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+Project Gutenberg's Bromide Printing and Enlarging, by John A. Tennant
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Bromide Printing and Enlarging
+       A Practical Guide to the Making of Bromide Prints by Contact
+       and Bromide Enlarging by Daylight and Artificial Light,
+       With the Toning of Bromide Prints and Enlargements
+
+Author: John A. Tennant
+
+Release Date: February 18, 2008 [EBook #24637]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BROMIDE PRINTING AND ENLARGING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BROMIDE PRINTING AND ENLARGING
+
+A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE MAKING OF BROMIDE PRINTS BY CONTACT AND BROMIDE
+ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHT, WITH THE TONING OF BROMIDE
+PRINTS AND ENLARGEMENTS
+
+
+TENNANT AND WARD
+
+NEW YORK
+
+
+Copyright 1912 by
+
+TENNANT AND WARD, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+VARIETIES OF BROMIDE PAPERS AND HOW TO CHOOSE AMONG THEM
+
+
+Chapter II
+
+THE QUESTION OF LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION
+
+
+Chapter III
+
+MAKING CONTACT PRINTS ON BROMIDE PAPER; PAPER NEGATIVES
+
+
+Chapter IV
+
+ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT METHODS
+
+
+Chapter V
+
+ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
+
+
+Chapter VI
+
+DODGING, VIGNETTING, COMPOSITE PRINTING AND THE USE OF BOLTING SILK
+
+
+Chapter VII
+
+THE REDUCTION AND TONING OF BROMIDE PRINTS AND ENLARGEMENTS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+VARIETIES OF BROMIDE PAPERS AND HOW TO CHOOSE AMONG THEM
+
+
+What is bromide paper? It is simply paper coated with gelatino-bromide of
+silver emulsion, similar to that which, when coated on glass or other
+transparent support, forms the familiar dry-plate or film used in
+negative-making. The emulsion used in making bromide paper, however, is
+less rapid (less sensitive) than that used in the manufacture of plates or
+films of ordinary rapidity; hence bromide paper may be manipulated with
+more abundant light than would be safe with plates. It is used for making
+prints by contact with a negative in the ordinary printing frame, and as
+the simplest means for obtaining enlarged prints from small negatives.
+Sometimes bromide paper is spoken of as a development paper, because the
+picture-image does not print out during exposure, but requires to be
+developed, as in negative-making. The preparation of the paper is beyond
+the skill and equipment of the average photographer, but it may be readily
+obtained from dealers in photographic supplies.
+
+What are the practical advantages of bromide paper? In the first place, it
+renders the photographer independent of daylight and weather as far as
+making prints is concerned. It has excellent "keeping" qualities, _i.e._,
+it does not spoil or deteriorate as readily as other printing papers, even
+when stored without special care or precaution. Its manipulation is
+extremely simple, and closely resembles the development of a negative. It
+does not require a special sort of negative, but is adapted to give good
+prints from negatives widely different in quality. It is obtainable in any
+desired size, and with a great variety of surfaces, from extreme gloss to
+that of rough drawing paper. It offers great latitude in exposure and
+development, and yields, even in the hands of the novice, a greater
+percentage of good prints than any other printing paper in the market. It
+offers a range of tone from deepest black to the most delicate of
+platinotype grays, which may be modified to give a fair variety of color
+effects where this is desirable. It affords a simple means of making
+enlargements without the necessity of an enlarged negative. It gives us a
+ready means of producing many prints in a very short time, or, if desired,
+we may make a proof or enlargement from the negative fresh from the
+washing tray. And, finally, if we do our work faithfully and well, it will
+give us permanent prints.
+
+The bromide papers available in this country at present are confined to
+those of the Eastman Kodak Company, the Defender Photo Supply Company and
+J. L. Lewis, the last handling English papers only. Better papers could
+not be desired. Broadly speaking, all bromide papers are made in a few
+well-defined varieties; in considering the manipulation of the papers made
+by a single firm, therefore, we practically cover all the papers in the
+market. As a matter of convenience, then, we will glance over the
+different varieties of bromide paper available, as represented by the
+Eastman papers, with the understanding that what is said of any one
+variety is generally applicable to papers of the same sort put out by
+other manufacturers.
+
+First we have the _Standard_ or ordinary bromide paper made for general
+use. This comes in five different weights: _A_, a thin paper with smooth
+surface, useful where detail is desirable; _B_, a heavier paper with
+smooth surface, for large prints or for illustration purposes; and _C_, a
+still heavier paper with a rough surface for broad effects and prints of
+large size. _BB_, heavy smooth double weight; _CC_, heavy, rough, double
+weight. Each of these varieties may be had in two grades, according to the
+negative in hand or the effect desired in the print, viz.: _hard_, for use
+with soft negatives where we desire to get vigor or contrast in the print,
+and _soft_, for use with hard negatives where softness of effect is
+desired in the print. For general use the _soft_ grade is preferable,
+although it is advisable to have a supply of the _hard_ paper at hand as
+useful in certain classes of work. The tones obtainable on the _Standard_
+paper range to pure black, and are acceptable for ordinary purposes. For
+pictorial work or special effects other papers are preferable.
+
+_Platino-Bromide_ paper gives delicate platinotype tones, and where
+negative, paper and manipulation are in harmony, the prints obtained on
+this paper will be indistinguishable from good platinotypes in quality and
+attractiveness. This paper comes in two weights, _Platino A_, a thin paper
+suitable for small prints, and having a smooth surface useful for
+detail-giving; and _Platino B_, a heavy paper with rough surface,
+peculiarly suited for large contact prints or enlargements. Both varieties
+are obtainable in _hard_ or _soft_ grades, characterized as above. _Matte
+Enamel_, medium weight; _Enameled_, medium weight; _Velvet_, medium
+weight.
+
+_Royal Bromide_ is a capital paper in its proper place, _i.e._, for prints
+not smaller than 8 × 10 inches, and then only when breadth of effect is
+desired in the picture. It is a very heavy cream-colored paper, rough in
+texture, and giving black tones by development, but designed to give sepia
+or brown tones on a tinted ground by subsequent toning with a bath of hypo
+and alum. This paper, also, may be had in two grades for _hard_ or _soft_
+effects; it is further adapted for being printed on through silk or
+bolting cloth, this modification adding to the effect of breadth
+ordinarily given by the paper itself. I have seen prints on this paper
+which were altogether pleasing, but subject and negative should be
+carefully considered in its use. Rough Buff papers are very similar in
+character. _Monox_ Bromide, made by the Defender Photo Supply Company, is
+obtainable in six surfaces; No. 3, _Monox Rough_; No. 4, _Monox Gloss_;
+No. 5, _Monox Matte_; No. 6, _Monox Lustre_; No. 7, _Monox Buff_, heavy
+rough.
+
+The Barnet bromide papers, comprising ten different varieties, differing
+in weight and surface texture but very similar to the kinds already
+described, are imported by J. L. Lewis, New York.
+
+As a suggestion to the reader desiring to have at hand a stock of bromide
+papers, I would advise _Platino A_, or a similar _soft_ paper for prints
+under 5 × 7 inches; _Matte-Enamel_ for _soft_ effects, or a similar paper,
+as an alternative; _Platino C_ and _Royal Bromide_ for _soft_ effects, or
+similar papers, for prints 8 × 10 inches or larger, and for enlargements.
+To these might be added a package of _Standard B_, and another of one of
+the above varieties for _hard_ effects, to complete a supply for general
+purposes. The beginner, however, will do well to avoid the indiscriminate
+use of several varieties of paper, although he is advised to get
+information of all the different varieties in the market. It is better to
+select that variety which is best suited to the general character of one's
+negatives and work, and to master that before changing to another. It is
+true that an expert can get more good prints on bromide paper, from a
+given number of bad negatives, than another expert can get with the same
+negatives and any other printing paper; but it is also true that for the
+best results on bromide paper the variety of paper used should be suitable
+for the negative. It will be found, however, that this word "suitable"
+covers, in bromide printing, a much wider range than is offered by many
+printing papers. In fact there are only two sorts of negatives which will
+not yield desirable prints on bromide paper: first, an exceedingly weak,
+thin negative lacking in contrast and altogether flat; and second, a very
+dense negative in which the contrasts are hopelessly emphatic. Even in
+such cases, however, it may be possible to modify the negatives and so get
+presentable prints.
+
+The ideal negative for contact printing on bromide paper is one without
+excessive contrasts on the one hand, and without excessive flatness on the
+other. A moderately strong negative, such as will require from three to
+five minutes in the sunlight with a print out paper, fairly describes it.
+In other words, the negative should be fully exposed and so developed that
+there is a fair amount of density in the shadows. I have never been able,
+with bromide paper, to get the detail in the shadows of under-exposed
+negatives, such as we see in a good print made on glossy printout paper.
+For this reason the use of bromide papers with under-exposed negatives is
+not advisable. But there are a great many negatives which, while
+unsuitable as they come from the drying rack, can be easily adapted to the
+process by slight modifications. A very dense negative, for instance, may
+be reduced either with the ferricyanide of potash or persulphate of
+ammonia reducer; and a thin negative with proper graduations can
+frequently be intensified to advantage in the print. While, as has been
+said, there is great latitude in the matter of the negative, this latitude
+should only be availed of when necessary. Local reduction or
+intensification of the negative is seldom necessary, as better results can
+usually be obtained with bromide paper by dodging in the printing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE QUESTION OF LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION
+
+
+Thus far we have gained a general understanding of the different papers
+and the characteristics desirable in negatives. Before we take up the
+actual manipulation of bromide paper there are a few elementary principles
+bearing on the important detail of illumination which we must master.
+These may necessitate a little thinking, but a practical grasp of them
+will make our after-work much easier, and ensure that fairly good prints
+from poor negatives will be the rule instead of the exception.
+
+In the first place we have often read that a strong light overcomes
+contrasts, while a weak light increases them. Yet how many of us realize
+when we come to make prints by any process exactly what this means; in
+other words, how many of us apply the rule in everyday practice? It is
+very easy to see what is meant by the rule if we will take an ordinary
+negative, such as a landscape with clear sky, and hold it first six inches
+from a gas-flame and then six feet. It will be found in the first case
+that the sky portion is translucent while the clear glass will, of course,
+be clear; in the second the sky will be opaque and the clear glass still
+clear. The contrasts have been rendered greater by removing the negative
+further from the light-source. As this is true in the extreme case given,
+so it is true in a smaller degree where the distances are only slightly
+varied, as well as where we deal with the graded portions of the negative
+instead of with only clear glass and the densest portions. It is this fact
+that we utilize in bromide printing; and it is because we have such
+unlimited control over the strength of our light that it is possible with
+it to get equally good prints from a wide range of negatives. It is very
+much simpler and more practicable to regulate the strength of the light by
+increasing or diminishing its distance than by interposing sheets of
+paper, ground glass, or opal, as is occasionally done with other
+processes.
+
+The necessity, however, for occasionally changing the strength of our
+light in this manner may seem to introduce an element of uncertainty into
+the problem of exposure; but there is another rule which brings it back
+again to simplicity itself, and enables us to quickly calculate equivalent
+exposures at varying distances from the light-source. This rule is: "The
+intensity of illumination varies inversely as the square of the distance
+from the source of light." For instance if a given negative requires five
+seconds exposure at one foot from the light, it will have an equivalent
+exposure if exposed for twenty seconds at two feet, the square of one
+being one, and of two being four.
+
+It remains then only to apply these two rules to our actual work with
+bromide paper. The shadows in a certain negative will receive full
+exposure, say, in eight seconds at one foot from the light; but the high
+lights of the negative are so dense that no light will penetrate them at
+that distance from the light in that length of time. Hence a stronger
+light must be used, or the action of the same light continued for a longer
+time; but the latter will not do since the effect would be to over-expose
+the shadows. Hence, knowing that a strong light overcomes contrasts, we
+move the negative to the distance of six inches, where the rule tells us
+the equivalent exposure will be one-fourth that at twelve inches, in this
+case two seconds. Here the shadows get no more light, but it is possible
+that the high lights of the negative will be penetrated by reason of the
+additional force of the light.
+
+On the other hand we have a thin, flat negative requiring for the shadows
+two seconds exposure at one foot from the light. Knowing that a weak light
+increases contrasts we move the negative three feet from the light, and
+instead of two, give eighteen seconds exposure, the rule telling us that
+this is equivalent. Thus we are enabled to regulate the strength of our
+light to suit the character of our negative. But a standard distance of
+one foot will not suit with all kinds of lights or with all sizes of
+negatives. If, for instance, our light is a Welsbach burner, giving an
+intense and comparatively white light, we will find that a normal negative
+will print too flat if exposed at one foot. In such a case two or even
+three feet would be a better standard. Experience with our light will,
+however, furnish the best standard, always taking a standard negative for
+the tests.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+The size of the negative also has its influence on the unit of exposure.
+For instance, we may have a half-inch oil-burner, in which case we would
+probably have to expose a standard negative at four inches in order to get
+the proper contrasts. But this is out of the question with a negative of 5
+× 7 or over, as a reference to the diagram, Fig. 1, will clearly show.
+Here we find that while the centre of a negative is four inches from the
+light the extreme edges will be over five inches from it, the rule as to
+intensities telling us that the light at the edges will be only 16/25 of
+that at the centre. This would result in a marked falling off of light at
+the corners, and would necessitate a constant motion of the printing frame
+throughout exposure, which is not wholly satisfactory. The remedy would be
+to use a stronger light at a greater distance. But another reference to
+Fig. 1 will show that if a 5 × 7 negative be held at seven inches from the
+light the difference will be only as 49 is to 56, which can in practice be
+disregarded, though it would be better to have it even less. Hence we see
+that it is never safe to have our unit less than the base-line of our
+plate, and it is better to have it even greater, as we will frequently be
+obliged to halve the distance to overcome contrasts. It follows from this
+that the larger our negatives the stronger must be our light.
+
+Now all of these considerations may make very dry reading, but the reader
+who has followed them closely will see how vital they are to successful
+work. It should not be thought, however, that every exposure on bromide
+paper must involve an arithmetical calculation. On the contrary, once the
+proper distance from the light for the normal negative has been
+ascertained, it will be found that nine negatives out of ten will require
+no change in the distance from the source of light. This, of course,
+presuming that we classify our negatives and enlarge from those of the
+same quality at the same time.
+
+One great objection to the use of bromide paper is that it must be handled
+in a dark-room. But this objection is not as serious as it may seem. An
+ordinary living room at night furnishes a delightful place in which to
+make prints, if we handle our solutions with reasonable care. The ruby
+glass can be removed from the dark-room lamp, and the orange glass used
+alone. But in this case, as indeed with the ruby light, care must be taken
+to guard against too much light. Development should be conducted at a
+distance of several feet from the light, and when almost completed, the
+tray can be brought close under the light to enable the worker to stop it
+at exactly the right moment. Ordinary bromide paper is about as sensitive
+as the process or slow dry plate or the average lantern-slide plate, and
+requires as much care as either, but not nearly so much as the most rapid
+dry plates. If fogging is noticed, of course additional precautions should
+be taken at once.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CONTACT PRINTING ON BROMIDE PAPER
+
+Nothing more than will be found in an ordinary dark-room will be found
+necessary in bromide printing by contact, unless it be some arrangement
+for determining readily the distance of the negative from the source of
+light. For this purpose and with an oil-lamp, use a board a foot wide and
+about three feet long placed on the developing bench against the base of
+the dark-room lamp. It should be marked with black lines six inches apart.
+See Fig. 2.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+Greater uniformity in lighting will be gained if a piece of white
+cardboard be placed immediately behind the flame. Some lamps have
+reflectors, in which case the card is unnecessary, provided that they
+reflect the light uniformly; otherwise such reflectors are worse than
+useless.
+
+Having arranged the needful apparatus to our satisfaction, the last
+preparatory step before manipulation is the making up of a developer.
+Almost any of the modern developers (pyro excepted) will give good results
+with bromide paper. In every package of paper will be found the developers
+advised by the manufacturer of the paper used. Invariably there is among
+these a formula for ferrous oxalate developer. This is probably the best
+of all developers for pure black tones, but I cannot advise the novice to
+take it up in the early stages of his work with bromide paper.
+
+When this developer is used an acid clearing bath is necessary, and this
+invites complications which may be disastrous to the prints. When
+experience has been gained, and a large number of prints are to be made at
+one time, it will be found advantageous as working longer with greater
+efficiency and more uniformity than some of the other developers. It is
+troublesome to prepare and does not keep well, apart from which there is
+the disadvantage that it does not permit of control in development in as
+large a measure as other developers.
+
+A reliable metol and hydroquinone formula is as follows: Thoroughly
+dissolve metol, 1/4 ounce; hydroquinone, 1/4 ounce; in water, 80 ounces;
+add sulphite of soda (cryst.), 4 ounces; and carbonate of soda (cryst.),
+2-1/2 ounces. Bottled in 4-ounce vials and well corked, this developer
+retains its working power indefinitely. For normal exposures I take 2
+ounces of the above and add to it 2 ounces of water. This will suffice for
+the development of three 8 × 10 sheets of paper, or their equivalent in
+smaller sheets. It is not wise to attempt to make it do more, as greenish
+tones will result. For the same reason, contrary to common opinion, I do
+not advise the addition of potassium bromide to the developer. It does not
+improve the developer, and may do harm.
+
+An excellent developer which must be used freshly mixed, and may be made
+up in a moment, is as follows: Take 1-1/2 ounces of a 25 per cent solution
+of sodium sulphite; dry amidol, 30 grains; 5 to 10 drops of a 10 per cent
+solution of potassium bromide, and dilute with 4-1/2 ounces of water. A
+supply of new developer should be added as this is seen to become
+exhausted.
+
+Other developing formulae could be given, but these two will be found to
+fill all requirements if properly compounded and intelligently used.
+
+The greatest difficulty in developing bromide paper is to get rich black
+tones when desired, but this can be completely overcome by using entirely
+fresh developer from time to time, and never over-working the developer,
+whatever it may be. As compared with the paper, developer is cheap, and it
+is poor economy to save on the latter.
+
+Except in rare instances the developer is better without any modifications
+whatever. In case of over-exposure, either general or partial, the
+developer after having been diluted as stated should be again diluted with
+its bulk of water. This gives blacker tones and more depth and life to the
+shadows. When through inadvertence we under-expose a print it may
+frequently be saved after partial development in the weak solution by
+flooding with a strong undiluted developer.
+
+The temperature of the developer is of the greatest importance. In summer
+the aim should be to keep it approximately at 65 degrees Fahr., in winter,
+70 degrees, but it should never be allowed to go over the latter. This can
+readily be accomplished by placing the graduate in a receptacle containing
+ice-water in summer or hot water in winter.
+
+The paper is first opened at a safe distance from the dark-room light, and
+it is well at first to cut up one sheet into several slips to use as
+test-strips. If any difficulty is found in determining which is the
+sensitive side, it will be well to throw a piece of the paper on a plane
+surface when it will be seen that it has a slight tendency to curl. The
+concave is the sensitive side. Taking a standard negative we first take
+one of the test-slips and place it upon the negative so that it covers a
+portion containing both high lights and shadows. With an oil-lamp having a
+1-inch burner, expose the test-strip behind the negative in the printing
+frame at one foot for ten seconds. Close the lamp and flood the exposed
+strip with the developer. The image should appear in a few seconds, and if
+properly exposed development will be completed in from one to two minutes,
+usually one. Rinse for a moment, and place the strip in a fixing bath made
+up by dissolving 3 ounces of hypo in 16 ounces of water. After a few
+moments examine the strip in full light, and see whether the contrasts are
+right. If so, expose a full sheet of paper, this time rinsing the exposed
+sheet before development to avoid the formation of air-bubbles. If the
+contrasts are too great try a strip at six inches from the light and two
+and a half seconds exposure. If still too great, use a stronger light or
+try a longer exposure and use a very dilute developer. If still too great
+the negative is hopeless and should be reduced unless dodging will help
+it, as set out further on.
+
+It will be noticed that this method calls for a one-minute development.
+This is desirable for several reasons: first, because it gives a unit and
+assists us in determining the correct exposure of other negatives, and
+second, because it is a comparatively short development, and yet gives
+sufficient time after the image has acquired the proper depth to pour off
+the developer and flush with water, thus stopping development. It also
+leaves sufficient margin in the event of over- or under-exposure. With one
+minute as the unit, over-exposure will result in a fully developed image
+in, say, thirty seconds. This print we could save; but if our unit were
+thirty seconds it would be extremely difficult to save a print which had
+completed development in fifteen seconds. The chances are that the
+development would go on to a ruinous extent before we could pour off the
+developer and flood the print, or that it would go on even after the water
+was poured on it. Moreover, in case of under-exposure, two minutes would
+not be so very tiresome, but four minutes would, besides which we would
+risk straining the print by such prolonged development. While I am not
+prepared to assert it as a rule, yet it has been my experience that the
+time of development varies almost inversely with the length of exposure;
+so that if the test-strip concludes development in half a minute with ten
+seconds exposure, I give the next five seconds exposure in the expectation
+that it will take a minute to develop. This assists greatly in lessening
+the number of test-strips required to ascertain the correct exposure of a
+given negative.
+
+Should we wish to see a proof before the negative is dry, it is taken from
+the fixing bath and well rinsed, though not necessarily thoroughly washed.
+It is then placed face up in a tray of water, on which we place face down
+a sheet of bromide paper. The two are removed together and squeezed
+lightly into contact to remove air bubbles. The back of the negative is
+then wiped to remove superfluous water, and an exposure of several times
+the normal given, preferably the normal exposure at half the standard
+distance from the light. The paper is then removed and developed as usual.
+In this way it is possible to show a print in fifteen or twenty minutes
+after the exposure of the plate was made.
+
+The purpose of the rinsing before development is to avoid the possibility
+of air-bells. The paper should be rinsed in cold water, as warmish water
+will cause air-bells instead of preventing them. This rinsing can be
+dispensed with if thought desirable. The rinsing after development is for
+the purpose of stopping development immediately, and also in order that
+the prints may not go into the fixing bath full of developer, as staining
+would be likely to result in such case. With the iron oxalate developer an
+acid rinsing bath is necessary, but it is not necessary with any of the
+other developers.
+
+The fixing is important, as upon this depends in a large measure the
+permanence of the prints. The bath should be freshly made up, 3 ounces of
+hyposulphite of soda to 16 ounces of water. Prints are placed in this bath
+face down, and one under, instead of on top of another. The tray should be
+occasionally rocked. With a fresh bath prints will fix in ten minutes, but
+where many prints are made at one time it will be well to use a second
+fixing bath. The emulsion of an unfixed print will appear a yellowish
+tinge in the unfixed portions when examined by transmitted light; but this
+is not an easy or certain test. It is better to make absolutely certain of
+thorough fixing by continued immersion, occasional rocking and, where many
+prints are made, a second bath. The fixing bath should not be allowed to
+get too warm in hot weather. Blistering, staining and frilling will result
+in such a case, and I have known a print which was left in a warm fixing
+bath for an hour or more to be reduced beyond redemption. With freshly
+made hypo baths at a suitable temperature there is absolutely no danger of
+the paper frilling or blistering.
+
+The final washing must be thorough, as the hypo is difficult to eliminate
+from both the emulsion and the paper. Care must be taken to see that the
+prints are well separated while washing. This ensures uniform washing.
+
+It frequently happens that a negative may require more or less dodging in
+printing. With bromide paper this is particularly easy. We will take the
+simple case of a negative with dense sky which will not print out in the
+ordinary way. All that we need in this case is a piece of paper cut
+roughly to the sky line and kept moving during part of the exposure over
+the part which is to be held back. If necessary, cut down the light in
+order to prolong the exposure, or expose at a greater distance from the
+light. One or more test-strips will be required for this purpose in order
+to ascertain the relative times of exposure. A modification of this method
+is when a small portion of the negative only needs extra printing--a face
+or hand for instance. Here we take a piece of paper a little larger than
+the negative and cut a small hole in it, moving it in front of the light
+so as to throw the latter only upon the portions needing the extra
+printing. Still another modification is where a portion only needs holding
+back. Here we use a small piece of paper or cardboard stuck on a knitting
+needle, moving the latter so that it will not intercept the light too long
+at one place.
+
+In all these and similar instances which will occur to the reader, the
+dodging should be done during the first part of the exposure. The
+subsequent exposure seems to obliterate traces of such dodging better than
+when it is done at the end of the exposure, just as in cloud-printing
+better results are achieved by printing the sky first and the foreground
+afterward.
+
+It is quite possible to make bromide negatives in the camera. They have
+their advantages in classes of work not requiring the finest definition,
+are much lighter, cheaper, more easily stored and less liable to breakage
+or other mishaps. They are best made on a thin, smooth paper, a _soft_
+paper being better than the _hard_. They are placed in the plate-holder by
+means of the ordinary cut film holder. The exposure required is
+ascertained by a trial or two, but roughly speaking is about one-twentieth
+that of a rapid plate. After development in the usual way--it being
+carried only a little further than usual--and after fixing, washing and
+drying, the paper negative can be spotted or retouched, after which it is
+waxed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ENLARGING--DAYLIGHT METHODS
+
+
+In taking up enlarging a full knowledge of what has been said as to the
+manipulation of bromide paper will be necessary, as the principles
+governing exposure apply here as in contact printing, errors being even
+more serious, owing to the greater waste of material.
+
+For the illuminant used in enlarging, we may employ either daylight or
+artificial light. The former is cheap, but variable; the first cost of the
+latter is quite a little sum, but the light is uniform. A daylight
+enlarging apparatus can be made for a dollar or two, and hence is within
+the reach of all; and if the process be given up, the loss is not serious.
+
+If the cost is of little or no moment, very serviceable enlarging cameras
+can be bought for about twenty-five dollars. Such a camera is adapted for
+reducing as well as enlarging, and so will be found useful for lantern
+slide making, copying, etc. As a matter of fact, few things are as useful
+to the amateur as a good enlarging outfit.
+
+We will first consider enlarging by daylight with home-made apparatus. For
+this purpose a room with at least one window will be needed. It should
+preferably be convenient to the dark-room. If the window of this room
+commands a view unobstructed by buildings, trees or the like, so much the
+better. I personally prefer a south light. With this one can get soft
+enlargements from the most contrasty negatives, while by shielding the
+negatives from the direct rays of the sun we can work from negatives which
+are quite flat and lacking in contrasts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+But whatever the room chosen, all windows but the one at which we are to
+work must be blocked up. This can be done by heavy dark curtains, or by
+specially constructed frames covered with light-tight material and made to
+fit closely in the windows. If there are any transoms these should
+likewise be covered. White light entering under the doors can be shut out
+by placing a rug along the bottom of the door. Care must be taken that the
+window-frames fit closely, as the light from openings at the windows would
+soon fog a sheet of bromide paper if it fell upon it even for a few
+moments.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+Assuming that the room chosen can be made practically light-tight, we will
+need some arrangement to hold the negative. The details of a box for this
+purpose can best be shown by a diagram (Fig. 3). ABCD is a strong and
+neatly made box open at both ends, and about two inches larger each way
+than the largest negative from which enlargements are to be made. E
+represents a section of a board which forms part of a window frame, a
+general view of which is given in Fig. 4. Reverting to Fig. 3, F is an
+opening cut in the side of the negative box two inches or a little less
+from the back of the box, AD, and wide enough to admit the free passage of
+a negative in a kit or other holder. On the inside of the box are tacked
+strips, GGGG, to serve as a guide to the kit when placing it in the box.
+An opening similar to F should be made in the other side of the box to
+permit lateral adjustments when we come to use the apparatus, besides
+enabling us to put the negative in or withdraw it from either side. A
+convenient modification of the strips, G, is found by placing the front
+ones a short distance further forward, to wit, toward BC, as they are
+shown in the cut (Fig. 3), and tacking to them a piece of watch spring, H,
+this then serving both as a guide and as a means of pressing the kit or
+negative holder against the other strips, GG (Fig. 5).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+J is a sheet of ground-glass, which is tacked over the opening when the
+box is firmly set in the board, E. It is well to have this ground-glass
+fixed in place so that it can be readily removed if desired.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+The necessity for having the box at least two inches larger each way than
+the largest negative from which enlargements are to be made is shown in
+Fig. 6. Here AB represents the negative in place, CA, DB and EG represent
+rays of light entering the box. It will be seen that the rays CA and DB
+strike the ground-glass at an angle, but nevertheless at an angle which
+results in their passing through it in a considerable degree. They strike
+the negative AB, but if the negative were the full size of the box, to wit
+FG, it will be seen that while the section AB would be fully lighted, the
+sections AF and BG would receive no oblique rays at all, and hence the
+negative would not be even approximately uniformly lighted. This point is
+too often overlooked in the construction of apparatus of this character,
+but is necessary in all cases of daylight enlarging and especially when
+direct sunlight is used. Now with the negative box in place, some
+arrangement must be made for holding the lens, which can be the lens used
+for making the negative. This for enlargements of a fixed size from
+negatives of a given size can be accomplished by simply extending the
+section BGGC Fig. 3, to a proper distance and placing the lens in the end
+of it; but this permits too little opportunity for adjustments and is not
+advisable. A double box, one sliding within the other, would be better,
+but still not quite satisfactory. It is far better to adapt one's camera
+to the apparatus, and this can always be done; it being very simple with a
+reversible back camera, which can be backed right up to the opening, and
+more difficult but always possible with others. Fig. 7 shows the entire
+apparatus in place, and the manner in which it is used. AB is the window
+board, C is the negative box, D is the camera adjusted to the latter, E is
+the enlarging screen on an easel to hold the bromide paper, and F is the
+reflector. The screen on the easel can be made either to rest on the floor
+or on a table. It can be made to run on a track or otherwise, and it can
+also be made so as to admit of either vertical or lateral adjustment or
+both, or it can be nothing more than an ordinary box set on a table. But
+however constructed it must be considerably larger than the largest sheet
+of bromide paper which is to be used, thus allowing for nearly all
+necessary adjustments of the paper. It is preferably covered with white
+paper or fine blotter to aid in focusing. The reflector F is considerably
+larger than the negative-box, and adjusted at an angle which will reflect
+the light from the sky or sun evenly upon the ground glass. It is best
+covered with good white blotting paper. G is a hood which I have found
+useful in sunlight enlarging, especially in summer when the sun is almost
+overhead. It is placed on the outside of the window-frame, some distance
+above the ground-glass, and shields the latter from the direct rays of the
+sun, which would otherwise cause uneven illumination owing to their too
+great obliquity. The direct sun on the white reflector will give a light
+of high intensity. In winter, however, when the sun is low, it will fall
+directly on the ground-glass, and this, if the negative box be constructed
+as advised, is not objectionable, but on the contrary an advantage. In
+Fig. 4 the opening, FGHI, represents a sheet of ruby glass, and can be
+screened while focusing if found to interfere with the worker's
+convenience in that operation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+The apparatus as sketched will suffice for all ordinary work.
+Modifications of it will depend upon the ingenuity of the man who attempts
+to design or construct one. It should be noted that the distance of the
+ground-glass from the negative has its influence in the strength of the
+light, and it is better to have this distance not over two inches. If less
+than one inch, however, the diffusion of light is not so good. When the
+light is weak the ground-glass can be removed entirely; the negative will
+thus be viewed directly against the white reflector. Very strong negatives
+giving undue contrasts may also be dealt with in this way. Or, if the
+light is too strong for flat negatives, the reflector can be removed
+entirely, or to the same end a sheet of yellow glass can be substituted
+for the ground-glass, thus increasing contrasts. In fact, a very useful
+and easily arranged modification of the negative-box consists of an
+opening in the top of the box inside the room through which can be dropped
+an extra sheet of ground-glass or opal to cut down the light, or of yellow
+glass to increase contrast. This opening should be at the point K, Fig. 3.
+
+I have referred to a kit as being the proper arrangement for holding the
+negative. This, after much tribulation in working with home-made
+contrivances, I have found to be the best arrangement. They come a size or
+two larger than the negative with which they are to be used, and can
+easily be cut down to the proper dimensions. With it, also, other kits to
+hold smaller negatives can readily be used. It is also simple with them to
+fasten the negatives in place. If they extend beyond the box on either
+side so much the better; greater lateral adjustment can then be made. The
+negative box, Fig. 3, is best painted dead black inside in the section
+GBCG, and white in the section AGGD. The reasons for this will be obvious
+at a glance.
+
+In enlarging from films it is well to place them between two sheets of
+glass of proper size, and fasten the whole in the kit or negative-holder.
+For this purpose use thin glass without flaws or scratches. If the films
+are smaller than the opening in the kit, it is well to paste a black mat
+on one of the glasses, when, after proper adjustment, the film will remain
+in place between the two glasses with very little pressure.
+
+Enlarged negatives are very easily made with the apparatus described. A
+contact positive can be made, preferably on carbon transparency tissue,
+and from this the enlargement made, or an enlarged positive made first,
+and from this a contact negative. The latter plan is preferable, since it
+admits of retouching on both positive and negative. Slow plates should be
+used throughout. For those who do not care to go to the expense of
+experimenting with large plates, I would suggest that good contact
+positives be first made and from these negatives on bromide paper,
+_Standard A_, _soft_. These negatives are treated as already described.
+The best positive for this purpose is a thin one with full gradations of
+tone from clear high light to deep shadow, without veil or fog, but free
+from any suspicion of flatness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
+
+
+The apparatus for enlarging with artificial light is, as has been stated,
+more expensive than that for use with daylight. The negative box and
+screen, however, remain as given. But we need in addition two extra
+pieces, a light-box and a pair of condensing lenses.
+
+The form of light-box presupposes the choice of illuminant, and in this
+there is a wide range. Suffice it to say that a kerosene lamp with one or
+more one-and-a-half inch burners will be found suitable for very small
+work or weak negatives. For larger work or stronger negatives a stronger
+light will be needed.
