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diff --git a/24456-h/24456-h.htm b/24456-h/24456-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c896d9b --- /dev/null +++ b/24456-h/24456-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3394 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Fathers of Biology, by Charles McRae + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + + h2,h3 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal;} + h1 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 3em; word-spacing: .8em;} + + hr {width: 65%; margin: 2em auto; clear: both;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .td1 {text-align: left; padding-right: 10em;} + .td2 {text-align: right;} + + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 94%; font-size: small; + font-style: normal; text-align: right; text-indent: 0em;} + + .block1 {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .block1 p {padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .smcapl {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 2em;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: 0.25em; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .trans1 {border: solid 1px; margin: 1em 15%; padding: 1em; text-align: justify;} + + a:link {text-decoration:none;} + a:visited {text-decoration:none;} + + ul {list-style-type: none;} + .lst {list-style-type: decimal; margin-left: 10%;} + + .hd1 {text-align: center; font-size: small; margin-top: -.5em; margin-bottom: 6em;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fathers of Biology, by Charles McRae + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Fathers of Biology + +Author: Charles McRae + +Release Date: January 29, 2008 [EBook #24456] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FATHERS OF BIOLOGY *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Stephen Blundell and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>FATHERS OF BIOLOGY</h1> + +<h2><small><small>BY</small></small><br /> +CHARLES McRAE, M.A., F.L.S.</h2> + +<p class="hd1">FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD</p> + +<p class="center">PERCIVAL & CO.<br /> +<small><i>KING STREET, COVENT GARDEN</i><br /> +<b>London</b><br /> +1890</small></p> + +<hr /> +<div class="trans1"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b><br /> +Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. +Archaic and variant spellings remain as originally printed. +Greek text appears as originally printed, but with a mouse-hover transliteration, <span title="Biblos">Βιβλος</span>.</div> + +<hr /> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is hoped that the account given, in the following +pages, of the lives of five great naturalists may +not be found devoid of interest. The work of +each one of them marked a definite advance in +the science of Biology.</p> + +<p>There is often among students of anatomy and +physiology a tendency to imagine that the facts +with which they are now being made familiar have +all been established by recent observation and +experiment. But even the slight knowledge of the +history of Biology, which may be obtained from +a perusal of this little book, will show that, so far +from such being the case, this branch of science +is of venerable antiquity. And, further, if in the +place of this misconception a desire is aroused +in the reader for a fuller acquaintance with the +writings of the early anatomists the chief aim +of the author will have been fulfilled.</p> + +<hr /> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td2" colspan="2"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">HIPPOCRATES</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">ARISTOTLE</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">GALEN</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">VESALIUS</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">HARVEY</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h2><big>HIPPOCRATES.</big></h2> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> +<h2><i>HIPPOCRATES.</i></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Owing</span> to the lapse of centuries, very little is known +with certainty of the life of Hippocrates, who was called +with affectionate veneration by his successors "the +divine old man," and who has been justly known to +posterity as "the Father of Medicine."</p> + +<p>He was probably born about 470 <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, and, according +to all accounts, appears to have reached the advanced +age of ninety years or more. He must, therefore, have +lived during a period of Greek history which was characterized +by great intellectual activity; for he had, as +his contemporaries, Pericles the famous statesman; the +poets Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, +and Pindar; the philosopher Socrates, with his disciples +Xenophon and Plato; the historians Herodotus and +Thucydides; and Phidias the unrivalled sculptor.</p> + +<p>In the island of Cos, where he was born, stood one of +the most celebrated of the temples of Æsculapius, and +in this temple—because he was descended from the +Asclepiadæ—Hippocrates inherited from his forefathers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +an important position. Among the Asclepiads the habit +of physical observation, and even manual training in +dissection, were imparted traditionally from father to +son from the earliest years, thus serving as a preparation +for medical practice when there were no written treatises +to study.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>Although Hippocrates at first studied medicine under +his father, he had afterwards for his teachers Gorgias and +Democritus, both of classic fame, and Herodicus, who is +known as the first person who applied gymnastic exercises +to the cure of diseases.</p> + +<p>The Asclepions, or temples of health, were erected +in various parts of Greece as receptacles for invalids, +who were in the habit of resorting to them to seek the +assistance of the god. These temples were mostly +situated in the neighbourhood of medicinal springs, and +each devotee at his entrance was made to undergo a +regular course of bathing and purification. Probably +his diet was also carefully attended to, and at the +same time his imagination was worked upon by music +and religious ceremonies. On his departure, the restored +patient usually showed his gratitude by presenting +to the temple votive tablets setting forth the circumstances +of his peculiar case. The value of these to men +about to enter on medical studies can be readily understood; +and it was to such treasures of recorded observations—collected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +during several generations—that +Hippocrates had access from the commencement of +his career.</p> + +<p>Owing to the peculiar constitution of the Asclepions, +medical and priestly pursuits had, before the time of +Hippocrates, become combined; and, consequently, +although rational means were to a certain extent applied +to the cure of diseases, the more common practice +was to resort chiefly to superstitious modes of working +upon the imagination. It is not surprising, therefore, +to find that every sickness, especially epidemics and +plagues, were attributed to the anger of some offended +god, and that penance and supplications often took the +place of personal and domestic cleanliness, fresh air, and +light.</p> + +<p>It was Hippocrates who emancipated medicine from +the thraldom of superstition, and in this way wrested +the practice of his art from the monopoly of the priests. +In his treatise on "The Sacred Disease" (possibly epilepsy), +he discusses the controverted question whether +or not this disease was an infliction from the gods; and +he decidedly maintains that there is no such a thing +as a sacred disease, for all diseases arise from natural +causes, and no one can be ascribed to the gods more +than another. He points out that it is simply because +this disease is unlike other diseases that men have come +to regard its cause as divine, and yet it is not really<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +more wonderful than the paroxysms of fevers and many +other diseases not thought sacred. He exposes the +cunning of the impostors who pretend to cure men by +purifications and spells; "who give themselves out as +being excessively religious, and as knowing more than +other people;" and he argues that "whoever is able, +by purifications and conjurings, to drive away such an +affection, will be able, by other practices, to excite it, +and, according to this view, its divine nature is entirely +done away with." "Neither, truly," he continues, "do +I count it a worthy opinion to hold that the body of +a man is polluted by the divinity, the most impure by the +most holy; for, were it defiled, or did it suffer from any +other thing, it would be like to be purified and sanctified +rather than polluted by the divinity." As an additional +argument against the cause being divine, he adduces the +fact that this disease is hereditary, like other diseases, and +that it attacks persons of a peculiar temperament, namely, +the phlegmatic, but not the bilious; and "yet if it were +really more divine than the others," he justly adds, "it +ought to befall all alike."</p> + +<p>Again, speaking of a disease common among the +Scythians, Hippocrates remarks that the people attributed +it to a god, but that "to me it appears that such +affections are just as much divine as all others are, and +that no one disease is either more divine or more human +than another, but that all are alike divine, for that each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +has its own nature, and that no one arises without a +natural cause."</p> + +<p>From this it will be seen that Hippocrates regarded +all phenomena as at once divine and scientifically determinable. +In this respect it is interesting to compare +him with one of his most illustrious contemporaries, +namely, with Socrates, who distributed phenomena into +two classes: one wherein the connection of antecedent and +consequent was invariable and ascertainable by human +study, and wherein therefore future results were accessible +to a well-instructed foresight; the other, which the gods +had reserved for themselves and their unconditional +agency, wherein there was no invariable or ascertainable +sequence, and where the result could only be foreknown +by some omen or prophecy, or other special inspired +communication from themselves. Each of these classes +was essentially distinct, and required to be looked at +and dealt with in a manner radically incompatible with +the other. Physics and astronomy, in the opinion of +Socrates, belonged to the divine class of phenomena in +which human research was insane, fruitless, and impious.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>Hippocrates divided the causes of diseases into two +classes: the one comprehending the influence of seasons, +climates, water, situation, and the like; the other consisting +of such causes as the amount and kind of food +and exercise in which each individual indulges. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +considered that while heat and cold, moisture and dryness, +succeeded one another throughout the year, the +human body underwent certain analogous changes which +influenced the diseases of the period. With regard to +the second class of causes producing diseases, he attributed +many disorders to a vicious system of diet, for +excessive and defective diet he considered to be equally +injurious.</p> + +<p>In his medical doctrines Hippocrates starts with the +axiom that the body is composed of the four elements—air, +earth, fire, and water. From these the four fluids +or humours (namely, blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and +black bile) are formed. Health is the result of a right +condition and proper proportion of these humours, +disease being due to changes in their quality or distribution. +Thus inflammation is regarded as the passing of +blood into parts not previously containing it. In the +course of a disorder proceeding favourably, these humours +undergo spontaneous changes in quality. This process +is spoken of as <i>coction</i>, and is the sign of returning health, +as preparing the way for the expulsion of the morbid +matters—a state described as the <i>crisis</i>. These crises +have a tendency to occur at certain periods, which are +hence called <i>critical days</i>. As the critical days answer to +the periods of the process of coction, they are to be +watched with anxiety, and the actual condition of the +patient at these times is to be compared with the state<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +which it was expected he ought to show. From these +observations the physician may predict the course which +the remainder of the disease will probably take, and +derive suggestions as to the practice to be followed in +order to assist Nature in her operations.</p> + +<p>Hippocrates thus appears to have studied "the natural +history of diseases." As stated above, his practice was +to watch the manner in which the humours were undergoing +their fermenting coction, the phenomena displayed +in the critical days, and the aspect and nature of the +critical discharges—not to attempt to check the process +going on, but simply to assist the natural operation. +His principles and practice were based on the theory of +the existence of a restoring essence (or <span title="physis">φύσις</span>) penetrating +through all creation; the agent which is constantly +striving to preserve all things in their natural state, and +to restore them when they are preternaturally deranged. +In the management of this <i>vis medicatrix naturæ</i> the +art of the physician consisted. Attention, therefore, to +regimen and diet was the principal remedy Hippocrates +employed; nevertheless he did not hesitate, when he +considered that occasion required, to administer such a +powerful drug as hellebore in large doses.</p> + +<p>The writings which are extant under the name of +Hippocrates cannot all be ascribed to him. Many were +doubtless written by his family, his descendants, or his +pupils. Others are productions of the Alexandrian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +school, some of these being considered by critics as +wilful forgeries, the high prices paid by the Ptolemies +for books of reputation probably having acted as inducements +to such fraud. The following works have generally +been admitted as genuine:—</p> + +<ul class="lst"><li>On Airs, Waters, and Places.</li> +<li>On Ancient Medicine.</li> +<li>On the Prognostics.</li> +<li>On the Treatment in Acute Diseases.</li> +<li>On Epidemics [Books I. and III.].</li> +<li>On Wounds of the Head.</li> +<li>On the Articulations.</li> +<li>On Fractures.</li> +<li>On the Instruments of Reduction.</li> +<li>The Aphorisms [Seven Books].</li> +<li>The Oath.</li></ul> + +<p>The works "On Fractures," "On the Articulations," +"On Injuries to the Head," and "On the Instruments of +Reduction," deal with anatomical or surgical matters, +and exhibit a remarkable knowledge of osteology and +anatomy generally. It has sometimes been doubted if +Hippocrates could ever have had opportunities of gaining +this knowledge from dissections of the human body, for +it has been thought that the feeling of the age was diametrically +opposed to such a practice, and that Hippocrates +would not have dared to violate this feeling. The +language used, however, in some passages in the work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +"On the Articulations," seems to put the matter beyond +doubt. Thus he says in one place, "But if one will strip +the point of the shoulder of the fleshy parts, and where +the muscle extends, and also lay bare the tendon that +goes from the armpit and clavicle to the breast," etc. +And again, further on in the same treatise, "It is evident, +then, that such a case could not be reduced either by +succussion or by any other method, unless one were to +cut open the patient, and then, having introduced the +hand into one of the great cavities, were to push outwards +from within, which one might do in the dead body, but +not at all in the living."</p> + +<p>His descriptions of the vertebræ, with all their processes +and ligaments, as well as his account of the +general characters of the internal viscera, would not have +been as free from error as they are if he had derived all +his knowledge from the dissection of the inferior animals. +Moreover, it is indisputable that, within less than a +hundred years from the death of Hippocrates, the human +body was openly dissected in the schools of Alexandria—nay, +further, that even the vivisection of condemned +criminals was not uncommon. It would be unreasonable +to suppose that such a practice as the former sprang up +suddenly under the Ptolemies, and it seems, therefore, +highly probable that it was known and tolerated in the +time of Hippocrates. It is not surprising, when we +remember the rude appliances and methods which then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +obtained, that in his knowledge of minute anatomy +Hippocrates should compare unfavourably with anatomists +of the present day. Of histology, and such other +subjects as could not be brought within his direct personal +observation, the knowledge of Hippocrates was +necessarily defective. Thus he wrote of the tissues +without distinguishing them; confusing arteries, veins, +and nerves, and speaking of muscles vaguely as "flesh." +But with matters within the reach of the Ancient Physician's +own careful observation, the case is very different. +This is well shown in his wonderful chapter on the club-foot, +in which he not only states correctly the true nature +of the malformation, but gives some very sensible directions +for rectifying the deformity in early life.</p> + +<p>When human strength was not sufficient to restore a +displaced limb, he skilfully availed himself of all the +mechanical powers which were then known. He does +not appear to have been acquainted with the use of +pulleys for the purpose, but the axles which he describes +as being attached to the bench which bears his name +(<i>Scamnum Hippocratis</i>) must have been quite capable of +exercising the force required.</p> + +<p>The work called "The Aphorisms," which was probably +written in the old age of Hippocrates, consists of more +than four hundred short pithy sentences, setting forth +the principles of medicine, physiology, and natural +philosophy. A large number of these sentences are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +evidently taken from the author's other works, especially +those "On Air," etc., "On Prognostics," and "On the +Articulations." They embody the result of a vast +amount of observation and reflection, and the majority +of them have been confirmed by the experience of two +thousand years. A proof of the high esteem in which +they have always been held is furnished by the fact +that they have been translated into all the languages +of the civilized world; among others, into Hebrew, +Arabic, Latin, English, Dutch, Italian, German, and +French. The following are a few examples of these +aphorisms:—</p> + +<p class="block1">"Spontaneous lassitude indicates disease."