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diff --git a/24656.txt b/24656.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3ca1cc9 --- /dev/null +++ b/24656.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8925 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Household +Management, by Ministry of Education + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Household Management + +Author: Ministry of Education + +Release Date: February 20, 2008 [EBook #24656] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Emmy and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + + + +[Illustration: A Household Management pupil in uniform] + + + + +ONTARIO + +TEACHERS' MANUALS + + +HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT + + +AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION + + +TORONTO + +THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED + + + + + COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1916, BY + THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE + COURSE OF STUDY--DETAILS 1 + + CHAPTER I + Introduction 5 + Correlation with Other School Subjects 7 + Rooms 9 + Equipment 12 + Tables, seats, racks, sinks, class cupboard, stoves, + black-boards, illustrative material, book-case, utensils 23 + Equipment for Twenty-four Pupils 23 + Class table, sink and walls, general cupboard equipment, + kitchen linen, cleaning cupboard, laundry equipment, + dining-room equipment, miscellaneous 28 + Equipment for Ordinary Class-rooms 28 + Equipment, Packing-box 30 + For Class 31 + Individual Equipment for Six Pupils 32 + + CHAPTER II + Suggestions for Class Management 33 + Teachers' Preparation 33 + Number in Class 33 + Uniforms, etc. 33 + Discipline 34 + Division of Periods 35 + Assignment of Work 36 + Supplies 37 + Practice Work at Home 37 + Suggestions, General 38 + Suggestions for Schools with Limited or no Equipment 39 + + CHAPTER III. FORM III: JUNIOR GRADE + Correlations 42 + Arithmetic, geography, nature study, hygiene, physical + training, composition, spelling, manual training, art, + sewing 45 + + CHAPTER IV. FORM III: SENIOR GRADE + Scope of Household Management 46 + Equipment, Uniform, etc., Survey of 47 + Equipment, Use of 48 + Cleaning, Development of a Lesson on + Meaning of Cleaning 49 + Methods of Cleaning 49 + Common Household Cleansing Agents 50 + Black-board Outline 51 + Dish Washing 52 + Table Cleaning 53 + Sink Cleaning 54 + Dusting 54 + Measures and Recipes + Measures 55 + Equivalent Measures and Weights, Table of 58 + Measuring, Plan of Lesson on 58 + Time limit, preparation, development, practical + work to apply measuring, serving, + note-taking, housekeeping, recipe for cocoa 62 + Recipes 62 + + CHAPTER V. FORM III: SENIOR GRADE (Continued) + Cookery + Meaning of Cooking 64 + Reasons for Cooking Food 64 + Kinds of Heat Used 64 + Different Ways of Applying Dry Heat 64 + Different Ways of Applying Moist Heat 64 + Thermometer, Lesson on 65 + Boiling Carrots, Plan of Lesson on 68 + Aim, time limit, preparation for practical + work; practical work; development of the + ideas of boiling as a method of cooking; + serving, housekeeping, recipe in detail 70 + Simmering Apples, Plan of Lesson on 70 + Introduction, discussion of recipe, practical + work, development of ideas of simmering; + serving, housekeeping, recipe (individual) 72 + Methods of Cooking: Details 73 + Boiling 73 + Simmering 74 + Steaming 74 + Steeping 75 + Toasting 76 + Broiling 76 + Pan-broiling 77 + Sauteing 78 + Baking 78 + Frying 79 + Left-overs, Suggestions for the Use of 82 + Bread, cake, meat, fish, eggs, cheese, vegetables, + canned fruit 84 + Beverages 84 + Meaning of Beverages 84 + Kinds of Beverages 85 + Tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate 86 + Table Setting 87 + Table Manners 90 + + CHAPTER VI. FORM IV. JUNIOR GRADE + Kitchen Fire, The 92 + Requirements 93 + Heat, oxygen, fuels 96 + Kitchen Stove, The 96 + Fireless Cooker, The 99 + Principles of Fireless Cooker 100 + Reasons for Use of Fireless Cooker 100 + Ways of Using Fireless Cooker 100 + Home-made Fireless Cooker, A 101 + + CHAPTER VII. FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued) + Food, Study of 103 + Uses of Food 103 + Necessary Substances in Food 105 + Sources of Food 106 + Common Foods, Study of 106 + Milk 107 + Eggs 110 + Vegetable Food, Study of 114 + Comparative food value of different parts of + plants 119 + Green vegetables, root vegetables and + tubers, ripe seeds (peas, beans, and + lentils) 120 + Vegetables, General Rules for Cooking 122 + Fruit, General Rules for Cooking 123 + Fresh Fruit 123 + Dried Fruit 123 + Starch, Use of, to Thicken Liquids 124 + Flour, Use of, to Thicken Liquids 125 + Cream of Vegetable Soups 126 + Principles of Cream Soups 126 + Seeds, Outline of Lesson on Cooking 127 + Cereals 127 + Legumes: Peas, Beans, Lentils 128 + Nuts 128 + Salads 129 + Ingredients of Salads 129 + Food Values of Salads 129 + Preparation of Ingredients 130 + Dressings for Salads 130 + Mineral Food, Study of 131 + Summary of Sources of Mineral Foods 133 + Diet 133 + Reference Table of Food Constituents 134 + Water, mineral matter, protein, sugar, starch, + fat 134 + Preparing and Serving Meals: Rules 136 + + CHAPTER VIII. FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued) + House, Care of the 138 + Bed-room, Directions for Care of 138 + Sweeping, Directions for 139 + Dusting, Directions for 140 + Metals, Care and Cleaning of 140 + Iron or steel, tin, granite and enamel ware, + aluminium, zinc, galvanized iron, copper or + brass, silver, recipe for silver polish 144 + + CHAPTER IX. FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued) + Laundry Work 145 + White Cotton and Linen Clothes, Lesson on + Washing 145 + Materials--water, alkalies, soap, soap substitutes + or adjuncts, blueing, starch 149 + Preparation for Washing 150 + Process of Washing 151 + Removal of Stains 152 + Woollens, Outline of Lessons on Washing 153 + Experiments with Cloth Made of Wool Fibre 154 + Points in Washing Woollens 156 + Steps in Washing Woollens 156 + + CHAPTER X. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE + Foods 157 + Food, Preservation of 158 + Bacteria 158 + Canning 160 + Jams and Preserves 163 + Jelly 164 + Pickling 165 + + CHAPTER XI. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued) + Cookery 166 + Flour, Outline of Lesson on 166 + Sources of flour, kinds of flour made from + wheat, composition of white flour, kinds of + wheat flour, tests for bread flour 167 + Flour Mixtures, Outline of Series of Lessons on 168 + Meaning of flour mixtures, kinds of flour + mixtures, methods of mixing flour mixtures, + framework of flour mixtures, lightening + agents used in flour mixtures 169 + Experiments 170 + Baking-powder 170 + Cake making 171 + Classes of cake, directions for making cake, + rules for mixing cake, directions for baking + cake 173 + Recipe for Basic Cake 174 + Variations of Recipe for Basic Cake 174 + Spice cake, nut cake, fruit cake, chocolate + cake 174 + Recipe for Basic Biscuits 175 + Variations of Recipe for Basic Biscuits 175 + Sweet biscuit, fruit biscuit, scones, fruit + scones, short cake for fruit, dumplings for + stew, steamed fruit pudding 175 + Bread Making 176 + Yeast, Outline of Lessons on 177 + Bread Making, Practical 179 + Ingredients of plain bread, amount of ingredients + for one small loaf, process in + making bread 180 + Breads, Fancy 180 + Bread-mixer, The 182 + Pastry 183 + Pastry, outline of lesson on--ingredients 184 + Notes on flour, fat, water: lightening + agents used in pastry: kinds of pastry: + amount of ingredients for plain pastry + for one pie 184 + + CHAPTER XII. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued) + Meat 186 + Names of Meat 187 + Parts of Meat 188 + Composition of Fat 188 + Composition of Bone 188 + Composition of Muscle 190 + Meat Experiments 191 + Selection of Meat 192 + Care of Meat 193 + General Ways of Preparing Meat 193 + Notes on Tough Meat 193 + Digestibility of Meat 195 + General Rules for Cooking Meat 198 + Baking, broiling, boiling, stewing, beef juice 199 + Fish + Points of Difference Between Fish and Ordinary + Meat 199 + Kinds of Fish 200 + Selection of Fish 200 + Cooking of Fish 200 + Gelatine 200 + Source 201 + Commercial Forms 201 + Properties 201 + Steps in Dissolving 201 + Value in Diet 202 + Ways of Using 202 + Frozen Dishes 203 + Value 203 + Kinds 203 + Water ice, frappe sherbet, ice cream, plain + ice cream, mousse 203 + Practical Work 204 + Freezing, packing, moulding 204 + Planning of Meals 205 + + CHAPTER XIII. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued) + Infant Feeding 208 + Modified Milk, Recipe for 209 + Pasteurizing Milk, Directions for 209 + Bottles, Care of 210 + Food, Care of 210 + Feeding, Schedule for 211 + + CHAPTER XIV. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued) + Household Sanitation 212 + Means of Bacteria Entering the Body 212 + Common Disease-producing Bacteria 213 + Methods of Sanitation 214 + Disposal of Waste in Villages and Rural Districts 215 + Methods of Disinfecting 215 + Home Nursing 216 + Sick Room, The 216 + Location, furniture, ventilation, care 216 + Disinfecting, Methods of 218 + Patient, The 218 + Care of the bed, and diet 218 + Poultices 221 + Fomentations 222 + + BIBLIOGRAPHY + Home, The 223 + Science and Sanitation 223 + Food and Dietetics 223 + Cooking and Serving 224 + Laundry Work 224 + Home Nursing 225 + Economics 225 + Magazines 225 + + + + +PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY + + +DETAILS + +FORM III: JUNIOR GRADE + + +BILLS OF HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES: + + Furniture, bed and table linen, material for clothing + Fuel, meat, milk, groceries + Weekly or monthly expenses of an average household + Comparison of home and store cost of cooked food, such + as cake, bread, meat, canned fruit. + + +SOURCES OF HOUSEHOLD MATERIALS: + + Fuel + Timber for building, and furniture + Cotton, linen, woollen, paper, china + Common groceries, such as salt, sugar, + spices, tea, coffee, cocoa, cheese, butter, cereals + Cleansing agents, such as coal-oil, + gasolene, turpentine, whiting, bathbrick, soap. + + +MANUFACTURE OF HOUSEHOLD MATERIALS: + + Cotton, linen, woollens, paper + Salt, sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, cheese, butter, cereals. + + +KITCHEN AND EQUIPMENT: + + Arrangement of a convenient kitchen + Necessary utensils. + + +FORM III: SENIOR GRADE + +CLEANING: + + Elementary principles of cleaning + Practice in cleaning dishes, tables, sinks, towels. + +COOKERY: + + Table of cooking measurements + A recipe (parts, steps in following) + Reasons for cooking food; kinds of heat used; methods of cooking + Practice in making simple dishes of one main ingredient. + +SERVING: + + Setting the table + Table service and manners. + + +FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE + +THE KITCHEN FIRE: + + Requirements of a fire + Comparative merits of fuels + Construction and care of a practical stove. + +STUDY OF FOODS: + + Uses of food to the body + Necessary elements in food + Composition of the common foods, excepting meat and fish. + +COOKERY: + + Practice lessons in preparing and cooking the common foods, + (milk, eggs, meat, fish, fruit, vegetables) + Cooking and serving a simple breakfast and a luncheon. + +CARE OF THE HOUSE: + + Review of methods of cleaning taken in Form III + Cleaning and care of household metals + Sweeping and dusting + Care of a bed-room. + +LAUNDRY WORK: + + Necessary materials and the action of each + Process in washing white clothes. + + NOTE.--These subjects are intended to be taught + simply (not technically). In schools where there + is no laundry equipment, the order of work may + be developed in class and the practice carried + on at home. + + + +FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE + +PRESERVATION OF FOOD: + + Causes of decay, principles and methods of preservation + Practice in canning. + +COOKERY: + + Practice lessons to review cooking common foods + Flour (kinds, composition of white flour); flour + mixtures (kinds, methods of mixing, lightening agents) + Practice in making bread and cake + Practice in cooking meat + Cooking and serving a simple home dinner at a fixed cost. + +FOODS: + + Composition of meat and fish + Planning meals so as to obtain a broad balance of food elements. + +INFANT FEEDING: + + Proper food; pasteurizing milk + Care of bottles and food + Schedule for feeding. + +HOUSEHOLD SANITATION: + + Disposal of waste + Principles and methods of sterilizing and disinfecting. + +HOME NURSING: + +Two simple lessons to include the following: + + 1. The sick-room (location, size, ventilation, care) + 2. Care of patient's bed, and diet + 3. Making of mustard and other simple poultices. + + NOTE.--Where no equipment has been provided, a + large doll and doll's bed will serve. + +LAUNDRY WORK: + + Washing of woollens (the processes). + + + + +HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTION + + +Until a comparatively recent period, education was regarded mainly as a +means of training the intellect, but this conception of education is now +considered incomplete and inadequate. Our ideas of the purpose of +schools are becoming broader, and we have decided that not only the +mental nature, but all the child's activities and interests, should be +given direction by means of the training given in our schools. We +believe also that these activities and interests can be used to +advantage in assisting the mental development. + +Household Management aims to educate in this way, by directing the mind +to ideas connected with the home and by training the muscles to perform +household duties. + +Though deemed essentially practical, this subject will, if rightly +presented, give a mental training similar to other subjects of the +Course of Study. It should do more. While a pupil is made familiar with +the duties of home life and with the materials and appliances used in +the home, she will be unavoidably led to think of the work of the larger +world and to realize her relation to it. When such knowledge comes, and +a girl begins to feel that some part of the world's work depends on her, +true character-building will begin. + +The purpose of this Manual is to assist teachers in presenting Household +Management to public and separate school classes in such a way as to +attain these ends. It is hoped that it will be especially useful to +those teachers whose training in the subject has been limited. + +An attempt has been made to explain the work of Form III Senior, and of +the Junior and Senior divisions of Form IV. The topics of Form II Junior +are not discussed, as the work of this Form is intended to be taught as +information lessons, for which general methods will suffice. In the +other Forms mentioned, the topics of lessons are outlined in detail, but +the method of presentation is not given except in typical cases. Both +outline and method are intended to be merely suggestive and to leave +opportunity for the teacher's originality. + +In cases where topics seem incompletely outlined, it is due to the fact +that they are treated in other school subjects or postponed until the +pupils reach a more advanced stage of mental development. + +The order of lessons is optional, also the amount of work each should +include, unless this is specially stated. + +Many lessons are suitable for rural schools, which have no equipment +except what the ingenuity of the teacher may provide. In such schools, +the teacher may perform the practical work, while the class observes. + +Throughout the lessons, there is the difficulty of presenting scientific +facts to immature minds in a way that will be simple and clear. The use +of technical language would often assist the expression, and this is apt +to be unconsciously employed, but there is danger of such forms of +speech not being intelligible to the pupils; the teacher should +therefore choose her words carefully. Technical terms may be taught, but +this is not advised in Junior classes, unless really necessary. If the +facts are intelligently related to the experiences of the pupils, that +is all that is desired. + +Temperatures, as indicated by Fahrenheit thermometers, have always been +given, as this scale is best known in the home. + +Since this Manual is designed for teachers, few recipes have been +furnished. The books of reference which are appended will supply these +and additional information on the subject. + + +CORRELATION WITH OTHER SCHOOL SUBJECTS + +One of the benefits of placing Household Management in a Course of Study +is that it relates the knowledge gained in school to the home life. + +The Household Management teacher has great opportunity for this +correlation. She should be more than a teacher of household duties. She +should lead the pupils to see the importance and necessity of mastering +the other school subjects. Wherever interest in these subjects has +already been established, this interest will form a basis for +development in many Household Management lessons. + +Then, too, the teachers of other subjects should, as far as possible, +work with the Household Management teacher in relating their instruction +to the operations and requirements in the home. If the teachers +co-operate in planning their lessons, the pupils will receive a deeper +impression of the facts learned in each subject and will have an +increased interest in the work, through seeing how one branch of +knowledge is related to another. + +The following will show how some of the subjects are related to the +class work of Household Management: + +Arithmetic.--This subject is used in household accounts, in +measurements, in the division of recipes, and in computing the cost of +foods prepared for the table. + +Reading.--The pupils should be asked to read aloud the recipes and their +notes and should be required to do this distinctly and accurately. + +Spelling, Writing, Language Work.--In writing recipes and notes, in +stories of household topics, and in written answers, the teacher should +insist on neat writing, correct spelling, and good English. + +Geography.--The study of materials for food, clothing, and house +furnishings brings before the mind our commercial relations with foreign +countries and the occupations of their inhabitants. It also suggests +consideration of climate and soils. + +History.--The evolution of furniture and utensils, of methods of +housekeeping, and of preparing and serving food, brings out historical +facts. + +Elementary Science.--Throughout the Course, this subject is the +foundation of much of the instruction given, as it explains the +principles underlying household industries. Soap-making, bread-making, +preservation of food, and the processes of cooking and cleaning are +examples of this. + +Some knowledge of elementary science is also necessary to an +understanding of the construction and practical working of the kitchen +stove, the fireless cooker, the cream separator, and many household +appliances. Its principles determine the methods of heating, lighting, +and ventilating. + +Physiology and Hygiene.--The study of food and the planning and +preparation of meals should include a knowledge of the body and its +requirements. The sanitary care of the house and its premises is +directly related to hygiene. + +Nature Study.--Animals and plants furnish us with most of our food, and +familiarity with these is necessary to the housekeeper. A knowledge of +the structure of animals is essential in studying the cuts of meat; the +structure of plants and the functions of their different parts give a +key to the value of vegetable food. + +Physical Training.--The class should be carefully trained throughout in +correct muscular movements. The position of the body should be closely +watched in working and in sitting, and the classes should enter and +leave the room in systematic order. + +Manual Training.--The practical part of housekeeping demands constant +use of the hands. The teacher should be watchful of awkward handling of +materials and utensils and be careful to correct it. She should require +deft, natural movements until they become habits. + +Art.--Ideas of colour and design should be applied in choosing +wall-papers, carpets, dishes, furniture, and clothing. The pupils might +be asked to make original coloured designs for these household articles. + + +ROOMS + +It is most desirable to have Household Management include all home +operations and, to make this possible, more than one room should be +provided. Many school boards, however, in introducing the work, find +that one room is all that can be afforded. Where this is the case, it is +necessary that this room be equipped as a kitchen, though it must be +used for other purposes as well. It will serve also for table-setting +and serving, for simple laundry work, for lessons in home-nursing, and +for sewing. + +[Illustration: A Household Management class at work] + +This kitchen should be large and airy, so that the class can work +comfortably and conveniently. A room having greater length than width +admits of the best arrangement. + +On account of the odours that arise from cooking and other domestic +operations, the kitchen should be on the top floor and should have more +adequate means of ventilation than ordinary class-rooms. A north +exposure makes it cooler in summer. + +[Illustration: Opposite end of Household Management class-room, showing +the black-board and class cupboard] + + +EQUIPMENT + +In planning an equipment, one must be guided by the conditions to be +met. It is difficult to be definite in details, but certain general +principles should be observed. + +The entire equipment should be suited to the needs of the pupils, and it +should also be one which it is desirable and possible for them to have +in their own homes. + +[Illustration: A Household Management class-room, showing tables, sinks, +and stoves] + +The walls and floor should be washable, and they, as well as the +furniture, should have plain, smooth surfaces which do not catch dust +and are easily cleaned. + +The sinks, stoves, tables, and cupboards should be placed so as to save +steps. + + +TABLES + +Where economy is necessary, movable tables may be used, but the fixed +ones are to be preferred. The latter may be placed in the form of a +hollow square or an oval, with openings from opposite sides to give +convenient access to a centre table, which can be used for supplies or +as a dining table. + +[Illustration: Section of a table designed for two pupils] + +Drawers and cupboards to hold the necessary utensils and supplies should +be provided in the tables for each pupil. Provision may also be made +under the table top for desk boards, which may be pulled out when notes +are written, in order to allow the pupils to sit comfortably in front of +the cupboards. The table top should be of hard wood or some +non-absorbent material, jointed in narrow strips in order to prevent +warping. Part of this must be protected by a metal or glass strip on +which to set the individual stoves or hot dishes. + +[Illustration: Contents of a table cupboard equipped for two pupils] + +A working drawing and design of the tables used in the Normal Schools +may be obtained from the Department of Education, Toronto. + +[Illustration: Contents of an individual utensil drawer] + +[Illustration: Contents of an individual supply drawer] + + +SEATS + +The seats may be swing seats, stools, or chairs. The swing seats are +noiseless and easily put out of the way, but are uncomfortable and +unsteady, so that the pupils are inclined to prop themselves by placing +their elbows on the table. The stools and chairs are noisy and occupy a +great deal of room, but the latter are restful and conducive to the +correct position of the pupils, the importance of which cannot be +over-estimated. The former are inexpensive, if made with a plain, wooden +top. Both should admit of being pushed under the table, and for this +reason the chairs should have folding backs. The legs should be tipped +with rubber in order to minimize the noise. + +[Illustration: A class towel rack] + + +RACKS + +Towel racks should be placed near the sinks and, if possible, should +allow space for hanging the towels without folding. In some tables a +towel rack may be attached to one of the sides. + + +SINKS + +A sink at each corner of the room saves much time and inconveniences in +the work. Each of these should be provided with hot and cold water. They +may be made of porcelain or of enamelled iron. + +[Illustration: A class gas range, showing high ovens] + + +CLASS CUPBOARD + +A large class cupboard in two sections, having glass doors in the upper +part to show the class china and glass, should be placed where it will +be most convenient and add to the attractiveness of the room. This +cupboard will hold the dinner set and extra dishes and utensils, as well +as the linen and some staple food supplies. A refrigerator is desirable +for such foods as butter, eggs, meat, etc. + +[Illustration: A class cupboard] + + +STOVES + +[Illustration: Individual table stoves + +(_a_) a gas stove + +(_b_) an electric stove + +(_c_) a blue-flame kerosene stove + +(_d_) an ordinary kerosene stove] + +The stoves provided will depend on the fuel that is available in the +neighbourhood. Wood is still in use in some rural sections, while coal +is the ordinary fuel in small towns and villages. Where either of these +fuels is commonly used, there should be two ranges. One should be for +coal or wood, to teach the use of the home fuel, and the other an oil, +gas, or electric stove, to demonstrate the time and labour saved the +housekeeper by the use of one of these. If possible, the stoves should +have high ovens, to obviate the necessity of stooping. A section of +glass in the oven door is a great convenience, as it allows the +contents of the oven to be easily watched. + +For individual work small table stoves are required. These may be +supplied with oil, alcohol, gas, or electricity, as may be most readily +obtained. These stoves may be arranged so that they can be swung from +the table when not in use. In this way more room is provided for work, +and the table is more easily cleaned. The tops of the stoves should be +wide and flat, so that cooking dishes will not easily upset. + +A fireless cooker, though not really necessary, is most helpful. Where +funds are lacking, one may be made by the pupils at small expense. A +barrel, wooden box, or large pail may be filled with hay or excelsior, +and small, covered, granite pails may be used to contain the food. + + +BLACK-BOARDS + +The black-boards should be of slate or glass, and as large as the size +of the room allows. The windows and doors should be so placed that there +will be unbroken stretches of wall for this purpose. Part of the +black-board should be provided with a sliding board which, when +required, can be drawn to conceal what is written. A separate +black-board for current prices of common food materials is an excellent +idea. The responsibility of keeping these prices correct should be given +to the pupils. + + +ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL + +A cabinet, or display case, for illustrative material, is of great +educational value and, to the pupils, is one of the most attractive +features of the room. The following list of specimens is suggestive for +this: + +[Illustration: A display cabinet--canned fruit] + +1. Standard china, such as Crown Derby, Wedgewood, Limoges, Dresden, +Beleek, etc. + +2. Standard carpet, such as Axminster, Wilton, Brussels, Tapestry + +3. Woods used for furniture and building + +4. Food materials in various stages of preparation, such as sugar, +spices, cereals, tea, coffee, cocoa + +5. Fruit canned by the pupils + +6. Designs for wall-paper, linoleum, dishes, etc., made by the pupils. + +Other illustrative material in the form of charts showing the +comparative values of the common foods, or illustrating cuts of meat or +different kinds of vegetables and fish, will be found to aid greatly in +making the teaching effective. There are few of these to be obtained, +but home-made ones may be prepared from cuts in bulletins and magazines. +Pictures illustrating the production and manufacture of food may also be +mounted and used. + + +BOOK-CASE + +Book shelves should be provided, where a small library of books bearing +on the various phases of the subject may be kept, together with the +Government Bulletins and some well-chosen periodicals and magazines. +These may be selected from the _Catalogue of Books_ which has been +prepared by the Department of Education. + + +UTENSILS + +In regard to the selection of small articles required, such as dishes +and utensils of various kinds, the greatest care should be exercised. +This part of the equipment can be exactly duplicated by the pupils in +their homes, and in this way may be of educational value to the +community. The cooking and serving dishes should combine quality, +utility, and beauty. + +It is not economy to buy cheap utensils. As far as possible, they should +be chosen with smooth, curved surfaces, as seams and angles allow +lodging places for food and make the cleaning difficult. + +Everything should be of good quality, the latest of its kind that has +been approved, and, at the same time, have a shape and colour that is +artistic. + +It is wise to buy from stock which can be duplicated if breakages occur, +so that the equipment may be kept uniform. For individual work the +utensils should not be too large. + +Coloured granite ware is best for most of the cooking dishes. Where tin +is necessary, it should be of a good quality. Crockery is desirable for +some bowls, jars, and serving dishes. Spoons and serving forks should be +of Nevada silver, and knives of the best steel with well-made wooden +handles. + +The cost of this part of the equipment and the number of articles +purchased must of course depend on the funds available. The following +list is intended to give what is really desirable in a specially +equipped room, at prices which are a fair average. + + +EQUIPMENT + +FOR TWENTY-FOUR PUPILS + + +I. CLASS TABLE + +1. UTENSIL DRAWER: + + 24 plates, enamel, 9 inch $0.70 + 14 " white crockery, 7 inch .80 + 24 bowls white crockery, 7 inch 3.60 + 24 " " " 5 1/2 inch 1.20 + 24 enamel bowls, 6 inch 2.40 + 24 popover cups 1.80 + 24 bakers, crockery (oval) 1.20 + 24 platters, " (small) 1.50 + 24 sieves (wire bowl) 1.30 + 24 spoons, wooden 1.92 + 24 spatulas, wire handle 7.20 + 24 knives, paring 2.00 + 24 forks, Nevada silver 2.50 + 24 spoons, table, Nevada silver 2.50 + 48 spoons, tea, " " 1.20 + 24 cups, measuring, tin 2.40 + +2. SUPPLY DRAWER: + + 12 boxes (for flour), tin 10.00 + 12 " (for sugar), " 7.50 + 12 cheese jars (for salt) .68 + 24 shakers, glass 2.40 + 24 bread tins 4.32 + 24 biscuit cutters .72 + 13 safety match-box holders 1.62 + +3. SUPPLY CUPBOARD: + + 12 double boilers 5.76 + 24 stew pans, tin cover, wooden knob 4.56 + 24 frying-pans 1.20 + 24 saucepans 2.16 + 12 knife-boards 1.80 + 12 meat boards 3.00 + 6 scrub basins 1.50 + 12 dish pans 6.00 + 12 rinsing pans 3.00 + 12 draining pans 3.00 + 6 tea-kettles 3.00 + 12 scrub-brushes 2.00 + 12 vegetable brushes .30 + 12 soap dishes .75 + 12 garbage crocks .96 + 24 asbestos mats 1.10 + + +II. SINK AND WALLS + + 1 garbage pail, galvanized iron 1.00 + 1 waste-paper basket, willow (large) .75 + 1 soap dish .11 + 1 brush, hand .03 + 1 brush, scrub .17 + 2 basins, hand, enamel .40 + 2 basins, scrub, enamel .50 + 1 dish pan .70 + 1 crock for washing soda .30 + 2 towel racks 1.50 + 1 clock 5.50 + 12 tablets for housekeeping rules .70 + + +III. GENERAL CUPBOARD EQUIPMENT + + 2 kettles, granite 1.50 + 1 tea-kettle, granite .85 + 1 saucepan .28 + 1 saucepan .35 + 5 covers, tin .25 + 1 pie pan .10 + 1 coffee-pot .32 + 6 saucepans, 1 qt. size, white enamel 1.08 + 1 double boiler .59 + 6 covers, tin .30 + 1 soup ladle, enamel .09 + 2 pudding dishes, white enamel .40 + 12 strainers and mashers 1.80 + 1 kneading pan .85 + 3 steamers .67 + 10 graters 1.00 + 2 vegetable baskets .30 + 6 potato mashers .48 + 4 muffin pans .60 + 24 patty-pans .20 + 12 Dover egg beaters 1.20 + 1 spice box .50 + 1 japanned tray .25 + 24 wire toasters 2.40 + 1 egg spade .15 + 1 scale 3.10 + 1 freezer 3.00 + 1 cast-iron frying-pan .40 + 1 dripping pan .25 + 2 roasting pans .60 + 1 quart measure, granite .60 + 1 pint measure, " .45 + 1 funnel, tin .05 + 4 baking sheets 7" x 17" .92 + 6 " " 10" x 10" 1.08 + 24 cups and saucers 1.30 + 24 tumblers 1.50 + 6 platters .36 + 6 plates .34 + 6 pitchers, 1 1/2 pt. 1.00 + 3 brown bowls, 2 qt. .75 + 2 brown bowls .25 + nest of mixing bowls 1.00 + 6 glass measuring cups .60 + 6 glass lemon reamers .60 + 6 tea-pots (pint) 1.50 + 1 covered crock .25 + 1 doz. 1 qt. fruit jars .65 + 1 " 2 qt. " " .75 + 1 " 1 pt. " " .55 + 1 meat chopper 3.10 + 1 bread knife .25 + 1 bread board .25 + 2 knives, French .85 + 2 spoons, granite .21 + 1 fork, large wooden handle .15 + 2 can openers .20 + 1 corkscrew .25 + 1 bunch skewers .15 + 1 brush, pastry .05 + 1 knife sharpener .25 + 3 graters, nutmeg .09 + 1 box toothpicks .05 + 1 pad tissue paper .05 + 3 scissors 1.25 + 1 doz. jelly glasses .35 + 1 cream and sugar .30 + 24 rolling-pins 3.00 + 1 butter spade .15 + 1 file and catch .65 + 3 doz. test-tubes .90 + 1 " thermometers (Dairy) 2.50 + 2 lamp chimneys .30 + 1 bell .40 + + +IV. KITCHEN LINEN + + 36 yards towelling (3 doz. dish towels) 5.40 + 16 " " (4 doz. wash cloths) 2.40 + 13 " check towelling (3 doz. dish cloths) 1.60 + 6 " towelling .75 + 6 " " (6 meat cloths) .60 + 1 1/2 " flannelette (oven cloths) .23 + 12 " cheesecloth .60 + 1 3/8 " denim (stove apron) .27 + 2 " flannelette (for polishing silver) .20 + chamois .25 + + +V. CLEANING CUPBOARD + + 1 stove apron .27 + 1 stove brush .25 + 1 dauber .10 + 3 whisk brooms .45 + 1 dust-pan .20 + 1 pair stove mitts .30 + 1 broom .45 + + +VI. LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT + + 14 pony wash-boards 1.75 + 6 doz. clothes-pins .10 + 1 clothes-line .25 + + +VII. DINING-ROOM EQUIPMENT + +1. China and Glass: + + 1 flower vase .25 + 1 dinner set, Limoges china 15.50 + 1 doz. water glasses .80 + 1 glass fruit set 1.50 + +2. Silver and Steel: + + 2 doz. teaspoons 4.20 + 1 " dessert spoons 4.00 + 1/2 " tablespoons 1.15 + 1 " dessert knives 4.50 + 1 " dessert forks 4.50 + 1 " dinner knives 4.50 + 1 " dinner forks 4.50 + 1 carving set 2.00 + 1 butter pick .20 + +3. Linen, etc.: + + 1 