+
+Of these, the first in point of strength is the arc-light, which is too
+strong for ordinary negatives to be enlarged not more than fourfold on
+ordinary bromide paper. Used with any of the slower papers it will be
+found very serviceable and satisfactory. Next comes the lime-light, which
+has pretty much the same advantages and disadvantages. After these come
+acetylene, a gas giving an intense light of high actinic power. This is
+within the reach of nearly all, as a first-class generator costs only
+about twelve dollars, and the uses of the gas are manifold. The same
+generators and burners can be used with a projecting lantern and will be
+found far more satisfactory than oil. Acetylene burners can be had in
+various sizes, ranging in power from thirty to several hundred
+candle-power. The carbide from which the gas is generated is not expensive
+and costs only a few cents each time the machine is loaded. By an
+adjustment attached to the generator the gas is kept at a constant
+pressure, and hence the light is unusually steady. All in all this light
+has many advantages. After it in strength comes the Welsbach burner,
+suitable for those having gas in the house. After this comes the ordinary
+gas-burner, and then oil. The reader, knowing now what will be required of
+his light, can take his choice.
+
+Perhaps the simplest form of light-box is where the light is placed in one
+room and the enlarging done in an adjoining one, the light being admitted
+through a suitable opening. This prevents the possibility of stray light
+reaching the paper and is productive of no additional heat in a room
+presumably already hot enough.
+
+If this is not feasible a light-box must be constructed. As these vary so
+much in material and design, and must be altered with different forms of
+light in use, I will merely state the requirements. First of these is that
+it must be light-tight, and second, that it must have adequate ventilation
+and be fire-proof. Following these in importance, there should be a simple
+arrangement for looking at the light from time to time to see that it is
+burning properly and some means for readily attending to it if it is not.
+
+Having the light-box, the burners must be placed in it properly. Here the
+shortest way out of the difficulty is to go to an expert. If electricity
+is used go to an electrical supply house; if gas, go to a gas-fitter. As
+will be seen later the flame itself must be placed in a certain relation
+to other portions of the apparatus, and provision must be made
+accordingly.
+
+In looking over the magazines and annuals we will now and then see some
+new method given for illuminating evenly the back of a negative in
+enlarging or reduction. The most of these the writer has tried, but he has
+never found one of them which could be relied upon to give even reasonable
+satisfaction. If the light is apparently evenly diffused it is too weak.
+If strong enough it is not evenly diffused. Hence I will recommend nothing
+short of a pair of condensing lenses, as these have been proved by
+experience to be satisfactory in every respect if properly handled and
+cared for. The diameter of these must be slightly greater than the
+diagonal of the largest negative from which enlargements are to be made.
+These can be bought in pairs, mounted or unmounted, at about the following
+prices:
+
+  ---------+-----------------+----------------+------------------
+  Diameter | Focus           | Pair of Lenses | Per Single Lens
+  Inches   | Inches          | Mounted        | Unmounted
+  ---------+-----------------+----------------+------------------
+    4      |  5-1/2 or 6-1/2 |   $ 4.00       |  $ 1.25
+    4-1/2  |  5-1/2 or 6-1/2 |     6.00       |    1.50
+    5      |  6-1/2          |     7.50       |    1.75
+    6      |  8              |    12.00       |    3.00
+    8      | 12              |    32.00       |    7.50
+    9      | 14              |    40.00       |   10.00
+  ---------+-----------------+----------------+------------------
+
+The prices asked for condensers vary considerably in different
+price-lists. They can often be had at second-hand at a decided saving of
+expense.
+
+If it is desired to save the additional cost of the mounted condensing
+lenses, they can be comparatively easily mounted by anyone at all familiar
+with tools in the following manner:
+
+A piece of quarter-inch pine or poplar is cut to a square about an inch
+larger than the diameter of the lenses. In the center of this is sawed out
+a circular opening the exact size of the lens. In another board of the
+same dimensions is cut a circle a quarter of an inch less in diameter.
+These boards are placed together with the grain running in opposite
+directions, to prevent warping, and the lens kept in place by a wire bent
+in a circle and clamped in place so as to hold the lens, or other similar
+arrangement. See Fig. 8. The other lens is mounted in the same way. The
+two are mounted with their convex sides facing each other and a slight
+distance apart. It is better to place between them a thin sheet of finely
+ground glass, as this overcomes the bad effects of slight flaws in the
+lenses, which are not uncommon. The combination is then boxed up.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+Having now our light-box, condensers, negative box, camera and screen,
+they are next arranged in the order shown by Fig. 9. A long table
+especially constructed for the purpose makes the best base for this
+purpose.
+
+In putting the apparatus together there are several points to be noticed.
+First, the planes of the lenses, negative, projecting lenses and screen
+must all be parallel; second, the centers of all these should be in a
+single straight line, and third, either the light or the condensers should
+be so mounted as to easily slide backward or forward, since every time the
+projecting lens is racked backward or forward it necessitates a
+corresponding motion of the condensers to or from the light.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+In constructing the apparatus, for use with condensers and artificial
+light, the same provision should be made in the negative box for inserting
+a piece of colored or ground glass as was made in the daylight apparatus.
+When the diameter of the condensers is but little greater than the
+diagonal of the negative it will be necessary to have the latter quite
+close to the former, as the cone of light from the condensers has its apex
+at the lens, and hence if the negative in such a case is at a distance
+from the condensers the corners will receive no light. Reference to Fig. 9
+will show this plainly. For this and other reasons it is always best to
+have the condensers of ample size for a given negative. In fact, before
+beginning to make enlargements the worker should work with one good
+negative until he finds out exactly what light-intensity is best suited to
+it. This will then serve as a standard for all other negatives of the same
+general grade, and variations of the light can be made as required for
+particular negatives, or where the extent of enlargement is materially
+changed for various purposes.
+
+In using the daylight apparatus, which we will now consider, the negative
+is placed in the holder opposite the center of the ground-glass, upside
+down and facing into the work room. The room is darkened and lens
+uncapped. An image more or less blurred will appear on the screen. If the
+enlarged picture is to be only slightly larger than the negative, the lens
+must be racked out until its distance from the negative is but little less
+than its distance from the screen. To make the enlargement greater we
+simply rack back the lens and move the screen further off. There are
+tables which show exactly the distance which the lens must be from the
+negative and screen in order to get an enlargement of a given size: The
+table here inserted covers the ordinary requirements and may be of service
+in constructing the apparatus:
+
+  TIMES OF ENLARGEMENT
+
+  Total distances from the negative, in inches.
+
+  -------------+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------
+   Times of    |       2       |        3        |        4        |        6
+   Enlargement |               |                 |                 |
+  -------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+   Focus of    | To    | To    | To     | To     | To     | To     | To     | To
+   Lens        | Easel | Lens  | Easel  | Lens   | Easel  | Lens   | Easel  | Lens
+  -------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+    6 inches   | 27    |  9    | 32     |  8     | 37-1/2 |  7-1/2 | 49     |  7
+    8   "      | 36    | 12    | 42-2/3 | 10-2/3 | 50     | 10     | 65-1/3 |  9-1/3
+   10   "      | 45    | 15    | 53-1/3 | 13-1/3 | 62-1/2 | 12-1/2 | 81-2/3 | 11-2/3
+   12   "      | 54    | 18    | 64     | 16     | 75     | 15     | 98     | 14
+  -------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+
+A table for enlargements of from one to twenty-five times, with lenses
+varying in focal length from three to nine inches is here given.
+
+  ENLARGEMENTS
+
+  _From the British Journal of Photography Almanac._
+
+  +----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Focus of |                                                                       |
+  | Lens     |                Times of Enlargement and Reduction                     |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | Inches   | 1    | 2      | 3      | 4      | 5      | 6       | 7      | 8       |
+  |          | inch | inches | inches | inches | inches | inches  | inches | inches  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 3        |  6   | 9      | 12     | 15     | 18     | 21      | 24     | 27      |
+  |          |  6   | 4-1/2  |  4     |  3-3/4 |  3-3/5 |  3-1/2  |  3-3/7 |  3-3/8  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 3-1/2    |  7   | 10-1/2 | 14     | 17-1/2 | 21     | 24-1/2  | 28     | 31-1/2  |
+  |          |  7   | 5-1/4  |  4-2/3 |  4-3/4 |  4-1/5 |  4-1/12 |  4     |  3-9/10 |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 4        |  8   | 12     | 16     | 20     | 24     | 28      | 32     | 36      |
+  |          |  8   |  6     |  5-1/3 |  5     |  4-4/5 |  4-2/3  |  4-4/7 |  4-1/2  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 4-1/2    |  9   | 13-1/2 | 18     | 22-1/2 | 27     | 31-1/2  | 36     | 40-1/2  |
+  |          |  9   |  6-3/4 |  6     |  5-3/5 |  5-2/5 |  5-1/4  |  5-1/7 |  5-1/16 |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 5        | 10   | 15     | 20     | 25     | 30     | 35      | 40     | 45      |
+  |          | 10   |  7-1/2 |  6-2/3 |  6-1/4 |  6     |  5-5/6  |  5-5/7 |  5-5/8  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 5-1/2    | 11   | 16-1/2 | 22     | 27-1/2 | 33     | 38-1/2  | 44     | 49-1/2  |
+  |          | 11   |  8-1/4 |  7-1/3 |  6-4/5 |  6-1/2 |  6-5/12 |  6-2/7 |  6-3/10 |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 6        | 12   | 18     | 24     | 30     | 36     | 42      | 48     | 54      |
+  |          | 12   |  9     |  8     |  7-1/2 |  7-1/5 |  7      |  6-6/7 |  6-3/4  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 7        | 14   | 21     | 28     | 35     | 42     | 49      | 56     | 63      |
+  |          | 14   | 10-1/2 |  9-1/3 |  8-3/4 |  8-2/5 | 8-1/6   |  8     |  7-7/8  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 8        | 16   | 24     | 32     | 40     | 48     | 56      | 64     | 72      |
+  |          | 16   | 12     | 10-2/3 | 10     |  9-3/5 |  9-1/3  |  9-1/7 |  9      |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 9        | 18   | 27     | 36     | 45     | 54     | 63      | 72     | 81      |
+  |          | 18   | 13-1/2 | 12     | 11-1/4 | 10-4/5 | 10-1/2  | 10-2/7 | 10-1/8  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+
+      The object of this table is to enable any manipulator who is about
+      to enlarge (or reduce) a copy any given number of times to do so
+      without troublesome calculation. It is assumed that the photographer
+      knows exactly what the focus of his lens is, and that he is able to
+      measure accurately from its optical center. The use of the table
+      will be seen from the following illustration: A photographer has a
+      _carte_ to enlarge to four times its size, and the lens he intends
+      employing is one of 6 inches equivalent focus. He must therefore
+      look for 4 on the upper horizontal line and for 6 in the first
+      vertical column, and carry his eye to where these two join, which
+      will be at 30-7-1/2. The greater of these is the distance the
+      sensitive plate must be from the center of the lens; and the lesser,
+      the distance of the picture to be copied.
+
+In practice it is convenient, after having once found the focus for a
+given enlargement from a given negative with the lens in use, to mark on
+the base of the apparatus the point to which the lens has been extended.
+Then in making future enlargements of the same size, it is only necessary
+to set the lens at that point and move the easel backward or forward until
+an approximate focus is obtained, when the image will be of the proper
+size on the screen.
+
+As an approximate guide it is sufficient to know that the nearer the lens
+is to the negative the greater will be the enlargement, as may be seen in
+Fig. 7. If a piece of thin cardboard, or a sheet of paper cut to the exact
+size of the enlargement desired, is placed upon the easel-screen, little
+difficulty will be experienced in getting an enlarged image of the proper
+size and correctly focused.
+
+It is advisable to focus the enlargement with the largest aperture of the
+lens. If the lens, when working at its largest aperture, covers the plate
+from which the enlargement is being made, it will give proper definition
+over the enlargement. With a lens of the better sort, of course, the
+definition will be equally good whether a large or small aperture is used;
+but with a low-priced lens it is better to stop down to No. 8 (f/11.3) or
+No. 16 (f/16), to avoid spherical aberration. Stopping the lens down
+increases the time of exposure, and enables one to have greater control
+over the operation of exposing the paper, permitting time to shade or
+locally increase the exposure at any portion of the image. This is
+sometimes useful, but as a general thing stopping the lens down is not
+advisable, as interfering with one's judgment in calculating exposures for
+various negatives. Having secured the image correct in size and focus,
+place thumb-tacks at all four sides of the sheet of paper or card used to
+focus the image. These will serve as a guide to the placing of the
+sensitive paper. Adjust the lens stop as desired and cap the lens, leaving
+the room totally dark save for such safe light as we may have for working.
+Place the bromide paper on the screen, using the thumb-tacks as a guide to
+the correct position in this.
+
+In making his first enlargements, the beginner should avail himself of the
+help of test-strips. These should be about one inch wide and the length of
+the paper. The exposure depends on a number of factors, among which are
+light, negative, focal length of lens, size of enlargement, stops,
+sensitiveness of paper, developer, temperature of developer, and length of
+development. The first experiment had best, therefore, be made on a purely
+arbitrary basis, for which we will take ten seconds.
+
+Pinning a test-strip on the screen, we uncap the lens and with a piece of
+cardboard shade two-thirds of the strip during five seconds; move the
+cardboard, and give the next section five seconds making ten for the
+first; then remove the cardboard entirely and give five seconds more,
+making fifteen for the first, ten for the second, and five for the third.
+Now develop the strip. If the fifteen seconds portion finishes development
+in less than one minute, and the ten takes approximately a minute, we will
+know that our basis was correct. But if all three were over-exposed or
+under-exposed, as shown by one minute's development, we can expose the
+next test-strip accordingly.
+
+In determining the correct exposure, the method already set forth for
+contact exposures is a reasonably good one. If the paper with a given
+exposure takes half the proper time to develop, halve the next exposure;
+if double the time, or more, double it. More could be said on the subject
+of exposure, and possibly to advantage; for instance, there are tables
+showing the exact relation of exposure to the number of times of
+enlargement, but complicated calculations in the dark-room are troublesome
+and a test-strip is simpler. After a while one gets the ability to
+determine the approximate exposure required by looking at the enlarged
+image on the screen, correcting slight errors by length of development,
+and greater ones by modifying the developer by diluting or strengthening.
+
+It should be remembered, however, that in judging exposure by reference to
+the screen, we must consider the high lights, as well as the shadows. It
+is in the high lights that we need the detail if we are to have soft
+pictures. If this detail in the high lights is plentiful and clear we may
+know that our light is strong enough for a very short exposure. If it is
+very faint, we will have to give a long exposure and use diluted developer
+to save the over-exposed shadows. On the other hand, if the image on the
+screen is a flat one, we may know that our light is too strong for the
+negative, and it must be modified by removing the reflector or by
+interposing ground or yellow glass; and if neither of these suffice, we
+can simply lay the negative aside for a dark day when the light will be
+very much weaker. Frequently all necessary contrasts can be obtained by
+the use of the _hard_ paper before referred to. As under-exposure tends to
+increase contrasts, we should also give the minimum exposure in the case
+of flat negatives, abandoning for a time our standard one-minute
+development. As will be seen by this time, there are many wrinkles about
+using bromide paper, and it will be found that new ones appear at every
+_seance_ in the enlarging room.
+
+But why is it that so many of our enlargements are black in the shadows
+and chalky in the high lights? Why, simply because our light is too weak
+for our negative. We forget that if we cannot modify our negative we must
+modify our light. It is this characteristic of the bromide enlargement
+which has prevented the process from enjoying the popularity it deserves.
+And I sometimes wonder whether this chalkiness is due to the use of the
+north light!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+DODGING, VIGNETTING, COMPOSITE PRINTING AND THE USE OF BOLTING SILK
+
+
+Of all printing processes, bromide enlarging offers the best opportunities
+for successful dodging and modification. We can cut our light down and
+take all the time we want, or we can take as little time as we want. A
+hand, a finger, a slip of paper, or anything within reach, will suffice to
+shade the light just as we want it. In this connection it is well to
+always hold the shade nearer the lens than the easel, as greater diffusion
+results and there is less danger of sharp lines. In shading a foreground
+to bring up a dense sky, first make a test-strip or two, noting how long
+the shading is carried on and how long the light is allowed to act on the
+whole. If the sky is then over- or under-printed we can modify it in the
+enlargement proper.
+
+The best arrangement for vignetting in enlarging is a piece of cardboard
+the size of the negative, with an opening cut out at the proper place and
+about the size of the portion of the negative to be vignetted. This is
+held near the lens and moved backward and forward between the latter and
+the screen, the opening showing larger as we near the lens and smaller as
+we recede from it. Very tasteful vignettes can be made in this way. A
+favorite method of the writer's is to use a sheet of bromide paper,
+preferably that with rough surface, and print on it a small vignette of a
+portion of a negative. These sheets being of a uniform size are then bound
+in book form, and make very attractive souvenirs. Variety can be added to
+the collection by printing some of the pictures through a mat fastened on
+the screen over the paper, when, of course, they are bounded by straight,
+sharp lines.
+
+Double printing in enlarging is not at all difficult. Assuming that
+test-strips have been made determining the proper exposure for each
+negative, I will briefly outline the process. Taking a landscape negative
+with clear sky in which we wish to print clouds, we first tack on the
+screen a sheet of paper the size of our bromide, and after properly
+adjusting and focusing it, trace with a pencil the outline of the skyline.
+We then remove the foreground negative and, after tracing, cut out a mask
+conforming to the size and shape of the foreground, cutting away the sky.
+We now put in the box the sky negative, and readjust our sheet of paper
+until after proper focusing the desired portion of the sky occupies the
+portion reserved for it, leaving the thumb-tacks as a guide when we put
+our bromide on the screen. Now using the sheet of paper as a guide, place
+on the edges of the bromide paper two little pencil marks to show how far
+we shall shade the lower portion of the paper. Our mask being the size of
+the foreground negative, it is now only necessary to hold it at the proper
+distance from the lens to have its edge conform to the sky-line when
+enlarged. But this would leave a sharp line if held exactly at that point,
+so using the pencil marks on the margin as a guide, we slowly raise and
+lower the mask very slightly and just sufficient to cause an agreeable
+blending of the sky into nothing. The proper exposure given, we cap the
+lens, remove the paper and insert the foreground negative. Now we must
+again adjust our sheet of plain paper until the sky line marked on it
+coincides with the sky-line on the screen, leaving thumb-tacks as usual.
+Registry being thus secured, we simply expose the foreground and develop
+the composite print.
+
+Needless to say, our clouds must be lighted from the same general
+direction as the landscape. But if in the negative they are not so lighted
+it can be reversed in the holder and will then print properly. In almost
+all cloud printing the tendency is to give undue prominence to the clouds
+by printing the sky to too deep a tone. This, besides making the blending
+very noticeable at the horizon, results in unnatural effects and should be
+avoided.
+
+If the sky portion of the landscape negative is thin, it might print
+slightly and spoil the effect of the clouds. This can be overcome by using
+a weaker light in enlarging. Where this is not desirable, a mask can be
+cut for the sky portion and used slightly while the foreground is being
+printed. By using it a very little during the first part of the exposure
+the tint will be overcome, while objects projecting above the horizon will
+be sufficiently printed. It will be found easier, no doubt, to print the
+landscape first and sky afterwards. But this does not result in good work.
+The landscape should invariably be printed after the sky portion.
+
+Bolting silk enlargements were for a time very popular. Sometimes they
+were artistic. Then every-one began making them, too often from unsuitable
+negatives, and they fell into disrepute. This method of enlarging is, in
+fact, suitable for very few negatives and only where broad effects of
+light and shade are desired. To cut up a spotty negative with a succession
+of lines does not necessarily give a broad effect in the picture. But for
+softening down heavy masses of shadows, and blending them harmoniously
+with masses of light or half light, the process is without an equal. The
+bolting silk can be bought by the square yard of dealers in photographic
+supplies, and should be stretched evenly over a frame made of quarter- and
+half-inch wood, being tacked between the two strips. This frame can be
+easily adjusted to fit over the paper on the screen. By using the side,
+bringing the cloth within a quarter of an inch of the paper, the lines are
+more evident, which is not so objectionable for very large work. But for
+the softest effects, reverse the frame and use it at half an inch from the
+paper. In this way we get a soft diffusion of the lines and much greater
+general softness. It should never be used nearer than a quarter of an
+inch, as the lines then become too evident, and hence fail in the effect
+desired. The bolting silk comes in three grades, fine, medium and coarse.
+The medium is the best for general work. It should not, however, be used
+for sizes under 8 × 10. The interposition of the cloth requires about
+one-half additional exposure. Focusing, of course, must be done without
+the frame in place. The bolting silk should only be used with paper which
+is to be toned to some color other than black, as there is something
+incongruous in its use with black tones.
+
+Few branches of photographic work, outside of negative-making, are as
+fascinatingly interesting as the making of enlarged prints on bromide
+paper from small negatives. Every amateur has negatives worthy of
+enlargement in his collection, and the process is so simple as to be
+within the capacity of the amateur who is still in his first year in
+photography. Its practice will stimulate his interest and help him in all
+his other photographic work. Especially will it help him in
+picture-making, the merits and defects of composition being a hundred fold
+more plainly evident in an enlargement than in the small print from the
+hand-camera negative. Moreover, in its essentials, bromide enlarging calls
+for no special equipment other than the ordinary hand- or view-camera, and
+a dark-room or other convenient work-room from which all "white light" can
+be excluded on occasion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE REDUCTION AND TONING OF BROMIDE PRINTS
+
+
+The subsequent manipulations with bromide paper do not differ materially
+from those with negatives. The support being paper of course makes some
+difference and the fact that while in the negative we aim to get printing
+density and printing color only, in the positive we aim to please the eye,
+makes another. But generally speaking, it may be said that whatever we can
+do with the negative we can do with bromide paper, that is, in so far as
+the emulsion itself is concerned.
+
+The first operation to be taken up is the reduction of prints which are
+too dark. This can best be effected just after the prints come from the
+hypo. A few grains of red prussiate of potash are dissolved in a suitable
+quantity of water, the latter being barely tinged, not of a strong yellow
+color. If the print is too dense throughout, it can be immersed without
+previous washing in this solution. Reduction should take place gradually,
+and this is best accomplished with a weak reducer. If the tray be rocked
+gently the reduction will be quite uniform. If, however, only a portion of
+the print needs reduction, this can be effected by applying the
+ferricyanide solution locally with a brush or bit of absorbent cotton.
+Extreme care is needed in this operation. In this way unduly deep shadows
+can be softened, veiled high lights brightened, or almost any modification
+obtained which may be deemed desirable. When reduction is almost completed
+quickly rinse the print in running water and then wash thoroughly. If the
+print has been dried, it is only necessary to soak it for a few moments in
+a fresh fixing bath, when the ferricyanide can be applied as before.
+
+Latterly the toning of bromide prints has become popular. There are many
+methods and innumerable formulae. Here we shall concern ourselves with the
+sulphide method which best fulfills the three chief requirements, namely:
+(1) Certainty of results; (2) the use of few baths; (3) the production of
+permanent prints. Processes which, as regards color, vigor, etc., are
+beyond the control of the worker, are of very little practical use.
+Equally so, if the toning involves a whole string of operations, the final
+outcome of which is usually--a spoilt print. And, lastly, a process
+which--however satisfactory it may be in other respects--impairs the
+undoubted permanency of a black-developed print is not one worthy of
+adoption. In one or two other respects, processes vary chiefly as regards
+the depth or intensity which the print must have in order to produce the
+most satisfactory result when toned. Thus, prints to be toned with uranium
+require to be distinctly on the pale side, whilst those for sulphide
+toning are best a little vigorous. One or two other methods, on the other
+hand, require the use of the costly gold or platinum salts. The latter,
+except under exceptional circumstances, are far better employed in the
+legitimate form of platinotype or other platinum paper; bromide prints
+toned with platinum will probably cost more, and will never have the
+absolute permanence peculiar to the platinum print.
+
+Placed in rough order of merit, the processes available are: Sulphide
+toning (hypo-alum toning is a cheaper, slower, and not quite so effective
+form of this method, whilst the thio processes represent sulphide toning
+at its best); copper toning; toning by re-development. These methods
+differ, not only in the results which they give, but also as regards the
+perfection with which each attains its particular effect; on the principle
+of the lady in the play who spoke the "absolute truth under the
+circumstances," each may claim to be included among the really serviceable
+processes.
+
+In the sulphide process, the image which, in a black-developed print,
+consists of metallic silver in fine division, is converted into silver
+sulphide, a substance which in the ordinary way is also black, but when
+produced in a fine condition on a photographic print is brown to sepia
+color. Silver sulphide is a most permanent substance. Therefore a
+sulphide-toned print should be permanent, too, a conclusion which is fully
+borne out in practice. A sulphide-toned print is at least as permanent as
+the bromide from which it is made. The image of the latter is susceptible
+to practically only one agent likely to come in contact with it, namely,
+sulphur fumes from burning gas, which partially sulphurize it and give
+rise to iridescent markings resembling those due to stale paper. Now, as
+the sulphide-toned print is the result of this sulphurizing process
+carried out with intention to a state of completeness, the result should
+be--and proves to be in practice--immune to this one cause of defacement.
+
+In converting the silver image into one of silver sulphide, the method is
+to first act on (bleach) the silver image with some reagent which will
+change it into a compound of silver susceptible to the action of sulphide.
+Iodine has been used for this, giving an image of silver iodide. Bromine
+gives one of silver bromide. A mixture of potass bichromate and
+hydrochloric acid gives silver chloride, as does also a solution of
+chlorine, though in the former case the presence of the chromium compounds
+affects the color obtained. But the best of the lot is a solution of the
+two substances potassium ferricyanide and potassium bromide, which forms
+an image of silver ferrocyanide and silver bromide. Both of these are
+converted into silver sulphide when treated with a solution of sodium
+sulphide. In the case of the hypo-alum process, in which the prints are
+toned direct (without bleaching) in a mixture of hypo and alum, the image
+is also changed into silver sulphide, but only to a partial extent.
+Theoretically, the method is not so good as sulphide proper; it is much
+more inconvenient in practice except on a commercial scale, while the
+results cannot be said to quite equal those by the sulphide process as
+regards permanency.
+
+So much by way of theory. We will now give the formulae for the two
+solutions required in the sulphide process. The first of these is the
+"bleach," or oxidizing mixture of bromide and ferricyanide. Within
+reasonable limits, the proportions of these salts and the quantity of each
+in the solution does not matter very much. Each chemical can, if desired,
+be kept in a separate solution if care be taken to keep the mixture in the
+dark,--that is, in a cupboard where it will not be exposed constantly to
+daylight. The ferricyanide suffers in time by exposure to daylight; but,
+as both it and the bromide are comparatively cheap and serve for a large
+number of prints, there is no need to take excessive care. The
+ferricyanide-bromide mixture, however, keeps very much better than a plain
+solution of ferricyanide alone. Formulae which place the salts in separate
+solutions are a mistake.
+
+As good a formula as any is: Potass ferricyanide, 300 grains; potass
+bromide, 100 grains, water 20 ounces; Ammonium bromide may be used in
+place of the potassium salt in the above formula; the difference is not
+marked, but the ammonium compound tends to give a somewhat warmer brown or
+sepia. In the case of many formulae, it will be noticed that equal
+quantities of bromide and ferricyanide are recommended. Although, as just
+stated, variations in the formula are not at all marked in their effects,
+a proportion of bromide over one-quarter of the ferricyanide does tend
+towards the yellowish color of which complaints are now and again heard. I
+want to make it clear that the opportunities for going wrong with the
+bleacher are very small indeed. Without encouraging the reader to be
+careless let it be said that "any old formula" (of ferricyanide and
+bromide) for the bleacher will prove successful. Not so, however, in the
+case of the sulphide solution, which requires to be very carefully made up
+and used.
+
+Sulph_ide_, not sulph_ite_. The material for the toning or darkening of
+the bleached print is the chemical substance, sodium sulphide, of the
+formula Na_2S.9H_2O. This is purchased as small crystals which greedily
+absorb water and rapidly become almost liquid if not properly corked. Not
+that this totally unfits the sulphide for use. Sulphide which has gone
+liquid will at all times be found to work perfectly, but it is of course
+open to suspicion, and, in any case, it is not possible to know what is
+the strength of a solution made up with such a supply. For this reason, it
+is best to make up the sulphide into solution of 20 per cent strength, and
+add this to water to make the toning bath. And it is here that a caution
+must be noted. The weak working solution, which is only about 1 to 2 per
+cent strength, keeps very badly indeed, and should be made up fresh from
+the stock solution at the time of toning each batch of prints. This is one
+of the most necessary items to bear in mind in using the sulphide process.
+
+Sodium sulphide is sold in various degrees of purity, and the label on the
+bottle is not always in exact correspondence with the condition of the
+substance inside, but the two forms which must be adhered to for sulphide
+toning are the ordinary "pure" and the "pure for analysis." The former can
+be obtained from any reliable drug store or photographic dealer. It comes
+in small lumps, yellowish to greenish in color; when dissolved in water
+the solution will be yellow, and will usually show a deposit which must be
+filtered off. This sulphide will give tones which are sepia brown with
+most papers. In the case of the "pure-for-analysis" sulphide, which is the
+recrystallized variety, the salt will be pure white and will form a quite
+colorless and clear solution in water. The tone given by this kind of
+sulphide is usually of a more purplish color. The distinct difference
+between the two commercial varieties of sulphide should not be overlooked,
+as it allows the worker to modify the process usefully when dealing with
+papers differing (as all papers do) to a slight extent in their
+adaptability to sulphide toning. The purer form has certainly much better
+keeping properties than the other, but either, if made up in 20 per cent
+solution, keeps for a month or two at least--which is enough for all
+purposes. The chief difference between the two is noticed in the diluted
+or working solutions. That of the purest sulphide _may_ be kept and used
+again, though it is not really good policy to do so.
+
+The supply of sulphide should therefore be dissolved as soon as purchased,
+as follows: _Stock sulphide solution_--20 per cent; sodium sulphite 4
+ounces; water to make 20 ounces. The actual toning solution is made up at
+the time of treating the prints by mixing the above stock with water, as
+follows: _Sulphide toning bath._--Stock 20 per cent solution 3 ounces;
+water to make 20 ounces.
+
+This makes a bath which contains about one per cent real sulphide,
+corresponding with about a 3 per cent solution of the sulphide as
+purchased. If the bath is much weaker, the tone obtained is usually not
+quite so good; while, if it is stronger, there is danger of the print's
+blistering while toning, or afterward in the washing water. Indeed, some
+papers need to be toned in a weaker bath, and require also to be fixed in
+an alum-hypo fixing bath (see later), so that the strength of the toning
+bath given above may be taken as the maximum, and used at half or
+one-third strength, as circumstances show to be necessary. And, to repeat
+the caution once more, the toning bath is to be thrown away as soon as the
+prints have been passed through it. With these points in our mind as to
+the making up of the solution, we can come to the process proper.
+
+The prints require to be well washed and free from hypo before being
+placed in the bromide-ferricyanide bleacher, because any hypo in
+conjunction with the ferricyanide will form the well-known Farmer's
+reducer, and cause patchiness of the prints. It is immaterial whether the
+prints are taken direct through the toning process or dried in the
+meantime. Some workers contend that the toning process is more regular if
+the prints are dried before bleaching. In either case, immersion in the
+bleacher will cause the fully developed bromide to disappear, leaving only
+a faint brown image behind. In some cases the image is fainter than in
+others, the difference appearing to depend chiefly on the developer
+employed. Developers with a liability to stain will give prints which do
+not bleach out so completely as those made with cleaner working
+developers. But, in all cases, two to three minutes' action of the
+bleaching solution will be ample; if all pure black is not gone in this
+time, it is a sign that the bleach is becoming exhausted. The prints
+should be kept constantly on the move whilst in the solution, and turned
+over and over to ensure equal action. They are then given quite a brief
+rinse in running water--half a minute to a minute--and then transferred to
+the sulphide solution, where they should darken to the full brown or sepia
+tone in a few seconds. It is well always to leave them here for twice to
+three times the period required to give the full tone. A wash of half an
+hour will remove the salts left in the film.
+
+Granted that bleacher and sulphide are in proper working order, there is
+one further factor in the making of sepia prints which is of vital
+importance, and that is the proper preparation of the print itself. A good
+sulphide tone presupposes a good black and white bromide. Not only that,
+defects in the bromide which may lie latent while the print is untoned
+come to light in the sulphide bath. This applies to uneven fixation (due
+to omission to keep prints moving in the hypo bath) and fingering of the
+surface; while, as regards the original development of the print, making
+the best of a wrong exposure will not do when sulphide toning is in view.
+A print that is forced by long development will suffer in tone, the result
+being colder and less satisfactory as regards vigor. Full exposure, and
+development which is complete in the normal time for a perfect black
+print, are the conditions for a good sepia tone, and, when a batch of
+prints is being put through, it is well to take steps to preserve a
+uniform time of development in order to secure an identical tone
+throughout.
+
+There are many different formulas for the uranium toning of bromide
+prints, and I suppose that most of them have given good results with the
+workers who published their methods. Of those which I have tried, however,
+none has yielded the results which I have been enabled to obtain from my
+own formula--my own in that I arrived at it by patient experimenting. It
+may be that this formula is not wholly original with myself. At any rate,
+I do not claim anything for it except that it works, with me, better than
+others I have tried.
+
+The requirements for toning bromide prints with uranium are: 1 ounce of
+uranium nitrate; 1 ounce of potassium ferricyanide (the red crystals); 1/2
+pound bottle of acetic acid--c. p. glacial preferred; water; a supply of
+blotting paper, to be kept exclusively for this purpose, and a few
+absolutely and chemically clean trays.