</p> + +<p class="block1">"Old people on the whole have fewer complaints than +the young; but those chronic diseases which do befall +them generally never leave them."</p> + +<p class="block1">"Persons who have sudden and violent attacks of +fainting without any obvious cause die suddenly."</p> + +<p class="block1">"Of the constitutions of the year, the dry upon the +whole are more healthy than the rainy, and attended +with less mortality."</p> + +<p class="block1">"Phthisis most commonly occurs between the ages of +eighteen and thirty-five years."</p> + +<p class="block1">"If one give to a person in fever the same food which +is given to a person in good health, what is strength to +the one is disease to the other."</p> + +<p class="block1">"Such food as is most grateful, though not so wholesome,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +is to be preferred to that which is better, but +distasteful."</p> + +<p class="block1">"Life is short and the art long; the opportunity fleeting; +experience fallacious and judgment difficult. The +physician must not only do his duty himself, but must +also make the patient, the attendants and the externals, +co-operate."</p> + +<p>Hippocrates appears to have travelled a great deal, +and to have practised his art in many places far distant +from his native island. A few traditions of what he did +during his long life remain, but differences of opinion +exist as to the truth of these stories.</p> + +<p>Thus one story says that when Perdiccas, the King +of Macedonia, was supposed to be dying of consumption, +Hippocrates discovered the disorder to be love-sickness, +and speedily effected a cure. The details of +this story scarcely seem to be worthy of credence, more +especially as similar legends have been told of entirely +different persons belonging to widely different times. +There are, however, some reasons for believing that +Hippocrates visited the Macedonian court in the exercise +of his professional duties, for he mentions in the +course of his writings, among places which he had +visited, several which were situated in Macedonia; and, +further, his son Thessalus appears to have afterwards +been court physician to Archelaus, King of Macedonia.</p> + +<p>Another story connects the name of Hippocrates with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +the Great Plague which occurred at Athens in the time +of the Peloponnesian war. It is said that Hippocrates +advised the lighting of great fires with wood of some +aromatic kind, probably some species of pine. These, +being kindled all about the city, stayed the progress of +the pestilence. Others besides Hippocrates are, however, +famous for having successfully adopted this practice.</p> + +<p>A third legend states that the King of Persia, pursuing +the plan (which in the two celebrated instances of +Themistocles and Pausanias had proved successful) +of attracting to his side the most distinguished persons +in Greece, wrote to Hippocrates asking him to pay +a visit to his court, and that Hippocrates refused to go. +Although the story is discarded by many scholars, it is +worthy of note that Ctesias, a kinsman and contemporary +of Hippocrates, is mentioned by Xenophon in +the "Anabasis" as being in the service of the King of +Persia. And, with regard to the refusal of the venerable +physician to comply with the king's request, one cannot +lose sight of the fact that such refusal was the only +course consistent with the opinions he professed of +a monarchical form of government.</p> + +<p>After his various travels Hippocrates, as seems to be +pretty generally admitted, spent the latter portion of his +life in Thessaly, and died at Larissa at a very advanced age.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to speak of the skill and painstaking +perseverance of Hippocrates in terms which shall not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +appear exaggerated and extravagant. His method of +cultivating medicine was in the true spirit of the +inductive philosophy. His descriptions were all derived +from careful observation of its phenomena, and, +as a result, the greater number of his deductions have +stood unscathed the test of twenty centuries.</p> + +<p>Still more difficult is it to speak with moderation of +the candour which impelled Hippocrates to confess +errors into which in his earlier practice he had fallen; +or of that freedom from superstition which entitled +him to be spoken of as a man who knew not how to +deceive or be deceived ("qui tam fallere quam falli +nescit"); or, lastly, of that purity of character and true +nobility of soul which are brought so distinctly to light +in the words of the oath translated below:—</p> + +<p class="block1">"I swear by Apollo the Physician and Æsculapius, +and I call Hygeia and Panacea and all the gods and +goddesses to witness, that to the best of my power and +judgment I will keep this oath and this contract; to wit—to +hold him, who taught me this Art, equally dear to +me as my parents; to share my substance with him; +to supply him if he is in need of the necessaries of life; +to regard his offspring in the same light as my own +brothers, and to teach them this Art, if they shall desire +to learn it, without fee or contract; to impart the precepts, +the oral teaching, and all the rest of the instruction +to my own sons, and to the sons of my teacher,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +and to pupils who have been bound to me by contract, +and who have been sworn according to the law of +medicine.</p> + +<p class="block1">"I will adopt that system of regimen which, according +to my ability and judgment, I consider for the +benefit of my patients, and will protect them from everything +noxious and injurious. I will give no deadly +medicine to any one, even if asked, nor will I give any +such counsel, and similarly I will not give to a woman +the means of procuring an abortion. With purity and +with holiness I will pass my life and practise my art.... +Into whatever houses I enter I will go into them for the +benefit of the sick, keeping myself aloof from every +voluntary act of injustice and corruption and lust. +Whatever in the course of my professional practice, or +outside of it, I see or hear which ought not to be +spread abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all +such should be kept secret. If I continue to observe +this oath and to keep it inviolate, may it be mine to +enjoy life and the practice of the Art respected among +all men for ever. But should I violate this oath and +forswear myself, may the reverse be my lot."</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Grote's "Aristotle," vol. i. p. 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Grote's "History of Greece," vol. i. p. 358.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> +<h2><big>ARISTOTLE.</big></h2> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> +<h2><i>ARISTOTLE.</i></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">About</span> the time that Hippocrates died, Aristotle, who +may be regarded as the founder of the science of +"Natural History," was born (<span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> 384) in Stagira, an +unimportant Hellenic colony in Thrace, near the Macedonian +frontier. His father was a distinguished physician, +and, like Hippocrates, boasted descent from the Asclepiadæ. +The importance attached by the Asclepiads to +the habit of physical observation, which has been already +referred to in the life of Hippocrates, secured for Aristotle, +from his earliest years, that familiarity with biological +studies which is so clearly evident in many of his works.</p> + +<p>Both parents of Aristotle died when their son was +still a youth, and in consequence of this he went to +reside with Proxenus, a native of Atarneus, who had +settled at Stagira. Subsequently he went to Athens and +joined the school of Plato. Here he remained for +about twenty years, and applied himself to study with +such energy that he became pre-eminent even in that +distinguished band of philosophers. He is said to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +been spoken of by Plato as "the intellect" of the school, +and to have been compared by him to a spirited colt +that required the application of the rein to restrain its +ardour.</p> + +<p>Aristotle probably wrote at this time some philosophical +works, the fame of which reached the ears of +Philip, King of Macedonia, and added to the reputation +which the young philosopher had already made with +that monarch; for Philip is said to have written to him +on the occasion of Alexander's birth, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> 356: "King +Philip of Macedonia to Aristotle, greeting. Know that +a son has been born to me. I thank the gods not so +much that they have given him to me, as that they have +permitted him to be born in the time of Aristotle. +I hope that thou wilt form him to be a king worthy to +succeed me and to rule the Macedonians."</p> + +<p>After the death of Plato, which occurred in 347 <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, +Aristotle quitted Athens and went to Atarneus, where +he stayed with Hermias, who was then despot of that +town. Hermias was a remarkable man, who, from being +a slave, had contrived to raise himself to the supreme +power. He had been at Athens and had heard Plato's +lectures, and had there formed a friendship for Aristotle. +With this man the philosopher remained for three years, +and was then compelled suddenly to seek refuge in +Mitylene, owing to the perfidious murder of Hermias. +The latter was decoyed out of the town by the Persian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +general, seized and sent prisoner to Artaxerxes, by whom +he was hanged as a rebel. On leaving Atarneus, Aristotle +took with him a niece of Hermias, named Pythias, +whom he afterwards married. She died young, leaving +an infant daughter.</p> + +<p>Two or three years after this, Aristotle became tutor +to Alexander, who was then about thirteen years old. +The philosopher seems to have been a favourite with +both the king and the prince, and, in gratitude for his +services, Philip rebuilt Stagira and restored it to its +former inhabitants, who had either been dispersed or +carried into slavery. The king is said also to have +established there a school for Aristotle. The high respect +in which Alexander held his teacher is expressed in his +saying that he honoured him no less than his own father, +for while to one he owed life, to the other he owed all +that made life valuable.</p> + +<p>In 336 <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> Alexander, who was then only about +twenty years of age, became king, and Aristotle soon +afterwards quitted Macedonia and took up his residence +in Athens once more, after an absence of about twelve +years. Here he opened a school in the Lycæum, a +gymnasium on the eastern side of the city, and continued +his work there for about twelve years, during which time +Alexander was making his brilliant conquests. The +lectures were given for the most part while walking in +the garden, and in consequence, perhaps, of this, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +sect received the name of the Peripatetics. The discourses +were of two kinds—the <i>esoteric</i>, or abstruse, and +the <i>exoteric</i>, or familiar; the former being delivered to +the more advanced pupils only. During the greater part +of this time Aristotle kept up correspondence with +Alexander, who is said<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> to have placed at his disposal +thousands of men, who were busily employed in collecting +objects and in making observations for the completion +of the philosopher's zoological researches. +Alexander is, moreover, said to have given the philosopher +eight hundred talents for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>In spite of these marks of friendship and respect, +Alexander, who was fast becoming intoxicated with +success, and corrupted by Asiatic influences, gradually +cooled in his attachment towards Aristotle. This may +have been hastened by several causes, and among others +by the freedom of speech and republican opinions of +Callisthenes, a kinsman and disciple of Aristotle, who +had been, by the latter's influence, appointed to attend +on Alexander. Callisthenes proved so unpopular, that +the king seems to have availed himself readily of the +first plausible pretext for putting him to death, and to +have threatened his former friend and teacher with a +similar punishment. The latter, for his part, probably +had a deep feeling of resentment towards the destroyer +of his kinsman.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Athenians knew nothing of these +altered relations between Aristotle and Alexander, but +continued to regard the philosopher as thoroughly imbued +with kingly notions (in spite of his writings being +quite to the contrary); so that he was an object of +suspicion and dislike to the Athenian patriots. Nevertheless, +as long as Alexander was alive, Aristotle was safe +from molestation. As soon, however, as Alexander's +death became known, the anti-Macedonian feeling of +the Athenians burst forth, and found a victim in the +philosopher. A charge of impiety was brought against +him. It was alleged that he had paid divine honours +to his wife Pythias and to his friend Hermias. Now, +for the latter, a eunuch, who from the rank of a slave +had raised himself to the position of despot over a +free Grecian community, so far from coupling his name +(as Aristotle had done in his hymn) with the greatest +personages of Hellenic mythology, the Athenian public +felt that no contempt was too bitter. To escape the +storm the philosopher retired to Chalcis, in Eubœa, then +under garrison by Antipater, the Governor of Macedonia, +remarking in a letter, written afterwards, that +he did so in order that the Athenians might not have +the opportunity of sinning a second time against philosophy +(the allusion being, of course, to the fate of +Socrates).</p> + +<p>He probably intended to return to Athens again so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +soon as the political troubles had abated, but in September, +322 <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, he died at Chalcis. An overwrought +mind, coupled with indigestion and weakness of the +stomach, from which he had long suffered, was most +probably the cause of death. Some of his detractors, +however, have asserted that he took poison, and others +that he drowned himself in the Eubœan Euripus.</p> + +<p>It is not easy to arrive at a just estimate of the character +of Aristotle. By some of his successors he has +been reproached with ingratitude to his teacher, Plato; +with servility to Macedonian power, and with love of +costly display. How far these two last charges are due +to personal slander it is impossible to say. The only +ground for the first charge is, that he criticised adversely +some of Plato's doctrines.</p> + +<p>The manuscripts of Aristotle's works passed through +many vicissitudes. At the death of the philosopher +they were bequeathed to Theophrastus, who continued +chief of the Peripatetic school for thirty-five years. +Theophrastus left them, with his own works, to a philosophical +friend and pupil, Neleus, who conveyed them +from Athens to his residence at Scepsis, in Asia Minor. +About thirty or forty years after the death of Theophrastus, +the kings of Pergamus, to whom the city of +Scepsis belonged, began collecting books to form a +library on the Alexandrian plan. This led the heirs of +Neleus to conceal their literary treasures in a cellar, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +there the manuscripts remained for nearly a century and +a half, exposed to injury from damp and worms. At +length they were sold to Apellicon, a resident at Athens, +who was attached to the Peripatetic sect. Many of the +manuscripts were imperfect, having become worm-eaten +or illegible. These defects Apellicon attempted to +remedy; but, being a lover of books rather than a philosopher, +he performed the work somewhat unskilfully. +When Athens was taken by Sylla, 86 <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, the library of +Apellicon was transported to Rome. There various +literary Greeks obtained access to it; and, among others, +Tyrannion, a grammarian and friend of Cicero, did good +service in the work of correction. Andronicus of Rhodes +afterwards arranged the whole into sections, and published +the manuscripts with a tabulated list.</p> + +<p>The three principal works on biology which are +extant are: "The History of Animals;" "On the Parts +of Animals;" "On the Generation of Animals." The +other biological works are: "On the Motion of Animals;" +"On Respiration;" "Parva Naturalia;"—a +series of essays which are planned to form an entire +work on sense and the sensible.</p> + +<p>"The History of Animals" is the largest and most +important of Aristotle's works on biology. It contains +a vast amount of information, not very methodically +arranged, and spoiled by the occurrence here and there +of very gross errors. It consists of nine books.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> + +<p>The first book opens with a division of the body into +similar and dissimilar parts. Besides thus differing in +their parts, animals also differ in their mode of life, their +actions and dispositions. Thus some are aquatic, others +terrestrial; of the former, some breathe water, others air, +and some neither. Of aquatic animals, some inhabit +the sea, and others rivers, lakes, or marshes. Again, +some animals are locomotive, and others are stationary. +Some follow a leader, others act independently. Various +differences are in this way pointed out, and there is no +lack of illustration and detail, but a suspicion is excited +that the generalizations are sometimes based upon insufficient +facts. The book closes with a description of +the different parts of the human body, both internal and +external. In speaking of the ear, Aristotle seems to +have been aware of what we now call the Eustachian +tube, for he says, "There is no passage from the ear into +the brain, but there is to the roof of the mouth."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>In the second book he passes on to describe the +organs of animals. The animals are dealt with in groups—viviparous +and oviparous quadrupeds, fish, serpents, +birds, etc. The ape, elephant, chameleon, and some +others are especially noticed.