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diff --git a/24706.txt b/24706.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e62d91e --- /dev/null +++ b/24706.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1897 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of James Cutbush, by Edgar F. Smith + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: James Cutbush + An American Chemist, 1788-1823 + +Author: Edgar F. Smith + +Release Date: February 27, 2008 [EBook #24706] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAMES CUTBUSH *** + + + + +Produced by Diane Monico and The Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +JAMES CUTBUSH + + + + +JAMES CUTBUSH + +AN AMERICAN CHEMIST + +1788-1823 + +BY +EDGAR F. SMITH +PROVOST OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA + + +Let us preserve the memory of the +deserving; perhaps it may prompt +others likewise to deserve-- + + +PHILADELPHIA, PA. +1919 + +PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY + + + + +TO +MY FELLOW-CHEMISTS + + + + +PREFACE + + +There is nothing thrilling in the following pages. They contain the +story of the life-work of a very modest man deeply interested in and +enamoured with the science of chemistry, who sought also to inspire +others and to familiarize the general public of his time with the +intimate connection of chemistry with manufactures and things which +enter so largely into every-day occupations. He was an active member +of a small group of chemists who, in the early years of eighteen +hundred, caused thousands of the laity to give thought to the +possibilities of Chemistry, and in addition was a pioneer in +pyrotechnics, on which account he is deservedly entitled to every +recognition. More than a century has passed since his most serious +efforts were put forth. However, it will not be long until that early +galaxy of chemical enthusiasts of which he was a member will be +accorded a high place in the history of the development of the science +in America. + + + + +JAMES CUTBUSH + +AN AMERICAN CHEMIST + +1788-1823 + + +It is scarcely conceivable that anything pertaining to the development +of chemical science in America would fail to interest its chemists. +The response to the needs of the Nation in the last few years has +shown how marvelously they wrought and the wonderful things which they +brought to light. Yet in the long ago--in the days of which we only +know by hearsay, and through desultory reading, there lived chemists +with enthusiasm, knowledge and initiative, whose aim it was to have +their chosen science contribute to the welfare of humanity. In the +labors of such men as James Woodhouse, Robert Hare, Adam Seybert, +Henry Seybert, John Redman Coxe, Joseph Cloud, Gerard Troost, and many +others, the scientific spirit predominated, although with it went the +purpose, more or less sharply defined, of making their acquirements +useful. Particularly noticeable was this in the instance of Woodhouse. + +The general consensus of opinion among present-day chemists is that +chemistry should be helpful to all. It may and should be scientific, +but its principles ought to be scientifically applied in every useful +manner. + +The reader, desirous of learning the aims and ambitions of the fathers +of the science in our country, will profit by turning to the files of +the _Aurora_, an old daily paper of Philadelphia, for the year 1808, +and beginning about the middle of July will there encounter a most +interesting series of articles on the applications of chemistry under +the general heading + + APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY TO ARTS AND MANUFACTURES + +There are fifteen separate papers. In considering the +period--1808,--the age of the young Republic, and that the times were +far from quiet; that unrest and uncertainty prevailed as to the fate +of the Republic, it does not surprise that thought should have been +given to means of protection; hence gunpowder was the very first +product to engage the author of the series of articles. The proving +and analysis of the powder are discussed at length. The methods appear +very primitive in the light of present-day knowledge, but one must not +forget the period. One hundred years hence the masterpieces of +present-day chemists will perhaps provoke smiles upon the +countenances of those who perchance read them. In this pioneer +contribution on gunpowder analysis the charcoal of the powder is often +called "oxid of carbon." In referring to the separation of potassium +and sodium it is recommended to precipitate out the first in the form +of tartrate. Naturally, nitre itself comes in for serious thought and +the explosibility of the mixture of charcoal, nitre and sulphur +arrests the author's attention, for he emphasizes the fact-- + + "that, independent of the formation of gases or airs, the + agency of caloric, or matter of heat, generated in the + process of combustion, considerably facilitates the strength + of the powder, in consequence of producing the expansion of + these airs." + +Recently, under the pressure of a national necessity, which will not +soon be forgotten, the problem of getting nitre--nitrates and kindred +bodies--had the earnest attention of chemists. So, in the period +before and after 1808, methods of forming nitre had grave +consideration. For instance, this question, now amusing, was +propounded-- + + "How much nitre could be manufactured from the refuse animal + and vegetable matter of the City of Philadelphia in case of + emergency? What quantity could be prepared by elixating or + washing the rubbish of old buildings, the earth of stables, + cellars, etc., and the soil of certain tracts of the United + States?" + +It is quite proper that mention should have also been made of the +natural _nitre beds_, as well as of the artificial beds built up from +slow experience. Reference is made that in France nitre was won from +the lime and rubbish of old, ruinous buildings, and from the floors of +stables and pigeon houses, while it is also recorded that during the +American Revolution, the + + "same means, by the hand of economy and industry, afforded + quantities of this article in certain of the then Colonies, + and" + +that in the Southern portions it was obtained from the earthen floors +of tobacco houses. + +The presentation of the earliest methods of getting nitre is extremely +interesting, extended and elaborate, giving the reader a full view of +pioneer conditions and endeavor. The scheme of purification of nitre +for gunpowder use is illuminating and attractive. Attention is +directed to the saltpetre rock and caves of the western portion of +our country. + +The preparation of charcoal is discussed. The adaptability of charcoal +from various sources receives careful thought in connection with its +use in gunpowder; so, too, the sulphur used for this particular +purpose, and there is recommended as a source of this ingredient, the +common pyrites so abundant throughout the States. Among other topics, +of vital interest in these days, discussed in the continuing articles, +is the manufacture of spirit from potatoes. The method employed in +Germany is presented in detail after which it is said-- + + "Potato spirit of excellent quality has been made in this + city (Philadelphia). It is found, not only to be much cheaper + than grain used entirely, but to afford better flavoured + liquor and other qualities which give it a decided + preference." + +Fermentation, yeast and baking receive mention. Brewing and the +different kinds of beer are fully examined. In those days adulteration +was practiced, for wormwood and quassia were found as substitutes. The +preparation of beer and ale for home consumption would very likely +find little favor in the "dry-bone" spirit of the present, much less +would the refining of wines and other spirituous liquors of high +alcohol content meet with approbation. However, such prohibitory +questions as are now discussed did not vitally concern our +forefathers, so that it was most proper and praiseworthy to advise the +public how, through the instrumentality of chemistry, many of the +needed articles of life might be made in the highest degree of +purity. In many homes there existed miniature brewing plants. + +At the other extreme, among useful commodities, were the manufacture +of fish glue, common glue, gelatine, albumen, magnesia alba, etc. + +The several articles thus published in one of the most respected and +influential papers of that early day--1808--had for their purpose the +education of the general public in the application of a science to +their use, but there was also a desire to arouse a deep and steady +interest in science in general, which seems quite plain from a +quotation from that remarkable address of Dr. John Morgan--at one time +Physician-in-Chief of the American Army. The passage was-- + + "Oh! let it never be said in this City or in this Province, + so happy in its climate and in its soil, where Commerce has + long flourished and plenty smiled, that science, the amiable + daughter of liberty and sister of opulence, droops her + languid head, or follows behind with a slow, unequal pace." + +Doubtless deeply moved himself by this impassioned appeal, the author +of the _Aurora_ papers exclaimed-- + + "I pronounce with confidence this shall never be the case. + Every useful kind of learning shall here fix a favorite seat + and shine forth in meredian splendour, to accomplish which + may _every_ heart and _every_ hand be united." + +And then, probably overpowered by an