silence cloth 1.50 + 1 4 yd. table-cloth 5.40 + 1 doz. napkins 2.75 + 1 centre-piece .40 + 2 doylies .50 + 2 tray cloths 1.00 + + +VIII. MISCELLANEOUS + + 1 "First Aid" cabinet 10.00 + 1 fire blanket 2.00 + + +EQUIPMENT FOR ORDINARY CLASS-ROOMS + +In some schools it is impossible to set aside a special room for +Household Management work, and the ordinary class-room is all that is +available. In such cases the equipment must be a movable one, and gas +stoves and plumbing are impossible. Table tops may be placed on +trestles or laid across the ordinary desks, and oil or alcohol lamps +must be used. These and the necessary utensils may be kept in a cupboard +in the room. + +With certain restrictions, the Department of Education assists in +equipping special rooms in villages and rural districts and also in +maintaining instruction in this subject. + +[Illustration: Modified equipment for rural schools] + +The classes in these schools are usually smaller, so that an outfit +suitable for individual work with a class of twelve will generally +suffice. The following, suggested by the Macdonald Institute, Guelph, is +a good basis and may be modified as desired: + + 12 bowls, brown $0.85 + 12 bread tins .95 + 12 tea cups and saucers 1.25 + 12 tin measuring cups 1.25 + 12 egg beaters .30 + 12 forks .40 + 12 case knives 1.25 + 12 paring knives 1.25 + 12 plates .85 + 12 saucepans 1.68 + 12 tablespoons .50 + 24 teaspoons .40 + 12 wooden spoons .60 + 12 stew pans 2.40 + 12 strainers .65 + 2 trays .80 + 1 bowl, yellow .25 + 1 " " .35 + 1 " " .45 + 3 scissors 1.50 + 5 trestle tables 20.55 + 6 frying-pans .90 + 3 tea strainers .15 + 3 match-box stands .24 + 1 emery knife .20 + 3 soap dishes .25 + 12 pepper shakers 1.50 + 12 salt shakers 1.50 + 1 bell .50 + 4 lemon reamers .40 + 6 stoves, kerosene 6.00 + 12 plates, dinner 1.25 + 6 plates, soup .60 + 4 jugs .60 + 1 jug .45 + 1 butcher knife .30 + 1 French knife .60 + 2 spatulas .80 + 6 teaspoons .10 + 3 tablespoons .13 + 4 brushes .20 + 2 stove mitts .50 + 4 asbestos mats .20 + 1 corkscrew .25 + 4 egg beaters .60 + 4 wash basins .92 + 3 draining pans .69 + 4 dish pans 2.00 + 6 broilers .48 + 3 cake tins .35 + 4 graters .40 + 3 strainers .75 + 24 patty pans .20 + 2 tin dippers .40 + 2 fibre pails .70 + 1 colander .35 + 1 pail, enamel .70 + 1 pan, enamel .18 + 3 tea-kettles 2.70 + 1 saucepan .30 + 1 saucepan .25 + 1 saucepan .23 + 1 saucepan .30 + 1 double boiler .85 + 1 kettle, covered .60 + [A]1 stove to burn coal or wood 30.00 + -------- + Total $100.05 + +FOOTNOTE: + +[A] The above may be replaced by a twenty-dollar wood stove or a +ten-dollar, two burner, coal-oil stove. + + +PACKING-BOX EQUIPMENT + +When even the expense of the modified equipment is too great, the +ingenuity of the teacher and the pupils may be used to provide a +"packing-box" equipment suitable for six pupils. The outlay for this +will vary according to what is provided, but it can in no case be +large. The following equipment used by the Department of Domestic +Science, Teachers' College, Columbia University, will be suggestive: + +[Illustration: Packing-box equipment] + + +FOR CLASS + + 3 bread boards $0.15 + 1 rolling-pin .05 + 3 baking-powder can tops, for cookie cutters .. + 1 flour sifter .10 + 1 large frying-pan .25 + 1 double boiler .50 + 1 quart kettle .25 + 1 tea-kettle .50 + 1 broiler .20 + 1 garbage can .25 + 2 pitchers .25 + 2 apple corers .10 + 1 chopping knife .10 + 1 chopping bowl .05 + 6 muffin tins .12 + 2 layer-cake tins .10 + 3 dish pans .45 + 3 rinsing pans .30 + 1 strainer .05 + 6 china plates .30 + 3 mixing bowls .30 + 6 sauce dishes .15 + 6 cups and saucers .30 + 1 coffee-pot .25 + 1 tea-pot .10 + 3 bread pans .15 + 6 quart jars .30 + 3 wooden pails with covers .30 + 6 dish towels .48 + 3 dish cloths .15 + 3 hand towels .15 + 1 broom .30 + 1 dust-pan .08 + 1 scrubbing-brush .10 + 1 scrubbing pail .20 + 1 Dover egg beater .09 + 1 pepper shaker .05 + 1 salt shaker .05 + 1 baking dish .10 + 1 bread knife .25 + 1 corkscrew .10 + ----- + Total $8.02 + + 1 packing-box table 1.00 + 1 packing-box cupboard .50 + Large blue-flame oil stove $10.00 + + +INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT FOR SIX PUPILS + + 1 white bowl, 1 qt. $0.07 + 1 measuring cup .05 + 1 granite plate .10 + 1 saucepan .05 + 1 tin cover .05 + 1 steel fork .10 + 1 steel knife .10 + 1 tablespoon .03 + 2 teaspoons .05 + ----- + Total .60 + + 1 oil stove .75 + 1 asbestos mat .05 + + + + +CHAPTER II + +SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASS MANAGEMENT + +TEACHERS' PREPARATION + + +In no subject is careful planning of the details of the lesson more +important than in Household Management. The definite length of the +period allowed in the school programme for this work makes economy of +time absolutely necessary. The cooking processes cannot be hurried, and +unless there is in the teacher's mind a well-arranged plan for the use +of the time, a part of the lesson is apt to be hastily and carelessly +done. Then, too, in the limited space of one room, a number of people +cannot work without confusion unless there is system. + +The pupils enjoy a well-regulated lesson and their co-operation is +gained, while, through the poor results of a lesson indifferently +planned, they lose self-confidence and the sense of responsibility. + + +NUMBER IN THE CLASS + +As a Household Management class is one that calls for individual +supervision, the number should not exceed twenty-four, and a smaller +class ensures more thorough supervision on the part of the teacher. +Neatness, thoroughness, and accuracy are important factors in the work +of each lesson, and the number of pupils should not be so large that a +lack of these will pass unnoticed. + + +UNIFORMS, ETC. + +The uniform consists of a large, plain, white apron with a bib large +enough to protect the dress, a pair of sleevelets, a holder, a small +towel for personal use, and a white muslin cap to confine the hair. +(See Frontispiece.) Each pupil will also require a note-book and pencil +for class, and a note-book to be used at home for re-copying the class +work in ink. These books should be neatly written and kept for +reference, and should be regularly examined and marked by the teacher +for correction by the pupils. + +The pupils should be encouraged to be clean and neat in appearance. They +should be expected to have tidy hair, clean hands and nails, and neat +uniforms. It is a good plan for each pupil to have two sets of uniforms, +so that when one is in the wash the other will be ready to use. It may +be wise to make a rule that the pupils without uniforms will not be +allowed to work, but such a rule must be judiciously enforced, as in +some cases it might result in much loss of time. There should be lockers +or other proper provision provided at the school for keeping each +uniform separately. Pasteboard boxes may be used for this purpose, when +no such provision is made. + + +DISCIPLINE + +The pupils should be trained to enter and leave the room in the same +order as in their other classes. Each pupil should have a definite +working place and should not be allowed to "visit" others during the +class. + +While at work, it is wise to allow the pupils as much freedom in talking +and movement as possible, so as to portray the home life. They should be +taught, however, that when their conduct interferes with the order of +the room or the comforts and rights of others, they must suppress their +inclinations. During the time of teaching there must be perfect quiet +and attention. Marks are sometimes given to secure punctuality and good +work, but the best way to have both is to try to make each member of +the class interested and happy in her work. + + +DIVISION OF THE PERIODS + +The time given to a practical lesson is usually one and a half hours. +This must include both the theoretical and the practical work. In +dividing the period, it is difficult to say how much time should be +given to each of these, but, broadly speaking, the theoretical part may +occupy one third of the time. The time for dish washing and cleaning +will be included in the time allowance for practical work. These duties +should require less time as the class advances in the work. + +Notes should be copied at the most convenient time, usually while the +food is cooking. Sitting to write notes will afford an opportunity for +resting after any practical work. If printed cards are used, much of the +note-taking is obviated. A sample card is given below. + + +HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT + +JUNIOR FOURTH CARD + +VEGETABLE WATER SAUCE + + 1 c. veg. water + 2 tbsp. flour + pepper + 2 tbsp. butter + 1/4 tsp. salt + +1. Put the vegetable water over a gentle heat. + +2. Mix the flour with a little cold water until smooth and thick as +cream. + +3. When the vegetable water is steaming hot, gradually stir the flour +paste into it and keep stirring until it thickens and boils. + +4. Add the butter, salt, and pepper. + +5. Pour the sauce over the hot vegetable. + + +ASSIGNMENT OF WORK + +For practical work there are two plans in general use--individual and +group work. In individual work, each pupil performs all the processes, +handling small quantities of material. In group work, the pupils work in +groups on one dish, each sharing the duties. + +By the first method, the pupil has no chance to deal with quantities +large enough for family purposes, and the small amount does not give +adequate practice in manipulation, though it does give individual +responsibility in every detail. By the second method, normal quantities +are used, but a pupil never has entire responsibility throughout the +processes. + +The cost of supplies is often accountable for group work, but lack of +utensils or oven room may make it a necessity. In some lessons, +individual work with normal quantities may be obtained by allowing the +pupils to bring the main ingredients from home; for example, fruit for a +canning lesson. The finished product is then the property of the pupil +who has made it. + +The cleaning which always follows the use of the equipment is preferably +done in groups. For instance, if there are groups of fours, number one +can, during a lesson, wash all dishes used by the four, number two can +wipe the dishes, number three can clean the table used by the group, and +number four can clean the sink. During the next lesson number two is +dish washer, and number three dish wiper, and so on, until, in four +lessons, each pupil has had practice in four kinds of household work and +has also been given an idea of the inter-dependence of family life and +interests. The same numbers should be kept during the term, as this +affords an easy way of definitely designating the pupils for certain +duties. + + +SUPPLIES + +The supplies for a lesson may be put on a centre table, or smaller +amounts may be placed on the working tables in front of the groups. If +the class is large, the latter plan is better, especially where +measurements are necessary, as it saves time and confusion. Standard +food supplies, such as salt, pepper, sugar, and flour may be kept in a +drawer of the work-table of each pupil. (See page 15.) + +Every member of the class should be familiar with the contents of the +class pantry, cupboards, and drawers, so that she can get or put away +utensils and materials without the help of the teacher. + +If breakages occur through carelessness, the utensils should be replaced +at the expense of the offender. This is not only a deserved punishment, +but it always ensures a full equipment. + + +PRACTICE WORK AT HOME + +As a lesson in Household Management comes but once a week, much is +gained by having the work reviewed by practice at home. To encourage +this, in some schools a "practice sheet" is posted, on which the work +done by each pupil, between lessons, is recorded. There is a danger of +the younger pupils attempting work that is too difficult, which will end +in poor results and discouragement. To avoid this, with pupils in the +Third Form, it may be wise to limit their practice in cookery to a +review of the work done in class. + +The home practice work may be taken at the beginning of a lesson or +during the time the food is cooking. It may be quickly ascertained by +the pupils rising in order and stating simply the name of the duty they +have done or the dish they have made unless they have had poor results, +when the nature of these should be told. If there have been failures, +the pupils should, if possible, give reasons for these and suggest means +of avoiding them in future. + + +GENERAL SUGGESTIONS + +1. The teacher should endeavour to plan lessons which will be definitely +related to the home lives of the pupils. What is useful for one class +may not be useful for another. The connection between the lessons and +the home should be very real. It is also important to have a sequence in +the lessons. + +2. Great care should be exercised in criticising any of the home methods +that are suggested by the pupils. A girl's faith in her mother should +not be lessened. + +3. The work should be taken up in a very simple manner; scientific +presentation should be left for the high school. + +4. Economy should be emphasized in all home duties; time, labour, and +money should be used to give the best possible returns. Wholesome +substitutes for expensive foods and attractive preparation and serving +of left-over foods should be encouraged. + +5. Too much vigilance cannot be exercised during the first year of +practical work, when habits are being formed. It is much easier to form +habits than to break away from them. + +6. While nothing less than the best work should be accepted from the +pupils, it requires much discernment to know when fault should be found, +in order to avoid saying or doing anything that would discourage them. + +7. As Household Management is a manual subject, the teacher is advised, +as far as possible, not to spend time in talking about the work, but to +have the class spend their time in doing the work. + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOLS WITH LIMITED, OR NO EQUIPMENT + +In schools where the ordinary class-room must be used for all subjects, +there are unusual difficulties in teaching Household Management. For +such schools, two modified equipments are outlined. + +Since such class-rooms require special arrangement for practical lessons +in this subject, it would be well to take this work in the afternoon, so +that part of the noon hour may be taken for preparation. Pupils who have +earned the right to responsibility may be appointed in turn to assist in +this duty. + +In rural schools, the afternoon recess might be taken from 2.15 to 2.30 +and, during this time, tables, stoves, and supplies may be placed, so as +to be ready for the lesson to follow in the remaining hour and a half. + +For pupils who are not in the Household Management class, definite work +should be planned. They may occupy themselves with manual training, +sewing, art work, map-drawing, composition, etc. In summer, school +gardening may be done. + +Since the end of the week, in many schools, is chosen for a break in the +usual routine, Friday afternoon seems a suitable time for Household +Management lessons. + +Under such limited conditions, it will be necessary to group the larger +pupils into one class for practical work, and it may be necessary for +the pupils to take turns in working. In some cases, the teacher must +demonstrate what the class may practise at home. + +It will be impossible, in such schools, to cover the prescribed work. +From the topics suggested in the Course of Study each teacher may +arrange a programme by selecting what is most useful to the pupils and +what is possible in the school. + +Even in schools which have no equipment, much of the theory of Household +Management can be taught and some experiments may be performed. On +Friday afternoons a regular period may be devoted to this subject, when +the ingenious teacher will find ways and means of teaching many useful +lessons. + + * * * * * + +The following will be suggestive as suitable for lessons under such +conditions: + +1. Any of the lessons prescribed in the Course of Study for Form III, +Junior. + +2. Measuring.--Table of measures used in cookery, methods of measuring, +equivalent measures and weights of standard foods. + +3. Cleaning.--Principles, methods, agents. + +4. Water.--Uses in the home, appearance under heat, highest temperature, +ways of using cooking water. + +5. Cooking.--Reasons for cooking, kinds of heat used, common methods of +conducting heat to food, comparison of methods of cooking as to time +required and effect of heat on food. + + NOTE.--An alcohol stove, saucepan, and + thermometer are necessary for this lesson. + +6. The kitchen fire.--Experiments to show necessities of a fire, +construction of a practical cooking stove. + +7. Food.--Uses, kinds, common sources. + +8. Preservation of food.--Cause of decay, methods of preservation, +application of methods to well-known foods. + +9. Yeast.--Description, necessary conditions, sources, use. + +NOTE.--A few test-tubes and a saucepan are necessary for this lesson. + +10. The table.--Laying a table, serving at table, table manners. + +11. Care of a bed-room.--Making the bed, ventilating, sweeping, and +dusting the room. + +12. Sanitation.--Necessity for sanitation, household methods. + +13. Laundry work.--Necessary materials, processes. + +14. Home-nursing.--The ideal sick-room, care of the patient's bed, and +diet. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +FORM III: JUNIOR GRADE + + +The pupils of Form III, Junior, are generally too small to use the +tables and stoves provided for the other classes and too young to be +intrusted with fires, hot water, etc.; but they may be taught the +simpler facts of Household Management by the special teacher of the +subject, or by the regular teacher in correlation with the other +subjects. In either case a special room is not necessary. + +If the latter plan be adopted, the following correlations are suggested: + + +CORRELATIONS + +Arithmetic.--1. Bills of household supplies, such as furniture, fuel, +meat, groceries, bed and table linen, material for clothing. This will +teach the current prices as well as the usual quantities purchased. + +2. Making out the daily, weekly, or monthly supply and cost of any one +item of food, being given the number in the family and the amount used +by each per day. + +_Example_: One loaf costs 6c. and cuts into 18 slices. Find the cost of +bread for two days for a family of six, if each person uses 1 1/2 slices +at one meal. + +3. Making out the total weekly or monthly expenses of a household, given +the items of meat, groceries, fuel, gas, etc. This brings up the +question of the cost of living. + +4. Making out the total cost of a cake, a loaf of bread, a jar of fruit, +or a number of sandwiches, given the cost of the main materials and +fuel used. Compare the home cost with the cost at a store. This may be +used to teach economy. + + * * * * * + +Geography.--1. The sources of our water supply. + +2. The geographical sources of our ordinary household materials, their +shipping centres, the routes by which they reach us, and the means of +transportation. + +_Examples_: Fuels, common minerals used in building and furnishing; +timber for floors and furniture; manufactured goods, such as cotton, +linen, carpets, china; domestic and foreign fruits; common groceries, +such as salt, sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, spices, rice, cereals, and +flour. + +3. The preparation of our common household commodities. + +_Examples_: Cotton, linen, china, paper, sugar, tea, coffee, cereals, +flour. + +4. The household products that are exported. + + * * * * * + +Nature Study.--1. The parts of plants used as food. + +2. The natural sources of our common foods, such as cornstarch, flour, +breakfast cereals, tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, salt, cheese, butter. + +3. The sources of common household substances, such as coal-oil, +gasolene, paraffin, turpentine, washing soda, whiting, bathbrick, soap. + +4. The forms of water, as ice, steam. + +5. The composition and impurities of the air. + +6. The ordinary woods used in house building and furnishing. + +Hygiene.--The necessity for the following: + +1. Fresh air in the home at all times--in living rooms and sleeping +rooms + +2. Good food and plenty of sleep + +3. Cleanliness of the body + +4. Cleanliness in preparing food + +5. Cleanliness in the home and surroundings. + + * * * * * + +Physical Training.--1. The value of exercise gained by performing +household duties. + +2. The importance of correct positions in performing home duties, such +as dish washing, sewing, etc. + +3. The value of conveniences to save steps. + + * * * * * + +Composition.--Topics selected from household materials and activities. + +_Examples_: Food materials, cleansing agents, planning a convenient +kitchen or bath-room, sweeping day, baking day, arrangement of a kitchen +cupboard or clothes closet, etc. + + * * * * * + +Spelling.--Names of household articles and duties as follows: + +Furniture of a special room, such as kitchen or sitting-room, kitchen +utensils, contents of a kitchen cupboard, dishes and food used at a +particular meal, etc. + +Manual Training.--Construction of household furnishings and utensils for +a doll's house from raffia, paper, and plasticine. + +Art.--Designing and colouring carpets, curtains, wall-papers, book +covers, dishes, tiles, ribbons, and dress materials. + +Sewing.--Making the uniform for Household Management work. + +If the Household Management teacher takes the work with this class, she +should follow the outline of work given in the Course of Study. This +outline will make the pupils familiar with the common household +materials as to their sources, preparation, and cost, and when, in the +next class, they deal with these materials, they will do so with more +interest and intelligence. It will also draw attention to the importance +of economy in time and energy. The convenience of a kitchen and the use +of proper utensils to facilitate labour will impress this fact. + +The lessons should be taught simply as information lessons and should be +of the same length as the other studies--from thirty to forty minutes. +If the usual hour and a half period be set aside for this class, the +remainder of the time may be devoted to sewing. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FORM III: SENIOR GRADE + +LESSON I + + +SCOPE OF HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT + +In introducing the practical side of Household Management to a class, it +is an advantage to let them have a general idea of what the subject +includes. They will then work with more intelligence and usually with +more interest. Then, too, the prevalent idea that the subject means only +cooking will be corrected from the first. + +Throughout the introduction, the teacher should not forget that she is +dealing with immature minds and that the ideas must be very simply +expressed. She might ask what the pupils expect to learn in this class, +have them name other subjects they study in school, and in each case +lead up to the _one_ thing of which a particular subject treats; for +example, arithmetic treats of _numbers_; geography, of the _world_; +history, of _past events_. She should lead the class to see that the one +thing of which Household Management treats is the _home_; and that the +two great requirements for a home are the _house_, and the people who +live in it, or the _occupants_. + +To get the details relating to each of these two divisions, let the +pupils imagine they are boarding in some locality where they decide to +make a home for themselves. The first thing to be done is to choose a +building lot. Then they must decide upon the kind of house they want and +the plan of the house. After the house is built, it must be furnished. +When the house is ready, it must be cleaned and kept clean. As soon as +the family move in, new considerations arise--they must have food, which +must be bought, prepared, and served; each member of the family must be +clothed and educated; they must receive proper care when sick. Only a +few minutes should be spent on this introductory talk. + +While the class is naturally led to think of and name these details, +they should be written on the black-board in the order of development, +somewhat as follows: + +1. Household Management teaches us about the _home_. + +2. A home includes two main ideas: + + (1) A house, (2) a family. + +3. In connection with a _house_ we must consider: + + (1) The lot, (2) the plan, (3) the furnishing, + (4) the cleaning. + +4. In connection with a _family_ we must consider: + + (1) Food (buying, cooking, serving), (2) + clothing (buying, sewing, mending), (3) + education, (4) home nursing. + +Tell the pupils that a housekeeper should be informed on all of these +points, but little girls can expect to study only a few of them, such as +questions of food, clothing, and cleaning. + + +SURVEY OF EQUIPMENT, UNIFORM, ETC. + +Equipment.--Most of the time of the first lesson should be used in +making the pupils acquainted with their surroundings and individual +necessities, so that they will be ready for work the next day. + +Give each member of the class a definite working place, and let her +examine the contents of the cupboard and drawers which belong to her +place. Explain that the particular places which the pupils are given +will be kept throughout the year, and that, while they have the +privilege of using and enjoying them, they are responsible for their +cleanliness and order. + +Point out the remainder of the equipment--hot and cold water-taps, towel +racks, class cupboard with its contents, refrigerator, large and +individual stoves. + +Teach each pupil how to light her stove and regulate its heat. + +Uniforms, etc.--Tell the pupils that you have shown them what has been +provided for them, but you want them also to provide some things for +themselves. It will be necessary for them to bring a large, plain, white +apron, having a bib large enough to protect the dress; a pair of +sleevelets; a holder; a small towel for personal use; and a white muslin +cap to confine the hair while working. They will also need a note-book +and pencil for class, and a note-book to be used at home for re-copying +the class work in ink. The latter book is to be very neatly written and +kept for reference after it has been examined by the teacher. + + +LESSON II + +USE OF EQUIPMENT + +The little girls who make up the classes are not so far removed from +their "playhouse" days that a survey of the dishes, stoves, and tables +will not give them an eager desire to begin using them. This desire +should be gratified, but as the use always necessitates the cleaning as +well, it may be advisable at first to make use of the equipment only for +the purpose of showing proper methods of cleaning. + +A short lesson on cleaning may be given in a few minutes, and the rest +of the period spent in putting it into practice. The teacher may proceed +somewhat as follows in the development of a lesson on cleaning: + + +DEVELOPMENT OF A LESSON ON CLEANING + +MEANING OF CLEANING + +Take two dishes--plates or saucers--exactly alike. Have one clean and +the other soiled with butter or some well-known substance. Ask the class +the difference between them. One is clean and one dirty. What substance +is on one that hinders your saying it is clean? Butter. What else could +be on it? Jam. What else? Dust. What else? Gravy. Now instead of telling +the name of the particular substance in each case, let us try to find +one name that will apply to all of the substances which, as you say, +make the dish dirty. Let us give these substances a name which will show +that they do not belong to the plate. We may call each of them a foreign +substance. And if I take the substance off the plate what am I doing to +the plate? Cleaning it. Then what is cleaning? Cleaning is removing a +foreign substance. + + +METHODS OF CLEANING + +1. _Scraping or rubbing away the foreign substance:_ + +What would you use to remove the butter from the plate? A piece of paper +or a knife. What are you doing with the knife or paper? Scraping or +rubbing off the foreign substance. Then how was it removed? It was +removed by scraping or rubbing. + +Suppose some one has sharpened a pencil and let the pieces fall on the +floor, what would you take to remove the foreign substance from the +floor? A broom. What would you say you are doing with the broom? +Sweeping. How does the movement of the broom over the floor compare with +the movement of the knife over the plate? It is similar. What would you +take to remove the dust from the window-sill? A duster. What would you +say you are doing? Dusting. How does the movement of the duster compare +with the movement of the knife and the broom? It is similar. In all of +these cases of dish, floor, and sill, how did we remove the foreign +substance? We scraped or rubbed it off. Name one way of removing a +foreign substance. Scraping or rubbing it away. + +2. _Dissolving the foreign substance and then scraping it away:_ + +Show a much soiled towel and ask what is usually done to clean it. It is +washed. Ask the pupils to tell just what they mean by that. The towel is +put in water and soap used on it. What effect will the soap and water +have on the foreign substance? They will soften or dissolve it. Then +what must be done next? The towel must be rubbed on a board or with the +hands. What effect has this operation on the foreign substance? It +scrapes or rubs the foreign substance away. Then we have another way of +cleaning: By first dissolving the foreign substance, and then scraping +or rubbing it away. + +A number of well-known cleaning operations may then be given, and the +pupils asked in each case to decide the method used--such as, whisking a +coat, scrubbing a table, cleaning the teeth, or washing dishes. + + +COMMON HOUSEHOLD CLEANSING AGENTS + +Next, get lists of the common cleansing agents found in an ordinary +home, and arrange them in order of coarseness. + + +BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE + +The black-board scheme, as the lesson develops, will appear as follows: + +1. _Meaning of Cleaning:_ + + Cleaning is removing any foreign substance. + +2. _Methods of Cleaning:_ + + (1) Scraping or rubbing away the foreign + substance. + + (2) Dissolving the foreign substance and then + scraping or rubbing it away. + +3. _Household cleansing agents used in the first method:_ + + (1) Duster + (2) Brush + (3) Broom + (4) Washboard + (5) Knife + (6) Whiting + (7) Bathbrick + (8) Coarse salt + (9) Sand + (10) Ashes. + +4. _Household cleansing agents used in the second method:_ + + (1) Water + (2) Hot water + (3) Soap + (4) Lux + (5) Ammonia + (6) Borax + (7) Washing soda + (8) Coal-oil + (9) Gasolene + (10) Acids + (11) Lye. + +5. _Combination cleansing agents:_ + + (1) Bon Ami, + (2) Dutch Cleanser, + (3) Sapolio. + +When the class have these ideas, they are ready to put them into +practice, and the remainder of the lesson should be spent in practical +work. + +If the pupils have soiled no dishes, it may be wise to drill them first +in table washing or towel washing, so as to get them ready for the next +lesson when tables and towels will be used. + + +LESSONS III, IV, ETC. + +Gradually, in connection with the making of simple dishes, the pupils +should be taught special methods of dish washing, sink cleaning, and +dusting. Each day as they are appointed to different duties in cleaning, +these methods should be strictly followed until they become well known. + +While they are still new to the class, it will be a great help to have +outlines of the kinds of cleaning which are necessary in every lesson +posted conveniently in different parts of the room for reference. + +These outlines may be as follows: + + +DISH WASHING + +Preparation for washing: + +1. Put away the food. + +2. Scrape and pile the dishes. + +3. Put the dishes that need it to soak. + +4. Place soap, pans, brushes, and towels. + +5. Put water in the pans. + + (1) Fill the dish pan about half full of warm + water, then soap it. + + (2) Fill the rinsing pan nearly full of hot + water. + +Order of washing: + + 1. Glass + 2. Silver + 3. China + 4. Crockery + 5. Granite ware + 6. Tins + 7. Pots + 8. Steel knives and forks. + +Finishing after washing: + +1. Soap a dish cloth and wash the sides and bottom of the dish pan, +before emptying it. + +2. Empty the dish pan, rinse at the sink, and half fill with clear, warm +water, to rinse the towels. + +3. Wash the towels in the rinsing pan, rinse them in the dish pan, shake +them straight, fold, and hang. + +4. Soap the dish cloth, wash the inside of the rinsing pan, empty, +rinse, and wipe with the dish cloth. + +5. Wash and wipe the soap dish. + +6. Empty the dish pan and wipe with the dish cloth. + +7. Pile the pans, place the brushes and soap, and set away. + +8. Fold the dish cloth and hang it to dry. + + +TABLE CLEANING (CLASS WORK) + +1. If necessary, scrape or brush off the table stoves. + +2. Get a scrub cloth, a wash-basin of warm water, and a scrub-brush. + +3. Wash the part of the table used by your group, doing the part not +occupied by the dish washing first; then get the dish washers to move +along, so that you can finish it, proceeding as follows: + + (1) Wet the table all over. + + (2) Rub the soap cake over it. + + (3) Scrub with the wet brush with the grain of + the wood. + + (4) Rinse the soap off with the clear water. + + (5) Wipe with the cloth wrung dry. + +4. Get clear water. Rinse the brush and put it away. Rinse the scrub +cloth and wring it dry. + +5. Take the basin and cloth to the sink. Empty, rinse the basin, and dry +it with the cloth. Rinse the cloth under the tap and wring it dry. + +6. Fold and hang the cloth to dry. Bring back a dry cloth and thoroughly +dry the aluminium strip. + +7. Put away the dry cloth and basin. + + +SINK CLEANING + +1. Let the other housekeepers get the water they need. + +2. Get a sink pan, a scrub cloth, and a brush. Put warm water in the +pan. + +3. Scrub the drain board if there be one, as follows: + + (1) Wet the board all over. + + (2) Rub the soap cake over it. + + (3) Scrub with a wet brush with the grain of + wood. + + (4) Rinse the soap off with clear water. + + (5) Wipe with the cloth wrung dry. + +4. Wash the nickel part of the sink (tap and stand) with soap. Wipe with +the cloth wrung dry. + +5. Wash the outside of the basin of the sink. + +6. When the other housekeepers have emptied their water, wash the inside +of the sink basin and wipe with the cloth wrung dry. + +7. Wash the scrub cloth and pan, rinse the brush, and put all away. + +8. Polish the nickel with a dry duster. + + +DUSTING + +1. Get a cheesecloth duster. + +2. Dust the chairs and put them in place. + +3. Dust the table legs and drawer handles. + +4. Dust the cupboard and refrigerator. + +5. Dust the wood-work, window-sills, ledges, etc. + +6. Wash the duster and hang it up to dry. + + +MEASURES AND RECIPES + +Another preliminary part of the work will be teaching the pupils to +measure and follow a recipe. + + +MEASURES + +The measures used in kitchen work are teaspoon, tablespoon, pint, quart, +and gallon, of which a table should be developed as follows: + + 3 teaspoonfuls (tsp.) 1 tablespoonful (tbsp.) + 16 tbsp. 1 cup + 2 cups 1 pint (pt.) + 2 pt. 1 quart (qt.) + 4 qt. 1 gallon (gal.) + +In connection with this table the following points should be brought +out: + +1. That all measurements are made level. + +2. That in measuring liquids, the measure should be set on a level +surface. + +3. That to halve the contents of a spoon, the division should be made +lengthwise. + +4. That to quarter the contents of a spoon, the half should be divided +crosswise. + +5. That in measuring flour, it should not be shaken down to level it. + +6. That in using one measure for both dry and liquid ingredients, the +dry should be measured first. + +7. That in measuring a cupful of dry ingredients, the cup should be +filled by using a spoon or scoop. + +[Illustration: (_a_) Dividing the contents of a spoon] + +[Illustration: (_b_) Dividing a spoonful in halves] + +[Illustration: (_c_) Filling a cup] + +[Illustration: (_d_) Levelling a cupful] + + +TABLE OF EQUIVALENT MEASURES AND WEIGHTS + +A table of equivalent measures and weights of some staple foods will +also be useful and may be given to the class: + + 2 cups butter (packed solidly) 1 pound + 2 c. granulated sugar 1 " + 2 c. rice (about) 1 " + 2 c. finely chopped meat 1 " + 2 2/3 c. brown sugar 1 " + 2 2/3 c. powdered sugar 1 " + 2 2/3 c. oatmeal 1 " + 2 2/3 c. cornmeal 1 " + 4 c. white flour 1 " + + +PLAN OF LESSON ON MEASURING + +TIME LIMIT + +One and one-half hours to be divided approximately as follows--one-half +hour for teaching the theory, one-half hour for the practical +application of the theory, and one-half hour for housekeeping (washing +of dishes, tables, sinks, etc., and putting the kitchen in order). + + +PREPARATION + +1. Place a set of measures at hand. + +2. Place a large bowl of flour on the teacher's table. + +3. Place flour and sugar in the boxes of the supply drawers. + +4. Place cans of cocoa and jugs of milk on the centre table. + + +DEVELOPMENT + +1. Introduction.