+
+The expense attached to these toning processes is slight. Uranium nitrate
+costs from forty to sixty cents per ounce, and an ounce will last a long
+time. Potassium ferricyanide costs about twenty cents per pound, and a
+pound is ample for a lifetime. Glacial acetic acid is a little more
+costly, but a half-pound bottle will prove a good investment. It is used
+also, as the reader will recall, in making acid hypo for acid fixing.
+
+To prepare the toning baths, dissolve the ounce of uranium nitrate in 10
+ounces of water. The water should be distilled if this is easily
+obtainable, and the solution should be kept in an orange-glass bottle or
+an ordinary bottle protected from light by a non-actinic paper wrapping.
+Dissolve the ounce of potassium ferricyanide in 10 ounces of water. Keep
+this also in an orange-glass bottle, well corked. There are many cautions
+about this particular salt, and it has been said that it will not keep in
+solution. In my practice I find no difficulty whatever in the use of a
+solution six months old, despite the difficulties mentioned in the
+text-books.
+
+To tone the bromide prints, first note that the prints should have been
+developed and fixed and washed just as usual. It is necessary that prints
+to be toned shall contain no trace of hypo. To secure this, the prints
+should be specially prepared for toning by being again thoroughly washed,
+as any hypo remaining in the print will cause spots and streakiness. With
+care at this stage the toning will give clean and bright prints, which
+should be as permanent as the original bromide print.
+
+I cannot give the reason why, but, as a general rule, bromide prints tone
+better if the print has been dried after washing and rewet just before
+toning. There may be a chemical reason for this, but I am inclined to
+think that it is a physical one, viz., that the emulsion is softer after
+its first washing than after having been dried and wet, so that it allows
+toning solution to get into the film more quickly. This naturally results
+in more rapid toning, and quick toning does not yield as good prints as a
+slower and more gradual building up of the color image.
+
+Having the print ready for toning as here outlined, take 1 dram of the
+uranium solution, add 1/2 dram of acetic acid and then 5 ounces of water.
+In a separate graduate put 1 dram of ferricyanide solution and 5 ounces of
+water. Just before toning, pour these two solutions together into the
+third graduate and use immediately. To proceed, lay the rewetted print
+face up in a clean tray and flow the freshly made toning bath (the two
+solutions combined) over the print. The print and tray must be kept in
+motion by gentle rocking during the toning operation. The toning solution
+tends to throw a red precipitate as it works. This precipitate should not
+be permitted to settle on the face of the print. Some workers tone their
+prints face down, but I do not advocate this, as it is important to take
+the print from the toning bath at just the right moment, and, as the
+toning process is short (six or seven minutes is usually sufficient even
+for the deepest red) you need to watch the print all the time. In the
+toning operation note that a constant quiet motion of the tray, to keep
+the solution moving over the print, is essential to success.
+
+I have already given, in an earlier paragraph, the order in which the
+colors come. But that order was for a normal print. Some prints behave
+differently, and it is in the control of these unavoidable variations with
+different prints that skill and success come. A print of a half-tone
+subject against a jet-black background, a portrait, for instance, will
+hardly follow the normal order in the appearance of colors. This because
+the half-tones will be brown and even red-brown before the toning solution
+has changed the dense black deposit of the background at all. If the
+toning was stopped at this stage, some very pretty effects in double
+toning might result.
+
+From this explanation of the toning process, the discerning reader will
+perceive the need for caution in selecting the best kind of a print for
+uranium toning. Thus a print which has a bald-headed sky will tone only in
+the body of the print, but if there is any tint at all to the sky, it also
+will tone, giving an effect not much to be desired except for sunset or
+sunrise pictures. If white high-lights are desired in the toned print,
+they must be white originally and not the least bit fogged. As
+double-toned effects in a print are not usually desirable, those prints
+having deep black shadows or dark masses will be avoided. The best kind of
+print for this method of toning is one fully exposed and slightly
+under-developed, since, when the uranium does take hold of the shadows, it
+makes for an increase of contrast.
+
+Experience is the best teacher, and I could not begin to describe in
+detail what the reader can himself ascertain from a few experiments. Some
+prints needing contrast should be carried far in the toning solution;
+others, not needing contrast, will give better results if they are toned
+only through the browns, and so on. The reader who can spend a Saturday
+afternoon with a few bromide prints, varying in character, will learn more
+from his experimenting than I could tell him in many pages. For these
+experiments waste or imperfect black prints can be used with practical
+economy, the chief object being to watch the progress of toning and
+chemical changes.
+
+When the desired tone is reached, remove the print from the toning
+solution and wash quickly and well in running water for fifteen minutes.
+If washed too long, the color of the print will fade and a dead and
+lifeless print will result. If not washed long enough, the yellow of the
+ferricyanide will remain in the print, robbing its gradations of
+brightness and purity of color and impairing the permanency of the print.
+
+A big advantage in this method of toning is its wonderful adaptability.
+There is no hard and fast rule as to the proportion of the chemicals to
+the bulk of water used. Try two drams of each of the two solutions; then
+three drams of each, but watch that the print does not get beyond you in
+toning. The only practical difference in my formula and others that I have
+seen is that I make my stock solution weaker than that ordinarily advised
+and use less of it to a certain amount of water, because I prefer slow
+toning and the accompanying ease of control which the flash-in-the-pan
+formula does not admit. Quick toning, like quick development, tends to
+block the shadows in the print, and if you once get bronzed shadows the
+print is practically hopeless. Not quite ruined, however, as a bath in a 5
+per cent solution of sodium carbonate will discharge the color and then,
+if the print is faded, it may be redeveloped in an alkaline developer such
+as metol-hydro. But before it is retoned the print must be thoroughly
+washed, as the presence of sodium carbonate does not permit the toning
+solution to do its work.
+
+Finally, I may say that, while a bath of acetic acid and water is often
+advised to stop the toning action in this method, I have never found it
+necessary.
+
+All the thin varieties of bromide paper curl badly in drying. If they are
+to be kept unmounted it is well to immerse them in water to which has been
+added a few drops of glycerine. This will ensure their lying flat after
+drying. A solution of 2 ounces of glycerine in 25 ounces of water is
+advised when it is desired to make bromides on heavy rough paper remain
+flat, after drying, for book illustration and similar purposes.
+
+If one is trying to rush through a bromide print, it can be trimmed while
+wet by placing it on a sheet of stiff paper and cutting through both.
+
+The paper will be found to cockle the mounts badly in drying. Aside from
+the glue mountant, formula for which accompanies the paper, I know no
+preventive except to mount the prints while dry with the dry mounting
+tissue. As the paper when wet stretches one way considerably, as much as a
+third of an inch on a ten- or twelve-inch length, provision must be made
+in trimming, especially if mounts with centers of a given size are used.
+
+The paper being covered with an emulsion which in warm weather is very
+soft while wet, mounting is somewhat more difficult than with some of the
+other papers. My method is to mount not more than half a dozen at once,
+placing them face down, one on top of the other, on a glass or ferrotype
+plate, blotting off the surface water and spreading the paste over the top
+one in the usual way. I place this on the mount and then stretch over it
+smoothly a damp handkerchief or piece of very thin rubber cloth, rubbing
+the print down with my hands, seldom using the squeegee and then very
+lightly. By this method abrasion of the surface seldom results and
+air-bells are unknown. Owing to the strong contracting power of the paper
+in drying, the mounting paste must be used freely, especially at the edges
+of the print.
+
+Apart from the methods of procedure here given, there are innumerable
+modifications covering every detail of contact printing and enlarging on
+bromide paper. Most of these have been given careful trial as published,
+but few have quite fulfilled the expectations they created.
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS.
+
+Manuals dealing with the manipulation of the various brands of paper may
+also be obtained, generally _gratis_, from the various manufacturers of
+bromide paper or their American agents as follows: The Eastman Kodak Co.,
+Rochester, N. Y.; The Defender Photo Supply Co., Rochester, N. Y.; J. L.
+Lewis, New York City.
+
+
+
+
+ROYAL ALBUMS
+
+combine all the good features you seek in an album for the proper display
+and preservation of your
+
+UNMOUNTED PHOTOGRAPHS AND POST CARDS
+
+  _Quality in Materials_
+  _The Best of Workmanship_
+  _Pleasing in Design and Appearance_
+  _Durability in Service_
+  _Moderate in Price_
+  _A Wide Variety in Styles and Sizes_
+  _Bindings in All Desirable Colors and Finishes_
+  _Leaves and Covers of Harmonious Coloring_
+
+Ask Your Dealer to Show You ROYAL ALBUMS
+
+
+MANUFACTURED BY
+F. L. SCHAFUSS COMPANY
+200 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+
+Makers of Albums Exclusively
+
+
+
+
+TO PROFESSIONAL AND AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHERS
+
+Write us at once for particulars regarding our new Multi-Speed Flashlight
+Attachment for our
+
+MULTI-SPEED SHUTTER
+
+It is a simple device operating in conjunction with the Multi-Speed
+Shutter and attached to same with a screw on the back of the shutter.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It makes high speed photography practicable under all conditions. Takes
+photographs of moving objects in 1-1000th second.
+
+Especially valuable for making instantaneous full-timed pictures of
+babies, aged and nervous people, groups, etc. Invaluable to press
+photographers for making race starts at night, indoor athletic events and
+all kinds of newspaper illustrations hitherto impossible.
+
+_Send for a free Specimen Photograph and Detailed Information_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE MULTI-SPEED SHUTTER JUNIOR
+
+Simple, Efficient, Moderate in Price
+
+Based on the principle of the famous Multi-Speed Shutter.
+
+Gives accurate exposures up to 1-500th second, in addition to the usual
+slower speeds.
+
+Extremely compact for the small camera. Easy in operation.
+
+Highest efficiency in illumination and definition.
+
+Widely endorsed as the simplest and best shutter sold even at a higher
+price.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Send for Detailed Information and FREE Illustrated Catalogue_
+
+
+MULTI-SPEED SHUTTER CO.,
+317-323 East 34th Street
+NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+LANDE'S Patent Enlarging Lamp
+
+PATENTED
+
+Puts Enlarged Pictures Within Reach of Everyone. Converts any Camera into
+an Enlarging Lantern without the use of Condensers.
+
+[Illustration: Showing Camera and Enlarger in position]
+
+[Illustration: Showing Back Open and Interior Arrangement]
+
+Enlargements made at home in any room which can be darkened. By means of
+this lamp and his regular camera any amateur is equipped to make
+enlargements on bromide paper. It is fitted with two incandescent gas
+lamps. The light is reflected so as to give a perfect even illumination
+over the entire surface of the negative.
+
+The time of exposure varies according to the power of the light, the
+density of the negative and size of the enlargement. Approximately an
+average negative enlarged to four times the original size will take about
+one to one and one-half minutes.
+
+Prices
+
+  No. 1. For 5 ×  7 and smaller negatives       $12.00
+  No. 2. For 8 × 10 and smaller negatives        15.00
+
+_Ask your dealer to show you_
+
+
+MANUFACTURED BY
+GEORGE MURPHY, Inc., 57 E. Ninth St., New York
+
+
+
+
+Cheap Blotting Papers are expensive in use and may ruin your prints. There
+is practical economy and comfort in the use of
+
+PHOTO FINISH WORLD BLOTTING
+
+The Best for Twenty Years
+
+Made expressly for photographic use. 100% pure cotton fibre, very
+absorbtive and non-linting. Absolutely free from anything that can injure
+the photographic print. Notable for its smooth, hard finish, giving
+durability in use. Try it and you'll use no other.
+
+UNEQUALLED IN QUALITY ECONOMY and SATISFACTION
+
+Your dealer can supply you if you will insist on getting "Photo Finish
+World." It is worth insisting upon.
+
+
+Manufactured by
+THE ALBEMARLE PAPER MFG. CO.
+Richmond, Va., U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+DURATOL NON-POISONOUS RAPID DEVELOPER
+
+Produces essentially the same results as other =coal-tar= developers. It
+is economic by reason of slow exhaustion, and its solutions are stable for
+many months, the bottles need not be kept filled to the neck.
+
+It produces fog-free negatives with the right amount of density in the
+high lights, a wealth of detail in the shadows and great softness.
+
+
+  BEST FORMULA FOR PLATES, FILMS AND SLOW-WORKING, CONTRASTY GASLIGHT
+  PAPERS:
+
+  Hot Water                        32 oz.
+  Duratol                          15 grains
+  Soda Sulphite dry                3/4 oz.
+  Potassium Carbonate dry          1 oz.
+  Hydroquinone                     75 grains
+
+  Development complete in from 2 to 5 minutes.
+
+
+  AN EXCELLENT FORMULA FOR SOFT-WORKING PAPERS (ARTURO, CYKO AND ARTEX):
+
+  Hot Water                        35 oz.
+  Duratol                          15 grains
+  Soda Sulphite dry                1-2 oz.
+  Potassium Carbonate dry          3/4 oz.
+  Hydroquinone                     60 grains
+
+  Development complete in about 2 minutes.
+
+Sample upon request from
+
+
+SCHERING & GLATZ
+150 Maiden Lane--New York
+
+
+
+
+Make Your Own Enlargements
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The GRAPHIC Enlarging and Reducing Camera
+
+With this camera you can make enlargements of any size with either
+daylight or artificial light. No condensing lenses are required. The
+reflecting cone supplied with each camera distributes the light evenly
+over the entire surface of the negative.
+
+
+  PRICE
+
+  Including Negative Carrier and Kits and three sheets of diffusing Ground
+  Glass.
+
+  No. 1. For Negatives  5 ×  7 and smaller $28.00
+  No. 2.  "     "       8 × 10  "    "      35.00
+  No. 3.  "     "      11 × 14  "    "      45.00
+
+
+FOLMER & SCHWING DIVISION
+Eastman Kodak Co.
+ROCHESTER, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+WE RECOMMEND "Agfa" AMIDOL FOR DEVELOPING BROMIDE WORK
+
+¶ Send an "Agfa" Label and 10 cents for a copy of the "Agfa" Formulæ Book.
+It contains complete formulæ for all makes of paper and other valuable
+information.
+
+
+BERLIN ANILINE WORKS
+215 WATER STREET
+NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+$15.00
+
+[Illustration]
+
+From a Small Negative You Can Print a Picture Any Size
+
+The Radion Enlarging Printer is a device which, used in connection with
+your camera, produces prints from either film or glass negatives in any
+dimensions you wish.
+
+The printing is almost as quick as contact printing, and the size of the
+prints can be varied instantly.
+
+THE RADION ENLARGING PRINTER
+
+enables you to get all the results of a big camera with a small and
+inexpensive equipment. It comes to you complete and ready to operate at
+any time of day or night. It is equipped with new, specially constructed
+Mazda lamps ready to attach to any electric light socket.
+
+The Radion Enlarging Printer works without the use of condensers, which
+thereby reduces the cost of the machine and secures a better detail on the
+print.
+
+PRICE $15.00
+
+Most dealers in photographic supplies can sell you a Radion Enlarging
+Printer. If yours cannot, write direct to us. Write anyway for descriptive
+circulars that will be of great interest to every camera user.
+
+
+H. C. WHITE CO.
+
+_Lens Grinders and Makers of Optical Instruments for over Forty Years_
+
+503 RIVER ST., NORTH BENNINGTON, VERMONT
+
+Branches:
+
+45 W. 34th St., New York City      San Francisco      London
+
+
+
+
+The First Essential in Enlarging is the Curry Utility Enlarging and
+Copying Board and Springs
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It is 20 × 30 inches, made of well-seasoned wood, nicely finished.
+
+Will hold without injury any size copy of any thickness.
+
+=Utility Springs= are made of the best nickeled steel.
+
+Price, including 24 Springs, =$3.50=.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE CURRY STEREON Anastigmat Lens
+
+  Series A--F 4.5
+  Series B--F 6.3
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The finest lens at any price for portraits, views or enlarging.
+
+Send for Price List and "Photo Developments."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+FRANK J. CURRY
+
+_Importer, Manufacturer and Dealer in Photo Goods of Every Description._
+
+812 Chestnut Street
+Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+
+
+For Enlarging
+
+Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Tessar IIb-F:6.3
+
+because of its excellent optical corrections.
+
+The =Tessar= has a flat field allowing exposures at full aperture.
+
+No danger from vibration because of long exposure.
+
+Saves exposure time on dense negatives.
+
+For Sale by Dealers.
+
+Send for Booklet 70 H, "Useful Tables for the Photographer," free on
+request.
+
+Contains tables on enlarging.
+
+_Our name, backed by over half a century of experience, is on all our
+products--lenses, microscopes, field glasses, projection apparatus,
+engineering and other scientific instruments._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Bausch & Lomb Optical Co.
+NEW YORK    WASHINGTON    CHICAGO    SAN FRANCISCO
+LONDON     ROCHESTER, N.Y.     FRANKFORT
+
+
+
+
+You see the picture before you on the ground glass, right up to the moment
+of exposure and are sure of success if you use
+
+REFLEX CAMERAS
+
+FOR YOUR CAMERA WORK OUT-OF-DOORS AND AT HOME
+
+[Illustration]
+
+REFLEX CAMERAS EXCEL
+
+all other similar types in curtain velocity, ease and speed of operation,
+simplicity of construction, freedom from outside mechanism, perfect
+workmanship.
+
+REGULAR 4×5 and 5×7
+
+LONG-FOCUS 4×5 and 5×7
+
+JUNIOR REFLEX 3-1/4×4-1/4 (fixed focus)
+
+Price $12, with either one Holder or Adapter.
+
+_Ask any independent dealer or write for catalogue and sample print to_
+
+
+REFLEX CAMERA CO.
+Newark, N. J.
+
+
+
+
+GOERZ CAMERAS
+
+ARE UNIQUE IN THE HAND CAMERA LINE
+
+OUR NEW VEST-POCKET TENAX
+
+is the finest pocket camera ever made. It measures, closed,
+3/4×2-3/4×3-1/2 inches. Equipped with Compound Shutter, all speeds up to
+1-250 second. We furnish with it a purse case containing six nickel
+holders for plates 1-3/4×2-5/16 inches. Our fine enlarging apparatus, made
+especially for use with this camera, will afford good enlargements of
+various sizes up to 5 × 7 inches.
+
+Our =Ango=, =Manufoc Tenax= and =Folding Reflex= are all splendid cameras
+for the professional photographer and ambitious amateur.
+
+They show the same high qualities of workmanship which distinguish
+
+GOERZ LENSES
+
+Get our new illustrated catalog from your dealer or direct from
+
+
+C. P. GOERZ AMERICAN OPTICAL CO.
+OFFICE AND FACTORY: 317 EAST 34TH STREET, NEW YORK
+
+Dealers' Distributing Agencies: For Middle West, Burke & James, Chicago.
+Pacific Coast, Hirsch & Kaiser, San Francisco.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+HOW TO MAKE YOUR CAMERA PAY
+
+Here are books you'll surely want to read! For they show how you can
+increase your ability to make money with your camera. They tell how to
+make prints for book, magazine and newspaper publishers, and show how you
+can make money during spare time.
+
+The LIBRARY of AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY
+
+contains the boiled-down experience of years. Collier's, Leslie's and
+dozens of publications are always glad to consider any interesting
+photographs. They pay from three to five dollars apiece. A score of other
+profitable branches are covered. Here are the money-making facts you have
+wanted. These books are just from the press.
+
+Now is the time for you to get full information. We have interesting
+literature to mail upon receipt of your postal. Write now for our special
+offer to LIVE AMATEURS.
+
+
+AMERICAN PHOTO TEXTBOOK CO.
+608 Adams Avenue        SCRANTON, PA.
+
+
+
+
+Enlarging Simplified
+
+The all by daylight way of making enlargements is with the
+
+Brownie Enlarging Camera
+
+No focusing--no dark-room--no experience necessary when Velox is used.
+Just the few simple directions for finishing the prints.
+
+The enlargement retains all the quality of the negative. The results are
+certain.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  THE PRICE
+
+  No. 2 Brownie Enlarging Camera, for 5 × 7 Enlargements
+    from 2-1/4 × 3-1/4 negatives,                         $2.00
+
+  No. 3, ditto, for 6-1/2 × 8-1/2 Enlargements
+    from 3-1/4 × 4-1/4 negatives,                          3.00
+
+  No. 4, ditto, for 8 × 10 Enlargements from 4 × 5
+    negatives (will also take 3-1/4 × 5-1/2 negatives),    4.00
+
+
+EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY,
+ROCHESTER, N. Y.
+
+_All Dealers._
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Prints by Gaslight
+
+VELOX increases the number of negatives that are worth printing from.
+
+The results from contrasty negatives are softened by the use of "Special"
+VELOX--improved brilliancy is secured from flat negatives by using
+"Regular" VELOX.
+
+_ASK FOR THE VELOX BOOK._
+
+
+NEPERA DIVISION,
+EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY,
+ROCHESTER. N. Y.
+
+_All Dealers._
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Bromide Printing and Enlarging, by John A. Tennant
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BROMIDE PRINTING AND ENLARGING ***
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Bromide Printing and Enlarging, by John A. Tennant
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Bromide Printing and Enlarging
+       A Practical Guide to the Making of Bromide Prints by Contact
+              and Bromide Enlarging by Daylight and Artificial Light,
+              With the Toning of Bromide Prints and Enlargements
+
+Author: John A. Tennant
+
+Release Date: February 18, 2008 [EBook #24637]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BROMIDE PRINTING AND ENLARGING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div id="frontmatter">
+	<div id="title_page"><!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page1" title="1"></a> -->
+		<h1 id="title">Bromide Printing<br />
+		and Enlarging</h1>
+
+		<p id="book_subtitle">A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE MAKING OF<br />
+		BROMIDE PRINTS BY CONTACT AND<br />
+		BROMIDE ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT<br />
+		AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHT, WITH THE<br />
+		TONING OF BROMIDE PRINTS<br />
+		AND ENLARGEMENTS</p>
+
+		<div id="publisher_info">
+			<p class="publisher_name">TENNANT AND WARD</p>
+			<p class="publisher_cities">NEW YORK</p>
+		</div>
+	</div>
+	<div id="copyright_page"><!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page2" title="2"></a> -->
+		<p class="rights_statement">Copyright 1912 by<br />
+			TENNANT AND WARD, NEW YORK</p>
+	</div>
+</div>
+<div id="contents" class="section"><!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page3" title="3"></a> -->
+	<h2 class="section_title">CONTENTS</h2>
+
+	<ul>
+		<li><a href="#chapter_i" class="contents_number">Chapter I</a><br />
+			VARIETIES OF BROMIDE PAPERS AND HOW TO CHOOSE
+			AMONG THEM
+		</li>
+		<li><a href="#chapter_ii" class="contents_number">Chapter II</a><br />
+			THE QUESTION OF LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION
+		</li>
+		<li><a href="#chapter_iii" class="contents_number">Chapter III</a><br />
+			MAKING CONTACT PRINTS ON BROMIDE PAPER; PAPER
+			NEGATIVES
+		</li>
+		<li><a href="#chapter_iv" class="contents_number">Chapter IV</a><br />
+			ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT METHODS
+		</li>
+		<li><a href="#chapter_v" class="contents_number">Chapter V</a><br />
+			ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
+		</li>
+		<li><a href="#chapter_vi" class="contents_number">Chapter VI</a><br />
+			DODGING, VIGNETTING, COMPOSITE PRINTING AND
+			THE USE OF BOLTING SILK
+		</li>
+		<li><a href="#chapter_vii" class="contents_number">Chapter VII</a><br />
+			THE REDUCTION AND TONING OF BROMIDE PRINTS
+			AND ENLARGEMENTS
+		</li>
+	</ul>
+</div>
+<!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page4" title="4"></a>[Blank Page] -->
+<div id="chapter_i" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page5" title="5"></a>
+	<h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number">Chapter I</span><br />
+		VARIETIES OF BROMIDE PAPERS AND
+		HOW TO CHOOSE AMONG THEM</h2>
+
+		<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p>
+
+		<p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">What</span> is bromide paper? It is simply paper
+		coated with gelatino-bromide of silver emulsion,
+		similar to that which, when coated on
+		glass or other transparent support, forms the familiar
+		dry-plate or film used in negative-making. The emulsion
+		used in making bromide paper, however, is less
+		rapid (less sensitive) than that used in the manufacture
+		of plates or films of ordinary rapidity; hence bromide
+		paper may be manipulated with more abundant light
+		than would be safe with plates. It is used for making
+		prints by contact with a negative in the ordinary
+		printing frame, and as the simplest means for obtaining
+		enlarged prints from small negatives. Sometimes
+		bromide paper is spoken of as a development paper,
+		because the picture-image does not print out during
+		exposure, but requires to be developed, as in negative-making.
+		The preparation of the paper is beyond
+		the skill and equipment of the average photographer,
+		but it may be readily obtained from dealers in photographic
+		supplies.</p>
+
+		<p>What are the practical advantages of bromide paper?
+		In the first place, it renders the photographer independent
+		of daylight and weather as far as making prints
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page6" title="6"></a>is concerned. It has excellent “keeping� qualities,
+		<em>i.e.</em>, it does not spoil or deteriorate as readily as other
+		printing papers, even when stored without special
+		care or precaution. Its manipulation is extremely
+		simple, and closely resembles the development of a
+		negative. It does not require a special sort of
+		negative, but is adapted to give good prints from negatives
+		widely different in quality. It is obtainable in
+		any desired size, and with a great variety of surfaces,
+		from extreme gloss to that of rough drawing paper.
+		It offers great latitude in exposure and development,
+		and yields, even in the hands of the novice, a greater
+		percentage of good prints than any other printing
+		paper in the market. It offers a range of tone from
+		deepest black to the most delicate of platinotype grays,
+		which may be modified to give a fair variety of color
+		effects where this is desirable. It affords a simple
+		means of making enlargements without the necessity
+		of an enlarged negative. It gives us a ready means
+		of producing many prints in a very short time, or, if
+		desired, we may make a proof or enlargement from the
+		negative fresh from the washing tray. And, finally,
+		if we do our work faithfully and well, it will give us
+		permanent prints.</p>
+
+		<p>The bromide papers available in this country at
+		present are confined to those of the Eastman Kodak
+		Company, the Defender Photo Supply Company and
+		J. L. Lewis, the last handling English papers only.
+		Better papers could not be desired. Broadly speaking,
+		all bromide papers are made in a few well-defined varieties;
+		in considering the manipulation of the papers
+		made by a single firm, therefore, we practically cover
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page7" title="7"></a>all the papers in the market. As a matter of convenience,
+		then, we will glance over the different varieties
+		of bromide paper available, as represented by the Eastman
+		papers, with the understanding that what is said
+		of any one variety is generally applicable to papers of
+		the same sort put out by other manufacturers.</p>
+
+		<p>First we have the <em>Standard</em> or ordinary bromide
+		paper made for general use. This comes in five different
+		weights: <em>A</em>, a thin paper with smooth surface,
+		useful where detail is desirable; <em>B</em>, a heavier paper with
+		smooth surface, for large prints or for illustration purposes;
+		and <em>C</em>, a still heavier paper with a rough surface
+		for broad effects and prints of large size. <em>BB</em>, heavy
+		smooth double weight; <em>CC</em>, heavy, rough, double
+		weight. Each of these varieties may be had in two
+		grades, according to the negative in hand or the effect
+		desired in the print, viz.: <em>hard</em>, for use with soft negatives
+		where we desire to get vigor or contrast in the
+		print, and <em>soft</em>, for use with hard negatives where
+		softness of effect is desired in the print. For general
+		use the <em>soft</em> grade is preferable, although it is advisable
+		to have a supply of the <em>hard</em> paper at hand as useful
+		in certain classes of work. The tones obtainable on
+		the <em>Standard</em> paper range to pure black, and are acceptable
+		for ordinary purposes. For pictorial work or
+		special effects other papers are preferable.</p>
+
+		<p><em>Platino-Bromide</em> paper gives delicate platinotype
+		tones, and where negative, paper and manipulation are
+		in harmony, the prints obtained on this paper will be
+		indistinguishable from good platinotypes in quality
+		and attractiveness. This paper comes in two weights,
+		<em>Platino A</em>, a thin paper suitable for small prints, and
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page8" title="8"></a>having a smooth surface useful for detail-giving;
+		and <em>Platino B</em>, a heavy paper with rough surface,
+		peculiarly suited for large contact prints or enlargements.
+		Both varieties are obtainable in <em>hard</em> or <em>soft</em>
+		grades, characterized as above. <em>Matte Enamel</em>, medium
+		weight; <em>Enameled</em>, medium weight; <em>Velvet</em>, medium
+		weight.</p>
+
+		<p><em>Royal Bromide</em> is a capital paper in its proper place,
+		<em>i.e.</em>, for prints not smaller than <span class="keep_together">8 × 10</span> inches, and
+		then only when breadth of effect is desired in the picture.
+		It is a very heavy cream-colored paper, rough
+		in texture, and giving black tones by development,
+		but designed to give sepia or brown tones on a tinted
+		ground by subsequent toning with a bath of hypo and
+		alum. This paper, also, may be had in two grades for
+		<em>hard</em> or <em>soft</em> effects; it is further adapted for being printed
+		on through silk or bolting cloth, this modification adding
+		to the effect of breadth ordinarily given by the paper
+		itself. I have seen prints on this paper which were
+		altogether pleasing, but subject and negative should
+		be carefully considered in its use. Rough Buff papers
+		are very similar in character. <em>Monox</em> Bromide, made
+		by the Defender Photo Supply Company, is obtainable
+		in six surfaces; No. 3, <em>Monox Rough</em>; No. 4, <em>Monox
+		Gloss</em>; No. 5, <em>Monox Matte</em>; No. 6, <em>Monox Lustre</em>;
+		No. 7, <em>Monox Buff</em>, heavy rough.</p>
+
+		<p>The Barnet bromide papers, comprising ten different
+		varieties, differing in weight and surface texture but
+		very similar to the kinds already described, are imported
+		by J. L. Lewis, New York.</p>
+
+		<p>As a suggestion to the reader desiring to have at hand
+		a stock of bromide papers, I would advise <em>Platino A</em>,
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page9" title="9"></a>or a similar <em>soft</em> paper for prints under <span class="keep_together">5 × 7</span> inches;
+		<em>Matte-Enamel</em> for <em>soft</em> effects, or a similar paper, as
+		an alternative; <em>Platino C</em> and <em>Royal Bromide</em> for <em>soft</em>
+		effects, or similar papers, for prints <span class="keep_together">8 × 10</span> inches or
+		larger, and for enlargements. To these might be added
+		a package of <em>Standard B</em>, and another of one of the
+		above varieties for <em>hard</em> effects, to complete a supply
+		for general purposes. The beginner, however, will do
+		well to avoid the indiscriminate use of several varieties
+		of paper, although he is advised to get information of
+		all the different varieties in the market. It is better
+		to select that variety which is best suited to the general
+		character of one’s negatives and work, and to master
+		that before changing to another. It is true that an
+		expert can get more good prints on bromide paper,
+		from a given number of bad negatives, than another
+		expert can get with the same negatives and any other
+		printing paper; but it is also true that for the best
+		results on bromide paper the variety of paper used
+		should be suitable for the negative. It will be found,
+		however, that this word “suitable� covers, in bromide
+		printing, a much wider range than is offered by many
+		printing papers. In fact there are only two sorts of
+		negatives which will not yield desirable prints on
+		bromide paper: first, an exceedingly weak, thin negative
+		lacking in contrast and altogether flat; and second,
+		a very dense negative in which the contrasts are
+		hopelessly emphatic. Even in such cases, however,
+		it may be possible to modify the negatives and so get
+		presentable prints.</p>
+
+		<p>The ideal negative for contact printing on bromide
+		paper is one without excessive contrasts on the one
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page10" title="10"></a>hand, and without excessive flatness on the other.
+		A moderately strong negative, such as will require
+		from three to five minutes in the sunlight with a print
+		out paper, fairly describes it. In other words, the
+		negative should be fully exposed and so developed that
+		there is a fair amount of density in the shadows. I
+		have never been able, with bromide paper, to get the
+		detail in the shadows of under-exposed negatives,
+		such as we see in a good print made on glossy printout
+		paper. For this reason the use of bromide papers
+		with under-exposed negatives is not advisable. But
+		there are a great many negatives which, while unsuitable
+		as they come from the drying rack, can be easily
+		adapted to the process by slight modifications. A
+		very dense negative, for instance, may be reduced
+		either with the ferricyanide of potash or persulphate of
+		ammonia reducer; and a thin negative with proper
+		graduations can frequently be intensified to advantage
+		in the print. While, as has been said, there is great
+		latitude in the matter of the negative, this latitude
+		should only be availed of when necessary. Local reduction
+		or intensification of the negative is seldom
+		necessary, as better results can usually be obtained
+		with bromide paper by dodging in the printing.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="chapter_ii" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page11" title="11"></a>
+
+	<h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number">Chapter II</span><br />
+		THE QUESTION OF LIGHT AND
+		ILLUMINATION</h2>
+
+	<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p>
+
+	<p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">Thus</span> far we have gained a general understanding
+	of the different papers and the characteristics
+	desirable in negatives. Before we take up the
+	actual manipulation of bromide paper there are a few
+	elementary principles bearing on the important detail
+	of illumination which we must master. These may
+	necessitate a little thinking, but a practical grasp of
+	them will make our after-work much easier, and ensure
+	that fairly good prints from poor negatives will be the
+	rule instead of the exception.</p>
+
+	<p>In the first place we have often read that a strong
+	light overcomes contrasts, while a weak light increases
+	them. Yet how many of us realize when
+	we come to make prints by any process exactly
+	what this means; in other words, how many of us apply
+	the rule in everyday practice? It is very easy to see
+	what is meant by the rule if we will take an ordinary
+	negative, such as a landscape with clear sky, and hold
+	it first six inches from a gas-flame and then six feet.