inner, compelling force and +conscious of the possibilities of his science in the cause of man and +the undeveloped resources of our country, quietly awaiting the +oncoming alterations to be performed by applying chemistry, he +continues with like spirit-- + + "If ever there was a time to bring the Arts and Manufactures + to perfection in this Country, it is the present; for the + season is approaching, when, of necessity, which is the + mother of invention, our internal resources, and the + application of them to our wants, will advance a brilliant + and glorious epoch in the annals of our Country--second to + none but the declaration of independence. Who is to establish + the _chain_ of manufactures--to convert the crude productions + of Nature into useful articles; but you enlightened citizens, + men of _science_ and _improvement_, _artists_ and + manufacturers. The laboratory of Nature will be thrown open + to you, and to use the scriptural phrase, 'Ye shall know + even as ye are known.'" + +Throughout the whole series of these papers there is manifest that +noble patriotic spirit which shows itself in the last paragraph. There +exists also an intelligent and unselfish spirit, so that as one +finishes his reading there comes to mind a query as to the author who +wrote thus in 1808--who was this early advocate of applied +chemistry--this enthusiast in chemistry? Each article bears at its +conclusion the initials _J.C._, which in several of the earlier +articles are erroneously given as I.C. They throw no light on our +curiosity and probably no one would ever have known whom _J.C._ +represented had not the man himself in later life confessed that as a +lad of twenty years he penned these papers. They are exceedingly well +composed. They show a wide, general knowledge and also great +familiarity with the science of chemistry. Their young author was +_James Cutbush_. + +When Robert Hare was twenty years of age he gave to the world one of +the finest discoveries made by a chemist. Cutbush presented known +chemical facts for the use and improvement of natural conditions. +Might not the young men of these days, surrounded by every sort of +help, make similar earnest and worthwhile contributions? They surely +can do this if they are imbued with the spirit of the forefathers--the +American spirit in chemistry. + +Additional evidence of Cutbush's chemical activity at this early age +may be seen in a contribution to the Philadelphia _Medical Museum_ +(1808) upon mercury fulminate. This interesting body he declared to be +mercury oxalate and cited as his authority Aikin's Chemical and +Mineralogical Dictionary. He believed that its oxalic acid content was +due to the action of nitric acid upon alcohol. Such being the case, he +argued that he saw no reason why the salt could not be prepared in a +way by which "no alcohol is employed." Accordingly, he mixed +intimately two parts of salt of sorrel and one part of red +precipitate. Upon this mixture he poured sixteen parts of water, and +rubbed the solid mass intimately together. In time the red-colored +mass assumed an ash color, when it was collected on a filter and +dried. In his own words-- + + "On trying a part of this powder on an anvil with a hammer, + it exploded very violently, the comparison of which to that + prepared by Howard's process was nearly equal." + +While Cutbush was in error, relative to the true composition of the +fulminate, he at least gave to the scientific world a characteristic +property of mercuric oxalate, which does explode with considerable +violence, while at 180 deg. C. it quickly breaks down with a mild +explosive effect. Singularly enough, he seems not to have abandoned +the view that the interaction of alcohol and nitric acid give rise to +oxalic acid. + +While doing experimental work, Cutbush was active in the dissemination +of science facts through the medium of his pen. Thus it was in this +year (1808) that he published the "Useful Cabinet." + +The surroundings of Cutbush were congenial. Woodhouse was at the +zenith of his career. John Redman Coxe figured largely in Philadelphia +science circles. The delightful and widely trained Benjamin Smith +Barton was a prime favorite with the younger men of science; Adam +Seybert was laying the foundations of mineralogical chemistry and +Gerard Troost was soon to appear and give additional zest and impetus +to chemical research. To all these men Cutbush was known and favorably +known, judging from his own allusions to them in his scattered +writings. Of them all he seems to have entertained the strongest +attachment to the celebrated Barton and the talented Coxe, although he +wrote of Dr. Woodhouse as "an experimenter unequalled." It is strange, +however, that his references to Robert Hare are few and meagre. It is +not easy to understand why this should be the case. True, there +existed local prejudices and cliques in the closing decades of the +18th Century and the opening decades of the 19th Century. They are to +be deplored, but humanity is frail and perhaps it is wisest to pass +them by, yet so many things could be better understood if all the +facts were laid bare. Frequent favorable mention was made by Cutbush +of John Redman Coxe, hence probably the appearance of several of his +contributions in the pages of the Philadelphia _Medical Museum_, +edited at this particular time by Coxe. For example, in 1809, Cutbush +published an article on the formation of ether in this journal, and +suggested that the product of the interaction of sulphuric acid and +alcohol could be best purified by distilling it over manganese or lead +dioxide and not over caustic potash as was customary. He also dwelt on +the production of ethylene in this process, attributing its presence +to the dehydrating action of sulphuric acid upon the alcohol. +Momentarily, he rejoiced over this observation, believing it was new, +but promptly subsided when he discovered that Fourcroy and Vauquelin +had long before made the same observations and given the same +explanation. Two years later (1811), in the same journal, Cutbush +reported results gathered from experiments to determine the value of +the hop to brewers. He said much in regard to its essential oil in the +preparation of malt liquor and repeated earlier personal observations +upon the importance of chemistry in the brewing operations-- + + "An art in which, to the principles of chemistry, many + improvements have been made. To our worthy and ingenious + countryman, Mr. Hare, much praise is due for various + improvements in this art, which, we may add, were in + consequence of his correct principles in chemistry and + natural philosophy." + +Here is one of the few references to Robert Hare made by Cutbush. It +was when Hare was devoting most of his time and mental energies to the +development and improvement of his father's business. He applied his +scientific knowledge to it, only in the end to have it fail through +the conditions which came upon the country during the period of the +War of 1812. One cannot easily forget the filial devotion of Robert +Hare to his father in this particular business. Gladly would he have +pursued pure science, but he knew his duty and assumed it, although +unable to devote much time to science until 1818. But that story has +been told. Another appreciation from Cutbush which appears years later +reads as follows: + + "The deflagrator of Professor Hare of Philadelphia is an + apparatus well calculated for many interesting experiments + on galvanism. To that gentleman we are indebted for the + compound blowpipe, which produces a very intense heat by the + combustion of hydrogen in contact with oxygen gas. + Notwithstanding Professor Clark of England has laid claim to + the apparatus, and the use of hydrogen gas in this way, the + merit of the discovery is due to our learned and ingenious + countryman." + +The next few years in the life of Cutbush were most interesting. He +enjoyed mingling with his fellows, and it is recorded that in 1810 he +became a member of Lodge No. 2, Free and Accepted Masons, comprising +in its membership General Peter Muhlenberg and many other +distinguished Philadelphians in various walks of life. Upon them he +made an exceedingly favorable impression, because in June of 1811, +Cutbush was made presiding officer of his Lodge and frequently +thereafter he was invited to address his brethren upon some of the +topics of the moment. It is quite certain that he also availed himself +in his dignified position to inculcate a knowledge of science, and his +favorite science chemistry in particular, for on the pages of the +_Freemason's Magazine_ for 1811 may be seen "Subjects and Importance +of Chemistry"--an article for laymen in which is plainly set forth how +the science enters every walk of life. In many respects it recalls the +introductory chapter of Parke's Chemical Catechism, for it advises how +chemistry + + "removes the veil from the fabric of Nature, and makes us + acquainted with all the phenomena which happen around us." + +The offerings of Cutbush were fitting and most timely. They aroused +the interest of his audience and induced many to enter upon scientific +pursuits. At one place he enlarged upon the wonderful medicinal +properties of a chalybeate water near Colestown, N. J., giving its +analysis and the healthful effect it seemed to produce on those who +used it. + +Again, in the December issue of the _Freemason's Magazine_ (1881), he +presented a most interesting, readable and succinct historical sketch +of our science which concludes