</p> + +<p>The third book continues the description of the +internal organs. References which are made to a diagram +by letters, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, show that the work was originally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +illustrated. At the close of this book Aristotle has some +remarks on milk, and mentions the occasional appearance +of milk in male animals. He speaks of a male goat at +Lemnos which yielded so much that cakes of cheese +were made from it. Similar instances of this phenomenon +have been recorded by Humboldt, Burdach, Geoffroy +St. Hilaire, and others.</p> + +<p>In the first four chapters of the fourth book the +anatomy of the invertebrata is dealt with, and the accounts +given of certain mollusca and crustacea are very careful +and minute. The rest of the book is devoted to a description +of the organs of sense and voice; of sleep, and +the distinctions of sex. The accurate knowledge which +Aristotle exhibits of the anatomy and habits of marine +animals, such as the Cephalopoda and the larger Crustacea, +leaves no doubt that he derived it from actual +observation. Professor Owen says, "Respecting the living +habits of the Cephalopoda, Aristotle is more rich in detail +than any other zoological author." What is now spoken +of as the <i>hectocotylization</i> of one or more of the arms +of the male cephalopod did not escape Aristotle's eye. +And while he speaks of the teeth and that which serves +these animals for a tongue, it is plain from the context +that he means in the one case the two halves of the +parrot-like beak, and in the other the anterior end of the +odontophore.</p> + +<p>Books five to seven deal with the subject of generation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> + +<p>The eighth book contains a variety of details respecting +animals, their food, migrations, hibernation, and +diseases; with the influence of climate and locality upon +them.</p> + +<p>The ninth book describes the habits and instincts of +animals. The details are interesting; but there is, as +usual, very little attempt at classification. Disjointed +statements and sudden digressions occur, the subjects +being treated in the order in which they presented themselves +to the author. Such curious statements as the +following are met with: "The raven is an enemy to the +bull and the ass, for it flies round them and strikes their +eyes." "If a person takes a goat by the beard, all the +rest of the herd stand by, as if infatuated, and look at +it." "Female stags are captured by the sound of the +pipe and by singing. When two persons go out to +capture them, one shows himself, and either plays upon +a pipe or sings, and the other strikes behind, when the +first gives him the signal." "Swans have the power of +song, especially when near the end of their life; for they +then fly out to sea, and some persons sailing near the +coast of Libya have met many of them in the sea singing +a mournful song, and have afterwards seen some of +them die." "Of all wild animals, the elephant is the +most tame and gentle; for many of them are capable of +instruction and intelligence, and they have been taught +<i>to worship the king</i>."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the work "On the Parts of Animals," the author +considers not only the phenomena of life exhibited by each +species, but also the cause or causes to which these +phenomena are attributable. After a general introduction, +he proceeds to enumerate the three degrees of +composition, viz.:—</p> + +<div class="block1"><p>(1) "Composition out of what some call the elements, +such as air, earth, water, and fire," or "out of +the elementary forces, hot and cold, solid and +fluid, which form the material of all compound +substances."</p> + +<p>(2) Composition out of these primary substances of +the homogeneous parts of animals, e.g. blood, +fat, marrow, brain, flesh, and bone.</p> + +<p>(3) Composition into the heterogeneous parts or +organs. These parts he describes in detail, +considering those belonging to sanguineous +animals first and most fully.</p></div> + +<p>These divisions correspond roughly to the threefold +study of structure which we nowadays recognize as +chemical, histological, and anatomical.</p> + +<p>As examples of Aristotle's method of treatment, his +descriptions of blood, the brain, the heart, and the lung +may be considered.</p> + +<p>Of the <i>blood</i> he says, "What are called fibres are +found in the blood of some animals, but not of all. +There are none, for instance, in the blood of deer and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +of roes, and for this reason the blood of such animals +as these never coagulates.... Too great an excess of +water makes animals timorous.... Such animals, on +the other hand, as have thick and abundant fibres in their +blood are of a more choleric temperament, and liable to +bursts of passion.... Bulls and boars are choleric, +for their blood is exceedingly rich in fibres, and the bull's, +at any rate, coagulates more rapidly than that of any +other animal.... If these fibres are taken out of the +blood, the fluid that remains will no longer coagulate."</p> + +<p>From these quotations it will be noted that Aristotle +attributed the coagulum to the presence of fibres, and in +this he anticipated Malpighi's discovery made in the +seventeenth century. His remarks on the proportion of +coagulum and serum in different animals, which is enlarged +upon in the "History of Animals,"<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> harmonize +with modern observations. In another of his works<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> he +remarks that the blood in certain diseased conditions will +not coagulate. This is known to be the case in cholera, +certain fevers, asphyxia, etc.; and the fact was probably +obtained from Hippocrates. Although Aristotle speaks +here of entire absence of coagulation in the blood of the +deer and the roe, in the "History of Animals" he admits +an imperfect coagulation, for he says, "so that their +blood does not coagulate like that of other animals." +The animals named are commonly hunted, and it was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +probably after they had been hunted to death that he +examined them. Now, it is generally admitted that +coagulation under such circumstances is imperfect and +even uncommon. The statement as to the richness in +fibres of the blood of bulls and boars has been confirmed +by some modern investigations, which have +shown that the clot bears a proportion to the strength +and ferocity of the animal. The remarks, however, as +to the relative rapidity of coagulation would appear to +be contradicted by later observations, for Thackrah +came to the conclusion that coagulation commenced +sooner in small and weak animals than in strong.</p> + +<p>Of the <i>brain</i> Aristotle makes the following among +other assertions: "Of all parts of the body there is +none so cold as the brain.... Of all the fluids of the +body it is the one that has the least blood, for, in fact, it +has no blood at all in its proper substance.... That +it has no continuity with the organs of sense is plain +from simple inspection, and still more closely shown by +the fact that when it is touched no sensation is produced.... +The brain tempers the heat and seething of the +heart.... In order that it may not itself be absolutely +without heat, blood-vessels from the aorta end in the +membrane which surrounds the brain.... Of all animals +man has the largest brain in proportion to his size: and +it is larger in men than in women. This is because the +region of the heart and of the lung is hotter and richer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +in blood in man than in any other animal; and in men +than in women. This again explains why man alone +of animals stands erect. For the heat, overcoming any +opposite inclination, makes growth take its own line of +direction, which is from the centre of the body upwards.... +Man again has more sutures in his skull than any +other animal, and the male more than the female. The +explanation is to be found in the greater size of the +brain, which demands free ventilation proportionate to +its bulk.... There is no brain in the hinder part of +the head.... The brain in all animals that have one +is placed in the front part of the head ... because the +heart, from which sensation proceeds, is in the front part +of the body."</p> + +<p>Although it would perhaps be difficult to find anywhere +as many errors in as few words, yet it should be observed +that Aristotle here shows himself to have been aware of +the existence of the membranes of the brain—the <i>pia +mater</i> and the <i>dura mater</i>; and elsewhere<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> he says more +explicitly, "Two membranes enclose the brain; that +about the skull is the stronger; the inner membrane is +slighter than the outer one." And further, it should be +noted that he describes the latter membrane as a vascular +one. The fact of the brain substance being insensible to +mechanical irritation was known to Aristotle, and may +have been learnt from the practice of Hippocrates.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +Lastly, it should be remembered that—though this may +have been but a lucky guess on Aristotle's part—the +relative weight of brain to the entire body has been +shown, with few exceptions, to be greater in man than in +any other animal.</p> + +<p>In describing the <i>heart</i> Aristotle says: "The heart lies +about the centre of the body, but rather in its upper +than in its lower half, and also more in front than +behind.... In man it inclines a little towards the left, +so that it may counterbalance the chilliness of that side. +It is hollow, to serve for the reception of the blood; +while its wall is thick, that it may serve to protect the +source of heat. For here, and here alone, in all the +viscera, and in fact in all the body, there is blood without +blood-vessels, the blood elsewhere being always contained +within vessels. The heart is the first of all the parts of +the body to be formed, and no sooner is it formed than +it contains blood.... For no sooner is the embryo +formed than its heart is seen in motion like a living +creature, and this before any of the other parts. The +heart is abundantly supplied with sinews.... In no +animal does the heart contain a bone, certainly in none +of those that we ourselves have inspected, with the +exception of the horse and a certain kind of ox. In +animals of great size the heart has three cavities; in +smaller animals it has two; and in all it has at least +one."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> + +<p>It will be observed that here Aristotle so correctly +describes the position of the human heart as to render it +probable that he is speaking from actual inspection; +although man is not the only animal in which the heart +is turned towards the left. In contrasting the heart with +the other viscera he appears to have overlooked the +existence of the coronary vessels, and to have imagined +that the nutrition of the heart was effected directly by +the blood in its cavities. Although the heart is not really +the first part to appear, the observation of its very early +appearance in the embryo, which he treats more fully +elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> is alone enough to establish his reputation as +an original observer. It is remarkable that Aristotle +should have overlooked the presence of the valves of the +heart, the structure and functions of which were fully +investigated within thirty years of his death by the +anatomists of the Alexandrian school. This is the more +remarkable, as he calls attention here, and in the "History +of Animals," to the sinews or tendons (<span title="neura">νεῦρα</span>) with which, +he says, the heart is supplied, and by which he probably +meant chiefly the <i>chordæ tendineæ</i>. The "bone in the +heart" of which he speaks was probably the cruciform +ossification which is normally found in the ox and the +stag below the origin of the aorta. It is found in the +horse only in advanced age, or under abnormal conditions. +The statement that the heart contains no more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +than three chambers has always been considered as a +very gross blunder on the part of Aristotle. Even +Cuvier, who generally lavishes upon the philosopher +the most extravagant praise, sneers at this. Professor +Huxley,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> however, has shown, by a comparison of +several passages from the "History of Animals," that +what we now call the right auricle was regarded by the +author as a venous sinus, as being a part not of the heart, +but of the great vein (<i>i.e.</i> the superior and the inferior +<i>venæ cavæ</i>).</p> + +<p>Aristotle speaks of the <i>lung</i> as a single organ, sub-divided, +but having a common outlet—the trachea. +Elsewhere<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> he says, "Canals from the heart pass to the +lung and divide in the same fashion as the windpipe +does, closely accompanying those from the windpipe +through the whole lung." His theory of respiration, as +explained in his treatise on the subject, is that it tempers +the excessive heat produced in the heart. The lung is +compared to a pair of bellows. When the lung is expanded, +air rushes in; when it is contracted, the air is +expelled. The heat from the heart causes the lung to +expand—cold air rushes in, the heat is reduced, the lung +collapses, and the air is expelled. The cold air drawn +into the lung reaches the bronchial tubes, and as the +vessels containing hot blood run alongside these tubes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +the air cools it and carries off its superfluous heat. Some +of the air which enters the lung gets from the bronchial +tubes into the blood-vessels by transudation, for there is +no direct communication between them; and this air, +penetrating the body, rapidly cools the blood throughout +the vessels. But Aristotle did not consider the "pneuma," +which thus reached the interior of the blood-vessels, to +be exactly the same thing as air—it was "a subtilized and +condensed air."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> And this we now know to be oxygen.</p> + +<p>The treatise "On the Generation of Animals" is an +extraordinary production. "No ancient and few modern +works equal it in comprehensiveness of detail and profound +speculative insight. We here find some of the +obscurest problems of biology treated with a mastery +which, when we consider the condition of science at +that day, is truly astounding. That there are many +errors, many deficiencies, and not a little carelessness in +the admission of facts, may be readily imagined; nevertheless +at times the work is frequently on a level with, +and occasionally even rises above, the speculations of +many advanced embryologists."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<p>It commences with the statement that the present +work is a sequel to that "On the Parts of Animals;" and +first the masculine and feminine <i>principles</i> are defined. +The masculine principle is the origin of all motion and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +generation; the feminine principle is the origin of the +material generated. Aristotle's philosophy of nature was +teleological, and the imperfect character of his anatomical +knowledge often gives him occasion to explain particular +phenomena by final causes. Thus animals producing +soft-shelled eggs (<i>e.g.</i> cartilaginous fish and vipers) are +said to do so because they have so little warmth that +the external surface of the egg cannot be dried.</p> + +<p>Among insects, some (<i>e.g.</i> grasshopper, cricket, ant, +etc.) produce young in the ordinary way, by the union of +the sexes; in other cases (<i>e.g.</i> flies and fleas) this union +of the sexes results in the production of a <i>skolex</i>; while +others have no parents, nor do they have congress—such +are the ephemera, tipula, and the like. Aristotle discusses +and rejects the theory that the male reproductive +element is derived from every part of the body. He +concludes that "instead of saying that it comes <i>from</i> all +parts of the body, we should say that it goes <i>to</i> them. It +is not the nutrient fluid, but that which is <i>left over</i>, which +is secreted. Hence the larger animals have fewer young +than the smaller, for by them the consumption of nutrient +material will be larger and the secretion less. Another +point to be noticed is, that the nutrient fluid is universally +distributed through the body, but each secretion has its +separate organ.... It is thus intelligible why children +resemble their parents, since that which makes all the +parts of the body, resembles that which is left over as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +secretion: thus the hand, or the face, or the whole +animal pre-exists in the sperm, though in an undifferentiated +state (<span title="adioristôs">ἀδιορίστως</span>); and what each of these is in +actuality (<span title="energeia">ἐνεργείᾳ</span>), such is the sperm in potentiality +(<span title="dynamei">δυνάμει</span>)."</p> + +<p>In later times the two great rival theories put forward +to account for the development of the embryo +have been—</p> + +<div class="block1"><p>(<i>a</i>) The theory of Evolution, which makes the embryo +pre-existent in the germ, and only rendered +visible by the unfolding and expansion of its +organs.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The theory of Epigenesis, which makes the embryo +arise, by a series of successive differentiations, +from a simple homogeneous mass into +a complex heterogeneous organism.</p></div> + +<p>The above quotation will show how closely Aristotle +held to the theory of Epigenesis; and in another place +he says, "Not at once is the animal a man or a horse, +for the end is last attained; and the specific form is +the end of each development."</p> + +<p>Spontaneous generation is nowadays rejected by +science; but Aristotle went so far as to believe that +insects, molluscs, and even eels, were spontaneously +generated. It is, however, noteworthy, in view of modern +investigations, that he looked upon <i>putrefying</i> matter as +the source of such development.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> + +<p>A chapter of this work is devoted to the consideration +of the hereditary transmission of peculiarities from +parent to offspring.</p> + +<p>The fifth and last book contains inquiries into the +cause of variation in the colour of the eyes and hair, +the abundance of hair, the sleep of the embryo, sight +and hearing, voice and the teeth.