I think that I shall be right in describing trout +culture at considerable length, and dealing with other fish in a +somewhat summary manner. The difference in the management, etc., of +other fish I shall point out after describing how to rear trout. + +To begin with, the amateur must not suppose that because he puts fish +into a stream or pond he will succeed in stocking that water or +increasing the head of fish. There are many other things to be +considered. The river, stream, or pond must be of a suitable character +for the fish, and there must be plenty of food. I am sure that it is +much more important to consider carefully whether the water is suitable, +and contains a proper supply of food, than to consider how the fish are +to be obtained, for recourse may always be had to a professional fish +culturist--fish of almost any kind and any age can be bought ready +made. + +The point I would impress upon the amateur more forcibly than anything +else, is that he should be sure that there is plenty for his fish to eat +in the water, before he thinks of putting them into it. It is for this +reason that I devote my next chapter chiefly to the stocking of waters +with food and to the improvement of the food supply in waters where some +food already exists. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +STOCKING WATERS WITH FOOD + + +It may seem somewhat superfluous to say that fish cannot live in any +water unless that water contains the food supply necessary for them to +thrive upon, and yet this is the point most often overlooked in stocking +waters with fish. Small attempts at stocking with creatures suitable for +food, particularly after the fish have been already introduced, are not +at all likely to succeed. Such an important matter when treated as a +small afterthought is almost sure to end in failure of the whole +business of stocking. + +But a small amount of thought will convince any one that in order that +there may be a sufficient amount of animal life in a water, there must +be an adequate vegetable life, for weeds are almost always necessary to +the well-being of the creatures which serve as food for fishes. + +In the case of a pond it is generally fairly easy to introduce a good +stock of suitable weeds. The best method is to let the pond down as low +as possible, and then to plant some weeds round the margin; the water is +then allowed to gradually fill up the pond, and as it rises weeds are +planted round the rising margin of the water. In ponds which cannot be +emptied at all, or not sufficiently to carry out this plan, weeds may be +planted in an easy but not quite so effectual a manner. They may be +planted in shallow baskets containing some mud from the bottom of the +pond, and then lowered in suitable places from a boat, or bundles of the +weed may be tied to stones and dropped into the water in a similar +manner. + +These latter methods are, of course, not so good as actually planting +the weeds round the advancing margin of the water, for success depends +to a certain extent upon chance. Some of the weeds thus planted are, +however, sure to take root and grow. Plants of different kinds, of +course, are necessary at different depths and on different kinds of +bottoms, and good kinds are necessary at the margin of the water as +well. I give a list of some suitable plants of each kind at the end of +this chapter. + +Similar methods are used in planting weeds in rivers and streams to +those used in ponds. If the weeds are planted in baskets, the baskets +must, of course, be weighted when put in a position where the current +can act upon them. + +Besides vegetation in the water, vegetation on the bank is of +considerable importance. I shall deal with this at a later period more +fully, as trees and bushes, besides harbouring many insects which serve +as food for fish, have also considerable importance in giving cover to +the fish and to the fisherman who is pursuing them. + +I think that in the case of a bare water, a year at least should be +devoted to developing a good supply of vegetation. This will generally +produce a considerable amount of animal life, without any artificial +help, but judicious help will be sure to accelerate matters to a +considerable extent. I would, however, advise the amateur not to attempt +to introduce a quantity of creatures into his water, until the vegetable +life therein is well established. For instance, though fresh-water +snails are desirable in every trout water, if introduced in large +numbers into a water in which the vegetation is small and not well +established, they will eat down the weeds too much and then die off from +disease caused by want of sufficient nourishment. + +Having established the vegetable life well in a water, and developed it +to a considerable extent, the amateur may begin to examine his water, +and find out how much animal life exists there, and to stock with +creatures suitable for food, according to what he finds in the water. + +Fresh-water snails are always desirable. In streams, or in ponds with +streams running into them, the fresh-water shrimps (_Gammarus pulex_) +should always be tried. It does not do in some waters, but where it does +thrive it increases very rapidly, and forms about the best article of +food that can be given to trout. _Corixæ_, which thrive in ponds and +sluggish waters, should always be introduced. They increase rapidly, and +are taken by most fish, particularly by trout. The amateur should be +careful when he introduces these creatures to make sure that he is +putting in the right creature. The water-boatman (_Nautonecta glauca_) +is a member of the same family, but is no use as food for the fish. He +swims on his back, is longer and narrower than are _Corixæ_, which do +not swim on their backs, are smaller, broader, and live much more under +water than the water-boatman. It is generally advisable to avoid +water-beetles, as most of them are more likely to do harm than good, +such a number of our water-beetles being carnivorous. They will probably +not harm adult fish, but they will destroy ova and fry. I have known a +_Dytiscus marginalis_ kill a trout of nearly a quarter of a pound in +weight. + +In order to make sure of not introducing carnivorous water-beetles into +a water, I think it best as a rule not to introduce beetles at all. +_Corixæ_ are, however, so like beetles, that many people call them +beetles, and therefore I will give a few points which will make them +easily distinguishable from each other. In beetles, the wing-cases +(elytra) meet exactly in the middle line, in _Corixæ_ and other +water-bugs, the anterior wings, which resemble the elytra of beetles, +overlap, which causes the line on the back to curve away to one side at +the lower end. In beetles the wings which lie under the wing-cases are +folded up on themselves, and when spread out are much larger than the +wing-cases. The wings are transparent and very delicate. In _Corixæ_ the +posterior wings, which lie under the hard and horny anterior wings, are +a little shorter than the anterior wings; they are not folded up on +themselves and are not so delicate and transparent as the wings of the +beetle. + +Such small creatures as _Daphnia pulex_, _Cyclops quadricornis_ and +_Rotifera_ should be introduced into ponds. + +Snails (_Gasteropoda_) may be roughly divided into three classes, +according to the shape of their shells: (1) Flat-shaped coils (type +_Planorbis corneus_); (2) Oblong-shaped, somewhat like a trumpet (type +_Limnæa stagnalis_); and (3) Ear-shaped (type _Limnæa auricularia_). +_Limnæa auricularia_ is particularly suitable for deep waters, and _L. +pereger_, whose shell is of type 2, is a most valuable addition to the +food supply in any fish pond. It is one of the commonest of our +fresh-water snails. + +Mussels (_Conchifera_) are another valuable article of food. There are a +great many different kinds, and the larger ones should, as a rule, be +avoided. _Sphæriidæ_ and _Pisidia_ are probably the best. + +In many cases it is advisable to attempt the introduction of some flies +which are not present. There are several cases in which the May-fly has +been successfully introduced, and also the Grannom. Small _Ephemeridæ_ +seem to me preferable to any other flies. + +With regard to suitable plants for comparatively deep water in ponds or +lakes, lakewort and stonewort grow on the bottom, and do not, as a rule, +attain any considerable height. White and yellow water-lilies also grow +in fairly deep water; the water-lobelia is also an excellent plant for +ponds. + +In streams some of the best plants are water-crowfoot, water-starwort, +and the great water moss. Anacharis should not be introduced into any +water, either pond or stream, unless it can be kept down easily. It will +otherwise become an unmitigated nuisance. + +Marginal plants are a very important consideration, and plenty of them +should be grown. Water-celery and water-cress are perhaps the best +food-producing marginal plants that can be grown. Bullrushes and +brooklime are also good, but the bullrushes must be planted +judiciously. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +SUITABLE FISH AND SUITABLE WATERS + + +Having stocked his water with suitable vegetation and food, the next +matter which should engage the attention of the amateur, is what fish he +had better introduce. He should, where there is a fair chance of +success, introduce a trout of some sort, as they give better sport than +coarse fish. + +The introduction of salmon into a river is not likely to be attempted by +the amateur, but the head of salmon frequenting a river is undoubtedly +affected in the most marvellous manner by artificial means. In Canada +and the United States this is particularly remarkable, but the +operations are conducted on a gigantic scale. + +In the case of a stream or river where brown trout already exist, or +have recently existed, in fair numbers, re-stock with these fish, for +they can hardly be bettered in our waters. There are, however, some +sluggish rivers where brown trout do not thrive when they are +introduced. In such rivers and in many ponds in the South of England I +believe that no better fish exists than the rainbow trout. I say +particularly in the south, because I do not think that the rainbow trout +will ever really thrive and breed in cold waters. I have at other times +given numerous examples which go to show that the rainbow will only +thrive in warm waters.[1] I will therefore only quote the case of New +Zealand. The rainbow trout was introduced into both islands, but while +it thrived amazingly in the warm waters of the North Island, it has +proved a comparative failure in the cold waters of the South Island. + +[1] _The Rainbow Trout._ Lawrence & Bullen, London. + +While the common or brown trout (_Salmo fario_) and the rainbow trout +(_Salmo irideus_) are, in my opinion, to be strongly encouraged in the +waters suitable to their respective qualities, the American brook trout +(_Salvelinus fontinalis_) does not seem to have met with the approval of +most of the authorities on pisciculture in this country. My experience +of this fish is not sufficient for my holding any very strong views with +regard to its suitability to British waters. In one case I know that it +was a great success for two seasons, but I have not had any opportunity +of following it up in this particular instance. In another case it was a +decided failure. I am sure that it should not be introduced into streams +where brown trout thrive, and I am doubtful of its ever succeeding in +waters which are suitable to the rainbow trout. + +Of all the trout, the rainbow is the hardiest, and the one with which +the amateur pisciculturist is most likely to be successful. It is also +the fish most likely to supply a want felt by very many fishermen, a +good sporting fish in waters where the common trout will not thrive. + +In large and deep ponds with a good stream, or in lakes, char may be +tried with a prospect of success. They require cold waters, and I have +never heard of their being successfully introduced in the South of +England. They are a more difficult fish to rear than trout. + +Grayling have many violent opponents, but I am inclined to think that +they do but little if any harm in a trout stream, and they supply +excellent fishing during part of the close season for trout. They seem +to thrive best in chalk streams, but there are no doubt many waters +which would carry a good head of grayling which at present contain only +trout. They probably do much less harm than most of the coarse fish +constantly found in trout streams. The great crime attributed to them is +that they eat the spawn of the trout, but I am inclined to think that +the harm they do in this way is much over estimated. They spawn at a +different time and would not be likely to frequent the spawning places +at the same time as the trout. I have no doubt that an infinitely +greater proportion of trout ova are eaten by the trout themselves than +by grayling in rivers which contain both fish. Chalk streams and those +rivers with gravelly bottoms and with alternate shallows and pools seem +to be the most suited to the grayling. + +Among coarse fish the rudd is one of the best from the fly-fisher's +point of view. It takes the fly readily, is very prolific and very easy +to introduce. It thrives remarkably well in ponds which contain a good +supply of food. Its fry serve as excellent food for other fish, +particularly trout, but I have known cases where it increased rapidly in +a pond at the expense of the trout. It can, however, be kept under by +judicious netting. + +The dace is another fish which gives sport to the fly-fisherman. It will +not thrive in ponds. In some rivers, however, where trout--brown trout, +at any rate--will not thrive, the dace does very well. In the case of +the Sussex Ouse this is most remarkable. Little more than ten years ago +there were no dace in that river, now it swarms with them. Their +presence is attributed to the fact that some dace, brought there as +live-baits for pike, escaped destruction and established the present +stock. Sluggish and muddy rivers seem to produce the best dace. Chubb, +which also possess many points to recommend them to the fisherman, will +also do well in such rivers. + +To those who enjoy bottom fishing and possess a pond, even a small one, +I can recommend no fish more highly than the king-carp. It is a much +bolder-feeding and gamer fish than the common carp, and is just as easy +to introduce. While dealing with carp I may mention that the goldfish, +when introduced into a suitable pond, grows to a very large size. I have +caught them over a pound in weight. + +The perch is a very prolific fish, and will thrive in ponds with a very +small stream running into them, and in sluggish rivers. Other coarse +fish are as a rule easy to introduce into a water. Though perch fry form +excellent food for trout, perch, and of course pike, should be kept out +of a trout water. + +The suitability of a water depends to a great extent (as to its capacity +of supporting a healthy stock of fish) upon its having plenty of +suitable vegetation upon the banks. Therefore if the banks are bare of +vegetation, willows and alders, as being quick growing and easily +established trees, should be freely planted upon the banks. This +fortunately is very easily done, for willow and alder sticks cut and put +into the ground in the spring are pretty sure to do well. It is needless +to say that the moister spots should be chosen for the willows, though +they will do well in suitable soil in comparatively dry places. Besides +giving shade and shelter to the fish, which is always an important +consideration, a considerable quantity of food is bred upon trees and +shrubs at the water side. I have found as many as eighteen caterpillars +in the stomach of a trout which I caught under an overhanging oak tree. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +TROUT. PRELIMINARY HINTS AND ADVICE + + +The amateur who is beginning trout culture had better by all means buy +eyed ova from a fish cultural establishment. There are many of these in +the British Isles, and nowadays eyed ova are packed and sent safely all +over the country. The artificial spawning of trout is not an undertaking +in which the beginner is likely to achieve great success, and therefore +I should advise him to avoid relying upon it when he commences his +operations as a fish culturist. + +Collecting the ova of wild trout is also an operation of some +difficulty, and lays the beginner open to much more disappointment than +if he deals with eyed ova purchased from a reliable establishment. +Instead of having to watch and care for the ova through a critical and +dangerous period, he receives them shortly before the young fish hatch +out, when the ova are not in the most delicate stage. + +It is of the greatest importance that everything should be ready for the +ova long before they are expected, as hurry and new apparatus are likely +to cause failure. Any concrete and varnished or enamelled woodwork +should be exposed to the action of a current of water for at least five +or six weeks before they are brought into actual use. + +The choice of a suitable spot in which to make his hatchery is a serious +point for the consideration of the amateur. A spring is the best water +supply as a rule, for the water is usually of a fairly even temperature, +and does not require filtering, but water from a stream where trout are +known to live is quite safe. A few years ago it would have been +necessary for any one wishing to take up fish culture, to erect a +building in which to place his hatchery if he intended to hatch any +number of eggs, in order to guard against frosts. At the present time, +the eyed ova of even the brown trout (_Salmo fario_) can be obtained +sufficiently late to be safe against a frost severe enough to cause any +damage, and as the rainbow trout (_Salmo irideus_) spawns in February +and March, the amateur is, at the time he receives the eyed ova, quite +safe from frost. + +The best method to pursue is to make long narrow ponds, with a current +running through them, and to hatch the eggs out in trays and boxes +suspended in these ponds. When the young fish hatch out, the trays which +contained the ova can be removed, and the young fish kept in the boxes. +Later on the young fish can be released from the boxes into the ponds. I +shall subsequently describe how these ponds, trays, and boxes should be +made. + +The rearing ponds should be made, if possible, at a fall in the level of +the water supply, so that they may be easily emptied. This is an +important point which is frequently overlooked by amateurs. There should +be an outlet on a level with the bottom of the pond, and if the water +escapes through a pipe, that pipe should incline downwards. This, in a +series of ponds, of course necessitates the ponds being at different +levels, but the water is thus under much better control than if the +outlet is at a higher level, and the ponds are easily emptied. Ponds +may, however, be worked successfully with the outlet in mid-water, or +even near the surface, though this does not ensure such a certainty of +change of water throughout the pond. It is not, however, always possible +to obtain such a difference in level between the supply and waste. In +such cases the ponds should be made shallower near the outlet. + +A popular idea seems to be that a gravel bottom is necessary for the +well-being of trout; this is quite a mistake. Personally, I believe that +a good earth bottom is best in a rearing pond, and even in a pond lined +with concrete I should always put a layer of mould, preferably turf +mould, at the bottom. With the use of this mould during the subsequent +operations in rearing trout I shall deal later on. + +The size of the ponds, of course, depends upon the number of trout to be +reared. It is better to have several medium sized ponds than one large +one, as then accident or disease occurring in a pond will only affect a +portion of the stock of fish. Mr. J. J. Armistead in _An Angler's +Paradise, and How to Obtain It_, says: "A pond sixty feet long, four +feet wide, and about three feet deep, will hold ten or fifteen thousand +fry at first, and give them plenty of room to grow, but by the end of +July the number should be reduced to five thousand, which may be left +till October, when they should again be thinned out, or, better still, +put into larger pond." + +I should advise the amateur who is dealing with only a few thousand fish +to work on a smaller scale in these proportions, and to make these +changes gradually, and yet more gradually as the season advances. That +is to say, work with a third of the number of fry in ponds half the size +and move some fish several times before the end of July. As October +approaches, make changes of smaller numbers of fish more frequently. + +Late in the autumn is, in my opinion, the best time to put the young +fish into the water they are to inhabit permanently. It must be a +mistake to rear them artificially longer than is necessary, and by the +end of November they should be fairly capable of looking after +themselves. + +Trout, which are artificially reared on chopped meat and other soft +foods, suffer from a lack of development in the stomach walls, and also, +probably, in the rest of their digestive apparatus. The first case I saw +of the stomach of an artificially reared trout was a two-year-old +trout, upon which Dr. C. S. Patterson performed an autopsy. The stomach +walls were as thin as a sheet of tissue paper. At the time I believed, +and, if I remember rightly, he also thought that this was due to +atrophy, but I am inclined to think that this idea was only partially +correct. The stomach walls of the autumn yearling trout, which is +artificially reared on soft food, do not show any marked abnormality in +the way of thinness; but as the trout's age increases, so does the +thickness of the stomach wall decrease in proportion to its size. This +leads me to believe that the development of the stomach wall, at any +rate, and probably also of the glands secreting the gastric juice and +the digestive apparatus generally, gradually ceases when at about the +age of eight or nine months if the trout is fed upon soft food. +Probably, also, a certain amount of atrophy and dilatation of the +stomach wall is produced. If my observations are correct, so also is the +conclusion that a trout which cannot digest hard food, of which a great +part of his natural food consists, will not have a really fair chance +when turned out. Therefore, I say, turn out your trout in November, +unless you can feed them on such food as shrimps, snails, bivalves and +_Corixæ_; and if you stock with "ready made" fish, stock with yearlings +in the late autumn. + +The turning out of his fish in November will also allow the amateur +plenty of time to prepare his ponds and apparatus for next year's +operations. If the ponds are made on a stream, probably the very best +place that can be chosen is where there is a fairly sharp bend in the +stream just below a fall. An artificial fall can often be made where the +banks are high by damming up the stream several feet. Care must be +taken, however, to avoid any risk of the ponds being flooded. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +TROUT. REARING PONDS, BOXES, AND HATCHING TRAYS + + +Having decided upon a suitable spot, the amateur must now proceed to +make his ponds. Whether he derive his water supply from a spring or from +a stream, the amateur had better bring it into his ponds through a pipe. +A three-inch pipe will be large enough for a pond thirty feet long, +three feet wide, and two feet deep at the deepest part. It is a good +thing for the water to fall, some inches at any rate, through the air +before it reaches the pond, and in a series of ponds with only one +supply, the water should flow through an open trough with stones and +other impediments in it, between the ponds. The ponds may be lined +entirely with brickwork faced with cement, and in this case the sides +should be made perpendicular. The cement should, however, be exposed +freely to the action of the running water for a couple of months at +least before any ova or fry are introduced. + +Another plan, and a simpler and less expensive one, is to face only the +ends of the ponds with brick and cement work, carrying the brickwork +into the earth on each side, as shown in Fig. 1. In this case the sides +of the ponds should be slightly sloped as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. It is +advisable if possible to make the outlet at the level of the bottom of +the pond, if the pond is lined with cement, but if the pond is only +cemented at the ends, it is better to have one in mid-water or even near +the surface. As I have said before however, an outlet should be made at +the level lowest part of the bottom, so as to facilitate the emptying of +the pond. The pond should however be made shallower at the lower end. +Fig. 2 shows a section of the upper end, and Fig. 3 of the lower end of +such a pond. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +The open trough between ponds in a series should be at least three yards +in length, but it is better if not straight. Stones and gravel should be +put in these troughs in order to make the water as rough as possible, +and if some fresh-water shrimps can be introduced so much the better. + +If the water is taken from a stream, a leaf screen must be placed at +some distance in front of the inlet. This may be made of a hurdle +fastened to strong stakes sunk into the bed of the stream. The opening +of the inlet should be at least double the size of the sectional area of +the pipe through which the water is carried to the ponds, and should be +some distance, a couple of feet if possible, below the surface of the +water. It is a good thing to put a wire cage over the inlet, and under +this a perforated zinc screen is necessary. The inlet from the stream +should be so placed that it is easy to get at and clean. The best form +of covering for the inlet into the pond I have seen, is a zinc cylinder, +the base of which fits over the end of the inlet pipe. The part of this +cylinder, which projects 18 inches beyond the pipe, is perforated, as is +also the flat end. This can easily be taken off and cleaned, and breaks +up the water, making it fall into the pond like a shower bath, causing +considerable aeration. + +The inlet from the stream should have a trap with which the water may be +shut off, as also should the outlet from the pond. When the cylinder on +the inlet into the pond is taken off for a minute or so to be cleaned +out, both these traps must be closed. This lessens the chance of any +creatures likely to do harm getting in during the cleaning. The +perforated zinc screen at the inlet from the stream will probably stop +any such creatures, but too great care cannot be exercised, and it is +always best to be on the safe side. + +Movable covers of netting over the ponds are most certainly advisable, +particularly if the rearing ponds are in an unfrequented spot near a +stream. On one occasion I caught four kingfishers during a period of +three weeks, all of which had in some way got under some herring net, +which was pegged out carefully over a rearing pond containing trout fry. +I never found out how they got in, but once in they were unable to +escape. + +Ponds such as I have described are of course for the fry when they have +reached a certain size, and have already begun to feed well. Other +appliances are necessary for hatching out the ova and for the young fish +when first hatched. A very good apparatus may be made from a champagne +case. This should have large square holes sawn through each end, leaving +enough wood to ensure strength and solidity to the box. The box should +then have two coats of asphalt varnish, and the square apertures covered +with fine perforated zinc. A still better box may be made at a small +cost. This consists of a box with a wooden bottom and perforated zinc +sides which are supported by a stout wooden frame. + +Beyond these boxes all that are required are some perforated zinc +hatching trays. These should be 1-1/2 inches deep. They are very easily +made, and the ova hatch out well in them. Though ova sometimes hatch out +very successfully even when piled up in two or three layers, it is safer +to have them in a single layer. The trays should be suspended in the +boxes, and the boxes in the ponds close to the inlets, so that a good +current of water may flow through them. The bottom of the boxes should +be covered with a thick layer of gravel, but the trays are to be used +without gravel. It is advisable to have as much grass as possible round +the ponds, and such trees as willows and alders should also be planted +round them. Willows and alder sticks planted in the early part of the +year come into leaf in the same spring, and afford shade to the young +fish in the summer. Some suitable weeds should also be grown in the +rearing ponds. Water-cress, water-celery, water-lobelia, starwort, and +water-milfoil, are all good. They should be arranged, however, so as to +prevent as much as possible the little fish finding hiding places, and +it is for this reason also that I have recommended slightly sloping +banks when the sides of the ponds are not made of cement. The weeds +should be planted some time before the little fish are turned out of +the boxes. + +Finally, I must caution my readers again on one or two points before I +leave the subject of the hatching trays, rearing boxes, and ponds. +Enamel, varnish, or charr all woodwork thoroughly, leaving no speck of +wood bare and no crack open. Let the water run through and over all your +ponds and apparatus for as long as possible before you begin +operations. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +TROUT. MANAGEMENT OF THE OVA AND ALEVINS + + +Everything should now be ready for the reception of the ova. The rearing +boxes are resting upon stones placed at the bottom of the ponds, with +the edges some six inches above the level of the water, and moored to +the sides to prevent their being moved by the current. The hatching +trays are suspended in the rearing boxes, or placed upon movable rests +in the boxes, with their edges just above the level of the water. + +Notice is usually sent a day or two before the ova are despatched from +fish cultural establishments, so the amateur has no excuse for not being +absolutely ready for their reception. They are packed in various ways, +and nowadays suffer but little in the transit. The ova should always be +carefully washed before they are placed in the hatching trays. Mr. +Armistead, in _A Handy Guide to Fish Culture_, says:--"If just turned +out of a packing case there may be small pieces of moss or other +material amongst them. In any case a wash will do them no harm, and the +process is a very simple one. Take a pail, half-filled with ova, and +then fill up with water, and with a small lading-can lift some of the +water out, and pour it back again, so as to cause a downward current, +which will agitate the ova. Their specific gravity being greater than +that of water, they immediately retire again to the bottom of the pail, +and by at once pouring off as much water as is practicable, any floating +particles of moss, etc., may be carried off. Should any be left, the +process should be repeated, and it may even be necessary to repeat it +several times. When all is right take a ladle, or small vessel of some +kind, say a good-sized tea-cup, and gently ladle out the eggs, and place +them roughly on the grills, where they may be roughly spread by means of +a feather." + +To these instructions I would add some for the amateur, who will +probably deal with a comparatively small number of ova. The ova should +be washed in some large vessel full of water in the manner above +described. When the water is quite clear, and the ova clean, they may be +caught in mid-water as they are sinking either in the hatching trays or +in a cup. If caught in a cup they should be transferred with great care +to the hatching trays, and spread out in a single and somewhat spare +layer. They must on no account be poured into the trays from a height. +While under water well-eyed ova will stand a good deal of gentle +tumbling about, but if dropped into the water from even a little height +the concussion is likely to kill them. + +Mr. Armistead recommends glass grills rather than trays such as I have +described, but I have found the trays work very well, and they are very +simple and clean. Glass grills are, however, very excellent, though they +necessitate a somewhat greater initial outlay than do the perforated +zinc trays. + +A German fish culturist has recently recommended keeping a stock of +fresh-water shrimps (_Gammarus pulex_) in the hatching trays and rearing +boxes. He says that the shrimps eat only the dead ova, and never touch +the living ones. They also eat any vegetable or animal _débris_. I have +never tried the experiment myself, and so cannot speak from experience. + +Dead ova should be always removed at once, and the hatching trays should +be gone over carefully once or twice a day to see if any are present in +them. Dead ova are easily recognized from the fact that they become +opaque and white. They are best removed with a glass tube. The thumb is +placed over one end of the tube, and the other end brought directly over +the dead ovum. When the thumb is removed from the end of the tube held +in the hand the water will rush up into the tube, carrying with it the +dead ovum. The thumb is then replaced over the end of the tube, which is +lifted from the water with the ovum retained in it. This tube may also +be used for removing any extraneous bodies which may get into the trays +or boxes. + +A form of fungus known as _Byssus_ grows upon dead ova, and it is +principally for this reason that they must be removed. Livingstone Stone +says of _Byssus_:--"With trout eggs in water at 40° or 50° Fahrenheit, +it generally appears within forty-eight hours after the egg turns white, +and often sooner, and the warmer the water the quicker it comes. It is +never quite safe to leave the dead eggs over twenty-four hours in the +hatching boxes. The peculiarity of _Byssus_ is that it stretches out its +long, slender arms, which grow rapidly over everything within its reach. +This makes it peculiarly mischievous, for it will sometimes clasp a +dozen or even twenty eggs in its Briarean grasp before it is discovered, +and any egg that it has seized has received its death warrant." Mr. +Armistead has known it appear within twenty-four hours. _Byssus_ +develops only on dead ova. + +_Saprolegnia_, known to fish culturists as "fungus," attacks both living +or dead ova. If the woodwork is properly varnished or charred, and the +ova managed thoroughly, there should, however, be but little risk of +fungus. Light is favourable to the growth of fungus, and, therefore, +wooden lids should be placed over the rearing boxes. These should be +kept partially on after the young fish have hatched out, and be replaced +by covers of fine wire netting spread on closely-fitting frames, when +the fry have begun to feed. These obviate the necessity of covering up +the ponds during the first stages. + +Many small creatures such as caddis-worms will eat the ova, and +therefore a careful watch should be kept upon the hatching trays as it +is marvellous how such creatures find their way in, in spite of all +precautions. Birds of several kinds are also likely to cause great +damage unless the ova and young fish are carefully guarded from their +depredations. + +In a short time, probably within a few days of receiving the ova, the +amateur will find that the young fish are beginning to hatch out. They +generally come out tail first, and in wriggling this about in their +attempts to get further out, they propel the ovum about the bottom of +the tray. When the little fish attempts to come out head first, he +sometimes gets into difficulties and if this is observed, he may be +helped by a gentle touch with a feather or a camel's hair brush. + +When first hatched out the young fish have a large translucent +protuberance on the under-surface. This is the umbilical or yolk-sac, +and contains the nourishment upon which the little fish lives during the +first stage of its life after it is hatched. This sac is gradually +absorbed but until it is absorbed the young fish are called "alevins." +At first the little fish do not require any food, but they generally +begin to feed in about six weeks, and before the yolk-sac is completely +absorbed. The rearing boxes should be kept partly covered, and the +alevins will crowd into a pack in the darker parts at the bottom of the +hatching tray. + +The shells of the ova must be removed from the hatching trays. As they +are lighter than the alevins, the current will generally carry them to +the lower end of the tray, whence they may be removed with a piece of +gauze spread on a wire ring, or by raising and lowering the tray gently +in the water in alternately slanting directions. + +The alevin stage is the stage in which the least mortality should be +expected, and the little fish give but little trouble. There are, +however, several diseases besides fungus (of which I have spoken already +when dealing with the ova) from which the alevins may suffer. + +I was, I believe, the first to describe (in the "Rainbow Trout") a +peculiar disease from which alevins suffered. When hatched out and kept +in water containing a very large quantity of air in solution, I found +that sometimes alevins developed an air bubble in the yolk-sac. On +developing this bubble they are unable to stay at the bottom as they +usually do, but swim about on their backs at the surface, with part of +the yolk-sac out of the water. An effectual cure for this is to put the +affected alevins into still water for about thirty-six hours. I have +observed this affection in the alevins of the rainbow trout (_Salmo +irideus_), the common trout (_S. fario_) and the Quinnat or Californian +Salmon (_Onchorynchus conicha_). + +"Blue Swelling" of the yolk-sac is another disease from which alevins +sometimes suffer, but I have never heard of any cure for this. Another, +"paralysis," may be caused by lack of sufficient current and by +insufficient aeration of the water. Sickly alevins will, as a rule, drop +out of the pack, and lie on the bottom or against the end of the +hatching tray, where they are carried by the current. + +Dead alevins should be removed at once, and for this reason it is +necessary that the hatching trays should be examined at least once a +day. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +TROUT. MANAGEMENT OF THE FRY + + +A greatly varying period of time having elapsed and the yolk-sacs of the +alevins being nearly absorbed, the fish culturist will see that some of +the little fish begin to leave the pack at the bottom of the tray, and +to swim up against the current. When this is observed some very finely +divided food should be offered to these alevins. They will probably dart +at the minute pieces of food floating past and a little more may then be +given to them. If, however, they do not take any notice of little pieces +of food or any other matter which floats past them, they should not be +tried again till the next day. In a few days from the first of the +alevins beginning to feed, all of them will be working up with their +heads to the current, darting at any particles floating in the water. +The tray should now be lowered so that its edge is some three or four +inches below the surface and the little fish allowed to swim out into +the box. + +As soon as the yolk-sacs of the alevins are absorbed the little fish +cease to be alevins, and are called "fry." + +The alevin stage was that in which the fish give least trouble, the +stage I am now describing is that in which they give most. They must be +fed frequently--at least four times a day. "Little and often" is the +maxim which should rule the actions of the fish culturist with regard to +feeding the fry. If he can only feed his fish four times a day, he must +spend some time on each of these four occasions. The food must not be +thrown in all at once. If this be done the little fish will not get half +of it; the other half will sink to the bottom. + +The food should be introduced in small quantities at a time, and if the +amateur has several boxes he should put a little food into each in +succession, coming back to the first when he has put some into the last, +repeating this operation at least half a dozen times. The less he puts +in at each time, and the oftener he does it, the better. The ideal plan +would be to put a very small quantity of food in each time, and to go on +doing this at intervals of from five to ten minutes all day. + +Livingstone Stone says, "You need not be afraid of the young fry's +eating too much." And again, "I never knew any healthy young fry of mine +decline eating but once, and then I had fed them incessantly for two +hours, at the end of which time they gave up, beaten." Personally, I +have found no limit to the time that the fry will continue feeding. I +have kept on putting small quantities of food into a rearing box for a +whole afternoon, and I was tired of feeding before the fry were tired of +eating. My reader will infer from this that I believe that the fry +cannot be over-fed, and this is to a certain extent true. If finely +divided food is given in such small quantities that practically none of +it sinks to the bottom without their having a fair chance at it, I +believe that in a box containing only a couple of thousand fry, it would +be found that they never stopped feeding during the whole day. If, +however, too large pieces of food are offered to the little fish, many +of them are likely to be choked and to die, from trying to swallow a +piece a little too big for them. + +The amateur will observe that shortly after the fry have been let out +into the box and are feeding freely, they will separate into two more or +less distinct groups. One at the upper end where the current comes in +and is strongest, and one at the lower end. The fish at the upper end +are the strongest and largest. This difference becomes more marked as +time goes on, and in six or eight weeks after they have begun to feed +the larger fish will be almost double the size of the smaller. In the +middle of April, if many fry are in each box, they should be thinned +out, and other boxes brought into use. The smaller fish may then be +taken from one or two boxes and put into another by themselves. In +feeding care should be taken that the small and weakly fish get a fair +share of the food. + +No matter how carefully the feeding is managed, some of the food is sure +to escape the young fish and sink to the bottom. This, if left as it is, +will decay and cause great mischief. A very simple and easily applied +remedy for this evil exists in the use of mould dissolved in the water. +Livingstone Stone recommends the mould under a sod, and I have always +used this with the most beneficial effect. Earth, besides covering up +and deodorizing the decomposing food at the bottom, also contains some +materials which are apparently necessary to the well-being of trout. To +quote again from Livingstone Stone, who was the discoverer of this use +of mould: "Earth or mud is the last thing one would suppose suitable for +a fish so associated in our minds with pure, clean water; yet it is an +indispensable constituent in the diet of young trout, and unless they +get it, either naturally or artificially, they will not thrive." + +The effect of earth given in this way upon the young fish is simply +marvellous. They become more lively and feed more freely. This is the +effect of a spate--which is, after all, only a dose of earth--upon wild +trout. + +The mould should be mixed with water in a bucket, and, when the water is +very thick and muddy, poured into the rearing boxes. The water in the +rearing boxes should be so thick that neither the bottom nor the young +fish, except when they come to the surface to take some passing particle +of food, can be seen. The amateur should not wait till something goes +wrong before giving this dose of earth; it is advisable to give it once +a week at any rate, and oftener if the fish seem to be ailing in any +way. + +In dealing with the subject of food for the young fish, I would begin by +impressing upon my reader that the greater variety of food he can give +the better it will be for the fish. He should also give them, at any +rate after they have been feeding some weeks, a certain proportion of +natural food. Probably the best of all food for the fry is pounded +shrimps or other crustaceans. It is, however, difficult in the very +early stages of the trout's life to pound shrimps up small enough, and +the little fish are much given to trying to swallow pieces of food which +are too large for them to manage. This evil proclivity often causes the +death of the fry, and therefore great care must be taken that no pieces +of food which are too large, get into the rearing box. Pounded liver +shaken up in a bottle with water, and after the larger particles have +been allowed to settle at the bottom, poured into the rearing box in +small quantities, is a good form of food for the alevins when they first +begin to feed. The yolks of eggs boiled for about half an hour and +pounded up, dog biscuit very finely pounded, or the fine food supplied +by several of the fish cultural establishments are also excellent. In +giving moist food such as pounded shrimps, liver, meat, or the yolks of +eggs, a good plan while the fry are very small is to put the food in a +small net made of fine muslin mounted on a wire ring, and dipping the +end of this net into the water, allow small particles to escape through +the muslin. This ensures no large pieces getting into the rearing boxes. +As the fry grow larger, these precautions are of course modified, as the +little fish are capable of swallowing larger pieces of food. + +With regard to natural food, the amateur should take care to ensure a +good stock for the young fish. Many of the creatures suitable for food +may be cultivated in separate ponds at the same time as the fish, if a +natural supply is not at hand. The _Daphnia pulex_ (water flea) and the +_Cyclops quadricornis_ may be introduced into the boxes very soon after +the fish have began to feed. _Daphnia_ breeds at the rate which is +almost inconceivable. The female produces her first brood of young when +she is ten days old, and goes on breeding at an average of three or four +times a month. The female and her progeny are rendered fertile by one +act of coition, probably for fifteen generations at least, without any +further intervention of the male. Both _Daphnia_ and _Cyclops_ are bred +in stagnant water in which there should be a good stock of weeds. + +The fresh water shrimp (_Gammarus pulex_) is an excellent form of food +for young and old trout, and should be given to the fry as soon as they +are old enough to manage them. _Corixæ_ and other small insects should +also be given as often as possible. The fresh-water shrimp is bred in +running water, _Corixæ_ in still or slow running water. Weeds are +necessary to the well-being of both. + +The boxes must be kept carefully covered, as I have already pointed out. +A kingfisher would make short work of a box of fry, and other birds and +beasts of various kinds are partial to them. There are only two courses +open to the fish culturist in dealing with these enemies--to protect his +fish or kill the enemies. I prefer to protect the fish first and kill +the enemies afterwards. + +The greatest care must be taken not to introduce, or allow to intrude, +any water beetles or the larger carnivorous aquatic larvæ of insects, +into the rearing boxes. I have known cases where the larvæ of the +_Dytiscus marginalis_, the largest of our carnivorous water beetles, +have destroyed almost all the fry in a rearing pond. The adult _D. +marginalis_ itself is not a whit less voracious, and much stronger than +its larva. + +If the wooden parts of the apparatus have been properly prepared, +according to my previous instructions, there should be no risk of the +fry developing fungus. Quite a small spot of woodwork, however, left +uncovered by asphalt-varnish, or enamel, or uncharred, will render the +chance of the development of this disease probable. + +Should by any misfortune fungus get into the rearing boxes, a dose of +salt may very likely cure it. Sea water is the best, but if this is not +obtainable, a solution of salt and water run through the boxes will +probably cure the disease. Considerable good may also be done to the +young fish by occasionally putting a lump of rock salt in at the inlet, +and the water allowed to run over and dissolve it. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +TROUT. THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FRY (_Continued_) + + +In the last chapter I brought my reader up to the point where the fry, +which had been feeding for some time in the rearing boxes, had been +judiciously separated, the weaker and smaller fish which took up their +positions at the lower ends of the boxes having been put into separate +boxes and induced as much as possible to keep at the head near to where +the current enters. + +It is difficult to lay down any certain rule as to what is the best time +at which to take the next step--that of turning the fry out into the +rearing ponds. When the fry have got into more or less regular habits, +and showing no fear of whoever it is who feeds them, come up readily and +seize the food boldly, is probably the best time to let them out into +the larger space of the pond. I do not mean to say that when a certain +proportion of the fish have got over their natural shyness, and feed +boldly and without hesitation, the whole of them should be set free. +What I mean is, that when the habit of associating the appearance of a +certain individual with a meal has been well established among them for +a week or so, they should be allowed to escape from the box into the +pond. + +This is best done in the same way that the alevins were allowed to +escape from the hatching tray into the box--by lowering the level of the +box so that its upper edges are some two or three inches below the +surface of the water. The food should now be thrown into the pond higher +up, so that the little fish may be induced to swim up and station +themselves as near the inlet as possible. Probably some of the little +fish will not leave the box at all of their own free will. These, of +course, will have to be turned out. The box should not, however, be +lifted out of the water and the fish and water together be poured out, +as this is very likely to cause them severe injury. The box should be +gradually tilted over and lifted out of the water bottom first, so that +the fish are hardly disturbed at all and certainly not injured in any +way. + +An important matter to consider before turning the little fish out into +the pond is, how the ponds are to be protected so that their many +enemies may be kept away from the fry. Kingfishers, herons, and other +creatures are very partial to young trout and will cause enormous +destruction if not prevented. Kingfishers have, in my experience, been +the worst offenders. Some years ago I was rearing some trout in a part +of the country where many of the inhabitants bewailed the extermination +of the kingfisher. Before I began rearing trout I agreed with these +people, for a kingfisher flitting along a stream looking like a little +mass of jewels is a pleasing sight, and one which I had never enjoyed in +that particular part of the country. + +When the time came to set my little fish free in the rearing ponds, as a +matter of principle I covered the ponds with herring-net, closely pegged +down on the banks so that I could not even get my hand under the edge. I +did not think that there were any kingfishers or herons about, and so +was very surprised when one morning, on going down to feed the fish, I +found a kingfisher under the net, flying up and down the pond trying to +get out. By carefully introducing a landing-net under the netting over +the pond, I was able to catch the intruder, and caught four more in the +same way in about three weeks. Since that time I have not agreed with +the people who have stated that the kingfisher is almost extinct, at +least in that part of the country. I may say that there are but few +streams there, and that it is not at all an apparently likely place for +kingfishers. I am quite sure that wherever any one begins to rear fish +there he will find that kingfishers are fairly common. The amateur will +probably be also surprised at the way herons appear, if he conducts his +fish-rearing operations, as he should do, in a secluded spot. + +Many of the directions I gave as to the management of the fry and the +rearing boxes, apply also to the fry after they have been turned out +into the ponds. The doses of earth should still be given regularly, and +salt may be applied also in the way I have already described. The little +fish will be found to scatter over the pond or to divide again into two +bodies, one at the upper and one at the lower end of the pond, as they +did in the boxes. The fish culturist should try to induce these fish to +come to the head of the pond as much as possible. It is a good thing to +place some boards across the head of the pond to give shade and shelter +to the fry. It will probably be found that if much artificial food is +given to the little fish, a scum will be formed on the surface of the +water. This scum is composed of grease, and should be removed, as soon +as it is observed, with a gauze net. + +All the time that these operations have been going on with regard to the +little fish themselves, due attention should have been given to the +vegetation round the ponds. The alders and willows which I before +recommended to be planted round the ponds should be induced as much as +possible to overhang the water. Grass and other vegetation should be +allowed to grow freely round the margins, as many insects are then +likely to fall into the water. + +This vegetation will supply the little fish with a certain amount of +natural floating food, without any interference on the part of the fish +culturist; but he should, however, give them other floating food, both +natural and artificial, as much as possible, for this will get them in +their youth to adopt the habit of feeding freely at the surface. When +the alders and willows have grown sufficiently and are well covered with +leaves, they will probably give enough shelter to the fish to make the +boards at the upper end of the pond unnecessary. + +As time goes on, and the little fish grow, they should be thinned out, +the smaller and weaker being removed into another pond. Despite the best +endeavours of the fish culturist, a certain number of these small fish +are sure to keep to the lower end of the pond, and it is these which +should be removed first. If they are left, the difference in size +between the smaller and the larger will soon become so great that the +large fish will very likely be tempted to eat the small ones, thus +developing a cannibalistic habit which they will keep always. + +At the end of August or the beginning of September the little fish will +have got over the most dangerous part of their lives. After this time +they are called yearlings, are much more hardy and not subject to nearly +as many risks as up to that time. + +The great points to remember are:--That the food should be varied as +much as possible; and as much natural food, of a hard description such +as shrimps, _corixæ_, snails, bivalves, etc., be given. That the little +fish should be well protected from enemies. That they should not be +over-crowded, but the weakly and small fish be separated from the larger +fish. That frequent doses of earth should be given to keep the bottom +sweet and clean.[2] That the inlets and outlets should be frequently +cleaned and kept clear, to ensure a good flow of water through the +ponds, and that a careful watch should be kept for such misfortunes as +fungus and dead fish, in order that they may be dealt with at once. + +[2] See two letters in Appendix.--Page 93 + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +TROUT. THE FRIENDS AND ENEMIES OF THE FISH CULTURIST + + +The creatures which are sometimes found in and around rearing ponds +containing ova or young fish are very numerous, and it is advisable that +the fish culturist should have some knowledge of them. It is for this +reason, that while I cautioned my readers against the creatures which +are dangerous, and enumerated some of those most serviceable as food, I +left detailed descriptions of these enemies and friends of the little +fish, in order that I might deal with them in a separate chapter. + +[Illustration: LARVA OF _DYTISCUS_ AND YOUNG TROUT.] + +Among the worst enemies of both ova and fry is the _Dytiscus +marginalis_, whether this insect be in the larval or adult stage. I +think that I should hardly be wrong in going even further and saying +that _D. marginalis_ is very dangerous to trout early in their yearling +stage. The accompanying illustration shows a larva of _Dytiscus_ +which has caught a young trout. This illustration is taken from a +photograph of a specimen lent to me by Mr. F. M. Halford, and both the +fish and the larva were alive when they were caught. Unfortunately the +trout is a little shrivelled, and the legs of the _Dytiscus_ have been +broken. _D. marginalis_ lays its eggs in the stems of rushes. The larva, +when hatched, makes its way out, and proceeds to lead a predatory life. +The larva when full-grown is about two inches long, and is quite the +most rapacious creature which lives in our waters. The adult beetle is +also purely carnivorous, but is perhaps not quite so rapacious. It +would, however, probably attack a larger fish. + +The largest of English water beetles is _Hydrophilus piceus_. This +beetle is not, in the adult stage at least, carnivorous, but the larva, +which is about half an inch longer and considerably fatter than that of +_D. marginalis_, is carnivorous. It may be told from the larva of +_Dytiscus_ not only by its size, which is hardly a reliable point for +discrimination, but by the smaller size of the head in comparison to the +rest of the body. The claws, with which _Hydrophilus_ seizes its prey, +are, too, considerably smaller than those of _Dytiscus_. This larva +should be kept out of the rearing ponds with just as much care as that +of the more voracious _D. marginalis_. + +With the kingfisher I have already dealt at some length, so that I need +say but little more with regard to it. One of the worst features in this +bird's character is that it will go on killing many more little fish +than it can possibly eat. As I have before said, it is surprising how +these birds will appear in considerable numbers where a fish hatchery is +started, even in localities where they have before been considered rare. +I have already described how the ponds should be protected from their +ravages. + +Herons do a great deal of harm to fish ponds, even when the fish have +got well into the yearling stage. I have on one or two occasions known +of herons wounding trout of at least a pound in weight. Besides the +actual damage they do by killing fish, they put all the other fish in +the pond off their feed through frightening them. After a heron or +kingfisher has been about a rearing pond the little fish will not feed +for a considerable time, sometimes even for days. Notwithstanding their +very evil proclivities, both herons and kingfishers are very +interesting. A kingfisher, if he catches a fish which is a little too +big for him to swallow whole, will knock the head of the fish, which he +always catches by the middle of the body, against a stone, in order to +kill it, or at least to stop it struggling; it might otherwise in its +struggles escape, as the kingfisher can only swallow a fish head first. +There are stories which tell how herons sometimes pluck small feathers +from their breasts and, floating these feathers upon the water, catch +the trout as they rise to it; it is supposed that the trout takes the +feather for a fly. Personally, I do not think that much credence should +be attached to the latter story. + +Other birds, usually found on or near the water, are also likely to do +much harm to the ova and young fish. Almost every creature which is +found near the water seems to have a great liking for the ova of fishes. +All the wading and swimming birds are to be dreaded by the fish +culturist. They will, all of them, eat ova in enormous quantities, and +many of them will also eat the little fish. + +Besides birds, small larvæ of several insects will eat, or at any rate +kill, the ova in considerable numbers. Caddis-worms are among these +larvæ which eat ova. This seems to be one of the few cases in which +nature is just, for caddis-worms are taken very readily by even small +trout. Large trout will take them very greedily, cases and all. +Therefore, I should advise the fish culturist to cultivate them as food +for the fish he is rearing, but to be very careful that they do not get +into the rearing boxes or hatching trays when he has ova in them. The +caddis-worms kill the ova by making a small hole in them and sucking +some of the contents out; from this hole some more of the contents +escapes, and as it comes into contact with the water becomes opaque. + +Caddis-worms are the larvæ of an order of four-winged flies commonly +known as sedges, caddis-flies, or water-moths. The latter appellation is +of course a misnomer, as these flies (_Trichoptera_) have nothing +whatever to do with moths. They resemble moths, however, in that they +have four wings which when at rest lie in much the same position as do +those of moths, and as many of them have their wings thickly covered +with hairs, this resemblance is sometimes very marked. The larvæ +(caddis-worms), being eagerly sought as food by many fish, and having +very soft bodies, make for themselves cases. Some of these cases are +made from small sticks, some from little pieces of stone or sand, and +some from a mixture of all of these substances. As these cases resemble +such small pieces of rubbish as are frequently found in streams, care +should be taken that they do not get into the hatching trays containing +ova. + +Many of the water beetles, and practically all of their larvæ, will +attack the ova; they should therefore be carefully excluded from the +hatching trays. As there are about 114 different species of beetles in +the family of _Dytiscidæ_ alone, my readers will appreciate my reason +for not attempting to enumerate them. It will be a sufficient warning to +state the fact that they are all carnivorous, and their relative sizes +is the only thing which will decide whether the beetle will eat the +fish, or the fish the beetle. + +Very similar to beetles are some of the water-bugs. They may, however, +easily be distinguished from beetles, as the outer or anterior wings of +the bugs cross each other at their lower ends, while the elytra of +beetles, which much resemble the horny, anterior wings of some of the +water-bugs, meet exactly in the middle line. These water-bugs, though +some of them are excellent food for even the small fish, will attack the +ova, and therefore they should be kept out of the hatching trays. The +fish culturist should, however, whenever it is possible, cultivate such +of these water-bugs as are good food for the fry in separate ponds, as I +have before recommended. The best of these water-bugs are _Corixæ_. +Others, such as the water-boatman, water-scorpions and pond-skaters, are +not of any value as food for the fish. + +The larvæ of _Ephemeridæ_ are very good food for the fish, and should be +cultivated in separate ponds if possible, and some turned into the ponds +containing the little fish occasionally. A fair proportion should, +however, be kept in the ponds and protected, so that a good stock of the +flies may be available next year. + +The larvæ of _Ephemeridæ_ may be obtained in many streams, and are best +caught with a fine gauze net. Some of them swim, but most are generally +captured with such a net at the bottom of the water among the _débris_. +Eggs of _Ephemeridæ_ may be obtained sometimes from another locality if +they cannot be got on the spot. These should be carefully preserved for +the first year at any rate, and a good fly may thus be introduced into a +water where it was before unknown. + +I have already spoken of the fresh-water shrimp and the water-flea +(_Daphnia pulex_). These valuable articles of diet should be introduced +whenever it is possible. _Daphnia_ must be reared in a stagnant pond, +the fresh-water shrimp (_Gammarus pulex_) in running water, with plenty +of weeds. + +Other useful creatures besides those snails and mussels which I +described in a previous chapter, are the water-louse (_Asellus +aquaticus_), _Cypridæ_, and _Cyclops quadricornis_. Asellus is very +similar in size and shape to the common garden-louse, which is found in +decaying wood. It will live either in stagnant or running water. +_Cypridæ_ are very much smaller, being generally only as large as a +large pin's head. They have a bivalve shell which makes them look +something like a small mussel. They are, however, very active, swimming +by means of two pairs of legs. They also possess two pairs of antennæ +and one eye. (The species belonging to the genus _Candona_ of the family +_Cypridæ_, do not swim.) _Cyclops_ is another very small crustacean, +shaped like a large-headed club. It swims very actively, and, like the +_Cypridæ_, is an excellent article of diet for very young fish. Both +these crustacea live in stagnant water, and must, therefore, be kept in +a separate pond, whence they may be taken as required to be given to the +fry. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +TROUT. MANAGEMENT, FEEDING, AND TURNING OUT OF YEARLINGS + + +As I pointed out to my readers in Chapter VIII., the young trout have +after August passed the critical period of their existence, and may be +considered safe and hardy. Naturally, as they get older, they require +more food, but this need not be given so frequently as the fish grow +older. While it was necessary to feed the fry at least four times a day, +it will be found quite sufficient if the fish in August are fed only +twice during the twenty-four hours. I must here again impress upon my +reader the importance of feeding the trout upon as natural a food as +possible. Their future well-being depends upon this, much more than is +generally realized even by fish culturists. Of course, trout fed +entirely upon soft food may turn out all right, particularly if they are +turned out as very young yearlings, but it is better not to leave +anything to chance and make sure of being on the safe side. + +As was the case with the fry during the whole of the earlier part of +their lives, the yearlings will divide into two more or less separate +packs, though the fish may have been separated several times before in +order to divide those which kept at the head from those which kept at +the lower end of the pond. Those trout at the lower end must be coaxed +to the upper end as much as possible, care being taken when feeding that +all the fish get a fair share of food. Should any of the fish remain +obstinately at the lower end, and those at the upper end outgrow them to +a marked extent, the smaller ones must be again separated from the +larger. + +When, in September or October, the little fish have grown active and +strong, they may be turned out into the water they are to occupy for the +rest of their lives. There is really no reason why, if they are +well-grown and strong, they should not be turned out in August if the +water they have to be taken to is quite close to the rearing ponds, but +if they have to be carried any distance, it is better to keep them in +the rearing ponds for a few weeks longer, till the weather gets cool +enough to make it quite safe to allow for a possible delay in the +transit. + +The turning out of the fish requires some little care. I have seen fish +which had been sent by rail, poured out with the water contained in the +cans, in as hurried a manner as possible. Though of course it is +important to get the fish out of the cans used for transport as soon as +is compatible with safety; still, undue haste in this operation is +likely to do much harm. Young fish of any kind require delicate +handling, and young trout particularly. The cans should, when possible, +be partly emptied, and some water from that into which they are to be +turned put into the can. This is of course not necessary if the rearing +ponds are supplied from the same source as the water into which the fish +are turned. The cans should then be partially immersed in the water, and +the edges brought gradually below the surface. This allows the fish to +swim out of the cans of their own accord, and the few which will not go +out may be forced to do so by gently turning the can upside down. + +It is a very good thing to give each of the fish a dose of salt before +turning them out, particularly if they have travelled any distance. This +is easily managed by catching the fish, a few at a time, in a +landing-net from the travelling can, and then, instead of putting them +straight into the water, putting them into a bucket of salt and water +for a short time. Sea water is of course better if it is available. This +does away with any risk of their developing fungus on the spots which +have very likely got bruised during the journey. + +The yearlings are best taken from the rearing ponds by netting them. A +net which is more than broad enough to go across the rearing pond is +necessary. Too many should not be taken out at a time in each haul of +the net, as they are thus more likely to be injured or dropped on the +ground. The amateur should not forget, that though the little fish will +stand a good deal of moving about as long as they are in water, they are +likely to be killed, or at least severely injured, by a shock, +particularly if that shock is sustained while they are out of the water +for a second or two during their being moved from one place to another. + +If the amateur intends to keep any of his yearlings longer than +December, he will have to make a larger pond. This pond need not be a +long, narrow one like those in which the fry were kept. Though the fish +of course still require a sufficient supply of well-aerated water, a +larger pond without the same marked current through it will do perfectly +well. They must be well fed, and if any grow markedly bigger than the +rest these should be separated. If they are not well supplied with food +they are very likely to try and eat each other, that is to say, the +largest will try to eat the smallest. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE REARING OF THE RAINBOW TROUT, AMERICAN BROOK TROUT, AND CHAR + + +As the methods used in hatching out the ova and rearing the young fish +are very similar in the case of different species of trout to those I +have already described in dealing with the common trout (_Salmo fario_), +I will confine myself to pointing out the most marked differences in the +habits of such species as are suitable to our waters, and which are +likely to be of use to the fish culturist. The salmon- or sea-trout will +be dealt with under salmon. + +First and foremost among the trout, excluding of course our own brown +trout, I put the rainbow trout (_Salmo irideus_). There are several +varieties of this species, but that which is now being so freely +introduced into many waters in England is the McCloud River rainbow (_S. +irideus_, var. _shasta_). As I have before stated, the rainbow spawns +long after the _S. fario_. It therefore will give the fly-fishermen good +sport after the season for the common trout is over. It is a very free +feeder, and grows more rapidly than our trout; great care must therefore +be taken to give it plenty of food. I would draw my readers' attention +particularly to this fact as to the feeding and quick-growing qualities +of the rainbow, for they make it, if possible, even more necessary that +the water into which they are turned should contain a good supply of +food than it was in the case of the common trout; though even in the +case of the common trout, this is quite the most important consideration +in stocking a water with fish. + +Another advantage possessed by the rainbow is, that it is less liable to +the attacks of fungus than any other of the _Salmonidæ_. Though, of +course, this is not such an important consideration nowadays as it would +have been even a few years ago, still it is one which deserves some +consideration, particularly from the amateur. This freedom from fungus +is very marked in the rainbow, for I know of a case where some dace +suffering from fungus were put into a rearing pond containing a few +rainbows. Though the dace died of the disease, the rainbows remained +healthy and free from it. The amateur will probably receive the ova of +the rainbow towards the end of April or during May. The ova should hatch +out within a few days of their being received. + +A few years, I might almost say months ago, the great majority of +disinterested persons, whose opinion was of any consequence, were +inclined to condemn the general introduction of this fish into our +waters. I was, unfortunately, supposed to be among a certain class of +people who advocated the general introduction of this fish into all our +waters indiscriminately. This, I have always said, was a very +short-sighted policy, for, to begin with, the evidence at our disposal +seems to show that the rainbow will never thrive in cold waters, and at +the best can only be expected to really thrive and spawn in the warm +waters in the south of England. I never advocated more for the rainbow +than that it should have a fair trial in waters where our own trout had +been tried and found not to be a success. Now, however, I in my turn +stand a chance of being converted by converts from among the very people +who, a short time ago, were condemning me for holding too favourable an +opinion of the fish in question. I am inclined to think that in the +case of a pond in the south, even when it is supplied by a good stream, +the rainbow is the better fish with which to stock. I have been led to +believe this, partly through my own experience, and partly on account of +the opinion of Mr. Senior, for I consider his opinion on such a matter +of the greatest possible value. + +Another point about the rainbow, which in many cases will recommend it +particularly to the amateur, is that though of course an abundant supply +of water is an advantage, it may be reared with a smaller supply. + +A fish which has been very freely introduced into British waters is the +American brook-trout (_Salvelinus fontinalis_). Though this fish is not +really a trout but a char I have included it among trout, because it is +so very generally known to fishermen as the American brook-trout. The +_fontinalis_, as it is commonly called by fish culturists, is a very +satisfactory fish to rear artificially, but there seems to be some doubt +as to its suitability to British waters. It grows to a considerable size +under favourable conditions, and is one of the best of table fishes. It +is, however, undoubtedly one of the worst of cannibals among sporting +fishes, and does not apparently rise freely to the fly when about two +years old and older. + +The spawning season is extended over an even longer period than that of +our own brown trout, beginning, in its native country, in October, and +sometimes lasting till March. It shows a very marked tendency, at any +rate in America, to go down to the sea, and in some parts of Canada is +called a sea-trout. The fish are easy to rear, but I should recommend +great caution with regard to their introduction into any waters in +England. The remarks and instructions which I gave with regard to the +common trout, apply also to the _fontinalis_, but I would lay particular +stress upon the necessity of separating the fish, as soon as some grow +larger than the rest. The only drawback to this fish, from the fish +culturist's point of view, is that though a very free feeder, it is very +dainty, sometimes refusing a particular kind of food for no apparent +reason. As the spawning season is extended over such a considerable +period of time, it is obvious that the amateur will be able to obtain +the ova, ready to hatch out, during a similarly lengthy period. + +A fish which I should very much like to see tried in England, is the +cut-throat trout (_Salmo mykiss_). It is also known as the red-throat +trout. I should think, from the description given in the report of the +Commission of Fisheries, Game, and Forests for the State of New York, +that it would do well in many of our waters. There are many varieties of +this species of trout. The common name of them all is _Salmo mykiss_, +the black-spotted trout of the Rocky Mountains. The cut-throat trout +proper, so called from the red colour of its throat, is simply S. +mykiss, but there are many varieties described. Among these are the +Columbia River trout (_S. mykiss_, var. _clarkii_), the Lake Tahoe trout +(_S. mykiss_, var. _henshawi_), the Rio Grande trout (_S. mykiss_, var. +_spilurus_), and the Colorado River trout (_S. mykiss_, var. +_pleuriticus_). As these names show, the black-spotted trout has a very +wide range and is found in what are totally different climates. I should +very much like to see the cut-throat and the Columbia River varieties +tried in our waters, particularly the former, as they would probably +succeed in waters which are too cold for the rainbow, and might very +likely thrive where our own trout (_S. fario_) is not a success. As it +is found in climates which vary so much as do Alaska and California, it +would probably be easy to find one variety, if not two or three, which +would thrive in England. It is a particularly fine trout, and the +ordinary maximum weight is five or six pounds, though some of the +varieties grow much larger. + +Char, proper, are not at all satisfactory fish to rear. They are very +delicate, and require much more care and attention than do any of the +fish I have already described. From the very first period of their +coming under the care of the amateur fish culturist, that is to say, +from the ova, just before hatching out, till they are yearlings, the +mortality among them will be much greater than in the case of any of the +trout. + +The two kinds of char, most commonly to be obtained by the amateur, are +the Alpine and the Windermere char. The ova of these fish will be +received shortly before they are ready to hatch out, as was the case +with the trout ova. The amateur's difficulties will, however, begin +almost at once, for in the act of hatching out considerable mortality +among the char often occurs. Trout almost invariably emerge from the egg +tail first. As soon as the tail is free the little fish begins to move +it rapidly, using it as a propeller with which to swim about and thus +soon works completely out of the egg. Occasionally, however, trout +hatch out head first, and in these cases the young fish generally dies +before it can set itself free from the coverings of the ovum. Buckland +observed that the alevins of the char very frequently hatch out head +first, and consequently that many of them die before they can work +themselves free from the eggs. If it were possible to have some one +constantly watching the ova at the time that they are hatching out, it +would be possible to save a very large proportion of them, as they may +be very effectually helped out of the egg with a feather or soft +camel's-hair brush; but this is, of course, quite impracticable, unless +there is some one constantly watching the ova, as the delay of even a +few minutes will mean the death of the fish. This peculiarity in the +hatching out of the char has also been observed by Mr. J. J. Armistead, +and I have been able to verify it personally. + +The mortality which occurs in the actual hatching out of the alevins +does not, however, by any means end the trouble which the fish culturist +has to encounter in the rearing of char. They require much more +persuasion and care when they begin to feed and throughout the whole of +the summer. The percentage of deaths is always greater than in the case +of the trouts, not excluding the _fontinalis_, which is, as I have +already explained, not really a trout but a char. + +Though there must be some doubt as to its success, I should like to see +a really serious attempt at introducing char into some deep and large +ponds in the south of England. Char have been very successfully reared +in shallow water, which was certainly not kept at a particularly low +temperature, so I see no reason why this fish should not do in some of +our more southern waters. One drawback to the chance of this attempt +being made, however, is that the char cannot be considered as being a +fish which gives very good sport, and I very much doubt whether any one +is likely to try the experiment simply to find out whether they would or +would not succeed in the south of England. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +SALMON AND SEA-TROUT + + +In many ways nature is apparently very wasteful, and in nothing is this +more marked than in the case of the salmon. Probably not more than one +egg in a thousand produces a fish which reaches the smolt stage, and a +still smaller proportion grows to the spawning stage. This great +mortality which occurs among the eggs and young fish when left to nature +may be very considerably reduced by artificial means, so that a very +fair proportion of the eggs deposited by the female fish will not only +be hatched out successfully, but the little fish will reach the smolt +stage safely and have a good chance of reaching the sea. How successful +artificial intervention may be has been proved over and over again in +the United States and in Canada. In the case of more than one river in +Canada, the artificial propagation and protection of salmon has resulted +in what is apparently the actual manufacture of a salmon river, +yielding an annual haul of fish far beyond anything known in Europe, +from a river which before yielded no salmon, or hardly any. + +These operations, carried out by the State, were of course far beyond +anything which could be undertaken by the amateur, but I am sure that if +several riparian owners on a salmon river carried on artificial hatching +and rearing operations for several seasons, a marked increase in the +number of fish in the river would ensue. The objection of most people to +this course is that it is unfortunately only too apparent that they are +benefiting chiefly, not the rod fisherman, but the netsman at the mouth +of the river. + +The different artificial means used to help nature in producing a good +head of salmon in a river vary chiefly in the amount of the help given +by each. It will suffice to say that the best is that which provides for +the protection and feeding of the young fish till it is ready to take +its first journey to the sea. The reason of this is obvious, as every +day passed in safety is a day gained, both in strength and in power of +self-preservation. + +Though it is possible to purchase a certain number of salmon ova, this +is not at all a satisfactory way of obtaining them. To begin with, it is +impossible to get them in sufficient numbers to carry out operations on +a large enough scale. Salmon ova are also expensive; and it is no use +working with less than half a million in several stations if the river +is of any size. It is advisable that the ova should be obtained from the +fish. This may be done either by collecting the ova deposited by the +fish in the spawning beds or from the gravid females. The latter course +necessitates the ripe female and male fish being caught and artificially +spawned. As in nature, at best but a comparatively small percentage of +the ova are impregnated, and by artificial spawning over ninety per +cent. of them may be successfully hatched out, there can be but little +doubt as to which is the better way. It is difficult to make sure of +catching the fish just at the time they are ripe, so it is advisable to +impound them in a fenced-off portion of the river, where they may be got +at easily. + +In the ripe female the ova flow out very readily, and but little +pressure is necessary. Hard pressure on the abdomen should never be +applied, as it is sure to injure the fish. A ripe female having been +obtained, from which the ova flow readily, the female is held over a +perfectly clean tin or earthenware dish--wet, but containing no +water--and the ova are caused to flow into it by gently but firmly +pressing the hand on the abdomen, and stroking it down towards the vent. +Milt from a ripe male fish is then allowed to run over the ova in the +dish, and is made to run well between them by tilting the dish about +from side to side. The ova will now adhere together, and some water +should be added. This water should be poured off and fresh added till +the superfluous milt is washed away, when the ova should be left in the +water till they separate, which will be in about twenty minutes or half +an hour. + +The fertilized ova thus obtained may either be laid down in artificially +protected hatching beds, or may be transferred to a hatchery. The latter +proceeding, of course, requires a hatching house specially built and +arranged, and as this is outside the scope of the present work, I would +refer my readers to larger works upon the subject, such as _An Angler's +Paradise_, by J. J. Armistead. Of course, by using a hatchery a large +number of the eggs will be saved, ninety per cent. of them should hatch +out. This is, therefore, obviously the best way to proceed. A very much +larger number of eggs will, however, be hatched out in properly-chosen +artificial beds than would be the case if they were left to nature. + +The necessary qualities of a good artificial bed are, a good supply of +clean water which is not liable if there is a spate to deposit sediment +on the eggs, protection from light, and protection from the many +creatures which prey upon the ova. The hatching beds may be so arranged +that the young fish may escape as soon as they like after hatching out, +but it is best to watch and protect them for at any rate the first few +weeks after they have begun to feed, and while continuing the feeding, +to allow those of the fish that wish to escape. + +The rearing of young salmon and sea-trout is practically the same as +that of the common trout, except that they require more water. If kept +in rearing ponds they grow more quickly than they do when left to find +food for themselves. While young, the salmon is marked with transverse +bars of a darker colour than the rest of the body. During the time it +bears these marks it is known as a parr.[3] In about fifteen months it +loses these marks and becomes quite silvery, being now known as a smolt. +Shortly after assuming the smolt dress, the young salmon takes its +departure to the sea. In some cases the young salmon do not appear to go +down to the sea till over two years after being hatched out, but they +should always be set at liberty in March, April, or May in the year +following that in which they were hatched out, according to how far they +have developed the smolt or silver appearance. + +[3] All the trouts go through this stage, which is distinguished by +"finger marks" upon the sides. + +If spring water is obtainable, particularly if the water, as is usually +the case, is of an even temperature throughout the year, the troubles of +the fish culturist are considerably lessened. Without a building for the +hatching troughs it is almost impossible in many places to guard against +frost unless such a spring is available. Sediment may be avoided by +putting frames covered with flannel at the inlets to the hatching beds, +these will, if kept clean, prevent any sediment from coming into the +ponds, and will allow plenty of water to flow in. If hatching trays are +not used, the bottom of the artificial bed should be covered with clean +gravel. + +The time which elapses from the impregnation of the eggs to their +hatching out varies according to the temperature of the water, a fairly +average time is about ninety days. The ova should be watched during this +time, and the dead ones removed. For a short time after they are +impregnated they are fairly hardy, but from then till shortly before +they hatch out the very slightest concussion will kill or seriously +injure them. + +The management of sea-trout ova is similar to that of salmon, and the +ova are obtained in the same way. As in the case of the salmon it is +best to rear the little fish artificially, till they are ready to go +down to the sea; they will thus escape dangers likely to cause the loss +of about eighty per cent. of their number. + +The same methods and the same precautions as advised in the chapters on +rearing trout should be adopted in the case of salmon and sea-trout as +far as is possible, and if this is done a very large percentage of the +ova should be successfully reared to the smolt stage. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +COARSE FISH + + +Compared to what is known about the early part of the life history of +the _Salmonidæ_, our knowledge of coarse fish is small. Fortunately, +however, such lengthy and complicated proceedings as are necessary to +obtain a good stock of trout are not necessary to obtain a good stock of +coarse fish. If even a few rudd, perch, dace, pike, or carp are put into +water where they have a good supply of food to begin with, and which is +suitable otherwise for their well-being, the amateur's chief trouble +after a few years, if the water is not heavily fished, will be to keep +down the stock of coarse fish in proportion to the supply of food. + +I have seen many cases where rudd, perch, dace and carp have increased +to an enormous extent from a few fish introduced into the water. Some +four years ago we put a few small rudd into a mill-pond at home, +thinking that the fry they produced would serve admirably as food to the +trout which also inhabited the pond. In about twenty months the pond was +full of small rudd, and last year we netted out many hundred, as the +water was terribly over-stocked with them. The same thing has happened +in almost every case which has come to my knowledge; that is, of course, +where the waters have been stocked with food, and suitable to the fish +introduced. + +The way in which dace will increase when put into a suitable water is, +if possible, even more remarkable than what happens in the case of the +rudd. I will quote one instance, which proves this very conclusively. A +few years ago there were no dace in the Sussex Ouse. Pike fishermen, +however, used to bring live dace to use as baits. Some of these escaped, +or were set free by the fishermen at the end of their day's fishing, and +now the Sussex Ouse contains more dace for its size than any other river +I have ever seen. + +While rudd thrive best in a pond or lake into which a stream flows, dace +require a river or stream to do well. They will, however, thrive and +increase rapidly in a river where trout are not a success. A muddy +bottom with occasional quickly running shallows, seem to constitute the +best kind of water for dace. The largest, and by far the best +conditioned dace I have seen, have come from the tidal parts of rivers, +where the water is brackish at high water. Dace from such a water have +also the advantage of being very good eating, as they have, as a rule, +not got the unpleasant muddy taste usual in this fish. + +Perch and pike will thrive both in rivers and in ponds or lakes which +have a supply of water from a stream or from springs. They both increase +in numbers very rapidly, and when protected, are more likely to require +thinning down every few years, than artificial assistance from the +amateur. + +The king-carp is the best fish for the amateur who wishes to obtain good +bottom fishing from an absolutely stagnant pond. This fish is much +bolder and a more free feeder than the common carp. It increases so +rapidly in numbers, and is a hard fighting and lively fish. + +Most of the coarse fish deposit a much larger number of eggs than do any +of the _Salmonidæ_--that is to say, in proportion to their size. In +stocking a water which contains no fish, the amateur may wish to hurry +on the process of nature in the case of coarse fish; and, fortunately, +this is fairly easily managed. In the case of perch, rudd, pike, and +carp, but little change of water is required to hatch out the eggs. The +eggs of these fish take but a short time to hatch; and if they are +protected, and this protection is also given to the little fish for a +few weeks, it will generally be found that an amply sufficient result is +obtained. The eggs should be spread out carefully on wicker-work or the +lids of baskets and kept in the light. A trickle of water which is +sufficient to change the body of water in the pond in which the ova are +put will, as a rule, be enough. The amateur must be careful that the +pond in which he hatches the eggs does not contain any of the many +enemies I have described in former chapters. If it is at all possible to +protect the eggs and the little fish, it is best to hatch out the eggs +in the pond which it is intended to stock, for it is exceedingly +difficult to keep the newly-hatched fish in a rearing-pond on account of +their very small size. It will be necessary to use muslin or flannel +screens instead of perforated zinc. Care must be taken that there is not +too great a flow of water, as this will cause the little fish to be +drowned at the outlet screen. + + + + +APPENDIX + +THE USE OF EARTH IN REARING PONDS + +[From a correspondence upon the subject which appeared in _Land and +Water_] + + +SIR,--In your last issue I have read with pleasure the eminently +practical notes on fish culture by Mr. Charles Walker. He is perfectly +right in all he says with reference to the useful and preventive results +of the use of "common garden" earth, or vegetable mould in checking any +fungoid development, _Saprolegnia_ or other. It must, however, be +admitted that the said addition is not an element of beauty in a box; +therefore it should be avoided, or only used when necessity dictates. +However, the fry, when thoroughly restored to health, may be transferred +by muslin net to another box free from earth should it be necessary to +count out certain numbers for the satisfaction of customers' orders. +Again, the earth employed may, and in some waters does, give rise to +other ill effects on the health of the "fry" or young fishes. Affection +of the eye is not unheard of as the result of over-use of earth. Perhaps +the best way to obviate any trouble of this nature would be to pound and +dry the earth, and keep it in a canister or other closed vessel till +required for use. Spores of fungi are nearly, if not quite, omnipresent; +and their effects are so insidious that too many precautions cannot +well be taken to avert the introduction of "trouble" in the hatchery. +Indeed, were it not for the risks arising from attacks of fungi, +pisciculture, as now understood and carried on, would be an unalloyed +pleasure and unbounded success. We can practically hatch 995 out of +1,000 eggs, or thereabouts. It is the risks of rearing that stand in our +road, and these, as time goes on, and experience increases, must +diminish. There would appear, then, to be a good time coming for fish +culture, and those who earnestly follow it. + +Practice is the only safe guide, as circumstances, geological, physical, +and meteorological so vary the conditions of works that no definite rule +of procedure will avail. Earnest work and close observation, combined +with ready resource, are the only safe guides to success. Troubles of +some sort are sure to supervene; the man who succeeds is he who can +anticipate, and so remedy them. To be always on the watch and notice the +first indication is a very safe maxim, more easy to inculcate than to +put in practice. + +There can be no question but that the practical removal of difficulties +in the path of fish culture is work of the highest value, well worthy +the attention and acknowledgment of those in authority at Whitehall and +elsewhere at home, as has been the case abroad. + +C. C. C. + + +SIR,--Your correspondent "C. C. C." in _Land and Water_ of last week +disagrees with the constant and free use of earth, which I had advocated +in my article on fish culture which appeared the preceding week. +Naturally one must admit that earth at the bottom of a pond is not so +great an element of beauty as is clean gravel, but the advantages are so +many, that beauty must give way to usefulness. Besides this, "C. C. C." +must know that it is almost impossible to keep the gravel clean enough +to look pretty, when the water is inhabited by a large number of little +fish which are being constantly fed. I cannot at all agree with his +advice that "earth should be avoided, or only used when necessity +dictates." I believe that one of the first principles of success in fish +culture is always to prevent any disease or mishap, rather than to wait +for, and then try to remedy it. Trout in their natural surroundings get +a dose of earth every time that there is a spate. It is very evident +that the earth contains some ingredients which are not only beneficial +but almost a necessity to the fish. + +I have never heard of earth as an actual cure for "fungus" and should +hardly think that it is active enough. There is, however, no doubt that +it is one of the best preventatives to "fungus," for if it is properly +and freely used it stops all chance of any decomposing material being +exposed to the action of the water, and laying the fish open to the +chance of a great many evils. + +If suitable earth is used once a week, and even oftener on occasions, it +can do no harm, and will keep the fish safe from a great many risks +besides doing them very material good. I do not of course mean that the +usual weekly dose should be a large one, as this would fill up the pond +before the end of the season, but that a small dose should be given +generally, and a large dose occasionally. I am quite sure, too, that +clean earth with some nice weeds growing in it, looks better than gravel +which is dirty. Gravel shows the dirt so much, that it is almost +impossible to keep it looking nice where there are many fish, and it +also gives the water free access to any decomposing matter. + +I have never come across a case of disease caused by the use of earth, +and should like to hear the details of "C. C. C.'s" experiences with +regard to this matter. + +CHARLES WALKER. + + + + +INDEX + + + Advantages of rainbow trout, 72-5 + + Air bubble in yolk sac, 40 + + Alders round rearing ponds, 32 + at water side, importance of, 19 + + Alevins, 39-41 + diseases of, 40-1 + + Alpine char, 78 + + American brook trout, 15 + rearing of, 75-6 + spawning of, 76 + + Aquatic creatures, serving as food for fish, 10-2, 62-6 + + Aquatic plants suitable for deep water, 13 + suitable for margins, 13 + + Aquatic vegetation, importance of, 7 + development of, 9 + + Arrangement of rearing boxes, 34 + + Artificial spawning of salmon, 83-4 + + _Asellus aquaticus_, 65 + + + Black spotted trout of the Rocky Mountains, 76-8 + + Blue swelling, 41 + + Breeding char, difficulties in, 78-80 + + Breeding. (See Rearing.) + + Brown trout, suitable water for, 14 + + Bullrushes, 13 + + _Byssus_, 37-8 + + + Caddis-worms, 61-3 + in hatching trays, 38-9 + + Carp, suitable water for, 18 + + Char, 16, 78-80 + Alpine, 78 + difficulties in breeding, 78-80 + hatching out of, 78-9 + introduction of, to the south, 80 + kinds of, 78 + rearing, 79-80 + suitable water for, 16 + Windermere, 78 + + Charring wood, importance of, 33, 50 + + Chub, suitable water for, 18 + + Coarse fish, 88-92 + ova of, 90-1 + + Colorado River trout, 77 + + Columbia River trout, 77 + + _Conchifera_, 12 + + _Corixæ_, 10, 49, 63 + + Covers for rearing ponds, 31 + + Creatures, aquatic, serving as food for fish, 10-2, 61-6 + + Crowfoot, water, 13 + + Cure for fungus, 50 + + Cut-throat trout, 76-8 + + _Cyclops quadricornis_, 12, 48, 65-6 + + _Cypridæ_, 65-6 + + + Dace, 18, 89-90 + suitable water for, 18 + + _Daphnia pulex_, 12, 48, 65 + + Dead alevins, removal of, 41 + + Dead ova, removal of, 37 + + Difference between beetles and _Corixæ_, 11 + + Diseases of alevins, 40-1 + ova, 37-9 + + _Dytiscus marginalis_, 11, 49, 58-60, 63 + + + Earth in rearing boxes, 46, 93-6 + doses of, in rearing pond, 54, 93-6 + + Effects of soft food on trout, 24 + + _Ephemeridæ_, 12, 64-5 + larvæ of, 64-5 + catching larvæ of, 64 + + + Feeding of the fry, 42-9 + + Feeding yearlings, 67 + + Food, importance of, in waters, 5, 7 + + Fresh-water shrimp, 10, 49, 65 + snails, 10-2 + + Friends and enemies of the fish, 58-66 + + Fry, feeding of, 42-9 + separating large from small, 45 + turning out of rearing box, 51-2 + + Fungus, 38-9 + cure for, 50 + + + _Gammarus pulex_, 10, 49, 65 + + Gold-fish, suitable water for, 18 + + Grannom, introduction of, 12 + + Grass round rearing ponds, 32 + + Grayling, possible harm done by, to trout, 16 + suitable water for, 17 + + Great water moss, 13 + + + Hatchery, suitable spot for, 21-6 + + Hatching out char, 78-9 + ova of coarse fish, 91-2 + + Hatching trays, arrangement of, 34 + caddis-worms in, 38-9 + construction of, 32 + placing ova in, 34-6 + removal of, 42-3 + shrimps in, 36 + + Herons, 60-1 + + _Hydrophilus piceus_, 59-60 + + + Important points in rearing young trout, 56-7 + + Inlet to rearing ponds, 29-30 + + + King carp, suitable water for, 18 + + Kingfisher, 49, 53, 60 + + + Lake Tahoe trout, 77 + + Lakewort, 13 + + Leaf screen to rearing ponds, 29 + + Lobelia, water, 13 + + + May fly, introduction of, 12 + + Moss, great water, 13 + + Mussels, 12 + + + _Nautonecta glauca_, 10, 64 + + Natural food, importance of, 24 + natural food for fry, 48-9 + + Netting for rearing ponds, 31 + + + Ova beds, artificial salmon, 85 + + Ova, care of, 36-9 + dead, removal of, 37 + hatching of, 39 + of coarse fish, 90-1 + of sea-trout, 87 + placing in hatching trays, 34-6 + + + Perch, 19, 90-1 + suitable water for, 19 + + Pike, 18-9, 90-1 + + Planting weeds in ponds, 7 + in streams, 8 + + Ponds for yearlings, 70-1 + + + Rainbow trout, 14-5, 72, 75 + advantage of, 72-5 + freedom from fungus, 73-4 + rearing of, 72-5 + suitable water for, 14 + spawning time of, 21 + + Rearing, important points in, 56-7 + + Rearing box, arrangement of, 34 + construction of, 31 + cover for, 38, 49 + + Rearing char, difficulties in, 79-80 + fry of salmon, 85-7 + fry of sea-trout, 85-7 + rainbow trout, 72-5 + + Rearing ponds, alders round, 32; + grass round, 32 + construction of, 22, 27-9 + covers for, 31 + gravel in, 23 + importance of allowing water to run through for some weeks, 21 + inlet to, 29-30 + netting for, 31 + pipes to, 22, 27 + removal of yearlings from, 70 + separating fish in, 54-6 + size of, 23-4 + use of earth in, 54, 56, 93-6 + vegetation round, 33, 55 + willows round, 32, 55 + + Restocking, best time for, 24 + + Rio Grande trout, 77 + + Rudd, 17, 88-9, 91 + suitable water for, 17 + + + _Salmo irideus_, 14-5, 72-5 + _fario_, 15 + _mykiss_, 76-8 + + Salmon and sea-trout, 81-7 + + Salmon, artificial spawning of, 83-4 + artificial ova beds, 85 + mortality among ova and young fish, 81 + rearing fry, 85-7 + scale upon which rearing should be carried out, 83 + success in artificial intervention in stock of, 81-2 + + Salt, as cure for fungus, 50 + dose of, for yearlings, 69-70 + + _Salvelinus fontinalis_, 15. + (See American brook trout.) + + _Saprolegnia_, 38-9. + (See Fungus.) + + Sea-trout, ova of, 87 + rearing fry of, 85-7 + + Sea-water as cure for fungus, 50 + + Separating yearlings, 68 + + Shrimp, fresh-water, 10, 49, 65 + + Shrimps in hatching trays, 36 + + Snails, fresh-water, 10-12 + + Soft food, effects of, on trout, 24 + + Spawning time of American brook trout, 76 + + Stocking waters with food, 7 + + Stonewort, water-, 13 + + Suitable fish and suitable water, 14 + + + Trout, collecting wild ova of, 20 + ova, management of, 20, 34-9 + + Turning fry out of rearing box, 51-2 + out yearlings, 68-9 + + + Varnishing wood, importance of, 33, 50 + + Vegetation, aquatic, importance of, 7 + aquatic, development of, 9 + importance of, at water side, 19 + on banks of water, 9, 19 + round rearing ponds, 32, 55 + + + Water-boatman, 10, 64 + beetles, 11, 58-60, 63 + bugs, 63-4 + celery, 13 + cress, 13 + crowfoot, 13 + flea, 12, 48 + lilies, 13 + lobelia, 13 + louse, 65 + scorpion, 64 + starwort, 13 + + Weeds, importance of, in waters, 7 + planting in ponds, 7 + in streams, 8 + + Willow round rearing ponds, 32, 55 + at water side, 19 + + Windermere char, 78 + + + Yearling trout, 56 + + Yearlings, feeding of, 67 + removal of, from rearing pond, 70 + separating, 68 + turning out, 68-9 + + + + +Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London. + + + + +Shooting on a Small Income + +By CHARLES WALKER + +Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 5_s._ + +"A pleasant little surprise awaited us when we found on our table ... +'Shooting on a Small Income.' The marked individuality of this book lies +in the fact that in the course of 300 odd pages it gives in concise +language an enormous body of information fully justifying the title +chosen.... The amount of really useful all-round information presented +in such a readable form would be almost impossible to beat in any single +work that has come to our notice."--_Land and Water._ + + +On Plain and Peak + +Sport in Bohemia and Tyrol + +By RANDOLPH LLEWELLYN HODGSON + +Illustrated by H.S.H. PRINCESS MARY OF THURN AND TAXIS, and from +Photographs + +Demy 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Days in Thule with Rod, Gun, and Camera + +By JOHN BICKERDYKE + +With Numerous Illustrations. Cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._; paper cover, 1_s._ +6_d._ + + +Motor Vehicles and Motors + +Their Design, Construction, and Working by Steam, Oil, and Electricity + +By W. WORBY BEAUMONT + +M.INST.C.E. M.INST.M.E. M.INST.E.E. + +Price 42_s._ net + +About six hundred pages and more than four hundred and fifty +illustrations and working drawings. + + +The Eighth Duke of Beaufort + +AND THE BADMINTON HUNT + +With a Sketch of the Rise of the Somerset Family + +By T. F. DALE, M.A. + +AUTHOR OF "THE HISTORY OF THE BELVOIR HUNT," "THE GAME OF POLO," ETC. + +Demy 8vo, 21_s._ Fully Illustrated. + + +The History of the Belvoir Hunt + +By T. F. DALE, M.A. + +With 5 Photogravures and 48 Full-page Plates, and 2 Maps of the Country +hunted, showing all the principal meets and historic runs. Also +Appendices giving the Stud Book Entries from the year 1791 to 1876, +pedigrees of celebrated hounds, and a bibliography. + +1 Vol. Demy 8vo. 21_s._ net + +"Mr. Dale's book must be read through and through--by the sportsman for +pleasure, the historian for facts, and by the breeders of all animals +for the results of judicious mating. It is about the best work on a +hunting subject ever written."--_Sporting Life._ + +"He has produced a book which is much more than its title promises, and +he has indeed been fortunate in his subject. While Mr. Dale's record +centres upon the hunting field and kennel with scrupulous care for +detail that hunt history demands, he invests it with stronger claims +still upon attention."--_Bailey's Magazine._ + + +2 WHITEHALL GARDENS, WESTMINSTER + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Amateur Fish Culture, by Charles Edward Walker + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMATEUR FISH CULTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 24719-8.txt or 24719-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/7/1/24719/ + +Produced by Chris Logan and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Amateur Fish Culture + +Author: Charles Edward Walker + +Release Date: February 29, 2008 [EBook #24719] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMATEUR FISH CULTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Logan and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<h1>AMATEUR FISH<br /> +CULTURE</h1> + +<h2>BY CHARLES EDWARD WALKER</h2> + +<h4>AUTHOR OF "OLD FLIES IN NEW<br /> +DRESSES" "SHOOTING ON A<br /> +SMALL INCOME," ETC</h4> + + +<h3>WESTMINSTER<br /> +ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO Ltd<br /> +2 WHITEHALL GARDENS</h3> + +<h3>1901</h3> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<h5>Butler & Tanner,<br /> +The Selwood Printing Works,<br /> +Frome, and London.</h5> + +<div class="section_break"></div> + + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>My aim, in this little book, has been to give information and hints +which will prove useful to the amateur. Some of the plans and apparatus +suggested would not be suitable for fish culture on a large scale, but +my object has been to confine myself entirely to operations on a small +scale. I have to thank the Editor of <em>Land and Water</em> for permission to +publish in book form what first appeared as a series of articles.</p> + +<p class="letterfrom">CHARLES WALKER.</p> + +<p> <span class="letter_location">Mayfield, Sussex.</span><br /> +<em>March, 1901.</em></p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class="toc"> +<p><span class="toc_chapter">CHAPTER</span><span class="toc_page">PAGE</span><br /></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">I</span>Introductory <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">II</span>Stocking Waters with Food <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">7</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">III</span>Suitable Fish and Suitable Waters <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">14</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">IV</span>Trout. Preliminary Hints and Advice <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">20</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">V</span>Trout. Rearing Ponds, Boxes, and Hatching Trays <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">27</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">VI</span>Trout. Management of the Ova and Alevins <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">34</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">VII</span>Trout. Management of the Fry <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">42</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">VIII</span>Trout. The Management of the Fry (<em>Continued</em>) <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">51</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">IX</span>Trout. The Friends and Enemies of the Fish Culturist <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">58</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">X</span>Trout. Management, Feeding, and Turning out of Yearlings <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">67</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">XI</span>The Rearing of the Rainbow Trout, American Brook Trout, and Char <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">72</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">XII</span>Salmon and Sea-Trout <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">81</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="toc_chapter">XIII</span>Coarse Fish <span class="toc_page"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">88</a></span></p> + +<p>Appendix <span class="toc_page"><a href="#APPENDIX">93</a></span></p> + +<p>Index <span class="toc_page"><a href="#INDEX">97</a></span></p> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTORY</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span>Fish culture of a certain kind dates from very early times, but its +scientific development has only come about quite recently. Most people +know that in our own country the monks had stew ponds, where they kept +fish, principally carp, and also that the Romans kept fish in ponds. In +the latter case we hear more often of the eel than of other fish. The +breeding of trout and salmon, and the artificial spawning and hatching +of ova, are, however, an innovation of our own time.</p> + +<p>Much has been discovered about the procreation of fish, and in no case +have scientists worked so hard and discovered more than in the case of +<em>Salmonidæ</em>. Fish culture, particularly trout culture, has become a +trade, and a paying one. To any one who has the least idea of the +difficulties to be overcome in rearing <em>Salmonidæ</em>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> this fact alone +proves that fish culture must have progressed to a very advanced stage +as a science.</p> + +<p>This advance has in very many, if not in the majority of cases, been +made by the bitter experience gained through failures and mishaps, for +these have led fish culturists to try many different means to prevent +mischances, or to rectify them if they have happened. Some of the most +serious difficulties experienced by the early fish culturists who bred +<em>Salmonidæ</em> can now be almost disregarded, for they hardly exist for the +modern fish culturist, with the knowledge he possesses of the experience +of others.</p> + +<p>So much of what has been done in fish culture is generally known to +those who have studied and practised it, that the beginner can nowadays +commence far ahead of the point whence the first fish culturists +started. Many of his difficulties have been overcome for him already, +and though he will not, of course, meet with the success of the man of +experience, still he ought with the exercise of an average amount of +intelligence to avoid such failures as would completely disgust him.</p> + +<p>There are many pieces of water containing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> nothing but coarse fish which +are very suitable for trout of some kind. Ponds, particularly those +which have a stream running through them, will, as a rule, support a +good head of trout if properly managed. Again a water which contains +trout may become more or less depleted, and here it is necessary to +supply the deficiency of trout by some means. The easiest way is, of +course, to buy yearling or two-year-old fish from a piscicultural +establishment, of which there are many in the kingdom, but I know that +there are many fishermen who would much prefer to rear their own fish +from the ova, than to buy ready-made fish. Any one who has the time and +opportunity to rear his own fish will be amply repaid by the amusement +and interest gained, and it should be the cheaper method of stocking or +re-stocking a water.</p> + +<p>The same remarks apply to a certain extent to waters which will not +support trout, or where the owner wants more coarse fish. The stock of +coarse fish may be improved by fish culture just as much as a stock of +trout.</p> + +<p>In his first year or two, it is very possible that the amateur will not +save very much by being his own pisciculturist. If, however, he is +care<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>ful, and works with intelligence, it is quite possible that he may +succeed better than he had hoped and rear a good head of fish at a less +cost than the purchase of yearlings. In any case he will have had a +great deal of pleasure and gained experience as well as reared some +fish.</p> + +<p>In the present little volume, I propose to try and deal with fish +culture in such a way as to help the amateur who wishes to rear fish to +stock his own water. Much of the existing literature of the subject +deals with it on such a large scale that the amateur is frightened to +attempt what is apparently so huge an undertaking. Fish culture may, +however, be carried out on a small scale with success, and though +considerable attention is necessary, particularly with young +<em>Salmonidæ</em>, it is not a task which involves a very great proportion of +the time of any one undertaking it. It is absolutely necessary, however, +that the amateur fish culturist should live on the spot, or have some +one who is intelligent and perfectly trustworthy who does. In every case +in my experience, trusting the care of young fish to a keeper or servant +has resulted in failure, and in every failure I have seen where the fish +have not been trusted to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> care of a servant, the cause has been very +obvious, and could easily have been avoided.</p> + +<p>The rearing of trout is the most important branch of fish culture to the +amateur, and fortunately but slight modifications are necessary in +rearing other fish. What is good enough for trout is good enough for +most fish, therefore I think that I shall be right in describing trout +culture at considerable length, and dealing with other fish in a +somewhat summary manner. The difference in the management, etc., of +other fish I shall point out after describing how to rear trout.</p> + +<p>To begin with, the amateur must not suppose that because he puts fish +into a stream or pond he will succeed in stocking that water or +increasing the head of fish. There are many other things to be +considered. The river, stream, or pond must be of a suitable character +for the fish, and there must be plenty of food. I am sure that it is +much more important to consider carefully whether the water is suitable, +and contains a proper supply of food, than to consider how the fish are +to be obtained, for recourse may always be had to a professional fish +culturist—fish of almost any kind and any age can be bought ready +made.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>The point I would impress upon the amateur more forcibly than anything +else, is that he should be sure that there is plenty for his fish to eat +in the water, before he thinks of putting them into it. It is for this +reason that I devote my next chapter chiefly to the stocking of waters +with food and to the improvement of the food supply in waters where some +food already exists.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>STOCKING WATERS WITH FOOD</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>It may seem somewhat superfluous to say that fish cannot live in any +water unless that water contains the food supply necessary for them to +thrive upon, and yet this is the point most often overlooked in stocking +waters with fish. Small attempts at stocking with creatures suitable for +food, particularly after the fish have been already introduced, are not +at all likely to succeed. Such an important matter when treated as a +small afterthought is almost sure to end in failure of the whole +business of stocking.</p> + +<p>But a small amount of thought will convince any one that in order that +there may be a sufficient amount of animal life in a water, there must +be an adequate vegetable life, for weeds are almost always necessary to +the well-being of the creatures which serve as food for fishes.</p> + +<p>In the case of a pond it is generally fairly easy to introduce a good +stock of suitable weeds. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> best method is to let the pond down as low +as possible, and then to plant some weeds round the margin; the water is +then allowed to gradually fill up the pond, and as it rises weeds are +planted round the rising margin of the water. In ponds which cannot be +emptied at all, or not sufficiently to carry out this plan, weeds may be +planted in an easy but not quite so effectual a manner. They may be +planted in shallow baskets containing some mud from the bottom of the +pond, and then lowered in suitable places from a boat, or bundles of the +weed may be tied to stones and dropped into the water in a similar +manner.</p> + +<p>These latter methods are, of course, not so good as actually planting +the weeds round the advancing margin of the water, for success depends +to a certain extent upon chance. Some of the weeds thus planted are, +however, sure to take root and grow. Plants of different kinds, of +course, are necessary at different depths and on different kinds of +bottoms, and good kinds are necessary at the margin of the water as +well. I give a list of some suitable plants of each kind at the end of +this chapter.</p> + +<p>Similar methods are used in planting weeds in rivers and streams to +those used in ponds. If the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> weeds are planted in baskets, the baskets +must, of course, be weighted when put in a position where the current +can act upon them.</p> + +<p>Besides vegetation in the water, vegetation on the bank is of +considerable importance. I shall deal with this at a later period more +fully, as trees and bushes, besides harbouring many insects which serve +as food for fish, have also considerable importance in giving cover to +the fish and to the fisherman who is pursuing them.</p> + +<p>I think that in the case of a bare water, a year at least should be +devoted to developing a good supply of vegetation. This will generally +produce a considerable amount of animal life, without any artificial +help, but judicious help will be sure to accelerate matters to a +considerable extent. I would, however, advise the amateur not to attempt +to introduce a quantity of creatures into his water, until the vegetable +life therein is well established. For instance, though fresh-water +snails are desirable in every trout water, if introduced in large +numbers into a water in which the vegetation is small and not well +established, they will eat down the weeds too much and then die off from +disease caused by want of sufficient nourishment.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>Having established the vegetable life well in a water, and developed it +to a considerable extent, the amateur may begin to examine his water, +and find out how much animal life exists there, and to stock with +creatures suitable for food, according to what he finds in the water.</p> + +<p>Fresh-water snails are always desirable. In streams, or in ponds with +streams running into them, the fresh-water shrimps (<em>Gammarus pulex</em>) +should always be tried. It does not do in some waters, but where it does +thrive it increases very rapidly, and forms about the best article of +food that can be given to trout. <em>Corixæ</em>, which thrive in ponds and +sluggish waters, should always be introduced. They increase rapidly, and +are taken by most fish, particularly by trout. The amateur should be +careful when he introduces these creatures to make sure that he is +putting in the right creature. The water-boatman (<em>Nautonecta glauca</em>) +is a member of the same family, but is no use as food for the fish. He +swims on his back, is longer and narrower than are <em>Corixæ</em>, which do +not swim on their backs, are smaller, broader, and live much more under +water than the water-boatman. It is generally advisable to avoid +water-beetles, as most of them are more likely to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> do harm than good, +such a number of our water-beetles being carnivorous. They will probably +not harm adult fish, but they will destroy ova and fry. I have known a +<em>Dytiscus marginalis</em> kill a trout of nearly a quarter of a pound in +weight.</p> + +<p>In order to make sure of not introducing carnivorous water-beetles into +a water, I think it best as a rule not to introduce beetles at all. +<em>Corixæ</em> are, however, so like beetles, that many people call them +beetles, and therefore I will give a few points which will make them +easily distinguishable from each other. In beetles, the wing-cases +(elytra) meet exactly in the middle line, in <em>Corixæ</em> and other +water-bugs, the anterior wings, which resemble the elytra of beetles, +overlap, which causes the line on the back to curve away to one side at +the lower end. In beetles the wings which lie under the wing-cases are +folded up on themselves, and when spread out are much larger than the +wing-cases. The wings are transparent and very delicate. In <em>Corixæ</em> the +posterior wings, which lie under the hard and horny anterior wings, are +a little shorter than the anterior wings; they are not folded up on +themselves and are not so delicate and transparent as the wings of the +beetle.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>Such small creatures as <em>Daphnia pulex</em>, <em>Cyclops quadricornis</em> and +<em>Rotifera</em> should be introduced into ponds.</p> + +<p>Snails (<em>Gasteropoda</em>) may be roughly divided into three classes, +according to the shape of their shells: (1) Flat-shaped coils (type +<em>Planorbis corneus</em>); (2) Oblong-shaped, somewhat like a trumpet (type +<em>Limnæa stagnalis</em>); and (3) Ear-shaped (type <em>Limnæa auricularia</em>). +<em>Limnæa auricularia</em> is particularly suitable for deep waters, and <em>L. +pereger</em>, whose shell is of type 2, is a most valuable addition to the +food supply in any fish pond. It is one of the commonest of our +fresh-water snails.</p> + +<p>Mussels (<em>Conchifera</em>) are another valuable article of food. There are a +great many different kinds, and the larger ones should, as a rule, be +avoided. <em>Sphæriidæ</em> and <em>Pisidia</em> are probably the best.</p> + +<p>In many cases it is advisable to attempt the introduction of some flies +which are not present. There are several cases in which the May-fly has +been successfully introduced, and also the Grannom. Small <em>Ephemeridæ</em> +seem to me preferable to any other flies.</p> + +<p>With regard to suitable plants for compara<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>tively deep water in ponds or +lakes, lakewort and stonewort grow on the bottom, and do not, as a rule, +attain any considerable height. White and yellow water-lilies also grow +in fairly deep water; the water-lobelia is also an excellent plant for +ponds.</p> + +<p>In streams some of the best plants are water-crowfoot, water-starwort, +and the great water moss. Anacharis should not be introduced into any +water, either pond or stream, unless it can be kept down easily. It will +otherwise become an unmitigated nuisance.</p> + +<p>Marginal plants are a very important consideration, and plenty of them +should be grown. Water-celery and water-cress are perhaps the best +food-producing marginal plants that can be grown. Bullrushes and +brooklime are also good, but the bullrushes must be planted +judiciously.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>SUITABLE FISH AND SUITABLE WATERS</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>Having stocked his water with suitable vegetation and food, the next +matter which should engage the attention of the amateur, is what fish he +had better introduce. He should, where there is a fair chance of +success, introduce a trout of some sort, as they give better sport than +coarse fish.</p> + +<p>The introduction of salmon into a river is not likely to be attempted by +the amateur, but the head of salmon frequenting a river is undoubtedly +affected in the most marvellous manner by artificial means. In Canada +and the United States this is particularly remarkable, but the +operations are conducted on a gigantic scale.</p> + +<p>In the case of a stream or river where brown trout already exist, or +have recently existed, in fair numbers, re-stock with these fish, for +they can hardly be bettered in our waters. There are,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> however, some +sluggish rivers where brown trout do not thrive when they are +introduced. In such rivers and in many ponds in the South of England I +believe that no better fish exists than the rainbow trout. I say +particularly in the south, because I do not think that the rainbow trout +will ever really thrive and breed in cold waters. I have at other times +given numerous examples which go to show that the rainbow will only +thrive in warm waters.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> I will therefore only quote the case of New +Zealand. The rainbow trout was introduced into both islands, but while +it thrived amazingly in the warm waters of the North Island, it has +proved a comparative failure in the cold waters of the South Island.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <em>The Rainbow Trout.</em> Lawrence & Bullen, London.</p></div> + +<p>While the common or brown trout (<em>Salmo fario</em>) and the rainbow trout +(<em>Salmo irideus</em>) are, in my opinion, to be strongly encouraged in the +waters suitable to their respective qualities, the American brook trout +(<em>Salvelinus fontinalis</em>) does not seem to have met with the approval of +most of the authorities on pisciculture in this country. My experience +of this fish is not sufficient for my holding any very strong views with +regard to its suitability to British waters. In one case<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> I know that it +was a great success for two seasons, but I have not had any opportunity +of following it up in this particular instance. In another case it was a +decided failure. I am sure that it should not be introduced into streams +where brown trout thrive, and I am doubtful of its ever succeeding in +waters which are suitable to the rainbow trout.</p> + +<p>Of all the trout, the rainbow is the hardiest, and the one with which +the amateur pisciculturist is most likely to be successful. It is also +the fish most likely to supply a want felt by very many fishermen, a +good sporting fish in waters where the common trout will not thrive.</p> + +<p>In large and deep ponds with a good stream, or in lakes, char may be +tried with a prospect of success. They require cold waters, and I have +never heard of their being successfully introduced in the South of +England. They are a more difficult fish to rear than trout.</p> + +<p>Grayling have many violent opponents, but I am inclined to think that +they do but little if any harm in a trout stream, and they supply +excellent fishing during part of the close season for trout. They seem +to thrive best in chalk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> streams, but there are no doubt many waters +which would carry a good head of grayling which at present contain only +trout. They probably do much less harm than most of the coarse fish +constantly found in trout streams. The great crime attributed to them is +that they eat the spawn of the trout, but I am inclined to think that +the harm they do in this way is much over estimated. They spawn at a +different time and would not be likely to frequent the spawning places +at the same time as the trout. I have no doubt that an infinitely +greater proportion of trout ova are eaten by the trout themselves than +by grayling in rivers which contain both fish. Chalk streams and those +rivers with gravelly bottoms and with alternate shallows and pools seem +to be the most suited to the grayling.</p> + +<p>Among coarse fish the rudd is one of the best from the fly-fisher's +point of view. It takes the fly readily, is very prolific and very easy +to introduce. It thrives remarkably well in ponds which contain a good +supply of food. Its fry serve as excellent food for other fish, +particularly trout, but I have known cases where it increased rapidly in +a pond at the expense of the trout.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> It can, however, be kept under by +judicious netting.</p> + +<p>The dace is another fish which gives sport to the fly-fisherman. It will +not thrive in ponds. In some rivers, however, where trout—brown trout, +at any rate—will not thrive, the dace does very well. In the case of +the Sussex Ouse this is most remarkable. Little more than ten years ago +there were no dace in that river, now it swarms with them. Their +presence is attributed to the fact that some dace, brought there as +live-baits for pike, escaped destruction and established the present +stock. Sluggish and muddy rivers seem to produce the best dace. Chubb, +which also possess many points to recommend them to the fisherman, will +also do well in such rivers.</p> + +<p>To those who enjoy bottom fishing and possess a pond, even a small one, +I can recommend no fish more highly than the king-carp. It is a much +bolder-feeding and gamer fish than the common carp, and is just as easy +to introduce. While dealing with carp I may mention that the goldfish, +when introduced into a suitable pond, grows to a very large size. I have +caught them over a pound in weight.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>The perch is a very prolific fish, and will thrive in ponds with a very +small stream running into them, and in sluggish rivers. Other coarse +fish are as a rule easy to introduce into a water. Though perch fry form +excellent food for trout, perch, and of course pike, should be kept out +of a trout water.</p> + +<p>The suitability of a water depends to a great extent (as to its capacity +of supporting a healthy stock of fish) upon its having plenty of +suitable vegetation upon the banks. Therefore if the banks are bare of +vegetation, willows and alders, as being quick growing and easily +established trees, should be freely planted upon the banks. This +fortunately is very easily done, for willow and alder sticks cut and put +into the ground in the spring are pretty sure to do well. It is needless +to say that the moister spots should be chosen for the willows, though +they will do well in suitable soil in comparatively dry places. Besides +giving shade and shelter to the fish, which is always an important +consideration, a considerable quantity of food is bred upon trees and +shrubs at the water side. I have found as many as eighteen caterpillars +in the stomach of a trout which I caught under an overhanging oak tree.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>TROUT. PRELIMINARY HINTS AND ADVICE</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>The amateur who is beginning trout culture had better by all means buy +eyed ova from a fish cultural establishment. There are many of these in +the British Isles, and nowadays eyed ova are packed and sent safely all +over the country. The artificial spawning of trout is not an undertaking +in which the beginner is likely to achieve great success, and therefore +I should advise him to avoid relying upon it when he commences his +operations as a fish culturist.</p> + +<p>Collecting the ova of wild trout is also an operation of some +difficulty, and lays the beginner open to much more disappointment than +if he deals with eyed ova purchased from a reliable establishment. +Instead of having to watch and care for the ova through a critical and +dangerous period, he receives them shortly before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> the young fish hatch +out, when the ova are not in the most delicate stage.</p> + +<p>It is of the greatest importance that everything should be ready for the +ova long before they are expected, as hurry and new apparatus are likely +to cause failure. Any concrete and varnished or enamelled woodwork +should be exposed to the action of a current of water for at least five +or six weeks before they are brought into actual use.