--What do we take for a guide when cooking? How can we +be sure that we use the exact quantities the recipes require? Name some +measures that you have learned in arithmetic. In this lesson we are +going to learn the measures we require in cooking, also the proper ways +of using them. + +2. Names of measures.--Show and name the measures, beginning at the +smallest: teaspoon, tablespoon, cup, pint, quart, gallon. As the +measures are named, place them on the table in order of size. + +3. Methods of using measures.--Ask two or three pupils, in turn, to +measure a teaspoonful of flour from the bowl on the teacher's table. +They will not agree in their measurements, and the necessity for +levelling will be shown. What can we use for levelling measures? How can +we level liquids? + +If we need less than a spoonful, how can we measure it? Which part of +the spoon is deeper? How shall we divide the spoonful to make both +halves equal? How must we divide a spoonful into quarters? Into eighths? +Examine and explain the divisions of the cup. To use one measure for +both liquid and dry ingredients, which should be measured first? (As +these points are obtained, they should be written on the black-board.) + +4. Table of measures.--In the tables of measures which you have learned, +you state the number of times one measure is contained in the next +higher. We shall form a table of the measures learned to-day. By +measuring flour from their boxes, let each pupil find how many +teaspoonfuls fill a tablespoon. How many tablespoonfuls fill a cup, a +half cup, a quarter of a cup. They will state the remainder of the table +from memory. Write the table on the black-board and teach the +abbreviations. + + NOTE.--After the lesson on measuring is + developed, the class should be given individual + work which will put these ideas into practice. + A simple recipe may be dictated by the teacher, + step by step. Cocoa makes a good recipe for + this lesson, as it affords practice in + measuring liquids as well as dry ingredients, + both powdered and granular. If each girl makes + half a cupful of cocoa, it will give practice + in dividing the contents of a spoon. + + +PRACTICAL WORK TO APPLY MEASURING + +Have each pupil make half a cupful of cocoa by carrying out each step as +it is dictated by the teacher, as follows: + +1. Numbers one put two cups of water in the tea kettle; numbers two +light a fire and put the water to boil; numbers three get cocoa from the +centre table; numbers four get milk. + +2. Set out sugar boxes and open them. + +3. Each take a small saucepan, a measuring cup, a teaspoon, a +paring-knife, and a small cup. + +4. Measure half a teaspoonful of sugar into the saucepan. + +5. Measure half a teaspoonful of cocoa into the saucepan. + +6. Mix the sugar and cocoa by shaking the saucepan. + +7. Measure half of a third of a cupful of boiling water and stir it into +the sugar and cocoa. + +8. Set the mixture over a gentle fire and stir until it bubbles. Cook +for three minutes. + +9. Measure half of a third of a cupful of milk. + +10. Stir the milk into the mixture and heat it until it is steaming hot, +but do not boil it. + +11. Serve the cocoa in the small cups. + +12. Turn out the fires and put the saucepans to soak. + + +SERVING + +Each pupil puts her table in order by moving all cooking utensils to the +metal part of the table and wiping off any soiled spots on the wooden +part; she then sits to drink the cocoa she has made. + + +NOTE-TAKING + +Notes are copied from the black-board in pencil in the ordinary class +note-books. The desk boards under the table tops are pulled out for this +purpose. In this lesson the notes consist of: + +1. Table of measures, with abbreviations + +2. Points in measuring + +3. Recipe for cocoa (if there are recipe cards, these should be +distributed). + + +HOUSEKEEPING + +This will be done in groups of fours, according to their previous +lessons in cleaning. If necessary, some special cleaning, as dish +washing or sink cleaning, may be taught at this point of the lesson: + +1. Number one will wash dishes for her group. + +2. Number two will wipe dishes for her group. + +3. Number three will clean the entire table belonging to her group. + +4. Number four will do work outside of her group as appointed, such as +dusting, cleaning a sink or the centre table. + + +RECIPE FOR COCOA + + 1 tsp. sugar + 1 tsp. cocoa + 1/3 c. boiling water + 1/3 c. milk. + +1. Mix the sugar and cocoa in a saucepan. + +2. Stir the boiling water into the mixture, then set it over a gentle +heat. + +3. Keep stirring until the mixture bubbles, then boil gently for about +three minutes. + +4. Stir in the milk and heat it until it steams, but do not boil it. + +5. Serve the cocoa hot or ice-cold. + + +RECIPES + +In connection with a recipe, the pupils should be taught to look for +three parts: + +1. The name + +2. The list and amount of ingredients + +3. The method. + +In carrying out a recipe, they should, from the first, be taught to work +in the following systematic order: + +1. To attend to the fire if necessary + +2. To collect the necessary utensils + +3. To collect the necessary ingredients + +4. To obey the method. + +For this lesson, some simple recipe which will review measuring should +be clearly written on the black-board--the recipe for apple sauce or +cranberry sauce would be suitable. While the pupils are learning +obedience in following a recipe, it is better to keep them together in +carrying out their work. The method should be written in definite, +numbered steps, which may be checked off as each step is accomplished. + +When the class has had instruction in cleaning, measuring, and recipes, +they are ready for a series of lessons involving the use of simple +recipes which will put into practice the ideas they have learned. For +this practice, such recipes as the following are suggested: + +Boiled potatoes, mashed potatoes; boiled parsnips; boiled celery; boiled +carrots, asparagus, green peas; cranberry sauce; rhubarb sauce; +preparing and combining ingredients for salads (fruit salad, potato +salad, cabbage and nut salad, Waldorf salad)--the dressing being +supplied; stuffed eggs; sandwiches. + +The carrying out of these lessons will develop in the pupils accuracy +and obedience, and make them familiar with the use and care of their +utensils, as well as give opportunity for the cleaning of these and +other parts of the equipment. + +During these first lessons, careful supervision should be given each +pupil, so that only correct habits may be formed in regard to neatness, +thoroughness, quietness, and natural use of muscles. + +The pupils should be encouraged to begin a book of recipes to contain +neatly written copies of all they have used in school. The Art teacher +might correlate the work here by assisting them to design a suitable +cover for this book. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +FORM III: SENIOR GRADE (Continued) + +COOKERY + + +LESSON I + +After a number of practice lessons have developed in the pupils a +certain ability and self-confidence in working, formal cookery may be +introduced, and the following ideas should be brought out: + +1. The meaning of cooking: + + Cooking is the application of sufficient heat + to make a change in the food. + +2. Reasons for cooking food: + + (1) To make some food digestible. + + (2) To change flavours and make some food more + appetizing. + + (3) To preserve food. + + (4) To kill harmful germs in food. + +3. Kinds of heat used: + + (1) Dry heat--heat, only, is conveyed to the + food. + + (2) Moist heat--heat and moisture are conveyed + to the food. + +4. Different ways of applying _dry heat_: + + Toasting, broiling, pan-broiling, sauteing, + frying, baking. + +5. Different ways of applying _moist heat_: + + Boiling, simmering, steaming, steeping. + + NOTE.--If the class cannot name these methods, + the teacher may name and write them with only a + word of comment regarding each, or they may not + be given until the methods are studied. + +As the moist heat methods are simpler and better known, they should be +studied first. The class should be led to see that some liquid must be +used to supply the moisture and should account for the common use of +water for this purpose. Experiments should then be performed in heating +water, and its appearance and temperature should be noted. + + NOTE.--A preliminary lesson on the use of the + thermometer may be necessary to show how to + read it, and to develop the idea that it is an + instrument for measuring heat. This may be + taught in the regular class work, previous to + the Household Management lesson. + + +LESSON ON THE THERMOMETER + +1. Development of the idea of "measuring": + +What would you use to measure the length of the table? A foot measure. +What to measure the water in a tub? A pint, quart, or gallon measure. +What to measure the amount of gas burned? A gas-meter. + +2. Development of the name "thermometer": + +What do we call the instrument + + For measuring gas? A gas-meter + + For measuring electricity? An electrometer + + For measuring speed of a motor? A speedometer + (speed-meter) + + For measuring the distance a bicycle travels? A + cyclometer (cycle-meter). + +In each case what does "meter" mean? It means an instrument for +measuring. What name may I give to an instrument for measuring heat? You +may call it a heat-meter. + +Tell the pupils that, in science, many Greek words are used, and that +you will put a Greek word in place of the English word "heat", namely +"thermos", as in thermos bottle. What will the name become? +Thermosmeter, or _thermometer_. + +3. Practice in using thermometers: + +The unit of measurement (_degree_) should be given, and the scale taught +from the black-board. Thermometers may then be given to the class to +examine and use. + +Saucepans having white inner surfaces are best to use for the +experiments, as changes made by the heat are more plainly seen. + + _Observations of water under heat:_ + + (1) At a temperature of about 100 degrees, very + small bubbles form at the bottom and sides of + the dish and rise slowly to the surface of the + water. These bubbles are a film of water + containing the air that was in solution, which, + when expanded, rises to the top of the water. + + (2) At a temperature of about 180 degrees, a + few larger bubbles form at the bottom of the + dish and rise slowly to the surface of the + water, making a slight movement in it. In these + bubbles air is replaced by steam which is + formed from the water by the heat. + + (3) At a temperature of 212 degrees, a great + number of large bubbles form and rise quickly + to the surface, making much movement in the + water. The water is then said to boil. + + (4) The water will take no higher temperature + than 212 degrees. + + (5) After water once boils, it requires little + heat to keep it at this point, therefore the + heat may be reduced. + + (6) An increase of heat increases the number, + size, and rate of the bubbles and the volume of + steam, but makes the liquid no hotter. + + _Application of these observations:_ + + (1) If food be cooked in a liquid at its + greatest heat, where many bubbles are making + much movement in it, the process is called + _boiling_. + + (2) If cooked in a liquid heated to 180-200, + where there is scarcely any movement in the + liquid, the process is called _simmering_. + + (3) If cooked in the steam rising from a + boiling liquid, the process is called + _steaming_. + + (4) If boiling liquid be poured over food and + no further heat applied, the process is called + _steeping_. + + +LESSONS II, III, IV, ETC. + +Practice should then be given in each of the moist heat methods of +cooking. The common foods, such as vegetables, fruit, eggs, and milk +should be used for this purpose. + +After the class has carried out a method for the first time, they should +be led to consider the order of work required for it. The necessary +steps should be arranged to form a set of rules for reference. The +effects of the method in each case should also be noted. + +When the moist heat methods are well known, the dry heat methods should +be taught and practised. The outlines on pages 73-81 will suggest the +development under each method. + + +PLAN OF LESSON ON BOILING CARROTS + + +AIM + +To apply the principles of boiling, as taught in a previous lesson, to +the cooking of food. + + +TIME LIMIT + +One and one-half hours to be used approximately as follows: twenty-five +minutes for preparation for practical work and the first part of the +practical work, twenty-five minutes for the development of ideas of +boiling as a method of cooking, fifteen minutes for the serving of food, +twenty-five minutes for housekeeping. + + +PREPARATION FOR PRACTICAL WORK + +1. Review.--Question the pupils as follows: What kind of heat is used in +cooking food by boiling? At what temperature is the food cooked by this +method? Name the kinds of boiling. How much hotter is rapid boiling? How +is water made to boil rapidly? When is rapid boiling useful? + +2. Discussion of recipe.--Have the recipe written on the black-board and +read by one of the pupils, while the others follow the reading +carefully. + + (1) Have the class decide: + (_a_) When the fires should be lighted + (_b_) The dishes required for the work + (_c_) The kind of boiling to use. + + (2) Demonstrate the scrubbing, scraping, and + dicing of a carrot, also the draining of a food + cooked in liquid. + + (3) State the quantity of ingredients each will + use. + + (4) Caution the pupils as to accuracy, neatness, + and quietness while working. + + + +PRACTICAL WORK + +Have each pupil prepare the food according to the recipe and put it on +to cook within a certain time. While the class works, carefully observe +each pupil and give individual help to those who require it. + + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEAS OF BOILING AS A METHOD OF COOKING + +This will be done while the carrots are cooking. The ideas brought out +from review and the class work, by questioning, will be those which are +given on boiling under the methods of cooking. + +1. Definition of boiling + +2. Kinds of boiling + +3. Uses of rapid boiling + +4. Rules for boiling + +5. Effects of boiling. + +As these ideas are obtained from the class, they should be written by +the teacher on the black-board and by the pupils in their note-books. + + +SERVING + +The pupils will drain, season, and serve the food. Each girl will set +one place on the wooden part of the table and serve herself. While the +food is being eaten, the table manners of each girl should be observed, +and, if necessary, corrected in a tactful manner. + + +HOUSEKEEPING + +The work of putting the kitchen in order may be done in groups of twos +or fours. + + +RECIPE: BOILED CARROTS + + Carrots + Boiling water + Salt and pepper + Butter. + +1. Scrub, scrape, and rinse the carrots. + +2. Cut them into pieces by dicing them. + +3. Put the pieces in a saucepan, set over the fire, and pour in boiling +water until the food is covered. + +4. Cook the carrots until the pieces are soft at the centre when pierced +with a fork. + +5. Drain off the liquid, then season the food with salt, pepper, and +butter. + +6. Serve in a hot vegetable dish. + + +PLAN OF LESSON ON SIMMERING: APPLES + +INTRODUCTION + +1. Review: + + (1) Appearance and temperature of a boiling + liquid. + + (2) Appearance and temperature of a simmering + liquid. + +2. State the difficulty of keeping a liquid at simmering temperature; +show the double boiler and explain its use for this purpose. + +3. Compare boiling and simmering as to length of time required and +difficulty. + +4. Tell the pupils they are going to study simmering by making Coddled +Apples. + + +DISCUSSION OF RECIPE + +1. Read recipe. + +2. Question regarding: + + (1) Kind of heat used + + (2) Whether to prepare apples or syrup first, + and why + + (3) Management in measuring so as to use only + one cup + + (4) Why one quantity of syrup is sufficient for + so many apples. + +3. Decide on the dishes required for the work. + + +PRACTICAL WORK + +Assign work in groups of twos--numbers one and three prepare syrup; +numbers two and four prepare apples; all attend to the cooking. + + +DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS OF SIMMERING + +(To be dealt with while food is cooking) + +1. Definition.--Obtain this by comparing simmering with boiling. + +2. Effects: + + (1) Compare a raw and simmered apple to get the + idea of "soft and tender". + + (2) Tell the pupils simmering temperature will + not harden and toughen meat and eggs as much as + boiling does. + + (3) Lying longer in the liquid to cook + dissolves out more of the food substance. + + (4) Less water going off as vapour does not + carry away as much flavour. + + (5) Less motion in the liquid does not break up + the food. + + +SERVING + +When the apples are tender, let each girl serve herself with what she +has cooked. While the fruit is being eaten, direct attention to the +flavour of apple in the syrup. + + +HOUSEKEEPING + +Assign the work which is necessary to put the kitchen in order, and +allow the pupils to carry it out in groups of twos or fours. + + +RECIPE (INDIVIDUAL): CODDLED APPLES + + 1 apple + 1/4 c. sugar + 1/2 c. water. + +1. Put the sugar and water in the inside part of a double boiler, set +over the fire, and boil gently for about five minutes. + +2. Wash and pare the apple, cut it into halves, and remove the core. + +3. Put the prepared fruit into the syrup, cover the dish closely, and +set in the under part of the double boiler. + +4. Simmer the pieces of apple until tender, turning them occasionally. + +5. Lift the fruit carefully into a serving dish, then pour the syrup +over it. + +6. Serve hot or cold. + + NOTE.--One cup of sugar will make sufficient + syrup for six or seven apples. + + +METHODS OF COOKING: DETAILS + +BOILING + +1. Definition: + +Boiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food +through a boiling liquid. + +2. Kinds of boiling: + + (1) Gentle boiling--temperature of 212 degrees. + + (2) Rapid boiling--temperature of 212 degrees. + +3. Uses of rapid boiling: + + (1) To make much steam + + (2) To break up food + + (3) To keep small particles of food in motion. + +4. Rules for boiling: + + (1) Put the food in a cooking dish, set over + the heat, and pour in the boiling liquid to + cover the food well. + + (2) Regulate the heat to the kind of boiling + required. + + (3) Keep the food boiling during the entire + cooking. + + (4) Continue the cooking until the food is + tender at the centre when it is tested, or for + the time required by the recipe. + + (5) When the food is cooked, lift it from the + liquid or drain the liquid from the food. + +5. Effects of boiling: + + (1) It makes some food soft and tender--fruit, + vegetables. + + (2) It makes some food hard and tough--eggs, etc. + + (3) It breaks up food. + + (4) It dissolves out some of the food substance. + + (5) It causes some loss of flavour (in the steam). + + (6) It kills germs. + + +SIMMERING + +1. Definition: + +Simmering is a method of cooking in a liquid at a temperature of about +180 degrees. + +2. Rules for simmering: + + (1) Use a double boiler to keep the temperature + correct. + + (2) Put the food in liquid in the top dish, and + proceed as in boiling. + +3. Effects of simmering: + + (1) It makes some foods soft and tender--fruit + and vegetables. + + (2) It does not make the protein of animal food + (milk, eggs, and meat) hard as boiling does. + + (3) It dissolves out a good deal of the food + substance into the cooking liquid. + + (4) It causes very little loss of flavour. + + (5) It does not break up the food. + + +STEAMING + +1. Definition: + +Steaming is a method of cooking in the steam from boiling liquid. + +2. Rules for steaming: + + (1) Have the water boiling rapidly in the under + part of the steamer. + + (2) Put the food in the upper part, cover + closely, and place over the lower part. + + (3) Keep the water boiling rapidly during the + entire cooking. + + (4) If extra water be needed, only boiling + water should be added, as quickly and as gently + as possible. + + (5) Continue the cooking according to the time + required by the recipe, or test as in boiling, + if the food permits. + +3. Effects of steaming: + + (1) It makes vegetable food tender. + + (2) It makes the protein of animal food harder + than simmering, but not so hard as boiling + does. + + (3) It does not break up the food. + + (4) It does not dissolve out the food + substance. + + (5) It causes little loss of flavour if closely + covered. + + +STEEPING + +1. Definition: + +Steeping is a method of cooking, by pouring boiling water over food, and +letting it stand in a moderately warm place. + +2. Rules for steeping: + + (1) Heat the steeping dish. + + (2) Use water freshly boiled. + + (3) Put the food in the hot dish, pour water + over, cover closely, and set in a warm place. + + (4) Let the food remain in the liquid until you + have extracted what is desired. + + (5) Strain off the liquid and use as required. + +3. Effects of steeping: + + (1) To heat and soften the food. + + (2) To extract the flavour and, sometimes, the + substance of the food. + + +TOASTING + +1. Definition: + +Toasting is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food +directly from the fire. It is used mainly for bread. + +2. Rules for toasting: + + (1) Have a clear, hot fire. + + (2) Cut bread in slices from one third to one + half an inch thick. + + (3) Hold the food at some distance from the + fire, in a gentle heat at first, to dry and + heat the surfaces. This drying may be done in + the oven. + + (4) Then hold the dried, hot surfaces in a + strong heat, to brown and crisp them. + + (5) Serve so that the surfaces will not become + steamed from the moisture still contained in + the slices. Put the toast in a toast-rack or + stack it on a hot plate. Buttered toast may be + piled. + +3. Effects of toasting: + + (1) To heat and dry the surface of the food. + + (2) To brown and crisp the surface. + + (3) To change the flavour. + + (4) To change the starch of the surface into a + brown substance, which is a form of sugar, and + more digestible than starch. + + +BROILING + +1. Definition: + +Broiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food +directly. It is used mainly for meat and fish in slices or thin +portions. + +2. Rules for broiling: + + (1) Have a clear, hot fire. + + (2) Grease the broiler and trim the food. + + (3) Lay the food in the broiler compactly. + + (4) Hold the broiler in a very strong heat to + seal the tubes of the food which hold the + juices, and turn frequently. + + (5) When the surface is seared, hold in a + gentler heat to cook the food to the centre, + and turn occasionally while doing this. + + (6) Time the cooking to the thickness of the + food--one inch of thickness cooks rare in eight + minutes. + + (7) Serve at once on a hot dish, and spread + with butter, salt, and pepper. + +3. Effects of broiling: + + (1) To sear the surface. + + (2) To cook to the centre while browning the + surface. + + (3) To change the flavour and develop a very + delicious one in the browned surface. + + (4) To make the browned surface hard to digest. + + +PAN-BROILING + +1. Definition: + +Pan-broiling is an imitation of broiling and is a method of cooking on a +hissing-hot, metal surface. + +2. Rules for pan-broiling: + + (1) Have a hot fire. + + (2) Heat the pan or metal surface until it + hisses when touched with water. + + (3) Lay the food in compactly, and turn + constantly until the entire surface is seared. + + (4) Place the pan in a gentle heat and cook the + food to the centre, turning occasionally. + + (5) Time the cooking to the thickness of the + food--one inch cooks rare in ten minutes. + + (6) Serve at once, as in broiling. + +3. Effects of pan-broiling: + +The same as in broiling. + + +SAUTEING + +1. Definition: + +Sauteing is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food +through a smoking-hot, greased surface. + +2. Rules for sauteing: + + (1) Heat the pan enough to melt the fat. + + (2) Put in just enough fat to keep the food + from sticking, and let it run over the surface + of the pan, and get smoking hot. + + (3) Put in the food and let it brown on one + side, then turn it and brown the other side. + + (4) Serve on a hot dish. + +3. Effects of sauteing: + + (1) To sear the surface of the food. + + (2) To brown the surface and develop a + delicious flavour, while cooking to the centre. + + (3) To make the surface slightly fat-soaked + with fat which has been very highly heated. + + (4) To make the surface indigestible. + + +BAKING + +1. Definition: + +Baking is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food +through the confined heat of an oven. + +2. Kinds of ovens: + + (1) Slow. + + (2) Moderate--white paper browns in ten minutes. + + (3) Hot--white paper browns in five minutes. + + (4) Very hot--white paper browns in one minute. + +3. Rules for baking: + + (1) Heat the oven according to the recipe. + + (2) Put the food in the oven, usually on the + lower shelf, to get an under heat first, then + toward the last of the cooking, set it on the + top shelf to brown. + + (3) Watch carefully during the baking, but in + opening the oven door, be gentle and quick. + + (4) If the oven gets too hot, set a pan of cold + water in it, or leave the door slightly open. + If browning too quickly, cover the surface with + brown paper. + + (5) Cook the food according to the time + required by the recipe, or until it is done, as + shown by some test. + + +FRYING + +1. Definition: + +Frying is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food +by immersing it in smoking-hot fat. + +2. Temperature for frying: + + (1) For cooked foods which have only to brown + and warm through--about 400 degrees. + + (2) For raw foods which have to cook--about 350 + degrees. + +3. Rules for frying: + + (1) Use a deep iron, steel, or granite kettle, + which will hold the heat. + + (2) Put in sufficient fat to cover the food + well, but never fill the kettle more than + two-thirds full. + + (3) Heat the fat to the desired temperature. + + (4) Have the food as dry as possible and not + very cold. + + (5) When the fat begins to give off a small + quantity of _white_ vapour, test it for the + required heat, as follows: + (_a_) For raw food, put in a small square of + bread, and allow it sixty seconds to brown. + (_b_) For cooked food, allow a square of bread + forty seconds to brown. + + (6) Put the food carefully into the hot fat, and + only an amount which will not cool it too much. + + (7) When the food is nicely browned, lift it + from the fat with an open spoon or lifter and + drain over the pot until it stops dripping. + + (8) Lay the food on crumpled brown paper or + blotting paper, to absorb any fat still clinging + to the surface. + + (9) Strain the fat through cheesecloth and set + it away to cool. + + +4. Effects of frying: + + (1) To sear the surface and prevent it from + absorbing fat. + + (2) To cook or heat the food to the centre. + + (3) To brown the surface of the food and make + it crisp. + + (4) To develop a delicious flavour in the + browned surface. + + (5) To make the browned surface indigestible, + because it has absorbed highly-heated fat. + + NOTE.--As frying requires the fat used to be at + a very high temperature, it is dangerous to let + young children take the responsibility in this + method of cooking. For this reason, it may be + wise to defer lessons on frying until the + Fourth Form, or even later. + +For practice in the methods of cooking, the following is suggestive: + +Boiling.--Cooking of any vegetable or fruit in season or rice, macaroni, +eggs, coffee + +Simmering.--Dried fruit, such as prunes, peaches, apricots, apples; +strong-smelling vegetables, such as cabbage, onions; porridge; stew + +Steaming.--Potatoes, cauliflower, apples, peaches, cup-puddings, +dumplings, fish + +Steeping.--Tea, coffee, lemon rind for sauce + +Toasting.--Bread, rolls + +Broiling.--Steak, fish + +Pan-broiling.--Steak + +Sauteing.--Sliced potatoes, potato cakes, hash cakes, griddle-cakes +(teacher prepares the batter) + +Baking.--Apples, bananas, potatoes, scalloped potatoes, scalloped +tomatoes, cheese crackers, drop biscuits, beef-loaf + +Frying.--Potatoes, cod-fish balls, doughnuts (teacher prepares the +dough). + +The lessons which give practice in the methods of cooking will also +afford excellent drills in _measuring_, _manipulation_, and _cleaning_. +Throughout all these, the weak points of individual members of the class +should receive careful attention. In the case of typical defects, much +time may be saved by calling the attention of the class to these, +instead of correcting them individually. + +After the pupils have considered and practised the methods of cooking, +they should be able to prepare any simple dish of one main ingredient, +for which recipes should be given. If these cannot be used at school, +they may be of service in the homes of the pupils. + +Economy should be emphasized by suggesting simple ways of using +left-overs, and definite recipes should be written for these. Fancy +cooking should be discouraged. The teacher should aim to show how the +necessary common foods may be prepared in a nutritious and attractive +manner. + +In this first year of practical work, _the main point is the formation +of correct habits of work_. Cleanliness, neatness, and accuracy should +be insisted on in every lesson, and deftness should be encouraged. + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF LEFT-OVERS + + +BREAD + +1. Toast for garnishing stews and hash + +2. Croutons for soup + +3. Bread crumbs to use for croquettes and scalloped dishes, or for +stuffing meat and fish + +4. Pudding (chocolate bread pudding, cabinet pudding, plain bread +pudding, brown betty) + +5. Pancakes. + + +CAKE + +1. Pudding (steamed until just re-heated and served with a sauce) + +2. Pudding (baked in a custard mixture) + +3. Trifle. + + +MEAT + +1. Meat pie or potato and meat pie + +2. Meat loaf + +3. Stew with dumplings + +4. Hash + +5. Scalloped meat + +6. Croquettes + +7. Meat moulded in gelatine + +8. Salad (light meats only) + +9. Sandwiches. + + +FISH + +1. Scalloped fish + +2. Salad. + + +EGGS + +1. Stuffed eggs + +2. Hard-boiled for salad + +3. Garnish for salad + +4. Sandwiches. + + +CHEESE + +1. Cheese crackers + +2. Cheese straws + +3. Cheese cream toast + +4. Cheese omelet + +5. Cheese salad + +6. Welsh rarebit + +7. Macaroni and cheese + +8. Sandwiches. + + +VEGETABLES + +1. Scalloped vegetable + +2. Cream of vegetable soup (water in which vegetable is cooked should be +kept for this) + +3. Sauted vegetables + +4. Salad. + + +CANNED FRUIT + +1. Cup pudding or roly poly + +2. Steamed or baked batter pudding + +3. Pudding sauce (strain juice and thicken) + +4. Trifle + +5. Fruit salad + +6. Gelatine mould. + + +BEVERAGES + +After the moist heat methods of cooking are learned, a special lesson on +beverages may be taken, if the teacher thinks it desirable. If the +subject be not taken as a whole, each beverage may be taught +incidentally, when a recipe requiring little time is useful. The +following will suggest an outline of facts for a formal lesson: + + +MEANING OF BEVERAGES + +A beverage is a liquid suitable for drinking. Water is the natural +beverage; other beverages are water with ingredients added to supply +food, flavour, stimulant, or colour. Since water is tasteless in itself +and also an excellent solvent, it is especially useful in making +beverages. + + +KINDS OF BEVERAGES + +1. Refreshing.