</p> + +<p>Widely different opinions have been held from time +to time of the value of Aristotle's biological labours. +This philosopher's reputation has, perhaps, suffered most +from those who have praised him most. The praise +has often been of such an exaggerated character as to +have become unmeaning, and to have carried with it +the impression of insincerity on the part of the writer. +Such are the laudations of Cuvier. To say as he does, +"Alone, in fact, without predecessors, without having +borrowed anything from the centuries which had gone +before, since they had produced nothing enduring, the +disciple of Plato discovered and demonstrated more +truths and executed more scientific labours in a life of +sixty-two years than twenty centuries after him were +able to do," is of course to talk nonsense, for the method +which Aristotle applied was that which Hippocrates +had used so well before him; and it is evident to any +one that both his predecessors and contemporaries are +frequently laid under contribution by Aristotle, although +the authority is rarely, if ever, stated by him unless he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +is about to refute the view put forward. Exaggerated +praise of any author has a tendency to excite depreciation +correspondingly unjust and untrue. It has been +so in the case of this great man. In the endeavour to +depose him from the impossible position to which his +panegyrists had exalted him, his detractors have gone to +any length. The principal charges brought against his +biological work have been inaccuracy and hasty generalization. +In support of the charge of inaccuracy, some +of the extraordinary statements which are met with in his +works are adduced. "These," Professor Huxley says, +"are not so much to be called errors as stupidities." +Some, however, of the inaccuracies alleged against +Aristotle are fancied rather than real. Thus he is charged +with having represented that the arteries contained +nothing but air; that the aorta arose from the right ventricle; +that the heart did not beat in any other animal +but man; that reptiles had no blood, etc.; although in +reality he made no one of these assertions. There +remain, nevertheless, the gross misstatements referred to +above, and which really do occur. Such, for instance, +as that there is but a single bone in the neck of the +lion; that there are more teeth in male than in female +animals; that the mouth of the dolphin is placed on +the under surface of the body; that the back of the +skull is empty, etc. Although these absurdities undoubtedly +occur in Aristotle's works, it by no means<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +follows that he is responsible for them. Bearing in +mind the curious history of the manuscripts of his treatises, +we shall find it far more reasonable to conclude +that such errors crept in during the process of correction +and restoration, by men apparently ignorant of biology, +than that (to take only one case) an observer who had +distinguished the cetacea from fishes and had detected +their hidden mammæ, discovered their lungs, and recognized +the distinct character of their bones, should have +been so blind as to fancy that the mouth of these +animals was on the under surface of the body.</p> + +<p>That Aristotle made hasty generalizations is true; +but it was unavoidable. Biology was in so early a stage +that a theory had often of necessity to be founded on +a very slight basis of facts. Yet, notwithstanding this +drawback, so great was the sagacity of this philosopher, +that many of his generalizations, which he himself probably +looked upon as temporary, have held their ground +for twenty centuries, or, having been lost sight of, have +been discovered and put forward as original by modern +biologists. Thus "the advantage of physiological +division of labour was first set forth," says Milne-Edwards, +"by myself in 1827;" and yet Aristotle had +said<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> that "whenever Nature is able to provide two +separate instruments for two separate uses, without the +one hampering the other, she does so, instead of acting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +like a coppersmith, who for cheapness makes a spit-and-a-candlestick +in one.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> It is only when this is impossible +that she uses one organ for several functions."</p> + +<p>In conclusion, we may say that the great Stagirite +expounded the true principles of science, and that when +he failed his failure was caused by lack of materials. +His desire for completeness, perhaps, tempted him at +times to fill in gaps with such makeshifts as came to +his hand; but no one knew better than he did that +"theories must be abandoned unless their teachings +tally with the indisputable results of observation."<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Pliny, "Natural History," viii. c. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> "History of Animals," i. 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Bk. iii. 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> "Meteorology," iv. 7-11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "History of Animals," i. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> "History of Animals," vi. 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> "On some of the errors attributed to Aristotle."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> "History of Animals," i. 17.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See Professor Huxley's article already referred to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> "Aristotle," by G. H. Lewes, p. 325.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> "De Part. Anim.," iv. 6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <span title="obeliskolychnion">ὀβελισκολύχνιον</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> "De Gener.," iii. 10, quoted by Dr. Ogle.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> +<h2><big>GALEN.</big></h2> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> +<h2><i>GALEN.</i></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Under</span> the Ptolemies a powerful stimulus was given to +biological studies at Alexandria. Scientific knowledge +was carried a step or two beyond the limit reached by +Aristotle. Thus Erasistratus and Herophilus thoroughly +investigated the structure and functions of the valves of +the heart, and were the first to recognize the nerves as +organs of sensation. But, unfortunately, no complete +record of the interesting work carried on by these men +has come down to our times. The first writer after +Aristotle whose works arrest attention is Caius Plinius +Secundus, whose so-called "Natural History," in thirty-seven +volumes, remains to the present day as a monument +of industrious compilation. But, as a biologist properly +so called, Pliny is absolutely without rank, for he lacked +that practical acquaintance with the subject which alone +could enable him to speak with authority. Of information +he had an almost inexhaustible store; of actual +knowledge, the result of observation and experience, so +far as biological studies were concerned, he had but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +little. This was largely due to the encyclopædic +character of the work he undertook; his mental powers +were weighed down by an enormous mass of unarranged +and ill-digested materials. But it was due also to the +peculiar bent of Pliny's mind. He was not, like Aristotle, +an original thinker; he was essentially a student of +books, an immensely industrious but not always judicious +compiler. Often his selections from other works prove +that he failed to appreciate the relative importance of the +different subjects to which he made reference. His +knowledge of the Greek language appears, too, to have +been defective, for he gives at times the wrong Latin +names to objects described by his Greek authorities. +To these defects must be added his marvellous readiness +to believe any statement, provided only that it was +uncommon; while, on the other hand, he showed an +indefensible scepticism in regard to what was really +deserving of attention. The chief value of his work +consists in the historical and chronological notes of the +progress of some of the subjects of which he treats—fragments +of writings which would otherwise be lost to +us. Pliny was killed in the destruction of Pompeii, +<span class="smcapl">A.D.</span> 79.</p> + +<p>Claudius Galenus was born at Pergamus, in Asia Minor, +in the hundred and thirty-first year of the Christian era. +Few writers ever exercised for so long a time such an +undisputed sway over the opinions of mankind as did<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +this wonderful man. His authority was estimated at a +much higher rate than that of all the biological writers +combined who flourished during a period of more than +twelve centuries, and it was often considered a sufficient +argument against a hypothesis, or even an alleged matter +of fact, that it was contrary to Galen.</p> + +<p>Endowed by nature with a penetrating genius and a +mind of restless energy, he was eminently qualified to +profit by a comprehensive and liberal education. And +such he received. His father, Nicon, an architect, was +a man of learning and ability—a distinguished mathematician +and an astronomer—and seems to have devoted +much time and care to the education of his son. +The youth appears to have studied philosophy successively +in the schools of the Stoics, Academics, +Peripatetics, and Epicureans, without attaching himself +exclusively to any one of these, and to have taken from +each what he thought to be the most essential parts +of their system, rejecting, however, altogether the tenets +of the Epicureans. At the age of twenty-one, on the +death of his father, he went to Smyrna to continue the +study of medicine, to which he had now devoted himself. +After leaving this place and having travelled extensively, +he took up his residence at Alexandria, which was then +the most favourable spot for the pursuit of medical +studies. Here he is said to have remained until he was +twenty-eight years of age, when his reputation secured<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +his appointment, in his native city of Pergamus, to the +office of physician in charge of the athletes in the +gymnasia situated within the precincts of the temple of +Æsculapius. For five or six years he lived in Pergamus, +and then a revolt compelled him to leave his native +town. The advantages offered by Rome led him to +remove thither and take up his residence in the capital +of the world. Here his skill, sagacity, and knowledge +soon brought him into notice, and excited the jealousy +of the Roman doctors, which was still further increased +by some wonderful cures the young Greek physician +succeeded in effecting. Possibly it was owing to the +ill feeling shown to Galen that, on the outbreak of +an epidemic a year afterwards, he left the imperial city +and proceeded to Brindisi, and embarked for Greece. +It was his intention to devote his time to the study +of natural history, and for this purpose he visited +Cyprus, Palestine, and Lemnos. While at the last-named +place, however, he was suddenly summoned to Aquileia +to meet the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius +Verus. He travelled through Thrace and Macedonia on +foot, met the imperial personages, and prepared for them +a medicine, for which he seems to have been famous, +and which is spoken of as the <i>theriac</i>. It was probably +some combination of opium with various aromatics and +stimulants, for antidotes of many different kinds were +habitually taken by the Romans to preserve them from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +the ill effects of poison and of the bites of venomous +animals.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>With the Emperor M. Aurelius he returned to Rome, +and became afterwards doctor to the young Emperor +Commodus. He did not, however, remain for a long +period at Rome, and probably passed the greater part +of the rest of his life in his native country.</p> + +<p>Although the date of his death is not positively known, +yet it appears from a passage<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> in his writings that he +was living in the reign of Septimius Severus; and Suidas +seems to have reason for asserting that he reached his +seventieth year.</p> + +<p>Galen's writings represent the common depository of +the anatomical knowledge of the day; what he had +learnt from many teachers, rather than the results of +his own personal research. Roughly speaking, they +deal with the following subjects: Anatomy and Physiology, +Dietetics and Hygiene, Pathology, Diagnosis and +Semeiology, Pharmacy and Materia Medica, Therapeutics.</p> + +<p>The only works of this voluminous writer at which +we can here glance are those dealing with Anatomy +and Physiology. These exhibit numerous illustrations +of Galen's familiarity with practical anatomy, although +it was most likely comparative rather than human<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +anatomy at which he especially worked. Indeed, he +seems to have had but few opportunities of carrying +on human dissections, for he thinks himself happy in +having been able to examine at Alexandria two human +skeletons; and he recommends the dissection of monkeys +because of their exact resemblance to man. To this disadvantage +may, perhaps, be attributed the readiness, which +sometimes appears, to assume identity of organization +between man and the brutes. Thus, because in certain +animals he found a double biliary duct, he concluded +the same to be the case in man, and in one instance he +proceeded to deduce the cause of disease from this +erroneous assumption.</p> + +<p>He supposed that there were three modes of existence +in man, namely—</p> + +<div class="block1"><p>(<i>a</i>) The nutritive, which was common to all animals +and plants, of which the liver was the source.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The vital, of which the heart was the source.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The rational, of which the brain was the source.</p></div> + +<p>Again, he considered that the animal economy possessed +four natural powers—</p> + +<div class="block1"><p>(1) The attractive.</p> + +<p>(2) The alterative or assimilative.</p> + +<p>(3) The retentive or digestive.</p> + +<p>(4) The expulsive.</p></div> + +<p>Like his predecessors, he asserted that there were +four humours, namely, blood, yellow bile, black bile, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +aqueous serum. He held that it was the office of the +liver to complete the process of sanguification commenced +in the stomach, and that during this process the yellow +bile was attracted by the branches of the hepatic duct +and gall-bladder; the black bile being attracted by the +spleen, and the aqueous humour by the two kidneys; +while the liver itself retained the pure blood, which was +afterwards attracted by the heart through the vena cava, +by whose ramifications it was distributed to the various +parts of the body.</p> + +<p>Following Aristotle especially, he regarded hair, nails, +arteries, veins, cartilage, bone, ligament, membranes, +glands, fat, and muscle as the simplest constituents of +the body, formed immediately from the blood, and perfectly +homogeneous in character. The organic members, +<i>e.g.</i> lungs, liver, etc., he looked upon as formed of several +of the foregoing simple parts.</p> + +<p>The osteology contained in Galen's works is nearly +as perfect as that of the present day. He correctly +names and describes the bones and sutures of the +cranium; notices the quadrilateral shape of the parietals, +the peculiar situation and shape of the sphenoid, and +the form and character of the ethmoid, malar, maxillary, +and nasal bones. He divides the vertebral columns +into cervical, dorsal, and lumbar portions.</p> + +<p>With regard to the nervous system, he taught that +the nerves of the senses are distinct from those which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +impart the power of motion to muscles—that the former +are derived from the anterior parts of the brain, while +the latter arise from the posterior portion, or from the +spinal cord. He maintained that the nerves of the finer +senses are formed of matter too soft to be the vehicles +of muscular motion; whereas, on the other hand, the +nerves of motion are too hard to be susceptible of fine +sensibility. His description of the method of demonstrating +the different parts of the brain by dissection is +very interesting, and, like his references to various instruments +and contrivances, proves him to have been +a practical and experienced anatomist.</p> + +<p>In his description of the organs and process of nutrition, +absorption by the veins of the stomach is correctly +noticed, and the union of the mesenteric veins into one +common <i>vena portæ</i> is pointed out. The communications +between the ramifications of the vena portæ and +of the proper veins of the liver are supposed by Galen +to be effected by means of anastomosing pores or +channels. Although it is evident that Galen was ignorant +of the true absorbent system, yet he appears to have +been aware of the <i>lacteals</i>; for he says that in addition +to those mesenteric veins which by their union form +the vena portæ, there are visible in every part of the +mesentery other veins, proceeding also from the intestines, +which terminate in glands; and he supposes that +these veins are intended for the nourishment of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +intestines themselves. Some of Galen's contemporaries +asserted that upon exposing the mesentery of a sucking +animal several small vessels were seen filled <i>first</i> with +air, and <i>afterwards</i> with milk. They had, doubtless, +mistaken colourless lymph for air; but Galen ridicules +both assertions, and thereby shows that he had not +examined the contents of the lacteals. This is somewhat +remarkable, because as a rule he omitted no opportunity +of determining with certainty, by vivisection and +experiments on living animals, the uses of the various +parts of the body. As an illustration of this, we have +his correct statement, established by experiment, that +the pylorus acts as a valve <i>only</i> during the process of +digestion, and that it is relaxed when digestion is completed.