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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/24441-8.txt b/24441-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..39454f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/24441-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1711 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Stoker's Catechism, by W. J. Connor + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Stoker's Catechism + +Author: W. J. Connor + +Release Date: January 27, 2008 [EBook #24441] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOKER'S CATECHISM *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +THE STOKER'S CATECHISM + + + + + THE + + STOKER'S CATECHISM + + + BY + + W. J. CONNOR. + + + [Device] + + + London: + E. & F. N. SPON, LIMITED, 57 HAYMARKET + New York: + SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123 LIBERTY STREET + 1906 + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Variant + spellings have been retained. The oe ligature is shown as [oe]. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +There is no trade or calling that a working man is more handicapped in +than that of a Steam Boiler Stoker; there are no books on stoking; the +man leaving his situation is not anxious to communicate with the man who +is taking his place anything that might help or instruct him; and the +new man will be shy of asking for information for fear of being thought +incapable for the post he is seeking; and the transfer takes place +almost in silence, and the new man has to find out all the ways and +means at his own risk, sometimes at his employer's expense. + +My object is to instruct that man in his business without his knowing +it, or hurting his very sensitive opinion on stoking and other matters; +for I am well aware that it is only the least experienced who are the +hardest to convince, or instruct--against their will. I have therefore +ventured to devise this simple method of question and answer, which I +have named "The Stoker's Catechism," which I hope may instruct and +interest him. + +I will not encumber this preface with my personal qualifications for +this little work--the answers to the questions might suffice. + + W. J. C. + + + + +THE STOKER'S CATECHISM. + + +1. _Question._--How would you proceed to get steam up in a boiler? + +_Answer._--Having filled the boiler with water to the usual height, that +is to say, about four inches over the crown of the fire-tube, I throw in +several shovelfuls of coal or coke towards the bridge, left and right, +keeping the centre clear; then I place the firewood in the centre, throw +some coals on it, light up, and shut the door. Then I open the +side-gauge cocks to allow the heated air to escape, and keep them open +till all the air has cleared out and steam taken the place of it; by +this time the fire will require more fuel, and when the steam is high +enough I connect her by opening the stop-valve a little at a time till +it is wide open and ready for work. + + +2. _Question._--Supposing there are boilers working on each side of the +one you got steam up in, how would you act? + +_Answer._--I would light the fire by putting in a few shovelfuls of live +coal from one of them instead of using firewood; that is all the +difference I would make. + + +3. _Question._--What is the cause of the rapid motion of the water in +the gauge-glass at times? Is that motion general throughout the boiler? + +_Answer._--No; air enters the boiler with the feed-water, and the +gauge-glass tube being in the vicinity of the incoming water, some of +the air enters the glass and flies up rapidly through the top cock and +into the boiler again; in fact there is very little motion of the water +in the boiler at any time while working. I have proved this to be so, +and in this manner: the boiler cleaners having finished the cleaning, +hurriedly scrambled out of the boiler and left several tools they had +been using on the crown of the fire-box, namely, a bass hand brush, a +tin can, and a tin candlestick, and a small iron pail; the manhole cover +was put on and boiler filled and put to work before the things were +thought of, and then it was too late and they had to remain there until +the next cleaning time, which was thirteen weeks; and when the boiler +was at last blown out and the manhole cover removed, the things were on +the crown of the fire-box exactly as they were left three months +previously. In order to satisfy myself of this, to me, extraordinary +discovery, I placed several articles on the crown of the fire-box, +things that could not stop up the blow-off pipe if they were swept off, +and got up steam as usual, and after three months' hard steaming I blew +out the water and steam, took off the manhole cover, and there were the +things as I had left them thirteen weeks previously; of course they were +all coated with fine mud, but no signs of having moved a hair's breadth. + + +4. _Question._--But water in an open caldron with a fire under it, as in +the steam boiler, will madly sweep the sides and bottom with terrific +ebullition. How would you account for the great agitation in the open +caldron while the steam boiler had hardly any, although both vessels had +fierce fires under them? + +_Answer._--In the matter of the open caldron the action of the water has +no resistance but that of the atmosphere, whereas in the steam boiler +the movement of the water is resisted from the moment it is heated, for +then a vapour rises above it, and, as the heat increases, the resistance +to the movement of the water is proportionally increased, and as the +heat of the steam increases the pressure on the water increases +proportionally all through, the steam being above the water. Any old +stoker knows that when getting steam up in a boiler the lower parts are +often only warm when there may be eight or ten lb. on the square inch in +the upper portions; when the water begins to boil the steam rises in the +form of minute globular particles, and remains above the water until +there is an outlet for it by opening the stop-valve or through the +safety-valve; and as the pressure is the same throughout every part, +nook and corner, and angle, there can be no dominating force to cause +any agitation within the boiler. + + +5. _Question._--What is superheated steam, and why is it used? + +_Answer._--If a boiler is placed at a long distance from the engine or +whatever the steam may be used for, there is much or little condensation +according to the distance and the weather, so that there would always be +water mixing with the steam, and that is most objectionable where a +steam engine is concerned, and by super-heating the steam it comes to +the engine as hot and dry as if the boiler were close by; but whatever +the heat of the steam may be, the pressure cannot be increased after the +steam has left the boiler. In proportion to the pressure of steam so is +the heat of it; the higher the pressure the hotter the steam. + + +6. _Question._--If your water gauge-glass broke while the boiler was +working, how would you proceed to rectify the mishap? + +_Answer._--By immediately shutting off both cocks, the water-cock first, +then I would open the blow-out cock (at the bottom of the gauge-glass) +and keep it open to the finish, and commence unscrewing the nuts, +clearing them of any bits of india-rubber that adhered to them, also the +sockets. Get one of the half dozen glasses already cut, and my string of +rubber rings, enter two rings on the bottom end of the glass, slip the +nut over them, slip two rings on the top part of the glass after having +slipped the nut on, and enter the rings in the sockets, then screw up +both top and bottom nuts by hand alternately, and when screwed up +evenly, open the steam cock a shade to warm the glass, and when it is +hot enough, open it more and commence closing the blow-out cock, by +tapping it lightly by hand, then open the steam cock a little more and +open the water cock a little also, and shut off the blow-out cock, and +presently the water enters the glass, and both top and bottom cocks may +now be opened to their full extent, and the job is done. + + +7. _Question._--How would you cut a water gauge-glass to the proper +length? + +_Answer._--I usually cut a piece of iron wire the length the glass +should be, in this way: I measure the length from under the top nut to +the top of the bottom nut, and cut my iron wire to that measurement; +then I cut several glasses in my spare time, instead of doing it when +the glass breaks. I mark a circle where I wish to cut the glass, and +with a three-corner file I run it round this circle to a depth of the +16th of an inch, and break it off on the edge of the vice, bench, or +other solid woodwork; of course this iron-wire gauge will perhaps only +answer for this particular boiler, but in some stoke-hold the boilers +are all alike with regard to the gauge-glasses. + + +8. _Question._--What is the cause of a vacuum in a boiler? And how does +it affect her injuriously? + +_Answer._--The vacuum is mostly caused by letting cold water into a hot +boiler, the hotter the boiler the stronger the vacuum; when the water is +hotter than the boiler, there will be little vacuum; a strong vacuum in +the boiler will cause the air outside to press on the boiler in +proportion--the stronger the vacuum inside, the greater the pressure +outside. In this circumstance the pressure is misplaced for the boiler +was constructed to bear an internal pressure and not an external +pressure. And in getting steam up the pressure on the boiler has to be +reversed, and this tends to loosen the plates and rivets and makes her +leak, if she never leaked before. I have frequently known boilers to be +filled with water over-night to be ready for lighting up in the morning, +and have found the gauge-glass empty; this puzzled me at first, but on +opening the blow-out cock of the water-gauge the air rushed into it with +a gurgling noise, then I knew there was water in the boiler held up by +the vacuum, but I soon altered that by opening the side-cocks, and +letting air into her which soon killed the vacuum, and down came the +water into the glass again to the proper level. When getting steam up, I +always open one of the side gauge cocks and keep it open until steam +issues from it; that permits the foul air to escape and prevents a +vacuum being created; there used to be a vacuum valve in the vicinity of +the steam dome, that opened inwards and prevented a vacuum from being +created. + + +9. _Question._--If you had only one boiler and one engine at work, how +would you manage to clean your one fire without letting the steam go +down? + +_Answer._--When pushed for steam, which usually occurs when the fire is +getting dirty, I get ready all the tools and some of the best of the +coals, and having a bright fire I take the long poker and skim all the +fire to one side and throw a couple of shovelfuls of coals evenly over +it and rake out all the clinkers on the opposite side, then with the +long poker (some people call it Kennedy) I skim all the fire over to the +opposite side and throw a couple of shovelfuls of coals evenly over the +bright fire, and rake out the clinkers on the other side, then I spread +the fire evenly over the bars and sprinkle some more coals over all, and +shut the door. This performance from first to last need not take more +than ten minutes, and the boiler was making steam all the time, and at +the finish I had a better fire than at the beginning, and the steam +hardly lost a pound; but the job must be done quickly. + + +10. _Question._--What is the cause of the humming noise that issues from +a steam boiler at times, and how would you prevent it? + +_Answer._--It is caused chiefly through bad stoking, in having an uneven +fire, full of holes, or crooked bars, the cold air rushing through where +there is the least resistance, and into the tubes, causes the humming +noise--a locomotive nearing home after her day's work has very little +fire on the bars and will generally hum, so there is some excuse for +her, but none for a stationary boiler. Some stokers take credit to +themselves for making the boiler "Hum"; when coals are thrown into the +fire indiscriminately--small and large--the air finds the least +resistance through the small coals, which soon burst into holes, while +the lumps remain solid; then the air rushes into the holes and the +humming commences; or, if the firebars are not equally separated, the +air enters the widest space and the boiler hums; or it may be that the +bars next the side of the fireplace are out of line and lets the air +rush up against the side and the boiler hums. If the stoker would only +drop a shovelful of coals dexterously into each hole the humming would +stop immediately, or level the fire with the rake or long poker, or open +the fire door if the rake is too heavy, and the noise will cease. The +chief point is to have a good set of firebars and well placed; if they +are too long they will hump in the middle or they will bulge sideways; +if they are too close together they become red-hot because there is not +room enough for the air to pass between them to keep them moderately +cool, and if they are too short they will drop down into the ash-pit. + + +11. _Question._--Why is it more difficult to keep steam-tight the +manhole cover of a portable boiler than the manhole cover of a +stationary boiler? + +_Answer._--The portable cover is usually on the side of the boiler, and +about half the cover is immersed in the water and half in the steam; the +portion under water is about 212° of heat, the portion of the same cover +in the steam is about 500° of heat, the hottest part expanding much more +than the cooler part, and is constantly tending to tear itself away from +the lower portion of the cover, and the joint cannot stand the unequal +strain. The manhole cover of a stationary boiler is nearly always on top +of the boiler, and the heat is equal all over it and no contraction and +expansion to cause the joint to leak as in the portable cover. + + +12. _Question._--How would you prepare a boiler for the inspection of a +boiler inspector? + +_Answer._--I would blow her right out, take off the manhole cover, take +out the safety valve, take out all firebars and the bridge, take down +flue-port brickwork, have the boiler and flues thoroughly cleaned and +swept, have a lamp or candle ready to light, a hand hammer and chisel, +or scraper, a pailful of clean water, and a wad of cotton waste. When +the inspector arrives, he quickly dons his overalls; I hand him the +light and the tools and waste, and he is into the fireplace in a jiffy; +down the side flues, under the boiler, giving a whack with the hammer +now and then, and scraping off any suspicious scale, etc.; and when he +comes out, as black as any sweep, he slips out of the overalls, gives +them a whack against the wall, folds them up tight, and crams them into +the black bag; has a dive in the pail, and is soon ready to go off +somewhere else. But he tells me something about the boiler before he +goes--not to my discredit. + + +13. _Question._--How do you proceed to get her to work again, and what +materials do you use? + +_Answer._--I first proceed to build the bridge and flue-ports, put in +the firebars, the thin bars at the sides; then I replace the +safety-valve, taking care not to damage it or its seat, fill the boiler +with clean water, put in the boiler the usual quantity of Naenaires +Anti-Corrosion liquid, or the powder, make the manhole joint with +plaited three-strand spun yarn and stiff putty (red lead and white lead) +and lay the fire, which is done in this way: throw a dozen shovelfuls of +coals towards the bridge, and to left and right of it till they reach +near to the dead-plate, leaving the centre clear for the firewood; then +throw in three or four shovelfuls of coals over the wood, with oily +waste or paper in front, and she is ready for lighting, and the "fire +is laid." The material for the bridge and the flue ports are firebricks +and fireclay; these are rather expensive, but I learnt a wrinkle in the +building up of bridge and flues. Through the frequent removals of these +for boiler inspection and the hitting of the end of the long poker, +several bricks were broken every three months, and I came to the +decision to try stock bricks faced with fireclay as mortar; and I was +more than satisfied with the result, and ever since then I used stock +bricks and fireclay only. + + +14. _Question._--How high should the top of the bridge be from the crown +of the boiler or from the fire-tube? + +_Answer._--The bridge should be about nine inches from the crown of the +fire-tube, if it were eight the draught would be curtailed, if it were +ten the draught under the bars would be diminished, through much air +passing over the bridge instead of under the firebars. As I had +permission from my employers to build the bridge to the best advantage +for myself in keeping up the steam, and having tried different heights +for many years, I found that nine inches was the nearest to perfection. +And in these experiments two additional bridges were built in one +boiler; six feet behind the ordinary bridge was a concave bridge and six +feet behind that was a convex bridge. The concave bridge was built +close up to the bottom of the fire-tube, and resembled a small archway, +and extended down to within nine inches of the bottom or shell of the +fireplace; the convex bridge was built on the bottom of the shell and +reached to within nine inches of the fire-tube. When the flame from the +furnace shot over the ordinary bridge, it clashed down under the concave +bridge, then rose up and swept through the convex bridge and away to the +bottom flues; the object of these three bridges, in one tube and for one +fire, was to keep the flame and heat in the boiler as long as possible, +instead of the heat flying swiftly over the bridge and out of the +boiler. This experiment seemed to answer very well, but as there were +several other boilers connected with this one there was no opportunity +of testing it correctly, but the three bridges remained established, and +were frequently shown to engineers and others. + + +15. _Question._--What advantage is there in having the blow-off pipe of +a boiler entering it from the top instead of at the bottom? + +_Answer._--I am not aware of any advantage in it, but I am aware of a +disadvantage in it, and it is this, that while the boiler is being blown +right out for the purpose of cleaning, or other reasons, the stoker will +often commence doing some other work, and in due course the boiler is +filled up with water, and the fire lighted, and by-and-by the stoker +comes to see what progress she is making; he looks at the water-gauge +but sees no water in it because it has syphoned out of the boiler; at +first the heated air pressed on the water and forced it through the +blow-off pipe, and then the pipe became a syphon, and the pressure +increasing as the water leaves the boiler, she is soon emptied, and if +the fire is not raked out, soon burnt. Such a mishap could not happen to +a boiler with the blow-off pipe at the bottom, for when the stoker blows +out his boiler he must shut the cock before he can fill her, and when +filled there is no chance of the water escaping out again. + + +16. _Question._--Is there not some disadvantage in having the blow-out +cock at the bottom of the boiler? + +_Answer._--Yes; the cock and pipe are subject to corrosion on account of +water dripping down on them from the stoke-hold floor, as some stokers +quench their clinkers and ashes while they are up against the front of +the boiler, instead of drawing them forward a few inches from the front: +and as the pipe is out of sight under the plates of the floor, nobody +takes the trouble to lift them and examine--not only the pipe and the +cock, but that part of the boiler where the water streams down from the +drenched ashes so frequently. So there are disadvantages in both methods +of blowing out the boiler, and always will be, until the stoker learns +his business, and takes an interest in his work, not only for his own +sake, but his employer's also. + + +17. _Question._--What is the most important appendage to a steam boiler? + +_Answer._--The safety-valve, but it is not always a safety-valve, when +it is weighted to twice the amount the boiler is certified to be worked +at safely. As an instance: Amongst the many engines employed at the +Midland Extension Works, St. Pancras, was a light steam crane for +hoisting earth from the deep excavations, there were in use small wooden +skips, and the pressure of steam was forty-five lb.; but after a time +there arrived large iron skips that the crane could not lift, even when +empty; there were about twenty men depending on the crane for their work +and the navvy-ganger was anxious for "something to be done," and the +crane man hinted about weighting the safety-valve, and no sooner said +than almost done; the safety spring balance was screwed down, and a +railway chair suspended from it by strong copper wire, and the steam +allowed to rise until it reached ninety lb. on the inch, and the big +iron skips were hoisted with their load of heavy ballast as easily as +the wooden ones had been. The boiler _happened_ to stand it. + + +18. _Question._--Have you any other instance? + +_Answer._--Yes; in an establishment in Hammersmith some years ago, the +stoker was in the habit of putting a bit of iron on the end of the +horizontal lever of a safety valve when the steam rose too high, and the +manager was about, and when it went down he would take off the bit of +iron and put it where he could find it for the next occasion. The +manager had gone away one day, and advantage was taken of it to have a +little carouse in which most of the men took a part; and when the steam +rose the stoker popped his bit of iron on the lever and all was quiet +for a time, when another noisy safety-valve began to blow off, and on +went another bit of iron that stopped the noise, and during all this +time the fires of seven or eight boilers were burning fiercely, and the +stoker should have checked his fires instead of what he had done; but in +the midst of the carouse all the boilers began to belch forth steam when +the manager came on the scene. The stoker tried to pick off the bits of +iron before the manager could see them, but the steam was to high for +that; and when at last the noise subsided and the steam had cleared +away, the whole of the revellers were on view, caught in a trap, as +there was only one exit. Most of the men were fined or suspended, the +bits of iron were discovered on the levers, and the stoker had a week's +notice to clear out, and lock-up valves were fitted on every boiler and +the keys kept in the manager's desk ever after. + + +19. _Question._--Can you always depend on the safety-valve lifting when +the steam rises? + +_Answer._--I always keep an eye on the pressure gauge, and if I find +that the safety-valve does not lift at the pressure it ought to lift at +I know that the valve is sticking, and I lift the lever and let the +steam out; the cause of the sticking may be that the valve has worn down +in its seat and becomes conical, or there may be a shoulder on the valve +that would cause it to stick, or it may be that the lever and fulcrum +were smeared with oily dirty waste in the process of cleaning and not +wiped off, but left to bake between the parts, which would prevent the +free action of the safety valve. + + +20. _Question._--Why is the safety-valve lifted at times, especially +when getting steam up? + +_Answer._--It is often done by old stokers as well as new ones, and is +more of a silly habit than of trying the pressure of the steam, +especially as there is nowadays a pressure gauge for every boiler in a +stoke-hold. By lifting the safety-valve while steam is in the boiler and +dropping it down again is a dangerous practice; there is a rush of steam +to the valve when lifted, and when it drops the rush of steam is +instantly stopped, and rebounds like an india-rubber ball hit against +the wall, and this commotion within the boiler is likely to blow the +stop-valve to pieces or the manhole cover off. Besides that, there is +always dust floating on the surface of the water, especially in a boiler +just cleaned, and when the valve is lifted the dust is carried up with +the steam, and when the valve is dropped the dust is caught under it and +often causes the valve to leak. + + +21. _Question._--When the water in the gauge-glass appears motionless +while the boiler is working, what does it portend, and how would you +proceed to rectify the stagnation of the water? + +_Answer._--It portends that the passage for the water is choked and +requires clearing, and I would lose no time in commencing to rectify the +stoppage; as a stoker who is responsible for the safety of the boiler I +am always prepared for emergencies. I commence by shutting both cocks of +the glass, the steam and the water, and unscrew the small bolt in the +water gauge, which is fixed there for the purpose of clearing the tube +that conveys the water to the glass, and with an iron wire in one hand, +I open the water cock with the other hand, and push the wire into the +small hole from which I took the bolt, giving several pushes and pulls +while the water and steam are flying out, until the tube is quite clear; +then I withdraw the wire, shut the cock, and serve the steam cock in +like manner; and while I was doing all this the bottom cock of the gauge +(the blow-out cock) was open from the beginning. Then I commence to put +the pressure on the glass by warming it with steam from the top cock +slowly; then I open the water cock a little, and so on, alternately; +then I commence shutting the blow-out cock a little. By these +man[oe]uvres the pressure on the glass is put on gradually instead of +popping it on too suddenly and breaking the glass, as is often done by +the _more-haste-the-less-speed_ stoker; now I shut the bottom cock and +open the other two, and the water bounds into the glass quite frisky, +and the boiler is safe for the present. + + +22. _Question._--What would be the consequence if the steam cock of the +water gauge was choked, while the water cock was clear, or vice versa? + +_Answer._--The consequence would be most serious for the boiler, as the +water would be forced up into the glass by the steam under it, and would +make it appear as if too much water was in the boiler, and the stoker +would proceed in the usual way to blow out some of this, apparently, +surplus water; and then watch to see it come down to the working level +in the glass, but he watches in vain--it will never come down. He might +empty the boiler dry, and the water in the glass will be there as long +as a breath of steam remains in the boiler to keep it up. And in the +event of the water-cock being choked while the steam-cock was clear the +consequence would be equally dangerous, for the water that was in the +glass before the stoppage occurred would remain in it, for the stoppage +would not allow it to drop down into the boiler again; so there it would +remain, and when the stoker came round to look at his boiler, unless he +happened to notice that no movement of the water was visible, he would +pass on without further ado, and remain in total ignorance of his +danger. Hence the necessity for the stoker to blow out his water gauge +every time he comes in front of his boiler, and if the water enters the +glass in a sluggish or dilatory way the cocks need to be cleared of the +partial stoppage, and let the water enter the glass with a rush. + + +23. _Question._--Could a boiler collapse without affecting the fusible +plug? + +_Answer._--Yes; the tank that supplied the boiler with water leaked +badly, and to stop the leaks a quantity of fine oatmeal was mixed with +water and poured into it, and in due time reached the boiler; but +instead of the oatmeal permeating the whole of the water in the boiler, +it never got beyond the parts surrounding the fireplace; it stuck on the +sides and top thickly, and was baked hard on them. After a few days the +sides of the fire-tube bulged inwards nearly twelve inches, and the +boiler had to be stopped and blown out, and the fusible plug was found +to be unaffected--it was one selected by a Boiler Insurance Company, who +had to repair this damage, and the stoker was exonerated from blame, but +there is little doubt that if the plug had leaked the mishap would have +been attributed to shortness of water and the stoker would be blamed for +what he did not do, and get the sack into the bargain. + + +24. _Question._--Why is it that an injector can force water into a +boiler from which the steam comes to work the injector at a greater +pressure than is in the boiler? + +_Answer._--The secret of the working of the injector is due to the +velocity of the steam issuing from the point of a conical tube, and +water issuing from another conical tube somewhat larger than the steam +cone, and a partial vacuum created in the barrel by the steam and cold +water meeting--as both cones face each other. The cones are about four +inches long, one and a quarter inch wide at the mouths, and about one +half of an inch at the points. The suction pipe, steam pipe and delivery +pipe are about one inch diameter, and the overflow pipe half an inch +diameter, and the water tank three feet below the level of the injector, +the space within the barrel might be twelve square inches; the water and +steam cocks are supposed to be always open, and this is how the injector +is started working. The water-wheel is turned partly round, and a +figured disc behind it indicates the quantity of water let into the +barrel, while the steam is let in by turning a wheel attached to a +quick-screw spindle; then there are ructions inside--the steam and water +have come together, and the water overflows through the half-inch pipe; +but by a little manipulation of the water, air will soon start it +working; then the overflow ceases, and the air rushes into the pipe and +hums, and the injector is working. And the reason of its working is, in +my humble opinion, the concentration of water and steam, with the vacuum +thrown in, that gives additional pressure to the water in the injector. +I might venture to say it gives fully ten lb. on the square inch over +and above the pressure of steam within the boiler. + + +25. _Question._--The noise created by the injector while working being +very objectionable, could it be mitigated? And, if so, how? + +_Answer._--Yes; I succeeded in quieting an injector in one establishment +where anything louder than the scratching of a goose-quill was +considered a nuisance. I first began by putting a piece of paper against +the mouth of the overflow pipe while the injector was working, and the +noise ceased, but soon after that the paper was sucked up into the +injector. I then applied a leathern disc, which answered well, and +proved just the right thing; sometimes the water blurted out, but not +often, and the leathern disc was permanently established; but the +injector would not work with water above 100 degrees of heat; so I would +start with cold water and gradually turn on the hot water and shut off +the cold, and she never noticed the change, but the noise was stopped. + + +26. _Question._--How would you quiet a noisy pump--one of those stuck up +in a corner of the stoke-hold that can be heard, but not often seen? + +_Answer._--I had one of them once--a very good little "Manchester Donkey +Pump," but as noisy as they make 'em--and it became a question whether +she should be discarded for an injector; she was bolted to a wall in the +basement of a block of offices and could be heard throughout the +building, and my employer told me that he would willingly give a 5_l._ +note to anyone who would stop the noise. The donkey was vertical; I took +off both valve covers and drilled a 3/8-inch hole in each projection +from the cover that gave the valve its lift, and drove a wooden peg into +each hole from the under side, and rasped them down to give the required +lift, and put the covers on again and started the donkey, and after some +more raspings of the plugs I started her again, and this time was +successful; she worked like india-rubber, no noise whatever, and I +gained more than was offered to quiet her--a cheque of 21_l._ This +happened in Draper's Gardens, Throgmorton Avenue, E.C. + + +27. _Question._--When several boilers are working in a row, and one of +the middle ones has to be cleaned, what would you do to keep it cool +enough to enable the men to do the cleaning, and also to protect them +while in the boiler? + +_Answer._--Having blown her right out I would take off the wheel of the +stop-valve spindle, tie a piece of canvas on the top of the spindle and +lock the wheel up, so that no one should open the stop-valve while the +men were in the boiler. Many dreadful things have happened through some +thoughtless or meddlesome idiot opening the stop-valve while men were +working in the boiler. I also cover the blow-off cocks of the boilers in +steam, as there is usually a pipe into which the steam and water is +carried off running parallel with the cocks, and take charge of the +spanner used in opening them, in case an absent-minded stoker might +attempt to blow some of the muddy water out of his boiler when the men +were in the empty one, and scald them to death, the steam rushing up +through the blow-off. I then fill the boiler up with cold water several +times, and allow cold water to play into the boiler from the manhole by +means of the hose pipe, and the blow-off cock being open there is always +a cool atmosphere for the men to work in; they can remain longer in the +boiler, do twice the amount of work, and in less time than in a +scorching atmosphere. When the cleaning is done and the boiler rinsed +out, I shut the blow-off cock and fill her with clean water to the usual +height; take off the canvas on the spindle, replace the wheel, and the +boiler is ready for lighting up the fire. + + +28. _Question._--Does familiarity with one's work as stoker sometimes +lead to carelessness and then to mishaps? And, if so, give an instance? + +_Answer._--Yes; familiarity in doing things frequently during work, +tends to a careless off-hand style of self-importance that has often +caused trouble and mishap. A crane driver employed at the Midland +Railway Extension at St. Pancras, came to work one winter's morning and +the steam being already up, turned it on to warm the steam chest and +cylinder, preparatory to commencing work for the day, forgetting that it +had been freezing hard all night, and split the steam chest to pieces. +His plea of defence was that steam had remained in the chest and +condensed, and become ice, then expanding, burst the steam chest; this +plea served all right, but the following summer he was less successful. +He came to me during the dinner hour and said, "Jack, I can't get any +water into my boiler, will you come over and look at her?" I did go +over, and on looking at the water gauge saw it was empty, opened the +cocks, but dry steam came forth, opened the fire door and found a bright +fire of coke; while the engine was pegging away to get water into the +boiler. I said, "Bill, stop your engine and draw your fire at once, and +my name's Walker." I went back quicker than I came; and an hour later +he came over to me looking very down, and said, "Jack, I've done it." I +knew what he meant and went over with him to look at the boiler. It was +as complete wreck, and I told him to fly off and get any money that was +owing him before he got locked up; he did go, and I never saw him since. +This man was an engine fitter before he took to engine driving--poor +fellow, I was very sorry for him. Another instance. A stoker had to fill +a boiler and get up steam in her one Sunday morning, there was a big +tank over the stoke-hold from which water was taken to fill cold +boilers, a two-inch pipe with stop-cock led to the top of each boiler +from the bottom of the tank. But the tank was empty on this occasion; a +donkey pump close by was used to keep the tank filled, but this boiler +was the one from which the donkey took her steam, and was now empty, but +the stoker solved the puzzle: a boiler with steam was in use about fifty +yards away, and having a steam-pipe connection to the empty one he +opened the cock and commenced letting the steam into her, but it was +condensing as fast as it went in; and being one of the extra clever +ones, he lighted a fire in the grate so as to stop the condensing, and +did stop it, and let in sufficient steam to work the donkey-pump and +partly filled the tank, and was proceeding to open the two-inch cold +water pipe when one of the workmen passing by saw some cotton waste +smoking strongly on top of the boiler, which induced him to open the +furnace door, and he saw that the boiler was red-hot and collapsed; he +rushed up to the stoker who had his hand already on the stop-cock to let +water into her when he was forcibly pulled away from it, much against +his will, but when he saw the damage he had caused he sheered off and we +saw no more of him. This case occurred at the London Hydro-Carbon Oil +Works, Southall, W. One more: On a Sunday morning a stoker came in to +break the joint of a manhole, empty the boiler and fill her up again +with water. After taking the dogs off and securing the cover from +falling into the boiler, the stoker gave the cover a tap with the end of +the spanner to loosen the joint, but the cover showed no signs of +slackening, and the end of a crowbar was requisitioned but without +result; and in this case, as in a former one, my opinion was solicited +as well as help. I used the crowbar end harder every blow; when at last +the cover seemed to spring downwards and upwards, I dropped the bar +instantly, thinking the devil had a hold of the cover. After a moment's +thought I went down into the stoke-hold and opened one of the gauge +cocks and steam rushed out; there were no pressure gauges in this +establishment; every one of the twenty boilers had eight weights +suspended from the lever of the safety-valve, each weight representing +five lb. pressure. I took off the weights one by one, and when five of +them had been removed steam began to blow off, showing that fifteen lb. +pressure was in the boiler while I was trying to knock the manhole cover +in. On inquiry it transpired that the man whose duty it was to blow out +this boiler the previous day asked his mate to do it, and the mate +forgot all about it (it being Saturday night), and these omissions +nearly caused a catastrophe. This occurred in Pimlico, S.W. + + +29. _Question._--What advantage to the employer is the self-acting +stoker for steam boilers? + +_Answer._--He can use the very cheapest and smallest coals; the cold air +is never permitted to enter the boiler; there is no cleaning out fires +with the door wide open; the steam is more uniform in pressure; the +boiler will last longer, and little or no smoke. There is a drawback to +these advantages: there must be a live stoker to keep the automatic +stoker up to its work; he has to keep the coals supplied to the "Jacob's +Ladder"; he has to regulate the supply of coals to the boxes over each +boiler, and regulate the supply of coals dropping down into the +fireplace, regulate the speed of the travelling furnace by means of the +ratchet, clean out the ash-hole of clinkers every two hours and wheel +them out of the stoke-hold, regulate the water-supply to the boilers, +and keep the steam at the proper pressure, and rectify any and every +derangement and mishap that occurs to the self acting stoker. + + +30. _Question._--But are not these "self-acting stokers" smoke consumers +as well? + +_Answer._--The self-acting stokers have to be kept working by the live +stoker, and are smoke consumers so long as the coals let down on the +travelling furnace is exactly proportionate to the requirements of it, +but if the supply should exceed what is necessary, the grate becomes +choked with coals and has to be cleared of some of them, and in doing +this with coals partly burnt, smoke is inevitable; and if the supply is +insufficient, the grate becomes bare of fuel, and cold air finds its way +through the bars and checks the steam. To remedy this, the coal is let +down and carried onward by the moving grate before they can be ignited, +and soon begin to smoke, so that in these two extremes, too much or too +little coals will cause smoke; but if this type of furnace is in charge +of a competent stoker, there is little chance of the bars being choked +with coals, or starved for want of them. + + +31. _Question._--Is it not possible to consume the smoke of a boiler +furnace independent of patents and mechanical contrivances that can +only be worked by an experienced stoker? + +_Answer._--I have proved it possible where several boilers were +connected and working, and using small and smoky coals. In an +establishment in West London the system in vogue was in this manner: all +the bridges were built hollow, and an iron flap covered the bottom of +the bridge, and a long iron rod from the flap was carried to the front +of the boiler, and an inch steam pipe with cock attached entered the +fireplace above the door, and was joined to a two-inch perforated pipe +that was fixed from left to right over and above the dead-plate. When +the fires required replenishing, the flap was opened, then the door and +steam cock, and six shovelfuls of coals were hastily thrown in evenly +over the fire, and the door was then shut. The result of this +performance was a mixture of steam and smoke observable at the chimney +top, the steam was kept on while any smoke was visible; then the next +boiler was served in like manner, and was a continual round of work to +the exclusion of other things. This method prevailed for many years +before I came on the scene, and noticing that a great quantity of steam +was wasted for the purpose of hiding the smoke, and the six shovelfuls +of coals hardly compensated for the steam spread over them, I induced +the man who built the bridges, after inspection, to build them solid, +and then I commenced a new method of firing, in this manner: I sprinkle +the small coals with water from a hose-pipe, and burn one fire down low, +but bright; I shut the damper nearly close and commence firing towards +the bridge and sides, until the grate is full nearly to the crown of the +fireplace, allowing the gas to remain in the furnace and flues for +twenty minutes, then I open the damper a couple of inches; by this time +there are numerous jets of flame flickering all over the coals, and now +I open the damper to the full extent and I soon have a rousing +steam-making fire. I serve the next low fire in like manner, and so on. +But it is necessary always while burning one fire down for the purpose +of banking it up, to have all the other fires in good condition and +capable of keeping up the steam independently of the one to be banked +up; if the others should burn down too low before one of them is banked, +smoke will follow the neglect. I remained several years in this employ; +my method was very successful, with proper care and watchfulness, and +was adopted in a similar establishment in South London. The former +establishment was the West Middlesex Water Works, and the latter the +Southwark and Vauxhall Water Works. One ton of Welsh coals was allowed +every twenty-four hours to get the seven fires up after cleaning. Here +is another method for consuming the smoke, but is a very wasteful one; +four or five shovelfuls of small smoky coals are thrown on or near the +dead-plate, where they remain until they become sufficiently heated to +ignite, and are then pushed on to the bars by the rake, and a similar +quantity again thrown on the dead-plate, and when ignited pushed on to +the bars as before, and so it is continued. It is expected that the +smoke while passing over the bright fire towards the bridge will be +ignited, but only a very small portion of it becomes flame, and the +smoke tends to deaden the bright fire to a great extent. The door has to +be opened so frequently in this method, and in pushing the coals from +the dead-plate to the bars a large amount of live fuel drops down into +the ash-pit, and if this should be thrown into the furnace again, the +fire is deadened immediately. There is no economy in this method, which +I tried years ago but never continued since. + + +32. _Question._--Is there any difference, and if so, what is it, in +locomotive and stationary boiler stoking? + +_Answer._--There is a wide difference between the methods, not only of +firing but of the general work of the firemen and the stoker. (I cannot +see why one should be called stoker and the other fireman, for they +both have to keep the fire going and the steam up). The loco. fireman +had to be at the engine shed forty-five minutes, and the driver thirty +minutes, before the time of the train starting; the fireman gets the +stores necessary for the journey, such as oil, tallow, cotton waste, +yellow grease, and perhaps fog signals, gets his lamps from the lamp +room already trimmed--these are the head lamp, side lamp, water gauge +lamp, tail lamp and hand lamp; he places the head lamp on the right hand +side of the buffer plank, the side lamp on the left side of the tender, +the gauge lamp close to the glass, the tail lamp behind the tender; he +has to take his engine to be coaled (it used to be coke in my early days +on the L. & N. W. R.), and fills his tender with water, and brings his +engine over a pit, fills the axle-boxes of engine and tender; by this +time the driver shows up, and goes under the engine and thoroughly +examines every part of the gear; then he oils her, and both men sign on +for the particular train that the engine's number is in line with, and +run down the incline to Euston, where they hook on to their train and +wait. If it should turn out to be a particularly heavy train, the driver +will request the pilot-engine driver to hook on and go perhaps as far as +Tring or Wolverton with the train, otherwise the pilot will detach at +the top of the incline at Camden; if it should be a night train, with +the pilot in front, it is an experience never to be forgotten by a young +stoker. (I was not far in my teens when I had this experience, but an +old man now). And at last the signal is given us to start; we blow the +whistle and off we go, two engines panting, puffing, sending up showers +of sparks, and soon we leave Camden behind, and by the time we reach +Watford we are travelling about fifty miles an hour; this is the speed +to test the stoker who has to light his lamps the while, travel round +the foot-plate and keep his balance, and replenish his fire and climb +the tender frequently; but the passenger trains are a luxury in +comparison to the luggage trains. The luggage engines being bigger and +stronger than the passenger engine requires more steam and water, +because she has more than double the load to run with, and at the +stations wagons have to be shunted frequently and often re-shunted; some +are left and others taken to far-off places; the guard's van has to be +detached always in order to have it at the end of the train; the stoker +is hard at work with the brake putting it on and off, jumping down to +hold the points, or coupling wagons--this is not his business, but he +does it to facilitate the work. When the luggage train had to get into a +siding to let a passenger train go by, there was no pit (except at a +station) for the engine to stand over, and both men would have to crawl +under the engine to do anything necessary, through wet, or snow, or mud; +and when starting the engine out of the siding or from a station, and +the driving wheels slipping round, the stoker had to jump down with his +shovel and scrape up a bit of gravel, or sand, or clay, and pop it on +the rail in front of the driving wheel, and if that should stop the +slipping, the engine gave a bound forward and the stoker had to run to +keep up with the engine, throw his shovel on to the foot-plate, and +scramble up the best way he could, or be left behind. In bad weather, if +it rained, hailed, or snowed, both driver and stoker had to keep a +look-out by holding their hands up before their eyes and looking between +their fingers; when it rained, and one side of each man was wet through, +they would change places till the other side got wet through also. These +were the good old times. Drivers and firemen in the present time may +thank their stars that the way was well paved for them before they +started. So there is hardly any similarity between a stationary boiler +stoker and a locomotive stoker, except keeping the steam up perhaps; the +loco. stoker is the king of all stokers. + + +33. _Question._--How is the stoking done on a big steam ship? + +_Answer._--In a Royal West Indian Mail Steam Packet, in which I was +stoker, there were forty-five stokers and coal trimmers, forty-five +sailors, besides a number of stewards, stewardesses, six engineers, six +ship's officers, several mail officials, butchers, bakers, and a brass +band of eighteen musicians. There were two stoke-holds, one fore and one +abaft the funnel, and four boilers in each, and four furnaces in each +boiler, and three stokers in each stoke-hold, also three trimmers in +each stoke-hold. There was the same method of working in both +stoke-holds, and a constant and continual round of firing kept up day +and night. When going down on watch I have a piece of waste in each hand +to protect them from the hot handrails; I commence work by cleaning the +small tubes of four furnaces, then clean out the four furnaces, rake out +the ashes from the pit and fill them and the clinkers into iron buckets, +which the sailors haul up and empty over the ship's side. And while I am +engaged in this work my two mates are doing my firing for me--which is +in this way: one man fires every other fire of the sixteen fires, then +goes round again and fires those he missed the first round, then his +mate takes the shovel from his hands and fires every other fire, then +fires those he missed the first round; the third man does likewise, and +so it is constant firing all through. And having towering hot boilers +both sides of us and roaring furnaces behind and in front, the sweat +pours from us continually, and we are glad to pop into the engine room +after firing to get a draught of somewhat cooler air. I happened to have +the middle watch--12 midnight to 4 a.m.--which is the worst of the +watches, for when I came off at four the hands on deck were always doing +something to make a noise, and there is little chance of getting a +sleep, and hammocks must be stowed away before eight; then breakfast, +and the brass band strikes up for half an hour; but if there had been +dog-watches all of us would share in the middle watch--as follows:-- + + Brown Morning Watch 4 to 8 a.m. + Jones Forenoon " 8 to 12 noon. + Robinson Afternoon " 12 to 4 p.m. + Brown First Dog " 4 to 6 p.m. + Jones Second Dog " 6 to 8 p.m. + Robinson First " 8 to 12 midnight. + Brown Middle " 12 to 4 a.m. + Jones Morning " 4 to 8 a.m. = 24 hours. + +A few hours after leaving Southampton all hands are mustered and +apportioned to man the seventeen boats hanging from the davits, eight on +each side, and the captain's gig under the stern; after this ceremony we +get an allowance of grog. The fires are now beginning to be dirty, +having clinkers seven or eight inches thick, which are not allowed to be +pulled out until the whole fire is cleaned at the usual time; this +order from the chief engineer surprised me at the time, as clinkers are +not calculated to increase the steam, so I left them there to deaden the +fire, but later on I found the solution; I was told by an old stoker +that there was sharp competition between the chief engineers as to who +could do the voyage at the least expense of coals, and that information +explained the action of our chief engineer who would often perambulate +the deck till midnight, watching the windsails that they should remain +with their backs to the wind in order to prevent a breath of cool air +reaching the fires, that would cause them to burn a few more pounds of +coals, while some of the stokers were often hauled up in the ash-bucket +fainting from the stifling heat of the foul-smelling stoke-hold. We were +all supplied with fishing-lines and hooks of three different sizes, and +extra grog when getting steam up. The method of cleaning and polishing +the engines and all bright work was very effectual, and did the stokers +great credit; after having scoured and polished the steel and bright +ironwork they were frosted, in imitation of hoar frost. A pot of hot +tallow and white lead in which a clean piece of cotton waste was dipped, +and the parts smeared evenly in line with the metal, and when this dried +it was dabbed, or patted, with another clean piece of waste also dipped +in the hot tallow, which gave the metal a good imitation of hoar frost; +the brass and copper work were burnished and shone like gold. The boat +drill and fire drill create some wonder for the passengers, as they +always happen unexpectedly; the former begins in this way: a large gong +is rapidly hit with a mallet by the quartermaster, and all those stokers +and sailors, who belong to the seventeen boats hanging from the davits, +immediately make their way towards them and commence to clear the falls, +and the word is given to lower all boats, while the men hold their oars +ready to push off, and the boats are run down nearly to the water's +edge; then it is up all boats, and those on deck run them up in a jiffy +to their places under the davits, and coil the tails up, and this ends +the boat drill. The fire drill takes place on another day, and commences +in this manner: the ship's bell is rapidly rung by the quartermaster; +the unusual rapidity of the ringing attracts the attention of all the +passengers who commence to crowd the upper deck; the stokers drop down a +dozen hose-pipes on the deck and run them out straight, and screw them +to nozzles leading down to the engine room. The engineers pop the pumps +on and up comes the water; every hose is now stiffened and the branches +are all directed over the ship's side, where they make a grand display. +All those of the ship's company who take no watches, as cooks, stewards, +bandsmen, etc., have each a pail full of water in hand, others a +blanket over their arm, all in exact line, and ready to help if +required; and after a few minutes' display of the hose-pipes, the +boatswain's whistle ends this drill for this voyage, and the hose-pipes +are disconnected, rolled up, and hung up, to be ready at any moment if +required. There are plenty of amusements on board, such as single-stick, +glove-boxing, wrestling, etc. But the game of the "Man in the Chair," is +one of the most laughable. A piece of board, 12 inches by 18 inches, in +which a strong rope is inserted in a hole in each corner and knotted on +the underside, the four ropes are carried upwards and made fast to the +forestay, and the "chair" has to be 6 feet from the deck. There are +perhaps thirty stokers in this game, and each one has twisted his black +silk neckerchief into rope shape, and a volunteer sits on the chair, +holding on to one of the chair-ropes with one hand and in the other his +silken rope. During these preliminary tactics the passengers are +crowding round to see what may happen. At last the man on the chair +gives the word "Ready Boys," and then commences a real slogging match, +hitting the chairman on legs, arms, face, neck, anywhere they can hit +him, and every hit being a matter of chance the passengers roar when the +man in the chair delivers a stinger to his tormentors; his blows come +with double force, as he is high above them, and swinging round and +round, and to and fro, they come unexpectedly and cause roars of +laughter; while this is going on a little tub, called a spitkin, is +surreptitiously pushed in view, and a few silver coins dropped into it +by one of our men, which causes the audience to dip their hands in their +pockets and a few pounds in silver are quickly thrown in; and after half +an hour's play this game comes to an end. One more specimen of the many +games that delight the passengers: about twenty men stand close together +and in line, their faces to the ship's head, the front man has a bandage +on his eyes, any one in the rank is at liberty to step out and go up to +him and slap his cheek, and dart off to his place in the rank before the +blindfold touches him; if he does, the touched one has to don the +bandage, and the other pulls his bandage off and takes a place in the +rank. When the slap is delivered, the slapper darts back to his place in +the rank with all possible speed, and the slapped one darts after the +other like greased lightning, and touches the wrong man perhaps, and +pulls the bandage off, only to have to put on again, while the +passengers roar with delight; the little tub is not forgotten in this +game; and then the climax comes when we think the blindfold has had +enough of it, and when a burly stoker steps out to deliver his slap, the +rank closes up tightly, and on rushing back to his place with the +blindfold at his heels, and the wild exertions of the man to squeeze +himself into the rank before he is touched and the joy of the blindfold +who has just touched his man, creates loud cheers and laughter, and the +burly man has to don the bandage and take his stand in front. Before +arriving at St. Thomas, there is a general clean up, bilges pumped out, +engines cleaned, boiler fronts and lagging polished; the passengers are +preparing for another voyage to some of the islands further west, as +Trinidad, St. Vincent, Barbadoes, Martinique, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, etc. +On entering the harbour guns are fired in our honour, and we return the +compliment by firing our six-pounder from the forecastle, the Colonial +steamer comes alongside our ship, when there are cheers and waving of +handkerchiefs and handshaking; the bumboats come alongside also and many +people, and board our ship, offering us a great variety of things for +sale; women galavanting over every part soliciting the officers' +washing, etc., etc. Our engines receive a thorough overhaul, boilers are +cleaned, cabins and stairways painted, and all bright metal cleaned and +repolished; our coals are delivered on board by a swarm of men, women +and youths, of both sexes, carrying them in small wicker baskets on +their heads, and stepping on a scale or counter on their way to the +ship, the process occupying about three days for about 800 tons of Welsh +coal. At last the time has come for starting for home; all visitors are +ordered off the ship: moorings are cast off, and a man at the voice-pipe +speaks to the engineers down below, and the great paddle-wheels revolve +slowly for a minute, while the band strikes up some appropriate air, as +"Afloat on the Ocean my days gaily fly," or "Afloat on the Ocean Wave." +Then commence the wild cheering and waving of hats and handkerchiefs +while the great paddles have lashed the water into white foam, and we +are fairly off for a fourteen days' voyage home. In all our games on +board in which I took part I noticed the distinguished presence of our +highly respected captain, which I am sure greatly enhanced our takings +in the little dish. + + +34. _Question._--How is a hydraulic pump constructed? + +_Answer._--There are various sizes, ranging from a 1/4-inch to 4 inches +in the diameter of the plunger or piston, as it is sometimes called; the +larger size