as follows: + + "Thus chemistry is become an entirely new science. It is no + longer confined to the laboratory of the arts: it has + extended its flights to the sublimest heights of philosophy, + and pursues paths formerly regarded as impenetrable + mysteries. Placed forever in the elevated rank it now holds, + rich with all its new conquests, it is become the science + most adapted to the sublime speculations of philosophy, the + most useful in advancing all the operations of the arts, and + the most rational for scientific amusement. Exact in its + process, sure in its results, varied in its operations, + without limits in its applications and its views, severe and + geometrical in its reasoning, there is scarcely any human + occupation which it does not enlighten, and upon the + perfection of which it may not have great influence. It + bestows great enjoyment to every class of individuals: and + who would not be ambitious of becoming acquainted with a + science which enlightens almost every species of human + knowledge?" + +Imagine for a moment the effect of such an enthusiastic proclamation +of the powers of chemistry on the readers of the Magazine! It would +be and no doubt was contagious, with the consequence that our science +was called upon to aid infant industries. Cutbush was far-visioned and +dreamed of the development of our Country's national resources. He had +the spirit of Woodhouse, Seybert and others, who, too, were actuated +for our Country's welfare, for its development physically and +spiritually, and how better could this be accomplished than through +the medium of science, and in large measure by chemical science? + +In his historical resume Cutbush mentions some + + "of the philosophers who have ... cultivated and enriched the + new theory of chemistry with discoveries which will forever + give immortality to their names, we have to notice Aikin, + Babington, Bancroft, Beddoes, Blagdon, Cavendish, Chenevix, + Crichton, Cruickshank, Davy, Lord Dundonald, Lord Dundas, + Fordyce, Garnett, Hatchett, Henry, Higgins, Hope, Howard, + Kirvan, Bishop of Llandaff, Murray, Nicholson, Pearson, + Tennant, Tilloch, Thompson, Wedgwood, and Wollaston; and + Achard, Crell, Gilbert, Gren, Goetling, Humboldt, Hermbstadt, + Klaproth, Lowitz, Richter, Scherer, Tromsdorff, Westrumb, + Wiegleb, Bertholet, Chaptal, Fourcroy, Lagrange, Guiton, Van + Mons, Proust, Sequin, Vauquelin, etc., etc." + +To the modern chemist these names probably represent little. Perhaps a +few sound familiar, but the majority are unknown to him. For instance, +who would be apt to say much about the Bishop of Llandaff, who wrote +to Henry, author of one of the earliest and most delightful texts: + +"CAMBRIDGE, Oct. 28, 1787." + + "Sir-- + + "Allow me to return you my thanks of the obliging manner in + which you conveyed to me the kind notice, which the Literary + and Philosophical Society were pleased to take of my essay; + and to assure you at the same time that it will give me great + pleasure to be acquainted with a gentleman who is so + eminently distinguished for his skill in chemistry, as you + have shewn yourself to be. I have been told by good + authority, of an odd fact relative to calcined mercury, the + fact is this: A bottle which contained some calcined mercury + which had been purchased in London was left standing without + its cork for near thirty years without being looked at. When + it was examined, the greater part of it was revivified. + + "I have the honour to be, Sir, + "Yr obliged servt + "BP. LLANDAFF." + +And this celebrated Bishop was no less a personage than Dr. Watson, +whose "Chemical Essays" are most charming, instructive reading at the +present moment. Students of the history of our science will find them +to be so. + +But all these early chemists--ancient, if you please--are gone. They +cultivated chemistry with pleasure and ardor. Some left visible +imprints, while scarce a vestige remains of others. Their labours have +made our path easier. A century hence, many honoured to-day and +respected for their achievements, will receive scant consideration, +though the work of the present looms up large in our judgment. + +The founding of the Columbian Chemical Society in 1811 was an event in +the chemical circles of Philadelphia. The old Chemical Society of +Philadelphia went out of existence in 1809, with the death of +Woodhouse. The new organization was founded "by a number of persons +desirous of cultivating chemical science." It comprised many young men +zealous in research. The names of eminent foreigners and distinguished +Americans are upon its rolls. Its meetings were monthly. Each year, at +the fall opening, "an oration on some chemical subject" was delivered. +Every month some member was appointed to read "an original chemical +essay." It was recorded that + + "any person desirous of membership ... previous to his + election ... shall read an original essay on some chemical + subject on which any member may speak not more than ten + minutes." + +This feature was held to be important; at least the daily papers made +note of it, as is evident from the subjoined excerpt: + + "The following gentlemen have been elected Junior members of + the Columbian Chemical Society, during the last year, after + having read original dissertations, the subjects of which are + attached to their respective names: + + "Mr. T. W. Robertson, 'Objections to the Existence of a + Principle of Repulsion.' + + "Mr. Francis Brognard, 'On Chemical Affinity.' + + "Mr. Lewis Gerhardt, 'On Light.' + + "Mr. Dudley Burwell, 'On the Chemical Properties and Medical + Uses of Arsenic.' + + "Mr. Jeremiah J. Foster, 'On the History, Nature and + Properties of Oxygen Gas.' + + "Mr. J. C. Foster, 'Objections to the Antiphlogistic Theory + of Combustion.' + + "Mr. Charles Gignilliat, 'On Hydrogen Gas.' + + "Mr. John Bent, 'On Oxygen Gas.'" + +The monthly meetings were announced in the city papers. The +announcements appeared at intervals through a period of years, hence +it may be assumed the Society was an active organization and that its +members regarded it as of consequence. The personnel of its official +family is not devoid of interest at present. A single volume of +memoirs, printed in 1813, is still extant and may occasionally be +seen; from it will be learned that the "Hon. Thomas Jefferson, Esq., +was the Patron" of the Society and its President was "James Cutbush, +Esq., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and Mineralogy in St. +John's College." + +Turning to the table of contents two contributions from the President +are observed. The first relates to the "Prognostic Signs of the +Weather" and the second is "On the Oxyacetite of Iron as a Test or +Reagent for the Discovery of Arsenic." There is little chemistry in +the first contribution, and the second possesses value chiefly in the +qualitative way. They were evidently dashed off with the idea of +arousing discussion, in the hope that serious efforts might be set in +operation in certain directions. + +The thought which intrudes itself in looking through the _Memoirs_, +noting the character of the individuals in the membership, and upon +recalling the chemical activities of Cutbush, is as to the man +himself. Why should he, barely twenty-three years of age, be chosen to +such an important and prominent station as that of President of the +Columbian Chemical Society? What manner of man was he? What his +qualifications, his fitness and his position in the science world of +Philadelphia? A search through ancient volumes in many libraries +failed to bring to light any facts bearing on these points. The only +fact discovered that had any value came from a newspaper advertisement +bearing the date October, 1819. It read: + + "_Bleaching Liquor_, _Artificial Musk_, _Phosphate of Mercury + and other chemical Preparations_, prepared and sold by + +"JAMES CUTBUSH +"Chemist and Apothecary +"No. 25 South Fourth Street, Phila. + + "where complete collections of chemical reagents are kept as + usual." + +Here is a hint as to the occupation of Cutbush. He was a +chemist--presumably a manufacturing chemist, supplying the necessary +reagents to persons desiring them for their chemical studies; and +further he was a pharmacist serving the various requirements of the +medical men of the City. + +Thorough search through newspaper files disclosed that from the year +1811 and perhaps two years earlier, and extending up to the year +1813--various announcements were made by Cutbush as to lectures of a +public nature. These help us realize the character of the individual +and his work. For example-- + + "Dr. Cutbush's course of _Evening Lectures on Chemistry_ will + commence early in the second week in November, at the + Laboratory in Videl's Court, in Second, near the Corner of + Chestnut St." + +and several months later the following notice was found-- + + "_LECTURES_ + on + _THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL PHARMACY_ + + "The subscriber, at the solicitation of several medical + gentlemen, proposes to give a series of Lectures on the + Theory and Practice of Pharmacy, accompanied with the + necessary chemical elucidations. + + "Tickets may be had at 25 South Fourth St. + + "Price 20 dollars. + + "JAMES CUTBUSH." + +This was in the year 1812. Early in 1813, a year after the preceding +announcement, there appeared-- + + "J. Cutbush has the pleasure to announce to the ladies and + gentlemen composing his class that the lectures on Chemistry, + as well as those which are to follow on Mineralogy and + Natural Philosophy, will be given in St. John's Lyceum in a + building lately erected at the Corner of Chester and Race, + between Eighth and Ninth Sts. + + "N.B. The next lecture will be delivered this evening + (Saturday) when, at the request of several ladies, the + nitrous oxide or the exhilarating gas will be exhibited." + +These announcements exhibit a phase in the development of chemical +science which is worthy of pause and reflection. Science subjects had +taken hold of many persons in the early years of the Nineteenth +Century. Some of them became ardent enthusiasts and missioners in the +extension of those subjects. As early as 1808 M. Godon gave lectures +on Mineralogy, and in 1810 announced a work of two volumes with a +quarto supplement of charts. The science of chemistry also had its +advocates. Cutbush was evidently one of them, although not the first. +This honor belongs to Dr. Patrick Kerr Rogers, father of William B. +Rogers, founder and first president of Massachusetts Institute of +Technology and President of the National Academy of Science, of Dr. +Henry D. Rogers, the eminent geologist, and of James B. and Robert +E.