</p> + +<p>He recognizes that the flesh of the heart is somewhat +different to that of the muscles of voluntary motion. Its +fibres are described as being arranged in longitudinal +and transverse bundles; the former by their contractions +shortening the organ, the latter compressing and narrowing +it. Such statements show that he regarded the heart +as essentially muscular. He thought, however, that it +was entirely destitute of nerves. Although he admitted +that possibly it had one small branch derived from the +<i>nervus vagus</i> sent to it, yet he entirely overlooked the +great nervous plexus surrounding the roots of the blood-vessels, +from which branches proceed in company with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +the branches of the coronary arteries and veins, and +penetrate the muscular substance of the ventricles. He +endeavoured to prove, by experiment, observation, and +reasoning, that the arteries as well as the veins contained +blood, and in this connection he tells an amusing story. +A certain teacher of anatomy, who had declared that the +aorta contained no blood, was earnestly desired by his +pupils, who were ardent disciples of Galen, to exhibit +the requisite demonstration, they themselves offering +animals for the experiment. He, however, after various +subterfuges, declined, until they promised to give him a +suitable remuneration, which they raised by subscription +among themselves to the amount of a thousand drachmæ +(perhaps £30). The professor, being thus compelled +to commence the experiment, totally failed in his attempt +to cut down upon the aorta, to the no small amusement +of his pupils, who, thereupon taking up the experiment +themselves, made an opening into the thorax in the way +in which they had been instructed by Galen, passed one +ligature round the aorta at the part where it attaches +itself to the spine, and another at its origin, and then, by +opening the intervening portion of the artery, showed +that blood was contained in it.</p> + +<p>The arteries, Galen thought, possessed a pulsative and +attractive power of their own, independently of the heart, +the moment of their dilatation being the moment of their +activity. They, in fact, <i>drew</i> their charge from the heart,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +as the heart by its diastole <i>drew</i> its charge from the vena +cava and the pulmonary vein. The pulse of the arteries, +he also thought, was propagated by their coats, not by +the wave of blood thrown into them by the heart. He +taught that at every systole of the arteries a certain +portion of their contents was discharged at their extremities, +namely, by the exhalents and secretory vessels. +Though he demonstrated the anastomosis of arteries and +veins, he nowhere hints his belief that the contents of the +former pass into the latter, to be conveyed back to the +heart, and from it to be again diffused over the body. +He made a near approach to the Harveian theory of +the circulation, as Harvey himself admits in his "De +Motu Cordis;"<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> but the grand point of difference between +Galen and Harvey is the question whether or not, at +every systole of the left ventricle, more blood is thrown +out than is expended on exhalation, secretion, and +nutrition. Upon this point Galen held the negative, +and Harvey, as we all know, the affirmative.</p> + +<p>The famous Asclepiads held that respiration was for +the generation of the soul itself, breath and life being +thus considered to be identical. Hippocrates thought +it was for the nutrition and refrigeration of the innate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +heat, Aristotle for its ventilation, Erasistratus for the +filling of the arteries with spirits. All these opinions are +discussed and commented upon by Galen, who determines +the purposes of respiration to be (1) to preserve +the animal heat; (2) to evacuate from the blood the +products of combustion.</p> + +<p>He conjectured that there was in atmospheric air not +only a quality friendly to the vital spirit, but also a +quality inimical to it, which conjecture he drew from +observation of the various phenomena accompanying +the support and the extinction of flame; and he says that +if we could find out why flame is extinguished by absence +of the air, we might then know the nature of that substance +which imparts warmth to the blood during the +process of respiration.</p> + +<p>On another occasion he says that it is evidently the +<i>quality</i> and not the <i>quantity</i> of the air which is necessary +to life. He further shows that he recognized the analogy +between respiration and combustion, by comparing the +lungs to a lamp, the heart to its wick, the blood to the +oil, and the animal heat to the flame.</p> + +<p>From certain observations in various parts of his +works, it appears that, although ignorant of the doctrine +of atmospheric pressure, he was acquainted with some +of its practical effects. Thus, he says, if you put one +end of an open tube under water and suck out the air +with the other end, you will draw up water into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +mouth, and that it is in this way that infants extract the +milk from the mother's breast.</p> + +<p>Again, Erasistratus supposed that the vapour of charcoal +and of certain pits and wells was fatal to life because +<i>lighter</i> than common air, but Galen maintained it to be +<i>heavier</i>.</p> + +<p>He describes two kinds of respiration, one by the +mouths of the arteries of the lungs, and one by the +mouths of the arteries of the skin. In each case, he +says, the surrounding air is drawn into the vessels during +their diastole, for the purpose of cooling the blood, and +during their systole the fuliginous particles derived from +the blood and other fluids of the body are forced out.</p> + +<p>He considers the diaphragm to be the principal muscle +of respiration, but he makes a clear distinction between +ordinary respiration, which he calls a natural and involuntary +effort, and that deliberate and forced respiration +which is obedient to the will; and he says that there are +different muscles for the two purposes. Elsewhere he +particularly points out the two sets of intercostal muscles +and their mode of action, of which, before his time, he +asserts that anatomists were ignorant.</p> + +<p>He describes various effects produced on respiration +and on the voice by the division of those nerves which +are connected with the thorax; and shows particularly +the effect of dividing the recurrent branch of his sixth +pair of cerebral nerves (the pneumogastric of modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +anatomy). He explains how it happens that after division +of the spinal cord, provided that division be <i>beneath</i> +the lower termination of the neck, the diaphragm will +still continue to act—in consequence, namely, of the +origin of the phrenic nerve being <i>above</i> the lower termination +of the neck.</p> + +<p>Before the time of Galen the medical profession was +divided into several sects, <i>e.g.</i> Dogmatici, Empirici, +Eclectici, Pneumatici, and Episynthetici, who were +always disputing with one another. After his time all +sects seem to have merged in his followers. The subsequent +Greek and Roman biological writers were mere +compilers from his works, and as soon as his writings +were translated into Arabic they were at once adopted +throughout the East to the exclusion of all others. He +remained paramount throughout the civilized world until +within the last three hundred years. In the records of +the College of Physicians of England we read that Dr. +Geynes was cited before the college in 1559 for impugning +the infallibility of Galen, and was only admitted +again into the privileges of his fellowship on acknowledgment +of his error, and humble recantation signed with +his own hand. Kurt Sprengel has well said that "if +the physicians who remained so faithfully attached to +Galen's system had inherited his penetrating mind, his +observing glance, and his depth, the art of healing would +have approached the limit of perfection before all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +other sciences; but it was written in the book of destiny +that mind and reason were to bend under the yoke of +superstition and barbarism, and were only to emerge +after centuries of lethargic sleep."</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Hence the name <span title="thêriakai">θηρίακαι</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> "De Antidotis," i. 13, vol. xiv. p. 65, Kuhn.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> "Ex ipsius etiam Galeni verbis hanc veritatem confirmari posse, +scilicet: non solum posse sanguinem e vena arteriosa in arteriam +venosam et inde in sinistrum ventriculum cordis, et postea in +arterias transmitti."—"De Motu Cordis," cap. vii.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> +<h2><big>VESALIUS.</big></h2> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> +<h2><i>VESALIUS.</i></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> authority of Galen, at once a despotism and a +religion, was scarcely ever called in question until the +sixteenth century. No attempt worth recording was +made during thirteen hundred years to extend the +boundary of scientific knowledge in anatomy and physiology. +It is true that the scholastic philosopher, Albertus +Magnus, who was for a short time (1260-1262) Bishop +of Ratisbon, in the middle of the thirteenth century +wrote a "History of Animals," which was a remarkable +production for the age in which he lived; although Sir +Thomas Browne, in his famous "Enquiries into Common +Errors," speaks of these "Tractates" as requiring to be +received with caution, adding as regards Albertus that +"he was a man who much advanced these opinions by +the authoritie of his name, and delivered most conceits, +with strickt enquirie into few."</p> + +<p>As regards human anatomy, it was considered, during +the Middle Ages, to be impiety to touch with a scalpel +"the dead image of God," as man's body was called.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +Mundinus, the professor of medicine at Bologna from +1315 to 1318, was the first to attempt any such thing. +He exhibited the public dissection of three bodies, but +by this created so great a scandal that he gave up the +practice, and contented himself with publishing a work, +"De Anatome," which formed a sort of commentary on +Galen. This work, with additions, continued to be the +text-book of the schools until the time of Vesalius, who +founded the study of anatomy as nowadays pursued.</p> + +<p>Andreas Vesalius was born at Brussels, on the last day +of the year 1514, of a family which for several generations +had been eminent for medical attainments. He +was sent as a boy to Louvain, where he spent the greater +part of his leisure in researches into the mechanism of +the lower animals. He was a born dissector, who, after +careful examination, in his early days, of rats, moles, dogs, +cats, monkeys, and the like, came, in after-life, to be dissatisfied +with any less knowledge of the anatomy of man.</p> + +<p>He acquired great proficiency in the scholarship of the +day. Indeed the Latin, in which he afterwards wrote his +great work, is so singularly pure that one of his detractors +pretended that Vesalius must have got some good scholar +to write the Latin for him. Latin was not the only language +in which he was proficient; he added Greek and +Arabic to his other accomplishments, and this for the +purpose of reading the great biological works in the languages +in which they were originally written. From<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +Louvain the youth went to Paris, where he studied +anatomy under a most distinguished physician, Sylvius. +It was the practice of that illustrious professor to read +to his class Galen on the "Use of Parts," omitting nearly +all the sections where exact knowledge of anatomical +detail was necessary. Sometimes an attempt was made +to illustrate the lecture by the dissection of a dog, but +such illustration more often exposed the professor's +ignorance than it added to the student's knowledge. +Indirectly, however, it did good, for whenever Sylvius, +after having tried in vain to demonstrate some muscle, +or nerve, or vein, left the room, his pupil Vesalius slipped +down to the table, dissected out the part with great neatness, +and triumphantly called the professor's attention to +it on his return.</p> + +<p>Besides studying under Sylvius, Vesalius had for his +teacher at Paris the famous Winter, of Andernach, who +was physician to Francis I. This learned man, in a work +published three years after this period, speaks of Vesalius +as a youth of great promise. At the age of nineteen +Vesalius returned to Louvain; and here for the first time +he openly demonstrated from the human subject. In +this connection a somewhat ghastly story is told, which +serves to show the intensity of the enthusiasm with which +our anatomist was inspired. On a certain evening it +chanced that Vesalius, in company with a friend, had +rambled out of the gates of Louvain to a spot where the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +bodies of executed criminals were wont to be exposed. +A noted robber had been executed. His body had been +chained to a stake and slowly roasted; and the birds +had so entirely stripped the bones of every vestige of +flesh, that a perfect skeleton, complete and clean, was +suspended before the eyes of the anatomist, who had +been striving hitherto to piece together such a thing out +of the bones of many people, gathered as occasion +offered. Mounting upon the shoulder of his friend, +Vesalius ascended the charred stake and forcibly tore +away the limbs, leaving only the trunk, which was +securely bound by iron chains. With these stolen bones +under their clothes the two youths returned to Louvain. +In the night, however, and alone, the sturdy Vesalius +found his way again to the place—which to most men, at +any rate in those times, would have been associated with +unspeakable horrors—and there, by sheer force, wrenched +away the trunk, and buried it. Then leisurely and carefully, +day after day, he smuggled through the city gates +bone after bone. Afterwards, when he had set up the +perfect skeleton in his own house, he did not hesitate to +demonstrate from it. But such an act of daring plunder +could not escape detection, and he was banished from +Louvain for the offence. This story is here quoted +only to show the extraordinary physical and moral +courage which the anatomist possessed; which upheld +him through toils, dangers, and disgusts; and by which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +he was strengthened to carry on, even in a cruel and +superstitious age, and placed, as he was, on the very +threshold of the Inquisition, a work at all times repulsive +to flesh and blood.</p> + +<p>After serving for a short time as a surgeon in the army +of the Emperor Charles V., Vesalius went to Italy, +where he at once attracted the attention of the most +learned men, and became, at the age of twenty-two, +Professor of Anatomy at the University of Padua. This +was the first purely anatomical professorship that had +been established out of the funds of any university. +For seven years he held the office, and he was at the +same time professor at Bologna and at Pisa. During +these years his lectures were always well attended, for +they were a striking innovation on the tameness of conventional +routine. In each university the services of +the professor were confined to a short course of demonstrations, +so that his duties were complete when he had +spent, during the winter, a few weeks at each of the three +towns in succession. He then returned to Venice, which +he appears to have made his head-quarters. At this +city, as well as at Pisa, special facilities were offered to +the professor for obtaining bodies either of condemned +criminals or others. At Padua and Bologna the enthusiasm +of the students, who became resurrectionists on +their teacher's behalf, kept the lecture-table supplied +with specimens. They were in the habit of watching all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +the symptoms in men dying of a fatal malady, and noting +where, after death, such men were buried. The seclusion +of the graveyard was then invaded, and the corpse +secretly conveyed by Andreas to his chamber, and concealed +sometimes in his own bed. A diligent search was +at once made to determine accurately the cause of death. +This pitiless zeal for correct details in anatomy, associated +as it was with indefatigable practice in physic, appeared +to Vesalius, as it does to his successors of to-day, to be +the only satisfactory method of acquiring that knowledge +which is essential to a doctor. Thus it was that he, who +at the age of twenty-two was able to name, with his eyes +blindfolded, any human bone put into his hand, who +was deeply versed in comparative anatomy, and had +more accurate knowledge of the human frame than any +graybeard of the time, enjoyed afterwards a reputation +as a physician which was unbounded. One illustration +of his sagacity in diagnosis will suffice. A patient of +two famous court physicians at Madrid had a big and +wonderful tumour on the loins. It would have been +easily recognized in these days as an aneurismal tumour, +but it greatly puzzled the two doctors. Vesalius was +therefore consulted, and said, "There is a blood-vessel +dilated; that tumour is full of blood." They were surprised +at such a strange opinion; but the man died, the +tumour was opened; blood was actually found in it, and +we are told <i>in admirationem rapti fuère omnes</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was not until after Vesalius had been three years +professor that he began to distrust the infallibility of +Galen's anatomical teaching. Constant practical experience +in dissection, both human and comparative, slowly +convinced him that—great anatomist as the "divus +homo" had undoubtedly been—his statements were not +only incomplete, but often wrong; further, that Galen +very rarely wrote from actual inspection of the human +subject, but based his teaching on a belief that the structure +of a monkey was exactly similar to that of a man. +With this conviction established, Vesalius proceeded to +note with great care all the discrepancies between the +text of Galen and the actual parts which it endeavoured +to describe, and in this way a volume of considerable +thickness was soon formed, consisting entirely of annotations +upon Galen. The generally received authorities +being thus found to be unreliable, it became necessary in +the next place to collect and arrange the fundamental +facts of anatomy upon a new and sounder basis. To +this task Vesalius, at the age of twenty-five, devoted +himself, and began his famous work on the "Fabric of +the Human Body." Owing possibly to the good fortune +of his family, and to the income which he derived from +his professorships, Andreas was able to secure for his +work the aid of some of the best artists of the day. To +Jean Calcar, one of the ablest of the pupils of Titian, +are due the splendid anatomical plates which illustrate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +the "Corporis Humani Fabrica," and which are incomparably +better than those of any work which preceded it. +To him most likely is due also the woodcut which adorns +the first page, and which represents the young Vesalius, +wearing professor's robes, standing at a lecture-table and +pointing out, from a robust subject that lies before him, +the inner secrets of the human body; while the tiers of +benches that surround the professor are completely +crowded with grave doctors struggling to see, even +climbing upon the railings to do so.