would be constructed in this manner; the barrel of the pump +is 3 feet long, and on its top, and in line with it, and in the same +casting, an air chamber is situate into which water and air enter at +every suction of plunger, and serve as a buffer or cushion in the +delivery stroke. The spindle of the plunger is connected to the piston +of the steam engine by a hole and stuffing box in the cylinder cover, +and a connecting crosshead secures the spindle of the plunger and the +extra piston, so that would bring the crank of the engine, the +connecting rod, piston, extra piston, and plunger all in a straight +line, and a direct stroke. About 6 inches of the plunger is occupied by +the packing at the outer end; a solid ring of iron an inch wide, and an +inch high, and securely pinned to the plunger, has a leather cup pushed +on to it, then a loose ring is slid up against the back of the leather +cup and another cup, and another ring, until the space for the packing +is filled up; then a nut is screwed up behind these which brings cups +and rings tightly together, and a jam-nut with a split-pin going through +nut and spindle and opened wide enough to clear the sides of the barrel, +and the hydraulic pump is ready for work. + + +35. _Question._--How is a hydraulic accumulator constructed, and why is +it necessary? + +_Answer._--By having an accumulator, a lift, crane, or press, works +smoothly, as there is a steady and smooth supply of the power; whereas +without it, the lift, crane, or press, would work in jerks or jumps; +with every stroke of the pumps there would be a jerk; it would be an +intermittent not a continual power. The accumulator consists of a +cylinder of cast iron about 9 feet in height, 4 feet outside diameter +and 3 feet internal diameter; it rests on massive oaken timbers about 4 +feet from the ground; inside the cylinder is a ram 9 feet high, also 2 +feet outside measurement, and 12 inches diameter inside; it is +lathe-turned, smooth and bright; four slabs of cast iron, each a quarter +of the circumference of the base of the cylinder, are placed over four +steel bolts that have to support the dead weight, each bolt being about +12 feet high, 4 inches in diameter, with square necks and flat heads, +and a hole in each slab to receive the bolts; the flat heads of the +bolts are to facilitate the accumulator resting level on the oaken +timbers; the slabs would be 2 tons each. On the slabs are fixed small +segments all round and round the base of the cylinder until the required +number (perhaps 150) is placed one on top of the other, each segment +weighing 2 cwt.; then the crosshead is placed over the top tier, and +having a hole in each of its four arms it is entered on the bolts which +have a screw-thread; the nuts are put on and screwed up tightly, and the +accumulator is erected. + + +36. _Question._--How is the accumulator started working? + +_Answer._--The engines are started pumping into the ram and cylinder, +whose drain-cocks have previously been opened, and air and water issues +from them; when the air has escaped they are shut off, and then the +great mass of iron and steel begins to tremble and totter and moves +upwards and upwards, and on nearing the limit of its journey the top of +the accumulator lifts a projecting lever which has a small chain +attached to it, the bottom end of the chain is attached to the steam +throttle valve, and when the chain is pulled up at the top the steam is +shut off at the throttle-valve and the engine stops, but will start as +soon as any water is taken from the accumulator. + + +37. _Question._--Is there any similarity in terms used in hydraulic work +and steam boiler work? + +_Answer._--There are several terms common to hydraulics and steam; the +steam boiler might be called an accumulator of power; there is a +slide-valve in hydraulics as in the steam engine, to admit the power and +to allow the exhaust to escape; there are stop-valves and intermediate +valves in hydraulics, as in steam pipes, also air-vessels in each: there +are suction and delivery pipes and valves in each, and relieve valves +also in each; there is a cylinder in each in which the power is +concentrated; there are reversing levers in a hydraulic crane, as in a +steam crane. + + +38. _Question._--Who invented the atmospheric engine, and how was it +constructed? + +_Answer._--Savory, a mining agent, invented the first method, which he +called an engine, of drawing water up from a well by means of a vacuum +which he happened accidentally to discover a method to create, and the +pressure of the atmospheric combined with it. He procured a real steam +boiler with a safety valve and gauge cocks and erected two vessels in +which to create a vacuum; a suction pipe from the bottom of each vessel +led down into a well beneath the vessels, and a valve that opened +upwards was on the end of each pipe. When about to start work, steam +from the boiler was turned into one of the vessels, and kept on until it +was as hot as the boiler itself, while a drain cock was kept open the +while, and when air and water had been forced out of the vessel steam +was shut off, and water from a tank above the vessel was allowed to flow +on it, which soon made a vacuum inside the vessel, and water was sucked +up through the valves opening upwards and delivered into a tank placed +for the purpose. While this performance was in progress, the other +vessel was being charged with steam to repeat the performance, etc. This +is the extent as far as I know of Savory's claim to be the inventor of +the atmospheric engine. + + +39. _Question._--Who was the real inventor then? + +_Answer._--Newcomen and his partner Cawly adopted a working beam, that +is, a beam working on a centre or trunnion. At one end of the beam was +the pump, at the other was an iron cylinder with an iron piston in it; +both ends of the beam were arched or sexton-shaped, and had a chain on +each, one connected to the pump rod, the other to the piston rod. When +about to start work, the piston being up near the top of the cylinder, +steam was let in under it and a jet of water was let in which soon +condensed the steam and created a vacuum within the cylinder, and the +piston was drawn down to the bottom and the pump drawn up with its load +of water; and a counter weight was attached to the pump-rod to always +bring the piston to the top of the cylinder after each descent. This is +a very brief description of this atmospheric engine; there were now only +two cocks to open and close--the steam cock and water cock, and the +engine only required a boy for this purpose, but the boy himself added a +share in this engine. In order to have a relief from the monotony of +opening and shutting the cocks alternately, he tied strings to the +handles and then connected to the working beam in such a manner that the +cocks were opened and closed exactly at the nick of time; this caused +the engine to work far more regularly and to do twice the work it had +done previously, the boy's name was Humphrey Potter. + + +40. _Question._--What did James Watt do in connection with the +atmospheric engine? + +_Answer._--Watt being a mathematical instrument maker, was requested to +repair an old engine used by some students of Glasgow University; having +finished the repairs, and in working this model (the best type of the +atmospheric engine), he found and proved by many and various +experiments, that an enormous waste of fuel was absolutely necessary in +working the engine; he found great difficulty in keeping the air from +entering the cylinder, and the cylinder top was so exposed to the +atmosphere that the steam was much condensed when it entered the +cylinder, and he came to the conclusion to put a cover on the top of the +cylinder, and allow the piston-rod to play in a hole in the cover with a +gland and stuffing box, and _to press down the piston with steam instead +of the atmosphere_. This engine was no longer atmospheric, it was a real +steam engine, the first ever seen or constructed, for steam was used to +create the vacuum, and steam was used to work the piston; but this was +only the beginning of his great improvements. This engine though +suitable for the purpose of pumping water, was totally unsuitable for +continuous rotary motion, the steam acting only on the downward stroke +after the piston had been pulled up to the top of the cylinder by means +of the additional weight fixed on the pump end of the beam. He devised a +method to admit steam under the piston as well as above it, but the +flexible chains although suitable for the down stroke of the piston were +powerless in the up stroke, they would hang listless and useless. This +being so, he determined to get rid of the chains at both ends of the +beam, and also both arched ends, and substitute a ridged connection at +both ends of the beam. He put an iron connecting rod from the end of the +beam to the pump rod, and the other end of the beam was connected to the +piston rod by a crosshead; to this engine he attached that grand +appendage the "Parallel Motion" which is the pride of the beam engine up +to to-day. He devised the improvement of the separate condenser for the +exhaust steam, instead of the jet of water under the piston. He invented +the crank for his engine, also the sun and planet motion, also the +throttle valve, also the counter to indicate the number of revolutions +the engine had performed, also the "Cut off," the steam moving the +piston by expansion when it was cut off at one-third the length of the +cylinder, and thus saving two-thirds of the steam and a more uniform +rate of speed. + + +41. _Question._--Give a description of the Sun and Planet method, and +why he invented it? + +_Answer._--The sun and planet were two cog-wheels geared into each +other, the sun being 3 feet diameter and the planet 2 feet diameter, the +latter was keyed tightly on the bottom end of the connecting rod, and +the sun which was keyed tightly on the end of the shaft, that was to +revolve and work the machinery. But although this method did make the +machinery revolve, it was not smoothly, for when the planet wheel was at +either top or bottom of the sun wheel, the power of the engine was less +effective than it was half way in the opposite positions. This led Watt +to add a large wheel on the shaft of the sun wheel, called the fly +wheel, which equalised the rate of motion to uniformity. Watt invented +the crank for his engine, but one of his men gave the tip to an engineer +at Bristol, who forthwith took out a patent for it and forestalled Watt, +who had to invent another means--the sun and planet. But when the term +of the patent expired, Watt resumed the crank method instead of the sun +and planet, which was noisy, the wear and tear very great, and also +expensive. + + +42. _Question._--What other things did Watt do towards the perfection of +the steam engine? + +_Answer._--He added the air pump to his engine to draw the condensed +steam and water from his separate condenser; he invented the throttle +valve and the governor, in order to sustain a uniform rate of speed in +the engine, whatever pressure of steam might be on, or variation of +work, whether heavy or light. + + +43. _Question._--Why is the power of the engine called horse-power? + +_Answer._--Before the invention of the engine, horses were employed in +mills and mines, and other places; the number of horses employed in a +mill or mine, indicating the amount of work going on, and the necessity +of employing them, and when the steam engine came on the scene, and a +purchaser wanted, he was told that the engine was equal to so many +horses; that comparison gave the purchaser a clear idea of the engine he +required. Savory was the first to suggest this comparison, but Watt knew +that horses differed in size and strength, and in order to be sure of a +safe standard for his engine power he experimented with big horses in +some London breweries, and after careful calculation and comparison he +fixed a horse-power at 32,000 lb., that is to say, that a horse could +lift that weight of water one foot above the ground in a minute for +eight hours per day. This standard has remained ever since, although it +is above the average of the power of the average horse, it is in favour +of the purchaser of an engine, as well as being capable of working more +than eight hours a day, or twenty hours if required. + + +44. _Question._--What is meant by "nominal horse-power"? + +_Answer._--It is a rough and ready way of giving some idea of the power +of an engine or engines on the basis of the number of inches in the area +of the cylinder or cylinders, but when the process of taking the diagram +of the engine is gone through the term nominal is dropped, and indicated +horse-power is then expressed, because it was proved by actual +experiment and certainty. + + +45. _Question._--How is that performance accomplished? + +_Answer._--In horizontal engines there are generally two gun-metal +screw-plugs on the top of the cylinder, one over each end and in front +of the piston; when a diagram is to be taken, these plugs are taken out +and other screws put in their places, to which a copper pipe is +attached; the screw plugs are 1 inch in diameter, also the copper pipes; +and exactly mid-way on the copper pipe is a small cylinder which moves +on a pivot, by means of a string with a turn round it. One end of the +string is fixed by a clip on the connecting rod, the other end anywhere +to keep the string tight, so that by the movement of the steam entering +the cylinder at either end, and the connecting rod working backwards and +forwards, the small cylinder is made to turn frontways and backways; and +within the small cylinder is another cylinder very much smaller; it has +a tiny piston within it, and as the steam presses on the little piston +at every stroke of the engine, a pencil from the outer cylinder is fixed +in a slot and marks the movements of the little piston on a roll of +prepared paper, slid over the inner cylinder for that purpose, the +pencil being kept up to the paper by means of a small steel spring. This +diagram on the paper cylinder, not only is used for determining the +power of the engine, but for detecting any irregularity in the +slide-valve movements. Every hour during the trial the finished diagram +is torn off the roll and a fresh one started, and when time is up the +engine is stopped and the diagrams compared. Then commence the +calculations, which are gone through somewhat in this manner: the common +multiplier is found by multiplying the area of the piston in inches by +the speed of the piston in feet per minute and the product divided by +32,000 (Watt's horse-power), then the effective mean pressure found on +the diagram is multiplied by the common multiplier, and the quotient +will be the _indicated_ horse-power of the engine. + + +46. _Question._--How is the consumption of coals apportioned to the +horse-power of the engine at the finish of the trial? + +_Answer._--The consumption of coals in pounds is divided by the product +of the indicated horse-power and the time in hours. The quotient is the +quantity consumed per horse-power per hour. + + +47. _Question._--Would the quality of the coals used in the trial be of +the same quality as will be used in the ordinary working of the boiler +after the trial is ended? + +_Answer._--No; the coals which are used in the trial are generally the +best Welsh, not shovelled up indiscriminately, but carefully +hand-picked, weighed and wheeled into the stoke-hold; the engine during +the trial is lavishly supplied with oils and tallow, with great +regularity. After the trial, and the horse-power is indicated, the +boiler resumes her ordinary work; the stoker is ever after expected to +create sufficient steam with very inferior coals to develop the same +amount of power in the engine as was done in the trial. I think that is +very unfair to the stoker. + + * * * * * + +"Let the finish give you pleasure" was the last headline in my last +school copybook in the long, long ago; and it has given me as much +pleasure to begin this catechism as to finish it; it has given me +pleasure to offer to brother stokers my very long experience in stoking, +and kindred vocations, such as hydraulics, steam-pipe joint making, +water-pipe joint making, engine driving, etc., in the hope that in the +perusal of this catechism they may find something to their advantage. +And with my best wishes for their future success, remain their true +friend. + + W. J. C. + +1906. + + * * * * * + + LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED + GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W., AND DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Stoker's Catechism, by W. J. 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Connor + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + + h1,h2 {text-align: center; clear: both; word-spacing: .5em; line-height: 1.5em;} + + hr {width: 65%; margin: 2em auto; clear: both;} + .min {width: 45%; margin: 1em auto;} + .mic {width: 45%; margin: 6em auto 0;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .td1 {text-align: left; padding-right: 2em;} + .td2 {text-align: left; padding-left: .25em;} + .td3 {text-align: center; padding-left: .25em; padding-right: .25em;} + .td4 {text-align: right; padding-left: 2em;} + .td5 {text-align: right;} + + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 94%; font-size: small; font-weight: normal; + font-style: normal; text-align: right; text-indent: 0em;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .author {text-align: left; margin-left: 75%;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: 3em auto; width: 104px;} + img {border: none;} + + .trans1 {border: solid 1px; margin: 0 15%; padding: 1em; text-align: justify;} + + .hd1 {font-size: large; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} + .hd2 {font-size: small; margin-top: 0em; text-align: center;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Stoker's Catechism, by W. J. Connor + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Stoker's Catechism + +Author: W. J. Connor + +Release Date: January 27, 2008 [EBook #24441] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOKER'S CATECHISM *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>THE STOKER'S CATECHISM</h1> + +<hr /> + +<h1><small><small>THE</small></small><br /> +STOKER'S CATECHISM</h1> + +<h2><small><small>BY</small></small><br /> +W. J. CONNOR.</h2> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/001.png" width="104" height="123" alt="Device" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center"><big><b>London:</b></big><br /> +<big>E. & F. N. SPON, <span class="smcap">Limited</span>, 57 HAYMARKET</big><br /> +<b>New York:</b><br /> +SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123 LIBERTY STREET<br /> +<big>1906</big><br /></p> + +<hr /> +<div class="trans1"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b><br /> +Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. +Variant spellings have been retained.</div> +<hr /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is no trade or calling that a working man +is more handicapped in than that of a Steam Boiler +Stoker; there are no books on stoking; the man +leaving his situation is not anxious to communicate +with the man who is taking his place anything that +might help or instruct him; and the new man will +be shy of asking for information for fear of being +thought incapable for the post he is seeking; and +the transfer takes place almost in silence, and the +new man has to find out all the ways and means at +his own risk, sometimes at his employer's expense.</p> + +<p>My object is to instruct that man in his business +without his knowing it, or hurting his very sensitive +opinion on stoking and other matters; for I am well +aware that it is only the least experienced who are +the hardest to convince, or instruct—against their +will. I have therefore ventured to devise this simple +method of question and answer, which I have named<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span> +"The Stoker's Catechism," which I hope may instruct +and interest him.</p> + +<p>I will not encumber this preface with my personal +qualifications for this little work—the answers to the +questions might suffice.</p> + +<p class="author">W. J. C.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<h2>THE STOKER'S CATECHISM.</h2> + +<p class="hd1">1. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How would you proceed to +get steam up in a boiler?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Having filled the boiler with water to +the usual height, that is to say, about four inches +over the crown of the fire-tube, I throw in several +shovelfuls of coal or coke towards the bridge, left +and right, keeping the centre clear; then I place +the firewood in the centre, throw some coals on it, +light up, and shut the door. Then I open the side-gauge +cocks to allow the heated air to escape, and +keep them open till all the air has cleared out and +steam taken the place of it; by this time the fire +will require more fuel, and when the steam is high +enough I connect her by opening the stop-valve a +little at a time till it is wide open and ready for +work.</p> + +<p class="hd1">2. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Supposing there are boilers +working on each side of the one you got +steam up in, how would you act?</b></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span><i>Answer.</i>—I would light the fire by putting in a +few shovelfuls of live coal from one of them instead +of using firewood; that is all the difference I would +make.</p> + +<p class="hd1">3. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What is the cause of the +rapid motion of the water in the gauge-glass +at times? Is that motion general throughout +the boiler?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—No; air enters the boiler with the feed-water, +and the gauge-glass tube being in the vicinity +of the incoming water, some of the air enters the +glass and flies up rapidly through the top cock and +into the boiler again; in fact there is very little +motion of the water in the boiler at any time while +working. I have proved this to be so, and in this +manner: the boiler cleaners having finished the +cleaning, hurriedly scrambled out of the boiler and +left several tools they had been using on the crown of +the fire-box, namely, a bass hand brush, a tin can, and +a tin candlestick, and a small iron pail; the manhole +cover was put on and boiler filled and put to work +before the things were thought of, and then it was +too late and they had to remain there until the next +cleaning time, which was thirteen weeks; and when +the boiler was at last blown out and the manhole +cover removed, the things were on the crown of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +fire-box exactly as they were left three months previously. +In order to satisfy myself of this, to me, +extraordinary discovery, I placed several articles on +the crown of the fire-box, things that could not stop +up the blow-off pipe if they were swept off, and got up +steam as usual, and after three months' hard steaming +I blew out the water and steam, took off the manhole +cover, and there were the things as I had left them +thirteen weeks previously; of course they were all +coated with fine mud, but no signs of having moved +a hair's breadth.</p> + +<p class="hd1">4. <i>Question.</i>—<b>But water in an open caldron +with a fire under it, as in the steam boiler, +will madly sweep the sides and bottom with +terrific ebullition. How would you account +for the great agitation in the open caldron +while the steam boiler had hardly any, although +both vessels had fierce fires under +them?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—In the matter of the open caldron the +action of the water has no resistance but that of the +atmosphere, whereas in the steam boiler the movement +of the water is resisted from the moment it is +heated, for then a vapour rises above it, and, as the +heat increases, the resistance to the movement of the +water is proportionally increased, and as the heat of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +the steam increases the pressure on the water increases +proportionally all through, the steam being +above the water. Any old stoker knows that when +getting steam up in a boiler the lower parts are often +only warm when there may be eight or ten lb. on +the square inch in the upper portions; when the +water begins to boil the steam rises in the form of +minute globular particles, and remains above the +water until there is an outlet for it by opening the +stop-valve or through the safety-valve; and as the +pressure is the same throughout every part, nook and +corner, and angle, there can be no dominating force +to cause any agitation within the boiler.</p> + +<p class="hd1">5. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What is superheated steam, +and why is it used?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—If a boiler is placed at a long distance +from the engine or whatever the steam may be used +for, there is much or little condensation according to +the distance and the weather, so that there would +always be water mixing with the steam, and that is +most objectionable where a steam engine is concerned, +and by super-heating the steam it comes to the engine +as hot and dry as if the boiler were close by; but +whatever the heat of the steam may be, the pressure +cannot be increased after the steam has left the boiler. +In proportion to the pressure of steam so is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +heat of it; the higher the pressure the hotter the +steam.</p> + +<p class="hd1">6. <i>Question.</i>—<b>If your water gauge-glass broke +while the boiler was working, how would you +proceed to rectify the mishap?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—By immediately shutting off both cocks, +the water-cock first, then I would open the blow-out +cock (at the bottom of the gauge-glass) and keep it +open to the finish, and commence unscrewing the nuts, +clearing them of any bits of india-rubber that adhered +to them, also the sockets. Get one of the half dozen +glasses already cut, and my string of rubber rings, +enter two rings on the bottom end of the glass, slip +the nut over them, slip two rings on the top part of +the glass after having slipped the nut on, and enter +the rings in the sockets, then screw up both top and +bottom nuts by hand alternately, and when screwed +up evenly, open the steam cock a shade to warm the +glass, and when it is hot enough, open it more and +commence closing the blow-out cock, by tapping it +lightly by hand, then open the steam cock a little +more and open the water cock a little also, and shut off +the blow-out cock, and presently the water enters the +glass, and both top and bottom cocks may now +be opened to their full extent, and the job is +done.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hd1">7. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How would you cut a water +gauge-glass to the proper length?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—I usually cut a piece of iron wire the +length the glass should be, in this way: I measure +the length from under the top nut to the top of the +bottom nut, and cut my iron wire to that measurement; +then I cut several glasses in my spare time, +instead of doing it when the glass breaks. I mark a +circle where I wish to cut the glass, and with a three-corner +file I run it round this circle to a depth of the +16th of an inch, and break it off on the edge of the +vice, bench, or other solid woodwork; of course this +iron-wire gauge will perhaps only answer for this particular +boiler, but in some stoke-hold the boilers are +all alike with regard to the gauge-glasses.</p> + +<p class="hd1">8. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What is the cause of a vacuum +in a boiler? And how does it affect her +injuriously?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The vacuum is mostly caused by letting +cold water into a hot boiler, the hotter the boiler the +stronger the vacuum; when the water is hotter than +the boiler, there will be little vacuum; a strong +vacuum in the boiler will cause the air outside to +press on the boiler in proportion—the stronger the +vacuum inside, the greater the pressure outside. +In this circumstance the pressure is misplaced for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +boiler was constructed to bear an internal pressure +and not an external pressure. And in getting steam up +the pressure on the boiler has to be reversed, and this +tends to loosen the plates and rivets and makes her +leak, if she never leaked before. I have frequently +known boilers to be filled with water over-night to be +ready for lighting up in the morning, and have found +the gauge-glass empty; this puzzled me at first, but +on opening the blow-out cock of the water-gauge the +air rushed into it with a gurgling noise, then I knew +there was water in the boiler held up by the vacuum, +but I soon altered that by opening the side-cocks, and +letting air into her which soon killed the vacuum, +and down came the water into the glass again to the +proper level. When getting steam up, I always open +one of the side gauge cocks and keep it open until +steam issues from it; that permits the foul air to +escape and prevents a vacuum being created; there +used to be a vacuum valve in the vicinity of the steam +dome, that opened inwards and prevented a vacuum +from being created.</p> + +<p class="hd1">9. <i>Question.</i>—<b>If you had only one boiler +and one engine at work, how would you +manage to clean your one fire without letting +the steam go down?