</p> + +<p>The choice of a suitable spot in which to make his hatchery is a serious +point for the consideration of the amateur. A spring is the best water +supply as a rule, for the water is usually of a fairly even temperature, +and does not require filtering, but water from a stream where trout are +known to live is quite safe. A few years ago it would have been +necessary for any one wishing to take up fish culture, to erect a +building in which to place his hatchery if he intended to hatch any +number of eggs, in order to guard against frosts. At the present time, +the eyed ova of even the brown trout (<em>Salmo fario</em>) can be obtained +sufficiently late to be safe against a frost severe enough to cause any +damage, and as the rainbow trout (<em>Salmo irideus</em>) spawns in February +and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> March, the amateur is, at the time he receives the eyed ova, quite +safe from frost.</p> + +<p>The best method to pursue is to make long narrow ponds, with a current +running through them, and to hatch the eggs out in trays and boxes +suspended in these ponds. When the young fish hatch out, the trays which +contained the ova can be removed, and the young fish kept in the boxes. +Later on the young fish can be released from the boxes into the ponds. I +shall subsequently describe how these ponds, trays, and boxes should be +made.</p> + +<p>The rearing ponds should be made, if possible, at a fall in the level of +the water supply, so that they may be easily emptied. This is an +important point which is frequently overlooked by amateurs. There should +be an outlet on a level with the bottom of the pond, and if the water +escapes through a pipe, that pipe should incline downwards. This, in a +series of ponds, of course necessitates the ponds being at different +levels, but the water is thus under much better control than if the +outlet is at a higher level, and the ponds are easily emptied. Ponds +may, however, be worked successfully with the outlet in mid-water, or +even near the surface, though this does<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> not ensure such a certainty of +change of water throughout the pond. It is not, however, always possible +to obtain such a difference in level between the supply and waste. In +such cases the ponds should be made shallower near the outlet.</p> + +<p>A popular idea seems to be that a gravel bottom is necessary for the +well-being of trout; this is quite a mistake. Personally, I believe that +a good earth bottom is best in a rearing pond, and even in a pond lined +with concrete I should always put a layer of mould, preferably turf +mould, at the bottom. With the use of this mould during the subsequent +operations in rearing trout I shall deal later on.</p> + +<p>The size of the ponds, of course, depends upon the number of trout to be +reared. It is better to have several medium sized ponds than one large +one, as then accident or disease occurring in a pond will only affect a +portion of the stock of fish. Mr. J. J. Armistead in <em>An Angler's +Paradise, and How to Obtain It</em>, says: "A pond sixty feet long, four +feet wide, and about three feet deep, will hold ten or fifteen thousand +fry at first, and give them plenty of room to grow, but by the end of +July the number should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> reduced to five thousand, which may be left +till October, when they should again be thinned out, or, better still, +put into larger pond."</p> + +<p>I should advise the amateur who is dealing with only a few thousand fish +to work on a smaller scale in these proportions, and to make these +changes gradually, and yet more gradually as the season advances. That +is to say, work with a third of the number of fry in ponds half the size +and move some fish several times before the end of July. As October +approaches, make changes of smaller numbers of fish more frequently.</p> + +<p>Late in the autumn is, in my opinion, the best time to put the young +fish into the water they are to inhabit permanently. It must be a +mistake to rear them artificially longer than is necessary, and by the +end of November they should be fairly capable of looking after +themselves.</p> + +<p>Trout, which are artificially reared on chopped meat and other soft +foods, suffer from a lack of development in the stomach walls, and also, +probably, in the rest of their digestive apparatus. The first case I saw +of the stomach of an artificially reared trout was a two-year-old +trout,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> upon which Dr. C. S. Patterson performed an autopsy. The stomach +walls were as thin as a sheet of tissue paper. At the time I believed, +and, if I remember rightly, he also thought that this was due to +atrophy, but I am inclined to think that this idea was only partially +correct. The stomach walls of the autumn yearling trout, which is +artificially reared on soft food, do not show any marked abnormality in +the way of thinness; but as the trout's age increases, so does the +thickness of the stomach wall decrease in proportion to its size. This +leads me to believe that the development of the stomach wall, at any +rate, and probably also of the glands secreting the gastric juice and +the digestive apparatus generally, gradually ceases when at about the +age of eight or nine months if the trout is fed upon soft food. +Probably, also, a certain amount of atrophy and dilatation of the +stomach wall is produced. If my observations are correct, so also is the +conclusion that a trout which cannot digest hard food, of which a great +part of his natural food consists, will not have a really fair chance +when turned out. Therefore, I say, turn out your trout in November, +unless you can feed them on such food as shrimps,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> snails, bivalves and +<em>Corixæ</em>; and if you stock with "ready made" fish, stock with yearlings +in the late autumn.</p> + +<p>The turning out of his fish in November will also allow the amateur +plenty of time to prepare his ponds and apparatus for next year's +operations. If the ponds are made on a stream, probably the very best +place that can be chosen is where there is a fairly sharp bend in the +stream just below a fall. An artificial fall can often be made where the +banks are high by damming up the stream several feet. Care must be +taken, however, to avoid any risk of the ponds being flooded.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>TROUT. REARING PONDS, BOXES, AND HATCHING TRAYS</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>Having decided upon a suitable spot, the amateur must now proceed to +make his ponds. Whether he derive his water supply from a spring or from +a stream, the amateur had better bring it into his ponds through a pipe. +A three-inch pipe will be large enough for a pond thirty feet long, +three feet wide, and two feet deep at the deepest part. It is a good +thing for the water to fall, some inches at any rate, through the air +before it reaches the pond, and in a series of ponds with only one +supply, the water should flow through an open trough with stones and +other impediments in it, between the ponds. The ponds may be lined +entirely with brickwork faced with cement, and in this case the sides +should be made perpendicular. The cement should, however, be exposed +freely to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> action of the running water for a couple of months at +least before any ova or fry are introduced.</p> + +<p>Another plan, and a simpler and less expensive one, is to face only the +ends of the ponds with brick and cement work, carrying the brickwork +into the earth on each side, as shown in Fig. 1. In this case the sides +of the ponds should be slightly sloped as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. It is +advisable if possible to make the outlet at the level of the bottom of +the pond, if the pond is lined with cement, but if the pond is only +cemented at the ends, it is better to have one in mid-water or even near +the surface. As I have said before however, an outlet should be made at +the level lowest part of the bottom, so as to facilitate the emptying of +the pond. The pond should however be made shallower at the lower end. +Fig. 2 shows a section of the upper end, and Fig. 3 of the lower end of +such a pond.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 461px;"> +<img src="images/pond.jpg" width="461" height="500" alt="Fig. 1, 2, 3." title="Fig. 1, 2, 3." /> +</div> + +<p>The open trough between ponds in a series should be at least three yards +in length, but it is better if not straight. Stones and gravel should be +put in these troughs in order to make the water as rough as possible, +and if some fresh-water shrimps can be introduced so much the better.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>If the water is taken from a stream, a leaf screen must be placed at +some distance in front of the inlet. This may be made of a hurdle +fastened to strong stakes sunk into the bed of the stream. The opening +of the inlet should be at least double the size of the sectional area of +the pipe through which the water is carried to the ponds, and should be +some distance, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> couple of feet if possible, below the surface of the +water. It is a good thing to put a wire cage over the inlet, and under +this a perforated zinc screen is necessary. The inlet from the stream +should be so placed that it is easy to get at and clean. The best form +of covering for the inlet into the pond I have seen, is a zinc cylinder, +the base of which fits over the end of the inlet pipe. The part of this +cylinder, which projects 18 inches beyond the pipe, is perforated, as is +also the flat end. This can easily be taken off and cleaned, and breaks +up the water, making it fall into the pond like a shower bath, causing +considerable aeration.</p> + +<p>The inlet from the stream should have a trap with which the water may be +shut off, as also should the outlet from the pond. When the cylinder on +the inlet into the pond is taken off for a minute or so to be cleaned +out, both these traps must be closed. This lessens the chance of any +creatures likely to do harm getting in during the cleaning. The +perforated zinc screen at the inlet from the stream will probably stop +any such creatures, but too great care cannot be exercised, and it is +always best to be on the safe side.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>Movable covers of netting over the ponds are most certainly advisable, +particularly if the rearing ponds are in an unfrequented spot near a +stream. On one occasion I caught four kingfishers during a period of +three weeks, all of which had in some way got under some herring net, +which was pegged out carefully over a rearing pond containing trout fry. +I never found out how they got in, but once in they were unable to +escape.</p> + +<p>Ponds such as I have described are of course for the fry when they have +reached a certain size, and have already begun to feed well. Other +appliances are necessary for hatching out the ova and for the young fish +when first hatched. A very good apparatus may be made from a champagne +case. This should have large square holes sawn through each end, leaving +enough wood to ensure strength and solidity to the box. The box should +then have two coats of asphalt varnish, and the square apertures covered +with fine perforated zinc. A still better box may be made at a small +cost. This consists of a box with a wooden bottom and perforated zinc +sides which are supported by a stout wooden frame.</p> + +<p>Beyond these boxes all that are required are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> some perforated zinc +hatching trays. These should be 1½ inches deep. They are very easily +made, and the ova hatch out well in them. Though ova sometimes hatch out +very successfully even when piled up in two or three layers, it is safer +to have them in a single layer. The trays should be suspended in the +boxes, and the boxes in the ponds close to the inlets, so that a good +current of water may flow through them. The bottom of the boxes should +be covered with a thick layer of gravel, but the trays are to be used +without gravel. It is advisable to have as much grass as possible round +the ponds, and such trees as willows and alders should also be planted +round them. Willows and alder sticks planted in the early part of the +year come into leaf in the same spring, and afford shade to the young +fish in the summer. Some suitable weeds should also be grown in the +rearing ponds. Water-cress, water-celery, water-lobelia, starwort, and +water-milfoil, are all good. They should be arranged, however, so as to +prevent as much as possible the little fish finding hiding places, and +it is for this reason also that I have recommended slightly sloping +banks when the sides of the ponds are not made of cement. The weeds +should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> planted some time before the little fish are turned out of +the boxes.</p> + +<p>Finally, I must caution my readers again on one or two points before I +leave the subject of the hatching trays, rearing boxes, and ponds. +Enamel, varnish, or charr all woodwork thoroughly, leaving no speck of +wood bare and no crack open. Let the water run through and over all your +ponds and apparatus for as long as possible before you begin +operations.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>TROUT. MANAGEMENT OF THE OVA AND ALEVINS</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>Everything should now be ready for the reception of the ova. The rearing +boxes are resting upon stones placed at the bottom of the ponds, with +the edges some six inches above the level of the water, and moored to +the sides to prevent their being moved by the current. The hatching +trays are suspended in the rearing boxes, or placed upon movable rests +in the boxes, with their edges just above the level of the water.</p> + +<p>Notice is usually sent a day or two before the ova are despatched from +fish cultural establishments, so the amateur has no excuse for not being +absolutely ready for their reception. They are packed in various ways, +and nowadays suffer but little in the transit. The ova should always be +carefully washed before they are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> placed in the hatching trays. Mr. +Armistead, in <em>A Handy Guide to Fish Culture</em>, says:—"If just turned +out of a packing case there may be small pieces of moss or other +material amongst them. In any case a wash will do them no harm, and the +process is a very simple one. Take a pail, half-filled with ova, and +then fill up with water, and with a small lading-can lift some of the +water out, and pour it back again, so as to cause a downward current, +which will agitate the ova. Their specific gravity being greater than +that of water, they immediately retire again to the bottom of the pail, +and by at once pouring off as much water as is practicable, any floating +particles of moss, etc., may be carried off. Should any be left, the +process should be repeated, and it may even be necessary to repeat it +several times. When all is right take a ladle, or small vessel of some +kind, say a good-sized tea-cup, and gently ladle out the eggs, and place +them roughly on the grills, where they may be roughly spread by means of +a feather."</p> + +<p>To these instructions I would add some for the amateur, who will +probably deal with a comparatively small number of ova. The ova should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +be washed in some large vessel full of water in the manner above +described. When the water is quite clear, and the ova clean, they may be +caught in mid-water as they are sinking either in the hatching trays or +in a cup. If caught in a cup they should be transferred with great care +to the hatching trays, and spread out in a single and somewhat spare +layer. They must on no account be poured into the trays from a height. +While under water well-eyed ova will stand a good deal of gentle +tumbling about, but if dropped into the water from even a little height +the concussion is likely to kill them.</p> + +<p>Mr. Armistead recommends glass grills rather than trays such as I have +described, but I have found the trays work very well, and they are very +simple and clean. Glass grills are, however, very excellent, though they +necessitate a somewhat greater initial outlay than do the perforated +zinc trays.</p> + +<p>A German fish culturist has recently recommended keeping a stock of +fresh-water shrimps (<em>Gammarus pulex</em>) in the hatching trays and rearing +boxes. He says that the shrimps eat only the dead ova, and never touch +the living ones. They also eat any vegetable or animal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> <em>débris</em>. I have +never tried the experiment myself, and so cannot speak from experience.</p> + +<p>Dead ova should be always removed at once, and the hatching trays should +be gone over carefully once or twice a day to see if any are present in +them. Dead ova are easily recognized from the fact that they become +opaque and white. They are best removed with a glass tube. The thumb is +placed over one end of the tube, and the other end brought directly over +the dead ovum. When the thumb is removed from the end of the tube held +in the hand the water will rush up into the tube, carrying with it the +dead ovum. The thumb is then replaced over the end of the tube, which is +lifted from the water with the ovum retained in it. This tube may also +be used for removing any extraneous bodies which may get into the trays +or boxes.</p> + +<p>A form of fungus known as <em>Byssus</em> grows upon dead ova, and it is +principally for this reason that they must be removed. Livingstone Stone +says of <em>Byssus</em>:—"With trout eggs in water at 40° or 50° Fahrenheit, +it generally appears within forty-eight hours after the egg turns white, +and often sooner, and the warmer the water the quicker it comes. It is +never<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> quite safe to leave the dead eggs over twenty-four hours in the +hatching boxes. The peculiarity of <em>Byssus</em> is that it stretches out its +long, slender arms, which grow rapidly over everything within its reach. +This makes it peculiarly mischievous, for it will sometimes clasp a +dozen or even twenty eggs in its Briarean grasp before it is discovered, +and any egg that it has seized has received its death warrant." Mr. +Armistead has known it appear within twenty-four hours. <em>Byssus</em> +develops only on dead ova.</p> + +<p><em>Saprolegnia</em>, known to fish culturists as "fungus," attacks both living +or dead ova. If the woodwork is properly varnished or charred, and the +ova managed thoroughly, there should, however, be but little risk of +fungus. Light is favourable to the growth of fungus, and, therefore, +wooden lids should be placed over the rearing boxes. These should be +kept partially on after the young fish have hatched out, and be replaced +by covers of fine wire netting spread on closely-fitting frames, when +the fry have begun to feed. These obviate the necessity of covering up +the ponds during the first stages.</p> + +<p>Many small creatures such as caddis-worms will eat the ova, and +therefore a careful watch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> should be kept upon the hatching trays as it +is marvellous how such creatures find their way in, in spite of all +precautions. Birds of several kinds are also likely to cause great +damage unless the ova and young fish are carefully guarded from their +depredations.</p> + +<p>In a short time, probably within a few days of receiving the ova, the +amateur will find that the young fish are beginning to hatch out. They +generally come out tail first, and in wriggling this about in their +attempts to get further out, they propel the ovum about the bottom of +the tray. When the little fish attempts to come out head first, he +sometimes gets into difficulties and if this is observed, he may be +helped by a gentle touch with a feather or a camel's hair brush.</p> + +<p>When first hatched out the young fish have a large translucent +protuberance on the under-surface. This is the umbilical or yolk-sac, +and contains the nourishment upon which the little fish lives during the +first stage of its life after it is hatched. This sac is gradually +absorbed but until it is absorbed the young fish are called "alevins." +At first the little fish do not require any food, but they generally +begin to feed in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> about six weeks, and before the yolk-sac is completely +absorbed. The rearing boxes should be kept partly covered, and the +alevins will crowd into a pack in the darker parts at the bottom of the +hatching tray.</p> + +<p>The shells of the ova must be removed from the hatching trays. As they +are lighter than the alevins, the current will generally carry them to +the lower end of the tray, whence they may be removed with a piece of +gauze spread on a wire ring, or by raising and lowering the tray gently +in the water in alternately slanting directions.</p> + +<p>The alevin stage is the stage in which the least mortality should be +expected, and the little fish give but little trouble. There are, +however, several diseases besides fungus (of which I have spoken already +when dealing with the ova) from which the alevins may suffer.</p> + +<p>I was, I believe, the first to describe (in the "Rainbow Trout") a +peculiar disease from which alevins suffered. When hatched out and kept +in water containing a very large quantity of air in solution, I found +that sometimes alevins developed an air bubble in the yolk-sac. On +developing this bubble they are unable to stay at the bottom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> as they +usually do, but swim about on their backs at the surface, with part of +the yolk-sac out of the water. An effectual cure for this is to put the +affected alevins into still water for about thirty-six hours. I have +observed this affection in the alevins of the rainbow trout (<em>Salmo +irideus</em>), the common trout (<em>S. fario</em>) and the Quinnat or Californian +Salmon (<em>Onchorynchus conicha</em>).</p> + +<p>"Blue Swelling" of the yolk-sac is another disease from which alevins +sometimes suffer, but I have never heard of any cure for this. Another, +"paralysis," may be caused by lack of sufficient current and by +insufficient aeration of the water. Sickly alevins will, as a rule, drop +out of the pack, and lie on the bottom or against the end of the +hatching tray, where they are carried by the current.</p> + +<p>Dead alevins should be removed at once, and for this reason it is +necessary that the hatching trays should be examined at least once a +day.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>TROUT. MANAGEMENT OF THE FRY</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>A greatly varying period of time having elapsed and the yolk-sacs of the +alevins being nearly absorbed, the fish culturist will see that some of +the little fish begin to leave the pack at the bottom of the tray, and +to swim up against the current. When this is observed some very finely +divided food should be offered to these alevins. They will probably dart +at the minute pieces of food floating past and a little more may then be +given to them. If, however, they do not take any notice of little pieces +of food or any other matter which floats past them, they should not be +tried again till the next day. In a few days from the first of the +alevins beginning to feed, all of them will be working up with their +heads to the current, darting at any particles floating in the water. +The tray should now be lowered so that its edge is some three or four<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +inches below the surface and the little fish allowed to swim out into +the box.</p> + +<p>As soon as the yolk-sacs of the alevins are absorbed the little fish +cease to be alevins, and are called "fry."</p> + +<p>The alevin stage was that in which the fish give least trouble, the +stage I am now describing is that in which they give most. They must be +fed frequently—at least four times a day. "Little and often" is the +maxim which should rule the actions of the fish culturist with regard to +feeding the fry. If he can only feed his fish four times a day, he must +spend some time on each of these four occasions. The food must not be +thrown in all at once. If this be done the little fish will not get half +of it; the other half will sink to the bottom.</p> + +<p>The food should be introduced in small quantities at a time, and if the +amateur has several boxes he should put a little food into each in +succession, coming back to the first when he has put some into the last, +repeating this operation at least half a dozen times. The less he puts +in at each time, and the oftener he does it, the better. The ideal plan +would be to put a very small quantity of food in each time, and to go on +doing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> this at intervals of from five to ten minutes all day.</p> + +<p>Livingstone Stone says, "You need not be afraid of the young fry's +eating too much." And again, "I never knew any healthy young fry of mine +decline eating but once, and then I had fed them incessantly for two +hours, at the end of which time they gave up, beaten." Personally, I +have found no limit to the time that the fry will continue feeding. I +have kept on putting small quantities of food into a rearing box for a +whole afternoon, and I was tired of feeding before the fry were tired of +eating. My reader will infer from this that I believe that the fry +cannot be over-fed, and this is to a certain extent true. If finely +divided food is given in such small quantities that practically none of +it sinks to the bottom without their having a fair chance at it, I +believe that in a box containing only a couple of thousand fry, it would +be found that they never stopped feeding during the whole day. If, +however, too large pieces of food are offered to the little fish, many +of them are likely to be choked and to die, from trying to swallow a +piece a little too big for them.</p> + +<p>The amateur will observe that shortly after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> fry have been let out +into the box and are feeding freely, they will separate into two more or +less distinct groups. One at the upper end where the current comes in +and is strongest, and one at the lower end. The fish at the upper end +are the strongest and largest. This difference becomes more marked as +time goes on, and in six or eight weeks after they have begun to feed +the larger fish will be almost double the size of the smaller. In the +middle of April, if many fry are in each box, they should be thinned +out, and other boxes brought into use. The smaller fish may then be +taken from one or two boxes and put into another by themselves. In +feeding care should be taken that the small and weakly fish get a fair +share of the food.</p> + +<p>No matter how carefully the feeding is managed, some of the food is sure +to escape the young fish and sink to the bottom. This, if left as it is, +will decay and cause great mischief. A very simple and easily applied +remedy for this evil exists in the use of mould dissolved in the water. +Livingstone Stone recommends the mould under a sod, and I have always +used this with the most beneficial effect. Earth, besides covering up +and deodorizing the decomposing food at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> the bottom, also contains some +materials which are apparently necessary to the well-being of trout. To +quote again from Livingstone Stone, who was the discoverer of this use +of mould: "Earth or mud is the last thing one would suppose suitable for +a fish so associated in our minds with pure, clean water; yet it is an +indispensable constituent in the diet of young trout, and unless they +get it, either naturally or artificially, they will not thrive."</p> + +<p>The effect of earth given in this way upon the young fish is simply +marvellous. They become more lively and feed more freely. This is the +effect of a spate—which is, after all, only a dose of earth—upon wild +trout.</p> + +<p>The mould should be mixed with water in a bucket, and, when the water is +very thick and muddy, poured into the rearing boxes. The water in the +rearing boxes should be so thick that neither the bottom nor the young +fish, except when they come to the surface to take some passing particle +of food, can be seen. The amateur should not wait till something goes +wrong before giving this dose of earth; it is advisable to give it once +a week at any rate, and oftener if the fish seem to be ailing in any +way.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>In dealing with the subject of food for the young fish, I would begin by +impressing upon my reader that the greater variety of food he can give +the better it will be for the fish. He should also give them, at any +rate after they have been feeding some weeks, a certain proportion of +natural food. Probably the best of all food for the fry is pounded +shrimps or other crustaceans. It is, however, difficult in the very +early stages of the trout's life to pound shrimps up small enough, and +the little fish are much given to trying to swallow pieces of food which +are too large for them to manage. This evil proclivity often causes the +death of the fry, and therefore great care must be taken that no pieces +of food which are too large, get into the rearing box. Pounded liver +shaken up in a bottle with water, and after the larger particles have +been allowed to settle at the bottom, poured into the rearing box in +small quantities, is a good form of food for the alevins when they first +begin to feed. The yolks of eggs boiled for about half an hour and +pounded up, dog biscuit very finely pounded, or the fine food supplied +by several of the fish cultural establishments are also excellent. In +giving moist food such as pounded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> shrimps, liver, meat, or the yolks of +eggs, a good plan while the fry are very small is to put the food in a +small net made of fine muslin mounted on a wire ring, and dipping the +end of this net into the water, allow small particles to escape through +the muslin. This ensures no large pieces getting into the rearing boxes. +As the fry grow larger, these precautions are of course modified, as the +little fish are capable of swallowing larger pieces of food.</p> + +<p>With regard to natural food, the amateur should take care to ensure a +good stock for the young fish. Many of the creatures suitable for food +may be cultivated in separate ponds at the same time as the fish, if a +natural supply is not at hand. The <em>Daphnia pulex</em> (water flea) and the +<em>Cyclops quadricornis</em> may be introduced into the boxes very soon after +the fish have began to feed. <em>Daphnia</em> breeds at the rate which is +almost inconceivable. The female produces her first brood of young when +she is ten days old, and goes on breeding at an average of three or four +times a month. The female and her progeny are rendered fertile by one +act of coition, probably for fifteen generations at least, without any +further intervention of the male. Both <em>Daphnia</em> and <em>Cyclops</em><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> are bred +in stagnant water in which there should be a good stock of weeds.</p> + +<p>The fresh water shrimp (<em>Gammarus pulex</em>) is an excellent form of food +for young and old trout, and should be given to the fry as soon as they +are old enough to manage them. <em>Corixæ</em> and other small insects should +also be given as often as possible. The fresh-water shrimp is bred in +running water, <em>Corixæ</em> in still or slow running water. Weeds are +necessary to the well-being of both.</p> + +<p>The boxes must be kept carefully covered, as I have already pointed out. +A kingfisher would make short work of a box of fry, and other birds and +beasts of various kinds are partial to them. There are only two courses +open to the fish culturist in dealing with these enemies—to protect his +fish or kill the enemies. I prefer to protect the fish first and kill +the enemies afterwards.</p> + +<p>The greatest care must be taken not to introduce, or allow to intrude, +any water beetles or the larger carnivorous aquatic larvæ of insects, +into the rearing boxes. I have known cases where the larvæ of the +<em>Dytiscus marginalis</em>, the largest of our carnivorous water beetles, +have destroyed almost all the fry in a rearing pond.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> The adult <em>D. +marginalis</em> itself is not a whit less voracious, and much stronger than +its larva.</p> + +<p>If the wooden parts of the apparatus have been properly prepared, +according to my previous instructions, there should be no risk of the +fry developing fungus. Quite a small spot of woodwork, however, left +uncovered by asphalt-varnish, or enamel, or uncharred, will render the +chance of the development of this disease probable.</p> + +<p>Should by any misfortune fungus get into the rearing boxes, a dose of +salt may very likely cure it. Sea water is the best, but if this is not +obtainable, a solution of salt and water run through the boxes will +probably cure the disease. Considerable good may also be done to the +young fish by occasionally putting a lump of rock salt in at the inlet, +and the water allowed to run over and dissolve it.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>TROUT. THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FRY (<em>Continued</em>)</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>In the last chapter I brought my reader up to the point where the fry, +which had been feeding for some time in the rearing boxes, had been +judiciously separated, the weaker and smaller fish which took up their +positions at the lower ends of the boxes having been put into separate +boxes and induced as much as possible to keep at the head near to where +the current enters.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to lay down any certain rule as to what is the best time +at which to take the next step—that of turning the fry out into the +rearing ponds. When the fry have got into more or less regular habits, +and showing no fear of whoever it is who feeds them, come up readily and +seize the food boldly, is probably the best time to let them out into +the larger space of the pond. I do not mean to say that when a certain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +proportion of the fish have got over their natural shyness, and feed +boldly and without hesitation, the whole of them should be set free. +What I mean is, that when the habit of associating the appearance of a +certain individual with a meal has been well established among them for +a week or so, they should be allowed to escape from the box into the +pond.</p> + +<p>This is best done in the same way that the alevins were allowed to +escape from the hatching tray into the box—by lowering the level of the +box so that its upper edges are some two or three inches below the +surface of the water. The food should now be thrown into the pond higher +up, so that the little fish may be induced to swim up and station +themselves as near the inlet as possible. Probably some of the little +fish will not leave the box at all of their own free will. These, of +course, will have to be turned out. The box should not, however, be +lifted out of the water and the fish and water together be poured out, +as this is very likely to cause them severe injury. The box should be +gradually tilted over and lifted out of the water bottom first, so that +the fish are hardly disturbed at all and certainly not injured in any +way.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>An important matter to consider before turning the little fish out into +the pond is, how the ponds are to be protected so that their many +enemies may be kept away from the fry. Kingfishers, herons, and other +creatures are very partial to young trout and will cause enormous +destruction if not prevented. Kingfishers have, in my experience, been +the worst offenders. Some years ago I was rearing some trout in a part +of the country where many of the inhabitants bewailed the extermination +of the kingfisher. Before I began rearing trout I agreed with these +people, for a kingfisher flitting along a stream looking like a little +mass of jewels is a pleasing sight, and one which I had never enjoyed in +that particular part of the country.</p> + +<p>When the time came to set my little fish free in the rearing ponds, as a +matter of principle I covered the ponds with herring-net, closely pegged +down on the banks so that I could not even get my hand under the edge. I +did not think that there were any kingfishers or herons about, and so +was very surprised when one morning, on going down to feed the fish, I +found a kingfisher under the net, flying up and down the pond trying to +get out. By carefully intro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>ducing a landing-net under the netting over +the pond, I was able to catch the intruder, and caught four more in the +same way in about three weeks. Since that time I have not agreed with +the people who have stated that the kingfisher is almost extinct, at +least in that part of the country. I may say that there are but few +streams there, and that it is not at all an apparently likely place for +kingfishers. I am quite sure that wherever any one begins to rear fish +there he will find that kingfishers are fairly common. The amateur will +probably be also surprised at the way herons appear, if he conducts his +fish-rearing operations, as he should do, in a secluded spot.</p> + +<p>Many of the directions I gave as to the management of the fry and the +rearing boxes, apply also to the fry after they have been turned out +into the ponds. The doses of earth should still be given regularly, and +salt may be applied also in the way I have already described. The little +fish will be found to scatter over the pond or to divide again into two +bodies, one at the upper and one at the lower end of the pond, as they +did in the boxes. The fish culturist should try to induce these fish to +come to the head of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> the pond as much as possible. It is a good thing to +place some boards across the head of the pond to give shade and shelter +to the fry. It will probably be found that if much artificial food is +given to the little fish, a scum will be formed on the surface of the +water. This scum is composed of grease, and should be removed, as soon +as it is observed, with a gauze net.</p> + +<p>All the time that these operations have been going on with regard to the +little fish themselves, due attention should have been given to the +vegetation round the ponds. The alders and willows which I before +recommended to be planted round the ponds should be induced as much as +possible to overhang the water. Grass and other vegetation should be +allowed to grow freely round the margins, as many insects are then +likely to fall into the water.</p> + +<p>This vegetation will supply the little fish with a certain amount of +natural floating food, without any interference on the part of the fish +culturist; but he should, however, give them other floating food, both +natural and artificial, as much as possible, for this will get them in +their youth to adopt the habit of feeding freely at the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>surface. When +the alders and willows have grown sufficiently and are well covered with +leaves, they will probably give enough shelter to the fish to make the +boards at the upper end of the pond unnecessary.</p> + +<p>As time goes on, and the little fish grow, they should be thinned out, +the smaller and weaker being removed into another pond. Despite the best +endeavours of the fish culturist, a certain number of these small fish +are sure to keep to the lower end of the pond, and it is these which +should be removed first. If they are left, the difference in size +between the smaller and the larger will soon become so great that the +large fish will very likely be tempted to eat the small ones, thus +developing a cannibalistic habit which they will keep always.</p> + +<p>At the end of August or the beginning of September the little fish will +have got over the most dangerous part of their lives. After this time +they are called yearlings, are much more hardy and not subject to nearly +as many risks as up to that time.</p> + +<p>The great points to remember are:—That the food should be varied as +much as possible; and as much natural food, of a hard description such +as shrimps, <em>corixæ</em>, snails, bivalves, etc., be given.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> That the little +fish should be well protected from enemies. That they should not be +over-crowded, but the weakly and small fish be separated from the larger +fish. That frequent doses of earth should be given to keep the bottom +sweet and clean.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> That the inlets and outlets should be frequently +cleaned and kept clear, to ensure a good flow of water through the +ponds, and that a careful watch should be kept for such misfortunes as +fungus and dead fish, in order that they may be dealt with at once.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See two letters in Appendix.—<a href="#APPENDIX">Page 93</a></p></div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>TROUT. THE FRIENDS AND ENEMIES OF THE FISH CULTURIST</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>The creatures which are sometimes found in and around rearing ponds +containing ova or young fish are very numerous, and it is advisable that +the fish culturist should have some knowledge of them. It is for this +reason, that while I cautioned my readers against the creatures which +are dangerous, and enumerated some of those most serviceable as food, I +left detailed descriptions of these enemies and friends of the little +fish, in order that I might deal with them in a separate chapter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/larva.jpg" width="500" height="248" alt="LARVA OF DYTISCUS AND YOUNG TROUT." title="LARVA OF DYTISCUS AND YOUNG TROUT." /> +<span class="caption">LARVA OF <em>DYTISCUS</em> AND YOUNG TROUT.</span> +</div> + +<p>Among the worst enemies of both ova and fry is the <em>Dytiscus +marginalis</em>, whether this insect be in the larval or adult stage. I +think that I should hardly be wrong in going even further and saying +that <em>D. marginalis</em> is very dangerous to trout early in their yearling +stage. The accompanying illustration shows a larva of <em>Dytiscus</em><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +which has caught a young trout. This illustration is taken from a +photograph of a specimen lent to me by Mr. F. M. Halford, and both the +fish and the larva were alive when they were caught. Unfortunately the +trout is a little shrivelled, and the legs of the <em>Dytiscus</em> have been +broken. <em>D. marginalis</em> lays its eggs in the stems of rushes. The larva, +when hatched, makes its way out, and proceeds to lead a predatory life. +The larva when full-grown is about two inches long, and is quite the +most rapacious creature which lives in our waters. The adult beetle is +also purely carnivorous, but is perhaps not quite so rapacious. It +would, however, probably attack a larger fish.</p> + +<p>The largest of English water beetles is <em>Hydrophilus piceus</em>. This +beetle is not, in the adult stage at least, carnivorous, but the larva, +which is about half an inch longer and considerably fatter than that of +<em>D. marginalis</em>, is carnivorous. It may be told from the larva of +<em>Dytiscus</em> not only by its size, which is hardly a reliable point for +discrimination, but by the smaller size of the head in comparison to the +rest of the body. The claws, with which <em>Hydrophilus</em> seizes its prey, +are, too, considerably smaller than those of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> <em>Dytiscus</em>. This larva +should be kept out of the rearing ponds with just as much care as that +of the more voracious <em>D. marginalis</em>.</p> + +<p>With the kingfisher I have already dealt at some length, so that I need +say but little more with regard to it. One of the worst features in this +bird's character is that it will go on killing many more little fish +than it can possibly eat. As I have before said, it is surprising how +these birds will appear in considerable numbers where a fish hatchery is +started, even in localities where they have before been considered rare. +I have already described how the ponds should be protected from their +ravages.