--both distinguished in the chemical field. + +It was in 1802 that Patrick K. Rogers received his medical degree and +embarked upon practice. Having spare time, he began public lectures on +the sciences, confining himself from 1807 to chemistry. He was very +successful. One of his advertisements as it appeared in the _Aurora_, +in 1809, read: + + "EVENING LECTURES + MEDICAL AND CHEMICAL + For Gentlemen + + DR. P. K. ROGERS + + "Having commenced a course of experimental lectures on + Chemistry to ladies, proposes to give a similar course to + gentlemen at a different hour. Twelve o'clock is the hour + fixed for the former, but as the gentlemen of the city are + variously engaged in business during the day, an evening hour + will be more convenient for them. The evening course is + particularly intended to accommodate men who have a taste for + scientific information and who cannot, on account of their + respective engagements during the day, attend the lectures + in the University. + + "A course for gentlemen will commence on Tuesday and will + terminate in the last week of February. The hour will be + seven o'clock in the evening. Two lectures at least, + sometimes three, will be delivered every week. About 1500 + interesting experiments will be exhibited and submitted to + the familiar inspection of the class. Several important + experiments not hitherto introduced in any series of chemical + demonstrations in this place will be displayed in the + illustrations of different subjects. + + "The laboratory is in the lecturer's house in South Ninth + Street, opposite the University and is furnished with an + excellent chemical apparatus. + + "The tickets for this course will be ten dollars. The persons + to take tickets will be entitled to the use of the + lecturer's excellent medical and chemical library during the + season. + + "Persons wishing to attend this course will please call at + the lecturer's home at any time before next Tuesday in order + to enter the names on the list. + + "Ladies are informed that the list of subscribers to their + course will not be closed until next Monday at twelve o'clock + at the hour the next lecture, properly the first of the + regular series, will be delivered. Gentlemen are not admitted + to these lectures." + +In 1810 Dr. Rogers gave out a Syllabus of 12 octavo pages "On +Experimental Lectures on Natural Philosophy and Chemistry," in which +great emphasis was laid on the practical application of these +sciences. It also stated that "it is even esteemed, in some measure, +a cause of shame, for persons of respectable education, to be +ignorant of their general principles." In one newspaper announcement +Rogers said that in order to get sufficient space for his audience he +had procured the "use of the elegant and spacious ball room of M. +Guillou." In this special work he was repeating the labors of Sir +Humphrey Davy in London. In reality, Rogers and his contemporaries and +coadjutors were pioneer University Extension Lecturers. They sought to +popularize the natural and physical sciences and also broaden the +vision or outlook of their hearers. In the case of Cutbush there was a +strong desire to utilize chemistry in manufacture. This he emphasized +more strongly than any other lecturer. + +Another participant in the science propaganda was Dr. Thomas P. Jones, +who devoted himself to Chemistry. The following notice of his lecture +course is not devoid of interest: + + "On Saturday, the 13th inst., at seven o'clock in the + evening, at Dr. Jones' Chemical Lecture Room, S.W. Corner of + Fourth and Chestnut Streets, a lecture will be delivered on + the properties of nitrous oxide, or the exhilarating gas, + accompanied with a number of experiments. A large quantity + will be prepared to exhibit its effects when inhaled. + + "Tickets at fifty cents each may be had at A. Finley's + Bookstore, S.E. Cor. of Chestnut and Fourth Streets, or at + the lecture room on the stated evening." + +On perusing early chemical texts and advertisements, such as those +just given, attention is pointedly called to nitrous oxide, especially +to its exhilarating properties, for then it was "_laughing gas_!" One +Philip H. Nicklin published a brochure entitled + + "THE ONLY GENTEEL WAY OF GETTING DRUNK + + "A character representation of the effects produced by + inhaling nitrous oxide gas. The accuracy of which no man + breathing can deny. Price 25 cts." + +To-day, nitrous oxide means a benign anaesthetic, so helpful and +merciful when one is brought under the knife of the skillful surgeon. + +The honor accorded Cutbush by his election to the Presidency of the +Columbian Chemical Society was merited. He was not only an active, +intelligent chemist, devoted to the advancement of his science in all +directions, but he seems to have been an ardent enthusiast in the +cause of education, for on the 7th of November, 1811, he delivered an +Oration on Education before the Society for the Promotion of a +Rational System of Education. His audience was large and consisted of +the very best people of the city. The printed oration shows that in +addition to his chemical knowledge he was versed in the humanities, in +mathematics, in philosophy and ancient history. To-day the intelligent +reader would pronounce the oration scholarly in every particular. His +chief purpose seems to have been to introduce into what was then the +customary curriculum in schools a definite amount of science--natural +and physical. This is marked in the title of the organization before +which he appeared on the occasion referred to, in Old St. John's +Church. The whole community was interested in education. A society of +educators had existed for a number of years. Neef had for a long time +been advocating a system which was in reality a modification of the +Pestallozian System, and men in every walk of life were seriously +considering the innovations and advancements in this all-important +subject. + +Little can be found in regard to the Society for the Promotion of a +Rational System of Education, but it may be inferred that the society +had branches throughout the city and perhaps far beyond, because +elsewhere Cutbush spoke of the society as under the Presidency of John +Goodman, Esq., and that its purpose was to bring about a reformation +in education. Further, Goodman was a prominent layman in the Church of +Old St. John, who with his associates, Messrs. Greiner and Braeutigam, +fellow churchmen, deeply impressed with the new thought, seem to have +established a school "formed out of the Lutheran congregation of the +Church of St. John ... instituted several professorships ... one of +which, that of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Natural Philosophy" was +conferred upon Cutbush, who proceeded to deliver courses on these +subjects. + +Desirous of learning something in regard to St. John's College, the +authorities of St. John's Lutheran Church were consulted. It must be +remembered that this is the oldest English-speaking Lutheran Church in +America. It was founded by General Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg, and a +unique distinction of this church is that in a period of 113 years it +has had but three pastors. Nothing in the minutes of the church showed +that a movement toward the establishment of a college had ever been +made. Moreover, search in the archives of the State Department failed +to bring to light the granting of a charter for an institution bearing +the name of St. John's College, although in an old directory of +Philadelphia, reference is made to St. John's College, and to the fact +that Cutbush was Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Natural +Philosophy in it. The same source of information declared that "the +lectures were held back of St. John's Church in Race Street." It may +be questioned whether Messrs. Goodman, Greiner and Braeutigam, who +were the leaders of the congregation in the early years of 1800, and +enthusiasts in regard to the reformation in education, did not, +perhaps, carry out their thought without consulting the rest of their +church associates. In the history of the church there is a singular +reference to the purchase of houses and lots which were known as "the +fourteen chimneys" and the statement is made that the object of the +purchase is not given. These "fourteen chimneys" may have been the +buildings back of St. John's Church