</p> + +<p>But throughout the work the plates are used simply to +illustrate and elucidate the text, and the information +furnished in the latter is minute and accurate, and stated +in well-polished Latin. As the author proceeds, he finds +it necessary to disagree with Galen, and the reasons for +this disagreement are given. The inevitable result follows +that Vesalius is placed at issue not only with "the divine +man," but also with all those who for thirteen centuries +had unquestioningly followed him. Such a result Vesalius +must have foreseen. It was not, therefore, a great surprise +to him, perhaps, to receive, soon after the publication +of his work, a violent onslaught from his old master +Sylvius. He simply replied to it by a letter full of respect +and friendly feeling, inquiring wherein he had been +guilty of error. The answer he got was that he must +show proper respect for Galen, if he wished to be +regarded as a friend of Sylvius.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1546, three years after the publication of his great +work, Andreas was summoned to Ratisbon to exercise +his skill upon the emperor, and from that date he was +ranked among the court physicians. In the same year, +1546, in a long letter, entitled "De usu Radicis Chinæ," +he not only treats of the medicine by which the emperor's +health had been restored, but he vindicates his teaching +against his assailants, and again gives cumulative proof +of the fact that Galen had dissected only brutes.</p> + +<p>It was the practice of Vesalius, while he was professor +in Italy, to issue a public notice the day before each +demonstration, stating the time at which it would take +place, and inviting all who decried his errors to attend +and make their own dissections from his subject, and +confound him openly. It does not appear that any one +was rash enough ever to accept the challenge; yet, +although the majority of the young men were on the +side of Vesalius, the older teachers continued to regard +him as a heretic, and in 1551 Sylvius published a bitterly +personal attack. It was nothing to him that the results +of actual dissection were against him—he even went so +far as to assert that the men of his time were constructed +somewhat differently to those of the time of Galen! +Thus, to the proof that Vesalius gave that the carpal +bones were not absolutely without marrow, as Galen had +asserted, Sylvius replied that the bones were harder and +more solid among the ancients, and were, in consequence,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +destitute of medullary substance. Again, when Vesalius +showed that Galen was wrong in describing the human +femur and humerus as greatly curved, Sylvius explained +the discrepancy by saying that the wearing of narrow +garments by the moderns had straightened the limbs.</p> + +<p>Through these attacks, however, the writings of Vesalius +fell into somewhat bad odour in the court; for in that +very superstitious age there was a kind of vague dread +felt of reading the works of a man against whom such +serious charges of arrogance and impiety were brought. +And so it came about that when he received the +summons to take up his residence permanently at +Madrid, and the orthodoxy of the day seemed for the +moment to triumph, in a fit of proud indignation, he +burned all his manuscripts; destroying a huge volume +of annotations upon Galen; a whole book of medical +formulæ; many original notes on drugs; the copy of +Galen from which he lectured, and which was covered +with marginal notes of new observations that had +occurred to him while demonstrating; and the paraphrases +of the books of Rhases, in which the knowledge of the +Arabian was collated with that of the Greeks and others. +The produce of the labour of many years was thus +reduced to ashes in a short fit of passion, and from this +time Vesalius lived no more for controversy or study. +He gave himself up to pleasure and the pursuit of wealth, +resting on his reputation and degenerating into a mere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +courtier. As a practitioner he was held in high esteem. +When the life of Don Carlos, Philip's son, was despaired +of, it was Vesalius who was called in, and who, seeing +that the surgeons had bound up the wound in the head +so tightly that an abscess had formed, promptly brought +relief to the patient by cutting into the pericranium. +The cure of the prince, however, was attributed by the +court to the intercession of St. Diego, and it is possible +that on the subject of this alleged miraculous recovery +Vesalius may have expressed his opinion rather more +strongly than it was safe for a Netherlander to do. At +any rate, the priests always looked upon him with dislike +and suspicion, and at length they and the other enemies +of the great anatomist had their revenge.</p> + +<p>A young Spanish nobleman had died, and Vesalius, +who had attended him, obtained permission to ascertain, +if possible, by a post-mortem examination, the cause of +death. On opening the body, the heart was said—by +the bystanders—to beat; and a charge, not merely of +murder, but of impiety also, was brought against Vesalius. +It was hoped by his persecutors that the latter charge +would be brought before the Inquisition, and result in +more rigorous punishment than any that would be inflicted +by the judges of the common law. The King of +Spain, however, interfered and saved him, on condition +that he should make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. +Accordingly he set out from Madrid for Venice, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +thence to Cyprus, from which place he went on to +Jerusalem, and was returning, not to Madrid, but to +Padua, where the professorship of physic had been +offered him, when he suffered shipwreck on the island +of Zante, and there perished miserably of hunger and +grief, on October 15, 1564, before he had reached the +age of fifty. His body was found by a travelling goldsmith, +who recognized, notwithstanding their starved +outlines, the features of the renowned anatomist, and +respectfully buried his remains and raised a statue to his +memory.</p> + +<p>Two of the works of this great man have been already +referred to, namely: "De Corporis Humani Fabrica;" +"De usu Radicis Chinæ." Besides these the following +have appeared: "Examen Observationum Gabrielis +Fallopii;" "Gabrielis Cunei Examen, Apologiæ Francisci +Putei pro Galeno in Anatome;" a great work on +Surgery in seven books.</p> + +<p>With respect to the last of these, it may be sufficient +to remark that there is every reason to believe that the +name of the famous anatomist was stolen after his death +to give value to the production, which was compiled and +published by a Venetian named Bogarucci; and that +Vesalius is not responsible for the contents.</p> + +<p>The other works are undoubtedly genuine. In 1562 +Andreas seems to have been roused for a short time +from the lethargy into which he had sunk, by an attack<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +from Franciscus Puteus; for to this attack a reply appeared—from +a writer calling himself Gabriel Cuneus—which +has always been attributed by the most competent +authorities to Vesalius himself. In this rather long work, +covering as it does more than fifty pages in the folio +edition, the views of Vesalius, which are at variance with +Galen, are gone through <i>seriatim</i> and defended.</p> + +<p>In 1561 Fallopius, who had studied under Vesalius, +published his "Anatomical Observations," containing +several points in which he had extended the knowledge +of anatomy beyond the limits reached by his master. +He had taught publicly for thirteen years at Ferrara, +and had presided for eight years over an anatomical +school, so that he was no novice in the field of biology. +Yet so completely had Vesalius lost the philosophic +temperament that he regarded this publication as an +infringement of his rights, and in this spirit wrote an +"Examen Observationum Fallopii," in which he decried +the friend who had made improvements on himself, as +he had been decried for his improvements on Galen. +The manuscript of this work, finished at the end of +December, 1561, was committed by the author to the +care of Paulus Teupulus of Venice, orator to the King +of Spain, who was to give it to Fallopius. The orator, +however, did not reach Padua until after the death of +Fallopius, and he consequently retained the document +until Vesalius, on his way to Jerusalem, took possession<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +of it, and caused it to be published without delay. It +appeared at Venice in 1564.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<p>The letter on the China root—a plant we know nowadays +as sarsaparilla—by the use of which the emperor's +recovery was effected, has been already referred to. It +was addressed to the anatomist's friend, Joachim Roelants. +Very little space, however, is taken up with a description +of the medicine which gives title to the letter. Something +certainly is said of the history and nature of the +plant, the preparation of the decoction and its effects; +but the writer soon introduces the subject which was at +that time of very vital importance to him, namely, his +position with regard to the statements of Galen and his +followers. He collects together various assertions of the +Greek anatomist, on the bones, the muscles and ligaments, +the relations of veins and arteries, the nerves, +the character of the peritoneum, the organs of the thorax, +the skull and its contents, etc., and shows from each and +all of these that reference had not been made to the +human subject, and that therefore the statements were +unreliable.</p> + +<p>To the work on the "Fabric of the Human Body" we +have already alluded, as well as to the causes which led +to its being written. More than half of this great treatise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +is occupied with a minute description of the build of the +human body—its bones, cartilages, ligaments, and muscles. +It may have been owing to the thorough acquaintance +which Vesalius showed with these parts that his detractors +pretended afterwards that he only understood superficial +injuries. But other branches of anatomy are fully dealt +with. The veins and arteries are described in the third +book, and the nerves in the fourth; the organs of nutrition +and reproduction are treated of in the next; while +the remaining two books are devoted to descriptions of +the heart and brain.</p> + +<p>Vesalius gives a good account of the sphenoid bone, +with its large and small wings and its pterygoid processes; +and he accurately describes the vestibule in the interior +of the temporal bone. He shows the sternum to consist, +in the adult, of three parts and the sacrum of five or six. +He discovered the valve which guards the <i>foramen ovale</i> +in the fœtus; and he not only verified the observation of +Etienne as to the valve-like fold guarding the entrance of +each hepatic vein into the inferior vena cava, but he also +fully described the <i>vena azygos</i>. He observed, too, the +canal which passes in the fœtus between the umbilical +vein and vena cava, and which has since been known +as the <i>ductus venosus</i>. He was the first to study and +describe the mediastinum, correcting the error of the +ancients, who believed that this duplicature of the pleura +contained a portion of the lungs. He described the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +omentum and its connections with the stomach, the +spleen, and the colon; and he enunciated the first correct +views of the structure of the pylorus, noticing at the +same time the small size of the cæcal appendix in man. +His account of the anatomy of the brain is fuller than +that of any of his predecessors, but he does not appear +to have well understood the inferior recesses, and his +description of the nerves is confused by regarding the +optic as the first pair, the third as the fifth, and the fifth +as the seventh. The ancients believed the optic nerve +to be hollow for the conveyance of the visual spirit, but +Vesalius showed that no such tube existed. He observed +the elevation and depression of the brain during respiration, +but being ignorant of the circulation of the blood, +he wrongly explained the phenomenon.</p> + +<p>Exclusively an anatomist, he makes but brief references +in his great work to the functions of the organs which he +describes. Where he differs from Galen on these matters +he does so apologetically. He follows him in regarding +the heart as the seat of the emotions and passions—the +hottest of all the viscera and source of heat of the whole +body; although he does not, as Aristotle did, look upon +the heart as giving rise to the nerves. He considers the +heart to be in ceaseless motion, alternately dilating and +contracting, but the diastole is in his opinion the influential +act of the organ. He knows that eminences or +projections are present in the veins, and indeed speaks of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +them as being analogous to the valves of the heart, but +he denies to them the office of valves. To him the +motion of the blood was of a to-and-fro kind, and valves +in the veins acting as such would have interfered with +anything of the sort. He expresses clearly the idea, that +was entertained in the old physiology, of the attractions +exerted by the various parts of the body for the blood; +and especially that of the veins and heart for the blood +itself. "The right sinus of the heart," he says, "attracts +blood from the vena cava, and the left attracts air from +the lungs through the <i>arteria venalis</i> (pulmonary vein), +the blood itself being attracted by the veins in general, +the vital spirit by the arteries." Again, he speaks of the +blood filtering through the septum between the ventricles +as if through a sieve, although he knows perfectly well +from his dissection that the septum is quite impervious.</p> + +<p>It will thus be seen that the physiological teaching of +Galen was left undisturbed by Vesalius.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> See Professor Morley's article on "Anatomy in Long Clothes," +in <i>Fraser's Magazine</i>, 1853, from which most of the facts in this +sketch have been taken.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> +<h2><big>HARVEY.</big></h2> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> +<h2><i>HARVEY.</i></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> importance of Harvey's discovery of the circulation +of the blood can only be properly estimated by bearing +in mind what was done by his predecessors in the same +field of inquiry. Aristotle had taught that in man and +in the higher brutes the blood was elaborated from the +food in the liver, conveyed to the heart, and thence distributed +by it through the veins to the whole body. +Erasistratus and Herophilus held that, while the veins +carried blood from the heart to the members, the arteries +carried a subtle kind of air or spirit. Galen discovered +that the arteries were not merely air-pipes, but that they +contained blood as well as vital air or spirit. Sylvius, +the teacher of Vesalius, was aware of the presence of +valves in the veins; and Fabricius, Harvey's teacher at +Padua, described them much more accurately than +Sylvius had done; but neither of these men had a true +idea of the significance of the structures of which they +wrote. Servetus, the friend and contemporary of Vesalius, +writing in 1533, correctly described the course of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +lesser circulation in the following words: "This communication +(<i>i.e.</i> between the right and left sides of the +heart) does not take place through the partition of the +heart, as is generally believed; but by another admirable +contrivance, whereby from the right ventricle the subtle +blood is agitated in a lengthened course through the +lungs, wherein prepared, it becomes of a crimson colour, +and from the vena arterialis (pulmonary artery) is transferred +into the arteria venalis (pulmonary vein). Mingled +with the inspired air in the arteria venalis, freed by respiration +from fuliginous matter, and become a suitable +home of the vital spirit, it is attracted at length into the +left ventricle of the heart by the diastole of the organ." +But when Servetus comes to speak of the systemic circulation, +what he has to say is as old as Galen.</p> + +<p>The opinions, therefore, on the subject of the blood +and its distribution which were prevalent at the end of +the sixteenth century prove—</p> + +<div class="block1"><p>(1) That although the blood was not regarded as +stagnant, yet its circulation, such as is nowadays +recognized, was unknown;</p> + +<p>(2) That one kind of blood was thought to flow from +the liver to the right ventricle, and thence to +the lungs and general system by the veins, while +another kind flowed from the left ventricle to +the lungs and general system by the arteries;</p> + +<p>(3) That the septum of the heart was regarded as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +admitting of the passage of blood directly from +the right to the left side;</p> + +<p>(4) That there was no conception of the functions of +the heart as the motor power of the movement +of the blood, for biologists of that day doubted +whether the substance of the heart were really +muscular; they supposed the pulsations to be +due to expansion of the spirits it contained; +they believed the only dynamic effect which it +had on the blood to be that of sucking it in +during its active diastole, and they supposed +the chief use of its constant movements to be +the due mixture of blood and spirits.