</p> + +<p>Herons do a great deal of harm to fish ponds, even when the fish have +got well into the yearling stage. I have on one or two occasions known +of herons wounding trout of at least a pound in weight. Besides the +actual damage they do by killing fish, they put all the other fish in +the pond off their feed through frightening them. After a heron or +kingfisher has been about a rearing pond the little fish will not feed +for a considerable time, sometimes even for days. Notwithstanding their +very evil proclivities, both herons and kingfishers are very +interesting.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> A kingfisher, if he catches a fish which is a little too +big for him to swallow whole, will knock the head of the fish, which he +always catches by the middle of the body, against a stone, in order to +kill it, or at least to stop it struggling; it might otherwise in its +struggles escape, as the kingfisher can only swallow a fish head first. +There are stories which tell how herons sometimes pluck small feathers +from their breasts and, floating these feathers upon the water, catch +the trout as they rise to it; it is supposed that the trout takes the +feather for a fly. Personally, I do not think that much credence should +be attached to the latter story.</p> + +<p>Other birds, usually found on or near the water, are also likely to do +much harm to the ova and young fish. Almost every creature which is +found near the water seems to have a great liking for the ova of fishes. +All the wading and swimming birds are to be dreaded by the fish +culturist. They will, all of them, eat ova in enormous quantities, and +many of them will also eat the little fish.</p> + +<p>Besides birds, small larvæ of several insects will eat, or at any rate +kill, the ova in considerable numbers. Caddis-worms are among these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +larvæ which eat ova. This seems to be one of the few cases in which +nature is just, for caddis-worms are taken very readily by even small +trout. Large trout will take them very greedily, cases and all. +Therefore, I should advise the fish culturist to cultivate them as food +for the fish he is rearing, but to be very careful that they do not get +into the rearing boxes or hatching trays when he has ova in them. The +caddis-worms kill the ova by making a small hole in them and sucking +some of the contents out; from this hole some more of the contents +escapes, and as it comes into contact with the water becomes opaque.</p> + +<p>Caddis-worms are the larvæ of an order of four-winged flies commonly +known as sedges, caddis-flies, or water-moths. The latter appellation is +of course a misnomer, as these flies (<em>Trichoptera</em>) have nothing +whatever to do with moths. They resemble moths, however, in that they +have four wings which when at rest lie in much the same position as do +those of moths, and as many of them have their wings thickly covered +with hairs, this resemblance is sometimes very marked. The larvæ +(caddis-worms), being eagerly sought as food by many fish, and having<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +very soft bodies, make for themselves cases. Some of these cases are +made from small sticks, some from little pieces of stone or sand, and +some from a mixture of all of these substances. As these cases resemble +such small pieces of rubbish as are frequently found in streams, care +should be taken that they do not get into the hatching trays containing +ova.</p> + +<p>Many of the water beetles, and practically all of their larvæ, will +attack the ova; they should therefore be carefully excluded from the +hatching trays. As there are about 114 different species of beetles in +the family of <em>Dytiscidæ</em> alone, my readers will appreciate my reason +for not attempting to enumerate them. It will be a sufficient warning to +state the fact that they are all carnivorous, and their relative sizes +is the only thing which will decide whether the beetle will eat the +fish, or the fish the beetle.</p> + +<p>Very similar to beetles are some of the water-bugs. They may, however, +easily be distinguished from beetles, as the outer or anterior wings of +the bugs cross each other at their lower ends, while the elytra of +beetles, which much resemble the horny, anterior wings of some of the +water-bugs, meet exactly in the middle line.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> These water-bugs, though +some of them are excellent food for even the small fish, will attack the +ova, and therefore they should be kept out of the hatching trays. The +fish culturist should, however, whenever it is possible, cultivate such +of these water-bugs as are good food for the fry in separate ponds, as I +have before recommended. The best of these water-bugs are <em>Corixæ</em>. +Others, such as the water-boatman, water-scorpions and pond-skaters, are +not of any value as food for the fish.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of <em>Ephemeridæ</em> are very good food for the fish, and should be +cultivated in separate ponds if possible, and some turned into the ponds +containing the little fish occasionally. A fair proportion should, +however, be kept in the ponds and protected, so that a good stock of the +flies may be available next year.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of <em>Ephemeridæ</em> may be obtained in many streams, and are best +caught with a fine gauze net. Some of them swim, but most are generally +captured with such a net at the bottom of the water among the <em>débris</em>. +Eggs of <em>Ephemeridæ</em> may be obtained sometimes from another locality if +they cannot be got on the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>spot. These should be carefully preserved for +the first year at any rate, and a good fly may thus be introduced into a +water where it was before unknown.</p> + +<p>I have already spoken of the fresh-water shrimp and the water-flea +(<em>Daphnia pulex</em>). These valuable articles of diet should be introduced +whenever it is possible. <em>Daphnia</em> must be reared in a stagnant pond, +the fresh-water shrimp (<em>Gammarus pulex</em>) in running water, with plenty +of weeds.</p> + +<p>Other useful creatures besides those snails and mussels which I +described in a previous chapter, are the water-louse (<em>Asellus +aquaticus</em>), <em>Cypridæ</em>, and <em>Cyclops quadricornis</em>. Asellus is very +similar in size and shape to the common garden-louse, which is found in +decaying wood. It will live either in stagnant or running water. +<em>Cypridæ</em> are very much smaller, being generally only as large as a +large pin's head. They have a bivalve shell which makes them look +something like a small mussel. They are, however, very active, swimming +by means of two pairs of legs. They also possess two pairs of antennæ +and one eye. (The species belonging to the genus <em>Candona</em> of the family +<em>Cypridæ</em>, do not swim.) <em>Cyclops</em> is another very small crustacean, +shaped like a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> large-headed club. It swims very actively, and, like the +<em>Cypridæ</em>, is an excellent article of diet for very young fish. Both +these crustacea live in stagnant water, and must, therefore, be kept in +a separate pond, whence they may be taken as required to be given to the +fry.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>TROUT. MANAGEMENT, FEEDING, AND TURNING OUT OF YEARLINGS</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>As I pointed out to my readers in <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII.</a>, the young trout have +after August passed the critical period of their existence, and may be +considered safe and hardy. Naturally, as they get older, they require +more food, but this need not be given so frequently as the fish grow +older. While it was necessary to feed the fry at least four times a day, +it will be found quite sufficient if the fish in August are fed only +twice during the twenty-four hours. I must here again impress upon my +reader the importance of feeding the trout upon as natural a food as +possible. Their future well-being depends upon this, much more than is +generally realized even by fish culturists. Of course, trout fed +entirely upon soft food may turn out all right, particularly if they are +turned out as very young yearlings,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> but it is better not to leave +anything to chance and make sure of being on the safe side.</p> + +<p>As was the case with the fry during the whole of the earlier part of +their lives, the yearlings will divide into two more or less separate +packs, though the fish may have been separated several times before in +order to divide those which kept at the head from those which kept at +the lower end of the pond. Those trout at the lower end must be coaxed +to the upper end as much as possible, care being taken when feeding that +all the fish get a fair share of food. Should any of the fish remain +obstinately at the lower end, and those at the upper end outgrow them to +a marked extent, the smaller ones must be again separated from the +larger.</p> + +<p>When, in September or October, the little fish have grown active and +strong, they may be turned out into the water they are to occupy for the +rest of their lives. There is really no reason why, if they are +well-grown and strong, they should not be turned out in August if the +water they have to be taken to is quite close to the rearing ponds, but +if they have to be carried any distance, it is better to keep them in +the rearing ponds for a few weeks longer, till the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> weather gets cool +enough to make it quite safe to allow for a possible delay in the +transit.</p> + +<p>The turning out of the fish requires some little care. I have seen fish +which had been sent by rail, poured out with the water contained in the +cans, in as hurried a manner as possible. Though of course it is +important to get the fish out of the cans used for transport as soon as +is compatible with safety; still, undue haste in this operation is +likely to do much harm. Young fish of any kind require delicate +handling, and young trout particularly. The cans should, when possible, +be partly emptied, and some water from that into which they are to be +turned put into the can. This is of course not necessary if the rearing +ponds are supplied from the same source as the water into which the fish +are turned. The cans should then be partially immersed in the water, and +the edges brought gradually below the surface. This allows the fish to +swim out of the cans of their own accord, and the few which will not go +out may be forced to do so by gently turning the can upside down.</p> + +<p>It is a very good thing to give each of the fish a dose of salt before +turning them out, particularly if they have travelled any distance. This +is easily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> managed by catching the fish, a few at a time, in a +landing-net from the travelling can, and then, instead of putting them +straight into the water, putting them into a bucket of salt and water +for a short time. Sea water is of course better if it is available. This +does away with any risk of their developing fungus on the spots which +have very likely got bruised during the journey.</p> + +<p>The yearlings are best taken from the rearing ponds by netting them. A +net which is more than broad enough to go across the rearing pond is +necessary. Too many should not be taken out at a time in each haul of +the net, as they are thus more likely to be injured or dropped on the +ground. The amateur should not forget, that though the little fish will +stand a good deal of moving about as long as they are in water, they are +likely to be killed, or at least severely injured, by a shock, +particularly if that shock is sustained while they are out of the water +for a second or two during their being moved from one place to another.</p> + +<p>If the amateur intends to keep any of his yearlings longer than +December, he will have to make a larger pond. This pond need not be a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +long, narrow one like those in which the fry were kept. Though the fish +of course still require a sufficient supply of well-aerated water, a +larger pond without the same marked current through it will do perfectly +well. They must be well fed, and if any grow markedly bigger than the +rest these should be separated. If they are not well supplied with food +they are very likely to try and eat each other, that is to say, the +largest will try to eat the smallest.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>THE REARING OF THE RAINBOW TROUT, AMERICAN BROOK TROUT, AND CHAR</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>As the methods used in hatching out the ova and rearing the young fish +are very similar in the case of different species of trout to those I +have already described in dealing with the common trout (<em>Salmo fario</em>), +I will confine myself to pointing out the most marked differences in the +habits of such species as are suitable to our waters, and which are +likely to be of use to the fish culturist. The salmon- or sea-trout will +be dealt with under salmon.</p> + +<p>First and foremost among the trout, excluding of course our own brown +trout, I put the rainbow trout (<em>Salmo irideus</em>). There are several +varieties of this species, but that which is now being so freely +introduced into many waters in England is the McCloud River rainbow (<em>S. +irideus</em>, var. <em>shasta</em>). As I have before stated, the rain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>bow spawns +long after the <em>S. fario</em>. It therefore will give the fly-fishermen good +sport after the season for the common trout is over. It is a very free +feeder, and grows more rapidly than our trout; great care must therefore +be taken to give it plenty of food. I would draw my readers' attention +particularly to this fact as to the feeding and quick-growing qualities +of the rainbow, for they make it, if possible, even more necessary that +the water into which they are turned should contain a good supply of +food than it was in the case of the common trout; though even in the +case of the common trout, this is quite the most important consideration +in stocking a water with fish.</p> + +<p>Another advantage possessed by the rainbow is, that it is less liable to +the attacks of fungus than any other of the <em>Salmonidæ</em>. Though, of +course, this is not such an important consideration nowadays as it would +have been even a few years ago, still it is one which deserves some +consideration, particularly from the amateur. This freedom from fungus +is very marked in the rainbow, for I know of a case where some dace +suffering from fungus were put into a rearing pond containing a few +rainbows. Though the dace died of the disease, the rainbows remained +healthy and free<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> from it. The amateur will probably receive the ova of +the rainbow towards the end of April or during May. The ova should hatch +out within a few days of their being received.</p> + +<p>A few years, I might almost say months ago, the great majority of +disinterested persons, whose opinion was of any consequence, were +inclined to condemn the general introduction of this fish into our +waters. I was, unfortunately, supposed to be among a certain class of +people who advocated the general introduction of this fish into all our +waters indiscriminately. This, I have always said, was a very +short-sighted policy, for, to begin with, the evidence at our disposal +seems to show that the rainbow will never thrive in cold waters, and at +the best can only be expected to really thrive and spawn in the warm +waters in the south of England. I never advocated more for the rainbow +than that it should have a fair trial in waters where our own trout had +been tried and found not to be a success. Now, however, I in my turn +stand a chance of being converted by converts from among the very people +who, a short time ago, were condemning me for holding too favourable an +opinion of the fish in question. I am inclined to think that in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> the +case of a pond in the south, even when it is supplied by a good stream, +the rainbow is the better fish with which to stock. I have been led to +believe this, partly through my own experience, and partly on account of +the opinion of Mr. Senior, for I consider his opinion on such a matter +of the greatest possible value.</p> + +<p>Another point about the rainbow, which in many cases will recommend it +particularly to the amateur, is that though of course an abundant supply +of water is an advantage, it may be reared with a smaller supply.</p> + +<p>A fish which has been very freely introduced into British waters is the +American brook-trout (<em>Salvelinus fontinalis</em>). Though this fish is not +really a trout but a char I have included it among trout, because it is +so very generally known to fishermen as the American brook-trout. The +<em>fontinalis</em>, as it is commonly called by fish culturists, is a very +satisfactory fish to rear artificially, but there seems to be some doubt +as to its suitability to British waters. It grows to a considerable size +under favourable conditions, and is one of the best of table fishes. It +is, however, undoubtedly one of the worst of cannibals among sporting +fishes, and does not apparently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> rise freely to the fly when about two +years old and older.</p> + +<p>The spawning season is extended over an even longer period than that of +our own brown trout, beginning, in its native country, in October, and +sometimes lasting till March. It shows a very marked tendency, at any +rate in America, to go down to the sea, and in some parts of Canada is +called a sea-trout. The fish are easy to rear, but I should recommend +great caution with regard to their introduction into any waters in +England. The remarks and instructions which I gave with regard to the +common trout, apply also to the <em>fontinalis</em>, but I would lay particular +stress upon the necessity of separating the fish, as soon as some grow +larger than the rest. The only drawback to this fish, from the fish +culturist's point of view, is that though a very free feeder, it is very +dainty, sometimes refusing a particular kind of food for no apparent +reason. As the spawning season is extended over such a considerable +period of time, it is obvious that the amateur will be able to obtain +the ova, ready to hatch out, during a similarly lengthy period.</p> + +<p>A fish which I should very much like to see tried in England, is the +cut-throat trout (<em>Salmo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> mykiss</em>). It is also known as the red-throat +trout. I should think, from the description given in the report of the +Commission of Fisheries, Game, and Forests for the State of New York, +that it would do well in many of our waters. There are many varieties of +this species of trout. The common name of them all is <em>Salmo mykiss</em>, +the black-spotted trout of the Rocky Mountains. The cut-throat trout +proper, so called from the red colour of its throat, is simply S. +mykiss, but there are many varieties described. Among these are the +Columbia River trout (<em>S. mykiss</em>, var. <em>clarkii</em>), the Lake Tahoe trout +(<em>S. mykiss</em>, var. <em>henshawi</em>), the Rio Grande trout (<em>S. mykiss</em>, var. +<em>spilurus</em>), and the Colorado River trout (<em>S. mykiss</em>, var. +<em>pleuriticus</em>). As these names show, the black-spotted trout has a very +wide range and is found in what are totally different climates. I should +very much like to see the cut-throat and the Columbia River varieties +tried in our waters, particularly the former, as they would probably +succeed in waters which are too cold for the rainbow, and might very +likely thrive where our own trout (<em>S. fario</em>) is not a success. As it +is found in climates which vary so much as do Alaska and California, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +would probably be easy to find one variety, if not two or three, which +would thrive in England. It is a particularly fine trout, and the +ordinary maximum weight is five or six pounds, though some of the +varieties grow much larger.</p> + +<p>Char, proper, are not at all satisfactory fish to rear. They are very +delicate, and require much more care and attention than do any of the +fish I have already described. From the very first period of their +coming under the care of the amateur fish culturist, that is to say, +from the ova, just before hatching out, till they are yearlings, the +mortality among them will be much greater than in the case of any of the +trout.</p> + +<p>The two kinds of char, most commonly to be obtained by the amateur, are +the Alpine and the Windermere char. The ova of these fish will be +received shortly before they are ready to hatch out, as was the case +with the trout ova. The amateur's difficulties will, however, begin +almost at once, for in the act of hatching out considerable mortality +among the char often occurs. Trout almost invariably emerge from the egg +tail first. As soon as the tail is free the little fish begins to move +it rapidly, using it as a propeller with which to swim about and thus +soon works com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>pletely out of the egg. Occasionally, however, trout +hatch out head first, and in these cases the young fish generally dies +before it can set itself free from the coverings of the ovum. Buckland +observed that the alevins of the char very frequently hatch out head +first, and consequently that many of them die before they can work +themselves free from the eggs. If it were possible to have some one +constantly watching the ova at the time that they are hatching out, it +would be possible to save a very large proportion of them, as they may +be very effectually helped out of the egg with a feather or soft +camel's-hair brush; but this is, of course, quite impracticable, unless +there is some one constantly watching the ova, as the delay of even a +few minutes will mean the death of the fish. This peculiarity in the +hatching out of the char has also been observed by Mr. J. J. Armistead, +and I have been able to verify it personally.</p> + +<p>The mortality which occurs in the actual hatching out of the alevins +does not, however, by any means end the trouble which the fish culturist +has to encounter in the rearing of char. They require much more +persuasion and care when they begin to feed and throughout the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> whole of +the summer. The percentage of deaths is always greater than in the case +of the trouts, not excluding the <em>fontinalis</em>, which is, as I have +already explained, not really a trout but a char.</p> + +<p>Though there must be some doubt as to its success, I should like to see +a really serious attempt at introducing char into some deep and large +ponds in the south of England. Char have been very successfully reared +in shallow water, which was certainly not kept at a particularly low +temperature, so I see no reason why this fish should not do in some of +our more southern waters. One drawback to the chance of this attempt +being made, however, is that the char cannot be considered as being a +fish which gives very good sport, and I very much doubt whether any one +is likely to try the experiment simply to find out whether they would or +would not succeed in the south of England.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3>SALMON AND SEA-TROUT</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>In many ways nature is apparently very wasteful, and in nothing is this +more marked than in the case of the salmon. Probably not more than one +egg in a thousand produces a fish which reaches the smolt stage, and a +still smaller proportion grows to the spawning stage. This great +mortality which occurs among the eggs and young fish when left to nature +may be very considerably reduced by artificial means, so that a very +fair proportion of the eggs deposited by the female fish will not only +be hatched out successfully, but the little fish will reach the smolt +stage safely and have a good chance of reaching the sea. How successful +artificial intervention may be has been proved over and over again in +the United States and in Canada. In the case of more than one river in +Canada, the artificial propagation and protection of salmon has resulted +in what is apparently the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> actual manufacture of a salmon river, +yielding an annual haul of fish far beyond anything known in Europe, +from a river which before yielded no salmon, or hardly any.</p> + +<p>These operations, carried out by the State, were of course far beyond +anything which could be undertaken by the amateur, but I am sure that if +several riparian owners on a salmon river carried on artificial hatching +and rearing operations for several seasons, a marked increase in the +number of fish in the river would ensue. The objection of most people to +this course is that it is unfortunately only too apparent that they are +benefiting chiefly, not the rod fisherman, but the netsman at the mouth +of the river.</p> + +<p>The different artificial means used to help nature in producing a good +head of salmon in a river vary chiefly in the amount of the help given +by each. It will suffice to say that the best is that which provides for +the protection and feeding of the young fish till it is ready to take +its first journey to the sea. The reason of this is obvious, as every +day passed in safety is a day gained, both in strength and in power of +self-preservation.</p> + +<p>Though it is possible to purchase a certain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> number of salmon ova, this +is not at all a satisfactory way of obtaining them. To begin with, it is +impossible to get them in sufficient numbers to carry out operations on +a large enough scale. Salmon ova are also expensive; and it is no use +working with less than half a million in several stations if the river +is of any size. It is advisable that the ova should be obtained from the +fish. This may be done either by collecting the ova deposited by the +fish in the spawning beds or from the gravid females. The latter course +necessitates the ripe female and male fish being caught and artificially +spawned. As in nature, at best but a comparatively small percentage of +the ova are impregnated, and by artificial spawning over ninety per +cent. of them may be successfully hatched out, there can be but little +doubt as to which is the better way. It is difficult to make sure of +catching the fish just at the time they are ripe, so it is advisable to +impound them in a fenced-off portion of the river, where they may be got +at easily.</p> + +<p>In the ripe female the ova flow out very readily, and but little +pressure is necessary. Hard pressure on the abdomen should never be +applied, as it is sure to injure the fish. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> ripe female having been +obtained, from which the ova flow readily, the female is held over a +perfectly clean tin or earthenware dish—wet, but containing no +water—and the ova are caused to flow into it by gently but firmly +pressing the hand on the abdomen, and stroking it down towards the vent. +Milt from a ripe male fish is then allowed to run over the ova in the +dish, and is made to run well between them by tilting the dish about +from side to side. The ova will now adhere together, and some water +should be added. This water should be poured off and fresh added till +the superfluous milt is washed away, when the ova should be left in the +water till they separate, which will be in about twenty minutes or half +an hour.</p> + +<p>The fertilized ova thus obtained may either be laid down in artificially +protected hatching beds, or may be transferred to a hatchery. The latter +proceeding, of course, requires a hatching house specially built and +arranged, and as this is outside the scope of the present work, I would +refer my readers to larger works upon the subject, such as <em>An Angler's +Paradise</em>, by J. J. Armistead. Of course, by using a hatchery a large +number of the eggs will be saved, ninety<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> per cent. of them should hatch +out. This is, therefore, obviously the best way to proceed. A very much +larger number of eggs will, however, be hatched out in properly-chosen +artificial beds than would be the case if they were left to nature.</p> + +<p>The necessary qualities of a good artificial bed are, a good supply of +clean water which is not liable if there is a spate to deposit sediment +on the eggs, protection from light, and protection from the many +creatures which prey upon the ova. The hatching beds may be so arranged +that the young fish may escape as soon as they like after hatching out, +but it is best to watch and protect them for at any rate the first few +weeks after they have begun to feed, and while continuing the feeding, +to allow those of the fish that wish to escape.</p> + +<p>The rearing of young salmon and sea-trout is practically the same as +that of the common trout, except that they require more water. If kept +in rearing ponds they grow more quickly than they do when left to find +food for themselves. While young, the salmon is marked with transverse +bars of a darker colour than the rest of the body. During the time it +bears these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> marks it is known as a parr.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> In about fifteen months it +loses these marks and becomes quite silvery, being now known as a smolt. +Shortly after assuming the smolt dress, the young salmon takes its +departure to the sea. In some cases the young salmon do not appear to go +down to the sea till over two years after being hatched out, but they +should always be set at liberty in March, April, or May in the year +following that in which they were hatched out, according to how far they +have developed the smolt or silver appearance.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> All the trouts go through this stage, which is +distinguished by "finger marks" upon the sides.</p></div> + +<p>If spring water is obtainable, particularly if the water, as is usually +the case, is of an even temperature throughout the year, the troubles of +the fish culturist are considerably lessened. Without a building for the +hatching troughs it is almost impossible in many places to guard against +frost unless such a spring is available. Sediment may be avoided by +putting frames covered with flannel at the inlets to the hatching beds, +these will, if kept clean, prevent any sediment from coming into the +ponds, and will allow plenty of water to flow in. If hatching trays<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> are +not used, the bottom of the artificial bed should be covered with clean +gravel.</p> + +<p>The time which elapses from the impregnation of the eggs to their +hatching out varies according to the temperature of the water, a fairly +average time is about ninety days. The ova should be watched during this +time, and the dead ones removed. For a short time after they are +impregnated they are fairly hardy, but from then till shortly before +they hatch out the very slightest concussion will kill or seriously +injure them.</p> + +<p>The management of sea-trout ova is similar to that of salmon, and the +ova are obtained in the same way. As in the case of the salmon it is +best to rear the little fish artificially, till they are ready to go +down to the sea; they will thus escape dangers likely to cause the loss +of about eighty per cent. of their number.</p> + +<p>The same methods and the same precautions as advised in the chapters on +rearing trout should be adopted in the case of salmon and sea-trout as +far as is possible, and if this is done a very large percentage of the +ova should be successfully reared to the smolt stage.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>COARSE FISH</h3> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>Compared to what is known about the early part of the life history of +the <em>Salmonidæ</em>, our knowledge of coarse fish is small. Fortunately, +however, such lengthy and complicated proceedings as are necessary to +obtain a good stock of trout are not necessary to obtain a good stock of +coarse fish. If even a few rudd, perch, dace, pike, or carp are put into +water where they have a good supply of food to begin with, and which is +suitable otherwise for their well-being, the amateur's chief trouble +after a few years, if the water is not heavily fished, will be to keep +down the stock of coarse fish in proportion to the supply of food.</p> + +<p>I have seen many cases where rudd, perch, dace and carp have increased +to an enormous extent from a few fish introduced into the water. Some +four years ago we put a few small rudd<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> into a mill-pond at home, +thinking that the fry they produced would serve admirably as food to the +trout which also inhabited the pond. In about twenty months the pond was +full of small rudd, and last year we netted out many hundred, as the +water was terribly over-stocked with them. The same thing has happened +in almost every case which has come to my knowledge; that is, of course, +where the waters have been stocked with food, and suitable to the fish +introduced.</p> + +<p>The way in which dace will increase when put into a suitable water is, +if possible, even more remarkable than what happens in the case of the +rudd. I will quote one instance, which proves this very conclusively. A +few years ago there were no dace in the Sussex Ouse. Pike fishermen, +however, used to bring live dace to use as baits. Some of these escaped, +or were set free by the fishermen at the end of their day's fishing, and +now the Sussex Ouse contains more dace for its size than any other river +I have ever seen.</p> + +<p>While rudd thrive best in a pond or lake into which a stream flows, dace +require a river or stream to do well. They will, however, thrive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> and +increase rapidly in a river where trout are not a success. A muddy +bottom with occasional quickly running shallows, seem to constitute the +best kind of water for dace. The largest, and by far the best +conditioned dace I have seen, have come from the tidal parts of rivers, +where the water is brackish at high water. Dace from such a water have +also the advantage of being very good eating, as they have, as a rule, +not got the unpleasant muddy taste usual in this fish.</p> + +<p>Perch and pike will thrive both in rivers and in ponds or lakes which +have a supply of water from a stream or from springs. They both increase +in numbers very rapidly, and when protected, are more likely to require +thinning down every few years, than artificial assistance from the +amateur.</p> + +<p>The king-carp is the best fish for the amateur who wishes to obtain good +bottom fishing from an absolutely stagnant pond. This fish is much +bolder and a more free feeder than the common carp. It increases so +rapidly in numbers, and is a hard fighting and lively fish.</p> + +<p>Most of the coarse fish deposit a much larger number of eggs than do any +of the <em>Salmonidæ</em>—that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> is to say, in proportion to their size. In +stocking a water which contains no fish, the amateur may wish to hurry +on the process of nature in the case of coarse fish; and, fortunately, +this is fairly easily managed. In the case of perch, rudd, pike, and +carp, but little change of water is required to hatch out the eggs. The +eggs of these fish take but a short time to hatch; and if they are +protected, and this protection is also given to the little fish for a +few weeks, it will generally be found that an amply sufficient result is +obtained. The eggs should be spread out carefully on wicker-work or the +lids of baskets and kept in the light. A trickle of water which is +sufficient to change the body of water in the pond in which the ova are +put will, as a rule, be enough. The amateur must be careful that the +pond in which he hatches the eggs does not contain any of the many +enemies I have described in former chapters. If it is at all possible to +protect the eggs and the little fish, it is best to hatch out the eggs +in the pond which it is intended to stock, for it is exceedingly +difficult to keep the newly-hatched fish in a rearing-pond on account of +their very small <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>size. It will be necessary to use muslin or flannel +screens instead of perforated zinc. Care must be taken that there is not +too great a flow of water, as this will cause the little fish to be +drowned at the outlet screen.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX</h2> + +<h3>THE USE OF EARTH IN REARING PONDS</h3> + +<h4>[From a correspondence upon the subject which appeared in <em>Land and +Water</em>]</h4> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span><span class="letterto">Sir</span>,—In your last issue I have read with pleasure the eminently +practical notes on fish culture by Mr. Charles Walker. He is perfectly +right in all he says with reference to the useful and preventive results +of the use of "common garden" earth, or vegetable mould in checking any +fungoid development, <em>Saprolegnia</em> or other. It must, however, be +admitted that the said addition is not an element of beauty in a box; +therefore it should be avoided, or only used when necessity dictates. +However, the fry, when thoroughly restored to health, may be transferred +by muslin net to another box free from earth should it be necessary to +count out certain numbers for the satisfaction of customers' orders. +Again, the earth employed may, and in some waters does, give rise to +other ill effects on the health of the "fry" or young fishes. Affection +of the eye is not unheard of as the result of over-use of earth. Perhaps +the best way to obviate any trouble of this nature would be to pound and +dry the earth, and keep it in a canister or other closed vessel till +required for use. Spores of fungi are nearly, if not quite, omnipresent; +and their effects are so insidious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> that too many precautions cannot +well be taken to avert the introduction of "trouble" in the hatchery. +Indeed, were it not for the risks arising from attacks of fungi, +pisciculture, as now understood and carried on, would be an unalloyed +pleasure and unbounded success. We can practically hatch 995 out of +1,000 eggs, or thereabouts. It is the risks of rearing that stand in our +road, and these, as time goes on, and experience increases, must +diminish. There would appear, then, to be a good time coming for fish +culture, and those who earnestly follow it.</p> + +<p>Practice is the only safe guide, as circumstances, geological, physical, +and meteorological so vary the conditions of works that no definite rule +of procedure will avail. Earnest work and close observation, combined +with ready resource, are the only safe guides to success. Troubles of +some sort are sure to supervene; the man who succeeds is he who can +anticipate, and so remedy them. To be always on the watch and notice the +first indication is a very safe maxim, more easy to inculcate than to +put in practice.</p> + +<p>There can be no question but that the practical removal of difficulties +in the path of fish culture is work of the highest value, well worthy +the attention and acknowledgment of those in authority at Whitehall and +elsewhere at home, as has been the case abroad.</p> + +<p class="letterfrom">C. C. C.</p> + +<div class="thought_break"></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span><span class="letterto">Sir</span>,—Your correspondent "C. C. C." in <em>Land and Water</em> of last week +disagrees with the constant and free use of earth, which I had advocated +in my article on fish culture which appeared the preceding week. +Naturally one must admit that earth at the bottom of a pond is not so +great an element of beauty as is clean gravel, but the advantages are so +many, that beauty must give way to usefulness. Besides this, "C. C. C." +must know that it is almost impossible to keep the gravel clean enough +to look pretty, when the water is inhabited by a large number of little +fish which are being constantly fed. I cannot at all agree with his +advice that "earth should be avoided, or only used when necessity +dictates." I believe that one of the first principles of success in fish +culture is always to prevent any disease or mishap, rather than to wait +for, and then try to remedy it. Trout in their natural surroundings get +a dose of earth every time that there is a spate. It is very evident +that the earth contains some ingredients which are not only beneficial +but almost a necessity to the fish.</p> + +<p>I have never heard of earth as an actual cure for "fungus" and should +hardly think that it is active enough. There is, however, no doubt that +it is one of the best preventatives to "fungus," for if it is properly +and freely used it stops all chance of any decomposing material being +exposed to the action of the water, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> laying the fish open to the +chance of a great many evils.</p> + +<p>If suitable earth is used once a week, and even oftener on occasions, it +can do no harm, and will keep the fish safe from a great many risks +besides doing them very material good. I do not of course mean that the +usual weekly dose should be a large one, as this would fill up the pond +before the end of the season, but that a small dose should be given +generally, and a large dose occasionally. I am quite sure, too, that +clean earth with some nice weeds growing in it, looks better than gravel +which is dirty. Gravel shows the dirt so much, that it is almost +impossible to keep it looking nice where there are many fish, and it +also gives the water free access to any decomposing matter.</p> + +<p>I have never come across a case of disease caused by the use of earth, +and should like to hear the details of "C. C. C.'s" experiences with +regard to this matter.</p> + +<p class="letterfrom">Charles Walker.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + + +<div class="index_section"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>Advantages of rainbow trout, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-5</p> + +<p>Air bubble in yolk sac, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></p> + +<p>Alders round rearing ponds, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +at water side, importance of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p> + +<p>Alevins, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-41<br /> +diseases of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-1</p> + +<p>Alpine char, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></p> + +<p><a name="American_brook_trout" id="American_brook_trout"></a>American brook trout, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +rearing of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-6<br /> +spawning of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p> + +<p>Aquatic creatures, serving as food for fish, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-2, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-6</p> + +<p>Aquatic plants suitable for deep water, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +suitable for margins, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> + +<p>Aquatic vegetation, importance of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> +development of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></p> + +<p>Arrangement of rearing boxes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></p> + +<p>Artificial spawning of salmon, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-4</p> + +<p><em>Asellus aquaticus</em>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> +<p>Black spotted trout of the Rocky Mountains, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-8</p> + +<p>Blue swelling, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></p> + +<p>Breeding char, difficulties in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-80</p> + +<p>Breeding. (See <a href="#Rearing">Rearing</a>.)