+	It will be found in the first case that the sky portion is
+	translucent while the clear glass will, of course, be clear;
+	in the second the sky will be opaque and the clear glass
+	still clear. The contrasts have been rendered greater
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page12" title="12"></a>by removing the negative further from the light-source.
+	As this is true in the extreme case given, so it
+	is true in a smaller degree where the distances are only
+	slightly varied, as well as where we deal with the
+	graded portions of the negative instead of with only
+	clear glass and the densest portions. It is this fact
+	that we utilize in bromide printing; and it is because
+	we have such unlimited control over the strength of
+	our light that it is possible with it to get equally good
+	prints from a wide range of negatives. It is very much
+	simpler and more practicable to regulate the strength
+	of the light by increasing or diminishing its distance
+	than by interposing sheets of paper, ground glass, or
+	opal, as is occasionally done with other processes.</p>
+
+	<p>The necessity, however, for occasionally changing
+	the strength of our light in this manner may seem to
+	introduce an element of uncertainty into the problem
+	of exposure; but there is another rule which brings it
+	back again to simplicity itself, and enables us to
+	quickly calculate equivalent exposures at varying distances
+	from the light-source. This rule is: “The intensity
+	of illumination varies inversely as the square
+	of the distance from the source of light.� For instance
+	if a given negative requires five seconds exposure at
+	one foot from the light, it will have an equivalent exposure
+	if exposed for twenty seconds at two feet, the
+	square of one being one, and of two being four.</p>
+
+	<p>It remains then only to apply these two rules to
+	our actual work with bromide paper. The shadows
+	in a certain negative will receive full exposure, say,
+	in eight seconds at one foot from the light; but the
+	high lights of the negative are so dense that no light
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page13" title="13"></a>will penetrate them at that distance from the light in
+	that length of time. Hence a stronger light must be
+	used, or the action of the same light continued for a
+	longer time; but the latter will not do since the effect
+	would be to over-expose the shadows. Hence, knowing
+	that a strong light overcomes contrasts, we move the
+	negative to the distance of six inches, where the rule
+	tells us the equivalent exposure will be one-fourth
+	that at twelve inches, in this case two seconds. Here
+	the shadows get no more light, but it is possible that
+	the high lights of the negative will be penetrated by
+	reason of the additional force of the light.</p>
+
+	<p>On the other hand we have a thin, flat negative requiring
+	for the shadows two seconds exposure at one
+	foot from the light. Knowing that a weak light increases
+	contrasts we move the negative three feet
+	from the light, and instead of two, give eighteen seconds
+	exposure, the rule telling us that this is equivalent.
+	Thus we are enabled to regulate the strength of our
+	light to suit the character of our negative. But a
+	standard distance of one foot will not suit with all kinds
+	of lights or with all sizes of negatives. If, for instance,
+	our light is a Welsbach burner, giving an intense and
+	comparatively white light, we will find that a normal
+	negative will print too flat if exposed at one foot. In
+	such a case two or even three feet would be a better
+	standard. Experience with our light will, however,
+	furnish the best standard, always taking a standard
+	negative for the tests.</p>
+
+	<p>The size of the negative also has its influence on the
+	unit of exposure. For instance, we may have a half-inch
+	oil-burner, in which case we would probably
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page14" title="14"></a>have to expose a standard negative at four inches in
+	order to get the proper contrasts. But this is out of
+	the question with a negative of <span class="keep_together">5 × 7</span> or over, as a reference
+	to the diagram, Fig. 1, will clearly show. <img class="image_right" src="images/fig1.png" width="324" height="326" title="Figure 1" alt="Diagram showing the spread of the light of a flame." />Here
+	we find that while
+	the centre of a negative
+	is four inches
+	from the light the
+	extreme edges will
+	be over five inches
+	from it, the rule as
+	to intensities telling
+	us that the light at
+	the edges will be
+	only ¹�∕₂₅ of that at
+	the centre. This
+	would result in a
+	marked falling off
+	of light at the corners, and would necessitate a constant
+	motion of the printing frame throughout exposure,
+	which is not wholly satisfactory. The remedy would
+	be to use a stronger light at a greater distance. But
+	another reference to Fig. 1 will show that if a <span class="keep_together">5 × 7</span>
+	negative be held at seven inches from the light the
+	difference will be only as 49 is to 56, which can in
+	practice be disregarded, though it would be better to
+	have it even less. Hence we see that it is never safe
+	to have our unit less than the base-line of our plate, and
+	it is better to have it even greater, as we will frequently
+	be obliged to halve the distance to overcome contrasts.
+	It follows from this that the larger our negatives the
+	stronger must be our light.</p>
+
+	<p><a class="pagenum" id="page15" title="15"></a>Now all of these considerations may make very dry
+	reading, but the reader who has followed them closely
+	will see how vital they are to successful work. It
+	should not be thought, however, that every exposure
+	on bromide paper must involve an arithmetical calculation.
+	On the contrary, once the proper distance
+	from the light for the normal negative has been ascertained,
+	it will be found that nine negatives out of ten
+	will require no change in the distance from the source
+	of light. This, of course, presuming that we classify
+	our negatives and enlarge from those of the same
+	quality at the same time.</p>
+
+	<p>One great objection to the use of bromide paper is
+	that it must be handled in a dark-room. But this
+	objection is not as serious as it may seem. An ordinary
+	living room at night furnishes a delightful place in
+	which to make prints, if we handle our solutions with
+	reasonable care. The ruby glass can be removed from
+	the dark-room lamp, and the orange glass used alone.
+	But in this case, as indeed with the ruby light, care must
+	be taken to guard against too much light. Development
+	should be conducted at a distance of several feet
+	from the light, and when almost completed, the tray
+	can be brought close under the light to enable the worker
+	to stop it at exactly the right moment. Ordinary
+	bromide paper is about as sensitive as the process
+	or slow dry plate or the average lantern-slide plate,
+	and requires as much care as either, but not nearly so
+	much as the most rapid dry plates. If fogging is
+	noticed, of course additional precautions should be
+	taken at once.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div id="chapter_iii" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page16" title="16"></a>
+	<h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number">Chapter III</span><br />
+		CONTACT PRINTING ON BROMIDE
+		PAPER</h2>
+
+	<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p>
+
+	<p class="first_paragraph"><span class="keep_together">Nothing</span> more than will be found in an ordinary
+	dark-room will be found necessary in
+	bromide printing by contact, unless it be some
+	arrangement for determining readily the distance of
+	the negative from the source of light. For this purpose
+	and with an oil-lamp, use a board a foot wide and about
+	three feet long placed on the developing bench against
+	the base of the dark-room lamp. It should be marked
+	with black lines six inches apart. See Fig. 2.</p>
+
+	<p><img class="image_right" src="images/fig2.png" width="300" height="121" title="Figure 2" alt="A circle next to a strip that has markings 1, 2, 3" />Greater uniformity
+	in lighting will be
+	gained if a piece of
+	white cardboard be
+	placed immediately
+	behind the flame.
+	Some lamps have reflectors, in which case the card
+	is unnecessary, provided that they reflect the light
+	uniformly; otherwise such reflectors are worse than
+	useless.</p>
+
+	<p>Having arranged the needful apparatus to our
+	satisfaction, the last preparatory step before manipulation
+	is the making up of a developer. Almost any of
+	the modern developers (pyro excepted) will give good
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page17" title="17"></a>results with bromide paper. In every package of
+	paper will be found the developers advised by the
+	manufacturer of the paper used. Invariably there is
+	among these a formula for ferrous oxalate developer.
+	This is probably the best of all developers for pure
+	black tones, but I cannot advise the novice to take
+	it up in the early stages of his work with bromide
+	paper.</p>
+
+	<p>When this developer is used an acid clearing bath is
+	necessary, and this invites complications which may be
+	disastrous to the prints. When experience has been
+	gained, and a large number of prints are to be made
+	at one time, it will be found advantageous as working
+	longer with greater efficiency and more uniformity
+	than some of the other developers. It is troublesome
+	to prepare and does not keep well, apart from which
+	there is the disadvantage that it does not permit of
+	control in development in as large a measure as other
+	developers.</p>
+
+	<p>A reliable metol and hydroquinone formula is as
+	follows: Thoroughly dissolve metol, ¼ ounce; hydroquinone,
+	¼ ounce; in water, 80 ounces; add sulphite
+	of soda (cryst.), 4 ounces; and carbonate of soda (cryst.),
+	2½ ounces. Bottled in 4-ounce vials and well corked,
+	this developer retains its working power indefinitely.
+	For normal exposures I take 2 ounces of the above and
+	add to it 2 ounces of water. This will suffice for the
+	development of three <span class="keep_together">8 × 10</span> sheets of paper, or their
+	equivalent in smaller sheets. It is not wise to attempt
+	to make it do more, as greenish tones will result. For
+	the same reason, contrary to common opinion, I do not
+	advise the addition of potassium bromide to the
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page18" title="18"></a>developer. It does not improve the developer, and may
+	do harm.</p>
+
+	<p>An excellent developer which must be used freshly
+	mixed, and may be made up in a moment, is as follows:
+	Take 1½ ounces of a 25 per cent solution of sodium
+	sulphite; dry amidol, 30 grains; 5 to 10 drops of a 10
+	per cent solution of potassium bromide, and dilute with
+	4½ ounces of water. A supply of new developer
+	should be added as this is seen to become exhausted.</p>
+
+	<p>Other developing formulae could be given, but these
+	two will be found to fill all requirements if properly
+	compounded and intelligently used.</p>
+
+	<p>The greatest difficulty in developing bromide paper is
+	to get rich black tones when desired, but this can be
+	completely overcome by using entirely fresh developer
+	from time to time, and never over-working the developer,
+	whatever it may be. As compared with the
+	paper, developer is cheap, and it is poor economy to
+	save on the latter.</p>
+
+	<p>Except in rare instances the developer is better
+	without any modifications whatever. In case of over-exposure,
+	either general or partial, the developer after
+	having been diluted as stated should be again diluted
+	with its bulk of water. This gives blacker tones and
+	more depth and life to the shadows. When through
+	inadvertence we under-expose a print it may frequently
+	be saved after partial development in the weak solution
+	by flooding with a strong undiluted developer.</p>
+
+	<p>The temperature of the developer is of the greatest
+	importance. In summer the aim should be to keep it
+	approximately at 65 degrees Fahr., in winter, 70 degrees,
+	but it should never be allowed to go over the
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page19" title="19"></a>latter. This can readily be accomplished by placing
+	the graduate in a receptacle containing ice-water in
+	summer or hot water in winter.</p>
+
+	<p>The paper is first opened at a safe distance from the
+	dark-room light, and it is well at first to cut up one
+	sheet into several slips to use as test-strips. If any
+	difficulty is found in determining which is the sensitive
+	side, it will be well to throw a piece of the paper on
+	a plane surface when it will be seen that it has a slight
+	tendency to curl. The concave is the sensitive side.
+	Taking a standard negative we first take one of the
+	test-slips and place it upon the negative so that it
+	covers a portion containing both high lights and shadows.
+	With an oil-lamp having a 1-inch burner, expose
+	the test-strip behind the negative in the printing
+	frame at one foot for ten seconds. Close the lamp and
+	flood the exposed strip with the developer. The
+	image should appear in a few seconds, and if properly
+	exposed development will be completed in from one
+	to two minutes, usually one. Rinse for a moment,
+	and place the strip in a fixing bath made up by dissolving
+	3 ounces of hypo in 16 ounces of water. After
+	a few moments examine the strip in full light, and see
+	whether the contrasts are right. If so, expose a full
+	sheet of paper, this time rinsing the exposed sheet before
+	development to avoid the formation of air-bubbles.
+	If the contrasts are too great try a strip at six inches
+	from the light and two and a half seconds exposure.
+	If still too great, use a stronger light or try a longer
+	exposure and use a very dilute developer. If still too
+	great the negative is hopeless and should be reduced
+	unless dodging will help it, as set out further on.</p>
+
+	<p><a class="pagenum" id="page20" title="20"></a>It will be noticed that this method calls for a one-minute
+	development. This is desirable for several
+	reasons: first, because it gives a unit and assists us in
+	determining the correct exposure of other negatives,
+	and second, because it is a comparatively short development,
+	and yet gives sufficient time after the image
+	has acquired the proper depth to pour off the developer
+	and flush with water, thus stopping development. It
+	also leaves sufficient margin in the event of over- or
+	under-exposure. With one minute as the unit, over-exposure
+	will result in a fully developed image in, say,
+	thirty seconds. This print we could save; but if our
+	unit were thirty seconds it would be extremely difficult
+	to save a print which had completed development in
+	fifteen seconds. The chances are that the development
+	would go on to a ruinous extent before we could pour
+	off the developer and flood the print, or that it would go
+	on even after the water was poured on it. Moreover,
+	in case of under-exposure, two minutes would not be
+	so very tiresome, but four minutes would, besides
+	which we would risk straining the print by such prolonged
+	development. While I am not prepared to
+	assert it as a rule, yet it has been my experience that
+	the time of development varies almost inversely with
+	the length of exposure; so that if the test-strip concludes
+	development in half a minute with ten seconds
+	exposure, I give the next five seconds exposure in the
+	expectation that it will take a minute to develop.
+	This assists greatly in lessening the number of test-strips
+	required to ascertain the correct exposure of a
+	given negative.</p>
+
+	<p>Should we wish to see a proof before the negative
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page21" title="21"></a>is dry, it is taken from the fixing bath and well rinsed,
+	though not necessarily thoroughly washed. It is then
+	placed face up in a tray of water, on which we place
+	face down a sheet of bromide paper. The two are
+	removed together and squeezed lightly into contact to
+	remove air bubbles. The back of the negative is then
+	wiped to remove superfluous water, and an exposure of
+	several times the normal given, preferably the normal
+	exposure at half the standard distance from the light.
+	The paper is then removed and developed as usual.
+	In this way it is possible to show a print in fifteen or
+	twenty minutes after the exposure of the plate was
+	made.</p>
+
+	<p>The purpose of the rinsing before development is
+	to avoid the possibility of air-bells. The paper should
+	be rinsed in cold water, as warmish water will cause
+	air-bells instead of preventing them. This rinsing
+	can be dispensed with if thought desirable. The
+	rinsing after development is for the purpose of stopping
+	development immediately, and also in order that the
+	prints may not go into the fixing bath full of developer,
+	as staining would be likely to result in such case.
+	With the iron oxalate developer an acid rinsing bath
+	is necessary, but it is not necessary with any of the
+	other developers.</p>
+
+	<p>The fixing is important, as upon this depends in a
+	large measure the permanence of the prints. The
+	bath should be freshly made up, 3 ounces of hyposulphite
+	of soda to 16 ounces of water. Prints are placed
+	in this bath face down, and one under, instead of on
+	top of another. The tray should be occasionally rocked.
+	With a fresh bath prints will fix in ten minutes, but
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page22" title="22"></a>where many prints are made at one time it will be well
+	to use a second fixing bath. The emulsion of an unfixed
+	print will appear a yellowish tinge in the unfixed
+	portions when examined by transmitted light; but
+	this is not an easy or certain test. It is better to
+	make absolutely certain of thorough fixing by continued
+	immersion, occasional rocking and, where
+	many prints are made, a second bath. The fixing
+	bath should not be allowed to get too warm in hot
+	weather. Blistering, staining and frilling will result
+	in such a case, and I have known a print which was
+	left in a warm fixing bath for an hour or more to be
+	reduced beyond redemption. With freshly made
+	hypo baths at a suitable temperature there is absolutely
+	no danger of the paper frilling or blistering.</p>
+
+	<p>The final washing must be thorough, as the hypo is
+	difficult to eliminate from both the emulsion and the
+	paper. Care must be taken to see that the prints are
+	well separated while washing. This ensures uniform
+	washing.</p>
+
+	<p>It frequently happens that a negative may require
+	more or less dodging in printing. With bromide paper
+	this is particularly easy. We will take the simple case
+	of a negative with dense sky which will not print out
+	in the ordinary way. All that we need in this case
+	is a piece of paper cut roughly to the sky line and kept
+	moving during part of the exposure over the part
+	which is to be held back. If necessary, cut down the
+	light in order to prolong the exposure, or expose at a
+	greater distance from the light. One or more test-strips
+	will be required for this purpose in order to
+	ascertain the relative times of exposure. A modification
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page23" title="23"></a>of this method is when a small portion of the
+	negative only needs extra printing—a face or hand for
+	instance. Here we take a piece of paper a little larger
+	than the negative and cut a small hole in it, moving it
+	in front of the light so as to throw the latter only upon
+	the portions needing the extra printing. Still another
+	modification is where a portion only needs holding
+	back. Here we use a small piece of paper or cardboard
+	stuck on a knitting needle, moving the latter
+	so that it will not intercept the light too long at one
+	place.</p>
+
+	<p>In all these and similar instances which will occur to
+	the reader, the dodging should be done during the first
+	part of the exposure. The subsequent exposure seems
+	to obliterate traces of such dodging better than when
+	it is done at the end of the exposure, just as in cloud-printing
+	better results are achieved by printing the
+	sky first and the foreground afterward.</p>
+
+	<p>It is quite possible to make bromide negatives in the
+	camera. They have their advantages in classes of
+	work not requiring the finest definition, are much
+	lighter, cheaper, more easily stored and less liable to
+	breakage or other mishaps. They are best made on
+	a thin, smooth paper, a <em>soft</em> paper being better than the
+	<em>hard</em>. They are placed in the plate-holder by means
+	of the ordinary cut film holder. The exposure required
+	is ascertained by a trial or two, but roughly
+	speaking is about one-twentieth that of a rapid plate.
+	After development in the usual way—it being carried
+	only a little further than usual—and after fixing, washing
+	and drying, the paper negative can be spotted or
+	retouched, after which it is waxed.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div id="chapter_iv" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page24" title="24"></a>
+	<h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number">Chapter IV</span><br />
+		ENLARGING—DAYLIGHT METHODS</h2>
+
+	<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p>
+
+	<p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">In</span> taking up enlarging a full knowledge of what has
+	been said as to the manipulation of bromide paper
+	will be necessary, as the principles governing
+	exposure apply here as in contact printing, errors
+	being even more serious, owing to the greater waste
+	of material.</p>
+
+	<p>For the illuminant used in enlarging, we may employ
+	either daylight or artificial light. The former is
+	cheap, but variable; the first cost of the latter is quite a
+	little sum, but the light is uniform. A daylight enlarging
+	apparatus can be made for a dollar or two, and
+	hence is within the reach of all; and if the process be
+	given up, the loss is not serious.</p>
+
+	<p>If the cost is of little or no moment, very serviceable
+	enlarging cameras can be bought for about twenty-five
+	dollars. Such a camera is adapted for reducing as
+	well as enlarging, and so will be found useful for lantern
+	slide making, copying, etc. As a matter of fact,
+	few things are as useful to the amateur as a good
+	enlarging outfit.</p>
+
+	<p>We will first consider enlarging by daylight with
+	home-made apparatus. For this purpose a room with
+	at least one window will be needed. It should preferably
+	be convenient to the dark-room. If the window
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page25" title="25"></a>of this room commands a view unobstructed by
+	buildings, trees or the like, so much the better. I personally
+	prefer a south light. With this one can get
+	soft enlargements from the most contrasty negatives,
+	while by shielding the negatives from the direct rays
+	of the sun we can work from negatives which are quite
+	flat and lacking in
+	contrasts.</p>
+
+	<p><img class="image_left" src="images/fig3.png" width="336" height="438" title="Figure 3" alt="A template for making the box described below." />But whatever the
+	room chosen, all
+	windows but the
+	one at which we
+	are to work must
+	be blocked up.
+	This can be done
+	by heavy dark curtains,
+	or by specially
+	constructed
+	frames covered
+	with light-tight material
+	and made to
+	fit closely in the
+	windows. If there
+	are any transoms
+	these should likewise be covered. White light entering
+	under the doors can be shut out by placing a rug along
+	the bottom of the door. Care must be taken that the
+	window-frames fit closely, as the light from openings
+	at the windows would soon fog a sheet of bromide
+	paper if it fell upon it even for a few moments.</p>
+
+	<p>Assuming that the room chosen can be made practically
+	light-tight, we will need some arrangement to
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page26" title="26"></a>hold the negative. The details of a box for this
+	purpose can best be shown by a diagram (Fig. 3).
+	ABCD is a strong and neatly made box open at both
+	ends, and about two inches larger each way than the
+	largest negative from which enlargements are to be
+	made. E represents a section of a
+	board which forms part of a window
+	frame, a general view of
+	which is given in Fig. 4. <img class="image_right" src="images/fig4.png" width="168" height="241" title="Figure 4" alt="A detail of the box." />Reverting
+	to Fig. 3, F is an opening cut
+	in the side of the negative box two
+	inches or a little less from the back
+	of the box, AD, and wide enough to
+	admit the free passage of a negative
+	in a kit or other holder. On
+	the inside of the box are tacked
+	strips, GGGG, to serve as a guide to the kit when
+	placing it in the box. An opening similar to F should
+	be made in the other side of the box to permit lateral
+	adjustments when we come to use the apparatus,
+	besides enabling us
+	to put the negative
+	in or withdraw it
+	from either side. A
+	convenient modification
+	of the strips,
+	G, is found by placing
+	the front ones a short distance further forward, to
+	wit, toward BC, as they are shown in the cut (Fig. 3),
+	and tacking to them a piece of watch spring, H, this
+	then serving both as a guide and as a means of pressing
+	the kit or negative holder against the other strips,
+	GG (Fig. 5).<img class="image_left" src="images/fig5.png" width="321" height="153" title="Figure 5" alt="A side view of the box." /></p>
+
+	<p><a class="pagenum" id="page27" title="27"></a>J is a sheet of ground-glass, which is tacked over the
+	opening when the box is firmly set in the board, E. It
+	is well to have this ground-glass fixed in place so that
+	it can be readily removed if desired.</p>
+
+	<p>The necessity for having the box at least two inches
+	larger each way than the largest negative from which
+	enlargements are to be made is shown in Fig. 6. <img class="image_left" src="images/fig6.png" width="142" height="234" title="Figure 6" alt="A side view of the negative in the box." />Here
+	AB represents the negative in place,
+	CA, DB and EG represent rays of
+	light entering the box. It will be seen
+	that the rays CA and DB strike the
+	ground-glass at an angle, but nevertheless
+	at an angle which results in
+	their passing through it in a considerable
+	degree. They strike the negative
+	AB, but if the negative were the
+	full size of the box, to wit FG, it will be
+	seen that while the section AB would be fully lighted,
+	the sections AF and BG would receive no oblique rays
+	at all, and hence the negative would not be even approximately
+	uniformly lighted. This point is too often
+	overlooked in the construction of apparatus of this
+	character, but is necessary in all cases of daylight
+	enlarging and especially when direct sunlight is used.
+	Now with the negative box in place, some arrangement
+	must be made for holding the lens, which can be
+	the lens used for making the negative. This for enlargements
+	of a fixed size from negatives of a given
+	size can be accomplished by simply extending the
+	section BGGC Fig. 3, to a proper distance and placing
+	the lens in the end of it; but this permits too little
+	opportunity for adjustments and is not advisable.
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page28" title="28"></a>A double box, one sliding within the other, would be
+	better, but still not quite satisfactory. It is far better
+	to adapt one’s camera to the apparatus, and this
+	can always be done; it being very simple with a reversible
+	back camera, which can be backed right up to
+	the opening, and more difficult but always possible
+	with others. Fig. 7 shows the entire apparatus in
+	place, and the manner in which it is used. AB is the
+	window board, C is the negative box, D is the camera
+	adjusted to the latter, E is the enlarging screen on an
+	easel to hold the bromide paper, and F is the reflector.
+	The screen on the easel can be made either to rest on
+	the floor or on a table. It can be made to run on a
+	track or otherwise, and it can also be made so as to admit
+	of either vertical or lateral adjustment or both,
+	or it can be nothing more than an ordinary box set
+	on a table. But however constructed it must be considerably
+	larger than the largest sheet of bromide paper
+	which is to be used, thus allowing for nearly all necessary
+	adjustments of the paper. It is preferably covered
+	with white paper or fine blotter to aid in focusing.
+	The reflector F is considerably larger than the negative-box,
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page29" title="29"></a>and adjusted at an angle which will reflect the
+	light from the sky or sun evenly upon the ground
+	glass. It is best covered with good white blotting
+	paper. G is a hood which I have found useful in sunlight
+	enlarging, especially in summer when the sun
+	is almost overhead. It is placed on the outside of
+	the window-frame, some distance above the ground-glass,
+	and shields the latter from the direct rays of the
+	sun, which would otherwise cause uneven illumination
+	owing to their too great obliquity. The direct
+	sun on the white reflector will give a light of high
+	intensity. In winter, however, when the sun is low,
+	it will fall directly on the ground-glass, and this, if
+	the negative box be constructed as advised, is not
+	objectionable, but on the contrary an advantage.
+	In Fig. 4 the opening, FGHI, represents a sheet of
+	ruby glass, and can be screened while focusing if found
+	to interfere with the worker’s convenience in that
+	operation.</p>
+
+	<div class="image_center">
+		<img src="images/fig7.png" width="498" height="241" title="Figure 7" alt="A sketch showing the apparatus described above." />
+	</div>
+
+	<p>The apparatus as sketched will suffice for all ordinary
+	work. Modifications of it will depend upon the ingenuity
+	of the man who attempts to design or construct
+	one. It should be noted that the distance of the
+	ground-glass from the negative has its influence in the
+	strength of the light, and it is better to have this distance
+	not over two inches. If less than one inch, however,
+	the diffusion of light is not so good. When the
+	light is weak the ground-glass can be removed entirely;
+	the negative will thus be viewed directly against the
+	white reflector. Very strong negatives giving undue
+	contrasts may also be dealt with in this way. Or, if
+	the light is too strong for flat negatives, the reflector
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page30" title="30"></a>can be removed entirely, or to the same end a sheet
+	of yellow glass can be substituted for the ground-glass,
+	thus increasing contrasts. In fact, a very useful and
+	easily arranged modification of the negative-box consists
+	of an opening in the top of the box inside the room
+	through which can be dropped an extra sheet of ground-glass
+	or opal to cut down the light, or of yellow glass
+	to increase contrast. This opening should be at the
+	point K, Fig. 3.</p>
+
+	<p>I have referred to a kit as being the proper arrangement
+	for holding the negative. This, after much
+	tribulation in working with home-made contrivances,
+	I have found to be the best arrangement. They
+	come a size or two larger than the negative with which
+	they are to be used, and can easily be cut down to the
+	proper dimensions. With it, also, other kits to hold
+	smaller negatives can readily be used. It is also simple
+	with them to fasten the negatives in place. If they
+	extend beyond the box on either side so much the better;
+	greater lateral adjustment can then be made. The
+	negative box, Fig. 3, is best painted dead black inside
+	in the section GBCG, and white in the section AGGD.
+	The reasons for this will be obvious at a glance.</p>
+
+	<p>In enlarging from films it is well to place them between
+	two sheets of glass of proper size, and fasten
+	the whole in the kit or negative-holder. For this purpose
+	use thin glass without flaws or scratches. If
+	the films are smaller than the opening in the kit, it
+	is well to paste a black mat on one of the glasses,
+	when, after proper adjustment, the film will remain in
+	place between the two glasses with very little pressure.</p>
+
+	<p>Enlarged negatives are very easily made with the
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page31" title="31"></a>apparatus described. A contact positive can be made,
+	preferably on carbon transparency tissue, and from
+	this the enlargement made, or an enlarged positive
+	made first, and from this a contact negative. The latter
+	plan is preferable, since it admits of retouching on both
+	positive and negative. Slow plates should be used
+	throughout. For those who do not care to go to the
+	expense of experimenting with large plates, I would
+	suggest that good contact positives be first made and
+	from these negatives on bromide paper, <em>Standard A</em>,
+	<em>soft</em>. These negatives are treated as already described.
+	The best positive for this purpose is a thin one with
+	full gradations of tone from clear high light to deep
+	shadow, without veil or fog, but free from any suspicion
+	of flatness.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div id="chapter_v" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page32" title="32"></a>
+	<h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number">Chapter V</span><br />
+		ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT</h2>
+
+	<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p>
+
+	<p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">The</span> apparatus for enlarging with artificial
+	light is, as has been stated, more expensive
+	than that for use with daylight. The negative
+	box and screen, however, remain as given. But we
+	need in addition two extra pieces, a light-box and a
+	pair of condensing lenses.</p>
+
+	<p>The form of light-box presupposes the choice of
+	illuminant, and in this there is a wide range. Suffice
+	it to say that a kerosene lamp with one or more one-and-a-half
+	inch burners will be found suitable for very
+	small work or weak negatives. For larger work or
+	stronger negatives a stronger light will be needed.</p>
+
+	<p>Of these, the first in point of strength is the arc-light,
+	which is too strong for ordinary negatives to be
+	enlarged not more than fourfold on ordinary bromide
+	paper. Used with any of the slower papers it will be
+	found very serviceable and satisfactory. Next comes
+	the lime-light, which has pretty much the same advantages
+	and disadvantages. After these come acetylene,
+	a gas giving an intense light of high actinic
+	power. This is within the reach of nearly all, as a
+	first-class generator costs only about twelve dollars,
+	and the uses of the gas are manifold. The same generators
+	and burners can be used with a projecting
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page33" title="33"></a>lantern and will be found far more satisfactory than
+	oil. Acetylene burners can be had in various sizes,
+	ranging in power from thirty to several hundred candle-power.
+	The carbide from which the gas is generated
+	is not expensive and costs only a few cents each time
+	the machine is loaded. By an adjustment attached
+	to the generator the gas is kept at a constant pressure,
+	and hence the light is unusually steady. All in all
+	this light has many advantages. After it in strength
+	comes the Welsbach burner, suitable for those having
+	gas in the house. After this comes the ordinary gas-burner,
+	and then oil. The reader, knowing now what
+	will be required of his light, can take his choice.</p>
+
+	<p>Perhaps the simplest form of light-box is where the
+	light is placed in one room and the enlarging done in
+	an adjoining one, the light being admitted through a
+	suitable opening. This prevents the possibility of
+	stray light reaching the paper and is productive of no
+	additional heat in a room presumably already hot
+	enough.</p>
+
+	<p>If this is not feasible a light-box must be constructed.
+	As these vary so much in material and design, and
+	must be altered with different forms of light in use, I
+	will merely state the requirements. First of these is
+	that it must be light-tight, and second, that it must
+	have adequate ventilation and be fire-proof. Following
+	these in importance, there should be a simple arrangement
+	for looking at the light from time to time
+	to see that it is burning properly and some means for
+	readily attending to it if it is not.</p>
+
+	<p>Having the light-box, the burners must be placed
+	in it properly. Here the shortest way out of the
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page34" title="34"></a>difficulty is to go to an expert. If electricity is used
+	go to an electrical supply house; if gas, go to a gas-fitter.
+	As will be seen later the flame itself must be
+	placed in a certain relation to other portions of the
+	apparatus, and provision must be made accordingly.</p>
+
+	<p>In looking over the magazines and annuals we will
+	now and then see some new method given for illuminating
+	evenly the back of a negative in enlarging or reduction.
+	The most of these the writer has tried, but
+	he has never found one of them which could be relied
+	upon to give even reasonable satisfaction. If the light
+	is apparently evenly diffused it is too weak. If strong
+	enough it is not evenly diffused. Hence I will recommend
+	nothing short of a pair of condensing lenses,
+	as these have been proved by experience to be satisfactory
+	in every respect if properly handled and
+	cared for. The diameter of these must be slightly
+	greater than the diagonal of the largest negative from
+	which enlargements are to be made. These can be
+	bought in pairs, mounted or unmounted, at about the
+	following prices:</p>
+
+	<table id="prices_table" summary="Condensing Lens Prices">
+		<thead>
+			<tr class="bordered_bottom">
+			  <th>Diameter<br />Inches</th>
+			  <th>Focus<br />Inches</th>
+			  <th>Pair of Lenses<br />Mounted</th>
+			  <th>Per Single Lens<br />Unmounted</th>
+			</tr>
+		</thead>
+		<tbody>
+			<tr>
+			  <td class="col1">4</td>
+			  <td class="col2">5½ or 6½</td>
+			  <td class="col3">$ 4.00</td>
+			  <td class="col4">$ 1.25</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+			  <td class="col1">4½</td>
+			  <td class="col2">5½ or 6½</td>
+			  <td class="col3">6.00</td>
+			  <td class="col4">1.50</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+			  <td class="col1">5</td>
+			  <td class="col2">6½</td>
+			  <td class="col3">7.50</td>
+			  <td class="col4">1.75</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+			  <td class="col1">6</td>
+			  <td class="col2">8</td>
+			  <td class="col3">12.00</td>
+			  <td class="col4">3.00</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+			  <td class="col1">8</td>
+			  <td class="col2">12</td>
+			  <td class="col3">32.00</td>
+			  <td class="col4">7.50</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+			  <td class="col1">9</td>
+			  <td class="col2">14</td>
+			  <td class="col3">40.00</td>
+			  <td class="col4">10.00</td>
+			</tr>
+		</tbody>
+	</table>
+
+	<p>The prices asked for condensers vary considerably in
+	different price-lists. They can often be had at second-hand
+	at a decided saving of expense.</p>
+
+	<p>If it is desired to save the additional cost of the
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page35" title="35"></a>mounted condensing lenses, they can be comparatively
+	easily mounted by anyone at all familiar with tools
+	in the following manner:</p>
+
+	<p><img class="image_left" src="images/fig8.png" width="171" height="342" title="Figure 8" alt="Side view of two lenses in a box. Their convex sides are facing each other." />A piece of quarter-inch pine or poplar is cut to a
+	square about an inch larger than the diameter of the
+	lenses. In the center of this is sawed out a circular
+	opening the exact size of the lens. In another board
+	of the same dimensions is cut a circle a quarter of
+	an inch less in diameter. These
+	boards are placed together with
+	the grain running in opposite directions,
+	to prevent warping, and
+	the lens kept in place by a wire
+	bent in a circle and clamped in
+	place so as to hold the lens, or
+	other similar arrangement. See
+	Fig. 8. The other lens is mounted
+	in the same way. The two are
+	mounted with their convex sides
+	facing each other and a slight distance
+	apart. It is better to place
+	between them a thin sheet of finely
+	ground glass, as this overcomes the
+	bad effects of slight flaws in the lenses, which are not
+	uncommon. The combination is then boxed up.</p>
+
+	<p>Having now our light-box, condensers, negative
+	box, camera and screen, they are next arranged in
+	the order shown by Fig. 9. A long table especially
+	constructed for the purpose makes the best base for
+	this purpose.</p>
+
+	<p>In putting the apparatus together there are several
+	points to be noticed. First, the planes of the lenses,
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page36" title="36"></a>negative, projecting lenses and screen must all be
+	parallel; second, the centers of all these should be in a
+	single straight line, and third, either the light or the
+	condensers should be so mounted as to easily slide
+	backward or forward, since every time the projecting
+	lens is racked backward or forward it necessitates a
+	corresponding motion of the condensers to or from the
+	light.</p>
+
+	<div class="image_center">
+		<img src="images/fig9.png" width="442" height="180" title="Figure 9" alt="A box holds (from left to right) a lamp, the two condensing lenses, the negative, a bellows and a projecting lens. The projecting lens is aimed at a screen." />
+	</div>
+
+	<p>In constructing the apparatus, for use with condensers
+	and artificial light, the same provision should be
+	made in the negative box for inserting a piece of colored
+	or ground glass as was made in the daylight apparatus.