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—When pushed for steam, which usually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +occurs when the fire is getting dirty, I get ready all +the tools and some of the best of the coals, and having +a bright fire I take the long poker and skim all the fire +to one side and throw a couple of shovelfuls of coals +evenly over it and rake out all the clinkers on the +opposite side, then with the long poker (some people +call it Kennedy) I skim all the fire over to the opposite +side and throw a couple of shovelfuls of coals evenly +over the bright fire, and rake out the clinkers on the +other side, then I spread the fire evenly over the bars +and sprinkle some more coals over all, and shut the +door. This performance from first to last need not +take more than ten minutes, and the boiler was making +steam all the time, and at the finish I had a better +fire than at the beginning, and the steam hardly lost +a pound; but the job must be done quickly.</p> + +<p class="hd1">10. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What is the cause of the +humming noise that issues from a steam +boiler at times, and how would you prevent +it?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—It is caused chiefly through bad stoking, +in having an uneven fire, full of holes, or crooked bars, +the cold air rushing through where there is the least +resistance, and into the tubes, causes the humming +noise—a locomotive nearing home after her day's +work has very little fire on the bars and will generally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +hum, so there is some excuse for her, but none for a +stationary boiler. Some stokers take credit to themselves +for making the boiler "Hum"; when coals are +thrown into the fire indiscriminately—small and large—the +air finds the least resistance through the small +coals, which soon burst into holes, while the lumps +remain solid; then the air rushes into the holes and +the humming commences; or, if the firebars are not +equally separated, the air enters the widest space and +the boiler hums; or it may be that the bars next the +side of the fireplace are out of line and lets the air +rush up against the side and the boiler hums. If the +stoker would only drop a shovelful of coals dexterously +into each hole the humming would stop immediately, +or level the fire with the rake or long poker, +or open the fire door if the rake is too heavy, and the +noise will cease. The chief point is to have a good +set of firebars and well placed; if they are too long +they will hump in the middle or they will bulge sideways; +if they are too close together they become red-hot +because there is not room enough for the air to +pass between them to keep them moderately cool, and +if they are too short they will drop down into the +ash-pit.</p> + +<p class="hd1">11. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Why is it more difficult to +keep steam-tight the manhole cover of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +portable boiler than the manhole cover of +a stationary boiler?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The portable cover is usually on the +side of the boiler, and about half the cover is immersed +in the water and half in the steam; the portion under +water is about 212° of heat, the portion of the same +cover in the steam is about 500° of heat, the hottest +part expanding much more than the cooler part, and +is constantly tending to tear itself away from the +lower portion of the cover, and the joint cannot stand +the unequal strain. The manhole cover of a stationary +boiler is nearly always on top of the boiler, and the +heat is equal all over it and no contraction and expansion +to cause the joint to leak as in the portable cover.</p> + +<p class="hd1">12. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How would you prepare a +boiler for the inspection of a boiler inspector?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—I would blow her right out, take off the +manhole cover, take out the safety valve, take out all +firebars and the bridge, take down flue-port brickwork, +have the boiler and flues thoroughly cleaned and +swept, have a lamp or candle ready to light, a hand +hammer and chisel, or scraper, a pailful of clean water, +and a wad of cotton waste. When the inspector +arrives, he quickly dons his overalls; I hand him the +light and the tools and waste, and he is into the fireplace<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +in a jiffy; down the side flues, under the boiler, +giving a whack with the hammer now and then, and +scraping off any suspicious scale, etc.; and when he +comes out, as black as any sweep, he slips out of the +overalls, gives them a whack against the wall, folds +them up tight, and crams them into the black bag; +has a dive in the pail, and is soon ready to go off +somewhere else. But he tells me something about the +boiler before he goes—not to my discredit.</p> + +<p class="hd1">13. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How do you proceed to get +her to work again, and what materials do +you use?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—I first proceed to build the bridge and +flue-ports, put in the firebars, the thin bars at the +sides; then I replace the safety-valve, taking care +not to damage it or its seat, fill the boiler with clean +water, put in the boiler the usual quantity of Naenaires +Anti-Corrosion liquid, or the powder, make the +manhole joint with plaited three-strand spun yarn and +stiff putty (red lead and white lead) and lay the fire, +which is done in this way: throw a dozen shovelfuls +of coals towards the bridge, and to left and right of +it till they reach near to the dead-plate, leaving the +centre clear for the firewood; then throw in three +or four shovelfuls of coals over the wood, with oily +waste or paper in front, and she is ready for lighting,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +and the "fire is laid." The material for the bridge +and the flue ports are firebricks and fireclay; these +are rather expensive, but I learnt a wrinkle in the +building up of bridge and flues. Through the frequent +removals of these for boiler inspection and the hitting +of the end of the long poker, several bricks were +broken every three months, and I came to the decision +to try stock bricks faced with fireclay as mortar; and +I was more than satisfied with the result, and ever +since then I used stock bricks and fireclay only.</p> + +<p class="hd1">14. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How high should the top of +the bridge be from the crown of the boiler +or from the fire-tube?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The bridge should be about nine inches +from the crown of the fire-tube, if it were eight the +draught would be curtailed, if it were ten the draught +under the bars would be diminished, through much +air passing over the bridge instead of under the firebars. +As I had permission from my employers to +build the bridge to the best advantage for myself in +keeping up the steam, and having tried different +heights for many years, I found that nine inches was +the nearest to perfection. And in these experiments +two additional bridges were built in one boiler; six +feet behind the ordinary bridge was a concave bridge +and six feet behind that was a convex bridge. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +concave bridge was built close up to the bottom +of the fire-tube, and resembled a small archway, and +extended down to within nine inches of the bottom +or shell of the fireplace; the convex bridge was +built on the bottom of the shell and reached to within +nine inches of the fire-tube. When the flame from +the furnace shot over the ordinary bridge, it clashed +down under the concave bridge, then rose up and +swept through the convex bridge and away to the +bottom flues; the object of these three bridges, in +one tube and for one fire, was to keep the flame and +heat in the boiler as long as possible, instead of the +heat flying swiftly over the bridge and out of the +boiler. This experiment seemed to answer very well, +but as there were several other boilers connected with +this one there was no opportunity of testing it +correctly, but the three bridges remained established, +and were frequently shown to engineers and others.</p> + +<p class="hd1">15. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What advantage is there in +having the blow-off pipe of a boiler entering +it from the top instead of at the bottom?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—I am not aware of any advantage in it, +but I am aware of a disadvantage in it, and it is this, +that while the boiler is being blown right out for the +purpose of cleaning, or other reasons, the stoker will +often commence doing some other work, and in due<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +course the boiler is filled up with water, and the fire +lighted, and by-and-by the stoker comes to see what +progress she is making; he looks at the water-gauge +but sees no water in it because it has syphoned out +of the boiler; at first the heated air pressed on the +water and forced it through the blow-off pipe, and +then the pipe became a syphon, and the pressure increasing +as the water leaves the boiler, she is soon +emptied, and if the fire is not raked out, soon burnt. +Such a mishap could not happen to a boiler with the +blow-off pipe at the bottom, for when the stoker blows +out his boiler he must shut the cock before he can +fill her, and when filled there is no chance of the +water escaping out again.</p> + +<p class="hd1">16. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Is there not some disadvantage +in having the blow-out cock at the +bottom of the boiler?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Yes; the cock and pipe are subject to +corrosion on account of water dripping down on them +from the stoke-hold floor, as some stokers quench +their clinkers and ashes while they are up against the +front of the boiler, instead of drawing them forward +a few inches from the front: and as the pipe is out of +sight under the plates of the floor, nobody takes the +trouble to lift them and examine—not only the pipe +and the cock, but that part of the boiler where the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +water streams down from the drenched ashes so frequently. +So there are disadvantages in both methods +of blowing out the boiler, and always will be, until +the stoker learns his business, and takes an interest +in his work, not only for his own sake, but his employer's +also.</p> + +<p class="hd1">17. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What is the most important +appendage to a steam boiler?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The safety-valve, but it is not always a +safety-valve, when it is weighted to twice the amount +the boiler is certified to be worked at safely. As an +instance: Amongst the many engines employed at +the Midland Extension Works, St. Pancras, was a +light steam crane for hoisting earth from the deep +excavations, there were in use small wooden skips, +and the pressure of steam was forty-five lb.; but +after a time there arrived large iron skips that the +crane could not lift, even when empty; there were +about twenty men depending on the crane for their +work and the navvy-ganger was anxious for "something +to be done," and the crane man hinted about +weighting the safety-valve, and no sooner said than +almost done; the safety spring balance was screwed +down, and a railway chair suspended from it by strong +copper wire, and the steam allowed to rise until it +reached ninety lb. on the inch, and the big iron skips<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +were hoisted with their load of heavy ballast as easily +as the wooden ones had been. The boiler <i>happened</i> to +stand it.</p> + +<p class="hd1">18. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Have you any other instance?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Yes; in an establishment in Hammersmith +some years ago, the stoker was in the habit of +putting a bit of iron on the end of the horizontal +lever of a safety valve when the steam rose too high, +and the manager was about, and when it went down +he would take off the bit of iron and put it where he +could find it for the next occasion. The manager had +gone away one day, and advantage was taken of it +to have a little carouse in which most of the men +took a part; and when the steam rose the stoker +popped his bit of iron on the lever and all was quiet +for a time, when another noisy safety-valve began to +blow off, and on went another bit of iron that stopped +the noise, and during all this time the fires of seven +or eight boilers were burning fiercely, and the stoker +should have checked his fires instead of what he had +done; but in the midst of the carouse all the boilers +began to belch forth steam when the manager came +on the scene. The stoker tried to pick off the bits of +iron before the manager could see them, but the +steam was to high for that; and when at last the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +noise subsided and the steam had cleared away, the +whole of the revellers were on view, caught in a trap, +as there was only one exit. Most of the men were +fined or suspended, the bits of iron were discovered +on the levers, and the stoker had a week's notice to +clear out, and lock-up valves were fitted on every boiler +and the keys kept in the manager's desk ever after.</p> + +<p class="hd1">19. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Can you always depend on +the safety-valve lifting when the steam +rises?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—I always keep an eye on the pressure +gauge, and if I find that the safety-valve does not lift +at the pressure it ought to lift at I know that the +valve is sticking, and I lift the lever and let the steam +out; the cause of the sticking may be that the valve +has worn down in its seat and becomes conical, or +there may be a shoulder on the valve that would +cause it to stick, or it may be that the lever and +fulcrum were smeared with oily dirty waste in the +process of cleaning and not wiped off, but left to bake +between the parts, which would prevent the free +action of the safety valve.</p> + +<p class="hd1">20. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Why is the safety-valve lifted +at times, especially when getting steam up?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—It is often done by old stokers as well +as new ones, and is more of a silly habit than of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +trying the pressure of the steam, especially as there +is nowadays a pressure gauge for every boiler in a +stoke-hold. By lifting the safety-valve while steam +is in the boiler and dropping it down again is a +dangerous practice; there is a rush of steam to the +valve when lifted, and when it drops the rush of +steam is instantly stopped, and rebounds like an +india-rubber ball hit against the wall, and this commotion +within the boiler is likely to blow the stop-valve +to pieces or the manhole cover off. Besides +that, there is always dust floating on the surface of +the water, especially in a boiler just cleaned, and +when the valve is lifted the dust is carried up with +the steam, and when the valve is dropped the dust is +caught under it and often causes the valve to leak.</p> + +<p class="hd1">21. <i>Question.</i>—<b>When the water in the +gauge-glass appears motionless while the +boiler is working, what does it portend, and +how would you proceed to rectify the stagnation +of the water?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—It portends that the passage for the +water is choked and requires clearing, and I would +lose no time in commencing to rectify the stoppage; +as a stoker who is responsible for the safety of the +boiler I am always prepared for emergencies. I +commence by shutting both cocks of the glass, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +steam and the water, and unscrew the small bolt in +the water gauge, which is fixed there for the purpose of +clearing the tube that conveys the water to the glass, +and with an iron wire in one hand, I open the water +cock with the other hand, and push the wire into the +small hole from which I took the bolt, giving several +pushes and pulls while the water and steam are flying +out, until the tube is quite clear; then I withdraw the +wire, shut the cock, and serve the steam cock in like +manner; and while I was doing all this the bottom +cock of the gauge (the blow-out cock) was open from +the beginning. Then I commence to put the pressure +on the glass by warming it with steam from the top +cock slowly; then I open the water cock a little, and +so on, alternately; then I commence shutting the +blow-out cock a little. By these manœuvres the +pressure on the glass is put on gradually instead of +popping it on too suddenly and breaking the glass, as +is often done by the <i>more-haste-the-less-speed</i> stoker; +now I shut the bottom cock and open the other two, +and the water bounds into the glass quite frisky, and +the boiler is safe for the present.</p> + +<p class="hd1">22. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What would be the consequence +if the steam cock of the water gauge +was choked, while the water cock was clear, +or vice versa?</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The consequence would be most serious +for the boiler, as the water would be forced up into +the glass by the steam under it, and would make it +appear as if too much water was in the boiler, and the +stoker would proceed in the usual way to blow out +some of this, apparently, surplus water; and then +watch to see it come down to the working level in +the glass, but he watches in vain—it will never come +down. He might empty the boiler dry, and the water +in the glass will be there as long as a breath of steam +remains in the boiler to keep it up. And in the event +of the water-cock being choked while the steam-cock +was clear the consequence would be equally dangerous, +for the water that was in the glass before the stoppage +occurred would remain in it, for the stoppage would +not allow it to drop down into the boiler again; so +there it would remain, and when the stoker came +round to look at his boiler, unless he happened to +notice that no movement of the water was visible, he +would pass on without further ado, and remain in +total ignorance of his danger. Hence the necessity +for the stoker to blow out his water gauge every time +he comes in front of his boiler, and if the water enters +the glass in a sluggish or dilatory way the cocks +need to be cleared of the partial stoppage, and let the +water enter the glass with a rush.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hd1">23. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Could a boiler collapse without +affecting the fusible plug?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Yes; the tank that supplied the boiler +with water leaked badly, and to stop the leaks a +quantity of fine oatmeal was mixed with water and +poured into it, and in due time reached the boiler; +but instead of the oatmeal permeating the whole of +the water in the boiler, it never got beyond the parts +surrounding the fireplace; it stuck on the sides and +top thickly, and was baked hard on them. After a +few days the sides of the fire-tube bulged inwards +nearly twelve inches, and the boiler had to be stopped +and blown out, and the fusible plug was found to be +unaffected—it was one selected by a Boiler Insurance +Company, who had to repair this damage, and the +stoker was exonerated from blame, but there is little +doubt that if the plug had leaked the mishap would +have been attributed to shortness of water and the +stoker would be blamed for what he did not do, and +get the sack into the bargain.</p> + +<p class="hd1">24. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Why is it that an injector +can force water into a boiler from which +the steam comes to work the injector at a +greater pressure than is in the boiler?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The secret of the working of the injector<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +is due to the velocity of the steam issuing from the +point of a conical tube, and water issuing from another +conical tube somewhat larger than the steam cone, +and a partial vacuum created in the barrel by the +steam and cold water meeting—as both cones face +each other. The cones are about four inches long, +one and a quarter inch wide at the mouths, and about +one half of an inch at the points. The suction pipe, +steam pipe and delivery pipe are about one inch +diameter, and the overflow pipe half an inch diameter, +and the water tank three feet below the level of the +injector, the space within the barrel might be twelve +square inches; the water and steam cocks are supposed +to be always open, and this is how the injector is +started working. The water-wheel is turned partly +round, and a figured disc behind it indicates the quantity +of water let into the barrel, while the steam is +let in by turning a wheel attached to a quick-screw +spindle; then there are ructions inside—the steam +and water have come together, and the water overflows +through the half-inch pipe; but by a little +manipulation of the water, air will soon start it working; +then the overflow ceases, and the air rushes into +the pipe and hums, and the injector is working. And +the reason of its working is, in my humble opinion, +the concentration of water and steam, with the +vacuum thrown in, that gives additional pressure to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +the water in the injector. I might venture to say it +gives fully ten lb. on the square inch over and above +the pressure of steam within the boiler.</p> + +<p class="hd1">25. <i>Question.</i>—<b>The noise created by the +injector while working being very objectionable, +could it be mitigated? And, if so, +how?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Yes; I succeeded in quieting an injector +in one establishment where anything louder than the +scratching of a goose-quill was considered a nuisance. +I first began by putting a piece of paper against the +mouth of the overflow pipe while the injector was +working, and the noise ceased, but soon after that +the paper was sucked up into the injector. I then +applied a leathern disc, which answered well, and +proved just the right thing; sometimes the water +blurted out, but not often, and the leathern disc was +permanently established; but the injector would not +work with water above 100 degrees of heat; so I +would start with cold water and gradually turn on +the hot water and shut off the cold, and she never +noticed the change, but the noise was stopped.</p> + +<p class="hd1">26. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How would you quiet a +noisy pump—one of those stuck up in a +corner of the stoke-hold that can be heard, +but not often seen?</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—I had one of them once—a very good +little "Manchester Donkey Pump," but as noisy as +they make 'em—and it became a question whether +she should be discarded for an injector; she was bolted +to a wall in the basement of a block of offices and +could be heard throughout the building, and my employer +told me that he would willingly give a 5<i>l.</i> note +to anyone who would stop the noise. The donkey +was vertical; I took off both valve covers and drilled +a ⅜-inch hole in each projection from the cover that +gave the valve its lift, and drove a wooden peg into +each hole from the under side, and rasped them down +to give the required lift, and put the covers on again +and started the donkey, and after some more raspings +of the plugs I started her again, and this time was +successful; she worked like india-rubber, no noise +whatever, and I gained more than was offered to quiet +her—a cheque of 21<i>l.</i> This happened in Draper's +Gardens, Throgmorton Avenue, E.C.</p> + +<p class="hd1">27. <i>Question.</i>—<b>When several boilers are +working in a row, and one of the middle +ones has to be cleaned, what would you do +to keep it cool enough to enable the men to +do the cleaning, and also to protect them +while in the boiler?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Having blown her right out I would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +take off the wheel of the stop-valve spindle, tie a +piece of canvas on the top of the spindle and lock the +wheel up, so that no one should open the stop-valve +while the men were in the boiler. Many dreadful +things have happened through some thoughtless or +meddlesome idiot opening the stop-valve while men +were working in the boiler. I also cover the blow-off +cocks of the boilers in steam, as there is usually a +pipe into which the steam and water is carried off +running parallel with the cocks, and take charge of +the spanner used in opening them, in case an absent-minded +stoker might attempt to blow some of the +muddy water out of his boiler when the men were in +the empty one, and scald them to death, the steam +rushing up through the blow-off. I then fill the +boiler up with cold water several times, and allow +cold water to play into the boiler from the manhole +by means of the hose pipe, and the blow-off cock being +open there is always a cool atmosphere for the men to +work in; they can remain longer in the boiler, do +twice the amount of work, and in less time than in a +scorching atmosphere. When the cleaning is done +and the boiler rinsed out, I shut the blow-off cock and +fill her with clean water to the usual height; take +off the canvas on the spindle, replace the wheel, and +the boiler is ready for lighting up the fire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hd1">28. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Does familiarity with one's +work as stoker sometimes lead to carelessness +and then to mishaps? And, if so, give +an instance?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Yes; familiarity in doing things frequently +during work, tends to a careless off-hand +style of self-importance that has often caused trouble +and mishap. A crane driver employed at the Midland +Railway Extension at St. Pancras, came to work one +winter's morning and the steam being already up, +turned it on to warm the steam chest and cylinder, +preparatory to commencing work for the day, forgetting +that it had been freezing hard all night, and split +the steam chest to pieces. His plea of defence was +that steam had remained in the chest and condensed, +and become ice, then expanding, burst the steam chest; +this plea served all right, but the following summer +he was less successful. He came to me during the +dinner hour and said, "Jack, I can't get any water into +my boiler, will you come over and look at her?" I +did go over, and on looking at the water gauge saw +it was empty, opened the cocks, but dry steam came +forth, opened the fire door and found a bright fire of +coke; while the engine was pegging away to get +water into the boiler. I said, "Bill, stop your engine +and draw your fire at once, and my name's Walker." +I went back quicker than I came; and an hour later<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +he came over to me looking very down, and said, +"Jack, I've done it." I knew what he meant and +went over with him to look at the boiler. It was as +complete wreck, and I told him to fly off and get any +money that was owing him before he got locked up; +he did go, and I never saw him since. This man +was an engine fitter before he took to engine driving—poor +fellow, I was very sorry for him. Another +instance. A stoker had to fill a boiler and get up +steam in her one Sunday morning, there was a big +tank over the stoke-hold from which water was taken +to fill cold boilers, a two-inch pipe with stop-cock led +to the top of each boiler from the bottom of the tank. +But the tank was empty on this occasion; a donkey +pump close by was used to keep the tank filled, but +this boiler was the one from which the donkey took +her steam, and was now empty, but the stoker solved +the puzzle: a boiler with steam was in use about +fifty yards away, and having a steam-pipe connection +to the empty one he opened the cock and commenced +letting the steam into her, but it was condensing as +fast as it went in; and being one of the extra clever +ones, he lighted a fire in the grate so as to stop the +condensing, and did stop it, and let in sufficient steam +to work the donkey-pump and partly filled the tank, +and was proceeding to open the two-inch cold water +pipe when one of the workmen passing by saw some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +cotton waste smoking strongly on top of the boiler, +which induced him to open the furnace door, and he +saw that the boiler was red-hot and collapsed; he +rushed up to the stoker who had his hand already on +the stop-cock to let water into her when he was +forcibly pulled away from it, much against his will, +but when he saw the damage he had caused he sheered +off and we saw no more of him. This case occurred +at the London Hydro-Carbon Oil Works, Southall, W. +One more: On a Sunday morning a stoker came in +to break the joint of a manhole, empty the boiler and +fill her up again with water. After taking the dogs +off and securing the cover from falling into the boiler, +the stoker gave the cover a tap with the end of the +spanner to loosen the joint, but the cover showed no +signs of slackening, and the end of a crowbar was +requisitioned but without result; and in this case, as +in a former one, my opinion was solicited as well as +help. I used the crowbar end harder every blow; +when at last the cover seemed to spring downwards +and upwards, I dropped the bar instantly, thinking +the devil had a hold of the cover. After a +moment's thought I went down into the stoke-hold +and opened one of the gauge cocks and steam rushed +out; there were no pressure gauges in this establishment; +every one of the twenty boilers had eight +weights suspended from the lever of the safety-valve,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +each weight representing five lb. pressure. I took +off the weights one by one, and when five of them had +been removed steam began to blow off, showing that +fifteen lb. pressure was in the boiler while I was trying +to knock the manhole cover in. On inquiry it +transpired that the man whose duty it was to blow +out this boiler the previous day asked his mate to do +it, and the mate forgot all about it (it being Saturday +night), and these omissions nearly caused a catastrophe. +This occurred in Pimlico, S.W.