on Race Street. + +Benjamin Smith Barton was another professor in St. John's College, who +devoted himself to Natural History and Botany. Mr. Greiner, who was +associated with Messrs. Goodman and Braeutigam also taught in the +institution, and the head of the college or school was a Mr. Bachman, +who later became a Lutheran clergyman and naturalist of high repute in +South Carolina. + +It is interesting at this far-away day to note the purposes of the +Society for the promotion of education as set forth in its +constitution. Among other things, it is said "the education of youth +in useful knowledge ought to be a primary object with parents and +friends, that more especially ought every endeavour to be made in a +religious community to lay a sure and solid foundation for every moral +and social virtue. Impressed with a conviction of this important +truth, a number of the members of St. John's congregation, willing to +give every aid within their power toward the establishment and support +of a Rational System of Education, have formed themselves into a +Society for that purpose." + +The copy of Oration on Education, printed by Cutbush, which it was the +privilege of the writer to peruse, was the copy handed by Cutbush "To +Dr. Seybert with the compliments of the author." In spite of age, +these words are very clear and legible, and if the only relic by which +to judge of the character of Cutbush, would indicate him to be a man +of intelligence. + +There were many other societies extant at this period and through +subsequent years which had for their object the promotion of +scientific education. Among these was the Linnean Society, of which +James Cutbush was Vice-President. + +Cutbush had the honor of being one of the few of the original Society +of Philadelphia for the Promotion of National Industry, whose essays +excited the attention of the citizens of the United States. Samuel +Jackson, M.D., Professor in the College of Apothecaries, was one of +the most active members. + +Amidst all the activities of Cutbush as a manufacturing chemist, as a +teacher of the science, as a promoter of educational reforms, as a +member of many organizations, he was very busy in a literary +direction. For example, in 1812 he published a brochure on +Hydrostatics, in which were described various hydrometers and their +application. Numerous tables appear in it as well as many interesting +and serviceable problems. It was designed for and was helpful to +artisans and to beginners in the science of physics and chemistry. It +is appropriately dedicated to the Columbian Chemical Society. + +In the year 1813, Cutbush placed before the public his "Philosophy of +Experimental Chemistry" in two volumes. It was dedicated to the +"Professors and Students of the University of Pennsylvania and to the +Trustees of St. John's College." One cannot fail to wonder why Cutbush +should have so honoured the University when there is no record +anywhere that he ever pursued studies under the aegis of the +University. Indeed, it will probably remain a query as to where he +was educated. He is often spoken of as "Doctor Cutbush" and in at +least two instances the title "M.D." is placed after his name, yet it +is a fact that in no place where he personally was responsible for the +printing of his name is there any title affixed to it. Every source of +information from which it was hoped to ascertain where Cutbush might +have obtained the Doctorate in the first decade of the 19th Century +failed to produce the fact. Libraries were searched and volumes that +ordinarily convey such information were studied without positive +result. + +The little contribution on the "Philosophy of Chemistry" was favorably +known, for Silliman, in his reference to Gorham's Chemistry as the +first book upon this subject by a native American, credits Cutbush +with having written a similar work, but speaks of the effort of +Cutbush as more elementary and not as exhaustive as that of Gorham. +The introduction in the first volume of Cutbush's work will always be +interesting to American students of the science. For example, this +quotation: + + "Several original works have, accordingly, appeared, and some + editions of European treatises have been published with + revisions, corrections and additions by our countrymen. The + Chemical and Economical Essays of Pennington, the edition of + Chaptal enlarged by the late James Woodhouse ... that of + Henry's Chemistry by Professor Silliman of Yale College, with + some others, evince not only the learning and talents of our + countrymen, but a growing taste for the encouragement of + learning and the acquisition of chemical knowledge. Besides + these, in the Transactions of our Societies and in the + journals, or periodical works, several valuable papers have + appeared. The genius of the medical students of the + University of Pennsylvania, in particular, has been shown in + a number of excellent inaugural dissertations, some of which + have added to the improvement of chemical science. + + "The first teacher of chemistry was Dr. Benjamin Rush ... who + may justly be styled the father of chemistry in America. He + commenced a course of lectures on this science in the then + College of Philadelphia; and although chemistry at that day + (1768) may be said to have been in its infancy, yet the + Doctor did honour to the chair, the school, and his country. + We now speak of him only as a chemist.... The advancement of + chemistry in our city ... is also indebted to other + institutions. The American Philosophical Society, the College + of Physicians, instituted in 1787, the Medical Society, + formed in 1771; the Chemical Society under the patronage of + Doctors Woodhouse and Seybert, which has since been + dissolved; the Linnean Society, instituted under the + presidency of the learned Dr. Benjamin Smith Barton; the + Columbian Chemical Society, founded in 1811; the Academy of + Natural Science--all show the zeal for useful knowledge and + philosophical inquiry.... For the introduction of popular + chemistry, the citizens of Philadelphia are also indebted to + Doctors Rogers and Jones, and to Benjamin Tucker, who have + taught Chemistry with much zeal and talents." + +Many attractions are found in the Philosophy of Experimental +Chemistry. The first discussion is that on Chemical Affinity. Two +experiments are introduced. In the first it is stated + + "If equal parts, by weight, of sulphur and mercury be + introduced into a crucible, and in this situation exposed to + a sufficient heat; a compound will be formed, called + sulphuret of mercury." + +In the second experiment the student is advised to + + "Mix together sulphur and potash, and throw them into water; + the sulphur will separate. If the same articles be put into a + crucible and melted, and then thrown into water, the sulphur + as well as the potash will be dissolved." + +And next comes the + + "_Rationale._ In the first experiment there is an instance of + chemical action, as well as of single affinity, for the + sulphur and mercury would remain separate if heat was not + applied. In consequence of this agent, they unite into an + uniform whole, totally inseparable by mechanical means, and + possessing characters distinct from either of its constituent + parts. + + "In the second experiment, the union of sulphur with potash + is effected by heat; for if a sulphuret was not formed, no + solution of the sulphur would take place. Hence it is that + chemical action is the consequence of a power, without which + it could never ensue, and with which it always acts in + unison. This power is affinity." + +Then it is remarked: + + "Chemistry is a science, which has for its object to discover + the constituent properties of bodies, the result of the + various combinations, and the laws by which those + combinations are effected. Its operations being either + analytical or synthetical, consist of composition, or + decomposition. The laws which govern chemical changes have + been resolved into those of attraction or affinity. Affinity + of composition of chemical affinity differs from that of + aggregation or cohesion or corpuscular attraction, by acting + upon matter of a different kind; or by taking place between + the ultimate constituent parts of bodies, producing by its + action, substances possessing properties frequently very + different, and sometimes contrary to those of the constituent + parts." + +Throughout the book the order of presentation is the experiment, +rationale, and remarks. A study of the "Philosophy" shows clearly +that Cutbush presented his material in a rather original fashion. His +method is not observable in any of the text-books of that date. + +In discussing potash, Cutbush wrote: + + "It has been supposed ever since our countryman, Dr. + Woodhouse, made an experiment with potash that this alkali + had an inflammable base. I am disposed to believe that the + Doctor was the first one who hazarded this conjecture as to + the inflammable nature of potash _when treated in certain + ways_. The Doctor found that a mixture of pearl ash with + soot, calcined by a very intense heat in a covered crucible, + when cold caught fire on the affusion of water. The + experiment was repeated with charcoal with the same result + and the inflammation probably arose from the action of the + base of the alkali on the water." + +He says: + + "That Thomas Cooper ... repeated this experiment, and + succeeded, I think, after several attempts, in procuring the + metal. Dr. John Redman Coxe and myself also performed