--Pure cold water, all cold fruit drinks + +2. Stimulating.--All hot drinks, tea, coffee, beef-tea, alcoholic drinks + +3. Nutritious.--Milk, cocoa, chocolate, oatmeal and barley water, tea +and coffee with sugar and cream. + + NOTE.--As tea, coffee, and cocoa are ordinary + household beverages, they should be specially + studied. Their sources and manufacture will + have been learned in Form III Junior, but their + use as beverages may now be discussed and + practised. It is desirable that the pupils be + led to reason out correct methods of cooking + each. + + +TEA + +1. Description.--The leaves contain, beside a stimulant and flavour, an +undesirable substance known as tannin, which is injurious to the +delicate lining of the stomach. If the tea be properly made, the tannin +is not extracted. + +2. Method of cooking.--Steep the tea from three to five minutes, then +separate the leaves from the liquid (suggest ways of doing this). +Boiling is not a correct method to use for making tea, as it extracts +the tannin and causes loss of flavour in the steam. + + NOTE.--Because of the stimulant, young people + should not drink tea or coffee. + + +COFFEE + +1. Description.--The beans, or seeds, of coffee also contain tannin as +well as a stimulant and flavour. This beverage is more expensive than +tea, since a much larger amount must be used for one cup of liquid. +After the beans are broken by grinding, the air causes the flavour to +deteriorate, so that the housekeeper should grind the beans as required, +or buy in small quantities and keep in tightly covered cans. + +2. Method of cooking.--Coffee may be cooked in different ways, according +to the size of the pieces into which the roasted beans are broken. These +pieces are much harder than the leaves of tea, hence coffee may be given +a higher temperature and a longer time in cooking than tea. Small pieces +of beans are apt to float in the liquid, making it cloudy; this may be +overcome by the use of egg-white or by careful handling. + +Coarsely ground coffee must be boiled gently. Finely ground coffee may +be boiled gently or steeped. Very finely ground, or powdered coffee +should be steeped or filtered with boiling water. + + +COCOA + +1. Description.--This contains a stimulant, but differs from tea and +coffee in being nutritious. It makes a desirable drink for children. + +2. Method of cooking.--Cocoa contains starch and should be simmered or +gently boiled. + + +CHOCOLATE + +This substance is the same as cocoa, except that it contains a much +larger amount of fat. + + +TABLE SETTING + +The serving of food is incidentally a necessary part of nearly every +lesson in cookery, as the pupils usually eat what they prepare. In +regular class work the bare work table is used, and each pupil prepares +a place for herself only. The dishes soiled during the lesson should be +placed on the section covered with metal or glass at the back of the +table, and the front, or wooden part, cleared to be used as a dining +table. The teacher should insist on this part being clean and neatly +arranged. The few dishes used should be the most suitable selected from +the individual equipments, and they should be as carefully placed as for +a meal. From the very first, the pupils should be trained to habits of +neatness in setting the table, and in serving the food; and, what is +most important, they should be trained to eat in a refined manner. Lack +of time is sometimes given as an excuse for neglecting this training in +the usual cookery lessons; but if the teacher insists upon neatness in +work and good table manners, the pupils will soon learn to comply +without loss of time. + +Laying a table may be formally taught at any stage of the work of Form +III, but it is most suitable after the class is capable of preparing the +food for a simple home meal. The topics of the lesson may be presented +as follows: + + +PREPARATION + +1. See that the dining-room is well aired and in order. + +2. See that the linen is clean and carefully laundered. + +3. See that the glass, silver, and steel are polished. + +4. Decide on the number to be served. + + +ARRANGEMENT + +1. Place a silence cloth of felt, woollen, or thick cotton: + + (1) To prevent the dishes from making a noise + + (2) To give the table a better appearance + + (3) To preserve the table top. + +2. Lay the cloth, placing the centre of the cloth in the centre of the +table and spreading it smoothly, having its folds parallel with the +edges of the table. + +3. Arrange a centre-piece, using a vase or basket of flowers, a small +plant or a dish of fruit. + +4. Put a plate at each person's place and lay the cutlery and silver +beside it about one inch from the edge of the table, in the order of +use, those used first on the outside, or farthest from the plate. At +dinner these plates are usually placed before the one who serves. + + (1) Place the knives at the right side, with + the sharp edges toward the plate. + + (2) Place the forks at the left side, with the + tines up. + + (3) Place the soup spoons at the right of the + knife, bowl up. + + (4) Place the dessert spoons in front of the + plates, the handle to the right, the bowl up. + + (5) Place the dessert forks with the other + forks, or in front of the plates with the + dessert spoons. + +5. Place the water glasses at the end of the knife blades, top up. + +6. Place the bread and butter plates at the left of the forks. (These +are not necessary at dinner.) + +7. Place the napkins at the left, neatly folded; discourage fancy +folding. + +[Illustration: Table laid for a home dinner] + +8. Place the salt and pepper so that they are convenient to every one. + +9. Place the dishes that are to be served at table directly in front of +the one who is to serve them. + +10. Place the carving set in front of the host, and the tablespoons as +on page 89, or where food is to be served. + +11. Place a chair for each person. + +[Illustration: Individual section of table laid for dinner] + + +TABLE MANNERS + +In Form III, the children are too young to serve at table, so the lesson +on Preparing and Serving Meals, page 136, has been reserved for the work +of Form IV, Junior Grade. The class should, however, be carefully +trained in table manners from the first. In their usual class work this +will be incidentally taught. A regular lesson should include the +following: + + +RULES FOR CORRECT TABLE MANNERS + +These are based upon the accepted customs of well-bred people, and have +in view the convenience and comfort of all who are at the table. + +They may be stated as follows: + +1. Stand behind the seat assigned you. + +2. Wait until the hostess is seated, before taking a seat. + +3. Sit naturally erect, without any support from the elbows, placing the +feet on the floor. + +4. Do not begin to eat until others are served. + +5. Eat and drink quietly, taking small mouthfuls; keep the mouth closed +while eating. + +6. Do not drink with food in the mouth. + +7. Do not talk with food in the mouth. + +8. Use a fork preferably, whenever it will serve the purpose; and never +put a knife into the mouth. + +9. Take soup from the side of the spoon. + +10. Wipe the mouth before drinking from a glass. + +11. Be attentive to the needs of others. + +12. If it be necessary to leave the table, ask the hostess to excuse +you. + +13. If a guest for one meal only, leave the napkin unfolded beside the +plate. + +14. Never use a toothpick at the table, or in any company. + +15. Wait for the hostess to rise, then stand, and replace the chair in +position. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE + +THE KITCHEN + + +At the beginning of the year's work in Form IV, several lessons should +be spent in reviewing the methods of cooking and cleaning taught in the +previous year. This may be done by reviewing former recipes and by using +new ones which require a knowledge of these methods. As the pupils work, +they should be closely observed, and, without the teacher giving undue +assistance, their weak points should be carefully strengthened. The +length of time spent on the review will vary according to the ability of +the class. This can be plainly judged by their habits of work. The new +recipes given them should be such as they are likely to use at home, so +as to encourage home practice. These recipes will also enlarge their +collection in their special recipe books. Some of the following may be +useful: creamed potatoes, potato omelet, stuffed potatoes, stuffed +onions, corn oysters, baked tomatoes, spaghetti with tomato sauce, +macaroni and cheese, scalloped apples, plain rice pudding, ginger +pudding, sago pudding, tapioca cream. + + +THE KITCHEN FIRE + +Up to this time the pupils have been allowed to manage their individual +table stoves or a gas range. They should now be taught to understand and +to use an ordinary coal or wood range. Two lessons will be necessary for +this purpose. After each lesson has been taught, the remainder of the +period should be spent in some kind of practical work which can be +accomplished in the time. Some cookery which requires only a few minutes +may be reviewed, such as tea, cocoa, coffee, toast, bacon, apple sauce; +drawers and cupboards may be cleaned; silver and steel may be polished; +designs for wall-paper, dishes, curtains, and dress materials may be +drawn; household accounts may be computed; sewing may be finished. + + +LESSON I + +REQUIREMENTS OF A KITCHEN FIRE + +In introducing a lesson on the kitchen fire, ask the pupils to imagine +that they have built a new house, which the workmen have just vacated. +Before they can move in it must be cleaned. What kind of water is best +for cleaning? Hot water. What is necessary to provide hot water? A fire. + +Find out from the pupils and then write on the black-board what is +necessary for a fire. What is the first requisite? Something to burn. +What do we call such a substance? _Fuel._ Where shall we put the fuel? +In a _stove_. Why is a stove necessary? To confine the fire. + +Using a candle as fuel and a lamp chimney as a stove, light the candle +and place it in the chimney. It burns only a short time and then dies +out. Why? Because the oxygen of the air in the chimney is all exhausted. +Then what is another requisite for a fire? _Oxygen._ + +Imagine the room to be a stove and the chairs, books, tables, etc., to +be fuel. The air in the room also contains much oxygen, so that in this +room we have three requisites for a fire. It is very fortunate for us +that something else is needed. We shall try to find out what it is. + +Watch while I hold these strips of paper over this lighted gas stove +high enough to be out of reach of the flame. What happened to them? They +burst into a flame. What did the paper that I held receive that it did +not get when it was lying on the table? Heat. We shall try a match in +the same way, also some thin shavings. They also burn when they receive +heat from the fire. Then what is another requisite for a fire? _Heat._ +Name all of the requisites for a kitchen fire. _Fuel_, _stove_, +_oxygen_, and _heat_. + + NOTE.--Just here it is a good thing to impress + the care that is necessary in regard to + gasolene, coal-oil, benzine, etc., or any + substance that burns at a low temperature. + Bring out the fact very clearly that it is the + heat that makes fuel burn, that a flame is not + necessary. + + +HEAT + +Experiments to show on what the amount of heat required depends: + +1. Heat together two strips of paper of the same size but of different +thicknesses and observe which burns first. + +2. Heat together a strip of very thin paper and a match which is much +thicker than the paper, and observe which burns first. + +3. Rub a match vigorously on some surface and observe the result. + +Conclusions.--1. The amount of heat required to make fuel burn depends +on: + + (1) The thickness of the fuel. + + (2) The substance composing the fuel. + +2. Some substances burn at a very low temperature. + + NOTE.--This will explain the order of laying + the fuel for a fire and the use of a match in + lighting it. + + +OXYGEN + +Experiments to show the means of obtaining oxygen: + +1. Light a candle, set the lamp chimney over it and observe the result. + +2. Raise the chimney by supporting it on two small pieces of wood. Note +the result. + +3. Cover the raised chimney with a piece of cardboard. Note the result. + +[Illustration: Experiments to show the necessity for oxygen] + +Conclusions.--1. A fresh supply of oxygen is constantly required. + +2. Two openings are required to ensure a constant supply of oxygen, one +below the fuel and one above it. + +3. Oxygen is obtained from the surrounding air. + +4. The passage of air through these openings creates a draught. + +It will be necessary next to lead the class to see that the supply of +oxygen can be controlled: + +1. By the relation of the openings: + + (1) Openings directly opposite each other cause + a rapid circulation of air or a "direct + draught". + + (2) Indirect openings cause a slower + circulation of air or an "indirect draught". + +2. By a cross current of air which tends to check the draught. + + +FUELS + +A discussion of the fuels may next be taken. With pupils of Form IV it +will not be wise to go into too many details regarding these. Besides +the classification of the commonest ones, they may be compared from the +standpoints of cost, and of the time and labour required in their use. + +Classes of Fuels: + + Liquid--coal-oil, gasolene, alcohol + + Solid--coal (coke), wood (charcoal) + + Gaseous--natural gas, coal gas. + + NOTE.--Electricity is a means of producing + heat, but cannot be called a fuel. + + +THE KITCHEN STOVE + +LESSON II + +In developing the construction of a practical coal or wood range, it is +a good idea to use the black-board and make a rough drawing to +illustrate the details, as they are given by the pupils. These details +should be evolved from the knowledge gained in the preceding lessons, +and the drawing should not be an illustration of any particular stove. + +After the best practical stove, according to the pupils' ideas, has been +thought out and represented on the black-board, they should examine and +criticise the school range and the stoves at home. They are then ready +to be given the responsibility of managing any ordinary range. + + * * * * * + +The following are the necessary details to be considered regarding a +kitchen stove: + +Material.--(1) Iron, (2) steel + +Shape.--Rectangular. + +Compartments.--(1) Fire-box, (2) ash-box, (3) oven, (4) passage for hot +air, (5) other compartments if desired, such as water tank, warming +closet, etc. + +Dampers.--(1) Front damper--below the fuel, to control the entrance of +oxygen to the fuel. (2) Oven damper--above the fuel at the entrance to +the pipe, to control the heat for the oven, and also to control the +draught. (3) Check damper--at the front of the stove above the fuel, to +admit a cross current of air to check the draught. + +Management of the stove.--(1) Lighting the fire, (2) heating the oven, +(3) arranging for over night, (4) cleaning and care. + + NOTE.--Openings below the level of the fire + increase the draught, and those above the level + check it. + +[Illustration: A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (_a_) oven damper +open] + +[Illustration: A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (_b_) oven damper +closed] + + +THE FIRELESS COOKER + +Throughout the training given in Household Management, the teacher +should emphasize the value of labour-saving devices and aids in the +home. How to economize time and energy should be a prominent feature of +every practical lesson. If time permit, a lesson may be taken to +consider specially such aids as are readily procurable, together with +their average cost. In this lesson the fireless cooker is considered. + +[Illustration: A fireless cooker] + +The principles of the fireless cooker are based on a knowledge of the +laws governing the conduction and radiation of heat. For this reason, an +elementary science lesson relating to these laws should precede this +lesson. Such a science lesson is part of the regular grade work of Form +IV, so if a specialist teaches the Household Management of that grade, +she and the regular teacher should arrange to co-ordinate their +lessons. + + +PRINCIPLES OF THE FIRELESS COOKER + +1. It furnishes no heat, but conserves the heat which is in the food +when it is put into the cooker. + +2. It conserves the heat in the food, by surrounding it with substances +which are poor conductors of heat. + +3. Extra heat may be given the food, after it is put in the cooker, by +placing heated stone plates above and below the dish that contains the +food. The stone used for this purpose must be a good absorbent of heat. + + +REASONS FOR THE USE OF THE FIRELESS COOKER + + 1. It saves fuel and is therefore economical. + + 2. It saves time, because it requires no + watching. + + 3. It conserves the flavour of the food. + + 4. It obviates all danger of burning the food. + + 5. It does not heat the room. + + +WAYS OF USING THE FIRELESS COOKER + +1. Food cooked in liquid: + +In all cookers where stone plates are not used, only such foods as are +cooked in liquids can be prepared. Examples of foods cooked in this way +are, meat soup, beef-tea, meat stews, vegetables, fruit, porridge, +cereal, puddings, etc. + +The prepared food is put into one of the food receptacles belonging to +the cooker and is placed over a fire, until it has boiled for a few +minutes. The cover is then tightly adjusted, and the dish quickly locked +in the cooker, to conserve the heat that the food and liquid have +absorbed. + +2. Food cooked in dry heat by the use of stone plates: + +In this method the food is cold when it is placed in the cooker, and all +the heat is supplied by stone plates placed above and below the utensil +containing the food. These plates are heated for about twenty minutes +over a fire, before they are used in the cooker. + +Examples of food cooked in this way are, roasts of meat; baked fruit, +such as apples; baked vegetables, such as potatoes or beans; cakes, such +as plain cake or fruit cake; quick bread, such as corn-bread and +biscuits. + +3. Food cooked in liquid, aided by the heat of one stone plate: + +In cases where the original heat absorbed by the food is not sufficient +to complete the cooking as desired, a heated stone plate may be placed +in the cooker below the utensil containing the hot food. The stone may +be necessary for one of the following reasons-- + + (1) Because the amount of food put into the + cooker is too small to contain much heat. It is + always better to have the food nearly fill the + dish. + + (2) Because the time required is so long that + the heat of the food and liquid becomes + exhausted before the cooking is completed. + + (3) Because it is desirable to finish the + cooking in less time. + + +A HOME-MADE FIRELESS COOKER + +Use a large wooden box or a small trunk with a close-fitting cover. Make +it as air-tight as possible by pasting thick paper all over the inside. + +Pack it level with clean sawdust or excelsior (the latter preferably), +until just enough height is left to set in a covered granite pail, which +is to be used for holding the food. Place the pail in the centre, so +that its top edge is just about half an inch below the top of the box. +Then pack in more excelsior very tightly around the pail, until level +with it. This will shape the "nest" for the pail. + +[Illustration: A home-made fireless cooker] + +Make a thick cushion, or mat, of excelsior to fit in the space between +the level of the excelsior and the inside of the cover. Cover the +cushion with cheesecloth or denim to keep it intact. + + NOTE.--Only food cooked in a liquid can be + prepared in a home-made cooker. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued) + +STUDY OF FOOD + + +The pupils have been working with some of the well-known foods in all of +their recipes and should have a fair knowledge of how to prepare them in +simple ways for the table. It is now time for them to learn what these +foods contain for the use of their bodies. Much of this part of the work +can be taught in rooms without special equipment. An earnest teacher, +with a few articles from home, can make the study interesting and +valuable. + +A series of lessons will be necessary for this purpose. The amount of +work to be taken at one time is suggested, but this should be judged by +the teacher. As in other lessons on theory, the remaining time of the +lesson period should be used in practical work. Suggestions for such +practical work are given under the lesson on "The Kitchen Fire", page +92. + +Practice lessons, to give variety and sustain interest, should be +interspersed between these lessons as desired. + + +LESSON I + +USES OF FOOD + +The lesson may be introduced by asking the class to think in what way +the body of a healthy baby, who is fed regularly, will have changed at +the end of six months. It will be larger; it will have more flesh, more +bone, more hair, etc. We want to get a name that will apply to any part +of the body. No matter which part we examine through a microscope we +find the same fine and beautiful texture, and to this we give a name +similar to that given to fine, thin paper. We call it _tissue_--hair +tissue, bone tissue, flesh tissue. + +What has food done to the baby's tissues? It has enlarged its tissues; +the child has grown larger. To the enlargement, or growth, of the +tissues, we may apply the term, _build_, suggested by the building of a +house. Then what may we say food does for the tissues of the body? We +may say that _food builds the tissues of the body_. + +Think of some persons who have taken food every day, and yet as long as +you have known them they have not increased in size. What has food done +for their tissues? The class must be told that the tissues of our bodies +wear out through use, and that food has furnished the material to +replace the worn-out parts. What do we say we are doing to clothes when +we replace the worn parts? We are mending or repairing them. What does +food do for our worn-out tissues? _Food repairs the tissues of the +body._ + +Do not think any more about the tissues of the body. Suppose you had not +been able to get any food for several days. In what way would you be +different from what you are now? You would not be as strong. Food gives +strength or energy by being burned inside the body. There is a fire +burning in our bodies all the time we are alive, the fuel being food. +What do we require from the fire in our homes? We require heat. The +fires in our bodies give us heat also. Any fire gives off both heat and +energy. State another use of food to the body. _Food produces heat and +energy in the body._ + +But food does more for the body; it contains substances to keep our +bodies in order. Suppose the clock gets out of order and does not keep +good time, what does the watchmaker do to it? He regulates it. That is +what certain kinds of food do for us. What then is another use of food? +_Food regulates the body._ + +Name the uses of food to the body. + +1. It builds the tissues. + +2. It repairs the tissues. + +3. It produces heat and energy. + +4. It regulates the body. + +How then can we judge if a substance be a food? By deciding that it +performs one of these duties in the body. + + +LESSON II + +NECESSARY SUBSTANCES IN FOOD + +The names of the substances in food which supply the material for the +different uses of the body should be taken next. + +1. _For building and repairing._--(1) Mineral matter--used largely in +hard tissues. (2) Nitrogenous matter, or protein--used largely for +flesh. (3) Water--used in all tissues. + +2. _For fuel._--Carbonaceous matter (starch, sugar, fat). + +3. _For regulating._--Mineral matter, water. + + NOTE.--The teacher should call attention to the + fact that few foods contain all these + substances, some have nearly all, some have + only one, some two or more. In order to get + all, we must eat a variety of foods. The class + is now ready to consider the well-known foods, + in order to find out which of these necessary + substances each food contains, and to obtain a + general idea of their comparative food values. + + +SOURCES OF FOOD + +All nature supplies us with food. The three great divisions of nature +are animal, vegetable, and mineral, and from each we obtain food, though +most largely from the animal and vegetable kingdoms. + +Animal food is some part of an animal's body or some product of an +animal: examples--meat or fish, milk, eggs. + +Vegetable food is some part of a plant: examples--vegetables, fruit, +seeds. + +Mineral food is some constituent of the earth's crust used as food. This +mineral food is obtained by drinking water which in coursing through the +earth has absorbed certain minerals, by eating plants which have +absorbed the minerals from the soil, or by eating animal food which was +built from plant food. + +This preliminary survey of the sources of all our food gives the pupils +a basis for classifying the foods with which they are familiar. They may +be given exercises in doing this, and will not only find them +interesting, but most useful as nature study. + + +STUDY OF THE COMMON FOODS + +In beginning the analysis of the common foods, it must be remembered +that the pupils have no knowledge of chemistry, and that what is found +in each food must be discovered through the senses (seeing, smelling, +tasting, feeling), or through a process of reasoning. + +The pupils should also feel quite sure of what they are setting out to +do; they are going to examine some particular, well-known food, to find +which of the necessary food substances it contains. The food substances +for which they are looking are water, mineral matter, nitrogenous +matter, and carbonaceous matter (sugar, starch, fat). + +It is better to provide each pupil with a sample of the food to be +studied, but where conditions make this difficult, the one used by the +teacher will suffice. + + +STUDY OF MILK + +LESSON I + + +COMPOSITION + +Milk is the best food to examine first, because it contains all the food +elements except starch and because these can be easily found. + +The pupils may each be asked to bring a half cup of milk from home. It +may be allowed to stand in glasses while other work is taken. + +When ready for the lesson, ask the pupils to look at the contents of the +glass, and they will observe a difference of colour where the cream has +risen. Nature itself has divided the milk into two parts. Pour off the +top part and feel it. It feels greasy. Butter is made from this part. We +have found _fat_--a carbonaceous food. + +Move the milk around in the glass and let the pupils see that it is a +liquid. Tell them that all liquid in a natural food is mostly water. We +have, therefore, another food substance--_water_, a builder and +regulator. + +Let the pupils compare a glass of water with a glass of skimmed milk, +and they see that something is dissolved in the water of the milk, +giving it the white colour. Show them a glass of sour milk, where the +white substance is separate from the water. Get the names curd and whey. +Tell them how the cheesemaker separates sweet milk into curd and whey. +If advisable, let them do it, but in any case show them some sweet milk +separated by rennet. Examine the sweet whey. It tastes sweet, denoting +the presence of _sugar_--another carbonaceous food. + +Notice the greenish-yellow colour. Recall this same colour in water in +which potatoes, cabbage, or other vegetables have been cooked. Tell the +pupils that this colour is given by _mineral matter_ being dissolved in +the water. + +There is still the curd of milk to examine. The use of the senses does +not allow us to definitely decide what food substance the curd is. Tell +the pupils it is protein, or find the name by a process of reasoning, +thus: Recall the fact that babies live for several months on milk alone +and during that time build all tissues of the body. Milk, therefore, +must contain all tissue-building substances. Review the food substances +which are necessary to build all body tissues--mineral matter, protein, +and water. We have found the mineral matter and water in milk, but not +the protein. Since curd is the only remaining part of milk, it must be +largely protein. + +Tell the pupils that the scum which comes on the top of milk, when it is +boiled, is another kind of protein of which there is a small amount in +solution in milk. + +Lead the pupils to see that if starch were present, it would be in a raw +form, and in this form is indigestible. + + +LESSON II + +FOOD VALUE + +The analysis of milk gives a key to the food value of milk and each of +its by-products (cream, butter, butter-milk, sour milk, skim milk, curd, +whey, cheese, junket). These may now be briefly discussed as to +composition, food value, and cost. + + +CARE + +Milk readily absorbs odours, bacteria, etc., and should be kept in +covered, sterilized dishes in a pure, cool atmosphere. + + +EFFECT OF HEAT + +Experiments should be made to show the effect of simmering and boiling +temperatures. To save time, a different experiment may be given to each +pupil, and the results reported. + +1. Simmer sweet milk and note the flavour. + +2. Boil sweet milk and note the flavour. + +3. Simmer the curd of milk. Examine its texture. + +4. Boil the curd of milk. Examine its texture and compare it with the +simmered curd. + +5. Boil skim milk and note the scum. + +6. Simmer skim milk and note the absence of scum. + + NOTE.--From the above experiments deduce the + effect of heat on protein. + +Practice lessons may now be given in preparing simple dishes in which +milk is the main ingredient, or, at least, recipes may be given for +these to be made at home. The following would be suitable: cream sauce, +cream soups, custard, junket, cottage cheese, albuminized milk. + + +STUDY OF EGGS + +LESSON I + +PARTS + +(1) Shell, (2) thick membrane, (3) white, (4) thin membrane, (5) yolk. + +These parts are easily seen. Attention should be called to the pores in +the shell, and it should be explained that these allow the entrance of +bacteria which spoil the egg. Any means of closing these pores helps to +preserve the egg. + + +METHODS OF PRESERVING + +Cover the holes in the shell as follows: + +1. Pack in salt, bran, sawdust, brine, or water-glass. + +2. Coat the shells with fat or wax. + +3. Wrap the eggs in paper. + +[Illustration: Testing eggs by floating: (1) slightly stale, (2) stale, +(3) very stale] + + +TESTS + +1. In the shell: + + After an egg is laid, the liquid which it + contains begins to evaporate through the pores + of the shell and, as this continues, a + noticeable space is left inside. + + (1) Shake the egg, holding it near the ear. If + the contents rattle, it is somewhat stale. + + (2) Drop the egg in cold water. If it sinks, it + is fresh. + + (3) Hold the egg between your eye and the + light. If clear, it is fresh. + + (4) A rough appearance of the shell denotes + freshness. + +2. Out of the shell: + + White--this should be clear and cling to the + yolk. + + Yolk--this should round up like a ball. + + +CARE + +1. If eggs are to be used in the near future, they should be washed and +put in a pure, cool atmosphere. The lower shelf of the refrigerator is +best, as odours rise, and eggs readily absorb these. + +2. If eggs are to be preserved, they should not be washed unless their +condition compels it, as washing removes the natural covering of the +pores. They should be stored in a clean, cool place, and packed as soon +as possible. + + +LESSON II + +COMPOSITION + +It is wiser to develop the food substances in an egg by reasoning, +rather than by examining the different parts. The shell is not used for +food, so it is the contents that should be studied. The class should be +guided in the following sequence of thought: + +1. An egg is designed by nature to become a chicken, so it must contain +all of the substances necessary to build a chicken. + +2. A chicken is an animal, and all animal bodies are made of the same +substances. These we have seen to be mineral matter, protein, and water. + +3. An egg therefore contains these three substances. + +4. An egg must also contain three weeks' food for the chicken, therefore +must have fuel food as well. This fuel food is found in the yolk, in the +form of fat. + +5. The yolk therefore contains water, mineral matter, protein, and fat. + +6. The white contains water, mineral matter, and protein. + + +EFFECT OF HEAT ON EGGS + +The following experiments will show the effect on both yolk and white of +the usual methods of applying heat to eggs: + +1. Boil an egg for three minutes and note the effect. + +2. Boil an egg for twenty minutes and note the effect. + +3. Put an egg in boiling water, remove from the fire, and let it stand +covered from eight to ten minutes. + +4. Fry an egg and note the effect. + + NOTE.