</p> + +<p class="hd1">29. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What advantage to the employer +is the self-acting stoker for steam +boilers?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—He can use the very cheapest and +smallest coals; the cold air is never permitted to +enter the boiler; there is no cleaning out fires with +the door wide open; the steam is more uniform in +pressure; the boiler will last longer, and little or no +smoke. There is a drawback to these advantages: +there must be a live stoker to keep the automatic +stoker up to its work; he has to keep the coals supplied +to the "Jacob's Ladder"; he has to regulate the +supply of coals to the boxes over each boiler, and +regulate the supply of coals dropping down into the +fireplace, regulate the speed of the travelling furnace +by means of the ratchet, clean out the ash-hole of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +clinkers every two hours and wheel them out of the +stoke-hold, regulate the water-supply to the boilers, +and keep the steam at the proper pressure, and rectify +any and every derangement and mishap that occurs +to the self acting stoker.</p> + +<p class="hd1">30. <i>Question.</i>—<b>But are not these "self-acting +stokers" smoke consumers as well?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The self-acting stokers have to be kept +working by the live stoker, and are smoke consumers so +long as the coals let down on the travelling furnace is +exactly proportionate to the requirements of it, but if +the supply should exceed what is necessary, the grate +becomes choked with coals and has to be cleared of +some of them, and in doing this with coals partly +burnt, smoke is inevitable; and if the supply is insufficient, +the grate becomes bare of fuel, and cold air +finds its way through the bars and checks the steam. +To remedy this, the coal is let down and carried +onward by the moving grate before they can be +ignited, and soon begin to smoke, so that in these two +extremes, too much or too little coals will cause +smoke; but if this type of furnace is in charge of a +competent stoker, there is little chance of the bars +being choked with coals, or starved for want of them.</p> + +<p class="hd1">31. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Is it not possible to consume +the smoke of a boiler furnace independent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +of patents and mechanical contrivances +that can only be worked by an experienced +stoker?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—I have proved it possible where several +boilers were connected and working, and using small +and smoky coals. In an establishment in West +London the system in vogue was in this manner: all +the bridges were built hollow, and an iron flap +covered the bottom of the bridge, and a long iron rod +from the flap was carried to the front of the boiler, +and an inch steam pipe with cock attached entered +the fireplace above the door, and was joined to a two-inch +perforated pipe that was fixed from left to right +over and above the dead-plate. When the fires required +replenishing, the flap was opened, then the +door and steam cock, and six shovelfuls of coals were +hastily thrown in evenly over the fire, and the door +was then shut. The result of this performance was a +mixture of steam and smoke observable at the chimney +top, the steam was kept on while any smoke was +visible; then the next boiler was served in like +manner, and was a continual round of work to the +exclusion of other things. This method prevailed for +many years before I came on the scene, and noticing +that a great quantity of steam was wasted for the +purpose of hiding the smoke, and the six shovelfuls of +coals hardly compensated for the steam spread over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +them, I induced the man who built the bridges, after +inspection, to build them solid, and then I commenced +a new method of firing, in this manner: I sprinkle +the small coals with water from a hose-pipe, and burn +one fire down low, but bright; I shut the damper +nearly close and commence firing towards the bridge +and sides, until the grate is full nearly to the crown of +the fireplace, allowing the gas to remain in the furnace +and flues for twenty minutes, then I open the damper +a couple of inches; by this time there are numerous +jets of flame flickering all over the coals, and now I +open the damper to the full extent and I soon have a +rousing steam-making fire. I serve the next low fire +in like manner, and so on. But it is necessary always +while burning one fire down for the purpose of banking +it up, to have all the other fires in good condition +and capable of keeping up the steam independently +of the one to be banked up; if the others should burn +down too low before one of them is banked, smoke +will follow the neglect. I remained several years in +this employ; my method was very successful, with +proper care and watchfulness, and was adopted in a +similar establishment in South London. The former +establishment was the West Middlesex Water Works, +and the latter the Southwark and Vauxhall Water +Works. One ton of Welsh coals was allowed every +twenty-four hours to get the seven fires up after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +cleaning. Here is another method for consuming the +smoke, but is a very wasteful one; four or five +shovelfuls of small smoky coals are thrown on or +near the dead-plate, where they remain until they +become sufficiently heated to ignite, and are then +pushed on to the bars by the rake, and a similar +quantity again thrown on the dead-plate, and when +ignited pushed on to the bars as before, and so it is continued. +It is expected that the smoke while passing +over the bright fire towards the bridge will be ignited, +but only a very small portion of it becomes flame, and +the smoke tends to deaden the bright fire to a great +extent. The door has to be opened so frequently in +this method, and in pushing the coals from the dead-plate +to the bars a large amount of live fuel drops +down into the ash-pit, and if this should be thrown into +the furnace again, the fire is deadened immediately. +There is no economy in this method, which I tried +years ago but never continued since.</p> + +<p class="hd1">32. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Is there any difference, and +if so, what is it, in locomotive and stationary +boiler stoking?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—There is a wide difference between the +methods, not only of firing but of the general work +of the firemen and the stoker. (I cannot see why one +should be called stoker and the other fireman, for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +they both have to keep the fire going and the steam +up). The loco. fireman had to be at the engine shed +forty-five minutes, and the driver thirty minutes, +before the time of the train starting; the fireman gets +the stores necessary for the journey, such as oil, +tallow, cotton waste, yellow grease, and perhaps fog +signals, gets his lamps from the lamp room already +trimmed—these are the head lamp, side lamp, water +gauge lamp, tail lamp and hand lamp; he places the +head lamp on the right hand side of the buffer plank, +the side lamp on the left side of the tender, the +gauge lamp close to the glass, the tail lamp behind +the tender; he has to take his engine to be coaled (it +used to be coke in my early days on the L. & N. W. R.), +and fills his tender with water, and brings his engine +over a pit, fills the axle-boxes of engine and tender; +by this time the driver shows up, and goes under the +engine and thoroughly examines every part of the +gear; then he oils her, and both men sign on for the +particular train that the engine's number is in line +with, and run down the incline to Euston, where +they hook on to their train and wait. If it should +turn out to be a particularly heavy train, the driver +will request the pilot-engine driver to hook on and +go perhaps as far as Tring or Wolverton with the +train, otherwise the pilot will detach at the top of +the incline at Camden; if it should be a night train,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +with the pilot in front, it is an experience never to be +forgotten by a young stoker. (I was not far in my +teens when I had this experience, but an old man +now). And at last the signal is given us to start; +we blow the whistle and off we go, two engines panting, +puffing, sending up showers of sparks, and soon +we leave Camden behind, and by the time we reach +Watford we are travelling about fifty miles an hour; +this is the speed to test the stoker who has to +light his lamps the while, travel round the foot-plate +and keep his balance, and replenish his fire and climb +the tender frequently; but the passenger trains are a +luxury in comparison to the luggage trains. The +luggage engines being bigger and stronger than the +passenger engine requires more steam and water, +because she has more than double the load to run +with, and at the stations wagons have to be shunted +frequently and often re-shunted; some are left and +others taken to far-off places; the guard's van has to +be detached always in order to have it at the end of +the train; the stoker is hard at work with the brake +putting it on and off, jumping down to hold the +points, or coupling wagons—this is not his business, +but he does it to facilitate the work. When the +luggage train had to get into a siding to let a passenger +train go by, there was no pit (except at a station) +for the engine to stand over, and both men would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +have to crawl under the engine to do anything necessary, +through wet, or snow, or mud; and when starting +the engine out of the siding or from a station, and the +driving wheels slipping round, the stoker had to +jump down with his shovel and scrape up a bit of +gravel, or sand, or clay, and pop it on the rail in +front of the driving wheel, and if that should stop +the slipping, the engine gave a bound forward and +the stoker had to run to keep up with the engine, +throw his shovel on to the foot-plate, and scramble up +the best way he could, or be left behind. In bad +weather, if it rained, hailed, or snowed, both driver +and stoker had to keep a look-out by holding their +hands up before their eyes and looking between their +fingers; when it rained, and one side of each man was +wet through, they would change places till the other +side got wet through also. These were the good old +times. Drivers and firemen in the present time may +thank their stars that the way was well paved for +them before they started. So there is hardly any +similarity between a stationary boiler stoker and a +locomotive stoker, except keeping the steam up perhaps; +the loco. stoker is the king of all stokers.</p> + +<p class="hd1">33. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How is the stoking done on +a big steam ship?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—In a Royal West Indian Mail Steam<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +Packet, in which I was stoker, there were forty-five +stokers and coal trimmers, forty-five sailors, besides a +number of stewards, stewardesses, six engineers, six +ship's officers, several mail officials, butchers, bakers, +and a brass band of eighteen musicians. There were +two stoke-holds, one fore and one abaft the funnel, +and four boilers in each, and four furnaces in each +boiler, and three stokers in each stoke-hold, also three +trimmers in each stoke-hold. There was the same +method of working in both stoke-holds, and a constant +and continual round of firing kept up day and night. +When going down on watch I have a piece of waste +in each hand to protect them from the hot handrails; +I commence work by cleaning the small tubes of four +furnaces, then clean out the four furnaces, rake out +the ashes from the pit and fill them and the clinkers +into iron buckets, which the sailors haul up and +empty over the ship's side. And while I am engaged +in this work my two mates are doing my firing for +me—which is in this way: one man fires every other +fire of the sixteen fires, then goes round again and +fires those he missed the first round, then his mate +takes the shovel from his hands and fires every other +fire, then fires those he missed the first round; the +third man does likewise, and so it is constant firing +all through. And having towering hot boilers both +sides of us and roaring furnaces behind and in front,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +the sweat pours from us continually, and we are glad +to pop into the engine room after firing to get a +draught of somewhat cooler air. I happened to have +the middle watch—12 midnight to 4 a.m.—which is +the worst of the watches, for when I came off at four +the hands on deck were always doing something to +make a noise, and there is little chance of getting a +sleep, and hammocks must be stowed away before +eight; then breakfast, and the brass band strikes up +for half an hour; but if there had been dog-watches +all of us would share in the middle watch—as +follows:—</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td1">Brown</td><td class="td2">Morning</td><td class="td3">Watch</td><td class="td4">4</td><td class="td3">to</td><td class="td5">8</td><td class="td2">a.m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Jones</td><td class="td2">Forenoon</td><td class="td3">"</td><td class="td4">8</td><td class="td3">to</td><td class="td5">12</td><td class="td2">noon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Robinson</td><td class="td2">Afternoon</td><td class="td3">"</td><td class="td4">12</td><td class="td3">to</td><td class="td5">4</td><td class="td2">p.m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Brown</td><td class="td2">First Dog</td><td class="td3">"</td><td class="td4">4</td><td class="td3">to</td><td class="td5">6</td><td class="td2">p.m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Jones</td><td class="td2">Second Dog</td><td class="td3">"</td><td class="td4">6</td><td class="td3">to</td><td class="td5">8</td><td class="td2">p.m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Robinson</td><td class="td2">First</td><td class="td3">"</td><td class="td4">8</td><td class="td3">to</td><td class="td5">12</td><td class="td2">midnight.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Brown</td><td class="td2">Middle</td><td class="td3">"</td><td class="td4">12</td><td class="td3">to</td><td class="td5">4</td><td class="td2">a.m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Jones</td><td class="td2">Morning</td><td class="td3">"</td><td class="td4">4</td><td class="td3">to</td><td class="td5">8</td><td class="td2">a.m. = 24 hours.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>A few hours after leaving Southampton all hands +are mustered and apportioned to man the seventeen +boats hanging from the davits, eight on each side, +and the captain's gig under the stern; after this ceremony +we get an allowance of grog. The fires are +now beginning to be dirty, having clinkers seven or +eight inches thick, which are not allowed to be pulled +out until the whole fire is cleaned at the usual time;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +this order from the chief engineer surprised me at the +time, as clinkers are not calculated to increase the +steam, so I left them there to deaden the fire, but +later on I found the solution; I was told by an old +stoker that there was sharp competition between the +chief engineers as to who could do the voyage at the +least expense of coals, and that information explained +the action of our chief engineer who would often +perambulate the deck till midnight, watching the +windsails that they should remain with their backs to +the wind in order to prevent a breath of cool air +reaching the fires, that would cause them to burn a +few more pounds of coals, while some of the stokers +were often hauled up in the ash-bucket fainting from +the stifling heat of the foul-smelling stoke-hold. We +were all supplied with fishing-lines and hooks of three +different sizes, and extra grog when getting steam up. +The method of cleaning and polishing the engines +and all bright work was very effectual, and did the +stokers great credit; after having scoured and polished +the steel and bright ironwork they were frosted, in +imitation of hoar frost. A pot of hot tallow and +white lead in which a clean piece of cotton waste +was dipped, and the parts smeared evenly in line +with the metal, and when this dried it was dabbed, +or patted, with another clean piece of waste also +dipped in the hot tallow, which gave the metal a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +good imitation of hoar frost; the brass and copper +work were burnished and shone like gold. The boat +drill and fire drill create some wonder for the passengers, +as they always happen unexpectedly; the +former begins in this way: a large gong is rapidly hit +with a mallet by the quartermaster, and all those +stokers and sailors, who belong to the seventeen boats +hanging from the davits, immediately make their way +towards them and commence to clear the falls, and the +word is given to lower all boats, while the men hold +their oars ready to push off, and the boats are run down +nearly to the water's edge; then it is up all boats, and +those on deck run them up in a jiffy to their places +under the davits, and coil the tails up, and this ends +the boat drill. The fire drill takes place on another +day, and commences in this manner: the ship's bell +is rapidly rung by the quartermaster; the unusual +rapidity of the ringing attracts the attention of all the +passengers who commence to crowd the upper deck; +the stokers drop down a dozen hose-pipes on the deck +and run them out straight, and screw them to nozzles +leading down to the engine room. The engineers pop +the pumps on and up comes the water; every hose is +now stiffened and the branches are all directed over the +ship's side, where they make a grand display. All +those of the ship's company who take no watches, as +cooks, stewards, bandsmen, etc., have each a pail full<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +of water in hand, others a blanket over their arm, all +in exact line, and ready to help if required; and after +a few minutes' display of the hose-pipes, the boatswain's +whistle ends this drill for this voyage, and the hose-pipes +are disconnected, rolled up, and hung up, to be +ready at any moment if required. There are plenty +of amusements on board, such as single-stick, glove-boxing, +wrestling, etc. But the game of the "Man in +the Chair," is one of the most laughable. A piece of +board, 12 inches by 18 inches, in which a strong rope +is inserted in a hole in each corner and knotted on the +underside, the four ropes are carried upwards and +made fast to the forestay, and the "chair" has to be +6 feet from the deck. There are perhaps thirty +stokers in this game, and each one has twisted his +black silk neckerchief into rope shape, and a volunteer +sits on the chair, holding on to one of the +chair-ropes with one hand and in the other his +silken rope. During these preliminary tactics the +passengers are crowding round to see what may +happen. At last the man on the chair gives the word +"Ready Boys," and then commences a real slogging +match, hitting the chairman on legs, arms, face, +neck, anywhere they can hit him, and every hit being +a matter of chance the passengers roar when the man +in the chair delivers a stinger to his tormentors; his +blows come with double force, as he is high above them,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +and swinging round and round, and to and fro, they +come unexpectedly and cause roars of laughter; while +this is going on a little tub, called a spitkin, is surreptitiously +pushed in view, and a few silver coins +dropped into it by one of our men, which causes the +audience to dip their hands in their pockets and a few +pounds in silver are quickly thrown in; and after half +an hour's play this game comes to an end. One more +specimen of the many games that delight the passengers: +about twenty men stand close together and in +line, their faces to the ship's head, the front man has +a bandage on his eyes, any one in the rank is at +liberty to step out and go up to him and slap his +cheek, and dart off to his place in the rank before +the blindfold touches him; if he does, the touched +one has to don the bandage, and the other pulls his +bandage off and takes a place in the rank. When the +slap is delivered, the slapper darts back to his place +in the rank with all possible speed, and the slapped +one darts after the other like greased lightning, and +touches the wrong man perhaps, and pulls the bandage +off, only to have to put on again, while the passengers +roar with delight; the little tub is not forgotten in +this game; and then the climax comes when we think +the blindfold has had enough of it, and when a burly +stoker steps out to deliver his slap, the rank closes up +tightly, and on rushing back to his place with the +blindfold at his heels, and the wild exertions of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +man to squeeze himself into the rank before he is +touched and the joy of the blindfold who has just +touched his man, creates loud cheers and laughter, +and the burly man has to don the bandage and take +his stand in front. Before arriving at St. Thomas, +there is a general clean up, bilges pumped out, engines +cleaned, boiler fronts and lagging polished; the +passengers are preparing for another voyage to some +of the islands further west, as Trinidad, St. Vincent, +Barbadoes, Martinique, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, etc. On +entering the harbour guns are fired in our honour, and +we return the compliment by firing our six-pounder +from the forecastle, the Colonial steamer comes alongside +our ship, when there are cheers and waving of +handkerchiefs and handshaking; the bumboats come +alongside also and many people, and board our ship, +offering us a great variety of things for sale; women +galavanting over every part soliciting the officers' +washing, etc., etc. Our engines receive a thorough +overhaul, boilers are cleaned, cabins and stairways +painted, and all bright metal cleaned and repolished; +our coals are delivered on board by a swarm of men, +women and youths, of both sexes, carrying them in +small wicker baskets on their heads, and stepping on +a scale or counter on their way to the ship, the process +occupying about three days for about 800 tons of +Welsh coal. At last the time has come for starting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +for home; all visitors are ordered off the ship: moorings +are cast off, and a man at the voice-pipe speaks +to the engineers down below, and the great paddle-wheels +revolve slowly for a minute, while the band +strikes up some appropriate air, as "Afloat on the +Ocean my days gaily fly," or "Afloat on the Ocean +Wave." Then commence the wild cheering and waving +of hats and handkerchiefs while the great paddles have +lashed the water into white foam, and we are fairly off +for a fourteen days' voyage home. In all our games on +board in which I took part I noticed the distinguished +presence of our highly respected captain, which I am +sure greatly enhanced our takings in the little dish.</p> + +<p class="hd1">34. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How is a hydraulic pump +constructed?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—There are various sizes, ranging from a +¼-inch to 4 inches in the diameter of the plunger or +piston, as it is sometimes called; the larger size would +be constructed in this manner; the barrel of the +pump is 3 feet long, and on its top, and in line with +it, and in the same casting, an air chamber is situate +into which water and air enter at every suction of +plunger, and serve as a buffer or cushion in the +delivery stroke. The spindle of the plunger is connected +to the piston of the steam engine by a hole and +stuffing box in the cylinder cover, and a connecting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +crosshead secures the spindle of the plunger and the +extra piston, so that would bring the crank of the +engine, the connecting rod, piston, extra piston, and +plunger all in a straight line, and a direct stroke. +About 6 inches of the plunger is occupied by the +packing at the outer end; a solid ring of iron an inch +wide, and an inch high, and securely pinned to the +plunger, has a leather cup pushed on to it, then a +loose ring is slid up against the back of the leather +cup and another cup, and another ring, until the space +for the packing is filled up; then a nut is screwed up +behind these which brings cups and rings tightly together, +and a jam-nut with a split-pin going through +nut and spindle and opened wide enough to clear the +sides of the barrel, and the hydraulic pump is ready +for work.</p> + +<p class="hd1">35. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How is a hydraulic accumulator +constructed, and why is it necessary?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—By having an accumulator, a lift, +crane, or press, works smoothly, as there is a steady +and smooth supply of the power; whereas without it, +the lift, crane, or press, would work in jerks or +jumps; with every stroke of the pumps there would be +a jerk; it would be an intermittent not a continual +power. The accumulator consists of a cylinder of cast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +iron about 9 feet in height, 4 feet outside diameter and +3 feet internal diameter; it rests on massive oaken +timbers about 4 feet from the ground; inside the +cylinder is a ram 9 feet high, also 2 feet outside +measurement, and 12 inches diameter inside; it is +lathe-turned, smooth and bright; four slabs of cast +iron, each a quarter of the circumference of the base of +the cylinder, are placed over four steel bolts that have +to support the dead weight, each bolt being about +12 feet high, 4 inches in diameter, with square necks +and flat heads, and a hole in each slab to receive the +bolts; the flat heads of the bolts are to facilitate +the accumulator resting level on the oaken timbers; +the slabs would be 2 tons each. On the slabs are +fixed small segments all round and round the base +of the cylinder until the required number (perhaps +150) is placed one on top of the other, each segment +weighing 2 cwt.; then the crosshead is placed over +the top tier, and having a hole in each of its four +arms it is entered on the bolts which have a screw-thread; +the nuts are put on and screwed up tightly, +and the accumulator is erected.</p> + +<p class="hd1">36. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How is the accumulator +started working?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The engines are started pumping into +the ram and cylinder, whose drain-cocks have previously<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +been opened, and air and water issues from +them; when the air has escaped they are shut off, +and then the great mass of iron and steel begins to +tremble and totter and moves upwards and upwards, +and on nearing the limit of its journey the top of the +accumulator lifts a projecting lever which has a +small chain attached to it, the bottom end of the +chain is attached to the steam throttle valve, and +when the chain is pulled up at the top the steam is +shut off at the throttle-valve and the engine stops, +but will start as soon as any water is taken from the +accumulator.</p> + +<p class="hd1">37. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Is there any similarity in +terms used in hydraulic work and steam +boiler work?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—There are several terms common to +hydraulics and steam; the steam boiler might be +called an accumulator of power; there is a slide-valve +in hydraulics as in the steam engine, to admit the +power and to allow the exhaust to escape; there are +stop-valves and intermediate valves in hydraulics, as +in steam pipes, also air-vessels in each: there are suction +and delivery pipes and valves in each, and relieve +valves also in each; there is a cylinder in each in +which the power is concentrated; there are reversing +levers in a hydraulic crane, as in a steam crane.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hd1">38. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Who invented the atmospheric +engine, and how was it constructed?