+	When the diameter of the condensers is but little
+	greater than the diagonal of the negative it will be
+	necessary to have the latter quite close to the former,
+	as the cone of light from the condensers has its apex at
+	the lens, and hence if the negative in such a case is
+	at a distance from the condensers the corners will receive
+	no light. Reference to Fig. 9 will show this
+	plainly. For this and other reasons it is always best
+	to have the condensers of ample size for a given negative.
+	In fact, before beginning to make enlargements
+	the worker should work with one good negative until
+	he finds out exactly what light-intensity is best suited
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page37" title="37"></a>to it. This will then serve as a standard for all other
+	negatives of the same general grade, and variations of
+	the light can be made as required for particular negatives,
+	or where the extent of enlargement is materially
+	changed for various purposes.</p>
+
+	<p>In using the daylight apparatus, which we will now
+	consider, the negative is placed in the holder opposite
+	the center of the ground-glass, upside down and facing
+	into the work room. The room is darkened and lens
+	uncapped. An image more or less blurred will appear
+	on the screen. If the enlarged picture is to be only
+	slightly larger than the negative, the lens must be
+	racked out until its distance from the negative is but
+	little less than its distance from the screen. To make
+	the enlargement greater we simply rack back the lens
+	and move the screen further off. There are tables
+	which show exactly the distance which the lens must
+	be from the negative and screen in order to get an enlargement
+	of a given size: The table here inserted
+	covers the ordinary requirements and may be of
+	service in constructing the apparatus:</p>
+
+	<div id="times_table_div">
+		<p>TIMES OF ENLARGEMENT</p>
+
+		<p>Total distances from the negative, in inches.</p>
+
+		<table id="times_table" summary="How to set up the apparatus to get a multiple of the size of the negative.">
+			<tr><th colspan="2">Times of Enlargement</th><th colspan="2">2</th><th colspan="2">3</th><th colspan="2">4</th><th colspan="2">6</th></tr>
+			<tr><td colspan="2">Focus of Lens</td><td>To Easel</td><td>To Lens</td><td>To Easel</td><td>To Lens</td><td>To Easel</td><td>To Lens</td><td>To Easel</td><td>To Lens</td></tr>
+			<tr><td class="col1">6</td><td class="col2">inches</td><td>27</td><td>9</td><td>32</td><td>8</td><td>37½</td><td>7½</td><td>49</td><td>7</td></tr>
+			<tr><td class="col1">8</td><td class="col2">"</td><td>36</td><td>12</td><td>42&#x2154;</td><td>10&#x2154;</td><td>50</td><td>10</td><td>65&#x2153;</td><td>9&#x2153;</td></tr>
+			<tr><td class="col1">10</td><td class="col2">"</td><td>45</td><td>15</td><td>53&#x2153;</td><td>13&#x2153;</td><td>62½</td><td>12½</td><td>81&#x2154;</td><td>11&#x2154;</td></tr>
+			<tr><td class="col1">12</td><td class="col2">"</td><td>54</td><td>18</td><td>64</td><td>16</td><td>75</td><td>15</td><td>98</td><td>14</td></tr>
+		</table>
+	</div>
+
+	<p><a class="pagenum" id="page38" title="38"></a>A table for enlargements of from one to twenty-five
+	times, with lenses varying in focal length from
+	three to nine inches is here given.</p>
+
+	<div id="times_table_div_2">
+		<p class="table_head_1">ENLARGEMENTS</p>
+
+		<p class="table_head_2">From the British Journal of Photography Almanac.</p>
+
+		<table id="times_table_2">
+		<tr>
+		  <td>Focus of Lens</td>
+		  <td colspan="8">Times of Enlargement and Reduction</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td>Inches</td>
+		  <td>1 inch</td>
+		  <td>2 inches</td>
+		  <td>3 inches</td>
+		  <td>4 inches</td>
+		  <td>5 inches</td>
+		  <td>6 inches</td>
+		  <td>7 inches</td>
+		  <td>8 inches</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">3</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">6</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">9</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">12</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">15</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">18</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">21</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">24</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">27</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">3&frac34;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">3&#x2157;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">3&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">3&sup3;&#x2215;&#x2087;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">3&#x215C;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">3&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">7</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">10&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">14</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">17&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">21</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">24&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">28</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">31&frac12;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">7</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&frac14;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4&#x2154;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4&frac34;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4&#x2155;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4&#x215F;&#x2081;&#x2082;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">3&#x2079;&#x2215;&#x2081;&#x2080;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">4</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">8</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">12</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">16</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">20</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">24</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">28</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">32</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">36</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">8</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&#x2153;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4&#x2158;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4&#x2154;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4&#x2074;&#x2215;&#x2087;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">4&frac12;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">4&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">9</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">13&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">18</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">22&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">27</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">31&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">36</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">40&frac12;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">9</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&frac34;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&#x2157;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&#x2156;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&frac14;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&#x215F;&#x2087;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&#x215F;&#x2081;&#x2086;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">5</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">10</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">15</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">20</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">25</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">30</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">35</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">40</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">45</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">10</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">7&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&#x2154;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&frac14;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&#x215A;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&#x2075;&#x2215;&#x2087;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">5&#x215D;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">5&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">11</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">16&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">22</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">27&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">33</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">38&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">44</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">49&frac12;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">11</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">8&frac14;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">7&#x2153;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&#x2158;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&#x2075;&#x2215;&#x2081;&#x2082;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&sup2;&#x2215;&#x2087;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&sup3;&#x2215;&#x2081;&#x2080;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">6</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">12</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">18</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">24</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">30</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">36</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">42</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">48</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">54</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">12</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">9</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">8</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">7&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">7&#x2155;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">7</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&#x2076;&#x2215;&#x2087;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">6&frac34;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">7</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">14</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">21</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">28</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">35</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">42</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">49</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">56</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">63</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">14</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">10&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">9&#x2153;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">8&frac34;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">8&#x2156;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">8&#x215F;&#x2086;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">8</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">7&#x215E;</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">8</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">16</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">24</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">32</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">40</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">48</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">56</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">64</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">72</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">16</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">12</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">10&#x2154;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">10</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">9&#x2157;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">9&#x2153;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">9&#x215F;&#x2087;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">9</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td rowspan="2">9</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">18</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">27</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">36</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">45</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">54</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">63</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">72</td>
+		  <td class="upper_row">81</td>
+		</tr>
+		<tr>
+		  <td class="lower_row">18</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">13&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">12</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">11&#x2154;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">10&#x2158;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">10&frac12;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">10&sup2;&#x2215;&#x2087;</td>
+		  <td class="lower_row">10&#x215B;</td>
+		</tr>
+		</table>
+
+		<p class="caption">The object of this table is to enable any manipulator who is
+		about to enlarge (or reduce) a copy any given number of times to do
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page39" title="39"></a>so without troublesome calculation. It is assumed that the photographer
+		knows exactly what the focus of his lens is, and that he is
+		able to measure accurately from its optical center. The use of the
+		table will be seen from the following illustration: A photographer
+		has a <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">carte</em> to enlarge to four times its size, and the lens he intends
+		employing is one of 6 inches equivalent focus. He must therefore
+		look for 4 on the upper horizontal line and for 6 in the first vertical
+		column, and carry his eye to where these two join, which will be
+		at 30-7½. The greater of these is the distance the sensitive plate
+		must be from the center of the lens; and the lesser, the distance of
+		the picture to be copied.</p>
+
+
+	</div>
+
+	<p>In practice it is convenient, after having once found
+	the focus for a given enlargement from a given negative
+	with the lens in use, to mark on the base of the apparatus
+	the point to which the lens has been extended. Then
+	in making future enlargements of the same size, it is
+	only necessary to set the lens at that point and move
+	the easel backward or forward until an approximate
+	focus is obtained, when the image will be of the proper
+	size on the screen.</p>
+
+	<p>As an approximate guide it is sufficient to know that
+	the nearer the lens is to the negative the greater will
+	be the enlargement, as may be seen in Fig. 7. If a
+	piece of thin cardboard, or a sheet of paper cut to the
+	exact size of the enlargement desired, is placed upon
+	the easel-screen, little difficulty will be experienced
+	in getting an enlarged image of the proper size and
+	correctly focused.</p>
+
+	<p>It is advisable to focus the enlargement with the
+	largest aperture of the lens. If the lens, when working
+	at its largest aperture, covers the plate from which
+	the enlargement is being made, it will give proper
+	definition over the enlargement. With a lens of the
+	better sort, of course, the definition will be equally
+	good whether a large or small aperture is used; but
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page40" title="40"></a>with a low-priced lens it is better to stop down to
+	No. 8 (<i>f</i>/11.3) or No. 16 (<i>f</i>/16), to avoid spherical
+	aberration. Stopping the lens down increases the time
+	of exposure, and enables one to have greater control
+	over the operation of exposing the paper, permitting
+	time to shade or locally increase the exposure at any
+	portion of the image. This is sometimes useful, but
+	as a general thing stopping the lens down is not advisable,
+	as interfering with one’s judgment in calculating
+	exposures for various negatives. Having secured
+	the image correct in size and focus, place thumb-tacks
+	at all four sides of the sheet of paper or card
+	used to focus the image. These will serve as a guide
+	to the placing of the sensitive paper. Adjust the lens
+	stop as desired and cap the lens, leaving the room
+	totally dark save for such safe light as we may have
+	for working. Place the bromide paper on the screen,
+	using the thumb-tacks as a guide to the correct position
+	in this.</p>
+
+	<p>In making his first enlargements, the beginner
+	should avail himself of the help of test-strips. These
+	should be about one inch wide and the length of the
+	paper. The exposure depends on a number of factors,
+	among which are light, negative, focal length of lens,
+	size of enlargement, stops, sensitiveness of paper,
+	developer, temperature of developer, and length of
+	development. The first experiment had best, therefore,
+	be made on a purely arbitrary basis, for which
+	we will take ten seconds.</p>
+
+	<p>Pinning a test-strip on the screen, we uncap the lens
+	and with a piece of cardboard shade two-thirds of the
+	strip during five seconds; move the cardboard, and
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page41" title="41"></a>give the next section five seconds making ten for the
+	first; then remove the cardboard entirely and give five
+	seconds more, making fifteen for the first, ten for the
+	second, and five for the third. Now develop the strip.
+	If the fifteen seconds portion finishes development in
+	less than one minute, and the ten takes approximately
+	a minute, we will know that our basis was correct. But
+	if all three were over-exposed or under-exposed, as
+	shown by one minute’s development, we can expose
+	the next test-strip accordingly.</p>
+
+	<p>In determining the correct exposure, the method
+	already set forth for contact exposures is a reasonably
+	good one. If the paper with a given exposure takes
+	half the proper time to develop, halve the next exposure;
+	if double the time, or more, double it. More could
+	be said on the subject of exposure, and possibly to
+	advantage; for instance, there are tables showing the
+	exact relation of exposure to the number of times of
+	enlargement, but complicated calculations in the
+	dark-room are troublesome and a test-strip is simpler.
+	After a while one gets the ability to determine the
+	approximate exposure required by looking at the
+	enlarged image on the screen, correcting slight errors
+	by length of development, and greater ones by modifying
+	the developer by diluting or strengthening.</p>
+
+	<p>It should be remembered, however, that in judging
+	exposure by reference to the screen, we must consider
+	the high lights, as well as the shadows. It is in the
+	high lights that we need the detail if we are to have
+	soft pictures. If this detail in the high lights is plentiful
+	and clear we may know that our light is strong
+	enough for a very short exposure. If it is very faint,
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page42" title="42"></a>we will have to give a long exposure and use diluted
+	developer to save the over-exposed shadows. On the
+	other hand, if the image on the screen is a flat one, we
+	may know that our light is too strong for the negative,
+	and it must be modified by removing the reflector or
+	by interposing ground or yellow glass; and if neither
+	of these suffice, we can simply lay the negative aside for
+	a dark day when the light will be very much weaker.
+	Frequently all necessary contrasts can be obtained by
+	the use of the <em>hard</em> paper before referred to. As under-exposure
+	tends to increase contrasts, we should also
+	give the minimum exposure in the case of flat negatives,
+	abandoning for a time our standard one-minute
+	development. As will be seen by this time, there
+	are many wrinkles about using bromide paper, and it
+	will be found that new ones appear at every <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">seance</em> in
+	the enlarging room.</p>
+
+	<p>But why is it that so many of our enlargements are
+	black in the shadows and chalky in the high lights?
+	Why, simply because our light is too weak for our
+	negative. We forget that if we cannot modify our
+	negative we must modify our light. It is this characteristic
+	of the bromide enlargement which has prevented
+	the process from enjoying the popularity it deserves.
+	And I sometimes wonder whether this chalkiness is
+	due to the use of the north light!</p>
+
+</div>
+<div id="chapter_vi" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page43" title="43"></a>
+	<h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number">Chapter VI</span><br />
+		DODGING, VIGNETTING, COMPOSITE
+		PRINTING AND THE USE OF
+		BOLTING SILK</h2>
+
+	<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p>
+
+	<p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">Of</span> all printing processes, bromide enlarging
+	offers the best opportunities for successful
+	dodging and modification. We can cut our
+	light down and take all the time we want, or we can
+	take as little time as we want. A hand, a finger,
+	a slip of paper, or anything within reach, will suffice
+	to shade the light just as we want it. In this connection
+	it is well to always hold the shade nearer the lens
+	than the easel, as greater diffusion results and there is
+	less danger of sharp lines. In shading a foreground
+	to bring up a dense sky, first make a test-strip or two,
+	noting how long the shading is carried on and how long
+	the light is allowed to act on the whole. If the sky
+	is then over- or under-printed we can modify it in the
+	enlargement proper.</p>
+
+	<p>The best arrangement for vignetting in enlarging
+	is a piece of cardboard the size of the negative, with
+	an opening cut out at the proper place and about the
+	size of the portion of the negative to be vignetted.
+	This is held near the lens and moved backward and
+	forward between the latter and the screen, the opening
+	showing larger as we near the lens and smaller as we
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page44" title="44"></a>recede from it. Very tasteful vignettes can be made
+	in this way. A favorite method of the writer’s is to
+	use a sheet of bromide paper, preferably that with
+	rough surface, and print on it a small vignette of a
+	portion of a negative. These sheets being of a uniform
+	size are then bound in book form, and make very
+	attractive souvenirs. Variety can be added to the
+	collection by printing some of the pictures through a
+	mat fastened on the screen over the paper, when, of
+	course, they are bounded by straight, sharp lines.</p>
+
+	<p>Double printing in enlarging is not at all difficult.
+	Assuming that test-strips have been made determining
+	the proper exposure for each negative, I will briefly
+	outline the process. Taking a landscape negative
+	with clear sky in which we wish to print clouds, we
+	first tack on the screen a sheet of paper the size of
+	our bromide, and after properly adjusting and focusing
+	it, trace with a pencil the outline of the skyline. We
+	then remove the foreground negative and, after tracing,
+	cut out a mask conforming to the size and shape of the
+	foreground, cutting away the sky. We now put in the
+	box the sky negative, and readjust our sheet of paper
+	until after proper focusing the desired portion of the
+	sky occupies the portion reserved for it, leaving the
+	thumb-tacks as a guide when we put our bromide on
+	the screen. Now using the sheet of paper as a guide,
+	place on the edges of the bromide paper two little
+	pencil marks to show how far we shall shade the lower
+	portion of the paper. Our mask being the size of the
+	foreground negative, it is now only necessary to hold
+	it at the proper distance from the lens to have its
+	edge conform to the sky-line when enlarged. But
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page45" title="45"></a>this would leave a sharp line if held exactly at that
+	point, so using the pencil marks on the margin as a
+	guide, we slowly raise and lower the mask very slightly
+	and just sufficient to cause an agreeable blending of
+	the sky into nothing. The proper exposure given, we
+	cap the lens, remove the paper and insert the foreground
+	negative. Now we must again adjust our
+	sheet of plain paper until the sky line marked on it
+	coincides with the sky-line on the screen, leaving
+	thumb-tacks as usual. Registry being thus secured,
+	we simply expose the foreground and develop the
+	composite print.</p>
+
+	<p>Needless to say, our clouds must be lighted from the
+	same general direction as the landscape. But if in the
+	negative they are not so lighted it can be reversed
+	in the holder and will then print properly. In almost
+	all cloud printing the tendency is to give undue prominence
+	to the clouds by printing the sky to too deep a
+	tone. This, besides making the blending very noticeable
+	at the horizon, results in unnatural effects and
+	should be avoided.</p>
+
+	<p>If the sky portion of the landscape negative is thin,
+	it might print slightly and spoil the effect of the clouds.
+	This can be overcome by using a weaker light in enlarging.
+	Where this is not desirable, a mask can be
+	cut for the sky portion and used slightly while the
+	foreground is being printed. By using it a very little
+	during the first part of the exposure the tint will be
+	overcome, while objects projecting above the horizon
+	will be sufficiently printed. It will be found easier,
+	no doubt, to print the landscape first and sky afterwards.
+	But this does not result in good work. The
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page46" title="46"></a>landscape should invariably be printed after the sky
+	portion.</p>
+
+	<p>Bolting silk enlargements were for a time very
+	popular. Sometimes they were artistic. Then every-one
+	began making them, too often from unsuitable
+	negatives, and they fell into disrepute. This method
+	of enlarging is, in fact, suitable for very few negatives
+	and only where broad effects of light and shade are
+	desired. To cut up a spotty negative with a succession
+	of lines does not necessarily give a broad effect in the
+	picture. But for softening down heavy masses of
+	shadows, and blending them harmoniously with masses
+	of light or half light, the process is without an equal.
+	The bolting silk can be bought by the square yard of
+	dealers in photographic supplies, and should be stretched
+	evenly over a frame made of quarter- and half-inch
+	wood, being tacked between the two strips. This
+	frame can be easily adjusted to fit over the paper on
+	the screen. By using the side, bringing the cloth
+	within a quarter of an inch of the paper, the lines are
+	more evident, which is not so objectionable for very
+	large work. But for the softest effects, reverse the
+	frame and use it at half an inch from the paper. In
+	this way we get a soft diffusion of the lines and much
+	greater general softness. It should never be used nearer
+	than a quarter of an inch, as the lines then become
+	too evident, and hence fail in the effect desired. The
+	bolting silk comes in three grades, fine, medium and
+	coarse. The medium is the best for general work.
+	It should not, however, be used for sizes under <span class="keep_together">8 × 10</span>.
+	The interposition of the cloth requires about one-half
+	additional exposure. Focusing, of course, must be
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page47" title="47"></a>done without the frame in place. The bolting silk
+	should only be used with paper which is to be toned to
+	some color other than black, as there is something
+	incongruous in its use with black tones.</p>
+
+	<p>Few branches of photographic work, outside of
+	negative-making, are as fascinatingly interesting as
+	the making of enlarged prints on bromide paper from
+	small negatives. Every amateur has negatives worthy
+	of enlargement in his collection, and the process is so
+	simple as to be within the capacity of the amateur
+	who is still in his first year in photography. Its practice
+	will stimulate his interest and help him in all his
+	other photographic work. Especially will it help him
+	in picture-making, the merits and defects of composition
+	being a hundred fold more plainly evident in an
+	enlargement than in the small print from the hand-camera
+	negative. Moreover, in its essentials, bromide
+	enlarging calls for no special equipment other than
+	the ordinary hand- or view-camera, and a dark-room
+	or other convenient work-room from which all “white
+	light� can be excluded on occasion.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="chapter_vii" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page48" title="48"></a>
+	<h2 class="chapter_title"><span class="chapter_number">Chapter VII</span><br />
+		THE REDUCTION AND TONING OF
+		BROMIDE PRINTS</h2>
+
+	<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#contents">Contents</a></p>
+
+	<p class="first_paragraph"><span class="first_word">The</span> subsequent manipulations with bromide
+	paper do not differ materially from those with
+	negatives. The support being paper of course
+	makes some difference and the fact that while in the
+	negative we aim to get printing density and printing
+	color only, in the positive we aim to please the eye,
+	makes another. But generally speaking, it may be
+	said that whatever we can do with the negative we
+	can do with bromide paper, that is, in so far as the
+	emulsion itself is concerned.</p>
+
+	<p>The first operation to be taken up is the reduction
+	of prints which are too dark. This can best be effected
+	just after the prints come from the hypo. A few
+	grains of red prussiate of potash are dissolved in a suitable
+	quantity of water, the latter being barely tinged,
+	not of a strong yellow color. If the print is too dense
+	throughout, it can be immersed without previous
+	washing in this solution. Reduction should take place
+	gradually, and this is best accomplished with a weak
+	reducer. If the tray be rocked gently the reduction
+	will be quite uniform. If, however, only a portion
+	of the print needs reduction, this can be effected by
+	applying the ferricyanide solution locally with a brush
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page49" title="49"></a>or bit of absorbent cotton. Extreme care is needed
+	in this operation. In this way unduly deep shadows
+	can be softened, veiled high lights brightened, or almost
+	any modification obtained which may be deemed
+	desirable. When reduction is almost completed quickly
+	rinse the print in running water and then wash thoroughly.
+	If the print has been dried, it is only necessary
+	to soak it for a few moments in a fresh fixing bath,
+	when the ferricyanide can be applied as before.</p>
+
+	<p>Latterly the toning of bromide prints has become
+	popular. There are many methods and innumerable
+	formulae. Here we shall concern ourselves with the
+	sulphide method which best fulfills the three chief
+	requirements, namely: (1) Certainty of results; (2)
+	the use of few baths; (3) the production of permanent
+	prints. Processes which, as regards color, vigor, etc.,
+	are beyond the control of the worker, are of very little
+	practical use. Equally so, if the toning involves a
+	whole string of operations, the final outcome of which
+	is usually—a spoilt print. And, lastly, a process which—however
+	satisfactory it may be in other respects—impairs
+	the undoubted permanency of a black-developed
+	print is not one worthy of adoption. In one or two
+	other respects, processes vary chiefly as regards the
+	depth or intensity which the print must have in order
+	to produce the most satisfactory result when toned.
+	Thus, prints to be toned with uranium require to be
+	distinctly on the pale side, whilst those for sulphide
+	toning are best a little vigorous. One or two other
+	methods, on the other hand, require the use of the
+	costly gold or platinum salts. The latter, except
+	under exceptional circumstances, are far better employed
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page50" title="50"></a>in the legitimate form of platinotype or other
+	platinum paper; bromide prints toned with platinum
+	will probably cost more, and will never have the absolute
+	permanence peculiar to the platinum print.</p>
+
+	<p>Placed in rough order of merit, the processes available
+	are: Sulphide toning (hypo-alum toning is a
+	cheaper, slower, and not quite so effective form of
+	this method, whilst the thio processes represent sulphide
+	toning at its best); copper toning; toning by
+	re-development. These methods differ, not only in
+	the results which they give, but also as regards the
+	perfection with which each attains its particular
+	effect; on the principle of the lady in the play who
+	spoke the “absolute truth under the circumstances,�
+	each may claim to be included among the really
+	serviceable processes.</p>
+
+	<p>In the sulphide process, the image which, in a black-developed
+	print, consists of metallic silver in fine division,
+	is converted into silver sulphide, a substance
+	which in the ordinary way is also black, but when
+	produced in a fine condition on a photographic print
+	is brown to sepia color. Silver sulphide is a most
+	permanent substance. Therefore a sulphide-toned
+	print should be permanent, too, a conclusion which
+	is fully borne out in practice. A sulphide-toned print
+	is at least as permanent as the bromide from which
+	it is made. The image of the latter is susceptible to
+	practically only one agent likely to come in contact
+	with it, namely, sulphur fumes from burning gas, which
+	partially sulphurize it and give rise to iridescent markings
+	resembling those due to stale paper. Now, as the
+	sulphide-toned print is the result of this sulphurizing
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page51" title="51"></a>process carried out with intention to a state of completeness,
+	the result should be—and proves to be in
+	practice—immune to this one cause of defacement.</p>
+
+	<p>In converting the silver image into one of silver
+	sulphide, the method is to first act on (bleach) the
+	silver image with some reagent which will change it
+	into a compound of silver susceptible to the action of
+	sulphide. Iodine has been used for this, giving an
+	image of silver iodide. Bromine gives one of silver
+	bromide. A mixture of potass bichromate and hydrochloric
+	acid gives silver chloride, as does also a solution
+	of chlorine, though in the former case the presence
+	of the chromium compounds affects the color
+	obtained. But the best of the lot is a solution of the
+	two substances potassium ferricyanide and potassium
+	bromide, which forms an image of silver ferrocyanide
+	and silver bromide. Both of these are converted into
+	silver sulphide when treated with a solution of sodium
+	sulphide. In the case of the hypo-alum process, in
+	which the prints are toned direct (without bleaching)
+	in a mixture of hypo and alum, the image is also
+	changed into silver sulphide, but only to a partial
+	extent. Theoretically, the method is not so good as
+	sulphide proper; it is much more inconvenient in
+	practice except on a commercial scale, while the results
+	cannot be said to quite equal those by the sulphide
+	process as regards permanency.</p>
+
+	<p>So much by way of theory. We will now give the
+	formulae for the two solutions required in the sulphide
+	process. The first of these is the “bleach,� or oxidizing
+	mixture of bromide and ferricyanide. Within
+	reasonable limits, the proportions of these salts and the
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page52" title="52"></a>quantity of each in the solution does not matter very
+	much. Each chemical can, if desired, be kept in a
+	separate solution if care be taken to keep the mixture
+	in the dark,—that is, in a cupboard where it will not
+	be exposed constantly to daylight. The ferricyanide
+	suffers in time by exposure to daylight; but, as both
+	it and the bromide are comparatively cheap and serve
+	for a large number of prints, there is no need to take excessive
+	care. The ferricyanide-bromide mixture, however,
+	keeps very much better than a plain solution of
+	ferricyanide alone. Formulae which place the salts
+	in separate solutions are a mistake.</p>
+
+	<p>As good a formula as any is: Potass ferricyanide,
+	300 grains; potass bromide, 100 grains, water 20 ounces;
+	Ammonium bromide may be used in place of the
+	potassium salt in the above formula; the difference
+	is not marked, but the ammonium compound tends
+	to give a somewhat warmer brown or sepia. In the case
+	of many formulae, it will be noticed that equal quantities
+	of bromide and ferricyanide are recommended.
+	Although, as just stated, variations in the formula are
+	not at all marked in their effects, a proportion of bromide
+	over one-quarter of the ferricyanide does tend
+	towards the yellowish color of which complaints are
+	now and again heard. I want to make it clear that the
+	opportunities for going wrong with the bleacher are
+	very small indeed. Without encouraging the reader
+	to be careless let it be said that “any old formula�
+	(of ferricyanide and bromide) for the bleacher will
+	prove successful. Not so, however, in the case of the
+	sulphide solution, which requires to be very carefully
+	made up and used.</p>
+
+	<p><a class="pagenum" id="page53" title="53"></a>Sulph<em>ide</em>, not sulph<em>ite</em>. The material for the toning
+	or darkening of the bleached print is the chemical
+	substance, sodium sulphide, of the formula Na<sub>2</sub>S&middot;9H<sub>2</sub>O.
+	This is purchased as small crystals which greedily absorb
+	water and rapidly become almost liquid if not
+	properly corked. Not that this totally unfits the
+	sulphide for use. Sulphide which has gone liquid will
+	at all times be found to work perfectly, but it is of
+	course open to suspicion, and, in any case, it is not
+	possible to know what is the strength of a solution made
+	up with such a supply. For this reason, it is best to
+	make up the sulphide into solution of 20 per cent
+	strength, and add this to water to make the toning
+	bath. And it is here that a caution must be noted.
+	The weak working solution, which is only about 1 to 2
+	per cent strength, keeps very badly indeed, and should
+	be made up fresh from the stock solution at the time of
+	toning each batch of prints. This is one of the most
+	necessary items to bear in mind in using the sulphide
+	process.</p>
+
+	<p>Sodium sulphide is sold in various degrees of purity,
+	and the label on the bottle is not always in exact correspondence
+	with the condition of the substance inside,
+	but the two forms which must be adhered to for
+	sulphide toning are the ordinary “pure� and the “pure
+	for analysis.� The former can be obtained from any
+	reliable drug store or photographic dealer. It comes in
+	small lumps, yellowish to greenish in color; when dissolved
+	in water the solution will be yellow, and will
+	usually show a deposit which must be filtered off.
+	This sulphide will give tones which are sepia brown
+	with most papers. In the case of the “pure-for-analysis�
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page54" title="54"></a>sulphide, which is the recrystallized variety,
+	the salt will be pure white and will form a quite colorless
+	and clear solution in water. The tone given by this
+	kind of sulphide is usually of a more purplish color.
+	The distinct difference between the two commercial
+	varieties of sulphide should not be overlooked, as it
+	allows the worker to modify the process usefully when
+	dealing with papers differing (as all papers do) to a
+	slight extent in their adaptability to sulphide toning.
+	The purer form has certainly much better keeping
+	properties than the other, but either, if made up in 20
+	per cent solution, keeps for a month or two at least—which
+	is enough for all purposes. The chief difference
+	between the two is noticed in the diluted or working
+	solutions. That of the purest sulphide <em>may</em> be kept
+	and used again, though it is not really good policy to
+	do so.</p>
+
+	<p>The supply of sulphide should therefore be dissolved
+	as soon as purchased, as follows: <em>Stock sulphide
+	solution</em>—20 per cent; sodium sulphite 4 ounces; water
+	to make 20 ounces. The actual toning solution is
+	made up at the time of treating the prints by mixing
+	the above stock with water, as follows: <em>Sulphide
+	toning bath.</em>—Stock 20 per cent solution 3 ounces;
+	water to make 20 ounces.</p>
+
+	<p>This makes a bath which contains about one per
+	cent real sulphide, corresponding with about a 3 per
+	cent solution of the sulphide as purchased. If the bath
+	is much weaker, the tone obtained is usually not quite
+	so good; while, if it is stronger, there is danger of the
+	print’s blistering while toning, or afterward in the
+	washing water. Indeed, some papers need to be toned
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page55" title="55"></a>in a weaker bath, and require also to be fixed in an
+	alum-hypo fixing bath (see later), so that the strength
+	of the toning bath given above may be taken as the
+	maximum, and used at half or one-third strength, as
+	circumstances show to be necessary. And, to repeat
+	the caution once more, the toning bath is to be thrown
+	away as soon as the prints have been passed through
+	it. With these points in our mind as to the making up
+	of the solution, we can come to the process proper.</p>
+
+	<p>The prints require to be well washed and free from
+	hypo before being placed in the bromide-ferricyanide
+	bleacher, because any hypo in conjunction with the
+	ferricyanide will form the well-known Farmer’s reducer,
+	and cause patchiness of the prints. It is immaterial
+	whether the prints are taken direct through
+	the toning process or dried in the meantime. Some
+	workers contend that the toning process is more regular
+	if the prints are dried before bleaching. In either case,
+	immersion in the bleacher will cause the fully developed
+	bromide to disappear, leaving only a faint brown
+	image behind. In some cases the image is fainter
+	than in others, the difference appearing to depend
+	chiefly on the developer employed. Developers with
+	a liability to stain will give prints which do not bleach
+	out so completely as those made with cleaner working
+	developers. But, in all cases, two to three minutes’
+	action of the bleaching solution will be ample; if all
+	pure black is not gone in this time, it is a sign that the
+	bleach is becoming exhausted. The prints should be
+	kept constantly on the move whilst in the solution,
+	and turned over and over to ensure equal action. They
+	are then given quite a brief rinse in running water—half
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page56" title="56"></a>a minute to a minute—and then transferred to
+	the sulphide solution, where they should darken to
+	the full brown or sepia tone in a few seconds. It is
+	well always to leave them here for twice to three times
+	the period required to give the full tone. A wash of
+	half an hour will remove the salts left in the film.</p>
+
+	<p>Granted that bleacher and sulphide are in proper
+	working order, there is one further factor in the
+	making of sepia prints which is of vital importance,
+	and that is the proper preparation of the print itself.