</p> + +<p>Brown trout, suitable water for, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></p> + +<p>Bullrushes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> + +<p><em>Byssus</em>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-8</p> +</div> + +<div class="index_section"> +<p>Caddis-worms, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-3<br /> +in hatching trays, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-9</p> + +<p>Carp, suitable water for, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p> + +<p>Char, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-80<br /> +Alpine, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +difficulties in breeding, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-80<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>hatching out of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-9<br /> +introduction of, to the south, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +kinds of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +rearing, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-80<br /> +suitable water for, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +Windermere, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></p> + +<p>Charring wood, importance of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, 50</p> + +<p>Chub, suitable water for, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p> + +<p>Coarse fish, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>-92<br /> +ova of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-1</p> + +<p>Colorado River trout, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></p> + +<p>Columbia River trout, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></p> + +<p><em>Conchifera</em>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></p> + +<p><em>Corixæ</em>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></p> + +<p>Covers for rearing ponds, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></p> + +<p>Creatures, aquatic, serving as food for fish, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-2, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-6</p> + +<p>Crowfoot, water, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> + +<p>Cure for fungus, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></p> + +<p>Cut-throat trout, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-8</p> + +<p><em>Cyclops quadricornis</em>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-6</p> + +<p><em>Cypridæ</em>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-6</p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Dace, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-90<br /> +suitable water for, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p> + +<p><em>Daphnia pulex</em>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></p> + +<p>Dead alevins, removal of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></p> + +<p>Dead ova, removal of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></p> + +<p>Difference between beetles and <em>Corixæ</em>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></p> + +<p>Diseases of alevins, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-1<br /> +ova, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-9</p> + +<p><em>Dytiscus marginalis</em>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-60, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></p> +<br /> + +<p>Earth in rearing boxes, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-6<br /> +doses of, in rearing pond, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-6</p> + +<p>Effects of soft food on trout, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></p> + +<p><em>Ephemeridæ</em>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-5<br /> +larvæ of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-5<br /> +catching larvæ of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Feeding of the fry, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-9</p> + +<p>Feeding yearlings, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></p> + +<p>Food, importance of, in waters, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p> + +<p>Fresh-water shrimp, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> +snails, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-2</p> + +<p>Friends and enemies of the fish, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-66</p> + +<p>Fry, feeding of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-9<br /> +separating large from small, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +turning out of rearing box, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-2</p> + +<p><a name="Fungus" id="Fungus"></a>Fungus, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-9<br /> +cure for, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p><em>Gammarus pulex</em>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></p> + +<p>Gold-fish, suitable water for, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>Grannom, introduction of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></p> + +<p>Grass round rearing ponds, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></p> + +<p>Grayling, possible harm done by, to trout, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +suitable water for, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></p> + +<p>Great water moss, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> +</div> + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Hatchery, suitable spot for, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-6</p> + +<p>Hatching out char, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-9<br /> +ova of coarse fish, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-2</p> + +<p>Hatching trays, arrangement of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +caddis-worms in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-9<br /> +construction of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +placing ova in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-6<br /> +removal of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-3<br /> +shrimps in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p> + +<p>Herons, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-1</p> + +<p><em>Hydrophilus piceus</em>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-60</p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Important points in rearing young trout, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-7</p> + +<p>Inlet to rearing ponds, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-30</p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>King carp, suitable water for, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></p> + +<p>Kingfisher, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Lake Tahoe trout, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></p> + +<p>Lakewort, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> + +<p>Leaf screen to rearing ponds, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></p> + +<p>Lobelia, water, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>May fly, introduction of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></p> + +<p>Moss, great water, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> + +<p>Mussels, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p><em>Nautonecta glauca</em>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></p> + +<p>Natural food, importance of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> +natural food for fry, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-9</p> + +<p>Netting for rearing ponds, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Ova beds, artificial salmon, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></p> + +<p>Ova, care of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-9<br /> +dead, removal of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> +hatching of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> +of coarse fish, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-1<br /> +of sea-trout, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +placing in hatching trays, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-6</p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Perch, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-1<br /> +suitable water for, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p> + +<p>Pike, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-9, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-1</p> + +<p>Planting weeds in ponds, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> +in streams, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></p> + +<p>Ponds for yearlings, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-1</p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Rainbow trout, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-5, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> +advantage of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-5<br /> +freedom from fungus, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-4<br /> +rearing of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-5<br /> +suitable water for, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>spawning time of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></p> + +<p><a name="Rearing" id="Rearing"></a>Rearing, important points in, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-7</p> + +<p>Rearing box, arrangement of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +construction of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +cover for, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></p> + +<p>Rearing char, difficulties in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-80<br /> +fry of salmon, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-7<br /> +fry of sea-trout, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-7<br /> +rainbow trout, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-5</p> + +<p>Rearing ponds, alders round, 32; grass round, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +construction of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-9<br /> +covers for, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +gravel in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +importance of allowing water to run through for some weeks, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> +inlet to, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-30<br /> +netting for, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +pipes to, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +removal of yearlings from, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +separating fish in, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-6<br /> +size of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-4<br /> +use of earth in, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-6<br /> +vegetation round, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> +willows round, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></p> + +<p>Restocking, best time for, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></p> + +<p>Rio Grande trout, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></p> + +<p>Rudd, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>-9, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +suitable water for, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p><em>Salmo irideus</em>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-5, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-5<br /> +<em>fario</em>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<em>mykiss</em>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-8</p> + +<p>Salmon and sea-trout, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-7</p> + +<p>Salmon, artificial spawning of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-4<br /> +artificial ova beds, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +mortality among ova and young fish, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +rearing fry, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-7<br /> +scale upon which rearing should be carried out, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +success in artificial intervention in stock of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-2</p> + +<p>Salt, as cure for fungus, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +dose of, for yearlings, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-70</p> + +<p><em>Salvelinus fontinalis</em>, 15.<br /> +(See <a href="#American_brook_trout">American brook trout</a>.)</p> + +<p><em>Saprolegnia</em>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-9.<br /> +(See <a href="#Fungus">Fungus</a>.)</p> + +<p>Sea-trout, ova of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +rearing fry of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-7</p> + +<p>Sea-water as cure for fungus, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></p> + +<p>Separating yearlings, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></p> + +<p>Shrimp, fresh-water, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>Shrimps in hatching trays, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p> + +<p>Snails, fresh-water, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-12</p> + +<p>Soft food, effects of, on trout, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></p> + +<p>Spawning time of American brook trout, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p> + +<p>Stocking waters with food, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p> + +<p>Stonewort, water-, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> + +<p>Suitable fish and suitable water, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Trout, collecting wild ova of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> +ova, management of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-9</p> + +<p>Turning fry out of rearing box, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-2<br /> +out yearlings, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-9</p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Varnishing wood, importance of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></p> + +<p>Vegetation, aquatic, importance of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> +aquatic, development of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +importance of, at water side, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> +on banks of water, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> +round rearing ponds, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Water-boatman, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, 64<br /> +beetles, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-60, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +bugs, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-4<br /> +celery, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +cress, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +crowfoot, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +flea, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> +lilies, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +lobelia, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +louse, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> +scorpion, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +starwort, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> + +<p>Weeds, importance of, in waters, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> +planting in ponds, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> +in streams, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></p> + +<p>Willow round rearing ponds, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> +at water side, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></p> + +<p>Windermere char, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="index_section"> + +<p>Yearling trout, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></p> + +<p>Yearlings, feeding of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +removal of, from rearing pond, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +separating, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> +turning out, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-9<br /> +</p> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h5>Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.</h5> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<div class="advert"> +<h1>Shooting on a Small Income</h1> + +<h2>By CHARLES WALKER</h2> + +<h3>Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 5<em>s.</em></h3> + +<p>"A pleasant little surprise awaited us when we found on our table ... +'Shooting on a Small Income.' The marked individuality of this book lies +in the fact that in the course of 300 odd pages it gives in concise +language an enormous body of information fully justifying the title +chosen.... The amount of really useful all-round information presented +in such a readable form would be almost impossible to beat in any single +work that has come to our notice."—<em>Land and Water.</em></p> + + +<h1>On Plain and Peak</h1> + +<h3>Sport in Bohemia and Tyrol</h3> + +<h2>By RANDOLPH LLEWELLYN HODGSON</h2> + +<h3>Illustrated by H.S.H. <span class="person_name">Princess Mary of Thurn and Taxis</span>, and from +Photographs</h3> + +<h3>Demy 8vo, 7<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></h3> + + +<h1>Days in Thule with Rod, Gun, and Camera</h1> + +<h2>By JOHN BICKERDYKE</h2> + +<h3>With Numerous Illustrations. Cloth, 2<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em>; paper cover, 1<em>s.</em> +6<em>d.</em></h3> + + +<h1>Motor Vehicles and Motors</h1> + +<h3>Their Design, Construction, and Working by Steam, Oil, and Electricity</h3> + +<h2>By W. WORBY BEAUMONT</h2> + +<h5>M.INST.C.E. M.INST.M.E. M.INST.E.E.</h5> + +<h3>Price 42<em>s.</em> net</h3> + +<h4>About six hundred pages and more than four hundred and fifty +illustrations and working drawings.</h4> + + +<h1>The Eighth Duke of Beaufort</h1> + +<h2>AND THE BADMINTON HUNT</h2> + +<h3>With a Sketch of the Rise of the Somerset Family</h3> + +<h2>By T. F. DALE, M.A.</h2> + +<h5>AUTHOR OF "THE HISTORY OF THE BELVOIR HUNT," "THE GAME OF POLO," ETC.</h5> + +<h3>Demy 8vo, 21<em>s.</em> Fully Illustrated.</h3> + + +<h1>The History of the Belvoir Hunt</h1> + +<h2>By T. F. DALE, M.A.</h2> + +<h4>With 5 Photogravures and 48 Full-page Plates, and 2 Maps of the Country +hunted, showing all the principal meets and historic runs. Also +Appendices giving the Stud Book Entries from the year 1791 to 1876, +pedigrees of celebrated hounds, and a bibliography.</h4> + +<h3>1 Vol. Demy 8vo. 21<em>s.</em> net</h3> + +<p>"<span class="person_name">Mr. Dale's</span> book must be read through and through—by the sportsman for +pleasure, the historian for facts, and by the breeders of all animals +for the results of judicious mating. It is about the best work on a +hunting subject ever written."—<em>Sporting Life.</em></p> + +<p>"He has produced a book which is much more than its title promises, and +he has indeed been fortunate in his subject. While <span class="person_name">Mr. Dale's</span> record +centres upon the hunting field and kennel with scrupulous care for +detail that hunt history demands, he invests it with stronger claims +still upon attention."—<em>Bailey's Magazine.</em></p> + + +<h2>2 WHITEHALL GARDENS, WESTMINSTER</h2> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Amateur Fish Culture, by Charles Edward Walker + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMATEUR FISH CULTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 24719-h.htm or 24719-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/7/1/24719/ + +Produced by Chris Logan and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/24719-h/images/larva.jpg b/24719-h/images/larva.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..352467a --- /dev/null +++ b/24719-h/images/larva.jpg diff --git a/24719-h/images/pond.jpg b/24719-h/images/pond.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..40243fc --- /dev/null +++ b/24719-h/images/pond.jpg diff --git a/24719.txt b/24719.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..67c3020 --- /dev/null +++ b/24719.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2762 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Amateur Fish Culture, by Charles Edward Walker + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Amateur Fish Culture + +Author: Charles Edward Walker + +Release Date: February 29, 2008 [EBook #24719] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMATEUR FISH CULTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Logan and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + +AMATEUR FISH +CULTURE + +BY CHARLES EDWARD WALKER + +AUTHOR OF "OLD FLIES IN NEW +DRESSES" "SHOOTING ON A +SMALL INCOME," ETC + + +WESTMINSTER +ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO LTD +2 WHITEHALL GARDENS + +1901 + + + + +Butler & Tanner, +The Selwood Printing Works, +Frome, and London. + + + + +PREFACE + + +My aim, in this little book, has been to give information and hints +which will prove useful to the amateur. Some of the plans and apparatus +suggested would not be suitable for fish culture on a large scale, but +my object has been to confine myself entirely to operations on a small +scale. I have to thank the Editor of _Land and Water_ for permission to +publish in book form what first appeared as a series of articles. + +CHARLES WALKER. + +Mayfield, Sussex. +_March, 1901._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I Introductory 1 + + II Stocking Waters with Food 7 + + III Suitable Fish and Suitable Waters 14 + + IV Trout. Preliminary Hints and Advice 20 + + V Trout. Rearing Ponds, Boxes, and Hatching Trays 27 + + VI Trout. Management of the Ova and Alevins 34 + + VII Trout. Management of the Fry 42 + + VIII Trout. The Management of the Fry (_Continued_) 51 + + IX Trout. The Friends and Enemies of the Fish Culturist 58 + + X Trout. Management, Feeding, and Turning out of Yearlings 67 + + XI The Rearing of the Rainbow Trout, American Brook Trout, + and Char 72 + + XII Salmon and Sea-Trout 81 + + XIII Coarse Fish 88 + + Appendix 93 + + Index 97 + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +Fish culture of a certain kind dates from very early times, but its +scientific development has only come about quite recently. Most people +know that in our own country the monks had stew ponds, where they kept +fish, principally carp, and also that the Romans kept fish in ponds. In +the latter case we hear more often of the eel than of other fish. The +breeding of trout and salmon, and the artificial spawning and hatching +of ova, are, however, an innovation of our own time. + +Much has been discovered about the procreation of fish, and in no case +have scientists worked so hard and discovered more than in the case of +_Salmonidae_. Fish culture, particularly trout culture, has become a +trade, and a paying one. To any one who has the least idea of the +difficulties to be overcome in rearing _Salmonidae_, this fact alone +proves that fish culture must have progressed to a very advanced stage +as a science. + +This advance has in very many, if not in the majority of cases, been +made by the bitter experience gained through failures and mishaps, for +these have led fish culturists to try many different means to prevent +mischances, or to rectify them if they have happened. Some of the most +serious difficulties experienced by the early fish culturists who bred +_Salmonidae_ can now be almost disregarded, for they hardly exist for the +modern fish culturist, with the knowledge he possesses of the experience +of others. + +So much of what has been done in fish culture is generally known to +those who have studied and practised it, that the beginner can nowadays +commence far ahead of the point whence the first fish culturists +started. Many of his difficulties have been overcome for him already, +and though he will not, of course, meet with the success of the man of +experience, still he ought with the exercise of an average amount of +intelligence to avoid such failures as would completely disgust him. + +There are many pieces of water containing nothing but coarse fish which +are very suitable for trout of some kind. Ponds, particularly those +which have a stream running through them, will, as a rule, support a +good head of trout if properly managed. Again a water which contains +trout may become more or less depleted, and here it is necessary to +supply the deficiency of trout by some means. The easiest way is, of +course, to buy yearling or two-year-old fish from a piscicultural +establishment, of which there are many in the kingdom, but I know that +there are many fishermen who would much prefer to rear their own fish +from the ova, than to buy ready-made fish. Any one who has the time and +opportunity to rear his own fish will be amply repaid by the amusement +and interest gained, and it should be the cheaper method of stocking or +re-stocking a water. + +The same remarks apply to a certain extent to waters which will not +support trout, or where the owner wants more coarse fish. The stock of +coarse fish may be improved by fish culture just as much as a stock of +trout. + +In his first year or two, it is very possible that the amateur will not +save very much by being his own pisciculturist. If, however, he is +careful, and works with intelligence, it is quite possible that he may +succeed better than he had hoped and rear a good head of fish at a less +cost than the purchase of yearlings. In any case he will have had a +great deal of pleasure and gained experience as well as reared some +fish. + +In the present little volume, I propose to try and deal with fish +culture in such a way as to help the amateur who wishes to rear fish to +stock his own water. Much of the existing literature of the subject +deals with it on such a large scale that the amateur is frightened to +attempt what is apparently so huge an undertaking. Fish culture may, +however, be carried out on a small scale with success, and though +considerable attention is necessary, particularly with young +_Salmonidae_, it is not a task which involves a very great proportion of +the time of any one undertaking it. It is absolutely necessary, however, +that the amateur fish culturist should live on the spot, or have some +one who is intelligent and perfectly trustworthy who does. In every case +in my experience, trusting the care of young fish to a keeper or servant +has resulted in failure, and in every failure I have seen where the fish +have not been trusted to the care of a servant, the cause has been very +obvious, and could easily have been avoided. + +The rearing of trout is the most important branch of fish culture to the +amateur, and fortunately but slight modifications are necessary in +rearing other fish. What is good enough for trout is good enough for +most fish, therefore I think that I shall be right in describing trout +culture at considerable length, and dealing with other fish in a +somewhat summary manner. The difference in the management, etc., of +other fish I shall point out after describing how to rear trout. + +To begin with, the amateur must not suppose that because he puts fish +into a stream or pond he will succeed in stocking that water or +increasing the head of fish. There are many other things to be +considered. The river, stream, or pond must be of a suitable character +for the fish, and there must be plenty of food. I am sure that it is +much more important to consider carefully whether the water is suitable, +and contains a proper supply of food, than to consider how the fish are +to be obtained, for recourse may always be had to a professional fish +culturist--fish of almost any kind and any age can be bought ready +made. + +The point I would impress upon the amateur more forcibly than anything +else, is that he should be sure that there is plenty for his fish to eat +in the water, before he thinks of putting them into it. It is for this +reason that I devote my next chapter chiefly to the stocking of waters +with food and to the improvement of the food supply in waters where some +food already exists. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +STOCKING WATERS WITH FOOD + + +It may seem somewhat superfluous to say that fish cannot live in any +water unless that water contains the food supply necessary for them to +thrive upon, and yet this is the point most often overlooked in stocking +waters with fish. Small attempts at stocking with creatures suitable for +food, particularly after the fish have been already introduced, are not +at all likely to succeed. Such an important matter when treated as a +small afterthought is almost sure to end in failure of the whole +business of stocking. + +But a small amount of thought will convince any one that in order that +there may be a sufficient amount of animal life in a water, there must +be an adequate vegetable life, for weeds are almost always necessary to +the well-being of the creatures which serve as food for fishes. + +In the case of a pond it is generally fairly easy to introduce a good +stock of suitable weeds. The best method is to let the pond down as low +as possible, and then to plant some weeds round the margin; the water is +then allowed to gradually fill up the pond, and as it rises weeds are +planted round the rising margin of the water. In ponds which cannot be +emptied at all, or not sufficiently to carry out this plan, weeds may be +planted in an easy but not quite so effectual a manner. They may be +planted in shallow baskets containing some mud from the bottom of the +pond, and then lowered in suitable places from a boat, or bundles of the +weed may be tied to stones and dropped into the water in a similar +manner. + +These latter methods are, of course, not so good as actually planting +the weeds round the advancing margin of the water, for success depends +to a certain extent upon chance. Some of the weeds thus planted are, +however, sure to take root and grow. Plants of different kinds, of +course, are necessary at different depths and on different kinds of +bottoms, and good kinds are necessary at the margin of the water as +well. I give a list of some suitable plants of each kind at the end of +this chapter. + +Similar methods are used in planting weeds in rivers and streams to +those used in ponds. If the weeds are planted in baskets, the baskets +must, of course, be weighted when put in a position where the current +can act upon them. + +Besides vegetation in the water, vegetation on the bank is of +considerable importance. I shall deal with this at a later period more +fully, as trees and bushes, besides harbouring many insects which serve +as food for fish, have also considerable importance in giving cover to +the fish and to the fisherman who is pursuing them. + +I think that in the case of a bare water, a year at least should be +devoted to developing a good supply of vegetation. This will generally +produce a considerable amount of animal life, without any artificial +help, but judicious help will be sure to accelerate matters to a +considerable extent. I would, however, advise the amateur not to attempt +to introduce a quantity of creatures into his water, until the vegetable +life therein is well established. For instance, though fresh-water +snails are desirable in every trout water, if introduced in large +numbers into a water in which the vegetation is small and not well +established, they will eat down the weeds too much and then die off from +disease caused by want of sufficient nourishment. + +Having established the vegetable life well in a water, and developed it +to a considerable extent, the amateur may begin to examine his water, +and find out how much animal life exists there, and to stock with +creatures suitable for food, according to what he finds in the water. + +Fresh-water snails are always desirable. In streams, or in ponds with +streams running into them, the fresh-water shrimps (_Gammarus pulex_) +should always be tried. It does not do in some waters, but where it does +thrive it increases very rapidly, and forms about the best article of +food that can be given to trout. _Corixae_, which thrive in ponds and +sluggish waters, should always be introduced. They increase rapidly, and +are taken by most fish, particularly by trout. The amateur should be +careful when he introduces these creatures to make sure that he is +putting in the right creature. The water-boatman (_Nautonecta glauca_) +is a member of the same family, but is no use as food for the fish. He +swims on his back, is longer and narrower than are _Corixae_, which do +not swim on their backs, are smaller, broader, and live much more under +water than the water-boatman. It is generally advisable to avoid +water-beetles, as most of them are more likely to do harm than good, +such a number of our water-beetles being carnivorous. They will probably +not harm adult fish, but they will destroy ova and fry. I have known a +_Dytiscus marginalis_ kill a trout of nearly a quarter of a pound in +weight. + +In order to make sure of not introducing carnivorous water-beetles into +a water, I think it best as a rule not to introduce beetles at all. +_Corixae_ are, however, so like beetles, that many people call them +beetles, and therefore I will give a few points which will make them +easily distinguishable from each other. In beetles, the wing-cases +(elytra) meet exactly in the middle line, in _Corixae_ and other +water-bugs, the anterior wings, which resemble the elytra of beetles, +overlap, which causes the line on the back to curve away to one side at +the lower end. In beetles the wings which lie under the wing-cases are +folded up on themselves, and when spread out are much larger than the +wing-cases. The wings are transparent and very delicate. In _Corixae_ the +posterior wings, which lie under the hard and horny anterior wings, are +a little shorter than the anterior wings; they are not folded up on +themselves and are not so delicate and transparent as the wings of the +beetle. + +Such small creatures as _Daphnia pulex_, _Cyclops quadricornis_ and +_Rotifera_ should be introduced into ponds. + +Snails (_Gasteropoda_) may be roughly divided into three classes, +according to the shape of their shells: (1) Flat-shaped coils (type +_Planorbis corneus_); (2) Oblong-shaped, somewhat like a trumpet (type +_Limnaea stagnalis_); and (3) Ear-shaped (type _Limnaea auricularia_). +_Limnaea auricularia_ is particularly suitable for deep waters, and _L. +pereger_, whose shell is of type 2, is a most valuable addition to the +food supply in any fish pond. It is one of the commonest of our +fresh-water snails. + +Mussels (_Conchifera_) are another valuable article of food. There are a +great many different kinds, and the larger ones should, as a rule, be +avoided. _Sphaeriidae_ and _Pisidia_ are probably the best. + +In many cases it is advisable to attempt the introduction of some flies +which are not present. There are several cases in which the May-fly has +been successfully introduced, and also the Grannom. Small _Ephemeridae_ +seem to me preferable to any other flies. + +With regard to suitable plants for comparatively deep water in ponds or +lakes, lakewort and stonewort grow on the bottom, and do not, as a rule, +attain any considerable height. White and yellow water-lilies also grow +in fairly deep water; the water-lobelia is also an excellent plant for +ponds. + +In streams some of the best plants are water-crowfoot, water-starwort, +and the great water moss. Anacharis should not be introduced into any +water, either pond or stream, unless it can be kept down easily. It will +otherwise become an unmitigated nuisance. + +Marginal plants are a very important consideration, and plenty of them +should be grown. Water-celery and water-cress are perhaps the best +food-producing marginal plants that can be grown. Bullrushes and +brooklime are also good, but the bullrushes must be planted +judiciously. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +SUITABLE FISH AND SUITABLE WATERS + + +Having stocked his water with suitable vegetation and food, the next +matter which should engage the attention of the amateur, is what fish he +had better introduce. He should, where there is a fair chance of +success, introduce a trout of some sort, as they give better sport than +coarse fish. + +The introduction of salmon into a river is not likely to be attempted by +the amateur, but the head of salmon frequenting a river is undoubtedly +affected in the most marvellous manner by artificial means. In Canada +and the United States this is particularly remarkable, but the +operations are conducted on a gigantic scale. + +In the case of a stream or river where brown trout already exist, or +have recently existed, in fair numbers, re-stock with these fish, for +they can hardly be bettered in our waters. There are, however, some +sluggish rivers where brown trout do not thrive when they are +introduced. In such rivers and in many ponds in the South of England I +believe that no better fish exists than the rainbow trout. I say +particularly in the south, because I do not think that the rainbow trout +will ever really thrive and breed in cold waters. I have at other times +given numerous examples which go to show that the rainbow will only +thrive in warm waters.[1] I will therefore only quote the case of New +Zealand. The rainbow trout was introduced into both islands, but while +it thrived amazingly in the warm waters of the North Island, it has +proved a comparative failure in the cold waters of the South Island. + +[1] _The Rainbow Trout._ Lawrence & Bullen, London. + +While the common or brown trout (_Salmo fario_) and the rainbow trout +(_Salmo irideus_) are, in my opinion, to be strongly encouraged in the +waters suitable to their respective qualities, the American brook trout +(_Salvelinus fontinalis_) does not seem to have met with the approval of +most of the authorities on pisciculture in this country. My experience +of this fish is not sufficient for my holding any very strong views with +regard to its suitability to British waters. In one case I know that it +was a great success for two seasons, but I have not had any opportunity +of following it up in this particular instance. In another case it was a +decided failure. I am sure that it should not be introduced into streams +where brown trout thrive, and I am doubtful of its ever succeeding in +waters which are suitable to the rainbow trout. + +Of all the trout, the rainbow is the hardiest, and the one with which +the amateur pisciculturist is most likely to be successful. It is also +the fish most likely to supply a want felt by very many fishermen, a +good sporting fish in waters where the common trout will not thrive. + +In large and deep ponds with a good stream, or in lakes, char may be +tried with a prospect of success. They require cold waters, and I have +never heard of their being successfully introduced in the South of +England. They are a more difficult fish to rear than trout. + +Grayling have many violent opponents, but I am inclined to think that +they do but little if any harm in a trout stream, and they supply +excellent fishing during part of the close season for trout. They seem +to thrive best in chalk streams, but there are no doubt many waters +which would carry a good head of grayling which at present contain only +trout. They probably do much less harm than most of the coarse fish +constantly found in trout streams. The great crime attributed to them is +that they eat the spawn of the trout, but I am inclined to think that +the harm they do in this way is much over estimated. They spawn at a +different time and would not be likely to frequent the spawning places +at the same time as the trout. I have no doubt that an infinitely +greater proportion of trout ova are eaten by the trout themselves than +by grayling in rivers which contain both fish. Chalk streams and those +rivers with gravelly bottoms and with alternate shallows and pools seem +to be the most suited to the grayling. + +Among coarse fish the rudd is one of the best from the fly-fisher's +point of view. It takes the fly readily, is very prolific and very easy +to introduce. It thrives remarkably well in ponds which contain a good +supply of food. Its fry serve as excellent food for other fish, +particularly trout, but I have known cases where it increased rapidly in +a pond at the expense of the trout. It can, however, be kept under by +judicious netting. + +The dace is another fish which gives sport to the fly-fisherman. It will +not thrive in ponds. In some rivers, however, where trout--brown trout, +at any rate--will not thrive, the dace does very well. In the case of +the Sussex Ouse this is most remarkable. Little more than ten years ago +there were no dace in that river, now it swarms with them. Their +presence is attributed to the fact that some dace, brought there as +live-baits for pike, escaped destruction and established the present +stock. Sluggish and muddy rivers seem to produce the best dace. Chubb, +which also possess many points to recommend them to the fisherman, will +also do well in such rivers. + +To those who enjoy bottom fishing and possess a pond, even a small one, +I can recommend no fish more highly than the king-carp. It is a much +bolder-feeding and gamer fish than the common carp, and is just as easy +to introduce. While dealing with carp I may mention that the goldfish, +when introduced into a suitable pond, grows to a very large size. I have +caught them over a pound in weight. + +The perch is a very prolific fish, and will thrive in ponds with a very +small stream running into them, and in sluggish rivers. Other coarse +fish are as a rule easy to introduce into a water. Though perch fry form +excellent food for trout, perch, and of course pike, should be kept out +of a trout water. + +The suitability of a water depends to a great extent (as to its capacity +of supporting a healthy stock of fish) upon its having plenty of +suitable vegetation upon the banks. Therefore if the banks are bare of +vegetation, willows and alders, as being quick growing and easily +established trees, should be freely planted upon the banks. This +fortunately is very easily done, for willow and alder sticks cut and put +into the ground in the spring are pretty sure to do well. It is needless +to say that the moister spots should be chosen for the willows, though +they will do well in suitable soil in comparatively dry places. Besides +giving shade and shelter to the fish, which is always an important +consideration, a considerable quantity of food is bred upon trees and +shrubs at the water side. I have found as many as eighteen caterpillars +in the stomach of a trout which I caught under an overhanging oak tree. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +TROUT. PRELIMINARY HINTS AND ADVICE + + +The amateur who is beginning trout culture had better by all means buy +eyed ova from a fish cultural establishment. There are many of these in +the British Isles, and nowadays eyed ova are packed and sent safely all +over the country. The artificial spawning of trout is not an undertaking +in which the beginner is likely to achieve great success, and therefore +I should advise him to avoid relying upon it when he commences his +operations as a fish culturist. + +Collecting the ova of wild trout is also an operation of some +difficulty, and lays the beginner open to much more disappointment than +if he deals with eyed ova purchased from a reliable establishment. +Instead of having to watch and care for the ova through a critical and +dangerous period, he receives them shortly before the young fish hatch +out, when the ova are not in the most delicate stage. + +It is of the greatest importance that everything should be ready for the +ova long before they are expected, as hurry and new apparatus are likely +to cause failure. Any concrete and varnished or enamelled woodwork +should be exposed to the action of a current of water for at least five +or six weeks before they are brought into actual use. + +The choice of a suitable spot in which to make his hatchery is a serious +point for the consideration of the amateur. A spring is the best water +supply as a rule, for the water is usually of a fairly even temperature, +and does not require filtering, but water from a stream where trout are +known to live is quite safe. A few years ago it would have been +necessary for any one wishing to take up fish culture, to erect a +building in which to place his hatchery if he intended to hatch any +number of eggs, in order to guard against frosts. At the present time, +the eyed ova of even the brown trout (_Salmo fario_) can be obtained +sufficiently late to be safe against a frost severe enough to cause any +damage, and as the rainbow trout (_Salmo irideus_) spawns in February +and March, the amateur is, at the time he receives the eyed ova, quite +safe from frost. + +The best method to pursue is to make long narrow ponds, with a current +running through them, and to hatch the eggs out in trays and boxes +suspended in these ponds. When the young fish hatch out, the trays which +contained the ova can be removed, and the young fish kept in the boxes. +Later on the young fish can be released from the boxes into the ponds. I +shall subsequently describe how these ponds, trays, and boxes should be +made. + +The rearing ponds should be made, if possible, at a fall in the level of +the water supply, so that they may be easily emptied. This is an +important point which is frequently overlooked by amateurs. There should +be an outlet on a level with the bottom of the pond, and if the water +escapes through a pipe, that pipe should incline downwards. This, in a +series of ponds, of course necessitates the ponds being at different +levels, but the water is thus under much better control than if the +outlet is at a higher level, and the ponds are easily emptied. Ponds +may, however, be worked successfully with the outlet in mid-water, or +even near the surface, though this does not ensure such a certainty of +change of water throughout the pond. It is not, however, always possible +to obtain such a difference in level between the supply and waste. In +such cases the ponds should be made shallower near the outlet. + +A popular idea seems to be that a gravel bottom is necessary for the +well-being of trout; this is quite a mistake. Personally, I believe that +a good earth bottom is best in a rearing pond, and even in a pond lined +with concrete I should always put a layer of mould, preferably turf +mould, at the bottom. With the use of this mould during the subsequent +operations in rearing trout I shall deal later on. + +The size of the ponds, of course, depends upon the number of trout to be +reared. It is better to have several medium sized ponds than one large +one, as then accident or disease occurring in a pond will only affect a +portion of the stock of fish. Mr. J. J. Armistead in _An Angler's +Paradise, and How to Obtain It_, says: "A pond sixty feet long, four +feet wide, and about three feet deep, will hold ten or fifteen thousand +fry at first, and give them plenty of room to grow, but by the end of +July the number should be reduced to five thousand, which may be left +till October, when they should again be thinned out, or, better still, +put into larger pond." + +I should advise the amateur who is dealing with only a few thousand fish +to work on a smaller scale in these proportions, and to make these +changes gradually, and yet more gradually as the season advances. That +is to say, work with a third of the number of fry in ponds half the size +and move some fish several times before the end of July. As October +approaches, make changes of smaller numbers of fish more frequently. + +Late in the autumn is, in my opinion, the best time to put the young +fish into the water they are to inhabit permanently. It must be a +mistake to rear them artificially longer than is necessary, and by the +end of November they should be fairly capable of looking after +themselves. + +Trout, which are artificially reared on chopped meat and other soft +foods, suffer from a lack of development in the stomach walls, and also, +probably, in the rest of their digestive apparatus. The first case I saw +of the stomach of an artificially reared trout was a two-year-old +trout, upon which Dr. C. S. Patterson performed an autopsy. The stomach +walls were as thin as a sheet of tissue paper. At the time I believed, +and, if I remember rightly, he also thought that this was due to +atrophy, but I am inclined to think that this idea was only partially +correct. The stomach walls of the autumn yearling trout, which is +artificially reared on soft food, do not show any marked abnormality in +the way of thinness; but as the trout's age increases, so does the +thickness of the stomach wall decrease in proportion to its size. This +leads me to believe that the development of the stomach wall, at any +rate, and probably also of the glands secreting the gastric juice and +the digestive apparatus generally, gradually ceases when at about the +age of eight or nine months if the trout is fed upon soft food. +Probably, also, a certain amount of atrophy and dilatation of the +stomach wall is produced. If my observations are correct, so also is the +conclusion that a trout which cannot digest hard food, of which a great +part of his natural food consists, will not have a really fair chance +when turned out. Therefore, I say, turn out your trout in November, +unless you can feed them on such food as shrimps, snails, bivalves and +_Corixae_; and if you stock with "ready made" fish, stock with yearlings +in the late autumn. + +The turning out of his fish in November will also allow the amateur +plenty of time to prepare his ponds and apparatus for next year's +operations. If the ponds are made on a stream, probably the very best +place that can be chosen is where there is a fairly sharp bend in the +stream just below a fall. An artificial fall can often be made where the +banks are high by damming up the stream several feet. Care must be +taken, however, to avoid any risk of the ponds being flooded. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +TROUT. REARING PONDS, BOXES, AND HATCHING TRAYS + + +Having decided upon a suitable spot, the amateur must now proceed to +make his ponds. Whether he derive his water supply from a spring or from +a stream, the amateur had better bring it into his ponds through a pipe. +A three-inch pipe will be large enough for a pond thirty feet long, +three feet wide, and two feet deep at the deepest part. It is a good +thing for the water to fall, some inches at any rate, through the air +before it reaches the pond, and in a series of ponds with only one +supply, the water should flow through an open trough with stones and +other impediments in it, between the ponds. The ponds may be lined +entirely with brickwork faced with cement, and in this case the sides +should be made perpendicular. The cement should, however, be exposed +freely to the action of the running water for a couple of months at +least before any ova or fry are introduced. + +Another plan, and a simpler and less expensive one, is to face only the +ends of the ponds with brick and cement work, carrying the brickwork +into the earth on each side, as shown in Fig. 1. In this case the sides +of the ponds should be slightly sloped as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. It is +advisable if possible to make the outlet at the level of the bottom of +the pond, if the pond is lined with cement, but if the pond is only +cemented at the ends, it is better to have one in mid-water or even near +the surface. As I have said before however, an outlet should be made at +the level lowest part of the bottom, so as to facilitate the emptying of +the pond. The pond should however be made shallower at the lower end. +Fig. 2 shows a section of the upper end, and Fig. 3 of the lower end of +such a pond. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +The open trough between ponds in a series should be at least three yards +in length, but it is better if not straight. Stones and gravel should be +put in these troughs in order to make the water as rough as possible, +and if some fresh-water shrimps can be introduced so much the better. + +If the water is taken from a stream, a leaf screen must be placed at +some distance in front of the inlet. This may be made of a hurdle +fastened to strong stakes sunk into the bed of the stream. The opening +of the inlet should be at least double the size of the sectional area of +the pipe through which the water is carried to the ponds, and should be +some distance, a couple of feet if possible, below the surface of the +water. It is a good thing to put a wire cage over the inlet, and under +this a perforated zinc screen is necessary. The inlet from the stream +should be so placed that it is easy to get at and clean. The best form +of covering for the inlet into the pond I have seen, is a zinc cylinder, +the base of which fits over the end of the inlet pipe. The part of this +cylinder, which projects 18 inches beyond the pipe, is perforated, as is +also the flat end. This can easily be taken off and cleaned, and breaks +up the water, making it fall into the pond like a shower bath, causing +considerable aeration. + +The inlet from the stream should have a trap with which the water may be +shut off, as also should the outlet from the pond. When the cylinder on +the inlet into the pond is taken off for a minute or so to be cleaned +out, both these traps must be closed. This lessens the chance of any +creatures likely to do harm getting in during the cleaning. The +perforated zinc screen at the inlet from the stream will probably stop +any such creatures, but too great care cannot be exercised, and it is +always best to be on the safe side. + +Movable covers of netting over the ponds are most certainly advisable, +particularly if the rearing ponds are in an unfrequented spot near a +stream. On one occasion I caught four kingfishers during a period of +three weeks, all of which had in some way got under some herring net, +which was pegged out carefully over a rearing pond containing trout fry. +I never found out how they got in, but once in they were unable to +escape. + +Ponds such as I have described are of course for the fry when they have +reached a certain size, and have already begun to feed well. Other +appliances are necessary for hatching out the ova and for the young fish +when first hatched. A very good apparatus may be made from a champagne +case. This should have large square holes sawn through each end, leaving +enough wood to ensure strength and solidity to the box. The box should +then have two coats of asphalt varnish, and the square apertures covered +with fine perforated zinc. A still better box may be made at a small +cost. This consists of a box with a wooden bottom and perforated zinc +sides which are supported by a stout wooden frame. + +Beyond these boxes all that are required are some perforated zinc +hatching trays. These should be 1-1/2 inches deep. They are very easily +made, and the ova hatch out well in them. Though ova sometimes hatch out +very successfully even when piled up in two or three layers, it is safer +to have them in a single layer. The trays should be suspended in the +boxes, and the boxes in the ponds close to the inlets, so that a good +current of water may flow through them. The bottom of the boxes should +be covered with a thick layer of gravel, but the trays are to be used +without gravel. It is advisable to have as much grass as possible round +the ponds, and such trees as willows and alders should also be planted +round them. Willows and alder sticks planted in the early part of the +year come into leaf in the same spring, and afford shade to the young +fish in the summer. Some suitable weeds should also be grown in the +rearing ponds. Water-cress, water-celery, water-lobelia, starwort, and +water-milfoil, are all good. They should be arranged, however, so as to +prevent as much as possible the little fish finding hiding places, and +it is for this reason also that I have recommended slightly sloping +banks when the sides of the ponds are not made of cement. The weeds +should be planted some time before the little fish are turned out of +the boxes. + +Finally, I must caution my readers again on one or two points before I +leave the subject of the hatching trays, rearing boxes, and ponds. +Enamel, varnish, or charr all woodwork thoroughly, leaving no speck of +wood bare and no crack open. Let the water run through and over all your +ponds and apparatus for as long as possible before you begin +operations. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +TROUT. MANAGEMENT OF THE OVA AND ALEVINS + + +Everything should now be ready for the reception of the ova. The rearing +boxes are resting upon stones placed at the bottom of the ponds, with +the edges some six inches above the level of the water, and moored to +the sides to prevent their being moved by the current. The hatching +trays are suspended in the rearing boxes, or placed upon movable rests +in the boxes, with their edges just above the level of the water. + +Notice is usually sent a day or two before the ova are despatched from +fish cultural establishments, so the amateur has no excuse for not being +absolutely ready for their reception. They are packed in various ways, +and nowadays suffer but little in the transit. The ova should always be +carefully washed before they are placed in the hatching trays. Mr. +Armistead, in _A Handy Guide to Fish Culture_, says:--"If just turned +out of a packing case there may be small pieces of moss or other +material amongst them. In any case a wash will do them no harm, and the +process is a very simple one. Take a pail, half-filled with ova, and +then fill up with water, and with a small lading-can lift some of the +water out, and pour it back again, so as to cause a downward current, +which will agitate the ova. Their specific gravity being greater than +that of water, they immediately retire again to the bottom of the pail, +and by at once pouring off as much water as is practicable, any floating +particles of moss, etc., may be carried off. Should any be left, the +process should be repeated, and it may even be necessary to repeat it +several times. When all is right take a ladle, or small vessel of some +kind, say a good-sized tea-cup, and gently ladle out the eggs, and place +them roughly on the grills, where they may be roughly spread by means of +a feather." + +To these instructions I would add some for the amateur, who will +probably deal with a comparatively small number of ova. The ova should +be washed in some large vessel full of water in the manner above +described. When the water is quite clear, and the ova clean, they may be +caught in mid-water as they are sinking either in the hatching trays or +in a cup. If caught in a cup they should be transferred with great care +to the hatching trays, and spread out in a single and somewhat spare +layer. They must on no account be poured into the trays from a height. +While under water well-eyed ova will stand a good deal of gentle +tumbling about, but if dropped into the water from even a little height +the concussion is likely to kill them. + +Mr. Armistead recommends glass grills rather than trays such as I have +described, but I have found the trays work very well, and they are very +simple and clean. Glass grills are, however, very excellent, though they +necessitate a somewhat greater initial outlay than do the perforated +zinc trays. + +A German fish culturist has recently recommended keeping a stock of +fresh-water shrimps (_Gammarus pulex_) in the hatching trays and rearing +boxes. He says that the shrimps eat only the dead ova, and never touch +the living ones. They also eat any vegetable or animal _debris_. I have +never tried the experiment myself, and so cannot speak from experience. + +Dead ova should be always removed at once, and the hatching trays should +be gone over carefully once or twice a day to see if any are present in +them. Dead ova are easily recognized from the fact that they become +opaque and white. They are best removed with a glass tube. The thumb is +placed over one end of the tube, and the other end brought directly over +the dead ovum. When the thumb is removed from the end of the tube held +in the hand the water will rush up into the tube, carrying with it the +dead ovum. The thumb is then replaced over the end of the tube, which is +lifted from the water with the ovum retained in it. This tube may also +be used for removing any extraneous bodies which may get into the trays +or boxes. + +A form of fungus known as _Byssus_ grows upon dead ova, and it is +principally for this reason that they must be removed. Livingstone Stone +says of _Byssus_:--"With trout eggs in water at 40 deg. or 50 deg. Fahrenheit, +it generally appears within forty-eight hours after the egg turns white, +and often sooner, and the warmer the water the quicker it comes. It is +never quite safe to leave the dead eggs over twenty-four hours in the +hatching boxes. The peculiarity of _Byssus_ is that it stretches out its +long, slender arms, which grow rapidly over everything within its reach. +This makes it peculiarly mischievous, for it will sometimes clasp a +dozen or even twenty eggs in its Briarean grasp before it is discovered, +and any egg that it has seized has received its death warrant." Mr. +Armistead has known it appear within twenty-four hours. _Byssus_ +develops only on dead ova. + +_Saprolegnia_, known to fish culturists as "fungus," attacks both living +or dead ova. If the woodwork is properly varnished or charred, and the +ova managed thoroughly, there should, however, be but little risk of +fungus. Light is favourable to the growth of fungus, and, therefore, +wooden lids should be placed over the rearing boxes. These should be +kept partially on after the young fish have hatched out, and be replaced +by covers of fine wire netting spread on closely-fitting frames, when +the fry have begun to feed. These obviate the necessity of covering up +the ponds during the first stages. + +Many small creatures such as caddis-worms will eat the ova, and +therefore a careful watch should be kept upon the hatching trays as it +is marvellous how such creatures find their way in, in spite of all +precautions. Birds of several kinds are also likely to cause great +damage unless the ova and young fish are carefully guarded from their +depredations. + +In a short time, probably within a few days of receiving the ova, the +amateur will find that the young fish are beginning to hatch out. They +generally come out tail first, and in wriggling this about in their +attempts to get further out, they propel the ovum about the bottom of +the tray. When the little fish attempts to come out head first, he +sometimes gets into difficulties and if this is observed, he may be +helped by a gentle touch with a feather or a camel's hair brush. + +When first hatched out the young fish have a large translucent +protuberance on the under-surface. This is the umbilical or yolk-sac, +and contains the nourishment upon which the little fish lives during the +first stage of its life after it is hatched. This sac is gradually +absorbed but until it is absorbed the young fish are called "alevins." +At first the little fish do not require any food, but they generally +begin to feed in about six weeks, and before the yolk-sac is completely +absorbed. The rearing boxes should be kept partly covered, and the +alevins will crowd into a pack in the darker parts at the bottom of the +hatching tray. + +The shells of the ova must be removed from the hatching trays. As they +are lighter than the alevins, the current will generally carry them to +the lower end of the tray, whence they may be removed with a piece of +gauze spread on a wire ring, or by raising and lowering the tray gently +in the water in alternately slanting directions. + +The alevin stage is the stage in which the least mortality should be +expected, and the little fish give but little trouble. There are, +however, several diseases besides fungus (of which I have spoken already +when dealing with the ova) from which the alevins may suffer. + +I was, I believe, the first to describe (in the "Rainbow Trout") a +peculiar disease from which alevins suffered. When hatched out and kept +in water containing a very large quantity of air in solution, I found +that sometimes alevins developed an air bubble in the yolk-sac. On +developing this bubble they are unable to stay at the bottom as they +usually do, but swim about on their backs at the surface, with part of +the yolk-sac out of the water. An effectual cure for this is to put the +affected alevins into still water for about thirty-six hours. I have +observed this affection in the alevins of the rainbow trout (_Salmo +irideus_), the common trout (_S. fario_) and the Quinnat or Californian +Salmon (_Onchorynchus conicha_). + +"Blue Swelling" of the yolk-sac is another disease from which alevins +sometimes suffer, but I have never heard of any cure for this. Another, +"paralysis," may be caused by lack of sufficient current and by +insufficient aeration of the water. Sickly alevins will, as a rule, drop +out of the pack, and lie on the bottom or against the end of the +hatching tray, where they are carried by the current. + +Dead alevins should be removed at once, and for this reason it is +necessary that the hatching trays should be examined at least once a +day. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +TROUT. MANAGEMENT OF THE FRY + + +A greatly varying period of time having elapsed and the yolk-sacs of the +alevins being nearly absorbed, the fish culturist will see that some of +the little fish begin to leave the pack at the bottom of the tray, and +to swim up against the current. When this is observed some very finely +divided food should be offered to these alevins. They will probably dart +at the minute pieces of food floating past and a little more may then be +given to them. If, however, they do not take any notice of little pieces +of food or any other matter which floats past them, they should not be +tried again till the next day. In a few days from the first of the +alevins beginning to feed, all of them will be working up with their +heads to the current, darting at any particles floating in the water. +The tray should now be lowered so that its edge is some three or four +inches below the surface and the little fish allowed to swim out into +the box. + +As soon as the yolk-sacs of the alevins are absorbed the little fish +cease to be alevins, and are called "fry." + +The alevin stage was that in which the fish give least trouble, the +stage I am now describing is that in which they give most. They must be +fed frequently--at least four times a day. "Little and often" is the +maxim which should rule the actions of the fish culturist with regard to +feeding the fry. If he can only feed his fish four times a day, he must +spend some time on each of these four occasions. The food must not be +thrown in all at once. If this be done the little fish will not get half +of it; the other half will sink to the bottom. + +The food should be introduced in small quantities at a time, and if the +amateur has several boxes he should put a little food into each in +succession, coming back to the first when he has put some into the last, +repeating this operation at least half a dozen times. The less he puts +in at each time, and the oftener he does it, the better. The ideal plan +would be to put a very small quantity of food in each time, and to go on +doing this at intervals of from five to ten minutes all day. + +Livingstone Stone says, "You need not be afraid of the young fry's +eating too much." And again, "I never knew any healthy young fry of mine +decline eating but once, and then I had fed them incessantly for two +hours, at the end of which time they gave up, beaten." Personally, I +have found no limit to the time that the fry will continue feeding. I +have kept on putting small quantities of food into a rearing box for a +whole afternoon, and I was tired of feeding before the fry were tired of +eating. My reader will infer from this that I believe that the fry +cannot be over-fed, and this is to a certain extent true. If finely +divided food is given in such small quantities that practically none of +it sinks to the bottom without their having a fair chance at it, I +believe that in a box containing only a couple of thousand fry, it would +be found that they never stopped feeding during the whole day. If, +however, too large pieces of food are offered to the little fish, many +of them are likely to be choked and to die, from trying to swallow a +piece a little too big for them. + +The amateur will observe that shortly after the fry have been let out +into the box and are feeding freely, they will separate into two more or +less distinct groups. One at the upper end where the current comes in +and is strongest, and one at the lower end. The fish at the upper end +are the strongest and largest. This difference becomes more marked as +time goes on, and in six or eight weeks after they have begun to feed +the larger fish will be almost double the size of the smaller. In the +middle of April, if many fry are in each box, they should be thinned +out, and other boxes brought into use. The smaller fish may then be +taken from one or two boxes and put into another by themselves. In +feeding care should be taken that the small and weakly fish get a fair +share of the food. + +No matter how carefully the feeding is managed, some of the food is sure +to escape the young fish and sink to the bottom. This, if left as it is, +will decay and cause great mischief. A very simple and easily applied +remedy for this evil exists in the use of mould dissolved in the water. +Livingstone Stone recommends the mould under a sod, and I have always +used this with the most beneficial effect. Earth, besides covering up +and deodorizing the decomposing food at the bottom, also contains some +materials which are apparently necessary to the well-being of trout. To +quote again from Livingstone Stone, who was the discoverer of this use +of mould: "Earth or mud is the last thing one would suppose suitable for +a fish so associated in our minds with pure, clean water; yet it is an +indispensable constituent in the diet of young trout, and unless they +get it, either naturally or artificially, they will not thrive." + +The effect of earth given in this way upon the young fish is simply +marvellous. They become more lively and feed more freely. This is the +effect of a spate--which is, after all, only a dose of earth--upon wild +trout. + +The mould should be mixed with water in a bucket, and, when the water is +very thick and muddy, poured into the rearing boxes. The water in the +rearing boxes should be so thick that neither the bottom nor the young +fish, except when they come to the surface to take some passing particle +of food, can be seen. The amateur should not wait till something goes +wrong before giving this dose of earth; it is advisable to give it once +a week at any rate, and oftener if the fish seem to be ailing in any +way. + +In dealing with the subject of food for the young fish, I would begin by +impressing upon my reader that the greater variety of food he can give +the better it will be for the fish. He should also give them, at any +rate after they have been feeding some weeks, a certain proportion of +natural food. Probably the best of all food for the fry is pounded +shrimps or other crustaceans. It is, however, difficult in the very +early stages of the trout's life to pound shrimps up small enough, and +the little fish are much given to trying to swallow pieces of food which +are too large for them to manage. This evil proclivity often causes the +death of the fry, and therefore great care must be taken that no pieces +of food which are too large, get into the rearing box. Pounded liver +shaken up in a bottle with water, and after the larger particles have +been allowed to settle at the bottom, poured into the rearing box in +small quantities, is a good form of food for the alevins when they first +begin to feed. The yolks of eggs boiled for about half an hour and +pounded up, dog biscuit very finely pounded, or the fine food supplied +by several of the fish cultural establishments are also excellent. In +giving moist food such as pounded shrimps, liver, meat, or the yolks of +eggs, a good plan while the fry are very small is to put the food in a +small net made of fine muslin mounted on a wire ring, and dipping the +end of this net into the water, allow small particles to escape through +the muslin. This ensures no large pieces getting into the rearing boxes. +As the fry grow larger, these precautions are of course modified, as the +little fish are capable of swallowing larger pieces of food. + +With regard to natural food, the amateur should take care to ensure a +good stock for the young fish. Many of the creatures suitable for food +may be cultivated in separate ponds at the same time as the fish, if a +natural supply is not at hand. The _Daphnia pulex_ (water flea) and the +_Cyclops quadricornis_ may be introduced into the boxes very soon after +the fish have began to feed. _Daphnia_ breeds at the rate which is +almost inconceivable. The female produces her first brood of young when +she is ten days old, and goes on breeding at an average of three or four +times a month. The female and her progeny are rendered fertile by one +act of coition, probably for fifteen generations at least, without any +further intervention of the male. Both _Daphnia_ and _Cyclops_ are bred +in stagnant water in which there should be a good stock of weeds. + +The fresh water shrimp (_Gammarus pulex_) is an excellent form of food +for young and old trout, and should be given to the fry as soon as they +are old enough to manage them. _Corixae_ and other small insects should +also be given as often as possible. The fresh-water shrimp is bred in +running water, _Corixae_ in still or slow running water. Weeds are +necessary to the well-being of both. + +The boxes must be kept carefully covered, as I have already pointed out. +A kingfisher would make short work of a box of fry, and other birds and +beasts of various kinds are partial to them. There are only two courses +open to the fish culturist in dealing with these enemies--to protect his +fish or kill the enemies. I prefer to protect the fish first and kill +the enemies afterwards. + +The greatest care must be taken not to introduce, or allow to intrude, +any water beetles or the larger carnivorous aquatic larvae of insects, +into the rearing boxes. I have known cases where the larvae of the +_Dytiscus marginalis_, the largest of our carnivorous water beetles, +have destroyed almost all the fry in a rearing pond. The adult _D. +marginalis_ itself is not a whit less voracious, and much stronger than +its larva. + +If the wooden parts of the apparatus have been properly prepared, +according to my previous instructions, there should be no risk of the +fry developing fungus. Quite a small spot of woodwork, however, left +uncovered by asphalt-varnish, or enamel, or uncharred, will render the +chance of the development of this disease probable. + +Should by any misfortune fungus get into the rearing boxes, a dose of +salt may very likely cure it. Sea water is the best, but if this is not +obtainable, a solution of salt and water run through the boxes will +probably cure the disease. Considerable good may also be done to the +young fish by occasionally putting a lump of rock salt in at the inlet, +and the water allowed to run over and dissolve it. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +TROUT. THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FRY (_Continued_) + + +In the last chapter I brought my reader up to the point where the fry, +which had been feeding for some time in the rearing boxes, had been +judiciously separated, the weaker and smaller fish which took up their +positions at the lower ends of the boxes having been put into separate +boxes and induced as much as possible to keep at the head near to where +the current enters. + +It is difficult to lay down any certain rule as to what is the best time +at which to take the next step--that of turning the fry out into the +rearing ponds. When the fry have got into more or less regular habits, +and showing no fear of whoever it is who feeds them, come up readily and +seize the food boldly, is probably the best time to let them out into +the larger space of the pond. I do not mean to say that when a certain +proportion of the fish have got over their natural shyness, and feed +boldly and without hesitation, the whole of them should be set free. +What I mean is, that when the habit of associating the appearance of a +certain individual with a meal has been well established among them for +a week or so, they should be allowed to escape from the box into the +pond. + +This is best done in the same way that the alevins were allowed to +escape from the hatching tray into the box--by lowering the level of the +box so that its upper edges are some two or three inches below the +surface of the water. The food should now be thrown into the pond higher +up, so that the little fish may be induced to swim up and station +themselves as near the inlet as possible. Probably some of the little +fish will not leave the box at all of their own free will. These, of +course, will have to be turned out. The box should not, however, be +lifted out of the water and the fish and water together be poured out, +as this is very likely to cause them severe injury. The box should be +gradually tilted over and lifted out of the water bottom first, so that +the fish are hardly disturbed at all and certainly not injured in any +way. + +An important matter to consider before turning the little fish out into +the pond is, how the ponds are to be protected so that their many +enemies may be kept away from the fry. Kingfishers, herons, and other +creatures are very partial to young trout and will cause enormous +destruction if not prevented. Kingfishers have, in my experience, been +the worst offenders. Some years ago I was rearing some trout in a part +of the country where many of the inhabitants bewailed the extermination +of the kingfisher. Before I began rearing trout I agreed with these +people, for a kingfisher flitting along a stream looking like a little +mass of jewels is a pleasing sight, and one which I had never enjoyed in +that particular part of the country. + +When the time came to set my little fish free in the rearing ponds, as a +matter of principle I covered the ponds with herring-net, closely pegged +down on the banks so that I could not even get my hand under the edge. I +did not think that there were any kingfishers or herons about, and so +was very surprised when one morning, on going down to feed the fish, I +found a kingfisher under the net, flying up and down the pond trying to +get out. By carefully introducing a landing-net under the netting over +the pond, I was able to catch the intruder, and caught four more in the +same way in about three weeks. Since that time I have not agreed with +the people who have stated that the kingfisher is almost extinct, at +least in that part of the country. I may say that there are but few +streams there, and that it is not at all an apparently likely place for +kingfishers. I am quite sure that wherever any one begins to rear fish +there he will find that kingfishers are fairly common. The amateur will +probably be also surprised at the way herons appear, if he conducts his +fish-rearing operations, as he should do, in a secluded spot. + +Many of the directions I gave as to the management of the fry and the +rearing boxes, apply also to the fry after they have been turned out +into the ponds. The doses of earth should still be given regularly, and +salt may be applied also in the way I have already described. The little +fish will be found to scatter over the pond or to divide again into two +bodies, one at the upper and one at the lower end of the pond, as they +did in the boxes. The fish culturist should try to induce these fish to +come to the head of the pond as much as possible. It is a good thing to +place some boards across the head of the pond to give shade and shelter +to the fry. It will probably be found that if much artificial food is +given to the little fish, a scum will be formed on the surface of the +water. This scum is composed of grease, and should be removed, as soon +as it is observed, with a gauze net. + +All the time that these operations have been going on with regard to the +little fish themselves, due attention should have been given to the +vegetation round the ponds. The alders and willows which I before +recommended to be planted round the ponds should be induced as much as +possible to overhang the water. Grass and other vegetation should be +allowed to grow freely round the margins, as many insects are then +likely to fall into the water. + +This vegetation will supply the little fish with a certain amount of +natural floating food, without any interference on the part of the fish +culturist; but he should, however, give them other floating food, both +natural and artificial, as much as possible, for this will get them in +their youth to adopt the habit of feeding freely at the surface. When +the alders and willows have grown sufficiently and are well covered with +leaves, they will probably give enough shelter to the fish to make the +boards at the upper end of the pond unnecessary. + +As time goes on, and the little fish grow, they should be thinned out, +the smaller and weaker being removed into another pond. Despite the best +endeavours of the fish culturist, a certain number of these small fish +are sure to keep to the lower end of the pond, and it is these which +should be removed first. If they are left, the difference in size +between the smaller and the larger will soon become so great that the +large fish will very likely be tempted to eat the small ones, thus +developing a cannibalistic habit which they will keep always. + +At the end of August or the beginning of September the little fish will +have got over the most dangerous part of their lives. After this time +they are called yearlings, are much more hardy and not subject to nearly +as many risks as up to that time. + +The great points to remember are:--That the food should be varied as +much as possible; and as much natural food, of a hard description such +as shrimps, _corixae_, snails, bivalves, etc., be given. That the little +fish should be well protected from enemies. That they should not be +over-crowded, but the weakly and small fish be separated from the larger +fish. That frequent doses of earth should be given to keep the bottom +sweet and clean.[2] That the inlets and outlets should be frequently +cleaned and kept clear, to ensure a good flow of water through the +ponds, and that a careful watch should be kept for such misfortunes as +fungus and dead fish, in order that they may be dealt with at once. + +[2] See two letters in Appendix.--Page 93 + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +TROUT. THE FRIENDS AND ENEMIES OF THE FISH CULTURIST + + +The creatures which are sometimes found in and around rearing ponds +containing ova or young fish are very numerous, and it is advisable that +the fish culturist should have some knowledge of them. It is for this +reason, that while I cautioned my readers against the creatures which +are dangerous, and enumerated some of those most serviceable as food, I +left detailed descriptions of these enemies and friends of the little +fish, in order that I might deal with them in a separate chapter. + +[Illustration: LARVA OF _DYTISCUS_ AND YOUNG TROUT.] + +Among the worst enemies of both ova and fry is the _Dytiscus +marginalis_, whether this insect be in the larval or adult stage. I +think that I should hardly be wrong in going even further and saying +that _D. marginalis_ is very dangerous to trout early in their yearling +stage. The accompanying illustration shows a larva of _Dytiscus_ +which has caught a young trout. This illustration is taken from a +photograph of a specimen lent to me by Mr. F. M. Halford, and both the +fish and the larva were alive when they were caught. Unfortunately the +trout is a little shrivelled, and the legs of the _Dytiscus_ have been +broken. _D. marginalis_ lays its eggs in the stems of rushes. The larva, +when hatched, makes its way out, and proceeds to lead a predatory life. +The larva when full-grown is about two inches long, and is quite the +most rapacious creature which lives in our waters. The adult beetle is +also purely carnivorous, but is perhaps not quite so rapacious. It +would, however, probably attack a larger fish. + +The largest of English water beetles is _Hydrophilus piceus_. This +beetle is not, in the adult stage at least, carnivorous, but the larva, +which is about half an inch longer and considerably fatter than that of +_D. marginalis_, is carnivorous. It may be told from the larva of +_Dytiscus_ not only by its size, which is hardly a reliable point for +discrimination, but by the smaller size of the head in comparison to the +rest of the body. The claws, with which _Hydrophilus_ seizes its prey, +are, too, considerably smaller than those of _Dytiscus_. This larva +should be kept out of the rearing ponds with just as much care as that +of the more voracious _D. marginalis_. + +With the kingfisher I have already dealt at some length, so that I need +say but little more with regard to it. One of the worst features in this +bird's character is that it will go on killing many more little fish +than it can possibly eat. As I have before said, it is surprising how +these birds will appear in considerable numbers where a fish hatchery is +started, even in localities where they have before been considered rare. +I have already described how the ponds should be protected from their +ravages. + +Herons do a great deal of harm to fish ponds, even when the fish have +got well into the yearling stage. I have on one or two occasions known +of herons wounding trout of at least a pound in weight. Besides the +actual damage they do by killing fish, they put all the other fish in +the pond off their feed through frightening them. After a heron or +kingfisher has been about a rearing pond the little fish will not feed +for a considerable time, sometimes even for days. Notwithstanding their +very evil proclivities, both herons and kingfishers are very +interesting. A kingfisher, if he catches a fish which is a little too +big for him to swallow whole, will knock the head of the fish, which he +always catches by the middle of the body, against a stone, in order to +kill it, or at least to stop it struggling; it might otherwise in its +struggles escape, as the kingfisher can only swallow a fish head first. +There are stories which tell how herons sometimes pluck small feathers +from their breasts and, floating these feathers upon the water, catch +the trout as they rise to it; it is supposed that the trout takes the +feather for a fly. Personally, I do not think that much credence should +be attached to the latter story. + +Other birds, usually found on or near the water, are also likely to do +much harm to the ova and young fish. Almost every creature which is +found near the water seems to have a great liking for the ova of fishes. +All the wading and swimming birds are to be dreaded by the fish +culturist. They will, all of them, eat ova in enormous quantities, and +many of them will also eat the little fish. + +Besides birds, small larvae of several insects will eat, or at any rate +kill, the ova in considerable numbers. Caddis-worms are among these +larvae which eat ova. This seems to be one of the few cases in which +nature is just, for caddis-worms are taken very readily by even small +trout. Large trout will take them very greedily, cases and all. +Therefore, I should advise the fish culturist to cultivate them as food +for the fish he is rearing, but to be very careful that they do not get +into the rearing boxes or hatching trays when he has ova in them. The +caddis-worms kill the ova by making a small hole in them and sucking +some of the contents out; from this hole some more of the contents +escapes, and as it comes into contact with the water becomes opaque. + +Caddis-worms are the larvae of an order of four-winged flies commonly +known as sedges, caddis-flies, or water-moths. The latter appellation is +of course a misnomer, as these flies (_Trichoptera_) have nothing +whatever to do with moths. They resemble moths, however, in that they +have four wings which when at rest lie in much the same position as do +those of moths, and as many of them have their wings thickly covered +with hairs, this resemblance is sometimes very marked. The larvae +(caddis-worms), being eagerly sought as food by many fish, and having +very soft bodies, make for themselves cases. Some of these cases are +made from small sticks, some from little pieces of stone or sand, and +some from a mixture of all of these substances. As these cases resemble +such small pieces of rubbish as are frequently found in streams, care +should be taken that they do not get into the hatching trays containing +ova. + +Many of the water beetles, and practically all of their larvae, will +attack the ova; they should therefore be carefully excluded from the +hatching trays. As there are about 114 different species of beetles in +the family of _Dytiscidae_ alone, my readers will appreciate my reason +for not attempting to enumerate them. It will be a sufficient warning to +state the fact that they are all carnivorous, and their relative sizes +is the only thing which will decide whether the beetle will eat the +fish, or the fish the beetle. + +Very similar to beetles are some of the water-bugs. They may, however, +easily be distinguished from beetles, as the outer or anterior wings of +the bugs cross each other at their lower ends, while the elytra of +beetles, which much resemble the horny, anterior wings of some of the +water-bugs, meet exactly in the middle line. These water-bugs, though +some of them are excellent food for even the small fish, will attack the +ova, and therefore they should be kept out of the hatching trays. The +fish culturist should, however, whenever it is possible, cultivate such +of these water-bugs as are good food for the fry in separate ponds, as I +have before recommended. The best of these water-bugs are _Corixae_. +Others, such as the water-boatman, water-scorpions and pond-skaters, are +not of any value as food for the fish. + +The larvae of _Ephemeridae_ are very good food for the fish, and should be +cultivated in separate ponds if possible, and some turned into the ponds +containing the little fish occasionally. A fair proportion should, +however, be kept in the ponds and protected, so that a good stock of the +flies may be available next year. + +The larvae of _Ephemeridae_ may be obtained in many streams, and are best +caught with a fine gauze net. Some of them swim, but most are generally +captured with such a net at the bottom of the water among the _debris_. +Eggs of _Ephemeridae_ may be obtained sometimes from another locality if +they cannot be got on the spot. These should be carefully preserved for +the first year at any rate, and a good fly may thus be introduced into a +water where it was before unknown. + +I have already spoken of the fresh-water shrimp and the water-flea +(_Daphnia pulex_). These valuable articles of diet should be introduced +whenever it is possible. _Daphnia_ must be reared in a stagnant pond, +the fresh-water shrimp (_Gammarus pulex_) in running water, with plenty +of weeds. + +Other useful creatures besides those snails and mussels which I +described in a previous chapter, are the water-louse (_Asellus +aquaticus_), _Cypridae_, and _Cyclops quadricornis_. Asellus is very +similar in size and shape to the common garden-louse, which is found in +decaying wood. It will live either in stagnant or running water. +_Cypridae_ are very much smaller, being generally only as large as a +large pin's head. They have a bivalve shell which makes them look +something like a small mussel. They are, however, very active, swimming +by means of two pairs of legs. They also possess two pairs of antennae +and one eye. (The species belonging to the genus _Candona_ of the family +_Cypridae_, do not swim.) _Cyclops_ is another very small crustacean, +shaped like a large-headed club. It swims very actively, and, like the +_Cypridae_, is an excellent article of diet for very young fish. Both +these crustacea live in stagnant water, and must, therefore, be kept in +a separate pond, whence they may be taken as required to be given to the +fry. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +TROUT. MANAGEMENT, FEEDING, AND TURNING OUT OF YEARLINGS + + +As I pointed out to my readers in Chapter VIII., the young trout have +after August passed the critical period of their existence, and may be +considered safe and hardy. Naturally, as they get older, they require +more food, but this need not be given so frequently as the fish grow +older. While it was necessary to feed the fry at least four times a day, +it will be found quite sufficient if the fish in August are fed only +twice during the twenty-four hours. I must here again impress upon my +reader the importance of feeding the trout upon as natural a food as +possible. Their future well-being depends upon this, much more than is +generally realized even by fish culturists. Of course, trout fed +entirely upon soft food may turn out all right, particularly if they are +turned out as very young yearlings, but it is better not to leave +anything to chance and make sure of being on the safe side. + +As was the case with the fry during the whole of the earlier part of +their lives, the yearlings will divide into two more or less separate +packs, though the fish may have been separated several times before in +order to divide those which kept at the head from those which kept at +the lower end of the pond. Those trout at the lower end must be coaxed +to the upper end as much as possible, care being taken when feeding that +all the fish get a fair share of food. Should any of the fish remain +obstinately at the lower end, and those at the upper end outgrow them to +a marked extent, the smaller ones must be again separated from the +larger. + +When, in September or October, the little fish have grown active and +strong, they may be turned out into the water they are to occupy for the +rest of their lives. There is really no reason why, if they are +well-grown and strong, they should not be turned out in August if the +water they have to be taken to is quite close to the rearing ponds, but +if they have to be carried any distance, it is better to keep them in +the rearing ponds for a few weeks longer, till the weather gets cool +enough to make it quite safe to allow for a possible delay in the +transit. + +The turning out of the fish requires some little care. I have seen fish +which had been sent by rail, poured out with the water contained in the +cans, in as hurried a manner as possible. Though of course it is +important to get the fish out of the cans used for transport as soon as +is compatible with safety; still, undue haste in this operation is +likely to do much harm. Young fish of any kind require delicate +handling, and young trout particularly. The cans should, when possible, +be partly emptied, and some water from that into which they are to be +turned put into the can. This is of course not necessary if the rearing +ponds are supplied from the same source as the water into which the fish +are turned. The cans should then be partially immersed in the water, and +the edges brought gradually below the surface. This allows the fish to +swim out of the cans of their own accord, and the few which will not go +out may be forced to do so by gently turning the can upside down. + +It is a very good thing to give each of the fish a dose of salt before +turning them out, particularly if they have travelled any distance. This +is easily managed by catching the fish, a few at a time, in a +landing-net from the travelling can, and then, instead of putting them +straight into the water, putting them into a bucket of salt and water +for a short time. Sea water is of course better if it is available. This +does away with any risk of their developing fungus on the spots which +have very likely got bruised during the journey. + +The yearlings are best taken from the rearing ponds by netting them. A +net which is more than broad enough to go across the rearing pond is +necessary. Too many should not be taken out at a time in each haul of +the net, as they are thus more likely to be injured or dropped on the +ground. The amateur should not forget, that though the little fish will +stand a good deal of moving about as long as they are in water, they are +likely to be killed, or at least severely injured, by a shock, +particularly if that shock is sustained while they are out of the water +for a second or two during their being moved from one place to another. + +If the amateur intends to keep any of his yearlings longer than +December, he will have to make a larger pond. This pond need not be a +long, narrow one like those in which the fry were kept. Though the fish +of course still require a sufficient supply of well-aerated water, a +larger pond without the same marked current through it will do perfectly +well. They must be well fed, and if any grow markedly bigger than the +rest these should be separated. If they are not well supplied with food +they are very likely to try and eat each other, that is to say, the +largest will try to eat the smallest. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE REARING OF THE RAINBOW TROUT, AMERICAN BROOK TROUT, AND CHAR + + +As the methods used in hatching out the ova and rearing the young fish +are very similar in the case of different species of trout to those I +have already described in dealing with the common trout (_Salmo fario_), +I will confine myself to pointing out the most marked differences in the +habits of such species as are suitable to our waters, and which are +likely to be of use to the fish culturist. The salmon- or sea-trout will +be dealt with under salmon. + +First and foremost among the trout, excluding of course our own brown +trout, I put the rainbow trout (_Salmo irideus_). There are several +varieties of this species, but that which is now being so freely +introduced into many waters in England is the McCloud River rainbow (_S. +irideus_, var. _shasta_). As I have before stated, the rainbow spawns +long after the _S. fario_. It therefore will give the fly-fishermen good +sport after the season for the common trout is over. It is a very free +feeder, and grows more rapidly than our trout; great care must therefore +be taken to give it plenty of food. I would draw my readers' attention +particularly to this fact as to the feeding and quick-growing qualities +of the rainbow, for they make it, if possible, even more necessary that +the water into which they are turned should contain a good supply of +food than it was in the case of the common trout; though even in the +case of the common trout, this is quite the most important consideration +in stocking a water with fish. + +Another advantage possessed by the rainbow is, that it is less liable to +the attacks of fungus than any other of the _Salmonidae_. Though, of +course, this is not such an important consideration nowadays as it would +have been even a few years ago, still it is one which deserves some +consideration, particularly from the amateur. This freedom from fungus +is very marked in the rainbow, for I know of a case where some dace +suffering from fungus were put into a rearing pond containing a few +rainbows. Though the dace died of the disease, the rainbows remained +healthy and free from it. The amateur will probably receive the ova of +the rainbow towards the end of April or during May. The ova should hatch +out within a few days of their being received. + +A few years, I might almost say months ago, the great majority of +disinterested persons, whose opinion was of any consequence, were +inclined to condemn the general introduction of this fish into our +waters. I was, unfortunately, supposed to be among a certain class of +people who advocated the general introduction of this fish into all our +waters indiscriminately. This, I have always said, was a very +short-sighted policy, for, to begin with, the evidence at our disposal +seems to show that the rainbow will never thrive in cold waters, and at +the best can only be expected to really thrive and spawn in the warm +waters in the south of England. I never advocated more for the rainbow +than that it should have a fair trial in waters where our own trout had +been tried and found not to be a success. Now, however, I in my turn +stand a chance of being converted by converts from among the very people +who, a short time ago, were condemning me for holding too favourable an +opinion of the fish in question. I am inclined to think that in the +case of a pond in the south, even when it is supplied by a good stream, +the rainbow is the better fish with which to stock. I have been led to +believe this, partly through my own experience, and partly on account of +the opinion of Mr. Senior, for I consider his opinion on such a matter +of the greatest possible value. + +Another point about the rainbow, which in many cases will recommend it +particularly to the amateur, is that though of course an abundant supply +of water is an advantage, it may be reared with a smaller supply. + +A fish which has been very freely introduced into British waters is the +American brook-trout (_Salvelinus fontinalis_). Though this fish is not +really a trout but a char I have included it among trout, because it is +so very generally known to fishermen as the American brook-trout. The +_fontinalis_, as it is commonly called by fish culturists, is a very +satisfactory fish to rear artificially, but there seems to be some doubt +as to its suitability to British waters. It grows to a considerable size +under favourable conditions, and is one of the best of table fishes. It +is, however, undoubtedly one of the worst of cannibals among sporting +fishes, and does not apparently rise freely to the fly when about two +years old and older. + +The spawning season is extended over an even longer period than that of +our own brown trout, beginning, in its native country, in October, and +sometimes lasting till March. It shows a very marked tendency, at any +rate in America, to go down to the sea, and in some parts of Canada is +called a sea-trout. The fish are easy to rear, but I should recommend +great caution with regard to their introduction into any waters in +England. The remarks and instructions which I gave with regard to the +common trout, apply also to the _fontinalis_, but I would lay particular +stress upon the necessity of separating the fish, as soon as some grow +larger than the rest. The only drawback to this fish, from the fish +culturist's point of view, is that though a very free feeder, it is very +dainty, sometimes refusing a particular kind of food for no apparent +reason. As the spawning season is extended over such a considerable +period of time, it is obvious that the amateur will be able to obtain +the ova, ready to hatch out, during a similarly lengthy period. + +A fish which I should very much like to see tried in England, is the +cut-throat trout (_Salmo mykiss_). It is also known as the red-throat +trout. I should think, from the description given in the report of the +Commission of Fisheries, Game, and Forests for the State of New York, +that it would do well in many of our waters. There are many varieties of +this species of trout. The common name of them all is _Salmo mykiss_, +the black-spotted trout of the Rocky Mountains. The cut-throat trout +proper, so called from the red colour of its throat, is simply S. +mykiss, but there are many varieties described. Among these are the +Columbia River trout (_S. mykiss_, var. _clarkii_), the Lake Tahoe trout +(_S. mykiss_, var. _henshawi_), the Rio Grande trout (_S. mykiss_, var. +_spilurus_), and the Colorado River trout (_S. mykiss_, var. +_pleuriticus_). As these names show, the black-spotted trout has a very +wide range and is found in what are totally different climates. I should +very much like to see the cut-throat and the Columbia River varieties +tried in our waters, particularly the former, as they would probably +succeed in waters which are too cold for the rainbow, and might very +likely thrive where our own trout (_S. fario_) is not a success. As it +is found in climates which vary so much as do Alaska and California, it +would probably be easy to find one variety, if not two or three, which +would thrive in England. It is a particularly fine trout, and the +ordinary maximum weight is five or six pounds, though some of the +varieties grow much larger. + +Char, proper, are not at all satisfactory fish to rear. They are very +delicate, and require much more care and attention than do any of the +fish I have already described. From the very first period of their +coming under the care of the amateur fish culturist, that is to say, +from the ova, just before hatching out, till they are yearlings, the +mortality among them will be much greater than in the case of any of the +trout. + +The two kinds of char, most commonly to be obtained by the amateur, are +the Alpine and the Windermere char. The ova of these fish will be +received shortly before they are ready to hatch out, as was the case +with the trout ova. The amateur's difficulties will, however, begin +almost at once, for in the act of hatching out considerable mortality +among the char often occurs. Trout almost invariably emerge from the egg +tail first. As soon as the tail is free the little fish begins to move +it rapidly, using it as a propeller with which to swim about and thus +soon works completely out of the egg. Occasionally, however, trout +hatch out head first, and in these cases the young fish generally dies +before it can set itself free from the coverings of the ovum. Buckland +observed that the alevins of the char very frequently hatch out head +first, and consequently that many of them die before they can work +themselves free from the eggs. If it were possible to have some one +constantly watching the ova at the time that they are hatching out, it +would be possible to save a very large proportion of them, as they may +be very effectually helped out of the egg with a feather or soft +camel's-hair brush; but this is, of course, quite impracticable, unless +there is some one constantly watching the ova, as the delay of even a +few minutes will mean the death of the fish. This peculiarity in the +hatching out of the char has also been observed by Mr. J. J. Armistead, +and I have been able to verify it personally. + +The mortality which occurs in the actual hatching out of the alevins +does not, however, by any means end the trouble which the fish culturist +has to encounter in the rearing of char. They require much more +persuasion and care when they begin to feed and throughout the whole of +the summer. The percentage of deaths is always greater than in the case +of the trouts, not excluding the _fontinalis_, which is, as I have +already explained, not really a trout but a char. + +Though there must be some doubt as to its success, I should like to see +a really serious attempt at introducing char into some deep and large +ponds in the south of England. Char have been very successfully reared +in shallow water, which was certainly not kept at a particularly low +temperature, so I see no reason why this fish should not do in some of +our more southern waters. One drawback to the chance of this attempt +being made, however, is that the char cannot be considered as being a +fish which gives very good sport, and I very much doubt whether any one +is likely to try the experiment simply to find out whether they would or +would not succeed in the south of England. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +SALMON AND SEA-TROUT + + +In many ways nature is apparently very wasteful, and in nothing is this +more marked than in the case of the salmon. Probably not more than one +egg in a thousand produces a fish which reaches the smolt stage, and a +still smaller proportion grows to the spawning stage. This great +mortality which occurs among the eggs and young fish when left to nature +may be very considerably reduced by artificial means, so that a very +fair proportion of the eggs deposited by the female fish will not only +be hatched out successfully, but the little fish will reach the smolt +stage safely and have a good chance of reaching the sea. How successful +artificial intervention may be has been proved over and over again in +the United States and in Canada. In the case of more than one river in +Canada, the artificial propagation and protection of salmon has resulted +in what is apparently the actual manufacture of a salmon river, +yielding an annual haul of fish far beyond anything known in Europe, +from a river which before yielded no salmon, or hardly any. + +These operations, carried out by the State, were of course far beyond +anything which could be undertaken by the amateur, but I am sure that if +several riparian owners on a salmon river carried on artificial hatching +and rearing operations for several seasons, a marked increase in the +number of fish in the river would ensue. The objection of most people to +this course is that it is unfortunately only too apparent that they are +benefiting chiefly, not the rod fisherman, but the netsman at the mouth +of the river. + +The different artificial means used to help nature in producing a good +head of salmon in a river vary chiefly in the amount of the help given +by each. It will suffice to say that the best is that which provides for +the protection and feeding of the young fish till it is ready to take +its first journey to the sea. The reason of this is obvious, as every +day passed in safety is a day gained, both in strength and in power of +self-preservation. + +Though it is possible to purchase a certain number of salmon ova, this +is not at all a satisfactory way of obtaining them. To begin with, it is +impossible to get them in sufficient numbers to carry out operations on +a large enough scale. Salmon ova are also expensive; and it is no use +working with less than half a million in several stations if the river +is of any size. It is advisable that the ova should be obtained from the +fish. This may be done either by collecting the ova deposited by the +fish in the spawning beds or from the gravid females. The latter course +necessitates the ripe female and male fish being caught and artificially +spawned. As in nature, at best but a comparatively small percentage of +the ova are impregnated, and by artificial spawning over ninety per +cent. of them may be successfully hatched out, there can be but little +doubt as to which is the better way. It is difficult to make sure of +catching the fish just at the time they are ripe, so it is advisable to +impound them in a fenced-off portion of the river, where they may be got +at easily. + +In the ripe female the ova flow out very readily, and but little +pressure is necessary. Hard pressure on the abdomen should never be +applied, as it is sure to injure the fish. A ripe female having been +obtained, from which the ova flow readily, the female is held over a +perfectly clean tin or earthenware dish--wet, but containing no +water--and the ova are caused to flow into it by gently but firmly +pressing the hand on the abdomen, and stroking it down towards the vent. +Milt from a ripe male fish is then allowed to run over the ova in the +dish, and is made to run well between them by tilting the dish about +from side to side. The ova will now adhere together, and some water +should be added. This water should be poured off and fresh added till +the superfluous milt is washed away, when the ova should be left in the +water till they separate, which will be in about twenty minutes or half +an hour. + +The fertilized ova thus obtained may either be laid down in artificially +protected hatching beds, or may be transferred to a hatchery. The latter +proceeding, of course, requires a hatching house specially built and +arranged, and as this is outside the scope of the present work, I would +refer my readers to larger works upon the subject, such as _An Angler's +Paradise_, by J. J. Armistead. Of course, by using a hatchery a large +number of the eggs will be saved, ninety per cent. of them should hatch +out. This is, therefore, obviously the best way to proceed. A very much +larger number of eggs will, however, be hatched out in properly-chosen +artificial beds than would be the case if they were left to nature. + +The necessary qualities of a good artificial bed are, a good supply of +clean water which is not liable if there is a spate to deposit sediment +on the eggs, protection from light, and protection from the many +creatures which prey upon the ova. The hatching beds may be so arranged +that the young fish may escape as soon as they like after hatching out, +but it is best to watch and protect them for at any rate the first few +weeks after they have begun to feed, and while continuing the feeding, +to allow those of the fish that wish to escape. + +The rearing of young salmon and sea-trout is practically the same as +that of the common trout, except that they require more water. If kept +in rearing ponds they grow more quickly than they do when left to find +food for themselves. While young, the salmon is marked with transverse +bars of a darker colour than the rest of the body. During the time it +bears these marks it is known as a parr.[3] In about fifteen months it +loses these marks and becomes quite silvery, being now known as a smolt. +Shortly after assuming the smolt dress, the young salmon takes its +departure to the sea. In some cases the young salmon do not appear to go +down to the sea till over two years after being hatched out, but they +should always be set at liberty in March, April, or May in the year +following that in which they were hatched out, according to how far they +have developed the smolt or silver appearance. + +[3] All the trouts go through this stage, which is distinguished by +"finger marks" upon the sides. + +If spring water is obtainable, particularly if the water, as is usually +the case, is of an even temperature throughout the year, the troubles of +the fish culturist are considerably lessened. Without a building for the +hatching troughs it is almost impossible in many places to guard against +frost unless such a spring is available. Sediment may be avoided by +putting frames covered with flannel at the inlets to the hatching beds, +these will, if kept clean, prevent any sediment from coming into the +ponds, and will allow plenty of water to flow in. If hatching trays are +not used, the bottom of the artificial bed should be covered with clean +gravel. + +The time which elapses from the impregnation of the eggs to their +hatching out varies according to the temperature of the water, a fairly +average time is about ninety days. The ova should be watched during this +time, and the dead ones removed. For a short time after they are +impregnated they are fairly hardy, but from then till shortly before +they hatch out the very slightest concussion will kill or seriously +injure them. + +The management of sea-trout ova is similar to that of salmon, and the +ova are obtained in the same way. As in the case of the salmon it is +best to rear the little fish artificially, till they are ready to go +down to the sea; they will thus escape dangers likely to cause the loss +of about eighty per cent. of their number. + +The same methods and the same precautions as advised in the chapters on +rearing trout should be adopted in the case of salmon and sea-trout as +far as is possible, and if this is done a very large percentage of the +ova should be successfully reared to the smolt stage. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +COARSE FISH + + +Compared to what is known about the early part of the life history of +the _Salmonidae_, our knowledge of coarse fish is small. Fortunately, +however, such lengthy and complicated proceedings as are necessary to +obtain a good stock of trout are not necessary to obtain a good stock of +coarse fish. If even a few rudd, perch, dace, pike, or carp are put into +water where they have a good supply of food to begin with, and which is +suitable otherwise for their well-being, the amateur's chief trouble +after a few years, if the water is not heavily fished, will be to keep +down the stock of coarse fish in proportion to the supply of food. + +I have seen many cases where rudd, perch, dace and carp have increased +to an enormous extent from a few fish introduced into the water. Some +four years ago we put a few small rudd into a mill-pond at home, +thinking that the fry they produced would serve admirably as food to the +trout which also inhabited the pond. In about twenty months the pond was +full of small rudd, and last year we netted out many hundred, as the +water was terribly over-stocked with them. The same thing has happened +in almost every case which has come to my knowledge; that is, of course, +where the waters have been stocked with food, and suitable to the fish +introduced. + +The way in which dace will increase when put into a suitable water is, +if possible, even more remarkable than what happens in the case of the +rudd. I will quote one instance, which proves this very conclusively. A +few years ago there were no dace in the Sussex Ouse. Pike fishermen, +however, used to bring live dace to use as baits. Some of these escaped, +or were set free by the fishermen at the end of their day's fishing, and +now the Sussex Ouse contains more dace for its size than any other river +I have ever seen. + +While rudd thrive best in a pond or lake into which a stream flows, dace +require a river or stream to do well. They will, however, thrive and +increase rapidly in a river where trout are not a success. A muddy +bottom with occasional quickly running shallows, seem to constitute the +best kind of water for dace. The largest, and by far the best +conditioned dace I have seen, have come from the tidal parts of rivers, +where the water is brackish at high water. Dace from such a water have +also the advantage of being very good eating, as they have, as a rule, +not got the unpleasant muddy taste usual in this fish. + +Perch and pike will thrive both in rivers and in ponds or lakes which +have a supply of water from a stream or from springs. They both increase +in numbers very rapidly, and when protected, are more likely to require +thinning down every few years, than artificial assistance from the +amateur. + +The king-carp is the best fish for the amateur who wishes to obtain good +bottom fishing from an absolutely stagnant pond. This fish is much +bolder and a more free feeder than the common carp. It increases so +rapidly in numbers, and is a hard fighting and lively fish. + +Most of the coarse fish deposit a much larger number of eggs than do any +of the _Salmonidae_--that is to say, in proportion to their size. In +stocking a water which contains no fish, the amateur may wish to hurry +on the process of nature in the case of coarse fish; and, fortunately, +this is fairly easily managed. In the case of perch, rudd, pike, and +carp, but little change of water is required to hatch out the eggs. The +eggs of these fish take but a short time to hatch; and if they are +protected, and this protection is also given to the little fish for a +few weeks, it will generally be found that an amply sufficient result is +obtained. The eggs should be spread out carefully on wicker-work or the +lids of baskets and kept in the light. A trickle of water which is +sufficient to change the body of water in the pond in which the ova are +put will, as a rule, be enough. The amateur must be careful that the +pond in which he hatches the eggs does not contain any of the many +enemies I have described in former chapters. If it is at all possible to +protect the eggs and the little fish, it is best to hatch out the eggs +in the pond which it is intended to stock, for it is exceedingly +difficult to keep the newly-hatched fish in a rearing-pond on account of +their very small size. It will be necessary to use muslin or flannel +screens instead of perforated zinc. Care must be taken that there is not +too great a flow of water, as this will cause the little fish to be +drowned at the outlet screen. + + + + +APPENDIX + +THE USE OF EARTH IN REARING PONDS + +[From a correspondence upon the subject which appeared in _Land and +Water_] + + +SIR,--In your last issue I have read with pleasure the eminently +practical notes on fish culture by Mr. Charles Walker. He is perfectly +right in all he says with reference to the useful and preventive results +of the use of "common garden" earth, or vegetable mould in checking any +fungoid development, _Saprolegnia_ or other. It must, however, be +admitted that the said addition is not an element of beauty in a box; +therefore it should be avoided, or only used when necessity dictates. +However, the fry, when thoroughly restored to health, may be transferred +by muslin net to another box free from earth should it be necessary to +count out certain numbers for the satisfaction of customers' orders. +Again, the earth employed may, and in some waters does, give rise to +other ill effects on the health of the "fry" or young fishes. Affection +of the eye is not unheard of as the result of over-use of earth. Perhaps +the best way to obviate any trouble of this nature would be to pound and +dry the earth, and keep it in a canister or other closed vessel till +required for use. Spores of fungi are nearly, if not quite, omnipresent; +and their effects are so insidious that too many precautions cannot +well be taken to avert the introduction of "trouble" in the hatchery. +Indeed, were it not for the risks arising from attacks of fungi, +pisciculture, as now understood and carried on, would be an unalloyed +pleasure and unbounded success. We can practically hatch 995 out of +1,000 eggs, or thereabouts. It is the risks of rearing that stand in our +road, and these, as time goes on, and experience increases, must +diminish. There would appear, then, to be a good time coming for fish +culture, and those who earnestly follow it. + +Practice is the only safe guide, as circumstances, geological, physical, +and meteorological so vary the conditions of works that no definite rule +of procedure will avail. Earnest work and close observation, combined +with ready resource, are the only safe guides to success. Troubles of +some sort are sure to supervene; the man who succeeds is he who can +anticipate, and so remedy them. To be always on the watch and notice the +first indication is a very safe maxim, more easy to inculcate than to +put in practice. + +There can be no question but that the practical removal of difficulties +in the path of fish culture is work of the highest value, well worthy +the attention and acknowledgment of those in authority at Whitehall and +elsewhere at home, as has been the case abroad. + +C. C. C. + + +SIR,--Your correspondent "C. C. C." in _Land and Water_ of last week +disagrees with the constant and free use of earth, which I had advocated +in my article on fish culture which appeared the preceding week. +Naturally one must admit that earth at the bottom of a pond is not so +great an element of beauty as is clean gravel, but the advantages are so +many, that beauty must give way to usefulness. Besides this, "C. C. C." +must know that it is almost impossible to keep the gravel clean enough +to look pretty, when the water is inhabited by a large number of little +fish which are being constantly fed. I cannot at all agree with his +advice that "earth should be avoided, or only used when necessity +dictates." I believe that one of the first principles of success in fish +culture is always to prevent any disease or mishap, rather than to wait +for, and then try to remedy it. Trout in their natural surroundings get +a dose of earth every time that there is a spate. It is very evident +that the earth contains some ingredients which are not only beneficial +but almost a necessity to the fish. + +I have never heard of earth as an actual cure for "fungus" and should +hardly think that it is active enough. There is, however, no doubt that +it is one of the best preventatives to "fungus," for if it is properly +and freely used it stops all chance of any decomposing material being +exposed to the action of the water, and laying the fish open to the +chance of a great many evils. + +If suitable earth is used once a week, and even oftener on occasions, it +can do no harm, and will keep the fish safe from a great many risks +besides doing them very material good. I do not of course mean that the +usual weekly dose should be a large one, as this would fill up the pond +before the end of the season, but that a small dose should be given +generally, and a large dose occasionally. I am quite sure, too, that +clean earth with some nice weeds growing in it, looks better than gravel +which is dirty. Gravel shows the dirt so much, that it is almost +impossible to keep it looking nice where there are many fish, and it +also gives the water free access to any decomposing matter. + +I have never come across a case of disease caused by the use of earth, +and should like to hear the details of "C. C. C.'s" experiences with +regard to this matter. + +CHARLES WALKER. + + + + +INDEX + + + Advantages of rainbow trout, 72-5 + + Air bubble in yolk sac, 40 + + Alders round rearing ponds, 32 + at water side, importance of, 19 + + Alevins, 39-41 + diseases of, 40-1 + + Alpine char, 78 + + American brook trout, 15 + rearing of, 75-6 + spawning of, 76 + + Aquatic creatures, serving as food for fish, 10-2, 62-6 + + Aquatic plants suitable for deep water, 13 + suitable for margins, 13 + + Aquatic vegetation, importance of, 7 + development of, 9 + + Arrangement of rearing boxes, 34 + + Artificial spawning of salmon, 83-4 + + _Asellus aquaticus_, 65 + + + Black spotted trout of the Rocky Mountains, 76-8 + + Blue swelling, 41 + + Breeding char, difficulties in, 78-80 + + Breeding. (See Rearing.) + + Brown trout, suitable water for, 14 + + Bullrushes, 13 + + _Byssus_, 37-8 + + + Caddis-worms, 61-3 + in hatching trays, 38-9 + + Carp, suitable water for, 18 + + Char, 16, 78-80 + Alpine, 78 + difficulties in breeding, 78-80 + hatching out of, 78-9 + introduction of, to the south, 80 + kinds of, 78 + rearing, 79-80 + suitable water for, 16 + Windermere, 78 + + Charring wood, importance of, 33, 50 + + Chub, suitable water for, 18 + + Coarse fish, 88-92 + ova of, 90-1 + + Colorado River trout, 77 + + Columbia River trout, 77 + + _Conchifera_, 12 + + _Corixae_, 10, 49, 63 + + Covers for rearing ponds, 31 + + Creatures, aquatic, serving as food for fish, 10-2, 61-6 + + Crowfoot, water, 13 + + Cure for fungus, 50 + + Cut-throat trout, 76-8 + + _Cyclops quadricornis_, 12, 48, 65-6 + + _Cypridae_, 65-6 + + + Dace, 18, 89-90 + suitable water for, 18 + + _Daphnia pulex_, 12, 48, 65 + + Dead alevins, removal of, 41 + + Dead ova, removal of, 37 + + Difference between beetles and _Corixae_, 11 + + Diseases of alevins, 40-1 + ova, 37-9 + + _Dytiscus marginalis_, 11, 49, 58-60, 63 + + + Earth in rearing boxes, 46, 93-6 + doses of, in rearing pond, 54, 93-6 + + Effects of soft food on trout, 24 + + _Ephemeridae_, 12, 64-5 + larvae of, 64-5 + catching larvae of, 64 + + + Feeding of the fry, 42-9 + + Feeding yearlings, 67 + + Food, importance of, in waters, 5, 7 + + Fresh-water shrimp, 10, 49, 65 + snails, 10-2 + + Friends and enemies of the fish, 58-66 + + Fry, feeding of, 42-9 + separating large from small, 45 + turning out of rearing box, 51-2 + + Fungus, 38-9 + cure for, 50 + + + _Gammarus pulex_, 10, 49, 65 + + Gold-fish, suitable water for, 18 + + Grannom, introduction of, 12 + + Grass round rearing ponds, 32 + + Grayling, possible harm done by, to trout, 16 + suitable water for, 17 + + Great water moss, 13 + + + Hatchery, suitable spot for, 21-6 + + Hatching out char, 78-9 + ova of coarse fish, 91-2 + + Hatching trays, arrangement of, 34 + caddis-worms in, 38-9 + construction of, 32 + placing ova in, 34-6 + removal of, 42-3 + shrimps in, 36 + + Herons, 60-1 + + _Hydrophilus piceus_, 59-60 + + + Important points in rearing young trout, 56-7 + + Inlet to rearing ponds, 29-30 + + + King carp, suitable water for, 18 + + Kingfisher, 49, 53, 60 + + + Lake Tahoe trout, 77 + + Lakewort, 13 + + Leaf screen to rearing ponds, 29 + + Lobelia, water, 13 + + + May fly, introduction of, 12 + + Moss, great water, 13 + + Mussels, 12 + + + _Nautonecta glauca_, 10, 64 + + Natural food, importance of, 24 + natural food for fry, 48-9 + + Netting for rearing ponds, 31 + + + Ova beds, artificial salmon, 85 + + Ova, care of, 36-9 + dead, removal of, 37 + hatching of, 39 + of coarse fish, 90-1 + of sea-trout, 87 + placing in hatching trays, 34-6 + + + Perch, 19, 90-1 + suitable water for, 19 + + Pike, 18-9, 90-1 + + Planting weeds in ponds, 7 + in streams, 8 + + Ponds for yearlings, 70-1 + + + Rainbow trout, 14-5, 72, 75 + advantage of, 72-5 + freedom from fungus, 73-4 + rearing of, 72-5 + suitable water for, 14 + spawning time of, 21 + + Rearing, important points in, 56-7 + + Rearing box, arrangement of, 34 + construction of, 31 + cover for, 38, 49 + + Rearing char, difficulties in, 79-80 + fry of salmon, 85-7 + fry of sea-trout, 85-7 + rainbow trout, 72-5 + + Rearing ponds, alders round, 32; + grass round, 32 + construction of, 22, 27-9 + covers for, 31 + gravel in, 23 + importance of allowing water to run through for some weeks, 21 + inlet to, 29-30 + netting for, 31 + pipes to, 22, 27 + removal of yearlings from, 70 + separating fish in, 54-6 + size of, 23-4 + use of earth in, 54, 56, 93-6 + vegetation round, 33, 55 + willows round, 32, 55 + + Restocking, best time for, 24 + + Rio Grande trout, 77 + + Rudd, 17, 88-9, 91 + suitable water for, 17 + + + _Salmo irideus_, 14-5, 72-5 + _fario_, 15 + _mykiss_, 76-8 + + Salmon and sea-trout, 81-7 + + Salmon, artificial spawning of, 83-4 + artificial ova beds, 85 + mortality among ova and young fish, 81 + rearing fry, 85-7 + scale upon which rearing should be carried out, 83 + success in artificial intervention in stock of, 81-2 + + Salt, as cure for fungus, 50 + dose of, for yearlings, 69-70 + + _Salvelinus fontinalis_, 15. + (See American brook trout.) + + _Saprolegnia_, 38-9. + (See Fungus.) + + Sea-trout, ova of, 87 + rearing fry of, 85-7 + + Sea-water as cure for fungus, 50 + + Separating yearlings, 68 + + Shrimp, fresh-water, 10, 49, 65 + + Shrimps in hatching trays, 36 + + Snails, fresh-water, 10-12 + + Soft food, effects of, on trout, 24 + + Spawning time of American brook trout, 76 + + Stocking waters with food, 7 + + Stonewort, water-, 13 + + Suitable fish and suitable water, 14 + + + Trout, collecting wild ova of, 20 + ova, management of, 20, 34-9 + + Turning fry out of rearing box, 51-2 + out yearlings, 68-9 + + + Varnishing wood, importance of, 33, 50 + + Vegetation, aquatic, importance of, 7 + aquatic, development of, 9 + importance of, at water side, 19 + on banks of water, 9, 19 + round rearing ponds, 32, 55 + + + Water-boatman, 10, 64 + beetles, 11, 58-60, 63 + bugs, 63-4 + celery, 13 + cress, 13 + crowfoot, 13 + flea, 12, 48 + lilies, 13 + lobelia, 13 + louse, 65 + scorpion, 64 + starwort, 13 + + Weeds, importance of, in waters, 7 + planting in ponds, 7 + in streams, 8 + + Willow round rearing ponds, 32, 55 + at water side, 19 + + Windermere char, 78 + + + Yearling trout, 56 + + Yearlings, feeding of, 67 + removal of, from rearing pond, 70 + separating, 68 + turning out, 68-9 + + + + +Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London. + + + + +Shooting on a Small Income + +By CHARLES WALKER + +Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 5_s._ + +"A pleasant little surprise awaited us when we found on our table ... +'Shooting on a Small Income.' The marked individuality of this book lies +in the fact that in the course of 300 odd pages it gives in concise +language an enormous body of information fully justifying the title +chosen.... The amount of really useful all-round information presented +in such a readable form would be almost impossible to beat in any single +work that has come to our notice."--_Land and Water._ + + +On Plain and Peak + +Sport in Bohemia and Tyrol + +By RANDOLPH LLEWELLYN HODGSON + +Illustrated by H.S.H. PRINCESS MARY OF THURN AND TAXIS, and from +Photographs + +Demy 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Days in Thule with Rod, Gun, and Camera + +By JOHN BICKERDYKE + +With Numerous Illustrations. Cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._; paper cover, 1_s._ +6_d._ + + +Motor Vehicles and Motors + +Their Design, Construction, and Working by Steam, Oil, and Electricity + +By W. WORBY BEAUMONT + +M.INST.C.E. M.INST.M.E. M.INST.E.E. + +Price 42_s._ net + +About six hundred pages and more than four hundred and fifty +illustrations and working drawings. + + +The Eighth Duke of Beaufort + +AND THE BADMINTON HUNT + +With a Sketch of the Rise of the Somerset Family + +By T. F. DALE, M.A. + +AUTHOR OF "THE HISTORY OF THE BELVOIR HUNT," "THE GAME OF POLO," ETC. + +Demy 8vo, 21_s._ Fully Illustrated. + + +The History of the Belvoir Hunt + +By T. F. DALE, M.A. + +With 5 Photogravures and 48 Full-page Plates, and 2 Maps of the Country +hunted, showing all the principal meets and historic runs. Also +Appendices giving the Stud Book Entries from the year 1791 to 1876, +pedigrees of celebrated hounds, and a bibliography. + +1 Vol. Demy 8vo. 21_s._ net + +"Mr. Dale's book must be read through and through--by the sportsman for +pleasure, the historian for facts, and by the breeders of all animals +for the results of judicious mating. It is about the best work on a +hunting subject ever written."--_Sporting Life._ + +"He has produced a book which is much more than its title promises, and +he has indeed been fortunate in his subject. While Mr. Dale's record +centres upon the hunting field and kennel with scrupulous care for +detail that hunt history demands, he invests it with stronger claims +still upon attention."--_Bailey's Magazine._ + + +2 WHITEHALL GARDENS, WESTMINSTER + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Amateur Fish Culture, by Charles Edward Walker + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMATEUR FISH CULTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 24719.txt or 24719.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/7/1/24719/ + +Produced by Chris Logan and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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