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Savory, a mining agent, invented the +first method, which he called an engine, of drawing +water up from a well by means of a vacuum which +he happened accidentally to discover a method to +create, and the pressure of the atmospheric combined +with it. He procured a real steam boiler with a +safety valve and gauge cocks and erected two vessels +in which to create a vacuum; a suction pipe from +the bottom of each vessel led down into a well beneath +the vessels, and a valve that opened upwards was on +the end of each pipe. When about to start work, +steam from the boiler was turned into one of the +vessels, and kept on until it was as hot as the boiler +itself, while a drain cock was kept open the while, +and when air and water had been forced out of the +vessel steam was shut off, and water from a tank +above the vessel was allowed to flow on it, which soon +made a vacuum inside the vessel, and water was +sucked up through the valves opening upwards and +delivered into a tank placed for the purpose. While +this performance was in progress, the other vessel +was being charged with steam to repeat the performance, +etc. This is the extent as far as I know of +Savory's claim to be the inventor of the atmospheric +engine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hd1">39. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Who was the real inventor +then?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Newcomen and his partner Cawly +adopted a working beam, that is, a beam working on +a centre or trunnion. At one end of the beam was +the pump, at the other was an iron cylinder with an +iron piston in it; both ends of the beam were arched +or sexton-shaped, and had a chain on each, one connected +to the pump rod, the other to the piston rod. +When about to start work, the piston being up near +the top of the cylinder, steam was let in under it and +a jet of water was let in which soon condensed the +steam and created a vacuum within the cylinder, and +the piston was drawn down to the bottom and the +pump drawn up with its load of water; and a counter +weight was attached to the pump-rod to always bring +the piston to the top of the cylinder after each descent. +This is a very brief description of this atmospheric +engine; there were now only two cocks to open and +close—the steam cock and water cock, and the engine +only required a boy for this purpose, but the boy +himself added a share in this engine. In order to +have a relief from the monotony of opening and shutting +the cocks alternately, he tied strings to the handles +and then connected to the working beam in such a +manner that the cocks were opened and closed exactly +at the nick of time; this caused the engine to work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +far more regularly and to do twice the work it had +done previously, the boy's name was Humphrey +Potter.</p> + +<p class="hd1">40. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What did James Watt do in +connection with the atmospheric engine?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Watt being a mathematical instrument +maker, was requested to repair an old engine used by +some students of Glasgow University; having finished +the repairs, and in working this model (the best type +of the atmospheric engine), he found and proved by +many and various experiments, that an enormous +waste of fuel was absolutely necessary in working the +engine; he found great difficulty in keeping the air +from entering the cylinder, and the cylinder top was +so exposed to the atmosphere that the steam was +much condensed when it entered the cylinder, and he +came to the conclusion to put a cover on the top of +the cylinder, and allow the piston-rod to play in a +hole in the cover with a gland and stuffing box, and +<i>to press down the piston with steam instead of the atmosphere</i>. +This engine was no longer atmospheric, it +was a real steam engine, the first ever seen or constructed, +for steam was used to create the vacuum, +and steam was used to work the piston; but this was +only the beginning of his great improvements. This +engine though suitable for the purpose of pumping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +water, was totally unsuitable for continuous rotary +motion, the steam acting only on the downward stroke +after the piston had been pulled up to the top of the +cylinder by means of the additional weight fixed on +the pump end of the beam. He devised a method to +admit steam under the piston as well as above it, but +the flexible chains although suitable for the down +stroke of the piston were powerless in the up stroke, +they would hang listless and useless. This being so, +he determined to get rid of the chains at both ends +of the beam, and also both arched ends, and substitute +a ridged connection at both ends of the beam. He +put an iron connecting rod from the end of the beam +to the pump rod, and the other end of the beam was +connected to the piston rod by a crosshead; to this +engine he attached that grand appendage the "Parallel +Motion" which is the pride of the beam engine up to +to-day. He devised the improvement of the separate +condenser for the exhaust steam, instead of the jet of +water under the piston. He invented the crank for +his engine, also the sun and planet motion, also the +throttle valve, also the counter to indicate the number +of revolutions the engine had performed, also the +"Cut off," the steam moving the piston by expansion +when it was cut off at one-third the length of the +cylinder, and thus saving two-thirds of the steam and +a more uniform rate of speed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hd1">41. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Give a description of the +Sun and Planet method, and why he invented +it?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The sun and planet were two cog-wheels +geared into each other, the sun being 3 feet diameter +and the planet 2 feet diameter, the latter was keyed +tightly on the bottom end of the connecting rod, and +the sun which was keyed tightly on the end of the +shaft, that was to revolve and work the machinery. +But although this method did make the machinery +revolve, it was not smoothly, for when the planet wheel +was at either top or bottom of the sun wheel, the power +of the engine was less effective than it was half way +in the opposite positions. This led Watt to add a +large wheel on the shaft of the sun wheel, called the +fly wheel, which equalised the rate of motion to uniformity. +Watt invented the crank for his engine, +but one of his men gave the tip to an engineer at +Bristol, who forthwith took out a patent for it and +forestalled Watt, who had to invent another means—the +sun and planet. But when the term of the patent +expired, Watt resumed the crank method instead of +the sun and planet, which was noisy, the wear and +tear very great, and also expensive.</p> + +<p class="hd1">42. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What other things did Watt +do towards the perfection of the steam engine?</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—He added the air pump to his engine to +draw the condensed steam and water from his separate +condenser; he invented the throttle valve and the +governor, in order to sustain a uniform rate of speed +in the engine, whatever pressure of steam might be +on, or variation of work, whether heavy or light.</p> + +<p class="hd1">43. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Why is the power of the +engine called horse-power?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—Before the invention of the engine, +horses were employed in mills and mines, and other +places; the number of horses employed in a mill or +mine, indicating the amount of work going on, and +the necessity of employing them, and when the steam +engine came on the scene, and a purchaser wanted, +he was told that the engine was equal to so many +horses; that comparison gave the purchaser a clear +idea of the engine he required. Savory was the first +to suggest this comparison, but Watt knew that +horses differed in size and strength, and in order to +be sure of a safe standard for his engine power he +experimented with big horses in some London breweries, +and after careful calculation and comparison +he fixed a horse-power at 32,000 lb., that is to say, +that a horse could lift that weight of water one foot +above the ground in a minute for eight hours per day. +This standard has remained ever since, although it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +above the average of the power of the average horse, +it is in favour of the purchaser of an engine, as well +as being capable of working more than eight hours a +day, or twenty hours if required.</p> + +<p class="hd1">44. <i>Question.</i>—<b>What is meant by "nominal +horse-power"?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—It is a rough and ready way of giving +some idea of the power of an engine or engines on the +basis of the number of inches in the area of the +cylinder or cylinders, but when the process of taking +the diagram of the engine is gone through the term +nominal is dropped, and indicated horse-power is then +expressed, because it was proved by actual experiment +and certainty.</p> + +<p class="hd1">45. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How is that performance +accomplished?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—In horizontal engines there are generally +two gun-metal screw-plugs on the top of the cylinder, +one over each end and in front of the piston; when a +diagram is to be taken, these plugs are taken out and +other screws put in their places, to which a copper +pipe is attached; the screw plugs are 1 inch in diameter, +also the copper pipes; and exactly mid-way on +the copper pipe is a small cylinder which moves on a +pivot, by means of a string with a turn round it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +One end of the string is fixed by a clip on the connecting +rod, the other end anywhere to keep the string +tight, so that by the movement of the steam entering +the cylinder at either end, and the connecting rod +working backwards and forwards, the small cylinder +is made to turn frontways and backways; and within +the small cylinder is another cylinder very much +smaller; it has a tiny piston within it, and as the steam +presses on the little piston at every stroke of the +engine, a pencil from the outer cylinder is fixed in a +slot and marks the movements of the little piston on +a roll of prepared paper, slid over the inner cylinder +for that purpose, the pencil being kept up to the +paper by means of a small steel spring. This diagram +on the paper cylinder, not only is used for determining +the power of the engine, but for detecting any +irregularity in the slide-valve movements. Every +hour during the trial the finished diagram is torn off +the roll and a fresh one started, and when time is up +the engine is stopped and the diagrams compared. +Then commence the calculations, which are gone +through somewhat in this manner: the common +multiplier is found by multiplying the area of the +piston in inches by the speed of the piston in feet per +minute and the product divided by 32,000 (Watt's +horse-power), then the effective mean pressure found +on the diagram is multiplied by the common multiplier,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +and the quotient will be the <i>indicated</i> horse-power +of the engine.</p> + +<p class="hd1">46. <i>Question.</i>—<b>How is the consumption of +coals apportioned to the horse-power of the +engine at the finish of the trial?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—The consumption of coals in pounds is +divided by the product of the indicated horse-power +and the time in hours. The quotient is the quantity +consumed per horse-power per hour.</p> + +<p class="hd1">47. <i>Question.</i>—<b>Would the quality of the +coals used in the trial be of the same +quality as will be used in the ordinary +working of the boiler after the trial is +ended?</b></p> + +<p><i>Answer.</i>—No; the coals which are used in the +trial are generally the best Welsh, not shovelled up +indiscriminately, but carefully hand-picked, weighed +and wheeled into the stoke-hold; the engine during +the trial is lavishly supplied with oils and tallow, +with great regularity. After the trial, and the horse-power +is indicated, the boiler resumes her ordinary +work; the stoker is ever after expected to create +sufficient steam with very inferior coals to develop +the same amount of power in the engine as was done +in the trial. I think that is very unfair to the stoker.</p> + +<hr class="min" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> + +<p>"Let the finish give you pleasure" was the last +headline in my last school copybook in the long, long +ago; and it has given me as much pleasure to begin +this catechism as to finish it; it has given me pleasure +to offer to brother stokers my very long experience in +stoking, and kindred vocations, such as hydraulics, +steam-pipe joint making, water-pipe joint making, +engine driving, etc., in the hope that in the perusal +of this catechism they may find something to their +advantage. And with my best wishes for their future +success, remain their true friend.</p> + +<p class="author">W. J. C.</p> + +<p>1906.</p> + +<hr class="mic" /> +<p class="hd2">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED<br /> +GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W., AND DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Stoker's Catechism, by W. J. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Stoker's Catechism + +Author: W. J. Connor + +Release Date: January 27, 2008 [EBook #24441] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STOKER'S CATECHISM *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +THE STOKER'S CATECHISM + + + + + THE + + STOKER'S CATECHISM + + + BY + + W. J. CONNOR. + + + [Device] + + + London: + E. & F. N. SPON, LIMITED, 57 HAYMARKET + New York: + SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123 LIBERTY STREET + 1906 + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Variant + spellings have been retained. The oe ligature is shown as [oe]. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +There is no trade or calling that a working man is more handicapped in +than that of a Steam Boiler Stoker; there are no books on stoking; the +man leaving his situation is not anxious to communicate with the man who +is taking his place anything that might help or instruct him; and the +new man will be shy of asking for information for fear of being thought +incapable for the post he is seeking; and the transfer takes place +almost in silence, and the new man has to find out all the ways and +means at his own risk, sometimes at his employer's expense. + +My object is to instruct that man in his business without his knowing +it, or hurting his very sensitive opinion on stoking and other matters; +for I am well aware that it is only the least experienced who are the +hardest to convince, or instruct--against their will. I have therefore +ventured to devise this simple method of question and answer, which I +have named "The Stoker's Catechism," which I hope may instruct and +interest him. + +I will not encumber this preface with my personal qualifications for +this little work--the answers to the questions might suffice. + + W. J. C. + + + + +THE STOKER'S CATECHISM. + + +1. _Question._--How would you proceed to get steam up in a boiler? + +_Answer._--Having filled the boiler with water to the usual height, that +is to say, about four inches over the crown of the fire-tube, I throw in +several shovelfuls of coal or coke towards the bridge, left and right, +keeping the centre clear; then I place the firewood in the centre, throw +some coals on it, light up, and shut the door. Then I open the +side-gauge cocks to allow the heated air to escape, and keep them open +till all the air has cleared out and steam taken the place of it; by +this time the fire will require more fuel, and when the steam is high +enough I connect her by opening the stop-valve a little at a time till +it is wide open and ready for work. + + +2. _Question._--Supposing there are boilers working on each side of the +one you got steam up in, how would you act? + +_Answer._--I would light the fire by putting in a few shovelfuls of live +coal from one of them instead of using firewood; that is all the +difference I would make. + + +3. _Question._--What is the cause of the rapid motion of the water in +the gauge-glass at times? Is that motion general throughout the boiler? + +_Answer._--No; air enters the boiler with the feed-water, and the +gauge-glass tube being in the vicinity of the incoming water, some of +the air enters the glass and flies up rapidly through the top cock and +into the boiler again; in fact there is very little motion of the water +in the boiler at any time while working. I have proved this to be so, +and in this manner: the boiler cleaners having finished the cleaning, +hurriedly scrambled out of the boiler and left several tools they had +been using on the crown of the fire-box, namely, a bass hand brush, a +tin can, and a tin candlestick, and a small iron pail; the manhole cover +was put on and boiler filled and put to work before the things were +thought of, and then it was too late and they had to remain there until +the next cleaning time, which was thirteen weeks; and when the boiler +was at last blown out and the manhole cover removed, the things were on +the crown of the fire-box exactly as they were left three months +previously. In order to satisfy myself of this, to me, extraordinary +discovery, I placed several articles on the crown of the fire-box, +things that could not stop up the blow-off pipe if they were swept off, +and got up steam as usual, and after three months' hard steaming I blew +out the water and steam, took off the manhole cover, and there were the +things as I had left them thirteen weeks previously; of course they were +all coated with fine mud, but no signs of having moved a hair's breadth. + + +4. _Question._--But water in an open caldron with a fire under it, as in +the steam boiler, will madly sweep the sides and bottom with terrific +ebullition. How would you account for the great agitation in the open +caldron while the steam boiler had hardly any, although both vessels had +fierce fires under them? + +_Answer._--In the matter of the open caldron the action of the water has +no resistance but that of the atmosphere, whereas in the steam boiler +the movement of the water is resisted from the moment it is heated, for +then a vapour rises above it, and, as the heat increases, the resistance +to the movement of the water is proportionally increased, and as the +heat of the steam increases the pressure on the water increases +proportionally all through, the steam being above the water. Any old +stoker knows that when getting steam up in a boiler the lower parts are +often only warm when there may be eight or ten lb. on the square inch in +the upper portions; when the water begins to boil the steam rises in the +form of minute globular particles, and remains above the water until +there is an outlet for it by opening the stop-valve or through the +safety-valve; and as the pressure is the same throughout every part, +nook and corner, and angle, there can be no dominating force to cause +any agitation within the boiler. + + +5. _Question._--What is superheated steam, and why is it used? + +_Answer._--If a boiler is placed at a long distance from the engine or +whatever the steam may be used for, there is much or little condensation +according to the distance and the weather, so that there would always be +water mixing with the steam, and that is most objectionable where a +steam engine is concerned, and by super-heating the steam it comes to +the engine as hot and dry as if the boiler were close by; but whatever +the heat of the steam may be, the pressure cannot be increased after the +steam has left the boiler. In proportion to the pressure of steam so is +the heat of it; the higher the pressure the hotter the steam. + + +6. _Question._--If your water gauge-glass broke while the boiler was +working, how would you proceed to rectify the mishap? + +_Answer._--By immediately shutting off both cocks, the water-cock first, +then I would open the blow-out cock (at the bottom of the gauge-glass) +and keep it open to the finish, and commence unscrewing the nuts, +clearing them of any bits of india-rubber that adhered to them, also the +sockets. Get one of the half dozen glasses already cut, and my string of +rubber rings, enter two rings on the bottom end of the glass, slip the +nut over them, slip two rings on the top part of the glass after having +slipped the nut on, and enter the rings in the sockets, then screw up +both top and bottom nuts by hand alternately, and when screwed up +evenly, open the steam cock a shade to warm the glass, and when it is +hot enough, open it more and commence closing the blow-out cock, by +tapping it lightly by hand, then open the steam cock a little more and +open the water cock a little also, and shut off the blow-out cock, and +presently the water enters the glass, and both top and bottom cocks may +now be opened to their full extent, and the job is done. + + +7. _Question._--How would you cut a water gauge-glass to the proper +length? + +_Answer._--I usually cut a piece of iron wire the length the glass +should be, in this way: I measure the length from under the top nut to +the top of the bottom nut, and cut my iron wire to that measurement; +then I cut several glasses in my spare time, instead of doing it when +the glass breaks. I mark a circle where I wish to cut the glass, and +with a three-corner file I run it round this circle to a depth of the +16th of an inch, and break it off on the edge of the vice, bench, or +other solid woodwork; of course this iron-wire gauge will perhaps only +answer for this particular boiler, but in some stoke-hold the boilers +are all alike with regard to the gauge-glasses. + + +8. _Question._--What is the cause of a vacuum in a boiler? And how does +it affect her injuriously? + +_Answer._--The vacuum is mostly caused by letting cold water into a hot +boiler, the hotter the boiler the stronger the vacuum; when the water is +hotter than the boiler, there will be little vacuum; a strong vacuum in +the boiler will cause the air outside to press on the boiler in +proportion--the stronger the vacuum inside, the greater the pressure +outside. In this circumstance the pressure is misplaced for the boiler +was constructed to bear an internal pressure and not an external +pressure. And in getting steam up the pressure on the boiler has to be +reversed, and this tends to loosen the plates and rivets and makes her +leak, if she never leaked before. I have frequently known boilers to be +filled with water over-night to be ready for lighting up in the morning, +and have found the gauge-glass empty; this puzzled me at first, but on +opening the blow-out cock of the water-gauge the air rushed into it with +a gurgling noise, then I knew there was water in the boiler held up by +the vacuum, but I soon altered that by opening the side-cocks, and +letting air into her which soon killed the vacuum, and down came the +water into the glass again to the proper level. When getting steam up, I +always open one of the side gauge cocks and keep it open until steam +issues from it; that permits the foul air to escape and prevents a +vacuum being created; there used to be a vacuum valve in the vicinity of +the steam dome, that opened inwards and prevented a vacuum from being +created. + + +9. _Question._--If you had only one boiler and one engine at work, how +would you manage to clean your one fire without letting the steam go +down? + +_Answer._--When pushed for steam, which usually occurs when the fire is +getting dirty, I get ready all the tools and some of the best of the +coals, and having a bright fire I take the long poker and skim all the +fire to one side and throw a couple of shovelfuls of coals evenly over +it and rake out all the clinkers on the opposite side, then with the +long poker (some people call it Kennedy) I skim all the fire over to the +opposite side and throw a couple of shovelfuls of coals evenly over the +bright fire, and rake out the clinkers on the other side, then I spread +the fire evenly over the bars and sprinkle some more coals over all, and +shut the door. This performance from first to last need not take more +than ten minutes, and the boiler was making steam all the time, and at +the finish I had a better fire than at the beginning, and the steam +hardly lost a pound; but the job must be done quickly. + + +10. _Question._--What is the cause of the humming noise that issues from +a steam boiler at times, and how would you prevent it? + +_Answer._--It is caused chiefly through bad stoking, in having an uneven +fire, full of holes, or crooked bars, the cold air rushing through where +there is the least resistance, and into the tubes, causes the humming +noise--a locomotive nearing home after her day's work has very little +fire on the bars and will generally hum, so there is some excuse for +her, but none for a stationary boiler. Some stokers take credit to +themselves for making the boiler "Hum"; when coals are thrown into the +fire indiscriminately--small and large--the air finds the least +resistance through the small coals, which soon burst into holes, while +the lumps remain solid; then the air rushes into the holes and the +humming commences; or, if the firebars are not equally separated, the +air enters the widest space and the boiler hums; or it may be that the +bars next the side of the fireplace are out of line and lets the air +rush up against the side and the boiler hums. If the stoker would only +drop a shovelful of coals dexterously into each hole the humming would +stop immediately, or level the fire with the rake or long poker, or open +the fire door if the rake is too heavy, and the noise will cease. The +chief point is to have a good set of firebars and well placed; if they +are too long they will hump in the middle or they will bulge sideways; +if they are too close together they become red-hot because there is not +room enough for the air to pass between them to keep them moderately +cool, and if they are too short they will drop down into the ash-pit. + + +11. _Question._--Why is it more difficult to keep steam-tight the +manhole cover of a portable boiler than the manhole cover of a +stationary boiler? + +_Answer._--The portable cover is usually on the side of the boiler, and +about half the cover is immersed in the water and half in the steam; the +portion under water is about 212 deg. of heat, the portion of the same cover +in the steam is about 500 deg. of heat, the hottest part expanding much more +than the cooler part, and is constantly tending to tear itself away from +the lower portion of the cover, and the joint cannot stand the unequal +strain. The manhole cover of a stationary boiler is nearly always on top +of the boiler, and the heat is equal all over it and no contraction and +expansion to cause the joint to leak as in the portable cover. + + +12. _Question._--How would you prepare a boiler for the inspection of a +boiler inspector? + +_Answer._--I would blow her right out, take off the manhole cover, take +out the safety valve, take out all firebars and the bridge, take down +flue-port brickwork, have the boiler and flues thoroughly cleaned and +swept, have a lamp or candle ready to light, a hand hammer and chisel, +or scraper, a pailful of clean water, and a wad of cotton waste. When +the inspector arrives, he quickly dons his overalls; I hand him the +light and the tools and waste, and he is into the fireplace in a jiffy; +down the side flues, under the boiler, giving a whack with the hammer +now and then, and scraping off any suspicious scale, etc.; and when he +comes out, as black as any sweep, he slips out of the overalls, gives +them a whack against the wall, folds them up tight, and crams them into +the black bag; has a dive in the pail, and is soon ready to go off +somewhere else. But he tells me something about the boiler before he +goes--not to my discredit. + + +13. _Question._--How do you proceed to get her to work again, and what +materials do you use? + +_Answer._--I first proceed to build the bridge and flue-ports, put in +the firebars, the thin bars at the sides; then I replace the +safety-valve, taking care not to damage it or its seat, fill the boiler +with clean water, put in the boiler the usual quantity of Naenaires +Anti-Corrosion liquid, or the powder, make the manhole joint with +plaited three-strand spun yarn and stiff putty (red lead and white lead) +and lay the fire, which is done in this way: throw a dozen shovelfuls of +coals towards the bridge, and to left and right of it till they reach +near to the dead-plate, leaving the centre clear for the firewood; then +throw in three or four shovelfuls of coals over the wood, with oily +waste or paper in front, and she is ready for lighting, and the "fire +is laid." The material for the bridge and the flue ports are firebricks +and fireclay; these are rather expensive, but I learnt a wrinkle in the +building up of bridge and flues. Through the frequent removals of these +for boiler inspection and the hitting of the end of the long poker, +several bricks were broken every three months, and I came to the +decision to try stock bricks faced with fireclay as mortar; and I was +more than satisfied with the result, and ever since then I used stock +bricks and fireclay only. + + +14. _Question._--How high should the top of the bridge be from the crown +of the boiler or from the fire-tube? + +_Answer._--The bridge should be about nine inches from the crown of the +fire-tube, if it were eight the draught would be curtailed, if it were +ten the draught under the bars