it, but + in our attempt we failed. The professor, however, persevered, + and finally procured it.... My brother, Dr. Edward Cutbush, + succeeded in procuring it by using the heat of a + black-smith's forge. I have not heard of any other attempts + in this country except by a gentleman in New York, who was + also successful." + +These statements substantiate the idea that Woodhouse isolated the +metal potassium quite independently from any European chemist; it even +looks as if he may have isolated it in the manner referred to before +Sir Humphrey Davy had separated it with the aid of the electric +current. + +In the first volume of the Philosophy there is a frontispiece, a lamp +furnace, consisting of a brass rod, fastened to a piece of metal, +furnished with rings of different diameters, and thumb screws to raise +or lower the lamp and rings when in use. By this furnace evaporation, +digestion, solution, sublimation, distillation and other processes, +which require a low temperature, may be performed. + +And in the second volume there is a frontispiece representing a +portable universal furnace, made of strong wrought iron plates and +lined with bricks bedded in fire-proof loam. The height of the furnace +is two feet. The body of the furnace is elliptical. There are three +openings in front of the furnace, one above the other, furnished with +sliding doors, and fitted with stoppers made of crucible ware. + +Both pieces of apparatus represent a marked advancement. They were +evidently exceedingly useful. By their means it was possible to +execute excellent work. + +It would repay one to examine with care the various American +text-books on chemistry, beginning about 1770 and continuing down to +1830. There would arise a picture before one's mind of the successive +steps in the development of chemical apparatus, and again, the +knowledge derived from the presentation of chemical theory and data +would be refreshing and inspirational. It is to be hoped that the time +is not far distant when some library, public or university library, +will go to the trouble of gathering the American texts on Chemistry +for the period just alluded to. It is not likely that an alcove +filled with this literature would be largely patronized, yet it would +be possible for the enthusiast on the development of chemistry in this +country to collect from such a source a great deal of valuable +material which might be presented with profit to the rising generation +of American chemists. + +Cutbush had little leisure during the year 1813, as he was engaged +with the duties of the College and was conducting popular lectures on +an extended scale. It was necessary for him to invite his friend, Dr. +George F. Lehman, to assist in the various demonstrations. They +emphasized not only the theory but the practice of chemistry with its +application to the useful arts. Their experiments were numerous and +were of such a character as to appeal to the general public. The +course offered by Professor Cutbush and Dr. Lehman was remunerative. +It is said the cost of tickets for ladies was $5.00 and those for +gentlemen $8.00. + +In addition to the devotion of Cutbush to these didactic courses in +chemistry, he spent much time in a literary way. One of the best-known +publishers of the city announced the purpose of printing the _American +Artist's Manual_ under the editorship of Cutbush. The advertisement +stated-- + + "To manufacturers, however, who are presumed to be interested + in practical knowledge the value of such works is greatly + diminished by the multiplicity of theories, technical terms + and complicated processes which they in general contain. It + is, therefore, unnecessary to expatiate on the advantages to + be derived from such a publication as is now proposed in the + present work. While it is intended to embrace most of the + Arts and Manufactures, particular attention will be paid to + those of agriculture, brewing, bleaching, dyeing in its + various branches, the manufacture of glass, pottery and all + others which the situation of our country renders obviously + of primary concern and importance." + +This extensive and helpful publication appeared in 1814 in two octavo +volumes of more than 600 pages each. The reader should note that + + "The price to subscribers will be $7.00 in boards or $8.00 + substantially bound, payable on delivery. Those who procure + subscriptions of nine copies and become accountable for their + payment shall be entitled to one copy for their trouble." + +The book was dedicated to Benjamin Smith Barton. No title of any kind +appears after the author's name, indicating that he had probably by +the year 1814 severed his connection with all his educational projects +in Philadelphia. In the preface the author speaks of + + "Having devoted the greater part of his life to chemical + pursuits." + +Glancing through these volumes the impression made upon the reader was +that the author had read widely in the sciences, but particularly in +his favorite science, chemistry. The book is really a popular +dictionary of chemical technology. While it is sparsely illustrated, +early forms of chemical glassware are pictured. From these may be +gathered the story of the gradual development of very useful +apparatus, for example, such as is used in various kinds of +distillation. + +That Cutbush had probably ceased his professional duties by the year +1814, as has just been hinted, is further emphasized on noting that he +was appointed Assistant Apothecary General in the U. S. Army on the +twelfth day of August in the year 1814. What his duties as such may +have been has not been discovered. It would not be fair to call it a +radical change in position, but it was a change which necessitated +Cutbush giving more thought and attention to pharmacy, which in his +earlier career was a secondary subject, but in which he was so +proficient that he attracted to himself the attention of leading men +in medical circles. He was in Philadelphia, prosecuting his duties as +late as the year 1819. It is known that during this period he was +attached to the Northern Division of the Army. + +In 1820 Dr. James Lovell, Surgeon General of the Army, suggested to +General Thayer, Superintendent of the Military Academy at West Point, +that Cutbush be appointed Chief Medical Officer at the Academy and +Post of West Point. In this capacity he served for seventeen months, +when he became Acting Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the +Academy. The first lecture in his new position was delivered October +9, 1820. In a sense, it marked the beginning of a new career for +Cutbush. He resumed teaching duties, but gave himself more +particularly to the study, not only of gunpowder, which never ceased +to be interesting to him, but to explosives of higher character, and +in this latter field he reached his greatest eminence and may +confidently be regarded as a pioneer in it. + +Just before leaving Philadelphia, in the year 1820, Cutbush wrote +Benjamin Silliman at some length on an improvement of the Voltaic +electrical lamp. It was an ingenious modification and constituted the +first contribution made by Cutbush to the _American Journal of +Science_. + +But, returning to his life at West Point, it may be observed that in +1822 he contributed his second article to the _Journal of Science_, +which did not appear in print, however, until 1824. This article +related to the composition and properties of the Chinese fire and the +so-called brilliant fires. It was very interesting. It displayed a +thorough and wide knowledge of pyrotechnics with which Cutbush, in +previous years, had been gradually familiarizing himself. At one point +he said: + + "Most if not all the compositions used in fireworks, + including military fireworks, were more the result of the + labours of the artisan who was neither controlled by fixed + principles nor by a knowledge of the effects and properties + of bodies and of the systematic experiments of the chemist, + and yet in consequence of some fortuitous and repeated trials + we find that he has been successful, and moreover has amassed + a body of facts which we may reasonably infer may either be + rendered more perfect by knowledge or improved upon by the + exact aid of chemical science." + +Here is every proof of his purpose to apply his understanding of +chemical principles and his own experience to the solution of +pyrotechnic problems, for he continues: + + "Pyrotechnics is at present considered under two heads, + namely, fireworks for exhibition and military fireworks. The + latter is undoubtedly the most useful, as it embraces a + variety of propositions calculated for attack and defence + both for naval and land service." + +Almost simultaneously there appeared in the same _Journal of Arts and +Science_ another contribution by Cutbush, entitled + + REMARKS CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF THE + GREEK FIRE + +In the light of recent events and the use of all sorts of chemical +bodies for warfare and destruction it will not be uninteresting to +introduce here a few paragraphs from this remarkable contribution. He +says: + + "The Greek fire was invented by Callinicus of Heliopolis, a + town in Syria, who used it with so much skill and effect + during a naval engagement that he destroyed a whole fleet of + the enemy, in which were embarked 30,000 men. + + "It appears that in the reign of Louis XV, a chemist of + Grenoble, Dupre de Mayen, discovered a composition similar in + effect to the Greek fire of Callinicus, which was