--The eggs may be put to boil and simmer + at the beginning of the lesson, and pupils + designated to take them from the heat at proper + times. The eggs will then be ready to examine + when required. + + +CONCLUSIONS + +1. Boiling an egg for three minutes does not allow time for the heat to +reach the yolk. The white is hard and tough just next the shell, but +soft and liquid as it approaches the yolk. + +2. Boiling an egg for twenty minutes hardens and toughens the white, so +that it all becomes hard to dissolve or digest. It also gives the heat +time to reach the centre and hardens the yolk, but does not toughen it +or make it hard to dissolve or digest. + +3. Allowing the egg to stand in the hot water coagulates the white to a +jelly-like consistency without toughening it; it also cooks the yolk. + + +LESSONS III, IV, ETC. + +USES OF EGGS + +To give practice in preparing eggs and to show their special uses the +following dishes would be suitable: + +1. White: + + For food--poached eggs on toast, simmered eggs + + For cohesive (sticky) property--potato balls, + fish balls + + For clearing liquids--coffee + + For holding air--foamy omelet + + For decoration--hard-boiled eggs cut in fancy + shapes for garnishing, meringue on lemon + pudding, etc. + +2. Yolk: + + For food--egg-nog, scrambled eggs + + For thickening liquids--custard, salad + dressing, lemon pudding + + For colouring foods--tapioca cream + + For decoration--hard boiled and grated over + salads. + + +STUDY OF VEGETABLE FOOD + +Before beginning this part of the work, it would be most helpful if the +class had one or two nature study lessons on the structure and organs of +plants. With the pupils in possession of some knowledge thus acquired, +the Household Management teacher has only to lead up to ideas of the +preparation and value of these parts as food. These ideas should, as far +as possible, follow in such a natural order that the pupils may even +anticipate the sequence. + +The outline may be as follows: + + +LESSON I + +SOURCE + +All vegetable food is obtained from plants; it is some part of a plant +used as food. + + +PARTS OF PLANTS USED AS FOOD + +1. Root--carrot, radish + +2. Tuber--potato, artichoke + +3. Bulb--onion + +4. Stem--rhubarb, asparagus + +5. Leaf--spinach, cabbage + +6. Flower--cauliflower + +7. Fruit--apple, orange + +8. Seed--(1) Of trees (nuts)--beechnut, almond + + (2) Of grasses (cereals)--wheat, corn, rice + + (3) Of vines (legumes)--peas, beans, lentils. + +In asking for examples of the different parts, there will be more +interest and value if the questions correlate other subjects, for +instance: For what fruit is Canada noted? What fruit does she import? +Name a nut the squirrels gather. + + +LESSON II + +COMPOSITION OF ANY PART OF A PLANT + +From the foregoing, the pupils may infer that there are eight different +foods to study. They should be led to see that in reality there is only +one, as all parts of plants are, generally speaking, the same in +structure. Referring to the animal body, they will know that a bone from +the foot is of much the same structure as one from the face; that a +piece of flesh from the leg is the same as a piece from any other part +of the body. In the same way, if we study one part of a plant, it will +be a type of all parts. In general the structure is as follows: + +1. A framework, in cellular form, made of a substance called +_cellulose_. + +2. Material filling the cells: + + (1) A juice in the cells of all parts of plants + except seeds + + (2) A solid in the cells of seeds. + +To show the framework, some vegetable food having a white colour should +be chosen, such as potato, parsnip, or apple. + +It must be explained that all plants are made of a framework of numerous +cells, something like a honey-comb. The cells in plants are of many +different shapes, according to the plant, or the part of the plant, in +which they are found. They are usually so small that they cannot be +distinguished without a microscope; but occasionally they are large +enough to be seen without one. Pass sections of orange or lemon, where +the cells are visible. Make a drawing on the black-board of the cellular +formation of a potato. Lead the class to understand that, in every case, +the cell walls must be broken to get out the cell contents. To +illustrate this, they may use potatoes, and break the cell walls by +grating the potatoes. After they have broken up the framework, the cell +contents should be strained through cheesecloth into a glass. They have +now two parts to examine--cell walls and cell contents. + +[Illustration: Cellular structure of a potato] + +Wash the framework to free it of any cell juice and study it first. Give +its name, and note its colour and texture. Compare the framework of +potatoes, strawberries, lettuce, trees, etc. Tell the class that in some +cases part of the cellulose is so fibrous that it is used to make +thread, cloth, or twine; for instance, _flax_ and _hemp_. + +Cellulose is most difficult to dissolve, so that practically little of +it is digested. It serves a mechanical purpose in the digestive tract by +helping to fill the organs and dilute the real food. If fibrous, it acts +as an irritant and overcomes sluggishness of the intestines known as +constipation. The outer coats of cereals are an example of coarse +cellulose, as used in brown bread and some kinds of porridge. + +Examine next the juice which was contained in the cells of the potato. +The liquid shows much water; the colour indicates mineral matter in +solution; the odour suggests a flavour; the white sediment is starch. + + +COMPOSITION OF POTATO JUICE + +Water, mineral matter, flavouring matter, starch. + +Draw attention to the fact that the potato is the part of the plant +which acts as a storehouse. In such parts, starch is always found as the +stored form of sugar; but, in parts which are not storehouses, sugar +will be found in its stead. In rare cases both are found, as in the +parsnip. + + NOTE.--This is a good time to impress the fact + that plants are the source of starch for + manufacturing purposes. In England, potatoes + are largely used; in Canada, corn. It will be + interesting to state that the early settlers + obtained their starch for laundry purposes at + home from potatoes, by chopping or grinding + them. + +The insolubility of starch in cold liquids may be effectively reviewed +at this part of the lesson. The starch has been lying in the water of +the potato cells for several months, yet has not dissolved. Let two or +three of the class gradually heat the potato juice with its starch +sediment, stirring all the time to distribute the sediment evenly. They +will find that a little less than boiling temperature dissolves the +starch. This will show them that heat is necessary for the solution of +starch, and a heat much greater than that in the body, hence raw starch +is indigestible. Recall the milk lesson and the uselessness of starch as +a component of milk, unless the milk be cooked. + +Squeeze the juice from a sour apple or lemon, and note the taste. +Explain that all fruit juices contain more or less acid. The effects of +this acid in the body are similar to those of mineral matter. + +Protein is also found in plant juices; but in such small quantities that +it may be disregarded as a source of food supply. + + +GENERAL COMPOSITION OF PLANT JUICE + +Water; mineral matter; flavouring matter; starch or sugar, or both; acid +(in fruit juice). + + +LESSON III + +COMPOSITION OF SOLID MATERIAL IN CELLS OF SEEDS + +This part of the lesson may be developed as follows: + +1. Seeds contain the building material for new plants, as well as their +food for a short time. + +2. Plants and animals require much the same material to build and feed +them. + +3. Animals require water, mineral matter, protein, sugar, starch, and +fat. + +4. Plants require the same; but the seed being a storehouse part of the +plant, it will not have sugar, and water has to be supplied when the new +plant is to be formed. + +5. Seeds contain, therefore, mineral matter, protein, starch, and fat. + + NOTE 1.--Seeds will grow in water until their + stored food is used: they must then be planted + in soil, to get further nourishment. + + NOTE 2.--The two fuel foods, starch and fat, + are not found together in abundance in seeds; + one or the other will be much in excess. For + instance, in walnuts there is a great deal of + fat, while in peas and beans there is scarcely + a trace of fat, but the starch is abundant. + + +COMPARATIVE FOOD VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANTS + +Only a very general idea of this should be attempted. The food value of +any part of a plant can be roughly estimated by considering the office +of that particular part in plant structure. Nature study will assist in +this. The root collects the food to send it to the parts above; the stem +is a hallway through which the food is carried in a more diluted form. +The leaves serve the purpose of lungs and will not contain much food, +though they naturally have a good deal of flavour; parsley, sage, and +tea are examples of this. The fruit is a house to protect the seeds, and +is made most attractive and delicious, so that animals will be tempted +to eat this part, and thus assist in the dispersal of the seeds. The +fruit has comparatively little food value as building material. The seed +contains the stored material to build new plants, and therefore is the +most nutritive part of all. It is the only part of the plant which +contains an appreciable supply of building food, that is, which can take +the place of eggs or meat in the diet. Baked beans are sometimes called +"nuggets of nourishment" or "the poor man's beef". + + +LESSON IV + +After discussing the food value of the different parts in this broad +way, the pupils may be asked to consider the plant foods used in their +diet and to compare their nutritive value. + +The facts concerning these may be summed up as follows: + +1. Green vegetables: + + These generally contain much water, hardly any + protein or fat, and a small amount of sugar. + They are valuable mainly for their mineral + matter and cellulose. + +2. Root vegetables and tubers: + + These are more nutritious than green + vegetables, because they contain much more + sugar and starch. + +3. Ripe seeds (cereals, legumes, and nuts): + + These are highly nutritious, because of the + large amount of protein and building mineral + matter they contain, and also the amount of + fuel food. + + +DRIED VEGETABLES AND FRUIT + +It is important that the value of these be pointed out. Dried foods +contain all of the constituents of fresh food excepting water and a +little flavour lost in evaporation, yet they are often much cheaper. +Attention should be directed to the best means of restoring the water +and, if necessary, of giving an additional flavour by the use of cloves, +cinnamon, etc. + +Canning is a better means of preserving food for export or for use when +out of season, but where the expense prohibits this method, drying is a +good substitute. In districts where fruit and vegetables cannot be grown +or in seasons when they cannot be obtained fresh, the dried forms are +cheap and have excellent food value. + + +THE COOKING OF VEGETABLE FOOD + +As vegetable food is eaten both raw and cooked, the pupils should be +asked to decide when cooking is necessary and what they wish it to +accomplish. + + * * * * * + +There are only two substances in vegetable food which will require +cooking, and these are: + +1. Cellulose, if it be hard or tough + +2. Starch, if it be present. + +The pupils have found in their experiment with the potato water, that +starch cooks quickly, hence the time of cooking will depend altogether +on the texture of the cellulose. When the cellulose is softened at the +centre, the last part which the heat reaches, the vegetable or fruit +will be cooked. + +If the food is cooked in water by boiling or simmering, much of the +substance will pass into the cooking water. As the cell walls become +softened, they allow the cell contents to partially pass out and the +cooking water to pass in to fill the space. If the food is long in +cooking, the water may have more value than the vegetable, and it should +not be thrown away. It may be used in two ways--as a basis for a sauce +or a soup. + + +GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING VEGETABLES + + NOTE.--As the principles in the general rules + have been taught, these rules may be dictated + to the class. + + +PREPARATION + +1. Wash, pare, peel, or scrape the vegetable, and cut it into convenient +sizes. + +2. Unless green vegetables are freshly gathered, soak them in cold water +for an hour before cooking. + +3. Soak dried vegetables at least twelve hours. + + +COOKING + +1. Put all vegetables on to cook in boiling water, except dried +vegetables, which should be put on in cold water. + +2. Strong-smelling vegetables should be cooked at simmering point, the +others may boil gently. + +3. For vegetables that grow above ground (including onions), salt the +water (one tsp. to a quart). + +4. For underground vegetables, do not salt the water. + + +VEGETABLE RECIPE + +Prepare and cook the vegetables until tender, according to the rules +given above. Drain off and measure the vegetable water. For each 1/2 cup +of vegetable, take 1/4 cup of the water and make into a sauce. Re-heat +the vegetable in the sauce and serve in a hot dish. + + NOTE 1.--For potatoes and tomatoes do not + follow this recipe. + + NOTE 2.--The sauce is made by thickening each + cup of vegetable water with two tablespoonfuls + of flour, and seasoning as desired with salt, + pepper, and butter. + + NOTE 3.--Another method of saving and using the + valuable vegetable water is to make it into a + soup. + + +GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING FRUIT + + +FRESH FRUIT + +1. Stewed.--Put the prepared fruit in a saucepan with enough water to +keep it from burning. Cover closely, and stew until tender, stirring +often. Add the sugar and let the mixture boil a minute more. + +2. Cooked in syrup.--Make a syrup of one part sugar to two or three +parts water. Put the prepared fruit in the hot syrup, cover closely, and +simmer until tender. + + +DRIED FRUIT + +Wash the fruit thoroughly. Cover with cold water and soak twenty-four +hours. Put on to cook in the same water in which it has soaked. Add +spices if desired. Cover closely and simmer until tender. Add the sugar +and simmer ten minutes longer. Take out the fruit, and, if necessary, +boil down the syrup, then pour it over the fruit. + + +LESSONS V, VI, ETC. + +While studying vegetable food, practice will be given in nearly every +lesson in the preparation and cooking of vegetables or fruit, but after +the completion of this series of lessons, these foods should be prepared +and cooked with more intelligence and interest. For this reason, there +may be, at the last, one general practical lesson devoted to vegetables +and fruit, to review and impress the facts that have been taught. As +potatoes, on account of their large amount of starch, require special +care, an extra lesson may be given to this vegetable. + +In the lesson on potatoes the attention of the class should be directed +to the following: + + +POINTS IN COOKING POTATOES + +1. Be sure to soften the cellulose thoroughly. + +2. After the potatoes are cooked, get rid of all possible moisture, that +they may be white and mealy. + + (1) If potatoes are cooked in water, drain them + thoroughly, remove the cover, and shake over + the heat to dry out the starch. + + (2) If potatoes are baked, break the skins and + allow the moisture to escape as steam. + +3. When serving mashed potatoes, pile them lightly without smoothing. + + +USE OF STARCH TO THICKEN LIQUIDS + +A lesson on the use of starch for thickening purposes should be given +before lessons on the making of a sauce or a soup from the water in +which vegetables have been cooked. The necessity of separating the +starch grains should be shown by experiments. + + +EXPERIMENTS IN USING STARCH FOR THICKENING + +(Any powdered starch may be used) + +1. Boil 1/4 cup of water in a small saucepan. While boiling, stir into +it 1/2 tsp. of cornstarch and let it boil one minute. Observe the +result. Break open a lump and examine it. + +2. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of cold water, and stir into 1/4 +cup of boiling water. Note the result. + +3. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of sugar and stir into 1/4 cup +of boiling water. Note the result. + +4. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of melted fat in a small +saucepan and stir into it 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result. + + +CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE FOREGOING EXPERIMENTS + +1. Starch granules must be separated before being used to thicken a +liquid: + + (1) By adding a double quantity of cold liquid + + (2) By adding a double quantity of sugar + + (3) By adding a double quantity of melted fat. + +2. The liquid which is being thickened must be constantly stirred, to +distribute evenly the starch grains until they are cooked. + + +BASIC RECIPE FOR LIQUIDS THICKENED WITH FLOUR. + + Milk Flour Butter + Thin cream sauce 1 cup 1 tbsp. 1 tbsp. + Thick cream sauce 1 cup 2 tbsp. 2 tbsp. + + NOTE.--Use thick cream sauce to pour over a + food. Use thin cream sauce when solid food + substance is mixed with the sauce. + + +VARIATIONS OF BASIC RECIPE + +1. Tomato sauce.--Use strained tomato juice instead of milk. + +2. Vegetable sauce.--Use vegetable water in place of the milk. + +3. Cheese sauce.--Use 1/3 to 1/2 cup of grated cheese in 1 cup of thick +cream sauce. + + +CREAM OF VEGETABLE SOUPS + +At least one practice lesson should be given on the making of these +soups. The value of the vegetable water should be impressed upon the +pupils, and it may be pointed out that these soups are an excellent way +of using the cooking water and any left-over vegetable. + +The difference between tomatoes and other vegetables should be noted. +Tomatoes are a fruit and, as such, contain an acid. The acid would +curdle milk and must be neutralized by the use of soda, before milk can +be added. + +[Illustration: Utensils used for cream soups] + + +PRINCIPLES OF CREAM SOUPS + +1. The liquid may be all milk, part vegetable water and milk, or all +vegetable water. + +2. The amount of flour used for thickening depends on the vegetable. +Starchy vegetables need only 1/2 tbsp. to one cup of liquid; non-starchy +vegetables need 1 tbsp. to a cup. + +3. The ingredients are combined as follows: + + (1) The liquid is heated and thickened with + flour. + + (2) The seasonings of butter, salt, and pepper + are added. + + (3) The vegetable pulp is added in any desired + quantity, usually about two tbsp. to one cup of + liquid. + +A special recipe should be given for cream of tomato soup, so that the +proportion of soda may be correct. + + NOTE.--If flavours of onion, bay-leaf, parsley, + etc., are desired, these should be cooked with + the vegetables, so as to be extracted in the + vegetable water. + + +OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON COOKING SEEDS + + +CEREALS: WHEAT, OATS, CORN, RICE, RYE, BARLEY + +1. Forms in which used: + + (1) Whole or cracked grains--rice, cracked + wheat, coarse oatmeal, etc. + + (2) Granular--corn meal, cream of wheat, fine + oatmeal, etc. + + (3) Rolled or flaked grains--wheat, oats, corn, + rice, etc. + + (4) Powdered--wheat flour, rice flour, etc. + +2. Cooking cereals for breakfast: + + For 1 cup of water use 1/4 tsp. of salt and the + following cereal-- + + Whole or cracked--1/4 cup of cereal + + Granular--3 tbsp. of cereal + + Rolled or flaked--1/2 cup of cereal. + +Put salt and water in the inner part of a double boiler, and set +directly over the fire. When steaming hot, gradually stir in the dry +cereal, and keep stirring until the starch has thickened and boiled. +Stir carefully, so as not to break the flakes of rolled cereals. Then +set the inner dish inside the outer part of the double boiler, in which +there should be boiling water, and cook from two to four hours. + + NOTE 1.--Rice has very tender cellulose and + cooks in 3/4 hr. + + NOTE 2.--Rolled or flaked cereals have been + steamed an hour or more to soften them for + rolling, so require less cooking. + + NOTE 3.--Cereals may be cooked for breakfast + the day before, but _should not be stirred + while being re-heated_. + + +LEGUMES: PEAS, BEANS, LENTILS + +1. Forms in which used: + + (1) Ripe seeds + + (2) Meals--pea meal, etc. + +2. Cooking of dried legumes: + + (1) Soak in cold, soft water for twelve hours + or more, and then drain and rinse. Hard water + may be softened by boiling, or by the addition + of soda (1/8 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of water). + + (2) Cook by _simmering_ in softened water until + they are soft. + + (3) After simmering, the beans may be baked. + + +NUTS + +Forms in which used: + +1. Whole or broken nuts--used as dessert or in cakes, salads, etc. + +2. Butters--ground and mixed with other ingredients to make a paste. + +3. Meals--ground and used to thicken soups. + + +SALADS + +The series of lessons on vegetable foods being finished, it is a good +time to take a salad lesson. All salads were originally made from fresh +young plants or salad greens, and though any food material is now used +for the purpose, the subject seems to follow naturally the lessons on +plant food. + +The pupils should derive unusual pleasure from this work. The dishes +made are most attractive and appetizing, besides affording an +opportunity for each member of the class to display individual artistic +skill. None of the principles are new, so that the lesson will be really +a review. + +The outline of notes for the class will be: + + +INGREDIENTS OF SALADS + +1. Salad plants _proper_, such as lettuce, water-cress, celery, cabbage + +2. Cooked vegetables, such as peas, beans, asparagus, carrots, beets + +3. Meat--cold, of any kind + +4. Fish--cold, of any kind + +5. Eggs--hard-boiled + +6. Fruit + +7. Combinations of the above in great variety. + + +FOOD VALUES OF SALADS + +This depends on the ingredients. If salad greens only are used, the food +value is mainly the mineral matter, but the dish will be refreshing and +appetizing, and the oil, butter, or egg used in the dressing adds +nutriment. + +Salads are prepared with little trouble and with no expense for fuel. + + +PREPARATION OF SALAD INGREDIENTS + +1. Have everything cold before combining. + +2. Freshen the greens in cold water until crisp. + +3. Meat, fish, and solid ingredients should be seasoned some time before +using, so that they may absorb the flavours of the seasoning. + +4. In most cases do not combine the ingredients with the dressing until +just before serving. + + (1) Salad greens.--Wash thoroughly, and put in + cold water until crisp, drain on a towel, wrap + in a damp cloth, and put in a cool place. + Cabbage and lettuce may be finely shredded. + + (2) Fruit and cooked vegetables.--Cut into + cubes or suitable pieces. Chill and mix with + the dressing, to absorb it. + + (3) Meats.--Remove the fat, skin, and gristle. + Cut in cubes and chill. + + (4) Fish.--Remove the bones, flake, chill, and + pour dressing over; but do not mix. + + +DRESSINGS FOR SALADS + +1. Cooked salad dressing: + + 2 tbsp. sugar + 1/2 tsp. mustard + 1/2 tsp. salt + 1/4 cup vinegar + 2 eggs + 2 tbsp. butter. + + (1) Mix the first four ingredients in a + saucepan and heat until dissolved. + + (2) Beat the eggs very light in a + round-bottomed bowl, using a Dover egg beater. + + (3) Beat the vinegar mixture into the eggs. + + (4) Set the bowl, with its contents, over a + dish of boiling water, then beat slowly and + constantly until the mixture is thickened. + + (5) Lift the bowl from the heat _at once_. + + (6) Beat in the butter and set away to cool. + + (7) If desired, a half cup of whipped or plain + cream may be added just before the dressing is + used. + +2. Uncooked salad dressing: + + 1/4 tsp. salt + 1/8 tsp. pepper + 4 tbsp. olive oil + 2 tbsp. vinegar. + + (1) Stir the salt and pepper into the oil. + + (2) Add the vinegar slowly and stir vigorously + until well blended and slightly thickened. + + (3) Serve with any salad made of salad greens. + + +STUDY OF MINERAL FOOD + +As the study of mineral food involves a knowledge of chemistry, little +more can be done in Junior classes than to teach that certain mineral +compounds are required for the body, to point out their two main uses, +and to lead the pupils to know the foods which generally supply these. + +Their attention should be directed to the fact that all mineral matter +is found, in the first place, in the earth's crust, but that, with the +exception of salt, animals cannot use it in that form. Plants can use +it, and they absorb it from the soil; then we eat the plants, and in +that way obtain the mineral substance, or we may obtain it by eating the +animals which have eaten the plants. Water also, in making its way +through the earth, may dissolve certain minerals and, by drinking the +water, we obtain these. + +It will not be necessary to teach the names of the minerals which our +food must supply, as most of these will mean nothing to the pupils. They +might be asked to name one or two which are very familiar; for instance, +the lime in bone and the iron in blood. They may be told that there are +a few others which they will learn when they study chemistry in the high +school. + +The pupils have already learned that mineral matter serves two main +functions in the body: that is, _building_ and _regulating_, and it is a +good plan to classify the well-known foods under these two headings. +With a little guidance the pupils can do most of this for themselves. +They know that milk serves all building purposes in a child's body, and +must, therefore, contain mineral matter. Eggs build animal bodies, and +must contain this substance also. Meat is the animal body that has been +built, therefore meat has this substance; but we shall find in the meat +lessons that there is no mineral matter in fat and that the cook cannot +dissolve it out of bone, therefore muscle or lean meat must be eaten to +obtain it. Seeds, too, contain building material for new plants; +therefore, the building mineral matter must be stored in their cells. +Hard water is known by the lime it contains, therefore this, if drunk, +assists in the formation of bone. + +The class must be told that the mineral in the juices of plants is +mainly for regulating purposes; that is, to keep our bodies in order, or +as we say, healthy. When they get out of order, we usually go to a +doctor to be regulated or made well. The medicine which he prescribes +often contains some mineral in solution, perhaps iron. The mineral +matter which is in the juices of plants, being a more natural form than +the mineral matter in the medicine, is more easily made use of in the +bodily processes. This is one reason why people should eat plenty of +vegetables and fruit. + +Many springs also furnish water with large quantities of mineral matter +in solution, which is used mainly for medicinal purposes. The pupils may +know some places where we find such springs, and these should be +mentioned, such as Preston Springs, Banff, and Mount Clemens, which have +become health resorts through the presence of these waters. When the +springs are in a distant country and their waters are known to contain a +certain mineral which our bodies need, the water is bottled and shipped +to us, and may be obtained from a druggist. Hunyadi Janos, Apenta, +Vichy, and Apollinaris are well-known medicinal waters shipped from +European springs. + + +SUMMARY OF SOURCES OF MINERAL FOODS + +1. Building mineral matter.--Milk, eggs, lean meat, seeds, hard water + +2. Regulating mineral matter.--Fruit, vegetables, mineral waters, salt. + + NOTE.--This classification will be most useful + to the pupils in preparing well-balanced meals + in their diet lessons. + + +DIET + +After studying in this elementary way the composition of the animal and +vegetable foods, the pupils will be ready for simple lessons on diet. +The class may now be said to have a working knowledge of the well-known +foods, and they should be given a chance to use this knowledge, by +combining and serving these foods for simple meals. + + +REFERENCE TABLES OF FOOD CONSTITUENTS + +It will be helpful in this work, to guide the pupils in making out a +reference table of the food constituents. This will give lists of food +in which each constituent predominates, as follows: + + 1. Water: + + Beverages (water, milk, tea, coffee, cocoa), fruit, vegetables. + +2. Mineral matter: + + (1) For building--milk, eggs (yolk and white), + lean meat or fish, seeds, hard water + + (2) For regulating--fruit, vegetables, mineral + waters. + +3. Protein: + + Milk (curd), eggs (yolk and white), lean meat + or fish, seeds. + +4. Sugar: + + Fruit (juice), non-starchy vegetables (juice), + milk (whey), commercial sugar. + +5. Starch: + + Parts of plants which serve as storehouses: + + Tubers--potatoes, artichokes + + Roots--parsnip, tapioca, arrowroot + + Stem--sago + + Seeds--cereals, legumes, some nuts (peanuts, + chestnuts). + +6. Fat: + + Milk (cream), egg-yolk, meat or fish (fat), + fruit, as the olive (oil), most nuts (walnut, + butternut, pecan, peanut, etc.). + +Besides the necessary substances in food, the pupils must be told that +there are other points for the housekeeper to consider when preparing +the meals, namely: + + 1. The amount of each food substance required + daily. + + 2. Special requirements of individuals + according to: (1) age, (2) occupation, (3) + climate, (4) season. + +Under 1, above, it may be explained, that when a meal is prepared which +gives the body a correct proportion of each food substance, it is said +to be well balanced. From numerous experiments the "Dietary Standard" +for one day for a grown person has been calculated to be: + + Water--about 5 pints, two of which are taken in + solid food + + Mineral matter--1 ounce + + Protein--3 to 4 1/2 ounces + + Fat--2 ounces + + Sugar and starch (together)--14 to 18 ounces. + +Although the pupils cannot be expected to follow this table accurately, +from lack of sufficient knowledge, it will be of some assistance to them +in choosing a combination of food for the home meals. + +Under 2, above, some of the variations of food are obvious, but some +must be taught. Children require simple, nourishing food, which will +contain plenty of protein and mineral matter for tissue building as well +as much fuel food. Their diet should be varied and abundant. + +In old age the diet should also be simple, because of the lack of vigour +in the digestive organs, but the amount of building material should be +decreased. The food of old people should contain proportionately more +carbonaceous material. + +Brain workers require less food than those engaged in active muscular +work, and it should be less stimulating and less bulky. Their diet +should be in a form that is easily digested. + +With the foregoing general ideas in mind, the pupils may be asked to +prepare menus for simple home meals. These should be assigned as home +work, so that plenty of time can be given to their consideration, and +then they may be brought to the class for criticism. The best of these +should be chosen for actual practice in school work. + + NOTE.--It is intended that this part of the + work shall be presented in a very rudimentary + way. The teacher should feel satisfied if she + succeeds in implanting ideas of the importance + of these food considerations, so that the + pupils will be ready for more specific + instruction to be gained in higher schools or + from their own reading. Cheap bulletins on + _Human Nutrition_, published by Cornell + University, will be excellent reading on this + subject. + + +PREPARING AND SERVING MEALS + +Before the pupils are given a meal to prepare and serve, table setting +should be reviewed, and the rules of table service taught as follows: + + +RULES FOR SERVING + +1. The hostess serves the soup, salad, dessert, tea, and coffee; the +host serves the meat and fish. + +2. Vegetables and side dishes may be served by some one at the table or +passed by the waitress. + +3. Dishes are served at the left of each person, commencing with the +chief guest. + +4. Guests are served first; ladies before gentlemen. + +5. In each course, remove the dishes containing the food before removing +the soiled plates. + +6. When one course is finished, take the tray in the left hand, stand on +the left side of the person, and remove the individual soiled dishes +with the right hand, never piling them. + +7. Before dessert is served, if necessary, remove the crumbs from the +cloth with a brush, crumb knife, or napkin. + +8. Tea or coffee may be poured at table or served from a side table by +the waitress. + + NOTE.--Extra cutlery and napkins should be + conveniently placed on a side table, in case of + accident. + +Where the class consists of twelve or more pupils, it must be divided +for the preparation and serving of a meal. Each section should prepare +and serve a meal for the others, until all have had experience. As +breakfast and luncheon are the simpler meals, they should be taken first +in the order of lessons. The duties of the cooking and serving should be +definitely settled, and each girl given entire responsibility for a +certain part of the work. + +Those who are served should represent a family. Members should be chosen +to act as father, mother, lady guest, gentleman guest, and children of +varying ages, so that the duties and serving of each may be typified. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued) + +CARE OF THE HOUSE + + +The pupils of Form IV Junior should be urged to take entire care of +their own bed-rooms. The Household Management teacher can do much to +encourage them in this. She may include such work as part of the week's +practice. + +The order of work should be discussed and planned by the pupils, the +teacher guiding the class by her questioning. In lessons of this kind, +the main work of the teacher is to ascertain what the pupil knows and to +systematize her knowledge. + +A typewritten sheet of directions may be given each pupil to hang in her +room, and may serve as an incentive to her to perform the duties +outlined. + + +DIRECTIONS FOR THE DAILY CARE OF A BED-ROOM + +1. Open the window, if it has been closed during dressing. + +2. Throw the bed-clothing over the foot of the bed, using a chair to +hold it from the floor, or place it over two chairs near the window. + +3. Put night clothing to air. + +4. Put away any other clothing in drawers and closet. + +5. Tidy and dust the top of the dressing-table. + +6. Make the bed, after it has been aired at least half an hour. + +Once a week the following work should be added: + +1. The blankets and comforter should be hung outside to air. + +2. The mattress should be turned, and fresh bed-linen placed on the bed. + +3. The room should be thoroughly swept and dusted. + +After the pupils have had training in the care of their bed-rooms, this +experience, together with their lessons in cleaning, should enable them +to keep any of the other rooms in the house in good order. + +It should be pointed out that, in these days of sanitary building and +furnishing, there is no necessity for the semi-annual "housecleaning" of +former times. Each week the house can be thoroughly gone over, with the +exception of laundering curtains and washing wood-work, and these duties +might be taken in turn, a room at a time every week, so that the work +will not accumulate. + +The class should be taught to consider the economy of time and energy +and encouraged to provide themselves with all the latest aids they can +afford. + +The cleaning methods which are necessary for this work and which have +not been formally taught, should now be definitely outlined. These are +the weekly sweeping, weekly dusting, and cleaning special metals. + + +DIRECTIONS FOR WEEKLY SWEEPING + +1. Dust and put away all small articles. + +2. Lift the small rugs, sweep them on both sides, out-of-doors if +possible, and leave them to air. Rugs too large to take out should be +brushed and folded over to allow of sweeping the under side and wiping +the floor beneath. + +3. Cover the furniture with dust sheets. + +4. Shut the doors and open a window. + +5. Begin at the side of the room farthest from the door and sweep toward +the centre; sweep from the other side toward the centre; gather the dust +in a dust-pan and empty it into the garbage pail or fire. + +6. Put away the broom and dust-pan. + +7. Leave the room shut up for a few minutes, in order to allow the dust +to settle. + +8. Use a "dustless" mop to dust the floor. + + +DIRECTIONS FOR WEEKLY DUSTING + +1. Use a soft cotton or cheesecloth duster very slightly dampened. + +2. Roll up the covers that are over the furniture and carry them +outside, in order to shake off the dust. + +3. Wipe the dust from the furniture, pictures, window-sills, ledges, +doors, and baseboard, being careful not to scatter it in the air. + +4. Change the duster when necessary. + +5. Replace the small articles. + +6. Wash and dry the dusters. + + +CARE AND CLEANING OF METALS + +IRON OR STEEL + +Utensils made of these are heavy, but strong and durable, and hold the +heat well. + +1. Care: + + They must be kept dry and smooth. Moisture + causes rust, roughens the surfaces of the + utensils, and makes them more difficult to + clean. If they are not to be used for some + time, the surfaces should be greased or coated + with paraffin. + +2. Cleaning: + + (1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse in hot water, + and dry thoroughly. + + (2) If food is burned on, scour with some + gritty material or boil in a solution of + washing soda, rinse in hot water, and dry + thoroughly. + + +TIN + +Utensils made of this are light and inexpensive; they are good +conductors of heat, but they are also good radiators and lose heat +quickly. + +1. Care: + + As tinware is steel or iron coated with liquid + tin, the grades vary according to the + "base-metal" used and the thickness of the + coating. Utensils made of this metal must be + carefully kept from scratches, since deep + scratches expose the base-metal and allow the + formation of rust. + +2. Cleaning: + + (1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse, and dry + thoroughly. + + (2) If food is burned on, boil in a weak + solution of washing soda, rinse in hot water, + and dry thoroughly. + + NOTE.--Whiting may be used to brighten the tin, + but scouring is not recommended, as it wears + off the coating. + + +GRANITE AND ENAMEL WARE + +Utensils made of this are attractive, not heavy, and they do not tarnish +or rust. + +1. Care: + + These wares are made by coating steel or + sheet-iron with a specially prepared glassy + substance called enamel or glaze. Two or three + coats are applied. The durability depends on + the ingredients used in the glaze and on the + number of coats applied. + + Such utensils should be heated gradually, + scraped carefully, and handled without + knocking, to avoid "chipping". + +2. Cleaning: + + (1) Wash in hot soap-suds. + + (2) If stained, use some scouring powder; wash + and dry. + + (3) If food is burned on, boil in a solution of + washing soda and then scour; wash and dry. + + +ALUMINIUM + +Utensils made of this are very light in weight and, as they have no +crevices, are easily cleaned. They are also good conductors of heat. + +1. Care: + + This metal warps under a high temperature, and + should, therefore, be used with care. Do not + turn the gas on full, or, if used over wood or + coal fires, be sure to leave the stove lid on. + + Some foods injure the metal, if they are + allowed to remain in it very long. + +2. Cleaning: + + (1) Wash in hot water, with mild soap. Alkalies + should not be used, as they darken the surface. + + (2) If food is burned on, the dish should be + soaked in water and then scoured with bathbrick + or emery powder. + + (3) Whiting may be used to brighten it. + + +ZINC + +This is not used for utensils, but for table tops and for placing under +stoves, etc. + +Cleaning: + + (1) Use hot water and mild soap. Alkalies and + acids affect zinc and should be used with care. + + (2) If stained, rub with coal-oil or a paste + made of coal-oil and soda, and then wash in hot + water. + + +GALVANIZED IRON + +This is used for garbage pails, ash pans, stove pipes, etc. It is made +by dipping sheet-iron into melted zinc. + +Cleaning: + + The same as for zinc. + + +COPPER OR BRASS + +Utensils made of these are heavy but durable and are good conductors of +heat. They are dangerous, if not properly cleaned. + +Cleaning: + + (1) Wash in hot water, using a little washing + soda to remove any grease, rinse well, and dry. + + (2) If stained or tarnished, scour with salt + and vinegar, then rinse thoroughly, and dry. + + +SILVER + +This is used for spoons, knives, forks, and serving dishes, but never +for cooking utensils, on account of its cost. It is the best conductor +of heat among the house metals. + +Cleaning: + + (1) Wash in hot soap-suds. + + (2) If stained or tarnished, use whiting or + silver polish, wash, and dry. + + +RECIPE FOR SILVER POLISH + + 2 tbsp. borax + 1 cup boiling water + 1/2 cup alcohol whiting. + + 1. Dissolve the borax in the water. + + 2. When cold, add the alcohol and enough + whiting to make a thin cream. + + 3. Bottle, and shake when used. + + NOTE.--The care and cleaning of the metals out + of which ordinary utensils are made, such as + granite ware, tin, and steel, may be taught + incidentally as the utensils are used. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued) + +LAUNDRY WORK + + +This work is but a continuation of the lessons on cleaning. It is the +process of removing foreign matter from cotton, linen, woollen, or silk +fabrics by the use of water and additional cleansing agents. It also +includes the finishing of these materials by the use of blueing, starch, +and heated irons, to restore as far as possible their original +appearance. + +The principles of laundry work have been taught in the washing of dish +cloths and towels, and now these principles have only to be extended to +white cotton and linen clothes of any kind. + +The pupils may be asked to bring soiled articles of white linen or +cotton from home for use at school in exemplifying the necessary +processes. In schools which lack an equipment, these processes may be +discussed in class and then practised at home. The teacher should choose +from the following outline what is most suitable to the class: + + +OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON THE WASHING OF WHITE COTTON AND LINEN CLOTHES + +LESSON I + + +MATERIALS + +1. Water: + + (1) Use: + (_a_) To soften and dissolve certain foreign + substances in the clothes. + (_b_) To carry away all the foreign matter that + has been dissolved or rubbed out of the + clothes. + + (_2_) Kinds: + (_a_) _Hard water_ + (_b_) _Soft water_ + + For laundry purposes, the water should be soft. + The quality known as hardness, which some water + has, is due to the lime which it has dissolved + in making its way through the earth. + + Water is said to be temporarily or permanently + hard according to the kind of lime it has in + solution. Temporarily hard water may be + softened by boiling; the lime will be + deposited, as may be seen in the "furring" of + tea-kettles. Boiling has no effect in softening + permanently hard water, so a substance known as + an _alkali_ is used for this purpose. + + (3) Methods of softening water by alkalies.--For + each gallon of water use one of the following: + (_a_) One tablespoonful of borax or ammonia + dissolved in one cup of water. + (_b_) Two tablespoonfuls of a solution made by + dissolving one pound of washing soda in one + quart of boiling water. + (_c_) One fourth tablespoonful of lye dissolved + in one cup of water. + +2. Alkalies (borax, ammonia, washing soda, lye): + + (1) Use: + (_a_) To soften hard water + (_b_) To assist in dissolving greasy + substances. + + (2) Kinds: + (_a_) _Borax._--This alkali is one of the + mildest, and for this reason is less harmful to + the clothing. It is useful when an alkali is + required to soften water for coloured clothes + or woollens. It also has a tendency to keep + white clothes a good colour. + (_b_) _Ammonia._--This also is a mild alkali, + but is apt to "yellow" white materials. As it + is very volatile, it should not be used unless + the washing can be done quickly. + (_c_) _Washing soda._--This is a cheap + substance and stronger than borax or ammonia. + It should be made into a solution before it is + used, for fear of too great strength. + + (_d_) _Lye, or caustic soda._--This alkali is + very strong and should be employed with great + care. It must not be used except in weak + solutions, otherwise it would entirely dissolve + fabrics. It is not advisable for home laundry + work. + +3. Soap: + + (1) Use.--To act on greasy matter. + + Soap-suds penetrate fabrics more completely + than water alone, and when the soap comes in + contact with fatty material, it _emulsifies_ + it, that is, very finely divides it into minute + particles, so that it can be easily removed. If + a soap is used that contains free alkali, this + substance unites with the greasy impurities to + form new soap which has cleansing value. + + (2) Kinds.--(_a_) Neutral, (_b_) medium, (_c_) + strong. + + All soap is a compound of an alkali and fat, + and according as one or the other of these + substances predominates, the kind of soap is + determined. + + When just enough alkali is used to completely + _saponify_ the amount of fat, the product is + called a neutral, or mild, soap. When an excess + of alkali is present, the soap is termed medium + or strong, according to the amount of free + alkali it contains. + + A mild soap should be used when free alkali + would be injurious, as in washing woollens or + fabrics that have delicate colours. + +4. Soap substitutes, or adjuncts: + + (1) Use.--To act alone or with soap in exerting + a solvent action on greasy impurities, so that + the cleansing process may be facilitated. + + (2) Kinds: + (_a_) _Alkalies._--These must be used in excess + of the amount needed for softening the water. + (_b_) _Harmless solvents, such as turpentine, + paraffin, coal-oil, gasolene._--The clothing + must be well rinsed to get rid of any odour. + (_c_) _Washing powders._--These are prepared + mixtures of soap and some other solvent of + greasy matter. + +5. Blueing: + + (1) Use.--To make clothes which have a yellow + tinge appear whiter in colour. + + (2) Kinds.--There are several kinds on the + market, but the names of these will be of no + value to the class. + + NOTE.--Sufficient blueing should be used to + make the blueing water a pale sky-blue colour + when a little of it is lifted in the hand. + +6. Starch: + + (1) Use: + (_a_) To stiffen fabrics and thus improve their + appearance. + (_b_) To give fabrics a glazed surface, so that + they will shed dust and other impurities. + + (2) Kinds.--(_a_) Cold starch, (_b_) boiled starch. + + Raw starch does not give as durable a finish as + cooked starch, but it does give greater + stiffness. A fabric will take up more starch in + the raw form, and the heat of the iron cooks + the starch, thus producing the stiffness. The + "body", or stiffness, produced by cooked starch + is usually preferable, though on account of its + preparation, it is not so convenient to use. + + (3) Recipes for starch-- + (_a_) Cold Starch + + 2 tbsp. laundry starch + 1/2 tsp. borax + 2 cups cold water. + +Dissolve the borax in a little boiling water. Add the cold water +gradually to the starch and mix thoroughly. Add the dissolved borax and +stir well before using. + + (_b_) Boiled Starch + + 2 tbsp. starch + 4 tbsp. cold water + 1/2 tsp. lard, butter, or paraffin + 1 qt. boiling water. + +Mix the starch with the cold water until free from lumps. Add the lard, +then gradually stir in the boiling water, and keep stirring until +thickened. Cook fifteen minutes and use hot. + + NOTE.--Borax in starch gives greater gloss and + increases the stiffness. It also gives more + lasting stiffness. Lard, butter, or wax is used + to give a smoother finish and to prevent the + starch from sticking to the iron. + + +LESSON II + +PREPARATION FOR WASHING WHITE LINEN OR COTTON CLOTHES + + 1. Sort the clothes: (1) Table linen and clean towels + (2) Bed and body linen + (3) Handkerchiefs + (4) Soiled towels and cloths. + 2. Mend the clothes. + 3. Remove stains. + 4. Look after necessary materials. + + +PROCESS OF WASHING WHITE LINEN OR COTTON CLOTHES + + _Steps_ _Method_ + +1. Soaking: + + Wet the clothes; rub the soiled parts with soap + and roll each article separately; pack in a + tub, placing the clothing most soiled at the + bottom; cover with warm soapy water and soak + from one hour to over night. + + The soaking softens and loosens the fibres of + fabrics, so that the foreign matter in them can + be more easily separated. It also dissolves the + soluble impurities in the fabrics. + +2. Rubbing: + + Wring the clothes out of the soaking water, and + place them in a tub of clean warm water or + soap-suds; rub the soiled parts first on one + side and then on the other, using the knuckles, + a washboard, or a washing-machine. When each + piece is clean, wring it tightly. + + The rubbing scrapes or rubs out the foreign + matter which has been loosened by the soaking. + +3. Rinsing: + + Shake out each piece and put it into a tub of + clear water; rub, and move about in the water + to get rid of any soiled water that the clothes + may contain; wring tightly. + +4. Boiling: + + Shake out each piece and place it in a boiler + of cold water with or without soap; bring to + boiling heat, and boil briskly for twenty + minutes. + + The boiling kills any germs and assists in + whitening the clothes. + +5. Rinsing: + + Lift the clothes from the boiling water by + means of a clothes stick and place them in a + tub of clear, cold water; proceed as in the + first rinsing. + +6. Blueing: + + Open out each piece and place one or two at a + time in a tub of blueing water for just a + moment; wring tightly, and shake out each + piece. + + The blueing tends to counteract any yellow + tinge in the clothes, making them appear + whiter. + +7. Starching: + + Dip one piece at a time into the starch mixture + until well saturated; then wring. + + Only certain articles or parts of articles will + require this part of the process, to give them + body or stiffness and, it may be, glossiness. + +8. Hanging: + + Shake out each piece thoroughly; fasten to a + clothes-line or hang on a rack to allow the + moisture to evaporate. This should be + out-of-doors in the sunlight if possible. + + +REMOVAL OF STAINS + +Foreign matter which is difficult or impossible to remove by the +ordinary washing process is called a _stain_. Such matter is not +dissolved by the usual cleansing agents used in laundry work, such as +water and soap, but requires some special solvent to act on it. The +choice of the agent to be used will depend on the nature of the foreign +matter to be removed. In some cases it is difficult to find an agent +which will not act also on the colour of the fabric; in other cases to +find one which does not injure the fibre of the goods. + +The pupils should be asked to give instances from their own experience +where special solvents were used to remove stains, and be required to +make a list of these. If necessary, the teacher should supplement this +list with the names of other agents and the methods of using them. + + +OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON THE WASHING OF WOOLLENS + +The washing of woollen materials is part of the Course for the work of +the Senior Grade of Form IV, but, for the sake of convenience, the +laundry lessons of both Grades of Form IV are outlined in one section of +this Manual. + +Before allowing the class any practice in this branch of laundry work, +it will be necessary for the teacher to make certain principles very +clear: + +1. That wool is an animal product. As such it tends to be shrunken and +hardened by (1) heat, (2) alkalies. + +2. That the surface of each wool fibre woven into woollen materials is +seen under the microscope to be covered with notches, or scales. If +these notches in any way become entangled, the material is thereby drawn +up, or "shrunken". + +3. That these notches may be entangled by: + + (1) Wetting the woollen material and then + rubbing or twisting it. When the fibres are + wet, they expand somewhat and the projecting + scales, or notches, are loosened. If the + material is rubbed at this time, the notched + edges interlock. + + (2) The use of strong soaps or alkalies. These + act chemically on the fibres and soften and + expand them, causing the notched edges to + become so prominent that they catch in one + another. + + NOTE.--The structure of woollen fibres may be + sketched on the black-board and compared with + those of cotton and linen. + +To impress the foregoing principles, a few experiments will be found +most useful. + + +EXPERIMENTS WITH CLOTH MADE OF WOOL FIBRE + +1. Boil a piece of new woollen cloth for five minutes. Dry, and compare +with an original piece. + +2. Saturate a piece of new woollen cloth with a strong solution of +washing soda. Dry, and compare with an original piece. + +3. Wash a piece of new woollen cloth in each of the following ways: + + (1) By rubbing soap directly on the cloth and + then sousing the goods in the water. + + (2) By using a soap solution instead of the + soap, as in (1). + + (3) By rubbing on a wash-board. + +In each case dry the cloth and compare with an original piece. + +After the results of the experiments have been discussed, the pupils may +formulate a series of "points" to be observed in the washing of woollen +fabrics. + +[Illustration: Cotton fibres magnified] + +[Illustration: Linen fibres magnified] + +[Illustration: Woollen fibres magnified] + + +POINTS IN WASHING WOOLLENS + +1. Use lukewarm, soft water. + +2. Do not use strong soaps or alkalies. + +3. Do not rub soap directly on the woollen material, but use soap +solutions. + +4. Do not rub or twist woollen cloth when it is wet. + +5. Do not boil to sterilize. + +6. Do not dry in extreme heat. + + +STEPS IN WASHING WOOLLEN MATERIALS + +1. Shake or brush the clothing to free it from dust. + +2. Put it into lukewarm, soapy water to soak for a few minutes. + +3. Wash on both sides by squeezing and sousing in the water. + +4. Rinse in clear, lukewarm water; use several waters, if necessary, to +remove the soap. + +5. Pass through a loosely set wringer or squeeze the water out by hand. + +6. Shake, in order to raise the woolly fibres. + +7. Dry in a moderate temperature, in a wind, if possible. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE + +FOODS + + +The Senior Fourth class is the preparatory class for entrance into the +high school, and for many girls it is the final school year. For this +reason the Course of this year should cover as many of the remaining +household operations as possible. + +The training of the previous years should have formed good habits of +work and have given experience in ordinary cleaning, and in the cooking +and serving of the simple food materials. Through this training the +pupils should also have been impressed with the value of food, and +should have learned the sources of food and of all well-known household +materials. + +The training of this last year, while continuing the Junior work, should +also emphasize the household processes that require greater mental +development to understand and greater practical skill to carry out. It +is the border year between the public school and the high school, and +must necessarily anticipate the elementary science of the latter. In +this year more responsibility should be given to the pupils and more +originality should be expected of them. Where they have hitherto +followed recipes and been given rules, they should now follow principles +and deduce rules. + +Of the several topics outlined in the Course for Form IV Senior, it is +advisable to start with the preservation of food. Fruit and vegetables +are most plentiful when the school year opens, and September is the +most opportune month to preserve these for winter use. Facts concerning +food preservation may have been taken incidentally in previous lessons, +but now the subject should be systematically taught, so that canning, +preserving, and pickling may be intelligently practised. + + +PRESERVATION OF FOOD + +CAUSE OF DECAY + +The lesson may be introduced by referring to the unusual attention given +to fruit at the time of ripening. The economical housekeeper takes +certain foods when they are most plentiful and preserves them for use +when they are not in season. Some foods require special care to keep +them from decaying. The decay is caused by the action of microscopic +plants called "bacteria", which get into the food. + + +BACTERIA + +It is difficult for any one to get a correct conception of bacteria; +especially is it so for children. The teacher should be most careful not +to attempt to give the class unimportant details, but the few necessary +facts should be made very clear and real. The following points should be +impressed: + +1. Bacteria are plants. (This fact should be kept clearly in mind.) + +2. They are microscopic in size and hence the more difficult to deal +with. + +3. They are found everywhere that there is life--in the air, in water, +in the soil. + +4. They multiply very rapidly under favourable conditions. + +5. Some bacteria are useful to the housekeeper; many kinds are her +enemies. + +6. Some of these enemies get into food and, growing there, cause a +change in it--then we say the food is spoiled. + + +CONDITIONS OF BACTERIAL GROWTH + +All plants have the same requirements. Any well-known plant may be put +before the class to help them to think of these. They must be told that +microscopic plants differ from other plants in one respect; they do not +need light. Hence bacterial requirements are as follows: (1) water, (2) +food, (3) air (oxygen), (4) heat. + +The class should be led to see that if any one of these conditions is +removed, the remaining ones are insufficient for the plant's activity. + + +MEANS OF OVERCOMING BACTERIA + +To the housekeeper, preserving food means overcoming bacteria. There are +only two ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen: + +1. Kill the bacteria in the food and exclude others. + +2. Subject the food to conditions which are unfavourable for bacterial +growth. + +In the first way, extreme heat is used to kill the bacteria in the food, +and then while hot, the food is sealed to keep out other bacteria: +Example, canning. + +In the second way, conditions are made unfavourable to the bacteria in +the food, as follows: + +1. The bacteria are deprived of water; the food is dried. + +2. The bacteria are deprived of sufficient heat to be active; cold +storage is used. + +3. Large quantities of certain substances which are detrimental to the +growth of bacteria are put into the food, and the bacteria become +inactive. Examples: salt, sugar, spices, vinegar, smoke, or certain +chemicals. + +When the lesson is finished, the class is ready to practise the +principles it involves. The lessons on the special preservation of fruit +may follow at once. + +[Illustration: Utensils used in canning] + + +CANNING + +As canning is the method of preservation most commonly used, practice +should be given in this method. In rural schools with a limited +equipment, it may be that only one jar can be prepared. In other +schools, it may be impossible to provide each pupil with material for +work, on account of the expense. In the latter case, the materials may +all be brought from home, or each pupil may bring her own jar and fruit, +and the school supply the sugar. + +Instruction on the care of jars and the preparation of fruit and syrup +must precede the practical work. + + +CARE OF JARS + +1. See that the jars are air-tight; partly fill the jar with water; +place rubbers, covers, and rims; screw tightly, and invert. If any water +oozes out, the jar is not air-tight. Often an extra rubber will correct +the trouble. + +2. Wash the jars thoroughly with the aid of a small brush. + +3. Sterilize the jars in every part; dip them in boiling water, or place +them on a rest (folded paper or wooden slats) in a kettle, to prevent +the jars from touching the bottom. Fill and surround them with tepid +water, then place them over heat until the water boils. Keep them in the +boiling water until ready to fill with fruit. Dip the rubber bands in +boiling water, but do not allow them to remain in it. Use new rubbers +each season. + +4. When filling the jars, place them on a folded cloth wrung out of warm +water, then seal, and invert until cool. + + +PREPARATION OF FRUIT + +Use fresh, sound fruit, not too ripe. + +1. Berries.--Pick over, wash in a strainer, and hull. + +2. Currants, gooseberries.--Pick over, wash, remove ends and stems. + +3. Cherries.--Pick over, wash, remove stones and stems. + +4. Plums.--Pick over, wash, remove stems, and prick three or four times +with a silver fork, in order to prevent the steam bursting the skin. + +5. Pears, apples.--Pick over, wash, pare, and, to prevent discoloration, +keep in cold water until used. + +6. Peaches.--Pick over, plunge into boiling water a few seconds (using a +wire basket), then into cold water; peel; drop into cold water to +prevent discoloration. + + +SYRUP FOR CANNING + +Use about 1 cup of water for each pint can. + +No. 1 Syrup.--Equal parts of sugar and water, or 1 cup of water and 1 +cup of sugar. + +No. 2 Syrup.--1 1/2 cups of water and 1 cup of sugar. + +1. Use No. 1 syrup for watery fruits and acid fruits. + +2. Use No. 2 syrup for pears, peaches, sweet plums, sweet cherries, etc. + + +METHODS OF CANNING + +1. Fruit cooked in a steamer: + + Fill the sterilized jars with prepared fruit, + with or without syrup. Place the covers, but do + not fasten them down. Stand the jars in a + steamer over cold water. Cover the steamer and + heat to the boiling point. Steam at least + fifteen minutes, or until the fruit is tender. + Remove from the steamer, fill to overflowing + with boiling syrup, and seal at once. Invert. + +2. Fruit cooked in a boiler: + + Put a false bottom in the boiler, to prevent + the jars from being broken. Fill the jars with + fruit, and add syrup if desired. Cover and + place the jars in the boiler without touching + one another. Pour in tepid water to within an + inch of the top of the jars and bring gradually + to boiling heat. Cook and finish as directed in + 1, above. + +3. Fruit cooked in an oven: + + Fill sterilized, hot jars with prepared raw + fruit and cover with hot syrup. Place the jars + in a moderate oven, in a baking dish containing + about an inch or two of hot water. Cook and + finish as in 1, above. + +4. Fruit cooked in a kettle: + + Make a syrup in a fairly deep kettle. Put the + prepared fruit into it and cook gently until + tender. When the fruit is cooked, lift + carefully into hot, sterilized jars, and fill + to overflowing with boiling syrup. Seal at once + and invert. + + NOTE.--By Methods 1, 2, and 3 the fruit is kept + more perfect in shape and loses less flavour + than by Method 4. Methods 2 and 4 are best to + choose for class practice. + +After the lesson in Canning, it may not be wise to take the school time +for further practice in the preservation of fruit. When such is the +case, the theory of jam and jelly making may be discussed in class for +home practice. The notes of these lessons may appear as follows: + + +JAMS AND PRESERVES + +POINTS IN MAKING JAM + +1. In this method sugar is the preservative, therefore the amount used +must be large. + +2. The quantity of sugar used is from three quarters to one pound of +sugar to each pound of fruit. Little or no water is used. + +3. The natural shape and appearance of the fruit is not kept. + +4. The flavour of the fruit is not so natural, on account of the +excessive sweetness. + +5. The jar need not be sealed, but merely covered. + + +JELLY + +COMPOSITION OF JELLY + +1. Jelly is made from certain fruit juices and sugar. + +2. The fruit juice must contain a certain amount of _pectin_, or +jellying principle, and also a certain amount of acid. + + +PARTS OF FRUIT CONTAINING MOST PECTIN + + (1) Skin, (2) core, (3) pits and seeds. + +[Illustration: Utensils used in making jelly] + + +FRUITS CONTAINING MOST PECTIN + +1. Currants + +2. Crab-apples, apples + +3. Quinces + +4. Cranberries, blackberries, raspberries + +5. Grapes, if rather green. + + +METHOD OF MAKING JELLY + +1. Cut up the prepared fruit if necessary, and add barely enough water +for cooking. + +2. Set over the heat and simmer gently until the cellulose is very soft. + +3. Turn into a jelly-bag, and drain for a number of hours or over night, +in order to get rid of the cellulose. + +4. Measure the drained juice and take the same quantity of sugar. + +5. Heat the sugar in the oven. + +6. Boil the juice gently and steadily for twenty minutes, skimming when +required. + +7. Add the hot sugar and boil very gently from three to five minutes, or +until the mixture will jelly when tested. + +8. Empty at once into hot glasses and set to cool. + +9. When cold and firm, cover and set in a cool, dark place. + + +METHODS OF COVERING JAM OR JELLY + +1. Melt paraffin and pour a layer on each glass, cover with a tin cover +or paper pasted with egg-white. + +2. Cut clean, white paper to fit the glass, and lay on the jelly when it +is firm and cold. Place the cover or paper as in 1, above. + + +PICKLING + +Where the teacher finds it desirable, a lesson should now be given on +pickling, with or without class practice. At least one or two good +recipes may be given for home use. + +There are no new principles to teach. The use of vinegar, salt, and +spices as preservatives should be reviewed. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +FORM IV: SENOR GRADE (Continued) + +COOKERY + + +The first work in cookery, for this Form, should consist of practice +lessons, which will test the ability of the class in cooking the simple +animal and vegetable foods. The recipes used for these should be such as +to attract the interest of the pupils, and each may be a combination of +several food materials. Cream soups, custards, scalloped dishes, and +shepherd's pie, would be useful for this purpose. + +It is desirable that this test shall be made in as few lessons as +possible, because nearly all the time in cookery for this year will be +required for the new work, namely, a series of lessons on flour +mixtures. + + +OUTLINE OF LESSON ON FLOUR + +Flour is a food substance ground into a powder. + +1. Sources of flour: + + (1) Certain cereals--wheat, rye, barley, + buckwheat, rice + + (2) Potatoes. + +2. Kinds of flour made from wheat: + + (1) Graham flour--the entire wheat seed is + ground. + + (2) Whole wheat flour--the first outer coat of + cellulose with its valuable mineral contents is + removed before the seed is ground. + + (3) White flour--only the central white part of + the seed is ground. + + NOTE.--The pupils should be given specimens of + fall wheat to examine, so as to compare the + outer coat of cellulose with the central white + part of the grain. + +3. Composition of white flour: + + (1) Starch--a fine, granular, white substance + + (2) Gluten--a sticky, yellowish, elastic + substance (a protein food). + +To find the substances in white flour, each pupil should mix half a cup +of bread flour with enough cold water to make a dough. She must then be +taught to knead it. This knowledge will be of use later in the bread +lessons. After it is thoroughly kneaded until it is smooth and well +blended, the dough should be washed in several waters. The first washing +water should be poured into a glass and allowed to settle, to show the +starch. After all the starch is washed away, the gluten will remain. + +The gluten may then be put into a greased pan and baked, to demonstrate +that it admits of distention, and also to show that it may be stiffened +permanently by heat into any distended shape. The baked gluten should be +reserved to be used as a specimen in succeeding lessons. + +4. Kinds of wheat flour: + + (1) Bread flour--contains much gluten. + + (2) Pastry flour--contains little gluten. + + NOTE.--Macaroni is a paste made from wheat + flour which contains much gluten. + +5. Tests for bread flour: + + (1) The colour is a deeper cream than pastry + flour, on account of the larger amount of + gluten which it contains. + + (2) When squeezed, it will not hold the impress + of the hand. + + (3) When the flour is made into a dough and + washed, about one fourth of the original + quantity remains as gluten. + + +OUTLINE OF SERIES OF LESSONS ON FLOUR MIXTURES + +LESSON I + +1. Meaning of flour mixtures: + + A lightened mixture of flour and liquid, with + or without other ingredients, is called a flour + mixture. + +2. Kinds of flour mixtures: + + (1) Batters.--(_a_) Pour batters--pancakes, popovers + (_b_) Drop batters--cake + + (2) Doughs.-- (_a_) Soft dough--cookies, baking-powder + biscuits, doughnuts + (_b_) Stiff dough--pastry. + +3. Methods of mixing flour mixtures: + + (1) Stirring.--A roundabout movement which + simply mixes the ingredients. + + (2) Beating.--An upright, circular movement, + which incorporates air into the ingredients + while being mixed. + + (3) Folding.--A slow, careful beating, which + blends the ingredients without loss of the air + they contain. + + (4) Kneading.--A movement of the hands to blend + the ingredients and also to incorporate air. + + (5) Cutting.--A hacking movement of a knife to + mix fat through flour. + +4. Framework of flour mixtures: + + (1) Gluten + + (2) Gluten and egg-white. + +To show the framework, the gluten baked in the flour lessons should be +used. It should be pointed out as the skeleton of the mixture which +upholds the entire structure and on which the other ingredients depend. +To have light mixtures, this framework must admit of being expanded and +also of being stiffened permanently into the stretched shape. Since +egg-white has both of these necessary qualities, it may be used for a +framework either alone or in combination with gluten. + +It should also be observed that a mixture of ingredients light in weight +does not prevent the framework from rising as much as heavy ones do. + +The pupils will see that the framework of a mixture must increase in +size in order to make the mixture light, but it must be made very clear +that, while heat stiffens any framework, it will not distend it. Some +other agency is required for this. + +5. Lightening agents used in flour mixtures: + + (1) Air.