+	A good sulphide tone presupposes a good black and
+	white bromide. Not only that, defects in the bromide
+	which may lie latent while the print is untoned come to
+	light in the sulphide bath. This applies to uneven
+	fixation (due to omission to keep prints moving in the
+	hypo bath) and fingering of the surface; while, as regards
+	the original development of the print, making
+	the best of a wrong exposure will not do when sulphide
+	toning is in view. A print that is forced by long development
+	will suffer in tone, the result being colder
+	and less satisfactory as regards vigor. Full exposure,
+	and development which is complete in the normal time
+	for a perfect black print, are the conditions for a good
+	sepia tone, and, when a batch of prints is being put
+	through, it is well to take steps to preserve a uniform
+	time of development in order to secure an identical
+	tone throughout.</p>
+
+	<p>There are many different formulas for the uranium
+	toning of bromide prints, and I suppose that most of
+	them have given good results with the workers who
+	published their methods. Of those which I have tried,
+	however, none has yielded the results which I have
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page57" title="57"></a>been enabled to obtain from my own formula—my
+	own in that I arrived at it by patient experimenting.
+	It may be that this formula is not wholly original with
+	myself. At any rate, I do not claim anything for it
+	except that it works, with me, better than others I
+	have tried.</p>
+
+	<p>The requirements for toning bromide prints with
+	uranium are: 1 ounce of uranium nitrate; 1 ounce of
+	potassium ferricyanide (the red crystals); ½ pound
+	bottle of acetic acid—c. p. glacial preferred; water;
+	a supply of blotting paper, to be kept exclusively for
+	this purpose, and a few absolutely and chemically
+	clean trays.</p>
+
+	<p>The expense attached to these toning processes is
+	slight. Uranium nitrate costs from forty to sixty cents
+	per ounce, and an ounce will last a long time. Potassium
+	ferricyanide costs about twenty cents per pound,
+	and a pound is ample for a lifetime. Glacial acetic
+	acid is a little more costly, but a half-pound bottle
+	will prove a good investment. It is used also, as the
+	reader will recall, in making acid hypo for acid
+	fixing.</p>
+
+	<p>To prepare the toning baths, dissolve the ounce of
+	uranium nitrate in 10 ounces of water. The water
+	should be distilled if this is easily obtainable, and the
+	solution should be kept in an orange-glass bottle or an
+	ordinary bottle protected from light by a non-actinic
+	paper wrapping. Dissolve the ounce of potassium
+	ferricyanide in 10 ounces of water. Keep this also in
+	an orange-glass bottle, well corked. There are many
+	cautions about this particular salt, and it has been
+	said that it will not keep in solution. In my practice
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page58" title="58"></a>I find no difficulty whatever in the use of a solution
+	six months old, despite the difficulties mentioned in
+	the text-books.</p>
+
+	<p>To tone the bromide prints, first note that the prints
+	should have been developed and fixed and washed just
+	as usual. It is necessary that prints to be toned shall
+	contain no trace of hypo. To secure this, the prints
+	should be specially prepared for toning by being
+	again thoroughly washed, as any hypo remaining in
+	the print will cause spots and streakiness. With care
+	at this stage the toning will give clean and bright
+	prints, which should be as permanent as the original
+	bromide print.</p>
+
+	<p>I cannot give the reason why, but, as a general rule,
+	bromide prints tone better if the print has been dried
+	after washing and rewet just before toning. There
+	may be a chemical reason for this, but I am inclined
+	to think that it is a physical one, viz., that the emulsion
+	is softer after its first washing than after having
+	been dried and wet, so that it allows toning solution
+	to get into the film more quickly. This naturally
+	results in more rapid toning, and quick toning does
+	not yield as good prints as a slower and more gradual
+	building up of the color image.</p>
+
+	<p>Having the print ready for toning as here outlined,
+	take 1 dram of the uranium solution, add ½ dram of
+	acetic acid and then 5 ounces of water. In a separate
+	graduate put 1 dram of ferricyanide solution and 5
+	ounces of water. Just before toning, pour these two
+	solutions together into the third graduate and use
+	immediately. To proceed, lay the rewetted print
+	face up in a clean tray and flow the freshly made toning
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page59" title="59"></a>bath (the two solutions combined) over the print.
+	The print and tray must be kept in motion by gentle
+	rocking during the toning operation. The toning
+	solution tends to throw a red precipitate as it works.
+	This precipitate should not be permitted to settle on
+	the face of the print. Some workers tone their prints
+	face down, but I do not advocate this, as it is important
+	to take the print from the toning bath at just the right
+	moment, and, as the toning process is short (six or
+	seven minutes is usually sufficient even for the deepest
+	red) you need to watch the print all the time. In the
+	toning operation note that a constant quiet motion
+	of the tray, to keep the solution moving over the
+	print, is essential to success.</p>
+
+	<p>I have already given, in an earlier paragraph, the
+	order in which the colors come. But that order was
+	for a normal print. Some prints behave differently,
+	and it is in the control of these unavoidable variations
+	with different prints that skill and success come.
+	A print of a half-tone subject against a jet-black
+	background, a portrait, for instance, will hardly follow
+	the normal order in the appearance of colors. This
+	because the half-tones will be brown and even red-brown
+	before the toning solution has changed the dense
+	black deposit of the background at all. If the toning
+	was stopped at this stage, some very pretty effects in
+	double toning might result.</p>
+
+	<p>From this explanation of the toning process, the
+	discerning reader will perceive the need for caution
+	in selecting the best kind of a print for uranium toning.
+	Thus a print which has a bald-headed sky will tone
+	only in the body of the print, but if there is any tint
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page60" title="60"></a>at all to the sky, it also will tone, giving an effect not
+	much to be desired except for sunset or sunrise pictures.
+	If white high-lights are desired in the toned
+	print, they must be white originally and not the least
+	bit fogged. As double-toned effects in a print are not
+	usually desirable, those prints having deep black shadows
+	or dark masses will be avoided. The best kind
+	of print for this method of toning is one fully exposed
+	and slightly under-developed, since, when the uranium
+	does take hold of the shadows, it makes for an increase
+	of contrast.</p>
+
+	<p>Experience is the best teacher, and I could not
+	begin to describe in detail what the reader can himself
+	ascertain from a few experiments. Some prints needing
+	contrast should be carried far in the toning solution;
+	others, not needing contrast, will give better results
+	if they are toned only through the browns, and so on.
+	The reader who can spend a Saturday afternoon with
+	a few bromide prints, varying in character, will learn
+	more from his experimenting than I could tell him
+	in many pages. For these experiments waste or
+	imperfect black prints can be used with practical
+	economy, the chief object being to watch the progress
+	of toning and chemical changes.</p>
+
+	<p>When the desired tone is reached, remove the
+	print from the toning solution and wash quickly and
+	well in running water for fifteen minutes. If washed
+	too long, the color of the print will fade and a dead
+	and lifeless print will result. If not washed long
+	enough, the yellow of the ferricyanide will remain in
+	the print, robbing its gradations of brightness and
+	purity of color and impairing the permanency of the
+	print.</p>
+
+	<p><a class="pagenum" id="page61" title="61"></a>A big advantage in this method of toning is its
+	wonderful adaptability. There is no hard and fast
+	rule as to the proportion of the chemicals to the bulk
+	of water used. Try two drams of each of the two
+	solutions; then three drams of each, but watch that
+	the print does not get beyond you in toning. The only
+	practical difference in my formula and others that
+	I have seen is that I make my stock solution weaker
+	than that ordinarily advised and use less of it to a
+	certain amount of water, because I prefer slow toning
+	and the accompanying ease of control which the flash-in-the-pan
+	formula does not admit. Quick toning,
+	like quick development, tends to block the shadows
+	in the print, and if you once get bronzed shadows the
+	print is practically hopeless. Not quite ruined, however,
+	as a bath in a 5 per cent solution of sodium
+	carbonate will discharge the color and then, if the
+	print is faded, it may be redeveloped in an alkaline
+	developer such as metol-hydro. But before it is retoned
+	the print must be thoroughly washed, as the
+	presence of sodium carbonate does not permit the
+	toning solution to do its work.</p>
+
+	<p>Finally, I may say that, while a bath of acetic acid
+	and water is often advised to stop the toning action
+	in this method, I have never found it necessary.</p>
+
+	<p>All the thin varieties of bromide paper curl badly
+	in drying. If they are to be kept unmounted it is
+	well to immerse them in water to which has been
+	added a few drops of glycerine. This will ensure their
+	lying flat after drying. A solution of 2 ounces of
+	glycerine in 25 ounces of water is advised when it is
+	desired to make bromides on heavy rough paper remain
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page62" title="62"></a>flat, after drying, for book illustration and similar
+	purposes.</p>
+
+	<p>If one is trying to rush through a bromide print, it
+	can be trimmed while wet by placing it on a sheet of
+	stiff paper and cutting through both.</p>
+
+	<p>The paper will be found to cockle the mounts badly
+	in drying. Aside from the glue mountant, formula
+	for which accompanies the paper, I know no preventive
+	except to mount the prints while dry with the dry
+	mounting tissue. As the paper when wet stretches
+	one way considerably, as much as a third of an inch on
+	a ten- or twelve-inch length, provision must be made in
+	trimming, especially if mounts with centers of a given
+	size are used.</p>
+
+	<p>The paper being covered with an emulsion which in
+	warm weather is very soft while wet, mounting is somewhat
+	more difficult than with some of the other papers.
+	My method is to mount not more than half a dozen at
+	once, placing them face down, one on top of the other,
+	on a glass or ferrotype plate, blotting off the surface
+	water and spreading the paste over the top one in the
+	usual way. I place this on the mount and then stretch
+	over it smoothly a damp handkerchief or piece of very
+	thin rubber cloth, rubbing the print down with my
+	hands, seldom using the squeegee and then very lightly.
+	By this method abrasion of the surface seldom results
+	and air-bells are unknown. Owing to the strong
+	contracting power of the paper in drying, the mounting
+	paste must be used freely, especially at the edges
+	of the print.</p>
+
+	<p>Apart from the methods of procedure here given,
+	there are innumerable modifications covering every
+	<a class="pagenum" id="page63" title="63"></a>detail of contact printing and enlarging on bromide
+	paper. Most of these have been given careful trial
+	as published, but few have quite fulfilled the expectations
+	they created.</p>
+
+</div>
+<div id="books" class="section">
+	<h3>BOOKS.</h3>
+
+	<p>Manuals dealing with the manipulation of the various
+	brands of paper may also be obtained, generally <em lang="la" xml:lang="la">gratis</em>,
+	from the various manufacturers of bromide paper or
+	their American agents as follows: The Eastman
+	Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.; The Defender Photo
+	Supply Co., Rochester, N. Y.; J. L. Lewis, New York
+	City.</p>
+
+</div>
+<!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page64" title="64"></a>[Blank Page] -->
+<div id="ads" class="section">
+	<div  class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page65" title="65"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload01.png" width="590" height="954" title="Royal Albums" alt="Preserve your unmounted photographs and post cards" />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page66" title="66"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload02.png" width="590" height="941" title="Multi-Speed Shutter" alt="It makes high speed photography practicable under all conditions." />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page67" title="67"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload03.png" width="590" height="938" title="Lande's Patent Enlarging Lamp" alt="Converts any camera into an enlarging lantern without the use of condensers." />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page68" title="68"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload04.png" width="590" height="944" title="Photo Finish World Blotting Paper" alt="Made expressly for photographic use. 100% pure cotton fibre, very absorbtive and non-linting." />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page69" title="69"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload05.png" width="590" height="938" title="Duratol Non-Poisonous Rapid Developer" alt="It produces fog-free negatives with the right amount of density in the high lights, a wealth of detail in the shadows and great softness." />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page70" title="70"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload06.png" width="590" height="951" title="The Graphic Enlarging and Reducing Camera" alt="Make Your Own Enlargements" />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page71" title="71"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload07.png" width="590" height="937" title="Agfa AMIDOL" alt="For developing bromide work." />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page72" title="72"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload08.png" width="590" height="947" title="Radion Enlarging Printer" alt="Produces prints from either film or glass negatives in any dimensions you wish" />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page73" title="73"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload09.png" width="590" height="937" title="Curry Board and Curry Stereon" alt="Board: Will hold without injury any size copy of any thickness. Stereon: The finest lens at any price for portraits, views or enlarging." />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page74" title="74"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload10.png" width="590" height="935" title="Bausch &amp; Lomb-Zeiss; Reflex Cameras" alt="Baush: Tessar has a flat field allowing exposures at tfull aperture. Reflex: You see the picture before you on the ground glass." />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page75" title="75"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload11.png" width="590" height="920" title="Goerz Cameras; American Photo Textbook" alt="Goerz: Splendid cameras for the professional photographer and ambitious amateur. American Photo Textbook: The Library of Amateur Photography -- How to Make Your Camera Pay." />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page76" title="76"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload12.png" width="590" height="949" title="Brownie Enlarging Camera" alt="All by daylight way of making enlargements." />
+	</div>
+	<div class="image_center"><a class="pagenum" id="page77" title="77"></a>
+		<img src="images/ilload13.png" width="590" height="945" title="VELOX" alt="Increases the number of negatives that are worth printing from." />
+	</div>
+</div>
+<div id="the_end">
+	&nbsp;
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's Bromide Printing and Enlarging, by John A. Tennant
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Bromide Printing and Enlarging
+       A Practical Guide to the Making of Bromide Prints by Contact
+       and Bromide Enlarging by Daylight and Artificial Light,
+       With the Toning of Bromide Prints and Enlargements
+
+Author: John A. Tennant
+
+Release Date: February 18, 2008 [EBook #24637]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BROMIDE PRINTING AND ENLARGING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
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+
+
+BROMIDE PRINTING AND ENLARGING
+
+A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE MAKING OF BROMIDE PRINTS BY CONTACT AND BROMIDE
+ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHT, WITH THE TONING OF BROMIDE
+PRINTS AND ENLARGEMENTS
+
+
+TENNANT AND WARD
+
+NEW YORK
+
+
+Copyright 1912 by
+
+TENNANT AND WARD, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+VARIETIES OF BROMIDE PAPERS AND HOW TO CHOOSE AMONG THEM
+
+
+Chapter II
+
+THE QUESTION OF LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION
+
+
+Chapter III
+
+MAKING CONTACT PRINTS ON BROMIDE PAPER; PAPER NEGATIVES
+
+
+Chapter IV
+
+ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT METHODS
+
+
+Chapter V
+
+ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
+
+
+Chapter VI
+
+DODGING, VIGNETTING, COMPOSITE PRINTING AND THE USE OF BOLTING SILK
+
+
+Chapter VII
+
+THE REDUCTION AND TONING OF BROMIDE PRINTS AND ENLARGEMENTS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+VARIETIES OF BROMIDE PAPERS AND HOW TO CHOOSE AMONG THEM
+
+
+What is bromide paper? It is simply paper coated with gelatino-bromide of
+silver emulsion, similar to that which, when coated on glass or other
+transparent support, forms the familiar dry-plate or film used in
+negative-making. The emulsion used in making bromide paper, however, is
+less rapid (less sensitive) than that used in the manufacture of plates or
+films of ordinary rapidity; hence bromide paper may be manipulated with
+more abundant light than would be safe with plates. It is used for making
+prints by contact with a negative in the ordinary printing frame, and as
+the simplest means for obtaining enlarged prints from small negatives.
+Sometimes bromide paper is spoken of as a development paper, because the
+picture-image does not print out during exposure, but requires to be
+developed, as in negative-making. The preparation of the paper is beyond
+the skill and equipment of the average photographer, but it may be readily
+obtained from dealers in photographic supplies.
+
+What are the practical advantages of bromide paper? In the first place, it
+renders the photographer independent of daylight and weather as far as
+making prints is concerned. It has excellent "keeping" qualities, _i.e._,
+it does not spoil or deteriorate as readily as other printing papers, even
+when stored without special care or precaution. Its manipulation is
+extremely simple, and closely resembles the development of a negative. It
+does not require a special sort of negative, but is adapted to give good
+prints from negatives widely different in quality. It is obtainable in any
+desired size, and with a great variety of surfaces, from extreme gloss to
+that of rough drawing paper. It offers great latitude in exposure and
+development, and yields, even in the hands of the novice, a greater
+percentage of good prints than any other printing paper in the market. It
+offers a range of tone from deepest black to the most delicate of
+platinotype grays, which may be modified to give a fair variety of color
+effects where this is desirable. It affords a simple means of making
+enlargements without the necessity of an enlarged negative. It gives us a
+ready means of producing many prints in a very short time, or, if desired,
+we may make a proof or enlargement from the negative fresh from the
+washing tray. And, finally, if we do our work faithfully and well, it will
+give us permanent prints.
+
+The bromide papers available in this country at present are confined to
+those of the Eastman Kodak Company, the Defender Photo Supply Company and
+J. L. Lewis, the last handling English papers only. Better papers could
+not be desired. Broadly speaking, all bromide papers are made in a few
+well-defined varieties; in considering the manipulation of the papers made
+by a single firm, therefore, we practically cover all the papers in the
+market. As a matter of convenience, then, we will glance over the
+different varieties of bromide paper available, as represented by the
+Eastman papers, with the understanding that what is said of any one
+variety is generally applicable to papers of the same sort put out by
+other manufacturers.
+
+First we have the _Standard_ or ordinary bromide paper made for general
+use. This comes in five different weights: _A_, a thin paper with smooth
+surface, useful where detail is desirable; _B_, a heavier paper with
+smooth surface, for large prints or for illustration purposes; and _C_, a
+still heavier paper with a rough surface for broad effects and prints of
+large size. _BB_, heavy smooth double weight; _CC_, heavy, rough, double
+weight. Each of these varieties may be had in two grades, according to the
+negative in hand or the effect desired in the print, viz.: _hard_, for use
+with soft negatives where we desire to get vigor or contrast in the print,
+and _soft_, for use with hard negatives where softness of effect is
+desired in the print. For general use the _soft_ grade is preferable,
+although it is advisable to have a supply of the _hard_ paper at hand as
+useful in certain classes of work. The tones obtainable on the _Standard_
+paper range to pure black, and are acceptable for ordinary purposes. For
+pictorial work or special effects other papers are preferable.
+
+_Platino-Bromide_ paper gives delicate platinotype tones, and where
+negative, paper and manipulation are in harmony, the prints obtained on
+this paper will be indistinguishable from good platinotypes in quality and
+attractiveness. This paper comes in two weights, _Platino A_, a thin paper
+suitable for small prints, and having a smooth surface useful for
+detail-giving; and _Platino B_, a heavy paper with rough surface,
+peculiarly suited for large contact prints or enlargements. Both varieties
+are obtainable in _hard_ or _soft_ grades, characterized as above. _Matte
+Enamel_, medium weight; _Enameled_, medium weight; _Velvet_, medium
+weight.
+
+_Royal Bromide_ is a capital paper in its proper place, _i.e._, for prints
+not smaller than 8 x 10 inches, and then only when breadth of effect is
+desired in the picture. It is a very heavy cream-colored paper, rough in
+texture, and giving black tones by development, but designed to give sepia
+or brown tones on a tinted ground by subsequent toning with a bath of hypo
+and alum. This paper, also, may be had in two grades for _hard_ or _soft_
+effects; it is further adapted for being printed on through silk or
+bolting cloth, this modification adding to the effect of breadth
+ordinarily given by the paper itself. I have seen prints on this paper
+which were altogether pleasing, but subject and negative should be
+carefully considered in its use. Rough Buff papers are very similar in
+character. _Monox_ Bromide, made by the Defender Photo Supply Company, is
+obtainable in six surfaces; No. 3, _Monox Rough_; No. 4, _Monox Gloss_;
+No. 5, _Monox Matte_; No. 6, _Monox Lustre_; No. 7, _Monox Buff_, heavy
+rough.
+
+The Barnet bromide papers, comprising ten different varieties, differing
+in weight and surface texture but very similar to the kinds already
+described, are imported by J. L. Lewis, New York.
+
+As a suggestion to the reader desiring to have at hand a stock of bromide
+papers, I would advise _Platino A_, or a similar _soft_ paper for prints
+under 5 x 7 inches; _Matte-Enamel_ for _soft_ effects, or a similar paper,
+as an alternative; _Platino C_ and _Royal Bromide_ for _soft_ effects, or
+similar papers, for prints 8 x 10 inches or larger, and for enlargements.
+To these might be added a package of _Standard B_, and another of one of
+the above varieties for _hard_ effects, to complete a supply for general
+purposes. The beginner, however, will do well to avoid the indiscriminate
+use of several varieties of paper, although he is advised to get
+information of all the different varieties in the market. It is better to
+select that variety which is best suited to the general character of one's
+negatives and work, and to master that before changing to another. It is
+true that an expert can get more good prints on bromide paper, from a
+given number of bad negatives, than another expert can get with the same
+negatives and any other printing paper; but it is also true that for the
+best results on bromide paper the variety of paper used should be suitable
+for the negative. It will be found, however, that this word "suitable"
+covers, in bromide printing, a much wider range than is offered by many
+printing papers. In fact there are only two sorts of negatives which will
+not yield desirable prints on bromide paper: first, an exceedingly weak,
+thin negative lacking in contrast and altogether flat; and second, a very
+dense negative in which the contrasts are hopelessly emphatic. Even in
+such cases, however, it may be possible to modify the negatives and so get
+presentable prints.
+
+The ideal negative for contact printing on bromide paper is one without
+excessive contrasts on the one hand, and without excessive flatness on the
+other. A moderately strong negative, such as will require from three to
+five minutes in the sunlight with a print out paper, fairly describes it.
+In other words, the negative should be fully exposed and so developed that
+there is a fair amount of density in the shadows. I have never been able,
+with bromide paper, to get the detail in the shadows of under-exposed
+negatives, such as we see in a good print made on glossy printout paper.
+For this reason the use of bromide papers with under-exposed negatives is
+not advisable. But there are a great many negatives which, while
+unsuitable as they come from the drying rack, can be easily adapted to the
+process by slight modifications. A very dense negative, for instance, may
+be reduced either with the ferricyanide of potash or persulphate of
+ammonia reducer; and a thin negative with proper graduations can
+frequently be intensified to advantage in the print. While, as has been
+said, there is great latitude in the matter of the negative, this latitude
+should only be availed of when necessary. Local reduction or
+intensification of the negative is seldom necessary, as better results can
+usually be obtained with bromide paper by dodging in the printing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE QUESTION OF LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION
+
+
+Thus far we have gained a general understanding of the different papers
+and the characteristics desirable in negatives. Before we take up the
+actual manipulation of bromide paper there are a few elementary principles
+bearing on the important detail of illumination which we must master.
+These may necessitate a little thinking, but a practical grasp of them
+will make our after-work much easier, and ensure that fairly good prints
+from poor negatives will be the rule instead of the exception.
+
+In the first place we have often read that a strong light overcomes
+contrasts, while a weak light increases them. Yet how many of us realize
+when we come to make prints by any process exactly what this means; in
+other words, how many of us apply the rule in everyday practice? It is
+very easy to see what is meant by the rule if we will take an ordinary
+negative, such as a landscape with clear sky, and hold it first six inches
+from a gas-flame and then six feet. It will be found in the first case
+that the sky portion is translucent while the clear glass will, of course,
+be clear; in the second the sky will be opaque and the clear glass still
+clear. The contrasts have been rendered greater by removing the negative
+further from the light-source. As this is true in the extreme case given,
+so it is true in a smaller degree where the distances are only slightly
+varied, as well as where we deal with the graded portions of the negative
+instead of with only clear glass and the densest portions. It is this fact
+that we utilize in bromide printing; and it is because we have such
+unlimited control over the strength of our light that it is possible with
+it to get equally good prints from a wide range of negatives. It is very
+much simpler and more practicable to regulate the strength of the light by
+increasing or diminishing its distance than by interposing sheets of
+paper, ground glass, or opal, as is occasionally done with other
+processes.
+
+The necessity, however, for occasionally changing the strength of our
+light in this manner may seem to introduce an element of uncertainty into
+the problem of exposure; but there is another rule which brings it back
+again to simplicity itself, and enables us to quickly calculate equivalent
+exposures at varying distances from the light-source. This rule is: "The
+intensity of illumination varies inversely as the square of the distance
+from the source of light." For instance if a given negative requires five
+seconds exposure at one foot from the light, it will have an equivalent
+exposure if exposed for twenty seconds at two feet, the square of one
+being one, and of two being four.
+
+It remains then only to apply these two rules to our actual work with
+bromide paper. The shadows in a certain negative will receive full
+exposure, say, in eight seconds at one foot from the light; but the high
+lights of the negative are so dense that no light will penetrate them at
+that distance from the light in that length of time. Hence a stronger
+light must be used, or the action of the same light continued for a longer
+time; but the latter will not do since the effect would be to over-expose
+the shadows. Hence, knowing that a strong light overcomes contrasts, we
+move the negative to the distance of six inches, where the rule tells us
+the equivalent exposure will be one-fourth that at twelve inches, in this
+case two seconds. Here the shadows get no more light, but it is possible
+that the high lights of the negative will be penetrated by reason of the
+additional force of the light.
+
+On the other hand we have a thin, flat negative requiring for the shadows
+two seconds exposure at one foot from the light. Knowing that a weak light
+increases contrasts we move the negative three feet from the light, and
+instead of two, give eighteen seconds exposure, the rule telling us that
+this is equivalent. Thus we are enabled to regulate the strength of our
+light to suit the character of our negative. But a standard distance of
+one foot will not suit with all kinds of lights or with all sizes of
+negatives. If, for instance, our light is a Welsbach burner, giving an
+intense and comparatively white light, we will find that a normal negative
+will print too flat if exposed at one foot. In such a case two or even
+three feet would be a better standard. Experience with our light will,
+however, furnish the best standard, always taking a standard negative for
+the tests.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+The size of the negative also has its influence on the unit of exposure.
+For instance, we may have a half-inch oil-burner, in which case we would
+probably have to expose a standard negative at four inches in order to get
+the proper contrasts. But this is out of the question with a negative of 5
+x 7 or over, as a reference to the diagram, Fig. 1, will clearly show.
+Here we find that while the centre of a negative is four inches from the
+light the extreme edges will be over five inches from it, the rule as to
+intensities telling us that the light at the edges will be only 16/25 of
+that at the centre. This would result in a marked falling off of light at
+the corners, and would necessitate a constant motion of the printing frame
+throughout exposure, which is not wholly satisfactory. The remedy would be
+to use a stronger light at a greater distance. But another reference to
+Fig. 1 will show that if a 5 x 7 negative be held at seven inches from the
+light the difference will be only as 49 is to 56, which can in practice be
+disregarded, though it would be better to have it even less. Hence we see
+that it is never safe to have our unit less than the base-line of our
+plate, and it is better to have it even greater, as we will frequently be
+obliged to halve the distance to overcome contrasts. It follows from this
+that the larger our negatives the stronger must be our light.
+
+Now all of these considerations may make very dry reading, but the reader
+who has followed them closely will see how vital they are to successful
+work. It should not be thought, however, that every exposure on bromide
+paper must involve an arithmetical calculation. On the contrary, once the
+proper distance from the light for the normal negative has been
+ascertained, it will be found that nine negatives out of ten will require
+no change in the distance from the source of light. This, of course,
+presuming that we classify our negatives and enlarge from those of the
+same quality at the same time.
+
+One great objection to the use of bromide paper is that it must be handled
+in a dark-room. But this objection is not as serious as it may seem. An
+ordinary living room at night furnishes a delightful place in which to
+make prints, if we handle our solutions with reasonable care. The ruby
+glass can be removed from the dark-room lamp, and the orange glass used
+alone. But in this case, as indeed with the ruby light, care must be taken
+to guard against too much light. Development should be conducted at a
+distance of several feet from the light, and when almost completed, the
+tray can be brought close under the light to enable the worker to stop it
+at exactly the right moment. Ordinary bromide paper is about as sensitive
+as the process or slow dry plate or the average lantern-slide plate, and
+requires as much care as either, but not nearly so much as the most rapid
+dry plates. If fogging is noticed, of course additional precautions should
+be taken at once.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CONTACT PRINTING ON BROMIDE PAPER
+
+Nothing more than will be found in an ordinary dark-room will be found
+necessary in bromide printing by contact, unless it be some arrangement
+for determining readily the distance of the negative from the source of
+light. For this purpose and with an oil-lamp, use a board a foot wide and
+about three feet long placed on the developing bench against the base of
+the dark-room lamp. It should be marked with black lines six inches apart.
+See Fig. 2.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+Greater uniformity in lighting will be gained if a piece of white
+cardboard be placed immediately behind the flame. Some lamps have
+reflectors, in which case the card is unnecessary, provided that they
+reflect the light uniformly; otherwise such reflectors are worse than
+useless.
+
+Having arranged the needful apparatus to our satisfaction, the last
+preparatory step before manipulation is the making up of a developer.
+Almost any of the modern developers (pyro excepted) will give good results
+with bromide paper. In every package of paper will be found the developers
+advised by the manufacturer of the paper used. Invariably there is among
+these a formula for ferrous oxalate developer. This is probably the best
+of all developers for pure black tones, but I cannot advise the novice to
+take it up in the early stages of his work with bromide paper.
+
+When this developer is used an acid clearing bath is necessary, and this
+invites complications which may be disastrous to the prints. When
+experience has been gained, and a large number of prints are to be made at
+one time, it will be found advantageous as working longer with greater
+efficiency and more uniformity than some of the other developers. It is
+troublesome to prepare and does not keep well, apart from which there is
+the disadvantage that it does not permit of control in development in as
+large a measure as other developers.
+
+A reliable metol and hydroquinone formula is as follows: Thoroughly
+dissolve metol, 1/4 ounce; hydroquinone, 1/4 ounce; in water, 80 ounces;
+add sulphite of soda (cryst.), 4 ounces; and carbonate of soda (cryst.),
+2-1/2 ounces. Bottled in 4-ounce vials and well corked, this developer
+retains its working power indefinitely. For normal exposures I take 2
+ounces of the above and add to it 2 ounces of water. This will suffice for
+the development of three 8 x 10 sheets of paper, or their equivalent in
+smaller sheets. It is not wise to attempt to make it do more, as greenish
+tones will result. For the same reason, contrary to common opinion, I do
+not advise the addition of potassium bromide to the developer. It does not
+improve the developer, and may do harm.
+
+An excellent developer which must be used freshly mixed, and may be made
+up in a moment, is as follows: Take 1-1/2 ounces of a 25 per cent solution
+of sodium sulphite; dry amidol, 30 grains; 5 to 10 drops of a 10 per cent
+solution of potassium bromide, and dilute with 4-1/2 ounces of water. A
+supply of new developer should be added as this is seen to become
+exhausted.
+
+Other developing formulae could be given, but these two will be found to
+fill all requirements if properly compounded and intelligently used.
+
+The greatest difficulty in developing bromide paper is to get rich black
+tones when desired, but this can be completely overcome by using entirely
+fresh developer from time to time, and never over-working the developer,
+whatever it may be. As compared with the paper, developer is cheap, and it
+is poor economy to save on the latter.
+
+Except in rare instances the developer is better without any modifications
+whatever. In case of over-exposure, either general or partial, the
+developer after having been diluted as stated should be again diluted with
+its bulk of water. This gives blacker tones and more depth and life to the
+shadows. When through inadvertence we under-expose a print it may
+frequently be saved after partial development in the weak solution by
+flooding with a strong undiluted developer.
+
+The temperature of the developer is of the greatest importance. In summer
+the aim should be to keep it approximately at 65 degrees Fahr., in winter,
+70 degrees, but it should never be allowed to go over the latter. This can
+readily be accomplished by placing the graduate in a receptacle containing
+ice-water in summer or hot water in winter.
+
+The paper is first opened at a safe distance from the dark-room light, and
+it is well at first to cut up one sheet into several slips to use as
+test-strips. If any difficulty is found in determining which is the
+sensitive side, it will be well to throw a piece of the paper on a plane
+surface when it will be seen that it has a slight tendency to curl. The
+concave is the sensitive side. Taking a standard negative we first take
+one of the test-slips and place it upon the negative so that it covers a
+portion containing both high lights and shadows. With an oil-lamp having a
+1-inch burner, expose the test-strip behind the negative in the printing
+frame at one foot for ten seconds. Close the lamp and flood the exposed
+strip with the developer. The image should appear in a few seconds, and if
+properly exposed development will be completed in from one to two minutes,
+usually one. Rinse for a moment, and place the strip in a fixing bath made
+up by dissolving 3 ounces of hypo in 16 ounces of water. After a few
+moments examine the strip in full light, and see whether the contrasts are
+right. If so, expose a full sheet of paper, this time rinsing the exposed
+sheet before development to avoid the formation of air-bubbles. If the
+contrasts are too great try a strip at six inches from the light and two
+and a half seconds exposure. If still too great, use a stronger light or
+try a longer exposure and use a very dilute developer. If still too great
+the negative is hopeless and should be reduced unless dodging will help
+it, as set out further on.
+
+It will be noticed that this method calls for a one-minute development.
+This is desirable for several reasons: first, because it gives a unit and
+assists us in determining the correct exposure of other negatives, and
+second, because it is a comparatively short development, and yet gives
+sufficient time after the image has acquired the proper depth to pour off
+the developer and flush with water, thus stopping development. It also
+leaves sufficient margin in the event of over- or under-exposure. With one
+minute as the unit, over-exposure will result in a fully developed image
+in, say, thirty seconds. This print we could save; but if our unit were
+thirty seconds it would be extremely difficult to save a print which had
+completed development in fifteen seconds. The chances are that the
+development would go on to a ruinous extent before we could pour off the
+developer and flood the print, or that it would go on even after the water
+was poured on it. Moreover, in case of under-exposure, two minutes would
+not be so very tiresome, but four minutes would, besides which we would
+risk straining the print by such prolonged development. While I am not
+prepared to assert it as a rule, yet it has been my experience that the
+time of development varies almost inversely with the length of exposure;
+so that if the test-strip concludes development in half a minute with ten
+seconds exposure, I give the next five seconds exposure in the expectation
+that it will take a minute to develop. This assists greatly in lessening
+the number of test-strips required to ascertain the correct exposure of a
+given negative.