would be diminished, through much air +passing over the bridge instead of under the firebars. As I had +permission from my employers to build the bridge to the best advantage +for myself in keeping up the steam, and having tried different heights +for many years, I found that nine inches was the nearest to perfection. +And in these experiments two additional bridges were built in one +boiler; six feet behind the ordinary bridge was a concave bridge and six +feet behind that was a convex bridge. The concave bridge was built +close up to the bottom of the fire-tube, and resembled a small archway, +and extended down to within nine inches of the bottom or shell of the +fireplace; the convex bridge was built on the bottom of the shell and +reached to within nine inches of the fire-tube. When the flame from the +furnace shot over the ordinary bridge, it clashed down under the concave +bridge, then rose up and swept through the convex bridge and away to the +bottom flues; the object of these three bridges, in one tube and for one +fire, was to keep the flame and heat in the boiler as long as possible, +instead of the heat flying swiftly over the bridge and out of the +boiler. This experiment seemed to answer very well, but as there were +several other boilers connected with this one there was no opportunity +of testing it correctly, but the three bridges remained established, and +were frequently shown to engineers and others. + + +15. _Question._--What advantage is there in having the blow-off pipe of +a boiler entering it from the top instead of at the bottom? + +_Answer._--I am not aware of any advantage in it, but I am aware of a +disadvantage in it, and it is this, that while the boiler is being blown +right out for the purpose of cleaning, or other reasons, the stoker will +often commence doing some other work, and in due course the boiler is +filled up with water, and the fire lighted, and by-and-by the stoker +comes to see what progress she is making; he looks at the water-gauge +but sees no water in it because it has syphoned out of the boiler; at +first the heated air pressed on the water and forced it through the +blow-off pipe, and then the pipe became a syphon, and the pressure +increasing as the water leaves the boiler, she is soon emptied, and if +the fire is not raked out, soon burnt. Such a mishap could not happen to +a boiler with the blow-off pipe at the bottom, for when the stoker blows +out his boiler he must shut the cock before he can fill her, and when +filled there is no chance of the water escaping out again. + + +16. _Question._--Is there not some disadvantage in having the blow-out +cock at the bottom of the boiler? + +_Answer._--Yes; the cock and pipe are subject to corrosion on account of +water dripping down on them from the stoke-hold floor, as some stokers +quench their clinkers and ashes while they are up against the front of +the boiler, instead of drawing them forward a few inches from the front: +and as the pipe is out of sight under the plates of the floor, nobody +takes the trouble to lift them and examine--not only the pipe and the +cock, but that part of the boiler where the water streams down from the +drenched ashes so frequently. So there are disadvantages in both methods +of blowing out the boiler, and always will be, until the stoker learns +his business, and takes an interest in his work, not only for his own +sake, but his employer's also. + + +17. _Question._--What is the most important appendage to a steam boiler? + +_Answer._--The safety-valve, but it is not always a safety-valve, when +it is weighted to twice the amount the boiler is certified to be worked +at safely. As an instance: Amongst the many engines employed at the +Midland Extension Works, St. Pancras, was a light steam crane for +hoisting earth from the deep excavations, there were in use small wooden +skips, and the pressure of steam was forty-five lb.; but after a time +there arrived large iron skips that the crane could not lift, even when +empty; there were about twenty men depending on the crane for their work +and the navvy-ganger was anxious for "something to be done," and the +crane man hinted about weighting the safety-valve, and no sooner said +than almost done; the safety spring balance was screwed down, and a +railway chair suspended from it by strong copper wire, and the steam +allowed to rise until it reached ninety lb. on the inch, and the big +iron skips were hoisted with their load of heavy ballast as easily as +the wooden ones had been. The boiler _happened_ to stand it. + + +18. _Question._--Have you any other instance? + +_Answer._--Yes; in an establishment in Hammersmith some years ago, the +stoker was in the habit of putting a bit of iron on the end of the +horizontal lever of a safety valve when the steam rose too high, and the +manager was about, and when it went down he would take off the bit of +iron and put it where he could find it for the next occasion. The +manager had gone away one day, and advantage was taken of it to have a +little carouse in which most of the men took a part; and when the steam +rose the stoker popped his bit of iron on the lever and all was quiet +for a time, when another noisy safety-valve began to blow off, and on +went another bit of iron that stopped the noise, and during all this +time the fires of seven or eight boilers were burning fiercely, and the +stoker should have checked his fires instead of what he had done; but in +the midst of the carouse all the boilers began to belch forth steam when +the manager came on the scene. The stoker tried to pick off the bits of +iron before the manager could see them, but the steam was to high for +that; and when at last the noise subsided and the steam had cleared +away, the whole of the revellers were on view, caught in a trap, as +there was only one exit. Most of the men were fined or suspended, the +bits of iron were discovered on the levers, and the stoker had a week's +notice to clear out, and lock-up valves were fitted on every boiler and +the keys kept in the manager's desk ever after. + + +19. _Question._--Can you always depend on the safety-valve lifting when +the steam rises? + +_Answer._--I always keep an eye on the pressure gauge, and if I find +that the safety-valve does not lift at the pressure it ought to lift at +I know that the valve is sticking, and I lift the lever and let the +steam out; the cause of the sticking may be that the valve has worn down +in its seat and becomes conical, or there may be a shoulder on the valve +that would cause it to stick, or it may be that the lever and fulcrum +were smeared with oily dirty waste in the process of cleaning and not +wiped off, but left to bake between the parts, which would prevent the +free action of the safety valve. + + +20. _Question._--Why is the safety-valve lifted at times, especially +when getting steam up? + +_Answer._--It is often done by old stokers as well as new ones, and is +more of a silly habit than of trying the pressure of the steam, +especially as there is nowadays a pressure gauge for every boiler in a +stoke-hold. By lifting the safety-valve while steam is in the boiler and +dropping it down again is a dangerous practice; there is a rush of steam +to the valve when lifted, and when it drops the rush of steam is +instantly stopped, and rebounds like an india-rubber ball hit against +the wall, and this commotion within the boiler is likely to blow the +stop-valve to pieces or the manhole cover off. Besides that, there is +always dust floating on the surface of the water, especially in a boiler +just cleaned, and when the valve is lifted the dust is carried up with +the steam, and when the valve is dropped the dust is caught under it and +often causes the valve to leak. + + +21. _Question._--When the water in the gauge-glass appears motionless +while the boiler is working, what does it portend, and how would you +proceed to rectify the stagnation of the water? + +_Answer._--It portends that the passage for the water is choked and +requires clearing, and I would lose no time in commencing to rectify the +stoppage; as a stoker who is responsible for the safety of the boiler I +am always prepared for emergencies. I commence by shutting both cocks of +the glass, the steam and the water, and unscrew the small bolt in the +water gauge, which is fixed there for the purpose of clearing the tube +that conveys the water to the glass, and with an iron wire in one hand, +I open the water cock with the other hand, and push the wire into the +small hole from which I took the bolt, giving several pushes and pulls +while the water and steam are flying out, until the tube is quite clear; +then I withdraw the wire, shut the cock, and serve the steam cock in +like manner; and while I was doing all this the bottom cock of the gauge +(the blow-out cock) was open from the beginning. Then I commence to put +the pressure on the glass by warming it with steam from the top cock +slowly; then I open the water cock a little, and so on, alternately; +then I commence shutting the blow-out cock a little. By these +man[oe]uvres the pressure on the glass is put on gradually instead of +popping it on too suddenly and breaking the glass, as is often done by +the _more-haste-the-less-speed_ stoker; now I shut the bottom cock and +open the other two, and the water bounds into the glass quite frisky, +and the boiler is safe for the present. + + +22. _Question._--What would be the consequence if the steam cock of the +water gauge was choked, while the water cock was clear, or vice versa? + +_Answer._--The consequence would be most serious for the boiler, as the +water would be forced up into the glass by the steam under it, and would +make it appear as if too much water was in the boiler, and the stoker +would proceed in the usual way to blow out some of this, apparently, +surplus water; and then watch to see it come down to the working level +in the glass, but he watches in vain--it will never come down. He might +empty the boiler dry, and the water in the glass will be there as long +as a breath of steam remains in the boiler to keep it up. And in the +event of the water-cock being choked while the steam-cock was clear the +consequence would be equally dangerous, for the water that was in the +glass before the stoppage occurred would remain in it, for the stoppage +would not allow it to drop down into the boiler again; so there it would +remain, and when the stoker came round to look at his boiler, unless he +happened to notice that no movement of the water was visible, he would +pass on without further ado, and remain in total ignorance of his +danger. Hence the necessity for the stoker to blow out his water gauge +every time he comes in front of his boiler, and if the water enters the +glass in a sluggish or dilatory way the cocks need to be cleared of the +partial stoppage, and let the water enter the glass with a rush. + + +23. _Question._--Could a boiler collapse without affecting the fusible +plug? + +_Answer._--Yes; the tank that supplied the boiler with water leaked +badly, and to stop the leaks a quantity of fine oatmeal was mixed with +water and poured into it, and in due time reached the boiler; but +instead of the oatmeal permeating the whole of the water in the boiler, +it never got beyond the parts surrounding the fireplace; it stuck on the +sides and top thickly, and was baked hard on them. After a few days the +sides of the fire-tube bulged inwards nearly twelve inches, and the +boiler had to be stopped and blown out, and the fusible plug was found +to be unaffected--it was one selected by a Boiler Insurance Company, who +had to repair this damage, and the stoker was exonerated from blame, but +there is little doubt that if the plug had leaked the mishap would have +been attributed to shortness of water and the stoker would be blamed for +what he did not do, and get the sack into the bargain. + + +24. _Question._--Why is it that an injector can force water into a +boiler from which the steam comes to work the injector at a greater +pressure than is in the boiler? + +_Answer._--The secret of the working of the injector is due to the +velocity of the steam issuing from the point of a conical tube, and +water issuing from another conical tube somewhat larger than the steam +cone, and a partial vacuum created in the barrel by the steam and cold +water meeting--as both cones face each other. The cones are about four +inches long, one and a quarter inch wide at the mouths, and about one +half of an inch at the points. The suction pipe, steam pipe and delivery +pipe are about one inch diameter, and the overflow pipe half an inch +diameter, and the water tank three feet below the level of the injector, +the space within the barrel might be twelve square inches; the water and +steam cocks are supposed to be always open, and this is how the injector +is started working. The water-wheel is turned partly round, and a +figured disc behind it indicates the quantity of water let into the +barrel, while the steam is let in by turning a wheel attached to a +quick-screw spindle; then there are ructions inside--the steam and water +have come together, and the water overflows through the half-inch pipe; +but by a little manipulation of the water, air will soon start it +working; then the overflow ceases, and the air rushes into the pipe and +hums, and the injector is working. And the reason of its working is, in +my humble opinion, the concentration of water and steam, with the vacuum +thrown in, that gives additional pressure to the water in the injector. +I might venture to say it gives fully ten lb. on the square inch over +and above the pressure of steam within the boiler. + + +25. _Question._--The noise created by the injector while working being +very objectionable, could it be mitigated? And, if so, how? + +_Answer._--Yes; I succeeded in quieting an injector in one establishment +where anything louder than the scratching of a goose-quill was +considered a nuisance. I first began by putting a piece of paper against +the mouth of the overflow pipe while the injector was working, and the +noise ceased, but soon after that the paper was sucked up into the +injector. I then applied a leathern disc, which answered well, and +proved just the right thing; sometimes the water blurted out, but not +often, and the leathern disc was permanently established; but the +injector would not work with water above 100 degrees of heat; so I would +start with cold water and gradually turn on the hot water and shut off +the cold, and she never noticed the change, but the noise was stopped. + + +26. _Question._--How would you quiet a noisy pump--one of those stuck up +in a corner of the stoke-hold that can be heard, but not often seen? + +_Answer._--I had one of them once--a very good little "Manchester Donkey +Pump," but as noisy as they make 'em--and it became a question whether +she should be discarded for an injector; she was bolted to a wall in the +basement of a block of offices and could be heard throughout the +building, and my employer told me that he would willingly give a 5_l._ +note to anyone who would stop the noise. The donkey was vertical; I took +off both valve covers and drilled a 3/8-inch hole in each projection +from the cover that gave the valve its lift, and drove a wooden peg into +each hole from the under side, and rasped them down to give the required +lift, and put the covers on again and started the donkey, and after some +more raspings of the plugs I started her again, and this time was +successful; she worked like india-rubber, no noise whatever, and I +gained more than was offered to quiet her--a cheque of 21_l._ This +happened in Draper's Gardens, Throgmorton Avenue, E.C. + + +27. _Question._--When several boilers are working in a row, and one of +the middle ones has to be cleaned, what would you do to keep it cool +enough to enable the men to do the cleaning, and also to protect them +while in the boiler? + +_Answer._--Having blown her right out I would take off the wheel of the +stop-valve spindle, tie a piece of canvas on the top of the spindle and +lock the wheel up, so that no one should open the stop-valve while the +men were in the boiler. Many dreadful things have happened through some +thoughtless or meddlesome idiot opening the stop-valve while men were +working in the boiler. I also cover the blow-off cocks of the boilers in +steam, as there is usually a pipe into which the steam and water is +carried off running parallel with the cocks, and take charge of the +spanner used in opening them, in case an absent-minded stoker might +attempt to blow some of the muddy water out of his boiler when the men +were in the empty one, and scald them to death, the steam rushing up +through the blow-off. I then fill the boiler up with cold water several +times, and allow cold water to play into the boiler from the manhole by +means of the hose pipe, and the blow-off cock being open there is always +a cool atmosphere for the men to work in; they can remain longer in the +boiler, do twice the amount of work, and in less time than in a +scorching atmosphere. When the cleaning is done and the boiler rinsed +out, I shut the blow-off cock and fill her with clean water to the usual +height; take off the canvas on the spindle, replace the wheel, and the +boiler is ready for lighting up the fire. + + +28. _Question._--Does familiarity with one's work as stoker sometimes +lead to carelessness and then to mishaps? And, if so, give an instance? + +_Answer._--Yes; familiarity in doing things frequently during work, +tends to a careless off-hand style of self-importance that has often +caused trouble and mishap. A crane driver employed at the Midland +Railway Extension at St. Pancras, came to work one winter's morning and +the steam being already up, turned it on to warm the steam chest and +cylinder, preparatory to commencing work for the day, forgetting that it +had been freezing hard all night, and split the steam chest to pieces. +His plea of defence was that steam had remained in the chest and +condensed, and become ice, then expanding, burst the steam chest; this +plea served all right, but the following summer he was less successful. +He came to me during the dinner hour and said, "Jack, I can't get any +water into my boiler, will you come over and look at her?" I did go +over, and on looking at the water gauge saw it was empty, opened the +cocks, but dry steam came forth, opened the fire door and found a bright +fire of coke; while the engine was pegging away to get water into the +boiler. I said, "Bill, stop your engine and draw your fire at once, and +my name's Walker." I went back quicker than I came; and an hour later +he came over to me looking very down, and said, "Jack, I've done it." I +knew what he meant and went over with him to look at the boiler. It was +as complete wreck, and I told him to fly off and get any money that was +owing him before he got locked up; he did go, and I never saw him since. +This man was an engine fitter before he took to engine driving--poor +fellow, I was very sorry for him. Another instance. A stoker had to fill +a boiler and get up steam in her one Sunday morning, there was a big +tank over the stoke-hold from which water was taken to fill cold +boilers, a two-inch pipe with stop-cock led to the top of each boiler +from the bottom of the tank. But the tank was empty on this occasion; a +donkey pump close by was used to keep the tank filled, but this boiler +was the one from which the donkey took her steam, and was now empty, but +the stoker solved the puzzle: a boiler with steam was in use about fifty +yards away, and having a steam-pipe connection to the empty one he +opened the cock and commenced letting the steam into her, but it was +condensing as fast as it went in; and being one of the extra clever +ones, he lighted a fire in the grate so as to stop the condensing, and +did stop it, and let in sufficient steam to work the donkey-pump and +partly filled the tank, and was proceeding to open the two-inch cold +water pipe when one of the workmen passing by saw some cotton waste +smoking strongly on top of the boiler, which induced him to open the +furnace door, and he saw that the boiler was red-hot and collapsed; he +rushed up to the stoker who had his hand already on the stop-cock to let +water into her when he was forcibly pulled away from it, much against +his will, but when he saw the damage he had caused he sheered off and we +saw no more of him. This case occurred at the London Hydro-Carbon Oil +Works, Southall, W. One more: On a Sunday morning a stoker came in to +break the joint of a manhole, empty the boiler and fill her up again +with water. After taking the dogs off and securing the cover from +falling into the boiler, the stoker gave the cover a tap with the end of +the spanner to loosen the joint, but the cover showed no signs of +slackening, and the end of a crowbar was requisitioned but without +result; and in this case, as in a former one, my opinion was solicited +as well as help. I used the crowbar end harder every blow; when at last +the cover seemed to spring downwards and upwards, I dropped the bar +instantly, thinking the devil had a hold of the cover. After a moment's +thought I went down into the stoke-hold and opened one of the gauge +cocks and steam rushed out; there were no pressure gauges in this +establishment; every one of the twenty boilers had eight weights +suspended from the lever of the safety-valve, each weight representing +five lb. pressure. I took off the weights one by one, and when five of +them had been removed steam began to blow off, showing that fifteen lb. +pressure was in the boiler while I was trying to knock the manhole cover +in. On inquiry it transpired that the man whose duty it was to blow out +this boiler the previous day asked his mate to do it, and the mate +forgot all about it (it being Saturday night), and these omissions +nearly caused a catastrophe. This occurred in Pimlico, S.W. + + +29. _Question._--What advantage to the employer is the self-acting +stoker for steam boilers? + +_Answer._--He can use the very cheapest and smallest coals; the cold air +is never permitted to enter the boiler; there is no cleaning out fires +with the door wide open; the steam is more uniform in pressure; the +boiler will last longer, and little or no smoke. There is a drawback to +these advantages: there must be a live stoker to keep the automatic +stoker up to its work; he has to keep the coals supplied to the "Jacob's +Ladder"; he has to regulate the supply of coals to the boxes over each +boiler, and regulate the supply of coals dropping down into the +fireplace, regulate the speed of the travelling furnace by means of the +ratchet, clean out the ash-hole of clinkers every two hours and wheel +them out of the stoke-hold, regulate the water-supply to the boilers, +and keep the steam at the proper pressure, and rectify any and every +derangement and mishap that occurs to the self acting stoker. + + +30. _Question._--But are not these "self-acting stokers" smoke consumers +as well? + +_Answer._--The self-acting stokers have to be kept working by the live +stoker, and are smoke consumers so long as the coals let down on the +travelling furnace is exactly proportionate to the requirements of it, +but if the supply should exceed what is necessary, the grate becomes +choked with coals and has to be cleared of some of them, and in doing +this with coals partly burnt, smoke is inevitable; and if the supply is +insufficient, the grate becomes bare of fuel, and cold air finds its way +through the bars and checks the steam. To remedy this, the coal is let +down and carried onward by the moving grate before they can be ignited, +and soon begin to smoke, so that in these two extremes, too much or too +little coals will cause smoke; but if this type of furnace is in charge +of a competent stoker, there is little chance of the bars being choked +with coals, or starved for want of them. + + +31. _Question._--Is it not possible to consume the smoke of a boiler +furnace independent of patents and mechanical contrivances that can +only be worked by an experienced stoker? + +_Answer._--I have proved it possible where several boilers were +connected and working, and using small and smoky coals. In an +establishment in West London the system in vogue was in this manner: all +the bridges were built hollow, and an iron flap covered the bottom of +the bridge, and a long iron rod from the flap was carried to the front +of the boiler, and an inch steam pipe with cock attached entered the +fireplace above the door, and was joined to a two-inch perforated pipe +that was fixed from left to right over and above the dead-plate. When +the fires required replenishing, the flap was opened, then the door and +steam cock, and six shovelfuls of coals were hastily thrown in evenly +over the fire, and the door was then shut. The result of this +performance was a mixture of steam and smoke observable at the chimney +top, the steam was kept on while any smoke was visible; then the next +boiler was served in like manner, and was a continual round of work to +the exclusion of other things. This method prevailed for many years +before I came on the scene, and noticing that a great quantity of steam +was wasted for the purpose of hiding the smoke, and the six shovelfuls +of coals hardly compensated for the steam spread over them, I induced +the man who built the bridges, after inspection, to build them solid, +and then I commenced a new method of firing, in this manner: I sprinkle +the small coals with water from a hose-pipe, and burn one fire down low, +but bright; I shut the damper nearly close and commence firing towards +the bridge and sides, until the grate is full nearly to the crown of the +fireplace, allowing the gas to remain in the furnace and flues for +twenty minutes, then I open the damper a couple of inches; by this time +there are numerous jets of flame flickering all over the coals, and now +I open the damper to the full extent and I soon have a rousing +steam-making fire. I serve the next low fire in like manner, and so on. +But it is necessary always while burning one fire down for the purpose +of banking it up, to have all the other fires in good condition and +capable of keeping up the steam independently of the one to be banked +up; if the others should burn down too low before one of them is banked, +smoke will follow the neglect. I remained several years in this employ; +my method was very successful, with proper care and watchfulness, and +was adopted in a similar establishment in South London. The former +establishment was the West Middlesex Water Works, and the latter the +Southwark and Vauxhall Water Works. One ton of Welsh coals was allowed +every twenty-four hours to get the seven fires up after cleaning. Here +is another method for consuming the smoke, but is a very wasteful one; +four or five shovelfuls of small smoky coals are thrown on or near the +dead-plate, where they remain until they become sufficiently heated to +ignite, and are then pushed on to the bars by the rake, and a similar +quantity again thrown on the dead-plate, and when ignited pushed on to +the bars as before, and so it is continued. It is expected that the +smoke while passing over the bright fire towards the bridge will be +ignited, but only a very small portion of it becomes flame, and the +smoke tends to deaden the bright fire to a great extent. The door has to +be opened so frequently in this method, and in pushing the coals from +the dead-plate to the bars a large amount of live fuel drops down into +the ash-pit, and if this should be thrown into the furnace again, the +fire is deadened immediately. There is no economy in this method, which +I tried years ago but never continued since. + + +32. _Question._--Is there any difference, and if so, what is it, in +locomotive and stationary boiler stoking? + +_Answer._--There is a wide difference between the methods, not only of +firing but of the general work of the firemen and the stoker. (I cannot +see why one should be called stoker and the other fireman, for they +both have to keep the fire going and the steam up). The loco. fireman +had to be at the engine shed forty-five minutes, and the driver thirty +minutes, before the time of the train starting; the fireman gets the +stores necessary for the journey, such as oil, tallow, cotton waste, +yellow grease, and perhaps fog signals, gets his lamps from the lamp +room already trimmed--these are the head lamp, side lamp, water gauge +lamp, tail lamp and hand lamp; he places the head lamp on the right hand +side of the buffer plank, the side lamp on the left side of the tender, +the gauge lamp close to the glass, the tail lamp behind the tender; he +has to take his engine to be coaled (it used to be coke in my early days +on the L. & N. W. R.), and fills his tender with water, and brings his +engine over a pit, fills the axle-boxes of engine and tender; by this +time the driver shows up, and goes under the engine and thoroughly +examines every part of the gear; then he oils her, and both men sign on +for the particular train that the engine's number is in line with, and +run down the incline to Euston, where they hook on to their train and +wait. If it should turn out to be a particularly heavy train, the driver +will request the pilot-engine driver to hook on and go perhaps as far as +Tring or Wolverton with the train, otherwise the pilot will detach at +the top of the incline at Camden; if it should be a night train, with +the pilot in front, it is an experience never to be forgotten by a young +stoker. (I was not far in my teens when I had this experience, but an +old man now). And at last the signal is given us to start; we blow the +whistle and off we go, two engines panting, puffing, sending up showers +of sparks, and soon we leave Camden behind, and by the time we reach +Watford we are travelling about fifty miles an hour; this is the speed +to test the stoker who has to light his lamps the while, travel round +the foot-plate and keep his balance, and replenish his fire and climb +the tender frequently; but the passenger trains are a luxury in +comparison to the luggage trains. The luggage engines being bigger and +stronger than the passenger engine requires more steam and water, +because she has more than double the load to run with, and at the +stations wagons have to be shunted frequently and often re-shunted; some +are left and others taken to far-off places; the guard's van has to be +detached always in order to have it at the end of the train; the stoker +is hard at work with the brake putting it on and off, jumping down to +hold the points, or coupling wagons--this is not his business, but he +does it to facilitate the work. When the luggage train had to get into a +siding to let a passenger train go by, there was no pit (except at a +station) for the engine to stand over, and both men would have to crawl +under the engine to do anything necessary, through wet, or snow, or mud; +and when starting the engine out of the siding or from a station, and +the driving wheels slipping round, the stoker had to jump down with his +shovel and scrape up a bit of gravel, or sand, or clay, and pop it on +the rail in front of the driving wheel, and if that should stop the +slipping, the engine gave a bound forward and the stoker had to run to +keep up with the engine, throw his shovel on to the foot-plate, and +scramble up the best way he could, or be left behind. In bad weather, if +it rained, hailed, or snowed, both driver and stoker had to keep a +look-out by holding their hands up before their eyes and looking between +their fingers; when it rained, and one side of each man was wet through, +they would change places till the other side got wet through also. These +were the good old times. Drivers and firemen in the present time may +thank their stars that the way was well paved for them before they +started. So there is hardly any similarity between a stationary boiler +stoker and a locomotive stoker, except keeping the steam up perhaps; the +loco. stoker is the king of all stokers. + + +33. _Question._--How is the stoking done on a big steam ship? + +_Answer._--In a Royal West Indian Mail Steam Packet, in which I was +stoker, there were forty-five stokers and coal trimmers, forty-five +sailors, besides a number of stewards, stewardesses, six engineers, six +ship's officers, several mail officials, butchers, bakers, and a brass +band of eighteen musicians. There were two stoke-holds, one fore and one +abaft the funnel, and four boilers in each, and four furnaces in each +boiler, and three stokers in each stoke-hold, also three trimmers in +each stoke-hold. There was the same method of working in both +stoke-holds, and a constant and continual round of firing kept up day +and night. When going down on watch I have a piece of waste in each hand +to protect them from the hot handrails; I commence work by cleaning the +small tubes of four furnaces, then clean out the four furnaces, rake out +the ashes from the pit and fill them and the clinkers into iron buckets, +which the sailors haul up and empty over the ship's side. And while I am +engaged in this work my two mates are doing my firing for me--which is +in this way: one man fires every other fire of the sixteen fires, then +goes round again and fires those he missed the first round, then his +mate takes the shovel from his hands and fires every other fire, then +fires those he missed the first round; the third man does likewise, and +so it is constant firing all through. And having towering hot boilers +both sides of us and roaring furnaces behind and in front, the sweat +pours from us continually, and we are glad to pop into the engine room +after firing to get a draught of somewhat cooler air. I happened to have +the middle watch--12 midnight to 4 a.m.