exhibited + at Brest, and proved successful, but the preparation was kept + secret. The original Greek fire was used in 1291, and also in + 1679.... Writers have defined it to be a sort of artificial + fire, which burns with increased violence when it mixes with + water.... That it was a liquid composition, we may infer from + the modes of using it, which were several. It was employed + chiefly on board of ships, and thrown on the vessels of the + enemy by large engines. It was sometimes kindled in + particular vessels, which might be called fire ships, and + which were introduced among a hostile fleet. Sometimes it + was put into jars and other vessels, and thrown at the enemy + by means of projectile machines, and sometimes it was + _squirted_ by soldiers from hand engines, or blown through + pipes. This fire was also discharged from the _foreparts of + ships_ by a machine constructed of copper and iron, the + extremity of which is said to have resembled the _open mouth_ + and _jaws_ of a lion or other animal. They were painted, and + even gilded, and were capable of projecting the liquid fire + to a great distance. + + "... John Cameniata, speaking of his native city, + Thessalonica, which was taken by the Saracens in the year + 904, says that the enemy threw fire into the wooden works of + the besieged, which was blown into them by means of tubes, + and thrown from other vessels.... This proves that the + Greeks, in the beginning of the Tenth Century, were no + longer the only people acquainted with the art of preparing + this fire, the _precursor of our gunpowder_. The Emperor Leo, + who about the same period wrote his _Art of War_, recommends + such engines, with a metal covering, to be constructed in the + foreparts of ships, and he twice afterwards mentions engines + for throwing out Greek fire.... For many centuries the method + of making this dreadful article of destruction was lost; but + it has just been discovered by the librarian of the elector + of Bavaria, who has found a very old Latin manuscript which + contains directions for preparing it. + + "... On the subject of incendiary and other military + fireworks, the French have certainly laid the foundation for + the very preparations now used by the British, for the + formulae for such preparations may be traced to the French + service.... + + "The Moors were in possession of the secret for preparing the + Greek fire in 1432, according to the testimony of Brocquire. + Bertrandon de la Brocquire was in Palestine in 1432 as + counsellor to the Duke of Burgundy. He was present at Barrat + during one of the Moorish celebrations. 'It began,' he + remarks, 'in the evening at sunset. Numerous companies + scattered here and there were singing, and uttering loud + cries. While this was passing, the cannon of the castle was + fired, and the people of the town launched into the air + "_bein haut et bein loin, une maniere de fue plus gros fellot + que je veisse oncques allume_." They told me they made use of + such at sea, to set fire to the sails of an enemy's vessel. + It seems to me that it is a thing easy to be made, and at a + little expense it may be equally well employed to burn a + camp or a thatched village, or in an engagement with cavalry + to frighten their horses. Curious to know its composition, I + sent the servant of my host to the person who made this fire, + and requested him to teach me his method. He returned for + answer, that he dare not, for that he should run great danger + were it known; but there is nothing a man will not do for + money. I offered him a ducat, which quieted his fears, and he + taught me all he knew, and even gave me the moulds in wood, + with the other ingredients, which I have brought to France.' + ... When Constantinople was attacked, the Emperor Leo burnt + the vessels or boats, to the number of one thousand eight + hundred, by means of the Greek fire.... Its composition was + kept secret at Constantinople, pretending that the knowledge + of it came from an angel to the first and greatest of the + Constantines, with a sacred injunction not to divulge it + under any pretext, etc. It ... was kept secret above 400 + years ... was stolen by the Mahometans, who employed it + against the Crusaders. A knight, it appears, who despised the + swords and lances of the Saracens, relates, with heartfelt + sincerity, his own fears at the sight and sound of the + mischievous engine that discharged a torrent of fire. 'It + came flying through the air, like a winged, long-tailed + dragon, about the thickness of a hogshead, with a report of + thunder, and the velocity of lightning; and the darkness of + the night was dispelled by this deadly illumination. The use + of the Greek, or as it might now be called the Saracen fire, + was continued to the middle of the Fourteenth Century, when + the scientific or casual compound of nitre, sulphur and + charcoal effected a new revolution in the art of war, and the + history of mankind.' ... We do not know of any imitation of + the original Greek fire having been used in modern warfare, + but have no hesitation in believing that naphtha prepared as + already stated would in many cases prove advantageous. It + seems to be well calculated for close naval combat, if the + object be to destroy the sails and rigging of an enemy's + ship. The rapidity and extent of its combustion, added to the + circumstances of its peculiar properties, that of resisting + the action of water in particular, contribute altogether to + this opinion." + +The entire article from which these excerpts have been made is worthy +of study, even at this late date. It is suggestive and carries with it +many historical references of value. The enthusiasm of Cutbush for +pyrotechnic bodies is manifest in every line of this publication. + +About a year later (1823) Cutbush discussed the formation of cyanogen +in processes not previously noticed. He spoke of the appearance of +this gas in the putrefaction of animal and vegetable matter, making +the following remarkable and in some respects startling statement: + + "I believe it would be found that the compound (carburet of + azote) is the basis of the miasmata which produces malignant, + bilious diseases.... Marsh miasmata are generally the cause + of intermittent fevers. Now under particular circumstances of + action may we not admit the generation of carburet of azote + or cyanogen, and if so, as it readily unites with hydrogen, + may it not be the miasma which produces malignant bilious + fevers, since it is known that hydrocyanic acid is + destructive to animal life and a most virulent poison?... + Miasmata of some kind are the cause of yellow fever. For our + part we believe it to be carburet of azote, or of some of its + combinations, and of these that with hydrogen, from its + deleterious character, seems to be the one." + +Another observation made in this connection was that cyanogen is +produced when charcoal is heated with nitric acid. Cutbush stated that +he placed charcoal and nitric acid together in a retort and subjected +them to distillation, collecting the product in Woulfe's bottles, +after which the resulting solutions were impregnated with potash, and + + "common sulphate and persulphate of iron introduced. The + colour instantly changed and became more or less blue, + proving the existence of the perferrocyanite of iron and, + consequently, of cyanogen." + +Having never met this method of preparing cyanogen, experiments were +made in the writer's laboratory to verify the statement. A blue, or +what had the semblance of a blue color, could be obtained at the point +given by Cutbush, but just as soon as the solution was acidulated, as +is always done, the precipitate disappeared and there was not the +slightest indication that Prussian blue had been formed. Even after +hours of rest there was not a sign of it. + +Association on the part of Cutbush with the men of science in +Philadelphia during the first decade of the Nineteenth Century led to +an extension of his interest in science circles, so that during +leisure moments at West Point (1824) he wrote of the following +minerals observed by him in and near that place: + + "Molybdenite, kaolin, tremolite, schorl, adularia, garnet, + actinolite, precious serpentine (remarkably elegant), epidote + and diallage." + +Recently, attention has been called to a volume by Cutbush entitled +"Lectures on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons.... With a +Means of Discovering Them and Rules for Determining the Purity of +Substances." It was published at Newburgh, N. Y., in 1823. The writer +has never seen this volume. His search for it has been unsuccessful. + +Another publication was "A Synopsis of Chemistry, Arranged +Alphabetically, Comprehending the Names, Synonyms, and Definitions in +that Science." New York: E. Lewis, 1821. This book is also exceedingly +rare. + +The real magnum opus of Cutbush resulted in "A System of Pyrotechny" +(1825), which voluminous publication did not appear until after his +decease, and then largely through the efforts of his wife and former +students in the Cadet Corps, for, in _Silliman's Journal_, this note +appeared: + + "Mrs. Cutbush, widow of the late Dr. Cutbush, of West Point, + proposes to publish by subscription a Treatise on Pyrotechny + by her husband, Dr. James Cutbush.... By the reputation which + Dr. Cutbush sustained, as well as by the ability which his + elaborate treatises on these subjects already published in + this journal display, there can be no doubt that this + posthumous work will