+
+Should we wish to see a proof before the negative is dry, it is taken from
+the fixing bath and well rinsed, though not necessarily thoroughly washed.
+It is then placed face up in a tray of water, on which we place face down
+a sheet of bromide paper. The two are removed together and squeezed
+lightly into contact to remove air bubbles. The back of the negative is
+then wiped to remove superfluous water, and an exposure of several times
+the normal given, preferably the normal exposure at half the standard
+distance from the light. The paper is then removed and developed as usual.
+In this way it is possible to show a print in fifteen or twenty minutes
+after the exposure of the plate was made.
+
+The purpose of the rinsing before development is to avoid the possibility
+of air-bells. The paper should be rinsed in cold water, as warmish water
+will cause air-bells instead of preventing them. This rinsing can be
+dispensed with if thought desirable. The rinsing after development is for
+the purpose of stopping development immediately, and also in order that
+the prints may not go into the fixing bath full of developer, as staining
+would be likely to result in such case. With the iron oxalate developer an
+acid rinsing bath is necessary, but it is not necessary with any of the
+other developers.
+
+The fixing is important, as upon this depends in a large measure the
+permanence of the prints. The bath should be freshly made up, 3 ounces of
+hyposulphite of soda to 16 ounces of water. Prints are placed in this bath
+face down, and one under, instead of on top of another. The tray should be
+occasionally rocked. With a fresh bath prints will fix in ten minutes, but
+where many prints are made at one time it will be well to use a second
+fixing bath. The emulsion of an unfixed print will appear a yellowish
+tinge in the unfixed portions when examined by transmitted light; but this
+is not an easy or certain test. It is better to make absolutely certain of
+thorough fixing by continued immersion, occasional rocking and, where many
+prints are made, a second bath. The fixing bath should not be allowed to
+get too warm in hot weather. Blistering, staining and frilling will result
+in such a case, and I have known a print which was left in a warm fixing
+bath for an hour or more to be reduced beyond redemption. With freshly
+made hypo baths at a suitable temperature there is absolutely no danger of
+the paper frilling or blistering.
+
+The final washing must be thorough, as the hypo is difficult to eliminate
+from both the emulsion and the paper. Care must be taken to see that the
+prints are well separated while washing. This ensures uniform washing.
+
+It frequently happens that a negative may require more or less dodging in
+printing. With bromide paper this is particularly easy. We will take the
+simple case of a negative with dense sky which will not print out in the
+ordinary way. All that we need in this case is a piece of paper cut
+roughly to the sky line and kept moving during part of the exposure over
+the part which is to be held back. If necessary, cut down the light in
+order to prolong the exposure, or expose at a greater distance from the
+light. One or more test-strips will be required for this purpose in order
+to ascertain the relative times of exposure. A modification of this method
+is when a small portion of the negative only needs extra printing--a face
+or hand for instance. Here we take a piece of paper a little larger than
+the negative and cut a small hole in it, moving it in front of the light
+so as to throw the latter only upon the portions needing the extra
+printing. Still another modification is where a portion only needs holding
+back. Here we use a small piece of paper or cardboard stuck on a knitting
+needle, moving the latter so that it will not intercept the light too long
+at one place.
+
+In all these and similar instances which will occur to the reader, the
+dodging should be done during the first part of the exposure. The
+subsequent exposure seems to obliterate traces of such dodging better than
+when it is done at the end of the exposure, just as in cloud-printing
+better results are achieved by printing the sky first and the foreground
+afterward.
+
+It is quite possible to make bromide negatives in the camera. They have
+their advantages in classes of work not requiring the finest definition,
+are much lighter, cheaper, more easily stored and less liable to breakage
+or other mishaps. They are best made on a thin, smooth paper, a _soft_
+paper being better than the _hard_. They are placed in the plate-holder by
+means of the ordinary cut film holder. The exposure required is
+ascertained by a trial or two, but roughly speaking is about one-twentieth
+that of a rapid plate. After development in the usual way--it being
+carried only a little further than usual--and after fixing, washing and
+drying, the paper negative can be spotted or retouched, after which it is
+waxed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ENLARGING--DAYLIGHT METHODS
+
+
+In taking up enlarging a full knowledge of what has been said as to the
+manipulation of bromide paper will be necessary, as the principles
+governing exposure apply here as in contact printing, errors being even
+more serious, owing to the greater waste of material.
+
+For the illuminant used in enlarging, we may employ either daylight or
+artificial light. The former is cheap, but variable; the first cost of the
+latter is quite a little sum, but the light is uniform. A daylight
+enlarging apparatus can be made for a dollar or two, and hence is within
+the reach of all; and if the process be given up, the loss is not serious.
+
+If the cost is of little or no moment, very serviceable enlarging cameras
+can be bought for about twenty-five dollars. Such a camera is adapted for
+reducing as well as enlarging, and so will be found useful for lantern
+slide making, copying, etc. As a matter of fact, few things are as useful
+to the amateur as a good enlarging outfit.
+
+We will first consider enlarging by daylight with home-made apparatus. For
+this purpose a room with at least one window will be needed. It should
+preferably be convenient to the dark-room. If the window of this room
+commands a view unobstructed by buildings, trees or the like, so much the
+better. I personally prefer a south light. With this one can get soft
+enlargements from the most contrasty negatives, while by shielding the
+negatives from the direct rays of the sun we can work from negatives which
+are quite flat and lacking in contrasts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+But whatever the room chosen, all windows but the one at which we are to
+work must be blocked up. This can be done by heavy dark curtains, or by
+specially constructed frames covered with light-tight material and made to
+fit closely in the windows. If there are any transoms these should
+likewise be covered. White light entering under the doors can be shut out
+by placing a rug along the bottom of the door. Care must be taken that the
+window-frames fit closely, as the light from openings at the windows would
+soon fog a sheet of bromide paper if it fell upon it even for a few
+moments.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+Assuming that the room chosen can be made practically light-tight, we will
+need some arrangement to hold the negative. The details of a box for this
+purpose can best be shown by a diagram (Fig. 3). ABCD is a strong and
+neatly made box open at both ends, and about two inches larger each way
+than the largest negative from which enlargements are to be made. E
+represents a section of a board which forms part of a window frame, a
+general view of which is given in Fig. 4. Reverting to Fig. 3, F is an
+opening cut in the side of the negative box two inches or a little less
+from the back of the box, AD, and wide enough to admit the free passage of
+a negative in a kit or other holder. On the inside of the box are tacked
+strips, GGGG, to serve as a guide to the kit when placing it in the box.
+An opening similar to F should be made in the other side of the box to
+permit lateral adjustments when we come to use the apparatus, besides
+enabling us to put the negative in or withdraw it from either side. A
+convenient modification of the strips, G, is found by placing the front
+ones a short distance further forward, to wit, toward BC, as they are
+shown in the cut (Fig. 3), and tacking to them a piece of watch spring, H,
+this then serving both as a guide and as a means of pressing the kit or
+negative holder against the other strips, GG (Fig. 5).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+J is a sheet of ground-glass, which is tacked over the opening when the
+box is firmly set in the board, E. It is well to have this ground-glass
+fixed in place so that it can be readily removed if desired.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+The necessity for having the box at least two inches larger each way than
+the largest negative from which enlargements are to be made is shown in
+Fig. 6. Here AB represents the negative in place, CA, DB and EG represent
+rays of light entering the box. It will be seen that the rays CA and DB
+strike the ground-glass at an angle, but nevertheless at an angle which
+results in their passing through it in a considerable degree. They strike
+the negative AB, but if the negative were the full size of the box, to wit
+FG, it will be seen that while the section AB would be fully lighted, the
+sections AF and BG would receive no oblique rays at all, and hence the
+negative would not be even approximately uniformly lighted. This point is
+too often overlooked in the construction of apparatus of this character,
+but is necessary in all cases of daylight enlarging and especially when
+direct sunlight is used. Now with the negative box in place, some
+arrangement must be made for holding the lens, which can be the lens used
+for making the negative. This for enlargements of a fixed size from
+negatives of a given size can be accomplished by simply extending the
+section BGGC Fig. 3, to a proper distance and placing the lens in the end
+of it; but this permits too little opportunity for adjustments and is not
+advisable. A double box, one sliding within the other, would be better,
+but still not quite satisfactory. It is far better to adapt one's camera
+to the apparatus, and this can always be done; it being very simple with a
+reversible back camera, which can be backed right up to the opening, and
+more difficult but always possible with others. Fig. 7 shows the entire
+apparatus in place, and the manner in which it is used. AB is the window
+board, C is the negative box, D is the camera adjusted to the latter, E is
+the enlarging screen on an easel to hold the bromide paper, and F is the
+reflector. The screen on the easel can be made either to rest on the floor
+or on a table. It can be made to run on a track or otherwise, and it can
+also be made so as to admit of either vertical or lateral adjustment or
+both, or it can be nothing more than an ordinary box set on a table. But
+however constructed it must be considerably larger than the largest sheet
+of bromide paper which is to be used, thus allowing for nearly all
+necessary adjustments of the paper. It is preferably covered with white
+paper or fine blotter to aid in focusing. The reflector F is considerably
+larger than the negative-box, and adjusted at an angle which will reflect
+the light from the sky or sun evenly upon the ground glass. It is best
+covered with good white blotting paper. G is a hood which I have found
+useful in sunlight enlarging, especially in summer when the sun is almost
+overhead. It is placed on the outside of the window-frame, some distance
+above the ground-glass, and shields the latter from the direct rays of the
+sun, which would otherwise cause uneven illumination owing to their too
+great obliquity. The direct sun on the white reflector will give a light
+of high intensity. In winter, however, when the sun is low, it will fall
+directly on the ground-glass, and this, if the negative box be constructed
+as advised, is not objectionable, but on the contrary an advantage. In
+Fig. 4 the opening, FGHI, represents a sheet of ruby glass, and can be
+screened while focusing if found to interfere with the worker's
+convenience in that operation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+The apparatus as sketched will suffice for all ordinary work.
+Modifications of it will depend upon the ingenuity of the man who attempts
+to design or construct one. It should be noted that the distance of the
+ground-glass from the negative has its influence in the strength of the
+light, and it is better to have this distance not over two inches. If less
+than one inch, however, the diffusion of light is not so good. When the
+light is weak the ground-glass can be removed entirely; the negative will
+thus be viewed directly against the white reflector. Very strong negatives
+giving undue contrasts may also be dealt with in this way. Or, if the
+light is too strong for flat negatives, the reflector can be removed
+entirely, or to the same end a sheet of yellow glass can be substituted
+for the ground-glass, thus increasing contrasts. In fact, a very useful
+and easily arranged modification of the negative-box consists of an
+opening in the top of the box inside the room through which can be dropped
+an extra sheet of ground-glass or opal to cut down the light, or of yellow
+glass to increase contrast. This opening should be at the point K, Fig. 3.
+
+I have referred to a kit as being the proper arrangement for holding the
+negative. This, after much tribulation in working with home-made
+contrivances, I have found to be the best arrangement. They come a size or
+two larger than the negative with which they are to be used, and can
+easily be cut down to the proper dimensions. With it, also, other kits to
+hold smaller negatives can readily be used. It is also simple with them to
+fasten the negatives in place. If they extend beyond the box on either
+side so much the better; greater lateral adjustment can then be made. The
+negative box, Fig. 3, is best painted dead black inside in the section
+GBCG, and white in the section AGGD. The reasons for this will be obvious
+at a glance.
+
+In enlarging from films it is well to place them between two sheets of
+glass of proper size, and fasten the whole in the kit or negative-holder.
+For this purpose use thin glass without flaws or scratches. If the films
+are smaller than the opening in the kit, it is well to paste a black mat
+on one of the glasses, when, after proper adjustment, the film will remain
+in place between the two glasses with very little pressure.
+
+Enlarged negatives are very easily made with the apparatus described. A
+contact positive can be made, preferably on carbon transparency tissue,
+and from this the enlargement made, or an enlarged positive made first,
+and from this a contact negative. The latter plan is preferable, since it
+admits of retouching on both positive and negative. Slow plates should be
+used throughout. For those who do not care to go to the expense of
+experimenting with large plates, I would suggest that good contact
+positives be first made and from these negatives on bromide paper,
+_Standard A_, _soft_. These negatives are treated as already described.
+The best positive for this purpose is a thin one with full gradations of
+tone from clear high light to deep shadow, without veil or fog, but free
+from any suspicion of flatness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
+
+
+The apparatus for enlarging with artificial light is, as has been stated,
+more expensive than that for use with daylight. The negative box and
+screen, however, remain as given. But we need in addition two extra
+pieces, a light-box and a pair of condensing lenses.
+
+The form of light-box presupposes the choice of illuminant, and in this
+there is a wide range. Suffice it to say that a kerosene lamp with one or
+more one-and-a-half inch burners will be found suitable for very small
+work or weak negatives. For larger work or stronger negatives a stronger
+light will be needed.
+
+Of these, the first in point of strength is the arc-light, which is too
+strong for ordinary negatives to be enlarged not more than fourfold on
+ordinary bromide paper. Used with any of the slower papers it will be
+found very serviceable and satisfactory. Next comes the lime-light, which
+has pretty much the same advantages and disadvantages. After these come
+acetylene, a gas giving an intense light of high actinic power. This is
+within the reach of nearly all, as a first-class generator costs only
+about twelve dollars, and the uses of the gas are manifold. The same
+generators and burners can be used with a projecting lantern and will be
+found far more satisfactory than oil. Acetylene burners can be had in
+various sizes, ranging in power from thirty to several hundred
+candle-power. The carbide from which the gas is generated is not expensive
+and costs only a few cents each time the machine is loaded. By an
+adjustment attached to the generator the gas is kept at a constant
+pressure, and hence the light is unusually steady. All in all this light
+has many advantages. After it in strength comes the Welsbach burner,
+suitable for those having gas in the house. After this comes the ordinary
+gas-burner, and then oil. The reader, knowing now what will be required of
+his light, can take his choice.
+
+Perhaps the simplest form of light-box is where the light is placed in one
+room and the enlarging done in an adjoining one, the light being admitted
+through a suitable opening. This prevents the possibility of stray light
+reaching the paper and is productive of no additional heat in a room
+presumably already hot enough.
+
+If this is not feasible a light-box must be constructed. As these vary so
+much in material and design, and must be altered with different forms of
+light in use, I will merely state the requirements. First of these is that
+it must be light-tight, and second, that it must have adequate ventilation
+and be fire-proof. Following these in importance, there should be a simple
+arrangement for looking at the light from time to time to see that it is
+burning properly and some means for readily attending to it if it is not.
+
+Having the light-box, the burners must be placed in it properly. Here the
+shortest way out of the difficulty is to go to an expert. If electricity
+is used go to an electrical supply house; if gas, go to a gas-fitter. As
+will be seen later the flame itself must be placed in a certain relation
+to other portions of the apparatus, and provision must be made
+accordingly.
+
+In looking over the magazines and annuals we will now and then see some
+new method given for illuminating evenly the back of a negative in
+enlarging or reduction. The most of these the writer has tried, but he has
+never found one of them which could be relied upon to give even reasonable
+satisfaction. If the light is apparently evenly diffused it is too weak.
+If strong enough it is not evenly diffused. Hence I will recommend nothing
+short of a pair of condensing lenses, as these have been proved by
+experience to be satisfactory in every respect if properly handled and
+cared for. The diameter of these must be slightly greater than the
+diagonal of the largest negative from which enlargements are to be made.
+These can be bought in pairs, mounted or unmounted, at about the following
+prices:
+
+  ---------+-----------------+----------------+------------------
+  Diameter | Focus           | Pair of Lenses | Per Single Lens
+  Inches   | Inches          | Mounted        | Unmounted
+  ---------+-----------------+----------------+------------------
+    4      |  5-1/2 or 6-1/2 |   $ 4.00       |  $ 1.25
+    4-1/2  |  5-1/2 or 6-1/2 |     6.00       |    1.50
+    5      |  6-1/2          |     7.50       |    1.75
+    6      |  8              |    12.00       |    3.00
+    8      | 12              |    32.00       |    7.50
+    9      | 14              |    40.00       |   10.00
+  ---------+-----------------+----------------+------------------
+
+The prices asked for condensers vary considerably in different
+price-lists. They can often be had at second-hand at a decided saving of
+expense.
+
+If it is desired to save the additional cost of the mounted condensing
+lenses, they can be comparatively easily mounted by anyone at all familiar
+with tools in the following manner:
+
+A piece of quarter-inch pine or poplar is cut to a square about an inch
+larger than the diameter of the lenses. In the center of this is sawed out
+a circular opening the exact size of the lens. In another board of the
+same dimensions is cut a circle a quarter of an inch less in diameter.
+These boards are placed together with the grain running in opposite
+directions, to prevent warping, and the lens kept in place by a wire bent
+in a circle and clamped in place so as to hold the lens, or other similar
+arrangement. See Fig. 8. The other lens is mounted in the same way. The
+two are mounted with their convex sides facing each other and a slight
+distance apart. It is better to place between them a thin sheet of finely
+ground glass, as this overcomes the bad effects of slight flaws in the
+lenses, which are not uncommon. The combination is then boxed up.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+Having now our light-box, condensers, negative box, camera and screen,
+they are next arranged in the order shown by Fig. 9. A long table
+especially constructed for the purpose makes the best base for this
+purpose.
+
+In putting the apparatus together there are several points to be noticed.
+First, the planes of the lenses, negative, projecting lenses and screen
+must all be parallel; second, the centers of all these should be in a
+single straight line, and third, either the light or the condensers should
+be so mounted as to easily slide backward or forward, since every time the
+projecting lens is racked backward or forward it necessitates a
+corresponding motion of the condensers to or from the light.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+In constructing the apparatus, for use with condensers and artificial
+light, the same provision should be made in the negative box for inserting
+a piece of colored or ground glass as was made in the daylight apparatus.
+When the diameter of the condensers is but little greater than the
+diagonal of the negative it will be necessary to have the latter quite
+close to the former, as the cone of light from the condensers has its apex
+at the lens, and hence if the negative in such a case is at a distance
+from the condensers the corners will receive no light. Reference to Fig. 9
+will show this plainly. For this and other reasons it is always best to
+have the condensers of ample size for a given negative. In fact, before
+beginning to make enlargements the worker should work with one good
+negative until he finds out exactly what light-intensity is best suited to
+it. This will then serve as a standard for all other negatives of the same
+general grade, and variations of the light can be made as required for
+particular negatives, or where the extent of enlargement is materially
+changed for various purposes.
+
+In using the daylight apparatus, which we will now consider, the negative
+is placed in the holder opposite the center of the ground-glass, upside
+down and facing into the work room. The room is darkened and lens
+uncapped. An image more or less blurred will appear on the screen. If the
+enlarged picture is to be only slightly larger than the negative, the lens
+must be racked out until its distance from the negative is but little less
+than its distance from the screen. To make the enlargement greater we
+simply rack back the lens and move the screen further off. There are
+tables which show exactly the distance which the lens must be from the
+negative and screen in order to get an enlargement of a given size: The
+table here inserted covers the ordinary requirements and may be of service
+in constructing the apparatus:
+
+  TIMES OF ENLARGEMENT
+
+  Total distances from the negative, in inches.
+
+  -------------+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------
+   Times of    |       2       |        3        |        4        |        6
+   Enlargement |               |                 |                 |
+  -------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+   Focus of    | To    | To    | To     | To     | To     | To     | To     | To
+   Lens        | Easel | Lens  | Easel  | Lens   | Easel  | Lens   | Easel  | Lens
+  -------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+    6 inches   | 27    |  9    | 32     |  8     | 37-1/2 |  7-1/2 | 49     |  7
+    8   "      | 36    | 12    | 42-2/3 | 10-2/3 | 50     | 10     | 65-1/3 |  9-1/3
+   10   "      | 45    | 15    | 53-1/3 | 13-1/3 | 62-1/2 | 12-1/2 | 81-2/3 | 11-2/3
+   12   "      | 54    | 18    | 64     | 16     | 75     | 15     | 98     | 14
+  -------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
+
+A table for enlargements of from one to twenty-five times, with lenses
+varying in focal length from three to nine inches is here given.
+
+  ENLARGEMENTS
+
+  _From the British Journal of Photography Almanac._
+
+  +----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Focus of |                                                                       |
+  | Lens     |                Times of Enlargement and Reduction                     |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | Inches   | 1    | 2      | 3      | 4      | 5      | 6       | 7      | 8       |
+  |          | inch | inches | inches | inches | inches | inches  | inches | inches  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 3        |  6   | 9      | 12     | 15     | 18     | 21      | 24     | 27      |
+  |          |  6   | 4-1/2  |  4     |  3-3/4 |  3-3/5 |  3-1/2  |  3-3/7 |  3-3/8  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 3-1/2    |  7   | 10-1/2 | 14     | 17-1/2 | 21     | 24-1/2  | 28     | 31-1/2  |
+  |          |  7   | 5-1/4  |  4-2/3 |  4-3/4 |  4-1/5 |  4-1/12 |  4     |  3-9/10 |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 4        |  8   | 12     | 16     | 20     | 24     | 28      | 32     | 36      |
+  |          |  8   |  6     |  5-1/3 |  5     |  4-4/5 |  4-2/3  |  4-4/7 |  4-1/2  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 4-1/2    |  9   | 13-1/2 | 18     | 22-1/2 | 27     | 31-1/2  | 36     | 40-1/2  |
+  |          |  9   |  6-3/4 |  6     |  5-3/5 |  5-2/5 |  5-1/4  |  5-1/7 |  5-1/16 |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 5        | 10   | 15     | 20     | 25     | 30     | 35      | 40     | 45      |
+  |          | 10   |  7-1/2 |  6-2/3 |  6-1/4 |  6     |  5-5/6  |  5-5/7 |  5-5/8  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 5-1/2    | 11   | 16-1/2 | 22     | 27-1/2 | 33     | 38-1/2  | 44     | 49-1/2  |
+  |          | 11   |  8-1/4 |  7-1/3 |  6-4/5 |  6-1/2 |  6-5/12 |  6-2/7 |  6-3/10 |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 6        | 12   | 18     | 24     | 30     | 36     | 42      | 48     | 54      |
+  |          | 12   |  9     |  8     |  7-1/2 |  7-1/5 |  7      |  6-6/7 |  6-3/4  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 7        | 14   | 21     | 28     | 35     | 42     | 49      | 56     | 63      |
+  |          | 14   | 10-1/2 |  9-1/3 |  8-3/4 |  8-2/5 | 8-1/6   |  8     |  7-7/8  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 8        | 16   | 24     | 32     | 40     | 48     | 56      | 64     | 72      |
+  |          | 16   | 12     | 10-2/3 | 10     |  9-3/5 |  9-1/3  |  9-1/7 |  9      |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+  | 9        | 18   | 27     | 36     | 45     | 54     | 63      | 72     | 81      |
+  |          | 18   | 13-1/2 | 12     | 11-1/4 | 10-4/5 | 10-1/2  | 10-2/7 | 10-1/8  |
+  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
+
+      The object of this table is to enable any manipulator who is about
+      to enlarge (or reduce) a copy any given number of times to do so
+      without troublesome calculation. It is assumed that the photographer
+      knows exactly what the focus of his lens is, and that he is able to
+      measure accurately from its optical center. The use of the table
+      will be seen from the following illustration: A photographer has a
+      _carte_ to enlarge to four times its size, and the lens he intends
+      employing is one of 6 inches equivalent focus. He must therefore
+      look for 4 on the upper horizontal line and for 6 in the first
+      vertical column, and carry his eye to where these two join, which
+      will be at 30-7-1/2. The greater of these is the distance the
+      sensitive plate must be from the center of the lens; and the lesser,
+      the distance of the picture to be copied.
+
+In practice it is convenient, after having once found the focus for a
+given enlargement from a given negative with the lens in use, to mark on
+the base of the apparatus the point to which the lens has been extended.
+Then in making future enlargements of the same size, it is only necessary
+to set the lens at that point and move the easel backward or forward until
+an approximate focus is obtained, when the image will be of the proper
+size on the screen.
+
+As an approximate guide it is sufficient to know that the nearer the lens
+is to the negative the greater will be the enlargement, as may be seen in
+Fig. 7. If a piece of thin cardboard, or a sheet of paper cut to the exact
+size of the enlargement desired, is placed upon the easel-screen, little
+difficulty will be experienced in getting an enlarged image of the proper
+size and correctly focused.
+
+It is advisable to focus the enlargement with the largest aperture of the
+lens. If the lens, when working at its largest aperture, covers the plate
+from which the enlargement is being made, it will give proper definition
+over the enlargement. With a lens of the better sort, of course, the
+definition will be equally good whether a large or small aperture is used;
+but with a low-priced lens it is better to stop down to No. 8 (f/11.3) or
+No. 16 (f/16), to avoid spherical aberration. Stopping the lens down
+increases the time of exposure, and enables one to have greater control
+over the operation of exposing the paper, permitting time to shade or
+locally increase the exposure at any portion of the image. This is
+sometimes useful, but as a general thing stopping the lens down is not
+advisable, as interfering with one's judgment in calculating exposures for
+various negatives. Having secured the image correct in size and focus,
+place thumb-tacks at all four sides of the sheet of paper or card used to
+focus the image. These will serve as a guide to the placing of the
+sensitive paper. Adjust the lens stop as desired and cap the lens, leaving
+the room totally dark save for such safe light as we may have for working.
+Place the bromide paper on the screen, using the thumb-tacks as a guide to
+the correct position in this.
+
+In making his first enlargements, the beginner should avail himself of the
+help of test-strips. These should be about one inch wide and the length of
+the paper. The exposure depends on a number of factors, among which are
+light, negative, focal length of lens, size of enlargement, stops,
+sensitiveness of paper, developer, temperature of developer, and length of
+development. The first experiment had best, therefore, be made on a purely
+arbitrary basis, for which we will take ten seconds.
+
+Pinning a test-strip on the screen, we uncap the lens and with a piece of
+cardboard shade two-thirds of the strip during five seconds; move the
+cardboard, and give the next section five seconds making ten for the
+first; then remove the cardboard entirely and give five seconds more,
+making fifteen for the first, ten for the second, and five for the third.
+Now develop the strip. If the fifteen seconds portion finishes development
+in less than one minute, and the ten takes approximately a minute, we will
+know that our basis was correct. But if all three were over-exposed or
+under-exposed, as shown by one minute's development, we can expose the
+next test-strip accordingly.
+
+In determining the correct exposure, the method already set forth for
+contact exposures is a reasonably good one. If the paper with a given
+exposure takes half the proper time to develop, halve the next exposure;
+if double the time, or more, double it. More could be said on the subject
+of exposure, and possibly to advantage; for instance, there are tables
+showing the exact relation of exposure to the number of times of
+enlargement, but complicated calculations in the dark-room are troublesome
+and a test-strip is simpler. After a while one gets the ability to
+determine the approximate exposure required by looking at the enlarged
+image on the screen, correcting slight errors by length of development,
+and greater ones by modifying the developer by diluting or strengthening.
+
+It should be remembered, however, that in judging exposure by reference to
+the screen, we must consider the high lights, as well as the shadows. It
+is in the high lights that we need the detail if we are to have soft
+pictures. If this detail in the high lights is plentiful and clear we may
+know that our light is strong enough for a very short exposure. If it is
+very faint, we will have to give a long exposure and use diluted developer
+to save the over-exposed shadows. On the other hand, if the image on the
+screen is a flat one, we may know that our light is too strong for the
+negative, and it must be modified by removing the reflector or by
+interposing ground or yellow glass; and if neither of these suffice, we
+can simply lay the negative aside for a dark day when the light will be
+very much weaker. Frequently all necessary contrasts can be obtained by
+the use of the _hard_ paper before referred to. As under-exposure tends to
+increase contrasts, we should also give the minimum exposure in the case
+of flat negatives, abandoning for a time our standard one-minute
+development. As will be seen by this time, there are many wrinkles about
+using bromide paper, and it will be found that new ones appear at every
+_seance_ in the enlarging room.
+
+But why is it that so many of our enlargements are black in the shadows
+and chalky in the high lights? Why, simply because our light is too weak
+for our negative. We forget that if we cannot modify our negative we must
+modify our light. It is this characteristic of the bromide enlargement
+which has prevented the process from enjoying the popularity it deserves.
+And I sometimes wonder whether this chalkiness is due to the use of the
+north light!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+DODGING, VIGNETTING, COMPOSITE PRINTING AND THE USE OF BOLTING SILK
+
+
+Of all printing processes, bromide enlarging offers the best opportunities
+for successful dodging and modification. We can cut our light down and
+take all the time we want, or we can take as little time as we want. A
+hand, a finger, a slip of paper, or anything within reach, will suffice to
+shade the light just as we want it. In this connection it is well to
+always hold the shade nearer the lens than the easel, as greater diffusion
+results and there is less danger of sharp lines. In shading a foreground
+to bring up a dense sky, first make a test-strip or two, noting how long
+the shading is carried on and how long the light is allowed to act on the
+whole. If the sky is then over- or under-printed we can modify it in the
+enlargement proper.
+
+The best arrangement for vignetting in enlarging is a piece of cardboard
+the size of the negative, with an opening cut out at the proper place and
+about the size of the portion of the negative to be vignetted. This is
+held near the lens and moved backward and forward between the latter and
+the screen, the opening showing larger as we near the lens and smaller as
+we recede from it. Very tasteful vignettes can be made in this way. A
+favorite method of the writer's is to use a sheet of bromide paper,
+preferably that with rough surface, and print on it a small vignette of a
+portion of a negative. These sheets being of a uniform size are then bound
+in book form, and make very attractive souvenirs. Variety can be added to
+the collection by printing some of the pictures through a mat fastened on
+the screen over the paper, when, of course, they are bounded by straight,
+sharp lines.
+
+Double printing in enlarging is not at all difficult. Assuming that
+test-strips have been made determining the proper exposure for each
+negative, I will briefly outline the process. Taking a landscape negative
+with clear sky in which we wish to print clouds, we first tack on the
+screen a sheet of paper the size of our bromide, and after properly
+adjusting and focusing it, trace with a pencil the outline of the skyline.
+We then remove the foreground negative and, after tracing, cut out a mask
+conforming to the size and shape of the foreground, cutting away the sky.
+We now put in the box the sky negative, and readjust our sheet of paper
+until after proper focusing the desired portion of the sky occupies the
+portion reserved for it, leaving the thumb-tacks as a guide when we put
+our bromide on the screen. Now using the sheet of paper as a guide, place
+on the edges of the bromide paper two little pencil marks to show how far
+we shall shade the lower portion of the paper. Our mask being the size of
+the foreground negative, it is now only necessary to hold it at the proper
+distance from the lens to have its edge conform to the sky-line when
+enlarged. But this would leave a sharp line if held exactly at that point,
+so using the pencil marks on the margin as a guide, we slowly raise and
+lower the mask very slightly and just sufficient to cause an agreeable
+blending of the sky into nothing. The proper exposure given, we cap the
+lens, remove the paper and insert the foreground negative. Now we must
+again adjust our sheet of plain paper until the sky line marked on it
+coincides with the sky-line on the screen, leaving thumb-tacks as usual.
+Registry being thus secured, we simply expose the foreground and develop
+the composite print.
+
+Needless to say, our clouds must be lighted from the same general
+direction as the landscape. But if in the negative they are not so lighted
+it can be reversed in the holder and will then print properly. In almost
+all cloud printing the tendency is to give undue prominence to the clouds
+by printing the sky to too deep a tone. This, besides making the blending
+very noticeable at the horizon, results in unnatural effects and should be
+avoided.
+
+If the sky portion of the landscape negative is thin, it might print
+slightly and spoil the effect of the clouds. This can be overcome by using
+a weaker light in enlarging. Where this is not desirable, a mask can be
+cut for the sky portion and used slightly while the foreground is being
+printed. By using it a very little during the first part of the exposure
+the tint will be overcome, while objects projecting above the horizon will
+be sufficiently printed. It will be found easier, no doubt, to print the
+landscape first and sky afterwards. But this does not result in good work.
+The landscape should invariably be printed after the sky portion.
+
+Bolting silk enlargements were for a time very popular. Sometimes they
+were artistic. Then every-one began making them, too often from unsuitable
+negatives, and they fell into disrepute. This method of enlarging is, in
+fact, suitable for very few negatives and only where broad effects of
+light and shade are desired. To cut up a spotty negative with a succession
+of lines does not necessarily give a broad effect in the picture. But for
+softening down heavy masses of shadows, and blending them harmoniously
+with masses of light or half light, the process is without an equal. The
+bolting silk can be bought by the square yard of dealers in photographic
+supplies, and should be stretched evenly over a frame made of quarter- and
+half-inch wood, being tacked between the two strips. This frame can be
+easily adjusted to fit over the paper on the screen. By using the side,
+bringing the cloth within a quarter of an inch of the paper, the lines are
+more evident, which is not so objectionable for very large work. But for
+the softest effects, reverse the frame and use it at half an inch from the
+paper. In this way we get a soft diffusion of the lines and much greater
+general softness. It should never be used nearer than a quarter of an
+inch, as the lines then become too evident, and hence fail in the effect
+desired. The bolting silk comes in three grades, fine, medium and coarse.
+The medium is the best for general work. It should not, however, be used
+for sizes under 8 x 10. The interposition of the cloth requires about
+one-half additional exposure. Focusing, of course, must be done without
+the frame in place. The bolting silk should only be used with paper which
+is to be toned to some color other than black, as there is something
+incongruous in its use with black tones.