--Incorporated by beating, kneading, + and sifting. + + (2) Steam.--Incorporated in the form of a + liquid which, when heated, changes to steam. + + (3) Carbonic acid gas.--Formed in the mixture + by the chemical union of soda with some acid. + Examples: soda and sour milk; soda, cream of + tartar and water; soda and molasses. + +The lightening agents, air and steam, may be taught from the samples of +baked gluten. Experiments will show how to produce the carbonic acid +gas. + +Experiments: + + 1. Put into a thick glass 1/8 tsp. of soda and + 1/4 tsp. of cream of tartar. Mix, and note the + result. Stir in 1/8 cup of cold water, and note + the result. + + 2. In No. 1, use hot water in place of cold, + and note the result. + + 3. Put 1/4 cup of sour milk in a glass. Stir + into the milk 1/4 tsp. of soda, and note the + result. + + 4. Put 1 tbsp. of molasses in a glass. Stir + into the molasses a pinch of soda, and note the + result. + +Baking-powder: + +It may now be explained that, for the sake of convenience, soda and +cream of tartar may be obtained already mixed, in accurate proportions +of two parts of acid to one of the soda. This mixture is known as +baking-powder. As very little moisture is necessary to start the action +of the powder, a little cornstarch is added to it to keep it dry. For +the same reason, it should always be kept tightly covered. + +Soda is made from common salt and is cheap, but the source of cream of +tartar makes it expensive, so that good baking-powder cannot be low +priced. If such be advertised, it is usually adulterated. + +As soon as the foregoing principles of flour mixtures are understood, +they should be put into practice. The lessons on cake, bread, and pastry +should follow in the order named, with as much practical work in +connection with each as the time will allow. + + +CAKE MAKING + +LESSONS II AND III + +1. Classes of cake: + + (1) Cakes without butter.--These mixtures + contain no heavy ingredients and have little + weight depending on the framework. They are + lightened by air and steam only. Examples: + sponge cake, angel cake. + + (2) Cakes with butter.--These are mixtures + having ingredients of greater weight; and the + three lightening agents--air, steam, and + carbonic acid gas are used to raise them. + Examples: pound cake, chocolate cake, nut cake, + etc. + + NOTE.--Practice should be given in making at + least one of each kind of cake, to demonstrate + the method of mixing employed. + +2. General directions for making cake: + + (1) Attend to the fire, so as to have the oven + at a proper heat. + + (2) Grease the pans thoroughly; greased paper + may be used to line the bottom of the tin, but, + in the case of fruit cake, the whole tin should + be lined. + + (3) Have everything ready, so that the mixing + may be quickly done. + + (4) Use pastry flour. + + (5) Use fine granulated sugar to ensure its + being dissolved. + + (6) Blend the ingredients thoroughly, and at + the same time incorporate as large an amount of + air as possible. + + (7) Fill the pan about two-thirds full, pushing + the mixture well to the corners and sides, so + as to leave a depression in the centre. + + (8) Attend carefully to the baking. + +3. General rules for mixing cake: + + (1) Cake without butter-- + (_a_) Separate the yolks and whites of the + eggs. + (_b_) Beat the yolks until thick and + lemon-coloured. + (_c_) Add sugar to the yolks gradually and + continue beating; add the flavouring. + (_d_) Beat the whites until stiff and dry, then + _fold_ them into the first mixture. + (_e_) Gradually sift and fold in the flour + until well mixed. + + (2) Cake with butter-- + (_a_) Cream the butter by working it with a + wooden spoon. + (_b_) Add the sugar gradually by stirring it + in. + (_c_) Beat the eggs until light, and add to the + first mixture. (The eggs may be separated and + the whites added later.) + (_d_) Add the liquid and beat until the sugar + is thoroughly dissolved. + (_e_) Mix the flour and baking-powder in a + sifter and gradually sift and beat it into the + mixture until it is thoroughly blended. + (Liquid and flour may be added alternately.) + (_f_) Fold in the stiffly beaten whites, if the + eggs have been separated. + (_g_) If fruit, peel, nuts, etc., are used, + they should be floured out of the quantity + allowed for the cake and added last. + +4. General directions for baking cake: + + (1) Small, thin cakes should be baked in a hot + oven. + + Examples: cookies, layer cake. + + (2) All loaf cakes require a moderate oven. + + (3) In baking cakes, divide the time stated in + the recipe into quarters as follows: + + First quarter--mixture should begin to rise. + + Second quarter--mixture should continue rising. + + Third quarter--mixture should begin to brown + and to stiffen into shape. + + Fourth quarter--mixture should finish browning + and stiffening and shrink slightly from the + sides of the pan. + + (4) Mixture is cooked when a slight pressure + leaves no dent, or when a small skewer or fine + knitting-needle put into the centre comes out + clean and dry. + +To the inexperienced minds of the girls in the Fourth Form, to whom the +study of flour mixtures is new, the number and variety of these seems +very large. All cook books give an almost endless collection of recipes +for cakes, cookies, muffins, etc., and to the pupils each of these seems +an entirely new mixture. In reality, many of them are but slight +variations of the same type. A certain mixture of materials is used for +a foundation, and numerous varieties are made from this by addition, +subtraction, or substitution of ingredients. The original mixture is +called a _basic recipe_. Instead of teaching isolated mixtures, it will +be found an excellent idea to give the class the basic ingredients for a +recipe and encourage them to suggest variations, either original or from +memory. + +Typical basic recipes for cake and biscuits are given below: + + +BASIC RECIPE FOR CAKE + + 1/4 cup butter + 3/4 cup sugar + 2 eggs + 1/2 cup milk + 1 1/2 cup flour + 1/4 tsp. salt + 2 tsp. baking-powder + 1/2 tsp. vanilla. + + +VARIATIONS OF BASIC RECIPE FOR CAKE + +1. Spice cake: + + To the basic recipe add 1 tbsp. of spice. Sift + in the spice with the flour. + +2. Nut cake: + + Add 1/2 cup of chopped nuts. Increase the + baking-powder by one third. Put a little of the + flour on the nuts and beat them in at the last. + +3. Fruit cake: + + Add 3/4 cup of currants, raisins, figs, or + dates, or a mixture of all. Increase the + baking-powder by one third. Flour the fruit and + add it last. + +4. Chocolate cake: + + Add 1/2 cup grated chocolate. Increase the milk + by 2 tbsp. Heat the chocolate in the milk just + enough to dissolve it. Cool the mixture and use + in place of milk. + + +BASIC RECIPE FOR BISCUITS, ETC. + + 2 cups flour + 1/2 tsp. salt + 4 tsp. baking-powder + 2 tbsp. fat (butter, lard, or dripping) + About 2/3 cup milk. + + +VARIATIONS OF BASIC RECIPE FOR BISCUITS + +1. Sweet biscuit: + + Add 2 tbsp. of sugar after the fat is added. + +2. Fruit biscuit: + + Add 2 tbsp. of sugar and 1/2 cup of fruit, + (currants, raisins, peel, or a mixture of all) + after the fat is added. + +3. Scones: + + Add 2 tbsp. of sugar, and use one egg and only + 1/2 cup of milk. Beat the egg until light, add + to milk, and use this for liquid. Form into + round cakes about eight inches in diameter, and + cut into quarters. + +4. Fruit scones: + + Add 1/2 cup of fruit to the scone recipe. + +5. Short cake for fruit: + + Same as scones, but double the amount of fat. + +6. Dumplings for stews: + + Use the basic recipe, leaving out the fat. + +7. Steamed fruit pudding: + + Use the basic recipe to make the dough that + incases the fruit. + + +BREAD MAKING + +In beginning the bread lessons, it will be found that there are no new +principles to teach. It will, however, be necessary to explain the new +means of producing gas which is used in this particular mixture, namely, +yeast. + +From their lessons on the "Preservation of Food" and "Canning", the +pupils are already acquainted with one class of microscopic plants. The +little plants, in that case, were a source of great inconvenience to the +housekeeper. Yeast may be introduced as another family of one-celled +plants, but one which is most useful. Under good conditions these tiny +plants will produce a large amount of carbon dioxide gas, provided they +are given sufficient time. If, however, the gas be required quickly, +soda and acid must be used. For this reason, plain flour mixtures, in +which the carbon dioxide is quickly made, are called quick breads, to +distinguish them from breads in which yeast is used. Examples of these +are baking-powder biscuits, gems, corn-bread, etc. + +The use of yeast is the simplest and cheapest way of obtaining carbonic +acid gas, and mixtures so made remain moist longer than those in which +baking-powder is used. + +Throughout the introductory lesson, this fact must be kept prominently +before the class, that yeast is a plant and, as such, requires plant +conditions. The necessary conditions will be known from the lesson on +"Bacteria", so that they have only to be reviewed. The pupils may be +told that although they cannot see the plants, they can very plainly see +the bubbles of gas which the plants give off when the latter are made +active under favourable conditions. + + +LESSON I + +OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON YEAST + +1. Description of yeast: + +Yeast is a one-celled plant which can be seen only with a microscope. +Under good conditions it becomes very active and multiplies rapidly by a +process called _budding_. It is used by the housekeeper for the carbonic +acid gas it gives off. + +[Illustration: Yeast plants magnified] + +2. Conditions necessary for the activity of yeast: + + (1) Oxygen + + (2) Water + + (3) Food.--This must be sugar, or starch which + it will change into sugar. Potato starch is + more easily used by yeast than flour starch. It + uses also some nitrogenous food and mineral + matter. + + (4) Heat.--The yeast plant thrives in a heat of + about the same temperature as our bodies. A + little extra heat will only make it grow + faster; but excessive heat will kill it. + + Freezing will not kill the plant, though cold + makes yeast inactive. + +3. Sources of yeast: + +Yeast was first found as _wild yeast_ in the air, but now it may be +obtained at grocery stores, in three forms: + + (1) Liquid yeast.--The plants are put into a + starchy liquid. This will keep only a few days, + as the starch sours. + + (2) Dry yeast.--The plants are put into a + starchy paste and the mixture is dried. This + form will keep for months, because it is + perfectly dry but, for the same reason, it + takes the plants a long time to become active + when used. + + (3) Compressed yeast.--The plants are put into + cakes of a starchy mixture and left moist. They + will keep only a few days. Good compressed + yeast is a pale fawn colour, smells sweet, + breaks clean, and crumbles easily. + +4. Experiments with yeast: + +Make a _yeast garden_ by using the plants obtained at the grocery store +as follows: + +Take half a cup of lukewarm water to give the plants moisture, a +teaspoonful of sugar for immediate food, and the same of wheat starch +(flour) for a reserve food. Beat the mixture to infold oxygen, and then +put in one-quarter cake of yeast plants. + +Divide the mixture among a number of test-tubes, so that each group of +four pupils has three. + + (1) Place one test-tube in warm water and heat + to boiling. + + (2) Place one test-tube in water which feels + warm to the hand. + + (3) Place one test-tube in cracked ice and + freeze the mixture. Afterwards thaw, and place + the same test-tube in lukewarm water. + +Observe the results, and compare the amount of gas formed under the +different conditions. + + +LESSON II + +PRACTICAL BREAD-MAKING + +Ingredients of plain bread: + + 1. Liquid.--(1) It wets the mixture and causes the + ingredients to adhere. + + (2) It furnishes steam for a lightening + agent. + + (3) It allows the gluten to become sticky + and elastic. + + (4) It furnishes moisture for yeast plants. + + 2. Yeast.--It gives off carbonic acid gas, which lightens + the mixture. + + 3. Salt.--(1) It gives a flavour. + + (2) It retards the growth of the yeast + plant. + + 4. Flour.--(1) It thickens the mixture. + + (2) It supplies food for the yeast plant. + + (3) It supplies gluten for a framework for + the mixture. + +Amount of ingredients for one small loaf: + + Liquid--1 cup or 1/2 pt. + Salt--1/2 tsp. + Flour--About three times the amount of liquid + +Yeast--Amount depends on the time given the bread to rise, as follows: + + 12 hr. to rise 5 hr. to rise 3 hr. to rise + 1/4 yeast cake 1/2 yeast cake 1 yeast cake + + NOTE.--One cake of compressed yeast contains + about the same number of yeast plants as one + cake of dry yeast or one cup of liquid yeast. + +Process in making bread: + + (1) Mixing (stirring, beating, and kneading).-- + (_a_) This mixes the ingredients. (_b_) It + incorporates air to aid the yeast plant and to + act as a lightening agent. (_c_) It makes the + gluten elastic. + + (2) First rising.--This allows the yeast plants + conditions and time to produce carbonic acid + gas, until the dough is distended to twice its + original size. + + (3) Moulding.--(_a_) This distributes the gas + evenly throughout the loaf. (_b_) It shapes the + loaf. + + (4) Second rising.--This again allows the yeast + plants time to produce gas which will distend + the dough to twice its size. + + (5) Baking.--(_a_) The heat of the oven expands + the air and gas in the dough, which causes the + gluten framework to distend. (_b_) The water + changes to steam, which becomes another agent + in distending the gluten. (_c_) The starch on + the outside of the loaf becomes brown in the + dry heat of the oven, while the inside starch + is made soluble in the moist heat of the + mixture. (_d_) The gluten stiffens into the + distended shape. (_e_) The yeast plants are + killed. + +In this lesson, after deciding on the necessary ingredients, the pupils +may be told the amount of each to use for their class work. They should +then measure and mix these ingredients and set the dough away for the +first rising. While the bread is rising, the kitchen may be put in order +and the other steps of the process reasoned out and written. + +Other school work must be taken then, until the dough has fully risen, +when the process may be completed. After each stage of the process has +been carried out, the notes on it may be written. + +With the foregoing principles of bread-making in mind, the class should +be able to make any bread mixture. Each pupil should have entire +responsibility for the process of making one small loaf of plain bread. +About half a cup of liquid, mixed with the other necessary ingredients, +makes a good-sized loaf for practice. Smaller loaves than this give +little chance for manipulation. + +In Household Management centres, where the pupils come from other +schools for the lesson period only, the process will have to be divided +into two lessons. The first lesson may include the first two +stages--mixing and first rising--each pupil using small quantities, say +for one eighth of a loaf of the ordinary size. At the end of the lesson, +they may carry their dough home for completion, or it may be used by +another class which is ready for the later steps of the process. + +The second lesson will include the last three steps--moulding, second +rising, and baking--and it will be necessary for the teacher to have +dough prepared for the moulding stage when the class arrives. + + +LESSON III + +FANCY BREADS + +These mixtures are but variations of plain bread. The extra ingredients, +such as milk, eggs, butter, spices, sugar, currants, raisins, peel, +etc., are added at the most convenient stage of the process. + + NOTE.--If there is not time to have one fancy + bread, such as Parker House rolls or currant + bread, made in school, recipes for these may be + discussed in class and the work done at home. + + +THE BREAD-MIXER + +1. This utensil mixes and beats the bread by means of a large beater +turned with a handle, thus avoiding the use of the hands for this +purpose. + +2. It does this work with less energy and in a much shorter time than if +the hands were used. + +3. It can be used only for the first two steps of bread-making, namely, +_mixing_ and _first rising_. + +4. The ingredients must all be put in at once; hence, they must be +accurately measured. + +5. The amount of ingredients may be learned by calculation from previous +bread-making done in the old way, or by using the book of recipes +accompanying each mixer. + + NOTE.--There are several good kinds of + bread-mixers which may be bought in three + sizes. Small size makes 1 to 2 loaves and costs + $1.35 (about). Medium size makes 2 to 6 loaves + and costs $2.00 (about). Large size makes 4 to + 10 loaves and costs $2.50 (about). + + +PASTRY + +Pastry is one of the simplest flour mixtures, and one that has the +lowest food value. The intimate blending of butter or lard with the +flour envelopes the starch grains with fat, and makes the mixture +difficult to digest. The same thing occurs in frying food and in +buttering hot toast; so the idea is not a new one to the class. + +In introducing the lesson on pastry, this principle of digestion should +be reviewed, and it should be made plain that delicate pudding and +seasonable fruits are a much better form of dessert. + +There are no new principles to teach, but some old ones to impress. The +object of the housekeeper should be to make a mixture that is light and +one that will fall to pieces easily. To ensure the latter, anything that +would toughen the gluten must be avoided. + +From the bread lesson, the pupils have learned that working the water +into the gluten or much handling of flour after it is wet, makes a +mixture firm and tough. In pastry there must be enough gluten to stick +the ingredients together, but its elastic quality is undesirable. For +the latter reason also, a small amount of water is used. + +In the cake mixtures, it was found that the use of fat in the "butter +cakes" made the framework tender and easily broken, so in pastry the +same means may be employed. Fat of some kind is mixed with the flour to +act on the gluten and destroy its toughness. + +Air and steam are the only lightening agents commonly used in pastry. +Since cold air occupies less room than warm air and admits of more +expansion, it is desirable that the mixture be kept very cold. The low +temperature also prevents the fat melting; hence, the necessity for the +use of cold utensils and materials throughout the process. + + +OUTLINE OF LESSON ON PASTRY + +1. Ingredients: + + (1) Flour, (2) salt, (3) fat, (4) water. + +2. Notes on flour: + + (1) Use only pastry flour, which will have a + small amount of gluten. + + (2) After the flour is wet, handle the mixture + as little as possible, to avoid working the + water into the gluten and making it tough. + +3. Notes on fat: + + (1) Fat is used to destroy the elasticity of + the gluten, so that it will not be tough when + cooked. + + (2) Butter, lard, or dripping may be used. + + (3) Lard makes more tender pastry than butter. + + (4) Butter gives the best flavour. + + (5) Half butter and half lard makes a good + mixture. + + (6) Layers of fat may be put in between layers + of pastry, to separate it into flakes. + + (7) If two fats are used, the softer is cut + into the flour, and the harder one laid on the + paste and folded in. + +4. Notes on water: + + (1) Use the water as cold as possible. + + (2) Use the least amount of water necessary to + make the ingredients adhere. + +5. Lightening agents used in pastry: + + (1) Air.--(_a_) This should be as cold as + possible. (_b_) The air may he folded in, + between layers of pastry. + + (2) Steam. + +6. Kinds of pastry: + + (1) Plain pastry.--In this, one quarter to one + third as much fat as flour is used, and it is + all "cut in". + + (2) Flaky pastry.--In this, the same amount of + fat is used as in plain pastry, but half of it + is "laid on" and folded in. + + (3) Puff pastry.--In this, one half as much fat + as flour, up to equal parts of each is used; + one quarter of the fat is cut in, and the + remainder is laid on and folded in. + +7. Amount of ingredients for plain pastry for one pie: + + 1 1/2 cup pastry flour; 1/4 tsp. salt; 1/2 cup + fat (lard and butter); ice water. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued) + +MEAT + + +As meat is rather a complex food the teaching of which involves a good +many lessons, and as it does not lend itself as well as other foods to +the making of dishes useful in practice work, it seems wise to defer the +study of it until the Senior Form is reached; the ability and home needs +of the pupils should decide this. The season of the year should also be +considered. It is wiser to take meat lessons in cold weather because it +is then more pleasant to handle and easier to keep. The latter +consideration is important in some rural districts, where shops are not +convenient. + +More preparation is needed for the first meat lesson than for most +foods. Some days before, thin bones such as leg or wing bones of fowl, +or rib bones of lamb should be soaked in diluted hydrochloric or nitric +acid (one part acid to ten of water), to dissolve the mineral substance +which gives the bone its rigidity. + +Any time before the lesson, a large solid bone of an old animal, such as +a knee or hip joint of beef, should be burned for hours to get rid of +the connective tissue which holds the mineral substance in shape. This +should be carefully done, in order to retain the shape of the bone and +to show the porous formation of the mineral substance. If the bone is +not blackened by the fire, its white colour will also indicate the lime +of which it is formed. + +On the day of the lesson it will be necessary to have a piece of meat +showing the three parts--fat, bone, and muscle. A lower cut of the round +of beef has all these parts, and the muscle is sufficiently tough to +show its connective tissue plainly. For the study of fat, a piece of +suet is best, as it can be easily picked apart to show its formation. + +In examining fat meat and lean meat it is essential that, at least, +every two pupils have a piece, as close scrutiny is necessary. One or +two samples of bone will suffice for the class. + +No definite amount of work can be laid down for any one lesson. The +interest and ability of the class must be the guide. In rural schools, +the time of each lesson must be comparatively short, though no Household +Management teacher should spend more than forty minutes on purely +theoretical work without a change of some kind. + +The following is an outline of the facts to be considered in this +particular study: + + +LESSON I + +1. Names of meat: + + (1) Beef, from the ox or cow. The best meat + comes from an animal about four years old. + + (2) Veal, from the calf. It should be at least + six weeks old. + + (3) Mutton, from the sheep. Spring lamb is from + six to eight weeks old; yearling is one year + old. + + (4) Pork, from the pig. + + (5) Fowl, poultry--chicken, turkey, duck, + goose. + + (6) Game, wild animals--deer, wild duck, + partridge, etc. + +2. Parts of meat: + + (1) Fat.--(_a_) Inside fat, around the internal + organs, usually called kidney fat, or suet. + (_b_) Outside fat, next the skin, called caul + fat. + + (2) Bone, (3) muscle, or lean meat. + +3. Composition of fat: + + (1) Connective tissue, (2) true fat, (3) water. + +Fat should be the first part studied, because it is the simplest tissue +and the parts are most plainly seen. Pick the specimen apart, and the +tissue that holds it together is found. Its name is easily developed +from its use. + +The water may be shown by heating pieces of fat in a small saucepan and, +when it becomes hot, covering the dish with a cold plate. Remove the +plate before it gets heated, and moisture will be condensed on its +surface. The presence of water in fat may also be reasoned out by +remembering that water enters into the composition of all body tissues. + +4. Composition of bone: + + (1) Mineral matter (lime), (2) connective + tissue, (3) water. + +Neither the mineral substance nor the connective tissue in bone can be +seen until either one or the other is eliminated. + +Strike the fresh bone with a steel knife, and it shows the quality of +hardness. Bones are built from food, and the only food substance that is +so hard is mineral matter. Show the burned bone, with only the mineral +matter left, and let each pupil examine it. Its formation indicates the +spaces which the part burned out of it occupied. Let it fall or crush +part of it in the fingers, to show how easily it is broken. Such bones +would be no use as a framework to support the body. The bones of very +old persons get too much like this, and we are afraid to have such +people fall. The burned bone needs something to hold it together--a +connective tissue. Such a tissue was in the spaces before the bone was +burned. + +Show the bone after it has been prepared in an acid solution, with only +the connective tissue left. Explain how it was prepared. Bend it to show +its pliability. To be of use in the body it needs some substance to make +it hard and rigid--the mineral matter which was dissolved out. + + NOTE.--This is an excellent time to show the + necessity for bone-building mineral in the diet + of babies and young children. If they do not + get this mineral substance during the growth + period, they cannot have hard, rigid bones, and + their bodies are apt to become misshapen--bow + legs, curved spines, etc. This substance is + also necessary for hard, sound teeth. + +Draw attention to the fact that the mineral matter in milk and eggs is +in solution, and therefore ready to be used by the body. Mineral matter +is not in solution in bone, and cannot be dissolved by the digestive +process, therefore it is practically of no use as food. + +Compare the connective tissue of bone with that of fat, and let the +pupils account for the difference in thickness. Lead them to see that +connective tissue can be dissolved in hot water, and in this way may be +extracted from the mineral part of bone. The housekeeper may do this +herself, or she may buy it already extracted, as gelatine. + +5. Composition of muscle: + + (1) Connective tissue + + (2) Red part, made up of microscopic tubes + holding a red juice. The juice contains: (_a_) + Water (_b_) Red colour (_c_) Flavour (_d_) + Muscle albumen--a protein substance similar to + egg-white (_e_) Mineral matter. + +[Illustration: Muscle fibres highly magnified + +Bundle of fibres. Tubes of one fibre. Proper carving of fibres--across +the grain.] + +It should be made clear that the walls of such tiny tubes can never be +thick enough to be tough. Attention should be called to the real cause +of toughness--the thick connective tissue. + + NOTE.--Very small pieces of meat will serve for + specimens. Tough meat is better, because it + shows the connective tissue more plainly. When + the muscle is being examined, it should be + carefully scraped with a knife, until a layer + of connective tissue is laid bare. The red part + that is scraped off should be explained, and a + drawing should be made to illustrate it. + +Minced lean beef should he soaked in a little cold water for at least +twenty minutes, to extract the muscle juice for examination. The juice +should be strained through a cheesecloth and poured into a glass. It +shows nothing but water and a red colour. + +In order to find the other substances, pour part of the juice into a +small saucepan and heat it gradually until it boils gently. The red +colour will disappear, and the albumen which is dissolved in the juice +will coagulate and become plainly visible. The pupils will recall that +egg-white was affected in the same way by heat, and may be told that +this coagulated substance is similar to egg-white, and is called muscle +albumen. The odour given off by heating suggests that the flavour is +also in the muscle juice, hence the importance of conserving this juice +in the cooking process. + +Strain the boiled juice to get rid of the coagulated albumen and then +examine the liquid that is left. Its colour plainly denotes mineral +matter in solution. + + +LESSON II + +6. Meat experiments: + +If time permit, the following experiments may be taken. The facts which +these experiments prove may, however, be developed in a much shorter +time by questioning: + + (1) Cut lean meat into small pieces, cover them + with cold water and let them stand. Note the + colour of the water. + + (2) Cover a piece of lean meat with boiling + water and let it stand. Note the colour of the + water. + + (3) Sprinkle a piece of meat with salt. What + happens? + + (4) Wrap a piece of meat for a few minutes in + ordinary brown wrapping-paper. What happens? + + (5) Simmer a small piece of very tough meat for + about an hour and then examine the connective + tissue. + + (6) Boil or bake a small piece of very tough + meat and then examine the connective tissue. + +7. Selection of meat: + + (1) All flesh should be uniform in colour, of a + fine grain, and firm and springy to the touch. + + (2) Beef should be bright red in colour, well + mottled, and surrounded with fat. + + (3) Mutton should be a dull red, and its fat + white, hard, and flaky. + + (4) Lamb is lighter in colour than mutton, and + the bone is redder. + + (5) Veal has pinkish-coloured flesh and white + fat. Very pale veal is not good. + + (6) Pork should have firm flesh of a pale red + colour. The skin should be white and clear, the + fat white. + + (7) Poultry: (_a_) Chickens.--Young chickens + have thin, sharp nails; smooth legs; soft, thin + skin; and soft cartilage at the end of the + breastbone. Long hairs denote age. (_b_) + Turkeys.--These should be plump, have smooth, + dark legs, and soft cartilage. (_c_) + Geese.--These should be plump and have many pin + feathers; they should also have pliable bills + and soft feet. + +8. Care of meat: + + (1) Remove the meat from the wrapping paper as + soon as it arrives, to prevent the loss of + juices. The butcher should use waxed paper next + to the meat. + + (2) Wipe the meat all over with a damp cloth, + but do not put it into water. + + (3) Place the meat on an earthen or enamel + dish, and set it in a cool place until + required. + + (4) Frozen meat should be thawed in a warm room + before being cooked. + + +LESSON III + +9. General ways of preparing meat: + + (1) Extracting certain substances.--(_a_) + Soup--substances extracted in water from lean + meat, bone, and fat. (_b_) Beef-tea--substances + extracted in water from lean meat. (_c_) + Bouillon--substances extracted in water from + lean meat and flavoured with vegetable. (_d_) + Beef juice--juices extracted from lean meat by + heat only, or by pressure. + + (2) Retaining all substances.--Roasts, boiling + pieces, steaks, chops, cutlets. + + (3) Retaining part and extracting part.--Stews. + +10. Notes on tough meat: + + (1) The toughness of meat depends on the + thickness of the connective tissue holding the + muscle tubes together. + +[Illustration: Cuts of beef + +1. Neck, stews and soup. 2. Chuck ribs, cheaper roasts. 3. Prime ribs, +very good roasts. 4. Loin, best steaks or roasts (sirloin, tenderloin, +porterhouse). 5. Rump, roasts and steak. 6. Brisket, stews or corned +beef. 7. Fore shank, soup. 8. Shoulder, stews or pot-roasts. 9. Short +ribs, stews or cheap roasts. 10. Navel, corned beef. 11. Plate, stews or +corned beef. 12. Flank, stews or corned beef. 13. Round, steaks. 14. 2nd +cut round, stews and soup. 15. Hind shank, stews and soup. 16. Tail, +soup.] + +[Illustration: Bony structure] + + (2) The connective tissue is made thick and + tough by two causes.--(_a_) Age--in old + animals the connective tissue has grown thick. + (_b_) Exercise--in certain parts of the body, + where muscles are much used, these muscles must + be more firmly bound together, as in the neck + and legs, etc. + + (3) Dry heat will harden connective tissue, + making it more difficult to cut and chew; + therefore tough cuts should not be cooked in + dry heat. + + (4) Moist heat will soften and finally dissolve + connective tissue, making it easy to cut and + chew; therefore tough cuts should be cooked in + moist heat. + + (5) Tough meat is more abundant in an animal's + body, and is, therefore, cheaper than tender + meat. + + (6) Tough meat has richer juices than tender + meat and should be used for soup, broth, and + beef-tea. + +11. Digestibility of meat: + + (1) The less muscle juice is coagulated by + heat, the more easily it is digested. + + (2) Because of their close texture, the liver, + kidney, and heart of animals are more difficult + to digest. + + (3) Mutton and lamb, because of their shorter + fibres, are more easily digested than beef. + + (4) Veal is difficult to digest, owing to its + stringy fibres. + +[Illustration: Cuts of veal] + +[Illustration: Cuts of lamb] + + (5) Pork has a large amount of fat intermingled + with its fibres, and is, therefore, difficult + to digest. + + (6) Chicken and turkey are easily digested, but + goose and duck are indigestible, because of the + fat through the muscle fibres. + + (7) Game is easy of digestion. + +The practical work, besides the experiments, in connection with the meat +lessons, should consist of at least three preparations of this food: (1) +the cooking of tender meat, (2) the cooking of tough meat, (3) the +making of soup. + +[Illustration: Cuts of pork] + +The object of each preparation should be made plain, so that the pupils +may fully understand what they are trying to accomplish. + +1. Object in cooking tender meat: + + (1) To change the flavour and appearance. + + (2) To seal the tubes to keep in the juices. + + (3) To cook the meat without densely + coagulating the protein of the muscle juice, so + as to keep it digestible. + +2. Object in cooking tough meat: + + (1) To change the flavour and appearance. + + (2) To soften and partially dissolve the + connective tissue, making it easy to cut. + + (3) To avoid making the muscle juice + indigestible. + +3. Object in making soup: + + (1) To extract the connective tissue from the + bone. + + (2) To extract the muscle juice from the tubes. + + +GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING MEAT + +1. Baking: + + Place the meat in a very hot oven with pieces + of the fat or some dripping in the pan. Baste + every ten minutes. Keep the oven very hot for a + small roast. For a large roast, check the fire + after the first fifteen minutes. Bake fifteen + minutes to each pound. + +2. Broiling: + + (1) Over the coals.