</p></div> + +<p>This was the state of knowledge before Harvey's time. +By his great work he established—</p> + +<div class="block1"><p>(1) That the blood flows continuously in a circuit +through the whole body, the force propelling it +in this unwearied round being the rhythmical +contractions of the muscular walls of the +heart;</p> + +<p>(2) That a portion only of the blood is expended in +nutrition each time that it circulates;</p> + +<p>(3) That the blood conveyed in the systemic arteries +communicates heat as well as nourishment +throughout the body, instead of exerting a +cooling influence, as was vulgarly supposed; +and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> + +<p>(4) That the pulse is not produced by the arteries +enlarging and so filling, but by the arteries +being filled with blood and so enlarging.</p></div> + +<p>We can now consider the method by which Harvey +arrived at these results. The work, "De Motu Cordis +et Sanguinis," after giving an account of the views of +preceding physiologists, ancient and modern, commences +with a description of the heart as seen in a living animal +when the chest has been laid open and the pericardium +removed. Three circumstances are noted—</p> + +<div class="block1"><p>(<i>a</i>) The heart becomes erect, strikes the chest, and +gives a beat;</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) It is constricted in every direction;</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Grasped by the hand, it is felt to become harder +during the contraction.</p></div> + +<p>From these circumstances it is inferred—</p> + +<div class="block1"><p>(1) That the action of the heart is essentially of the +same nature as that of voluntary muscles, which +become hard and condensed when they act;</p> + +<p>(2) That, as the effect of this, the capacity of the +cavities is diminished, and the blood is expelled;</p> + +<p>(3) That the intrinsic motion of the heart is the systole, +and not the diastole, as previously imagined.</p></div> + +<p>The motions of the arteries are next shown to be +dependent upon the action of the heart, because the +arteries are distended by the wave of blood that is thrown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +into them, being filled like sacs or bladders, and not expanding +like bellows. These conclusions are confirmed +by the jerking way in which blood flows from a cut +artery.</p> + +<p>In the heart itself two distinct motions are observed—first +of the auricles, and then of the ventricles. These +alternate contractions and dilatations can have but one +result, namely, to force the blood from the auricle to the +ventricle, and from the ventricle, on the right side, by +the pulmonary artery to the lungs, and on the left side +by the aorta to the system.</p> + +<p>These considerations suggest to the mind of Harvey +the idea of the circulation. "I began to think," he +says, "whether there might not be a motion, as it were, +in a circle." This is next established by proving the +three following propositions:—</p> + +<div class="block1"><p>(1) The blood is incessantly transmitted by the action +of the heart from the vena cava to the arteries +in such quantity that it cannot be supplied from +the ingesta, and in such wise that the whole +mass must very quickly pass through the organ;</p> + +<p>(2) The blood, under the influence of the arterial +pulse, enters, and is impelled in a continuous, +equable, and incessant stream through every +part and member of the body, in much larger +quantity than were sufficient for nutrition, or +than the whole mass of fluids could supply;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> + +<p>(3) The veins in like manner return this blood incessantly +to the heart from all parts and members +of the body.</p></div> + +<p>As to the first proposition Harvey says, "Did the +heart eject but two drachms of blood on each contraction, +and the beats in half an hour were a thousand, the +quantity expelled in that time would amount to twenty +pounds and ten ounces; and were the quantity an ounce, +it would be as much as eighty pounds and four ounces. +Such quantities, it is certain, could not be supplied by +any possible amount of meat and drink consumed within +the time specified. It is the same blood, consequently, +that is now flowing out by the arteries, now returning by +the veins; and it is simply matter of necessity that +the blood should perform a circuit, or return to the place +from whence it went forth."</p> + +<p>Demonstration of the second proposition—that the +blood enters a limb by the arteries and returns from it +by the veins—is afforded by the effects of a ligature. +For if the upper part of the arm be <i>tightly</i> bound, the +arteries below will not pulsate, while those above will +throb violently. The hand under such circumstances +will retain its natural colour and appearance, although, if +the bandage be kept on for a minute or two, it will +begin to look livid and to fall in temperature. But +if the bandage be now slackened a little, the hand and +the arm will immediately become suffused, and the superficial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +veins show themselves tumid and knotted, the pulse +at the wrist in the same instant beginning to beat as +it did before the application of the bandage. The tight +bandage not only compresses the veins, but the arteries +also, so that blood cannot flow through either. The +slacker ligature obstructs the veins only, for the arteries +lie deeper and have firmer coats. "Seeing, then," says +Harvey, "that the moderately tight ligature renders the +veins turgid, and the whole hand full of blood, I ask, +Whence is this? Does the blood accumulate below the +ligature coming through the veins, or through the +arteries, or passing by certain secret pores? Through +the veins it cannot come; still less can it come by any +system of invisible pores; it must needs, then, arrive by +the arteries."</p> + +<p>The third position to be proved is that the veins +return the blood to the heart from all parts of the body. +That such is the case might be inferred from the +presence and disposition of the valves in the veins; for +the office of the valves is by no means explained by the +theory that they are to hinder the blood from flowing +into inferior parts by gravitation, since the valves do not +always look upwards, but always towards the trunks of +the veins, invariably towards the seat of the heart. The +action of the valves is then demonstrated experimentally +on the arm bound as for blood-letting. The point +of a finger being kept on a vein, the blood from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +the space above may be streaked upwards till it passes +the valve, when that portion of the vein between the +valve and the point of pressure will not only be emptied +of its contents, but will remain empty as long as the +pressure is continued. If the pressure be now removed, +the empty part of the vein will fill instantly and look as +turgid as before.</p> + +<p>Other confirmatory evidence is then added, e.g. the +absorption of animal poisons and of medicines applied +externally, the muscular structure of the heart and the +necessary working of its valves.</p> + +<p>William Harvey, the illustrious physiologist, anatomist, +and physician, to whom this discovery is due, was the +eldest son of a Kentish yeoman, and was born in April, +1578. At the age of ten he entered the Canterbury +Grammar School, where he appears to have remained +for some years. At sixteen he passed to Caius-Gonvil +College, Cambridge, and three years afterwards took his +B.A. degree and quitted the university. Like most +students of medicine of that day, he found it necessary +to seek the principal part of his professional education +abroad. He travelled to Italy, selected Padua as his +place of study, and there continued to reside for four +years, having as one of his teachers the famous Fabricius +of Aquapendente. On his return to England, in 1602, +he took his doctor's degree at Cambridge, and entered +on the practice of his profession.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1604 he joined the College of Physicians, and +three years later was elected a Fellow of that learned +body. Two years afterwards he applied for the post +of physician to St. Bartholomew's Hospital; and his +application being supported by letters of recommendation +to the governor, from the king and from the president +of the College of Physicians, he was duly elected to the +office in the same year, as soon as a vacancy occurred.</p> + +<p>In 1615, when thirty-seven years of age, Harvey was +chosen to deliver the lectures on surgery and anatomy +to the College of Physicians, and it is possible that at +this time he gave an exposition of his views on the +circulation. He continued to lecture on the same +subject for many years afterwards, although he did +not publish his views until 1628, when they appeared +in the work "De Motu Cordis."</p> + +<p>Some few years after his appointment as lecturer +to the college, he was chosen one of the physicians +extraordinary to King James I., and about five or six +years after the accession of Charles I. he became physician +in ordinary to that unfortunate monarch. The physiologist's +investigations seem to have interested King +Charles, for he had several exhibitions made of the +<i>punctum saliens</i> in the embryo chick, and also witnessed +dissections from time to time.</p> + +<p>When, in 1630, the young Duke of Lennox made a +journey on the Continent, Harvey was chosen to travel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +with him, and probably remained abroad about two years. +During this time Harvey most likely visited Venice. Of +this tour the doctor speaks in the following terms in a +letter written at the time: "I can only complayne that +by the waye we could scarce see a dogg, crow, kite, raven, +or any bird or any thing to anatomise; only sum few +miserable poeple the reliques of the war and the plauge, +where famine had made anatomies before I came."</p> + +<p>Six years after this, in April, 1636, he accompanied the +Earl of Arundel in his embassy to the emperor. Having +to visit the principal cities of Germany, he was thus +afforded an opportunity of meeting the leading biologists +of the time, and at Nuremberg he probably met Caspar +Hoffmann, and made that public demonstration of the +circulation of the blood which he had promised in his +letter dated from that city, and which convinced every +one present except Hoffmann himself. Hollar, the artist, +informs us that Harvey's enthusiasm in his search for +specimens often led him into danger, and caused grave +anxiety to the Earl of Arundel. "For he would still be +making of excursions into the woods, making observations +of strange trees, plants, earths, etc., and sometimes like +to be lost; so that my lord ambassador would be really +angry with him, for there was not only danger of wild +beasts, but of thieves."</p> + +<p>Soon after his return to England, as court physician, +his movements became seriously restricted by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +fortunes of the king. Aubrey says, "When King +Charles I., by reason of the tumults, left London, Harvey +attended him, and was at the fight of Edgehill with him; +and during the fight the Prince and the Duke of York +were committed to his care. He told me that he withdrew +with them under a hedge, and tooke out of his +pockett a booke and read; but he had not read very +long before a bullet of a great gun grazed on the ground +neare him, which made him remove his station.... +I first sawe him at Oxford, 1642, after Edgehill fight, +but was then too young to be acquainted with so great +a doctor. I remember he came severall times to our +Coll. (Trin.) to George Bathurst, B.D., who had a +hen to hatch egges in his chamber, which they dayly +opened to see the progress and way of generation."</p> + +<p>In 1645, Charles, after the execution of Archbishop +Laud, took upon himself the functions of visitor of +Merton College, and having removed Sir Nathaniel +Brent from the office of warden for having joined "the +Rebells now in armes against" him, he directed the +Fellows to take the necessary steps for the election of +a successor. This course consisted in giving in three +names to the visitor, in order that one of the three (the +one named first, probably) should be appointed. Harvey +was so named by five out of the seven Fellows voting, +and was accordingly duly elected. A couple of days +after his admission he summoned the Fellows into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +hall and made a speech to them, in which he pointed +out that it was likely enough that some of his predecessors +had sought the office in order to enrich themselves, but +that his intentions were quite of another kind, wishing as +he did to increase the wealth and prosperity of the +college; and he finished by exhorting them to cherish +mutual concord and amity. After the surrender of +Oxford, July, 1646, Harvey retired from the court. He +was in his sixty-ninth year, and doubtless found the +hardships and inconveniences which the miserable war +entailed far from conducive to health. The rest and +seclusion to be had at the residence of one or other of +his brothers offered him the much-needed opportunity of +renewing his inquiries into the subject of generation, and +it is of this time that Dr. Ent speaks in the preface to +the published work on that subject which appeared in +1651. "Harassed with anxious and in the end not +much availing cares, about Christmas last, I sought to +rid my spirit of the cloud that oppressed it, by a visit to +that great man, the chief honour and ornament of our +college, Dr. William Harvey, then dwelling not far from +the city. I found him, Democritus-like, busy with the +study of natural things, his countenance cheerful, his +mind serene, embracing all within its sphere. I forthwith +saluted him, and asked if all were well with him. 'How +can it,' said he, 'whilst the Commonwealth is full of +distractions, and I myself am still in the open sea? And<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +truly,' he continued, 'did I not find solace in my studies, +and a balm for my spirit in the memory of my observations +of former years, I should feel little desire for longer +life. But so it has been, that this life of obscurity, this +vacation from public business, which causes tedium and +disgust to so many, has proved a sovereign remedy +to me.'"</p> + +<p>Harvey died in June, 1657. Aubrey, his contemporary, +says, "On the morning of his death, about +ten o'clock, he went to speake, and found he had the +dead palsey in his tongue; then he sawe what was to +become of him, he knew there was then no hopes of his +recovery, so presently sends for his young nephews to +come up to him, to whom he gives one his watch, to +another another remembrance, etc.; made sign to Sambroke +his Apothecary to lett him blood in the tongue, +which did little or no good, and so he ended his dayes.... +The palsey did give him an easie passeport.... +He lies buried in a vault at Hempsted in Essex, +which his brother Eliab Harvey built; he is lapt in +lead, and on his brest, in great letters, 'Dr. William +Harvey.' I was at his Funerall, and helpt to carry him +into the vault."</p> + +<p>The publication of Harvey's views on the movement +of the blood excited great surprise and opposition. The +theory of a complete circulation was at any rate novel, +but novelty was far from being a recommendation in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +those days. According to Aubrey, the author was +thought to be crackbrained, and lost much of his practice +in consequence. He himself complains that contumelious +epithets were levelled at the doctrine and its +author. It was not until after many years had elapsed, +and the facts had become familiar, that men were struck +with the simplicity of the theory, and tried to prove that +the idea was not new after all, and that it was to be +found in Hippocrates, or in Galen, or in Servetus, or in +Cæsalpinus—anywhere, in fact, except where alone it +existed, namely, in the work, "De Motu Cordis et +Sanguinis." No one seems to have denied, while Harvey +lived, that he was the discoverer of the circulation of the +blood; indeed, Hobbes of Malmesbury, his contemporary, +said of him, "He is the only man, perhaps, that +ever lived to see his own doctrine established in his lifetime."</p> + +<p>In one important respect Harvey's account of the +circulation was incomplete. He knew nothing of the +vessels which we now speak of as capillaries. Writing +to Paul Marquard Slegel, of Hamburg, in 1651, he says, +"When I perceived that the blood is transferred from +the veins into the arteries through the medium of the +heart, by a grand mechanism and exquisite apparatus +of valves, I judged that in like manner, wherever transudation +does not take place through the pores of the +flesh, the blood is returned from the arteries to the veins,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +not without some other admirable artifice" (<i>non sine +artificio quodam admirabili</i>). It was this <i>artificium +admirabile</i> of which Harvey was unable to give a description. +On account of the minuteness of their structure, +the capillaries were beyond his sight, aided as it +was by a magnifying glass merely. He indeed demonstrated +physiologically the existence of some such passages; +but it remained for a later observer, with improved +appliances, to verify the fact. This was done by Malpighi +in 1661, who saw in the lung of a frog, which was so +mounted in a frame as to be viewed by transmitted light, +the network of capillaries which connect the last ramifications +of the arteries with the radicles of the veins.</p> + +<p>Harvey rightly denied that the arteries possessed any +pulsific power of their own, and maintained that their +pulse is owing solely to the sudden distension of their +walls by the blood thrown into them at each contraction +of the ventricles. But the remission which succeeds +the pulse was regarded by him as caused simply by +collapse of the walls of the arteries due to elastic reaction. +Knowing nothing of the muscular coat of the +arteries, he was unaware of the fact that the elastic +reaction of the arteries, after their distension, is aided +by the tonic contractility of their walls; the two forces, +physical and vital, acting in concert with each other—the +former converting the intermittent flow from the +heart into an even stream in the capillaries and veins;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +the latter, through the vaso-motor system, regulating the +flow of blood to particular parts in order to meet +changing requirements.