+
+Few branches of photographic work, outside of negative-making, are as
+fascinatingly interesting as the making of enlarged prints on bromide
+paper from small negatives. Every amateur has negatives worthy of
+enlargement in his collection, and the process is so simple as to be
+within the capacity of the amateur who is still in his first year in
+photography. Its practice will stimulate his interest and help him in all
+his other photographic work. Especially will it help him in
+picture-making, the merits and defects of composition being a hundred fold
+more plainly evident in an enlargement than in the small print from the
+hand-camera negative. Moreover, in its essentials, bromide enlarging calls
+for no special equipment other than the ordinary hand- or view-camera, and
+a dark-room or other convenient work-room from which all "white light" can
+be excluded on occasion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE REDUCTION AND TONING OF BROMIDE PRINTS
+
+
+The subsequent manipulations with bromide paper do not differ materially
+from those with negatives. The support being paper of course makes some
+difference and the fact that while in the negative we aim to get printing
+density and printing color only, in the positive we aim to please the eye,
+makes another. But generally speaking, it may be said that whatever we can
+do with the negative we can do with bromide paper, that is, in so far as
+the emulsion itself is concerned.
+
+The first operation to be taken up is the reduction of prints which are
+too dark. This can best be effected just after the prints come from the
+hypo. A few grains of red prussiate of potash are dissolved in a suitable
+quantity of water, the latter being barely tinged, not of a strong yellow
+color. If the print is too dense throughout, it can be immersed without
+previous washing in this solution. Reduction should take place gradually,
+and this is best accomplished with a weak reducer. If the tray be rocked
+gently the reduction will be quite uniform. If, however, only a portion of
+the print needs reduction, this can be effected by applying the
+ferricyanide solution locally with a brush or bit of absorbent cotton.
+Extreme care is needed in this operation. In this way unduly deep shadows
+can be softened, veiled high lights brightened, or almost any modification
+obtained which may be deemed desirable. When reduction is almost completed
+quickly rinse the print in running water and then wash thoroughly. If the
+print has been dried, it is only necessary to soak it for a few moments in
+a fresh fixing bath, when the ferricyanide can be applied as before.
+
+Latterly the toning of bromide prints has become popular. There are many
+methods and innumerable formulae. Here we shall concern ourselves with the
+sulphide method which best fulfills the three chief requirements, namely:
+(1) Certainty of results; (2) the use of few baths; (3) the production of
+permanent prints. Processes which, as regards color, vigor, etc., are
+beyond the control of the worker, are of very little practical use.
+Equally so, if the toning involves a whole string of operations, the final
+outcome of which is usually--a spoilt print. And, lastly, a process
+which--however satisfactory it may be in other respects--impairs the
+undoubted permanency of a black-developed print is not one worthy of
+adoption. In one or two other respects, processes vary chiefly as regards
+the depth or intensity which the print must have in order to produce the
+most satisfactory result when toned. Thus, prints to be toned with uranium
+require to be distinctly on the pale side, whilst those for sulphide
+toning are best a little vigorous. One or two other methods, on the other
+hand, require the use of the costly gold or platinum salts. The latter,
+except under exceptional circumstances, are far better employed in the
+legitimate form of platinotype or other platinum paper; bromide prints
+toned with platinum will probably cost more, and will never have the
+absolute permanence peculiar to the platinum print.
+
+Placed in rough order of merit, the processes available are: Sulphide
+toning (hypo-alum toning is a cheaper, slower, and not quite so effective
+form of this method, whilst the thio processes represent sulphide toning
+at its best); copper toning; toning by re-development. These methods
+differ, not only in the results which they give, but also as regards the
+perfection with which each attains its particular effect; on the principle
+of the lady in the play who spoke the "absolute truth under the
+circumstances," each may claim to be included among the really serviceable
+processes.
+
+In the sulphide process, the image which, in a black-developed print,
+consists of metallic silver in fine division, is converted into silver
+sulphide, a substance which in the ordinary way is also black, but when
+produced in a fine condition on a photographic print is brown to sepia
+color. Silver sulphide is a most permanent substance. Therefore a
+sulphide-toned print should be permanent, too, a conclusion which is fully
+borne out in practice. A sulphide-toned print is at least as permanent as
+the bromide from which it is made. The image of the latter is susceptible
+to practically only one agent likely to come in contact with it, namely,
+sulphur fumes from burning gas, which partially sulphurize it and give
+rise to iridescent markings resembling those due to stale paper. Now, as
+the sulphide-toned print is the result of this sulphurizing process
+carried out with intention to a state of completeness, the result should
+be--and proves to be in practice--immune to this one cause of defacement.
+
+In converting the silver image into one of silver sulphide, the method is
+to first act on (bleach) the silver image with some reagent which will
+change it into a compound of silver susceptible to the action of sulphide.
+Iodine has been used for this, giving an image of silver iodide. Bromine
+gives one of silver bromide. A mixture of potass bichromate and
+hydrochloric acid gives silver chloride, as does also a solution of
+chlorine, though in the former case the presence of the chromium compounds
+affects the color obtained. But the best of the lot is a solution of the
+two substances potassium ferricyanide and potassium bromide, which forms
+an image of silver ferrocyanide and silver bromide. Both of these are
+converted into silver sulphide when treated with a solution of sodium
+sulphide. In the case of the hypo-alum process, in which the prints are
+toned direct (without bleaching) in a mixture of hypo and alum, the image
+is also changed into silver sulphide, but only to a partial extent.
+Theoretically, the method is not so good as sulphide proper; it is much
+more inconvenient in practice except on a commercial scale, while the
+results cannot be said to quite equal those by the sulphide process as
+regards permanency.
+
+So much by way of theory. We will now give the formulae for the two
+solutions required in the sulphide process. The first of these is the
+"bleach," or oxidizing mixture of bromide and ferricyanide. Within
+reasonable limits, the proportions of these salts and the quantity of each
+in the solution does not matter very much. Each chemical can, if desired,
+be kept in a separate solution if care be taken to keep the mixture in the
+dark,--that is, in a cupboard where it will not be exposed constantly to
+daylight. The ferricyanide suffers in time by exposure to daylight; but,
+as both it and the bromide are comparatively cheap and serve for a large
+number of prints, there is no need to take excessive care. The
+ferricyanide-bromide mixture, however, keeps very much better than a plain
+solution of ferricyanide alone. Formulae which place the salts in separate
+solutions are a mistake.
+
+As good a formula as any is: Potass ferricyanide, 300 grains; potass
+bromide, 100 grains, water 20 ounces; Ammonium bromide may be used in
+place of the potassium salt in the above formula; the difference is not
+marked, but the ammonium compound tends to give a somewhat warmer brown or
+sepia. In the case of many formulae, it will be noticed that equal
+quantities of bromide and ferricyanide are recommended. Although, as just
+stated, variations in the formula are not at all marked in their effects,
+a proportion of bromide over one-quarter of the ferricyanide does tend
+towards the yellowish color of which complaints are now and again heard. I
+want to make it clear that the opportunities for going wrong with the
+bleacher are very small indeed. Without encouraging the reader to be
+careless let it be said that "any old formula" (of ferricyanide and
+bromide) for the bleacher will prove successful. Not so, however, in the
+case of the sulphide solution, which requires to be very carefully made up
+and used.
+
+Sulph_ide_, not sulph_ite_. The material for the toning or darkening of
+the bleached print is the chemical substance, sodium sulphide, of the
+formula Na_2S.9H_2O. This is purchased as small crystals which greedily
+absorb water and rapidly become almost liquid if not properly corked. Not
+that this totally unfits the sulphide for use. Sulphide which has gone
+liquid will at all times be found to work perfectly, but it is of course
+open to suspicion, and, in any case, it is not possible to know what is
+the strength of a solution made up with such a supply. For this reason, it
+is best to make up the sulphide into solution of 20 per cent strength, and
+add this to water to make the toning bath. And it is here that a caution
+must be noted. The weak working solution, which is only about 1 to 2 per
+cent strength, keeps very badly indeed, and should be made up fresh from
+the stock solution at the time of toning each batch of prints. This is one
+of the most necessary items to bear in mind in using the sulphide process.
+
+Sodium sulphide is sold in various degrees of purity, and the label on the
+bottle is not always in exact correspondence with the condition of the
+substance inside, but the two forms which must be adhered to for sulphide
+toning are the ordinary "pure" and the "pure for analysis." The former can
+be obtained from any reliable drug store or photographic dealer. It comes
+in small lumps, yellowish to greenish in color; when dissolved in water
+the solution will be yellow, and will usually show a deposit which must be
+filtered off. This sulphide will give tones which are sepia brown with
+most papers. In the case of the "pure-for-analysis" sulphide, which is the
+recrystallized variety, the salt will be pure white and will form a quite
+colorless and clear solution in water. The tone given by this kind of
+sulphide is usually of a more purplish color. The distinct difference
+between the two commercial varieties of sulphide should not be overlooked,
+as it allows the worker to modify the process usefully when dealing with
+papers differing (as all papers do) to a slight extent in their
+adaptability to sulphide toning. The purer form has certainly much better
+keeping properties than the other, but either, if made up in 20 per cent
+solution, keeps for a month or two at least--which is enough for all
+purposes. The chief difference between the two is noticed in the diluted
+or working solutions. That of the purest sulphide _may_ be kept and used
+again, though it is not really good policy to do so.
+
+The supply of sulphide should therefore be dissolved as soon as purchased,
+as follows: _Stock sulphide solution_--20 per cent; sodium sulphite 4
+ounces; water to make 20 ounces. The actual toning solution is made up at
+the time of treating the prints by mixing the above stock with water, as
+follows: _Sulphide toning bath._--Stock 20 per cent solution 3 ounces;
+water to make 20 ounces.
+
+This makes a bath which contains about one per cent real sulphide,
+corresponding with about a 3 per cent solution of the sulphide as
+purchased. If the bath is much weaker, the tone obtained is usually not
+quite so good; while, if it is stronger, there is danger of the print's
+blistering while toning, or afterward in the washing water. Indeed, some
+papers need to be toned in a weaker bath, and require also to be fixed in
+an alum-hypo fixing bath (see later), so that the strength of the toning
+bath given above may be taken as the maximum, and used at half or
+one-third strength, as circumstances show to be necessary. And, to repeat
+the caution once more, the toning bath is to be thrown away as soon as the
+prints have been passed through it. With these points in our mind as to
+the making up of the solution, we can come to the process proper.
+
+The prints require to be well washed and free from hypo before being
+placed in the bromide-ferricyanide bleacher, because any hypo in
+conjunction with the ferricyanide will form the well-known Farmer's
+reducer, and cause patchiness of the prints. It is immaterial whether the
+prints are taken direct through the toning process or dried in the
+meantime. Some workers contend that the toning process is more regular if
+the prints are dried before bleaching. In either case, immersion in the
+bleacher will cause the fully developed bromide to disappear, leaving only
+a faint brown image behind. In some cases the image is fainter than in
+others, the difference appearing to depend chiefly on the developer
+employed. Developers with a liability to stain will give prints which do
+not bleach out so completely as those made with cleaner working
+developers. But, in all cases, two to three minutes' action of the
+bleaching solution will be ample; if all pure black is not gone in this
+time, it is a sign that the bleach is becoming exhausted. The prints
+should be kept constantly on the move whilst in the solution, and turned
+over and over to ensure equal action. They are then given quite a brief
+rinse in running water--half a minute to a minute--and then transferred to
+the sulphide solution, where they should darken to the full brown or sepia
+tone in a few seconds. It is well always to leave them here for twice to
+three times the period required to give the full tone. A wash of half an
+hour will remove the salts left in the film.
+
+Granted that bleacher and sulphide are in proper working order, there is
+one further factor in the making of sepia prints which is of vital
+importance, and that is the proper preparation of the print itself. A good
+sulphide tone presupposes a good black and white bromide. Not only that,
+defects in the bromide which may lie latent while the print is untoned
+come to light in the sulphide bath. This applies to uneven fixation (due
+to omission to keep prints moving in the hypo bath) and fingering of the
+surface; while, as regards the original development of the print, making
+the best of a wrong exposure will not do when sulphide toning is in view.
+A print that is forced by long development will suffer in tone, the result
+being colder and less satisfactory as regards vigor. Full exposure, and
+development which is complete in the normal time for a perfect black
+print, are the conditions for a good sepia tone, and, when a batch of
+prints is being put through, it is well to take steps to preserve a
+uniform time of development in order to secure an identical tone
+throughout.
+
+There are many different formulas for the uranium toning of bromide
+prints, and I suppose that most of them have given good results with the
+workers who published their methods. Of those which I have tried, however,
+none has yielded the results which I have been enabled to obtain from my
+own formula--my own in that I arrived at it by patient experimenting. It
+may be that this formula is not wholly original with myself. At any rate,
+I do not claim anything for it except that it works, with me, better than
+others I have tried.
+
+The requirements for toning bromide prints with uranium are: 1 ounce of
+uranium nitrate; 1 ounce of potassium ferricyanide (the red crystals); 1/2
+pound bottle of acetic acid--c. p. glacial preferred; water; a supply of
+blotting paper, to be kept exclusively for this purpose, and a few
+absolutely and chemically clean trays.
+
+The expense attached to these toning processes is slight. Uranium nitrate
+costs from forty to sixty cents per ounce, and an ounce will last a long
+time. Potassium ferricyanide costs about twenty cents per pound, and a
+pound is ample for a lifetime. Glacial acetic acid is a little more
+costly, but a half-pound bottle will prove a good investment. It is used
+also, as the reader will recall, in making acid hypo for acid fixing.
+
+To prepare the toning baths, dissolve the ounce of uranium nitrate in 10
+ounces of water. The water should be distilled if this is easily
+obtainable, and the solution should be kept in an orange-glass bottle or
+an ordinary bottle protected from light by a non-actinic paper wrapping.
+Dissolve the ounce of potassium ferricyanide in 10 ounces of water. Keep
+this also in an orange-glass bottle, well corked. There are many cautions
+about this particular salt, and it has been said that it will not keep in
+solution. In my practice I find no difficulty whatever in the use of a
+solution six months old, despite the difficulties mentioned in the
+text-books.
+
+To tone the bromide prints, first note that the prints should have been
+developed and fixed and washed just as usual. It is necessary that prints
+to be toned shall contain no trace of hypo. To secure this, the prints
+should be specially prepared for toning by being again thoroughly washed,
+as any hypo remaining in the print will cause spots and streakiness. With
+care at this stage the toning will give clean and bright prints, which
+should be as permanent as the original bromide print.
+
+I cannot give the reason why, but, as a general rule, bromide prints tone
+better if the print has been dried after washing and rewet just before
+toning. There may be a chemical reason for this, but I am inclined to
+think that it is a physical one, viz., that the emulsion is softer after
+its first washing than after having been dried and wet, so that it allows
+toning solution to get into the film more quickly. This naturally results
+in more rapid toning, and quick toning does not yield as good prints as a
+slower and more gradual building up of the color image.
+
+Having the print ready for toning as here outlined, take 1 dram of the
+uranium solution, add 1/2 dram of acetic acid and then 5 ounces of water.
+In a separate graduate put 1 dram of ferricyanide solution and 5 ounces of
+water. Just before toning, pour these two solutions together into the
+third graduate and use immediately. To proceed, lay the rewetted print
+face up in a clean tray and flow the freshly made toning bath (the two
+solutions combined) over the print. The print and tray must be kept in
+motion by gentle rocking during the toning operation. The toning solution
+tends to throw a red precipitate as it works. This precipitate should not
+be permitted to settle on the face of the print. Some workers tone their
+prints face down, but I do not advocate this, as it is important to take
+the print from the toning bath at just the right moment, and, as the
+toning process is short (six or seven minutes is usually sufficient even
+for the deepest red) you need to watch the print all the time. In the
+toning operation note that a constant quiet motion of the tray, to keep
+the solution moving over the print, is essential to success.
+
+I have already given, in an earlier paragraph, the order in which the
+colors come. But that order was for a normal print. Some prints behave
+differently, and it is in the control of these unavoidable variations with
+different prints that skill and success come. A print of a half-tone
+subject against a jet-black background, a portrait, for instance, will
+hardly follow the normal order in the appearance of colors. This because
+the half-tones will be brown and even red-brown before the toning solution
+has changed the dense black deposit of the background at all. If the
+toning was stopped at this stage, some very pretty effects in double
+toning might result.
+
+From this explanation of the toning process, the discerning reader will
+perceive the need for caution in selecting the best kind of a print for
+uranium toning. Thus a print which has a bald-headed sky will tone only in
+the body of the print, but if there is any tint at all to the sky, it also
+will tone, giving an effect not much to be desired except for sunset or
+sunrise pictures. If white high-lights are desired in the toned print,
+they must be white originally and not the least bit fogged. As
+double-toned effects in a print are not usually desirable, those prints
+having deep black shadows or dark masses will be avoided. The best kind of
+print for this method of toning is one fully exposed and slightly
+under-developed, since, when the uranium does take hold of the shadows, it
+makes for an increase of contrast.
+
+Experience is the best teacher, and I could not begin to describe in
+detail what the reader can himself ascertain from a few experiments. Some
+prints needing contrast should be carried far in the toning solution;
+others, not needing contrast, will give better results if they are toned
+only through the browns, and so on. The reader who can spend a Saturday
+afternoon with a few bromide prints, varying in character, will learn more
+from his experimenting than I could tell him in many pages. For these
+experiments waste or imperfect black prints can be used with practical
+economy, the chief object being to watch the progress of toning and
+chemical changes.
+
+When the desired tone is reached, remove the print from the toning
+solution and wash quickly and well in running water for fifteen minutes.
+If washed too long, the color of the print will fade and a dead and
+lifeless print will result. If not washed long enough, the yellow of the
+ferricyanide will remain in the print, robbing its gradations of
+brightness and purity of color and impairing the permanency of the print.
+
+A big advantage in this method of toning is its wonderful adaptability.
+There is no hard and fast rule as to the proportion of the chemicals to
+the bulk of water used. Try two drams of each of the two solutions; then
+three drams of each, but watch that the print does not get beyond you in
+toning. The only practical difference in my formula and others that I have
+seen is that I make my stock solution weaker than that ordinarily advised
+and use less of it to a certain amount of water, because I prefer slow
+toning and the accompanying ease of control which the flash-in-the-pan
+formula does not admit. Quick toning, like quick development, tends to
+block the shadows in the print, and if you once get bronzed shadows the
+print is practically hopeless. Not quite ruined, however, as a bath in a 5
+per cent solution of sodium carbonate will discharge the color and then,
+if the print is faded, it may be redeveloped in an alkaline developer such
+as metol-hydro. But before it is retoned the print must be thoroughly
+washed, as the presence of sodium carbonate does not permit the toning
+solution to do its work.
+
+Finally, I may say that, while a bath of acetic acid and water is often
+advised to stop the toning action in this method, I have never found it
+necessary.
+
+All the thin varieties of bromide paper curl badly in drying. If they are
+to be kept unmounted it is well to immerse them in water to which has been
+added a few drops of glycerine. This will ensure their lying flat after
+drying. A solution of 2 ounces of glycerine in 25 ounces of water is
+advised when it is desired to make bromides on heavy rough paper remain
+flat, after drying, for book illustration and similar purposes.
+
+If one is trying to rush through a bromide print, it can be trimmed while
+wet by placing it on a sheet of stiff paper and cutting through both.
+
+The paper will be found to cockle the mounts badly in drying. Aside from
+the glue mountant, formula for which accompanies the paper, I know no
+preventive except to mount the prints while dry with the dry mounting
+tissue. As the paper when wet stretches one way considerably, as much as a
+third of an inch on a ten- or twelve-inch length, provision must be made
+in trimming, especially if mounts with centers of a given size are used.
+
+The paper being covered with an emulsion which in warm weather is very
+soft while wet, mounting is somewhat more difficult than with some of the
+other papers. My method is to mount not more than half a dozen at once,
+placing them face down, one on top of the other, on a glass or ferrotype
+plate, blotting off the surface water and spreading the paste over the top
+one in the usual way. I place this on the mount and then stretch over it
+smoothly a damp handkerchief or piece of very thin rubber cloth, rubbing
+the print down with my hands, seldom using the squeegee and then very
+lightly. By this method abrasion of the surface seldom results and
+air-bells are unknown. Owing to the strong contracting power of the paper
+in drying, the mounting paste must be used freely, especially at the edges
+of the print.
+
+Apart from the methods of procedure here given, there are innumerable
+modifications covering every detail of contact printing and enlarging on
+bromide paper. Most of these have been given careful trial as published,
+but few have quite fulfilled the expectations they created.
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS.
+
+Manuals dealing with the manipulation of the various brands of paper may
+also be obtained, generally _gratis_, from the various manufacturers of
+bromide paper or their American agents as follows: The Eastman Kodak Co.,
+Rochester, N. Y.; The Defender Photo Supply Co., Rochester, N. Y.; J. L.
+Lewis, New York City.
+
+
+
+
+ROYAL ALBUMS
+
+combine all the good features you seek in an album for the proper display
+and preservation of your
+
+UNMOUNTED PHOTOGRAPHS AND POST CARDS
+
+  _Quality in Materials_
+  _The Best of Workmanship_
+  _Pleasing in Design and Appearance_
+  _Durability in Service_
+  _Moderate in Price_
+  _A Wide Variety in Styles and Sizes_
+  _Bindings in All Desirable Colors and Finishes_
+  _Leaves and Covers of Harmonious Coloring_
+
+Ask Your Dealer to Show You ROYAL ALBUMS
+
+
+MANUFACTURED BY
+F. L. SCHAFUSS COMPANY
+200 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+
+Makers of Albums Exclusively
+
+
+
+
+TO PROFESSIONAL AND AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHERS
+
+Write us at once for particulars regarding our new Multi-Speed Flashlight
+Attachment for our
+
+MULTI-SPEED SHUTTER
+
+It is a simple device operating in conjunction with the Multi-Speed
+Shutter and attached to same with a screw on the back of the shutter.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It makes high speed photography practicable under all conditions. Takes
+photographs of moving objects in 1-1000th second.
+
+Especially valuable for making instantaneous full-timed pictures of
+babies, aged and nervous people, groups, etc. Invaluable to press
+photographers for making race starts at night, indoor athletic events and
+all kinds of newspaper illustrations hitherto impossible.
+
+_Send for a free Specimen Photograph and Detailed Information_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE MULTI-SPEED SHUTTER JUNIOR
+
+Simple, Efficient, Moderate in Price
+
+Based on the principle of the famous Multi-Speed Shutter.
+
+Gives accurate exposures up to 1-500th second, in addition to the usual
+slower speeds.
+
+Extremely compact for the small camera. Easy in operation.
+
+Highest efficiency in illumination and definition.
+
+Widely endorsed as the simplest and best shutter sold even at a higher
+price.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Send for Detailed Information and FREE Illustrated Catalogue_
+
+
+MULTI-SPEED SHUTTER CO.,
+317-323 East 34th Street
+NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+LANDE'S Patent Enlarging Lamp
+
+PATENTED
+
+Puts Enlarged Pictures Within Reach of Everyone. Converts any Camera into
+an Enlarging Lantern without the use of Condensers.
+
+[Illustration: Showing Camera and Enlarger in position]
+
+[Illustration: Showing Back Open and Interior Arrangement]
+
+Enlargements made at home in any room which can be darkened. By means of
+this lamp and his regular camera any amateur is equipped to make
+enlargements on bromide paper. It is fitted with two incandescent gas
+lamps. The light is reflected so as to give a perfect even illumination
+over the entire surface of the negative.
+
+The time of exposure varies according to the power of the light, the
+density of the negative and size of the enlargement. Approximately an
+average negative enlarged to four times the original size will take about
+one to one and one-half minutes.
+
+Prices
+
+  No. 1. For 5 x  7 and smaller negatives       $12.00
+  No. 2. For 8 x 10 and smaller negatives        15.00
+
+_Ask your dealer to show you_
+
+
+MANUFACTURED BY
+GEORGE MURPHY, Inc., 57 E. Ninth St., New York
+
+
+
+
+Cheap Blotting Papers are expensive in use and may ruin your prints. There
+is practical economy and comfort in the use of
+
+PHOTO FINISH WORLD BLOTTING
+
+The Best for Twenty Years
+
+Made expressly for photographic use. 100% pure cotton fibre, very
+absorbtive and non-linting. Absolutely free from anything that can injure
+the photographic print. Notable for its smooth, hard finish, giving
+durability in use. Try it and you'll use no other.
+
+UNEQUALLED IN QUALITY ECONOMY and SATISFACTION
+
+Your dealer can supply you if you will insist on getting "Photo Finish
+World." It is worth insisting upon.
+
+
+Manufactured by
+THE ALBEMARLE PAPER MFG. CO.
+Richmond, Va., U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+DURATOL NON-POISONOUS RAPID DEVELOPER
+
+Produces essentially the same results as other =coal-tar= developers. It
+is economic by reason of slow exhaustion, and its solutions are stable for
+many months, the bottles need not be kept filled to the neck.
+
+It produces fog-free negatives with the right amount of density in the
+high lights, a wealth of detail in the shadows and great softness.
+
+
+  BEST FORMULA FOR PLATES, FILMS AND SLOW-WORKING, CONTRASTY GASLIGHT
+  PAPERS:
+
+  Hot Water                        32 oz.
+  Duratol                          15 grains
+  Soda Sulphite dry                3/4 oz.
+  Potassium Carbonate dry          1 oz.
+  Hydroquinone                     75 grains
+
+  Development complete in from 2 to 5 minutes.
+
+
+  AN EXCELLENT FORMULA FOR SOFT-WORKING PAPERS (ARTURO, CYKO AND ARTEX):
+
+  Hot Water                        35 oz.
+  Duratol                          15 grains
+  Soda Sulphite dry                1-2 oz.
+  Potassium Carbonate dry          3/4 oz.
+  Hydroquinone                     60 grains
+
+  Development complete in about 2 minutes.
+
+Sample upon request from
+
+
+SCHERING & GLATZ
+150 Maiden Lane--New York
+
+
+
+
+Make Your Own Enlargements
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The GRAPHIC Enlarging and Reducing Camera
+
+With this camera you can make enlargements of any size with either
+daylight or artificial light. No condensing lenses are required. The
+reflecting cone supplied with each camera distributes the light evenly
+over the entire surface of the negative.
+
+
+  PRICE
+
+  Including Negative Carrier and Kits and three sheets of diffusing Ground
+  Glass.
+
+  No. 1. For Negatives  5 x  7 and smaller $28.00
+  No. 2.  "     "       8 x 10  "    "      35.00
+  No. 3.  "     "      11 x 14  "    "      45.00
+
+
+FOLMER & SCHWING DIVISION
+Eastman Kodak Co.
+ROCHESTER, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+WE RECOMMEND "Agfa" AMIDOL FOR DEVELOPING BROMIDE WORK
+
+¶ Send an "Agfa" Label and 10 cents for a copy of the "Agfa" Formulae Book.
+It contains complete formulae for all makes of paper and other valuable
+information.
+
+
+BERLIN ANILINE WORKS
+215 WATER STREET
+NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+$15.00
+
+[Illustration]
+
+From a Small Negative You Can Print a Picture Any Size
+
+The Radion Enlarging Printer is a device which, used in connection with
+your camera, produces prints from either film or glass negatives in any
+dimensions you wish.
+
+The printing is almost as quick as contact printing, and the size of the
+prints can be varied instantly.
+
+THE RADION ENLARGING PRINTER
+
+enables you to get all the results of a big camera with a small and
+inexpensive equipment. It comes to you complete and ready to operate at
+any time of day or night. It is equipped with new, specially constructed
+Mazda lamps ready to attach to any electric light socket.
+
+The Radion Enlarging Printer works without the use of condensers, which
+thereby reduces the cost of the machine and secures a better detail on the
+print.
+
+PRICE $15.00
+
+Most dealers in photographic supplies can sell you a Radion Enlarging
+Printer. If yours cannot, write direct to us. Write anyway for descriptive
+circulars that will be of great interest to every camera user.
+
+
+H. C. WHITE CO.
+
+_Lens Grinders and Makers of Optical Instruments for over Forty Years_
+
+503 RIVER ST., NORTH BENNINGTON, VERMONT
+
+Branches:
+
+45 W. 34th St., New York City      San Francisco      London
+
+
+
+
+The First Essential in Enlarging is the Curry Utility Enlarging and
+Copying Board and Springs
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It is 20 x 30 inches, made of well-seasoned wood, nicely finished.
+
+Will hold without injury any size copy of any thickness.
+
+=Utility Springs= are made of the best nickeled steel.
+
+Price, including 24 Springs, =$3.50=.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE CURRY STEREON Anastigmat Lens
+
+  Series A--F 4.5
+  Series B--F 6.3
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The finest lens at any price for portraits, views or enlarging.
+
+Send for Price List and "Photo Developments."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+FRANK J. CURRY
+
+_Importer, Manufacturer and Dealer in Photo Goods of Every Description._
+
+812 Chestnut Street
+Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+
+
+For Enlarging
+
+Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Tessar IIb-F:6.3
+
+because of its excellent optical corrections.
+
+The =Tessar= has a flat field allowing exposures at full aperture.
+
+No danger from vibration because of long exposure.
+
+Saves exposure time on dense negatives.
+
+For Sale by Dealers.
+
+Send for Booklet 70 H, "Useful Tables for the Photographer," free on
+request.
+
+Contains tables on enlarging.
+
+_Our name, backed by over half a century of experience, is on all our
+products--lenses, microscopes, field glasses, projection apparatus,
+engineering and other scientific instruments._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Bausch & Lomb Optical Co.
+NEW YORK    WASHINGTON    CHICAGO    SAN FRANCISCO
+LONDON     ROCHESTER, N.Y.     FRANKFORT
+
+
+
+
+You see the picture before you on the ground glass, right up to the moment
+of exposure and are sure of success if you use
+
+REFLEX CAMERAS
+
+FOR YOUR CAMERA WORK OUT-OF-DOORS AND AT HOME
+
+[Illustration]
+
+REFLEX CAMERAS EXCEL
+
+all other similar types in curtain velocity, ease and speed of operation,
+simplicity of construction, freedom from outside mechanism, perfect
+workmanship.
+
+REGULAR 4x5 and 5x7
+
+LONG-FOCUS 4x5 and 5x7
+
+JUNIOR REFLEX 3-1/4x4-1/4 (fixed focus)
+
+Price $12, with either one Holder or Adapter.
+
+_Ask any independent dealer or write for catalogue and sample print to_
+
+
+REFLEX CAMERA CO.
+Newark, N. J.
+
+
+
+
+GOERZ CAMERAS
+
+ARE UNIQUE IN THE HAND CAMERA LINE
+
+OUR NEW VEST-POCKET TENAX
+
+is the finest pocket camera ever made. It measures, closed,
+3/4x2-3/4x3-1/2 inches. Equipped with Compound Shutter, all speeds up to
+1-250 second. We furnish with it a purse case containing six nickel
+holders for plates 1-3/4x2-5/16 inches. Our fine enlarging apparatus, made
+especially for use with this camera, will afford good enlargements of
+various sizes up to 5 x 7 inches.
+
+Our =Ango=, =Manufoc Tenax= and =Folding Reflex= are all splendid cameras
+for the professional photographer and ambitious amateur.
+
+They show the same high qualities of workmanship which distinguish
+
+GOERZ LENSES
+
+Get our new illustrated catalog from your dealer or direct from
+
+
+C. P. GOERZ AMERICAN OPTICAL CO.
+OFFICE AND FACTORY: 317 EAST 34TH STREET, NEW YORK
+
+Dealers' Distributing Agencies: For Middle West, Burke & James, Chicago.
+Pacific Coast, Hirsch & Kaiser, San Francisco.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+HOW TO MAKE YOUR CAMERA PAY
+
+Here are books you'll surely want to read! For they show how you can
+increase your ability to make money with your camera. They tell how to
+make prints for book, magazine and newspaper publishers, and show how you
+can make money during spare time.
+
+The LIBRARY of AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY
+
+contains the boiled-down experience of years. Collier's, Leslie's and
+dozens of publications are always glad to consider any interesting
+photographs. They pay from three to five dollars apiece. A score of other
+profitable branches are covered. Here are the money-making facts you have
+wanted. These books are just from the press.
+
+Now is the time for you to get full information. We have interesting
+literature to mail upon receipt of your postal. Write now for our special
+offer to LIVE AMATEURS.
+
+
+AMERICAN PHOTO TEXTBOOK CO.
+608 Adams Avenue        SCRANTON, PA.
+
+
+
+
+Enlarging Simplified
+
+The all by daylight way of making enlargements is with the
+
+Brownie Enlarging Camera
+
+No focusing--no dark-room--no experience necessary when Velox is used.
+Just the few simple directions for finishing the prints.
+
+The enlargement retains all the quality of the negative. The results are
+certain.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  THE PRICE
+
+  No. 2 Brownie Enlarging Camera, for 5 x 7 Enlargements
+    from 2-1/4 x 3-1/4 negatives,                         $2.00
+
+  No. 3, ditto, for 6-1/2 x 8-1/2 Enlargements
+    from 3-1/4 x 4-1/4 negatives,                          3.00
+
+  No. 4, ditto, for 8 x 10 Enlargements from 4 x 5
+    negatives (will also take 3-1/4 x 5-1/2 negatives),    4.00
+
+
+EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY,
+ROCHESTER, N. Y.
+
+_All Dealers._
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Prints by Gaslight
+
+VELOX increases the number of negatives that are worth printing from.
+
+The results from contrasty negatives are softened by the use of "Special"
+VELOX--improved brilliancy is secured from flat negatives by using
+"Regular" VELOX.
+
+_ASK FOR THE VELOX BOOK._
+
+
+NEPERA DIVISION,
+EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY,
+ROCHESTER. N. Y.
+
+_All Dealers._
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Bromide Printing and Enlarging, by John A. Tennant
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BROMIDE PRINTING AND ENLARGING ***
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