--which is the worst of the +watches, for when I came off at four the hands on deck were always doing +something to make a noise, and there is little chance of getting a +sleep, and hammocks must be stowed away before eight; then breakfast, +and the brass band strikes up for half an hour; but if there had been +dog-watches all of us would share in the middle watch--as follows:-- + + Brown Morning Watch 4 to 8 a.m. + Jones Forenoon " 8 to 12 noon. + Robinson Afternoon " 12 to 4 p.m. + Brown First Dog " 4 to 6 p.m. + Jones Second Dog " 6 to 8 p.m. + Robinson First " 8 to 12 midnight. + Brown Middle " 12 to 4 a.m. + Jones Morning " 4 to 8 a.m. = 24 hours. + +A few hours after leaving Southampton all hands are mustered and +apportioned to man the seventeen boats hanging from the davits, eight on +each side, and the captain's gig under the stern; after this ceremony we +get an allowance of grog. The fires are now beginning to be dirty, +having clinkers seven or eight inches thick, which are not allowed to be +pulled out until the whole fire is cleaned at the usual time; this +order from the chief engineer surprised me at the time, as clinkers are +not calculated to increase the steam, so I left them there to deaden the +fire, but later on I found the solution; I was told by an old stoker +that there was sharp competition between the chief engineers as to who +could do the voyage at the least expense of coals, and that information +explained the action of our chief engineer who would often perambulate +the deck till midnight, watching the windsails that they should remain +with their backs to the wind in order to prevent a breath of cool air +reaching the fires, that would cause them to burn a few more pounds of +coals, while some of the stokers were often hauled up in the ash-bucket +fainting from the stifling heat of the foul-smelling stoke-hold. We were +all supplied with fishing-lines and hooks of three different sizes, and +extra grog when getting steam up. The method of cleaning and polishing +the engines and all bright work was very effectual, and did the stokers +great credit; after having scoured and polished the steel and bright +ironwork they were frosted, in imitation of hoar frost. A pot of hot +tallow and white lead in which a clean piece of cotton waste was dipped, +and the parts smeared evenly in line with the metal, and when this dried +it was dabbed, or patted, with another clean piece of waste also dipped +in the hot tallow, which gave the metal a good imitation of hoar frost; +the brass and copper work were burnished and shone like gold. The boat +drill and fire drill create some wonder for the passengers, as they +always happen unexpectedly; the former begins in this way: a large gong +is rapidly hit with a mallet by the quartermaster, and all those stokers +and sailors, who belong to the seventeen boats hanging from the davits, +immediately make their way towards them and commence to clear the falls, +and the word is given to lower all boats, while the men hold their oars +ready to push off, and the boats are run down nearly to the water's +edge; then it is up all boats, and those on deck run them up in a jiffy +to their places under the davits, and coil the tails up, and this ends +the boat drill. The fire drill takes place on another day, and commences +in this manner: the ship's bell is rapidly rung by the quartermaster; +the unusual rapidity of the ringing attracts the attention of all the +passengers who commence to crowd the upper deck; the stokers drop down a +dozen hose-pipes on the deck and run them out straight, and screw them +to nozzles leading down to the engine room. The engineers pop the pumps +on and up comes the water; every hose is now stiffened and the branches +are all directed over the ship's side, where they make a grand display. +All those of the ship's company who take no watches, as cooks, stewards, +bandsmen, etc., have each a pail full of water in hand, others a +blanket over their arm, all in exact line, and ready to help if +required; and after a few minutes' display of the hose-pipes, the +boatswain's whistle ends this drill for this voyage, and the hose-pipes +are disconnected, rolled up, and hung up, to be ready at any moment if +required. There are plenty of amusements on board, such as single-stick, +glove-boxing, wrestling, etc. But the game of the "Man in the Chair," is +one of the most laughable. A piece of board, 12 inches by 18 inches, in +which a strong rope is inserted in a hole in each corner and knotted on +the underside, the four ropes are carried upwards and made fast to the +forestay, and the "chair" has to be 6 feet from the deck. There are +perhaps thirty stokers in this game, and each one has twisted his black +silk neckerchief into rope shape, and a volunteer sits on the chair, +holding on to one of the chair-ropes with one hand and in the other his +silken rope. During these preliminary tactics the passengers are +crowding round to see what may happen. At last the man on the chair +gives the word "Ready Boys," and then commences a real slogging match, +hitting the chairman on legs, arms, face, neck, anywhere they can hit +him, and every hit being a matter of chance the passengers roar when the +man in the chair delivers a stinger to his tormentors; his blows come +with double force, as he is high above them, and swinging round and +round, and to and fro, they come unexpectedly and cause roars of +laughter; while this is going on a little tub, called a spitkin, is +surreptitiously pushed in view, and a few silver coins dropped into it +by one of our men, which causes the audience to dip their hands in their +pockets and a few pounds in silver are quickly thrown in; and after half +an hour's play this game comes to an end. One more specimen of the many +games that delight the passengers: about twenty men stand close together +and in line, their faces to the ship's head, the front man has a bandage +on his eyes, any one in the rank is at liberty to step out and go up to +him and slap his cheek, and dart off to his place in the rank before the +blindfold touches him; if he does, the touched one has to don the +bandage, and the other pulls his bandage off and takes a place in the +rank. When the slap is delivered, the slapper darts back to his place in +the rank with all possible speed, and the slapped one darts after the +other like greased lightning, and touches the wrong man perhaps, and +pulls the bandage off, only to have to put on again, while the +passengers roar with delight; the little tub is not forgotten in this +game; and then the climax comes when we think the blindfold has had +enough of it, and when a burly stoker steps out to deliver his slap, the +rank closes up tightly, and on rushing back to his place with the +blindfold at his heels, and the wild exertions of the man to squeeze +himself into the rank before he is touched and the joy of the blindfold +who has just touched his man, creates loud cheers and laughter, and the +burly man has to don the bandage and take his stand in front. Before +arriving at St. Thomas, there is a general clean up, bilges pumped out, +engines cleaned, boiler fronts and lagging polished; the passengers are +preparing for another voyage to some of the islands further west, as +Trinidad, St. Vincent, Barbadoes, Martinique, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, etc. +On entering the harbour guns are fired in our honour, and we return the +compliment by firing our six-pounder from the forecastle, the Colonial +steamer comes alongside our ship, when there are cheers and waving of +handkerchiefs and handshaking; the bumboats come alongside also and many +people, and board our ship, offering us a great variety of things for +sale; women galavanting over every part soliciting the officers' +washing, etc., etc. Our engines receive a thorough overhaul, boilers are +cleaned, cabins and stairways painted, and all bright metal cleaned and +repolished; our coals are delivered on board by a swarm of men, women +and youths, of both sexes, carrying them in small wicker baskets on +their heads, and stepping on a scale or counter on their way to the +ship, the process occupying about three days for about 800 tons of Welsh +coal. At last the time has come for starting for home; all visitors are +ordered off the ship: moorings are cast off, and a man at the voice-pipe +speaks to the engineers down below, and the great paddle-wheels revolve +slowly for a minute, while the band strikes up some appropriate air, as +"Afloat on the Ocean my days gaily fly," or "Afloat on the Ocean Wave." +Then commence the wild cheering and waving of hats and handkerchiefs +while the great paddles have lashed the water into white foam, and we +are fairly off for a fourteen days' voyage home. In all our games on +board in which I took part I noticed the distinguished presence of our +highly respected captain, which I am sure greatly enhanced our takings +in the little dish. + + +34. _Question._--How is a hydraulic pump constructed? + +_Answer._--There are various sizes, ranging from a 1/4-inch to 4 inches +in the diameter of the plunger or piston, as it is sometimes called; the +larger size would be constructed in this manner; the barrel of the pump +is 3 feet long, and on its top, and in line with it, and in the same +casting, an air chamber is situate into which water and air enter at +every suction of plunger, and serve as a buffer or cushion in the +delivery stroke. The spindle of the plunger is connected to the piston +of the steam engine by a hole and stuffing box in the cylinder cover, +and a connecting crosshead secures the spindle of the plunger and the +extra piston, so that would bring the crank of the engine, the +connecting rod, piston, extra piston, and plunger all in a straight +line, and a direct stroke. About 6 inches of the plunger is occupied by +the packing at the outer end; a solid ring of iron an inch wide, and an +inch high, and securely pinned to the plunger, has a leather cup pushed +on to it, then a loose ring is slid up against the back of the leather +cup and another cup, and another ring, until the space for the packing +is filled up; then a nut is screwed up behind these which brings cups +and rings tightly together, and a jam-nut with a split-pin going through +nut and spindle and opened wide enough to clear the sides of the barrel, +and the hydraulic pump is ready for work. + + +35. _Question._--How is a hydraulic accumulator constructed, and why is +it necessary? + +_Answer._--By having an accumulator, a lift, crane, or press, works +smoothly, as there is a steady and smooth supply of the power; whereas +without it, the lift, crane, or press, would work in jerks or jumps; +with every stroke of the pumps there would be a jerk; it would be an +intermittent not a continual power. The accumulator consists of a +cylinder of cast iron about 9 feet in height, 4 feet outside diameter +and 3 feet internal diameter; it rests on massive oaken timbers about 4 +feet from the ground; inside the cylinder is a ram 9 feet high, also 2 +feet outside measurement, and 12 inches diameter inside; it is +lathe-turned, smooth and bright; four slabs of cast iron, each a quarter +of the circumference of the base of the cylinder, are placed over four +steel bolts that have to support the dead weight, each bolt being about +12 feet high, 4 inches in diameter, with square necks and flat heads, +and a hole in each slab to receive the bolts; the flat heads of the +bolts are to facilitate the accumulator resting level on the oaken +timbers; the slabs would be 2 tons each. On the slabs are fixed small +segments all round and round the base of the cylinder until the required +number (perhaps 150) is placed one on top of the other, each segment +weighing 2 cwt.; then the crosshead is placed over the top tier, and +having a hole in each of its four arms it is entered on the bolts which +have a screw-thread; the nuts are put on and screwed up tightly, and the +accumulator is erected. + + +36. _Question._--How is the accumulator started working? + +_Answer._--The engines are started pumping into the ram and cylinder, +whose drain-cocks have previously been opened, and air and water issues +from them; when the air has escaped they are shut off, and then the +great mass of iron and steel begins to tremble and totter and moves +upwards and upwards, and on nearing the limit of its journey the top of +the accumulator lifts a projecting lever which has a small chain +attached to it, the bottom end of the chain is attached to the steam +throttle valve, and when the chain is pulled up at the top the steam is +shut off at the throttle-valve and the engine stops, but will start as +soon as any water is taken from the accumulator. + + +37. _Question._--Is there any similarity in terms used in hydraulic work +and steam boiler work? + +_Answer._--There are several terms common to hydraulics and steam; the +steam boiler might be called an accumulator of power; there is a +slide-valve in hydraulics as in the steam engine, to admit the power and +to allow the exhaust to escape; there are stop-valves and intermediate +valves in hydraulics, as in steam pipes, also air-vessels in each: there +are suction and delivery pipes and valves in each, and relieve valves +also in each; there is a cylinder in each in which the power is +concentrated; there are reversing levers in a hydraulic crane, as in a +steam crane. + + +38. _Question._--Who invented the atmospheric engine, and how was it +constructed? + +_Answer._--Savory, a mining agent, invented the first method, which he +called an engine, of drawing water up from a well by means of a vacuum +which he happened accidentally to discover a method to create, and the +pressure of the atmospheric combined with it. He procured a real steam +boiler with a safety valve and gauge cocks and erected two vessels in +which to create a vacuum; a suction pipe from the bottom of each vessel +led down into a well beneath the vessels, and a valve that opened +upwards was on the end of each pipe. When about to start work, steam +from the boiler was turned into one of the vessels, and kept on until it +was as hot as the boiler itself, while a drain cock was kept open the +while, and when air and water had been forced out of the vessel steam +was shut off, and water from a tank above the vessel was allowed to flow +on it, which soon made a vacuum inside the vessel, and water was sucked +up through the valves opening upwards and delivered into a tank placed +for the purpose. While this performance was in progress, the other +vessel was being charged with steam to repeat the performance, etc. This +is the extent as far as I know of Savory's claim to be the inventor of +the atmospheric engine. + + +39. _Question._--Who was the real inventor then? + +_Answer._--Newcomen and his partner Cawly adopted a working beam, that +is, a beam working on a centre or trunnion. At one end of the beam was +the pump, at the other was an iron cylinder with an iron piston in it; +both ends of the beam were arched or sexton-shaped, and had a chain on +each, one connected to the pump rod, the other to the piston rod. When +about to start work, the piston being up near the top of the cylinder, +steam was let in under it and a jet of water was let in which soon +condensed the steam and created a vacuum within the cylinder, and the +piston was drawn down to the bottom and the pump drawn up with its load +of water; and a counter weight was attached to the pump-rod to always +bring the piston to the top of the cylinder after each descent. This is +a very brief description of this atmospheric engine; there were now only +two cocks to open and close--the steam cock and water cock, and the +engine only required a boy for this purpose, but the boy himself added a +share in this engine. In order to have a relief from the monotony of +opening and shutting the cocks alternately, he tied strings to the +handles and then connected to the working beam in such a manner that the +cocks were opened and closed exactly at the nick of time; this caused +the engine to work far more regularly and to do twice the work it had +done previously, the boy's name was Humphrey Potter. + + +40. _Question._--What did James Watt do in connection with the +atmospheric engine? + +_Answer._--Watt being a mathematical instrument maker, was requested to +repair an old engine used by some students of Glasgow University; having +finished the repairs, and in working this model (the best type of the +atmospheric engine), he found and proved by many and various +experiments, that an enormous waste of fuel was absolutely necessary in +working the engine; he found great difficulty in keeping the air from +entering the cylinder, and the cylinder top was so exposed to the +atmosphere that the steam was much condensed when it entered the +cylinder, and he came to the conclusion to put a cover on the top of the +cylinder, and allow the piston-rod to play in a hole in the cover with a +gland and stuffing box, and _to press down the piston with steam instead +of the atmosphere_. This engine was no longer atmospheric, it was a real +steam engine, the first ever seen or constructed, for steam was used to +create the vacuum, and steam was used to work the piston; but this was +only the beginning of his great improvements. This engine though +suitable for the purpose of pumping water, was totally unsuitable for +continuous rotary motion, the steam acting only on the downward stroke +after the piston had been pulled up to the top of the cylinder by means +of the additional weight fixed on the pump end of the beam. He devised a +method to admit steam under the piston as well as above it, but the +flexible chains although suitable for the down stroke of the piston were +powerless in the up stroke, they would hang listless and useless. This +being so, he determined to get rid of the chains at both ends of the +beam, and also both arched ends, and substitute a ridged connection at +both ends of the beam. He put an iron connecting rod from the end of the +beam to the pump rod, and the other end of the beam was connected to the +piston rod by a crosshead; to this engine he attached that grand +appendage the "Parallel Motion" which is the pride of the beam engine up +to to-day. He devised the improvement of the separate condenser for the +exhaust steam, instead of the jet of water under the piston. He invented +the crank for his engine, also the sun and planet motion, also the +throttle valve, also the counter to indicate the number of revolutions +the engine had performed, also the "Cut off," the steam moving the +piston by expansion when it was cut off at one-third the length of the +cylinder, and thus saving two-thirds of the steam and a more uniform +rate of speed. + + +41. _Question._--Give a description of the Sun and Planet method, and +why he invented it? + +_Answer._--The sun and planet were two cog-wheels geared into each +other, the sun being 3 feet diameter and the planet 2 feet diameter, the +latter was keyed tightly on the bottom end of the connecting rod, and +the sun which was keyed tightly on the end of the shaft, that was to +revolve and work the machinery. But although this method did make the +machinery revolve, it was not smoothly, for when the planet wheel was at +either top or bottom of the sun wheel, the power of the engine was less +effective than it was half way in the opposite positions. This led Watt +to add a large wheel on the shaft of the sun wheel, called the fly +wheel, which equalised the rate of motion to uniformity. Watt invented +the crank for his engine, but one of his men gave the tip to an engineer +at Bristol, who forthwith took out a patent for it and forestalled Watt, +who had to invent another means--the sun and planet. But when the term +of the patent expired, Watt resumed the crank method instead of the sun +and planet, which was noisy, the wear and tear very great, and also +expensive. + + +42. _Question._--What other things did Watt do towards the perfection of +the steam engine? + +_Answer._--He added the air pump to his engine to draw the condensed +steam and water from his separate condenser; he invented the throttle +valve and the governor, in order to sustain a uniform rate of speed in +the engine, whatever pressure of steam might be on, or variation of +work, whether heavy or light. + + +43. _Question._--Why is the power of the engine called horse-power? + +_Answer._--Before the invention of the engine, horses were employed in +mills and mines, and other places; the number of horses employed in a +mill or mine, indicating the amount of work going on, and the necessity +of employing them, and when the steam engine came on the scene, and a +purchaser wanted, he was told that the engine was equal to so many +horses; that comparison gave the purchaser a clear idea of the engine he +required. Savory was the first to suggest this comparison, but Watt knew +that horses differed in size and strength, and in order to be sure of a +safe standard for his engine power he experimented with big horses in +some London breweries, and after careful calculation and comparison he +fixed a horse-power at 32,000 lb., that is to say, that a horse could +lift that weight of water one foot above the ground in a minute for +eight hours per day. This standard has remained ever since, although it +is above the average of the power of the average horse, it is in favour +of the purchaser of an engine, as well as being capable of working more +than eight hours a day, or twenty hours if required. + + +44. _Question._--What is meant by "nominal horse-power"? + +_Answer._--It is a rough and ready way of giving some idea of the power +of an engine or engines on the basis of the number of inches in the area +of the cylinder or cylinders, but when the process of taking the diagram +of the engine is gone through the term nominal is dropped, and indicated +horse-power is then expressed, because it was proved by actual +experiment and certainty. + + +45. _Question._--How is that performance accomplished? + +_Answer._--In horizontal engines there are generally two gun-metal +screw-plugs on the top of the cylinder, one over each end and in front +of the piston; when a diagram is to be taken, these plugs are taken out +and other screws put in their places, to which a copper pipe is +attached; the screw plugs are 1 inch in diameter, also the copper pipes; +and exactly mid-way on the copper pipe is a small cylinder which moves +on a pivot, by means of a string with a turn round it. One end of the +string is fixed by a clip on the connecting rod, the other end anywhere +to keep the string tight, so that by the movement of the steam entering +the cylinder at either end, and the connecting rod working backwards and +forwards, the small cylinder is made to turn frontways and backways; and +within the small cylinder is another cylinder very much smaller; it has +a tiny piston within it, and as the steam presses on the little piston +at every stroke of the engine, a pencil from the outer cylinder is fixed +in a slot and marks the movements of the little piston on a roll of +prepared paper, slid over the inner cylinder for that purpose, the +pencil being kept up to the paper by means of a small steel spring. This +diagram on the paper cylinder, not only is used for determining the +power of the engine, but for detecting any irregularity in the +slide-valve movements. Every hour during the trial the finished diagram +is torn off the roll and a fresh one started, and when time is up the +engine is stopped and the diagrams compared. Then commence the +calculations, which are gone through somewhat in this manner: the common +multiplier is found by multiplying the area of the piston in inches by +the speed of the piston in feet per minute and the product divided by +32,000 (Watt's horse-power), then the effective mean pressure found on +the diagram is multiplied by the common multiplier, and the quotient +will be the _indicated_ horse-power of the engine. + + +46. _Question._--How is the consumption of coals apportioned to the +horse-power of the engine at the finish of the trial? + +_Answer._--The consumption of coals in pounds is divided by the product +of the indicated horse-power and the time in hours. The quotient is the +quantity consumed per horse-power per hour. + + +47. _Question._--Would the quality of the coals used in the trial be of +the same quality as will be used in the ordinary working of the boiler +after the trial is ended? + +_Answer._--No; the coals which are used in the trial are generally the +best Welsh, not shovelled up indiscriminately, but carefully +hand-picked, weighed and wheeled into the stoke-hold; the engine during +the trial is lavishly supplied with oils and tallow, with great +regularity. After the trial, and the horse-power is indicated, the +boiler resumes her ordinary work; the stoker is ever after expected to +create sufficient steam with very inferior coals to develop the same +amount of power in the engine as was done in the trial. I think that is +very unfair to the stoker. + + * * * * * + +"Let the finish give you pleasure" was the last headline in my last +school copybook in the long, long ago; and it has given me as much +pleasure to begin this catechism as to finish it; it has given me +pleasure to offer to brother stokers my very long experience in stoking, +and kindred vocations, such as hydraulics, steam-pipe joint making, +water-pipe joint making, engine driving, etc., in the hope that in the +perusal of this catechism they may find something to their advantage. +And with my best wishes for their future success, remain their true +friend. + + W. J. C. + +1906. + + * * * * * + + LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED + GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W., AND DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Stoker's Catechism, by W. J. 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