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat surprising to find that such an accurate +observer as Harvey should have failed to recognize the +significance and importance of the system of lacteal +vessels. But such was the case. Eustachius, in the +sixteenth century, had discovered the thoracic duct in +the horse, although he seems to have thought that it +was peculiar to that animal. Aselli, while dissecting the +body of a dog in 1622, accidentally discovered the +lacteals, and thought at first that they were nerves; but +upon puncturing one of them, and seeing the milky fluid +which escaped, found them to be vessels. He, however, +failed to trace them to the thoracic duct, and believed +them to terminate in the liver. Pecquet of Dieppe +followed them from the intestines to the mesenteric +glands, and from these into a common sac or reservoir, +which he designated <i>receptaculum chyli</i>, and thence to +their entry by a single slender conduit into the venous +system at the junction of the jugular and subclavian +veins. The existence of the lacteals had not entirely +escaped Harvey, however. He had himself noticed them +in the course of his dissections before Aselli's book was +published, but "for various reasons" could not bring +himself to believe that they contained chyle. The smallness +of the thoracic duct seemed to him a difficulty, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +as it was a demonstrated fact that the gastric veins were +largely absorptive, the lacteals appeared to him superfluous. +He is not "obstinately wedded to his own +opinion," and does not doubt "but that many things, +now hidden in the well of Democritus, will by-and-by +be drawn up into day by the ceaseless industry of a +coming age."</p> + +<p>Late in the author's life, as we have seen, the work +on the "Generation of Animals" appeared; but neither +physiological nor microscopical science was sufficiently +advanced to admit of the production of an enduring +work on a subject necessarily so abstruse as that of +generation. It was impossible, however, for so shrewd +and able an investigator as Harvey to work at a subject +even as difficult as this without leaving the impress of +his original genius. He first announced the general +truth, "Omne animal ex ovo," and clearly proved that +the essential part of the egg, that in which the reproductive +processes begin, was not the <i>chalazæ</i>, but the +<i>cicatricula</i>. This Fabricius had looked upon as a blemish, +a scar left by a broken peduncle. Harvey described +this little cicatricula as expanding under the influence +of incubation into a wider structure, which he called +the eye of the egg, and at the same time separating into +a clear and transparent part, in which later on, according +to him, there appeared, as the first rudiment of the +embryo, the heart, or <i>punctum saliens</i>, together with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +blood-vessels. He was clearly of opinion that the +embryo arose by successive formation of parts out of +the homogeneous and nearly liquid mass. This was the +doctrine of epigenesis, which, notwithstanding its temporary +overthrow by the erroneous theory of evolution,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> +is, with modifications, the doctrine now held.</p> + +<p>Of Harvey's scholarship and culture we are not left in +ignorance. Bishop Pearson, writing about seven years +after the doctor's death, and Aubrey<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> have told us of his +appreciation of the works of Aristotle, and in his own +writings he refers more frequently to the Stagirite than +to any other individual. Sir William Temple<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> has also +put it on record that the famous Dr. Harvey was a +great admirer of Virgil, whose works were frequently +in his hands. His store of individual knowledge must +have been great; and he seems never to have flagged +in his anxiety to learn more. He made himself master +of Oughtred's "Clavis Mathematica" in his old age, +according to Aubrey, who found him "perusing it and +working problems not long before he dyed."</p> + +<p>Nor should it be forgotten that this illustrious physiologist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +and scholar was also the first English comparative +anatomist. Of his knowledge of the lower animals he +makes frequent use, and he says (in his work on the +heart), "Had anatomists only been as conversant with +the dissection of the lower animals as they are with that +of the human body, many matters that have hitherto kept +them in a perplexity of doubt, would, in my opinion, have +met them freed from every kind of difficulty." Aubrey +says that Harvey often told him "that of all the losses +he sustained, no grief was so crucifying to him as the +loss of his papers (containing notes of his dissections of +the frog, toad, and other animals), which, together with +his goods in his lodgings at Whitehall, were plundered +at the beginning of the rebellion."</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> According to the theory of evolution, the egg contained from +the first an excessively minute, but complete animal, and the changes +which took place during incubation consisted not in a formation +of parts, but in a growth, <i>i.e.</i> in an expansion of the already existing +embryo (see p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See p. lxxxii. of "Life," by Dr. Willis.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> "Miscellanies:" Part II. on Poetry, p. 314.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX.</h2> + +<ul><li>Albertus Magnus, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Alexander the Great, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Andronicus of Rhodes, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>"Animals, History of," by Aristotle, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>"Animals, On the Parts of," by Aristotle, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + +<li>Antipater, Governor of Macedonia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Apellicon, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>"Aphorisms" of Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Aristotle, birth, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<ul> +<li>youth, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>zoological researches, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> +<li>charge against, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li>death, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li>history of the manuscripts of his works, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li>account of his biological writings, <a href="#Page_27">27-44</a>;</li> +<li>his philosophy of nature teleological, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Arundel, Earl of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + +<li>Asclepiads, physical training among the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Asclepions, description of the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Aselli, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li>Aubrey, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Bathurst, George, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Blood, description of, by Aristotle, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + +<li>Blood, opinions before the time of Harvey as to the movements of the, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Bogarucci, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Brain, description of the, by Aristotle, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + +<li>Browne, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Cæsalpinus, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li>Calcar, Jean, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li>Callisthenes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Capillaries, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>"Corporis Humani Fabrica," <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Cuvier's exaggerated praise of Aristotle, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>"Dead image of God," the, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>"De Anatome," <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>"De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis," <a href="#Page_88">88-92</a></li> + +<li>"De usu Radicis Chinæ," <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Disease, causes of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li>"Disease, The Sacred," <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li>Diseases, natural history of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li>Dissection of the human body, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + +<li>"Divine old man," the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li>Don Carlos, cure of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></li> + +<li><i>Ductus venosus</i>, observed by Vesalius, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Ent, Dr., <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li>"Epigenesis" and "evolution" compared, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li>Erasistratus, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> + +<li>Etienne's observation confirmed by Vesalius, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Eustachius, discovery of the thoracic duct of the horse by, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Fabricius of Aquapendente, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + +<li>Fallopius, anatomical observations of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li>"Father of medicine," the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li><i>Foramen ovale</i>, valve guarding the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Franciscus Puteus, reply to, by Gabriel Cuneus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Galen, birth, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;<ul> +<li>influence, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li>education, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li>at Smyrna, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li>at Alexandria, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li>at Pergamus, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li>at Rome, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li>return to Greece, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li>summoned to meet the Emperors at Aquileia, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li>death, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>writings, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>views as to the modes of existence, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li> +<li>and osteology, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li>and the nervous system, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li>and the lacteals, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li>the heart, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li>the arteries, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li>and respiration, <a href="#Page_57">57-59</a>;</li> +<li>made a near approach to the Harveian theory of the circulation, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Generation of animals, the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li>Geynes, Dr., <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Harvey, date and place of birth, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;<ul> +<li>at Canterbury School, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li>at Cambridge, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li>at Padua, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li>elected Fellow of the College of Physicians, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> +<li>appointed physician to St. Bartholomew's Hospital, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> +<li>physician to Charles I., <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> +<li>foreign travels, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> +<li>present at the battle of Edgehill, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> +<li>elected Warden of Merton College, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> +<li>death, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li>discovery of the circulation incomplete in one respect, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li>work on the generation of animals, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> +<li>a scholar, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li>and comparative anatomist, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Heart, description of the, by Aristotle, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Hellebore, administered by Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li>Hermias, despot of Atarneus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<ul> +<li>murder of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Herophilus, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> + +<li>Hippocrates, date of birth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<ul> +<li>Greek contemporaries, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> +<li>birthplace, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> +<li>his freedom from superstition, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> +<li>compared with Socrates, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> +<li>medical doctrines of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> +<li>works, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> +<li>knowledge of osteology, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> +<li>traditions concerning, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></li> +<li>oath of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Hobbes of Malmesbury, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li>Hoffmann, Caspar, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + +<li>Humours, the four, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Huxley, Professor, on errors attributed to Aristotle, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Lacteals, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li>Lennox, Duke of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> + +<li>Lungs, Aristotle's description of the, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Malpighi, discovery of the capillaries by, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Marine animals, description of, by Aristotle, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li><i>Mediastinum</i>, correct description of the, by Vesalius, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Milk in male animals, occasional appearance of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Mundinus, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Neleus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Nicon, father of Galen, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li><i>Omentum</i>, the, and its connections, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Owen, Professor, on Aristotle's knowledge of the cephalopoda, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>"Parva naturalia," <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Pausanias, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>Pecquet of Dieppe, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li>Peripatetics, the, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Philip, father of Alexander, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>"Physiological division of labour," <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Plato, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Pliny, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li><i>Pneuma</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li><i>Punctum saliens</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li><i>Pylorus</i>, the, described by Vesalius, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Pythias, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li><i>Receptaculum chyli</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li>Roelants, Joachim, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li><i>Scamnum Hippocratis</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Servetus, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Septimius Severus, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Slegel of Hamburg, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li>Socrates compared with Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li>Sprengel's opinion of Galen, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Sylla, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Sylvius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Teupulus, Paulus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li>Theophrastus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li><i>Theriac</i>, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Thoracic duct, discovery of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li>Tyrannion, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Vesalius, birth, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<ul> +<li>scholarship, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li>studied under Sylvius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>and Winter of Andernach, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>adventure at Louvain, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li>appointed professor at Padua, at Bologna, and at Pisa, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li>zeal for correctness in anatomy, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></li> +<li>skill in diagnosis, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li>distrusts infallibility of Galen's teaching, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li>writes "Fabric of the Human Body," <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li>is summoned to Ratisbon, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li>destroys his manuscripts, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> +<li>his success as a practitioner, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li>charged with impiety, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li>is sent on pilgrimage, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li>shipwreck and death at Zante, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li>works, <a href="#Page_76">76-80</a></li></ul></li> + +<li><i>Vis medicatrix naturæ</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Winter of Andernach, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +</ul> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fathers of Biology, by Charles McRae + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FATHERS OF BIOLOGY *** + +***** This file should be named 24456-h.htm or 24456-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/4/5/24456/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Stephen Blundell and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the 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