be worthy of the public patronage, which + we hope will be liberally bestowed." + +Even to-day this publication stands out preeminently and for years has +been referred to by artisans and by scientists. Chapters dealing with +military fireworks have been seriously studied. In the light of the +violent fires, grenades, etc., used in the late war the writings of +Cutbush become very fascinating. They show that he truly blazed the +way in this field. In the introduction to this splendid volume he +wrote: + + "On this head, that of the application of chemistry to + pyrotechny, we claim so much originality, as, so far as we + know, to have been the first, who applied the principles of + chemistry.... As this subject, however interesting to the + theoretical pyrotechnist, cannot be understood without a + knowledge of chemistry, it is obvious that that science is a + powerful aid to pyrotechny.... Viewing pyrotechny either as a + science or an art, there is undoubtedly required in its + prosecution much skill and practice. The mere artificer or + fireworker by constant habit may understand, it is true, how + to mix minerals, prepare composition, charge cases, etc., ... + but without a knowledge of chemistry he cannot understand the + theory.... Indeed, chemistry is indispensable to pyrotechny." + +Much time and thought were given by Cutbush in the experimental +development of this particular subject in his own laboratory. In +reading upon the subject he had collected a vast material which was +then put to crucial experimental tests. These, outside of his +teaching hours, occupied his whole attention. + +An outline of how the work in the chemical department of the United +States Military Academy was conducted will not be devoid of interest. + + _First Year_ + + Theory and Experimental Chemistry. + + _Second Year_ + + Application of Chemistry to the Arts, Manufactures and + Domestic Economy, constituting along with Mineralogy the + second course. + +Pyrotechny naturally was developed quite extensively. Teachers of +chemistry will note with pleasure the questions which Cutbush arranged +for his student corps, particularly those questions which had to do +with pyrotechny: + + "What is saltpetre? What is nitric acid? What are the sources + of saltpetre, and how it is obtained? How is it formed in + nitre beds, extracted, and refined? What circumstances are + necessary to produce nitre, and how does animal matter act in + its production? What is the difference between the old and + new process for refining saltpetre? What reagents are used to + discover the presence of foreign substances in nitre? What + are nitre caves? Where do they exist? What are the nitre + caves of the western country, and how is nitre extracted from + the earth? What proportion of nitre does the saltpetre of the + nitrate caves afford? What is the theory of the process for + extracting saltpetre from nitrous earth, or nitrate of lime? + What is sulphur? How is it obtained, and how is it purified + for the manufacture of gunpowder? Of what use is sulphur in + the composition of gunpowder? Does it add to the effective + force of gunpowder? What is charcoal? What is the best mode + of carbonizing wood for the purpose of gunpowder? What woods + are preferred for this purpose? In the charring of wood, what + part is converted into coal, and what gas and acid are + disengaged? What is the use of charcoal in gunpowder? What is + gunpowder? What are considered the best proportions for + forming it, and what constitutes the difference between + powder for war, for gunning, and for mining? How does the + combustion of gunpowder take place? Can you explain why + combustion takes place without the presence of a gaseous + supporter of combustion, as gunpowder will inflame in vacuo? + What are the products of the combustion of gunpowder? What + gases are generated? To what is the force of fired gunpowder + owing? What are the experiments of Mr. Robins on the force of + gunpowder? How would you separate the component parts of + gunpowder so as to determine their proportions? What are + gunpowder proofs? What is understood by the comparative force + of gunpowder? What are eprouvettes, etc.? In noticing in the + same manner the preparations used for fireworks, and for war, + as the rocket, for instance, the following questions were + propounded; viz., What is a rocket? How is it formed? Is the + case always made of paper? What is the war rocket? What is + the composition for rockets, and how does it act? What + particular care is required in charging a rocket? What is the + cause of the ascension of rockets? What is the use of the + conical cavity, made in a rocket at the time it is charged, + or bored out after it is charged? How do cases charged with + composition impart motion to wheels, and other pieces of + fireworks? What is understood by the rocket principle? What + is the rocket stick and its use? Is the centre of gravity + fixed, or is it shifting in the flight of rockets? How are + rockets discharged? What is the head of a rocket? What is + usually put in the head? Are all rockets furnished with a + head? What is understood by the furniture of a rocket? How + are the serpents, stars, fire-rain, etc., forming the + furniture of a rocket, discharged into the air, when the + rocket has terminated its flight, or arrived at its maximum + of ascension? What forms the difference between a balloon, in + fireworks, and a rocket? As the balloon contains also + furniture, and is projected vertically from a mortar, how is + fire communicated to it, so as to burst it in the air? Is + the fuse used, in this case, the same as that for bombs, + howitzers, and grenades? What is the Asiatic rocket? The + fougette of the French? In what siege were they employed with + success by the native troops of India? What was the nature of + their war-rocket? What is the murdering rocket of the French? + Is the conical head hollow, solid, blunt, or pointed? Why is + it called the murdering rocket? What is the Congreve rocket? + Is Congreve the inventor or improver of this rocket? What are + Congreve rockets loaded or armed with? In what part is the + load placed? Is the case made up of paper or sheet-iron? What + are the sizes of Congreve rockets?" + +In the introduction to "Pyrotechnics" Cutbush remarked that he had +consulted many authorities without much advantage, finding the French +the most helpful. Of the English he said: + + "As respects the turtle torpedo and catamarin submarine + machines, it appears that Bushnel claims the originality of + the discovery from the date of his invention, although + similar contrivances had long ago been suggested. Fulton's + improvements, in the torpedo, are deserving of particular + attention, but it is plain that the Catamarin of the English + is the same in principle and application as Fulton's torpedo + and that Fulton deserves the merit of it." + +The "System of Pyrotechny" bears the ear-marks of much careful +experimental study. It is a most worthy contribution, and is strong +proof of the dominating force in the mind of Cutbush, namely, to make +his science as widely useful as possible. Chemists may justly take +pride in this early contribution in the application of chemical +principles. + +The life story of Cutbush has now been told. It is really the story of +his life activities, for regrettable as it is, there does lack a +picture of the man's personality. The parents of James Cutbush were +Edward Cutbush and Anne Marriat. The father was a stone-cutter or +carver. To these good people were given four children: Edward, born in +1772; Ann, in 1782 (who died in 1798); William, born in 1785, and +James in 1788. Edward became prominent as a naval surgeon, while +William graduated from West Point in 1812, and attained eminence as an +engineer. + +Indeed, at an early age, William was a midshipman in the United States +Navy, and was taken prisoner by the Algerines at the time the frigate +Philadelphia ran aground in the harbor of Tripoli, from which he was +released after two years' confinement in prison, and returned to the +United States, when he became a cadet in the Military Academy. + +James Cutbush must have been a man of mark among his neighbors--as +indicated by sundry positions of trust which he held. Further, he must +have been a favorite with the Cadet Corps at West Point, where he was +buried. His tomb there bears this inscription: + + "Sacred to the memory of Dr. James Cutbush, Member of the + American Philosophical Society, Late Surgeon, U. S. Army and + Professor of Chemistry at the U. S. Military Academy, West + Point, N. Y., who departed this life December 15, 1823, aged + 35 years. An honourable tribute of respect from his grateful + pupils." + +The work of Cutbush was of the genuine pioneer character, and enriched +the annals of American chemistry. While it would be delightful to know +more of the man, cruel fate compels us to be content with the +estimate, brief though it is, given in Poulsen's _American Daily +Advertiser_, December 23, 1823: + + "A man not only known for his extensive knowledge of + chemistry, but distinguished for his philosophy and + patriotism." + + + + * * * * * + +Transcriber's Notes + +The following typos have been corrected: + +Page 28: Socity changed to Society. + +Page 44: Braeutigram changed to Braeutigam. + +Page 51: responsibile changed to responsible. + +Page 67: beginnig changed to beginning. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of James Cutbush, by Edgar F. 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