--Put the meat between the + hot greased wires of a broiler. Place over a + very hot, clear fire. Turn the broiler every + ten seconds. Beef one inch thick cooks rare in + eight minutes. + + (2) Pan Broiling.--Heat a frying-pan smoking + hot. Lay the meat in flat; turn constantly + until seared, then frequently, as in broiling, + but do not pierce the muscle part with a fork. + Beef one inch thick cooks rare in ten minutes. + +3. Boiling: + + Cover the meat with boiling water. Boil five + minutes. Then simmer until done. Tender meat + takes twenty minutes to the pound; tough meat + takes from three to five hours. + +4. Stewing: + + Cut the meat in pieces of a suitable size. + Cover with cold water. Bring gradually to the + simmering point and simmer until tender, + usually three or four hours. Keep the pot + closely covered. + +5. Beef juice: + Take one pound of steak from the top of the round. Wipe the + steak, remove all fat, and cut the lean meat in small pieces. + Place in canning jar, and cover; place on a rest in the kettle + and surround with cold water. Allow the water to heat slowly, + care being taken not to have it reach a higher temperature than + 130 degrees. Let stand two hours; strain and press the meat to + obtain all the juices. Salt to taste. + + NOTE.--These rules may be dictated to the + class, as all of the principles which they + involve have been previously discussed. + + +FISH + +Since fish is the flesh of sea animals, there will be little new to +learn concerning it. + +Main points of difference between this flesh and ordinary meat are: + +1. Fish is less stimulating and nourishing than meat, as it contains +more water and less protein than an equal quantity of lean meat. + +2. Oysters, and the class called white-fish, are more easily digested +than meat, hence they should be chosen for invalids or those having weak +digestions. + +Kinds of fish: + +1. White-fish.--The fat is stored mostly in the liver, making the flesh +easy to digest. Examples: cod, halibut, haddock, white-fish. + +2. Oily fish.--The fat is distributed throughout the flesh, making it +more difficult to digest. Examples: salmon, herring, mackerel. + +3. Shell-fish.--Because of their close fibres, these are difficult to +digest, with the exception of oysters. Examples: clams, scallops, and +oysters. + +4. Crustaceous.--The flesh is tough and hard to digest. Examples: +lobsters, crabs. + +Selection of fish: + +Fresh fish may be recognized by the following: + + 1. The eyes should be full and bright. + + 2. The flesh should be firm and elastic. + + 3. The gills should be bright red. + + 4. There should be no unpleasant odour. + +Cooking of fish: + +Fish may be cooked in any way similar to meat. As the flesh of fish +contains food substances which are very easily dissolved in water, +boiling is not a good method of cooking to choose for this food. +Steaming, baking, and frying are more suitable. + + +GELATINE + +A lesson on gelatine naturally follows the lessons on meat and fish. The +study of bone and the making of soup have explained the source of this +substance, and only a few additional facts are necessary. + +The gelatine practice dishes are sure to prove attractive to the class, +and the common use of this food in sickness, and in salads and desserts, +makes it important that its food value be understood. + +1. Source of gelatine: + +Gelatine is obtained from the bones, cartilage, and skin of animals. It +is the connective tissue dissolved out of these parts. + +The housekeeper may obtain it for herself or she may buy it already +extracted; both are equally good. + +2. Commercial forms: + + (1) Sheet gelatine + + (2) Shredded gelatine + + (3) Granulated gelatine. + +3. Properties of gelatine: + + (1) It softens in cold water, but will not + dissolve. + + (2) It dissolves in hot water. + + (3) It jellies when cold, if the solution be + sufficiently strong. + + (4) Good gelatine has little taste, colour, or + odour, and no sediment when dissolved. + +4. Steps in dissolving gelatine: + + (1) Put a small amount of cold water or any + cold liquid on gelatine, and let it stand until + the liquid is absorbed. + + (2) Add a boiling liquid and stir thoroughly + until dissolved. + +5. Value in the diet: + + (1) Gelatine is a nitrogenous substance, but + cannot of itself build tissues, as most protein + foods do. When eaten, it will save the tissues + already making up the body, hence is called a + _protein-sparer_. + + (2) It is very easily digested, and for this + reason it gives a pleasant variety to the diet + of an invalid. + + (3) It makes an attractive dessert at the end + of a substantial meal, without adding much + nutriment. + +6. Ways of using gelatine: + + (1) It may assist in making soup. + + (2) Any liquid may be used to dissolve this + substance to make a plain jelly. Examples: + coffee jelly, tomato jelly, wine jelly. + + (3) Plain jelly may be varied as follows: + + Allow the plain jelly mixture to cool until it + is as thick as cream, and then beat in whipped + egg-white, or fruit, or chopped vegetables, and + set away until firm. Examples: snow pudding, + orange charlotte, vegetable salad. + + (4) Strain off the juice from a can of fruit, + heat it, and use it for dissolving the + gelatine. When almost set, add the fruit, and + set away to become firm. + + +FROZEN DISHES + +A lesson on frozen dishes may be taken at any time, but it seems +specially opportune after the gelatine lesson. It may be impossible to +make these dishes in school, but the facts of the lesson may be +discussed and recipes furnished, after which a Form IV pupil should find +no difficulty in carrying out these recipes at home. + +Elementary science should be correlated, to explain the use of salt in +the freezing process. + + +VALUE OF FROZEN DISHES + +1. They are cooling, refreshing, and nourishing when properly taken; +they are not good as a final course at a meal, as cold mixtures reduce +the temperature of the stomach and thus retard digestion. + +2. They are appetizing in appearance and flavour. + +3. They are economical as regards cost of ingredients, fuel, time, and +energy. + + +KINDS OF FROZEN DISHES + +1. Water ice.--Fruit juice diluted with water, sweetened and frozen; +stirred about every five minutes while freezing. + +2. Frappe.--Water ice frozen to the consistency of mush; in freezing, +equal parts of ice and salt are used to make the mixture granular. + +3. Sherbet.--Water ice to which is added a small quantity of dissolved +gelatine or beaten egg-white; stirred constantly while freezing. + +4. Ice cream.--Thin cream, sweetened, flavoured, and frozen; stirred +constantly while freezing. + +5. Plain ice cream.--Same as ice cream with custard added. + +6. Mousse.--Thick cream, beaten until stiff, sweetened, flavoured, +placed in a mould, packed in ice and salt (two parts ice to one part +salt), and allowed to stand three hours. A small quantity of dissolved +gelatine may be added to the mixture. + + +PRACTICAL WORK + +1. Freezing: + + (1) Scald the can and dasher and cool just + before using. + + (2) See that all parts of the freezer are + properly adjusted. + + (3) Empty the mixture into the can; never fill + the can more than three-quarters full, to allow + for expansion when freezing. + + (4) Prepare ice by chipping finely or by + crushing in a canvas bag by means of a mallet. + + (5) Allow three measures of ice to one of + coarse rock salt and pack this mixture solidly + around the can. + + (6) Turn the crank slowly and steadily until + the mixture begins to freeze, then turn more + rapidly until frozen. + + (7) Add more ice and salt as needed, but do not + draw off the salt water except to keep it from + getting inside the can. + +2. Packing: + + (1) When the mixture is frozen, draw off the + water, remove the dasher, and pack the contents + of the can down solidly with a spoon. + + (2) Replace the cover, using a cork for the + opening, then repack in ice and salt (four + parts ice to one part salt). + + (3) Cover with newspapers, blanket, or carpet, + and let it stand for at least one hour before + serving. + +2. Moulding: + + (1) Wet the mould and pack the frozen mixture + in solidly. + + (2) Place the cover on the mould and bind + strips of greased cotton or waxed paper around + all the crevices. + + (3) Imbed the mould in ice and salt (four parts + ice to one part salt). + + (4) Wrap a cloth wrung from hot water around + the mould for an instant, before removing the + mixture. + + +PLANNING AND PREPARATION OF MEALS + +The food work of the previous Forms, from constant reference and use, +should be so well known that it may be reviewed in one lesson, under the +following heads: + +1. Uses of food + +2. Necessary substances in food + +3. Composition of the common foods--milk, eggs, meat, vegetables, fruit, +seeds + +4. General sources of each food substance. + +After the review, the class may be asked to prepare menus for one day's +meals, keeping in mind the following: + +1. Daily balance of food substances + +2. Appetizing appearance and flavour of the food + +3. Economy of time, labour, and money in providing the food. + +The preparation of menus may be continued, even while other work is +being studied, until the teacher feels satisfied with the ability of the +class to prepare menus intelligently. + +The planning of menus should, if time permit, be extended to actual +practice in preparing and serving the meals called for by some of the +menus. In this Form there should be a limit set to the number of people +served and the cost of the food. + +Since breakfast and luncheon were prepared in the Junior Form, a dinner +should be taken in this. The entire responsibility of the meal should be +given to the pupils, each being appointed to perform definite duties. +The teacher may advise while the class is planning the work, but not +assist while it is being carried out. + +Each member of the class may be asked to prepare a menu to suit the +special conditions which have been made as to number and cost. These may +be planned at home and brought to the teacher for criticism. At the +first lesson, three or four of the best may be written on the +black-hoard for comparison and choice. + +When the selection is made, members of the class should be chosen for +the following duties: (1) marketing, (2) preparation of food, (3) laying +the table, (4) serving, (5) representing members of the family to eat +the meal. + + NOTE.--To prevent any suspicion of favouritism, + the duties may be written on slips of paper and + the pupils allowed to draw these. + +At the second lesson the meal will be prepared, served, and eaten. In +schools lacking an equipment, the meal may be planned and selected in +the same way as above, but the entire responsibility of carrying it out +must rest on one pupil, as it will be necessary for each to prepare and +serve it in her own home. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued) + +INFANT FEEDING + + +This subject is more suitable for older students than for those +attending the public and separate schools, but, because of its +importance and the fact that many girls never go beyond the Entrance +class, it is deemed wise to present, to the pupils of Form IV, the main +facts relating to the feeding of infants. Each teacher must however use +her judgment in the choice of these facts for her class and in the +method of presenting them. The instruction given may include the +following ideas: + +The natural food of an infant is its mother's milk, and too much stress +cannot be placed on the necessity of nursing by the mother. + +Even if the mother has but a small supply, the baby should not be +weaned; the supply should be supplemented by modified milk. In the rare +cases where a mother cannot nurse her baby, a physician should prescribe +the food. In such a case the best substitute is cow's milk. + +If cow's milk be used, it will have to be changed or "modified" to make +it as far as possible like mother's milk. Cow's milk differs in the +following respects: It has (1) less water and therefore more solids; (2) +a larger proportion of protein and mineral compounds; (3) less sugar; +(4) a different combination of fats. + +Cow's milk cannot be made like mother's milk, but it is better food for +a little baby if cream, milk sugar, and barley water, are added in +certain proportions, varying according to the age of the child. + + +RECIPE FOR MODIFIED MILK + +Milk 7 ounces + +Milk sugar 1/2 ounce + +Cream (18%) 1 ounce, if ordinary milk be used or 1/2 ounce if Jersey +milk be used. + +Barley water Dilute with barley water to make 20 ounces for the first +two or three weeks, then reduce to 16 ounces up to about three months of +age. The volume may then be reduced to 14 ounces, and at five or six +months to 12 ounces. + +Mixed milk, and not one cow's milk, should be used, for the reason that +a better average of milk is secured from several cows than from one. The +supply should be fresh and clean. To make sure of the latter, scrupulous +care should be given to the cleanliness of the cows' bodies and stables, +the utensils, and the clothing and hands of the milkers. If there is any +doubt of the cleanliness, the milk should be pasteurized. The +pasteurization greatly reduces the bacterial life in the milk by a +temperature which does not change its composition and digestibility, as +is the case in sterilizing it. + + +DIRECTIONS FOR PASTEURIZING MILK + +Sterilize bottles as for canning. Nearly fill the bottles with milk and +cork them with absorbent cotton which has been sterilized (by being +baked a delicate brown). Place the bottles on a rest in a deep kettle +and surround them with cold water as high as the milk. Heat the water +gradually to 155 degrees Fahrenheit, or until tiny bubbles show in the +milk next the glass. Remove the kettle and contents to where the +temperature of the milk will remain the same for half an hour. Then +cool the milk quickly by putting the bottles first in lukewarm water and +then in cold water. Keep in a cool place and do not remove the cotton +until ready to use. Pasteurized milk should not be kept more than a +couple of days. + +The utmost care and cleanliness should be observed in preparing the +infant's food. All utensils which come in contact with the food should +be sterilized each time they are used. Bottles with rubber tubes should +_never_ be used, as they cannot be thoroughly cleaned. The bottle should +be plain and graduated without a neck, and the nipple should admit of +being turned inside out. + + +CARE OF BOTTLES + +After the nursing, the bottles should at once be rinsed with cold water. +Later, the bottles and nipples should be carefully washed in hot, soapy +water, then rinsed in clear, hot water. They should then be sterilized +by boiling in water for twenty minutes, after which they may be placed +in boric acid solution (1 tsp. to 1 qt. water), or the bottles may be +emptied and plugged with sterilized absorbent cotton until again +required. + + +CARE OF FOOD + +It saves much time to make sufficient food to last for twenty-four +hours. This may be put into a large bottle, or what is better, into the +several nursing bottles, and each plugged with sterilized absorbent +cotton. After cooling, the bottles should be put on the ice or in some +cool place until required. Where there is no refrigerator, an ice-box +made on the principle of the home-made fireless cooker will do +excellent service. When the food is to be used, it should be warmed +slightly above body heat by placing the bottle in warm water. + +The following table is taken from _The Care and Feeding of Children_ by +L. Emmet Holt, M.D., of New York. + + +SCHEDULE FOR FEEDING A HEALTHY CHILD + +DURING THE FIRST YEAR + + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + |Interval| Night | Number | | + | between| feedings| of | Quantity | Quantity + Age | meals | (6 p.m. | feedings| for one | for 24 + | by day | to | in 24 | feeding | hours + | | 6 a.m.) | hours | | + ------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+----------- + | Hours | | | Ounces | Ounces + 2nd to 7th day | 3 | 2 | 7 | 1 2 | 7-14 + ------------------|--------|---------+---------+-----------+----------- + 2nd and 3rd weeks | 3 | 2 | 7 | 2-3 1/2 | 14-24 + ------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+----------- + 4th to 6th week | 3 | 2 | 7 | 3-4 | 21-28 + ------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+----------- + 7th week to 3 mos.| 3 | 2 | 7 | 3 1/2-5 | 25-35 + ------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+----------- + 3 to 5 months | 3 | 1 | 6 | 4 1/2-6 | 27-36 + ------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+----------- + 5 to 7 months | 3 | 1 | 6 |5 1/2-6 1/2| 33-39 + ------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+----------- + 7 to 12 months | 4 | .. | 5 | 7-8 1/2 | 35-43 + ------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+----------- + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued) + +HOUSEHOLD SANITATION + + +As the principles of sanitation are based on a knowledge of bacteria, +the facts concerning these microscopic plants, which were taught in the +lesson on the "Preservation of Food", have only to be reviewed and +extended. + +The following topics should he quickly reviewed: + + 1. Description of bacteria + + 2. Occurrence of bacteria + + 3. Favourable conditions for bacteria + + 4. Multiplication of bacteria + + 5. Useful bacteria + + 6. Harmful bacteria. + +It is with the harmful bacteria that our lesson on sanitation deals. The +pupils already know that some kinds belonging to this class cause the +decay of food, and now they are ready to be told that other harmful +kinds of microscopic plants gain entrance to our bodies and cause +disease. Concerning these, the following outline of facts should be +taken: + +1. MEANS OF BACTERIA ENTERING THE BODY + + (1) Through the respiratory organs + + (2) Through the digestive tract + + (3) Through the broken skin. + +2. COMMON DISEASE-PRODUCING BACTERIA + + (1) Those entering the respiratory + organs.--Mumps, scarlet fever, whooping-cough, + diphtheria, measles, pneumonia + + (2) Those entering the digestive + tract.--Typhoid, cholera, tuberculosis + + (3) Those coming through cuts, etc.--Skin + diseases like ringworm, blood poisoning, + lockjaw (tetanus). + +[Illustration: Sink and sewer connection T--Trap. W--Waste Pipe. +H.D.--House drain. S.--Sewer.] + +If housekeepers do not exercise care, these disease-producing bacteria +may enter the home, and finding there all the conditions which they +require, they will multiply, and become a menace to the family. + + +3. METHODS OF SANITATION + +Since bacteria are too small to be seen, it is very hard to deal with +them. The housekeeper has the following ways of protecting the +household: + + (1) By having all drain pipes trapped: + + (2) By keeping the house free from lodging + places for bacteria: + (_a_) Keep the house clean and free of dust. + (_b_) Wash garbage pails and sinks daily and + scald them and drain pipes at least once a + week. + (_c_) Keep the refrigerators, cupboards, and + receptacles for food clean, and allow no + spoiled food to remain in them. + (_d_) Wash and sterilize the soiled clothing + once a week. + (_e_) Keep the cellar well aired and clean; + allow no decaying material to remain in it. + (_f_) Keep the door-yards clean; allow no + scraps of food, cleaning water, or sweepings to + be thrown near the house. + + (3) By keeping the supply of food from disease-producing bacteria: + (_a_) Use screens to keep out flies, which + transfer bacteria from their bodies to food. + (_b_) Wash fresh fruit and vegetables before + using. + (_c_) Boil for twenty minutes water of doubtful + purity. + + (4) By keeping the bodies of the family strong and healthy, so + that if bacteria gain an entrance they will be resisted and + overcome: + (_a_) Provide well-balanced, nutritious food. + (_b_) Supply suitable clothing to protect the + body. + (_c_) See that there is an abundant supply of + fresh air, night and day. + + +4. DISPOSAL OF WASTE IN VILLAGES AND RURAL DISTRICTS + + (1) Burn all combustible material. + + (2) Bury tins, broken dishes, etc. + + (3) Feed refuse food to animals or empty it + into a pit dug for the purpose, and cover with + a layer of earth from time to time. + + (4) Throw slop water at a distance from the + house and well, and plant stalky growths like + sunflowers, which absorb the waste. + +5. METHODS OF DISINFECTING + +Where bacterial disease is known to exist, the utmost care should be +taken to subject everything that has come in contact with the patient to +a process which will kill the disease-producing plants. Only two ways of +doing this are known: + + (1) Subject the bacteria to extreme heat which + will kill them-- + (_a_) Burn everything that can be burned. + (_b_) Boil bed and body linen. + (_c_) Scald dishes. + (_d_) Scald or bake utensils. + + (2) Use chemicals to destroy the germs-- + (_a_) Use chemical solutions to wash surfaces, + materials, or utensils. + (_b_) Seal the rooms and burn chemicals to + produce vapours which will destroy bacteria. + + NOTE.--Directions for the use of chemicals are + given under the lesson on "Home Nursing". + + +HOME NURSING + +This part of the work does not require a special equipment, though it is +an advantage to have one. An ingenious teacher, with the co-operation of +her pupils, will invent plans for providing whatever is necessary for +demonstration. Pupils living near the school can supply many of the +needed materials. + +A doll and doll's bed may be used to teach bed making and the changing +of bed-clothing while the patient is in bed. The doll may also be used +to illustrate the method of giving a patient a bath in bed and of +changing the body clothing, if such information is desired. + +In some cases, a manual training pupil might construct the bed, and the +sewing class the mattress, bed-clothing, and doll's underwear. If this +were the property of the school, the girls could take turns in making +the bed every day and in laundering the clothing at home once a week. + +It is desirable that the instruction in home nursing be given in two +lessons. These may be outlined as follows: + + +LESSON I + +THE SICK ROOM + +1. Location.--The room should be on the sunny side of the house and be +as large and airy as possible. The top floor is quieter, but +necessitates many steps. + +2. Furniture.--All furniture should admit of easy cleaning. Small rugs +are better than a carpet, as they can be easily removed for cleaning. In +infectious diseases, only bare necessities should be kept in the room. + +The bed should be single and placed so as to be accessible from both +sides. It should be high enough to prevent the nurse stooping. The +bed-clothing should be of light weight and washable. + +A bedside table should be provided, also a couch for the nurse. A screen +will be found useful to prevent draughts and to shade the light. + +3. Ventilation.--A thermometer should be used, and the temperature kept +at 65 degrees to 68 degrees, or, in special diseases, according to the +doctor's orders. + +An abundant supply of fresh air should be provided day and night. To +secure this, there must be two openings, one to admit pure, fresh air, +and the other to let out the impure air. These openings are preferably +on opposite sides of the room and at different heights. If there is only +one window, it should be made to open at both top and bottom. In extreme +cases, an adjoining room may be aired and, after the fresh air is warm, +it may be admitted to the sick room. + +4. Care.--The room should be kept very clean and neat. All cleaning +should be quietly done, so as not to annoy or disturb the patient. The +floor, wood-work, and furniture should be dusted with a damp cloth. + +Flowers should be removed at night and should have fresh water daily. + +No food or medicine should he left in the room. Soiled dishes or +clothing should be removed as soon as possible and, in cases of +infectious diseases, placed in water containing a disinfectant. + +All excreta should be taken away immediately and, if necessary, +disinfected before being emptied. + + +METHODS OF DISINFECTING + +1. Dishes or clothing.--(1) Make a solution using one part of carbolic +acid to twenty parts of water (six teaspoonfuls to a pint of water) and +let it stand for half an hour. Soak the articles in this for two hours. +(2) Use formalin according to directions. (3) Use bichloride tablets +according to directions. (This turns clothes yellow.) + + NOTE.--These solutions must be renewed every + twenty-four hours, if exposed to the air. + +2. Excreta.--Cover the excreta with one of the above solutions and allow +it to stand for half an hour before emptying. + + +LESSON II + +THE PATIENT + +1. Care of the bed.--The bed of a sick person should be kept specially +clean and fresh. The linen should be changed every day, or oftener if +soiled. Where the supply of linen is limited, or where there is pressure +of work, a good airing and sunning may occasionally take the place of +laundering. + +In making the bed, it should be kept in mind that the under sheet +requires unusual tucking in at the head, to prevent its slipping down +and becoming wrinkled. The upper sheet should receive extra attention at +the foot, as it is apt to pull up. + +When changing the sheets with the patient in bed, work as deftly and +quietly as possible. Have the clean sheets warmed and the room +comfortably heated. Begin with the under sheet as follows: + + (1) To change the under sheet.--Turn the + patient over on the side away from you and fold + the soiled sheet in flat folds close to the + body. Lay the clean sheet on the side of the + bed near you, tuck it in, and fold half of it + against the roll of soiled sheet, so that both + can be slipped under the body at once. Turn the + patient back to the opposite side, on the clean + sheet, pull out the soiled sheet, and tuck the + clean one smoothly in place. + + (2) To change the upper sheet.--Loosen all the + clothes at the foot of the bed. Spread a clean + sheet and blanket, wrong side up, on top of the + other bedclothes. Pin the clean clothes at the + head of the bed or get the patient to hold + them. Gradually slip down and draw out the + soiled sheet and blanket. Tuck all in place. + +2. Care of the diet.--Recovery from sickness in many cases depends more +upon the right kind of food than on medicine. The importance of proper +diet should have been impressed on the minds of the pupils by their +lessons on food, in the Junior Grade of Form IV. They may now be shown +that, in sickness, the responsibility of the choice of food is +transferred from the patient to the doctor or nurse. Hence it is most +important that a person acting as nurse should be trained in food values +and proper methods of cooking. She should also be capable of exercising +daintiness and artistic skill in serving, so that the appearance of the +food may tempt the patient to eat it. + +[Illustration: Invalid's tray] + +It should not be necessary to review the comparative values of the +well-known foods or the best methods of applying heat to make and keep +these foods digestible; it may be taken for granted that the class +remembers these facts. The time may be more profitably used in naming +and discussing special dishes which are included in invalid cookery. +Recipes may be given for any of these which the pupils desire or the +teacher chooses, and one or two of the dishes which require very little +time to make, may be prepared. + +For the sake of convenience, diets for the sick may be classified as +_Milk_, _Liquid_, _Light_, and _Full_. These terms are an easy way of +indicating a certain range of foods. + +Milk Diet.--Milk, butter-milk, koumyss, kephyr. + + NOTE.--Lime-water may be given with sweet milk, + one part to three of milk. + +Liquid Diet.--Milk diet, beef juice or beef-tea, broths, gruels, and +sometimes jelly. + +Light Diet.--Soup, white meat of fowl, white fish, oysters, soft-cooked +eggs, custard, milk puddings, fruit, gelatine jellies. + +Full Diet.--Any food that is not particularly hard to digest. + + NOTE.--Plenty of water should be given in all + diets. + + +POULTICES + +A poultice is used to reduce inflammation and should be as large as the +affected part. + +The kinds in ordinary use are: + +1. Mustard poultice, used as a counter irritant. + +2. Linseed, bread, or potato poultice, used to soothe. + +Directions for a mustard poultice: + +1. For a very strong poultice, mix pure mustard to a paste with warm +water; spread on a piece of cheesecloth or muslin, leaving a margin of +an inch; fold over the margin, and cover with thicker cotton or paper. + +2. For milder poultices use flour to reduce the mustard as follows: + + (1) 1 part flour to 1 part mustard + + (2) 2 parts flour to 1 part mustard + + (3) 3 parts flour to 1 part mustard. + +Directions for linseed, bread, or potato poultices: + + Use boiling water to mix the above to the + consistency of thick porridge, and spread as in + the mustard poultice, excepting that the layer + of poultice is made much thicker, in order to + retain the moisture and heat. + + +FOMENTATIONS + +These are much the same in their effects as poultices, but are sometimes +more convenient. + +Directions for fomentations: + + Spread a towel over a large basin, place a + flannel in the towel and pour boiling hot water + over it. Fold the towel over the flannel, + gather the dry ends of the towel in either + hand, and wring. Carry to the patient, shake + out the flannel, and apply. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + +The following books are recommended for reference, the more useful being +marked with an asterisk: + + +THE HOME + +Furnishing of a Modest Home. Daniels, $1.00. Atkinson, Mentzner & Co., +New York. + +Home Decoration. Priestman, $1.50. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston. + +*Care of a House. Clark, $1.50. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., +Toronto. + + +SCIENCE AND SANITATION + +*Elementary Household Chemistry. Snell, $1.25. The Macmillan Company of +Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + +Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning. Richards and Elliott, $1.00. Whitcomb +& Barrows, Boston. + +Fuels of the Household. White, 75c. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston. + +*Story of Germ Life. Conn, 35c. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston. + +*Household Foes. Ravenhill, 75c. McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Ltd., +Toronto. + +*The Source, Chemistry, and Use of Food Products. Bailey, $1.75. +Blakiston, Son & Co., Philadelphia. + + +FOOD AND DIETETICS + +*Food Products. Sherman, $2.00. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., +Toronto. + +Food Materials and their Adulterations. Richards, $1.00. Whitcomb & +Barrows, Boston. + +*Food and Dietetics. Hutchison, $3.00. Wm. Wood & Co., 51 Fifth Avenue, +New York, N.Y. + +Principles of Human Nutrition. Jordan, $1.75. The Macmillan Company of +Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + +*Care and Feeding of Children. Dr. Emmet Holt, 75c. D. Appleton, N.Y. +(McAinsh, Toronto) + +Care of the Baby. Dr. J. P. C. Griffith, $1.50. W. B. Saunders & Co., +Philadelphia. + +A Little Talk about the Baby. Helen MacMurchy, M.D. Free. The Provincial +Board of Health, Toronto. + +Farmers' Bulletins. 5c each. Department of Agriculture, Washington, +U.S.A. + + +COOKING AND SERVING + +*Boston Cooking School Cook Book. Farmer, $2.00. McClelland, Goodchild & +Stewart, Ltd., Toronto. + +*Diet in Disease. Pattee, $1.00. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston. + +Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery. Williams & Fisher. The +Macmillan Co. of Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + +*Girls' Home Manual. Annie B. Juniper. British Columbia Government, +Victoria, B.C. + +Practical Cooking and Serving. Hill, $1.50. McClelland, Goodchild & +Stewart, Ltd., Toronto. + + +LAUNDRY WORK + +The Art and Practice of Laundry Work. Rankin, 1s. 6d. Blackie & Son, +Limited, London, England. + +The Expert Cleaner. Seaman, 75c. McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Ltd., +Toronto. + +*Bulletins on "The Laundry". 5c each. Department of Home Economics, +Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. + + +HOME NURSING + +Emergencies. Gulick, 40c. Ginn & Company, New York. + +*Home Nursing. Harrison, $1.00. The Macmillan Co. of Canada, Ltd., +Toronto. + +Hints and Helps for Home Nursing and Hygiene. Cosgrave, 40c. St. John +Ambulance Assn., Toronto. + + +ECONOMICS + +Home Problems from a New Standpoint. Hunt, $1.00. Whitcomb & Barrows, +Boston. + +*Household Management. Terrill. American School of Home Economics, +Chicago, Ill. + +*The New Housekeeping. Frederick, $1.00. Musson Book Co., Toronto. + + +MAGAZINES + +Good Housekeeping Magazine. $2.00 per year. 119 West Fortieth St., New +York. + +*The Journal of Home Economics. $3.00 per year. 525 West 120th St., New +York. + + * * * * * + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Obvious punctuation errors repaired. + +Page viii, "Wood" changed to "Wool" (of Wool Fibre) + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Household +Management, by Ministry of Education + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: *** + +***** This file should be named 24656.txt or 24656.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/5/24656/ + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Emmy and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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