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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Romance of Names, by Ernest Weekley
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Romance of Names
+
+
+Author: Ernest Weekley
+
+
+
+Release Date: January 20, 2008  [eBook #24374]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ROMANCE OF NAMES***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Jon Richfield
+
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+Advertising material that appeared at the start of the book
+
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+THE ROMANCE OF WORDS
+
+"A book of extraordinary interest; those who do not yet realise how
+enthralling a subject word-history is could not do better than sample
+its flavour in Mr. Weekley's admirable book."
+
+--Spectator.          Third Edition.  6s.  net.
+
+
+SURNAMES
+
+"A study of the origin and significance of surnames, full of
+fascination for the general reader."
+
+--Truth.                 Second Edition.  6s.  net.
+
+
+AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN ENGLISH
+
+"It is a very great pleasure to get a dictionary from Mr. Weekley.
+One knows from experience that Mr. Weekley would contrive to avoid
+unnecessary dullness, even if he were compiling a railway guide, but
+that he would also get the trains right."
+
+--Mr. J. C. SQUIRE in The Observer.  Crown 4to.  L 2 2s.  net.
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+Third Edition, Revised
+
+THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+by
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY, M.A.
+
+Professor of French and Head of the Modern Language Department
+at University College, Nottingham;
+Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+London
+John Murray, Albemarle Street, W.
+1922
+
+First Edition      January 1914
+Second Edition     March 1914
+Third Edition      May 1922
+
+All Rights Reserved
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+   THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+   PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION                           1
+
+   PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION                          2
+
+   PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION                           3
+
+   CHAPTER I. OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL                      7
+
+      PERSONAL NAMES                                      8
+
+      NICKNAMES                                           9
+
+      MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES                               10
+
+      ALTERNATIVE ORIGINS                                11
+
+      NAMES DESIRABLE OR UNDESIRABLE                     13
+
+   CHAPTER II. A MEDIEVAL ROLL                           15
+
+      LONDON JURYMEN                                     16
+
+      MIDDLESEX JURYMEN                                  23
+
+      STEEPLE CLAYDON COTTAGERS                          25
+
+   CHAPTER III. SPELLING AND SOUND                       29
+
+      VARIANT SPELLINGS                                  30
+
+      DIALECTIC VARIANTS                                 32
+
+      APHESIS                                            33
+
+      EPITHESIS AND ASSIMILATION                         35
+
+      METATHESIS                                         36
+
+      BABY PHONETICS                                     37
+
+   CHAPTER IV. BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON                40
+
+      OCCUPATIVE NAMES                                   40
+
+      THE DISTRIBUTION OF NAMES                          42
+
+   CHAPTER V. THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN NAMES            44
+
+      THE HUGUENOTS                                      44
+
+      PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN NAMES                       46
+
+      JEWISH NAMES                                       48
+
+   CHAPTER VI. TOM, DICK AND HARRY                       49
+
+      MEDIEVAL FONT-NAMES                                49
+
+      THE COMMONEST FONT-NAMES                           50
+
+      FASHIONS IN FONT-NAMES                             52
+
+      DERIVATIVES OF FONT-NAMES                          53
+
+      THE SUFFIX -COCK                                   55
+
+      CELTIC NAMES                                       56
+
+   CHAPTER VII. GODERIC AND GODIVA                       57
+
+      FORMATION OF ANGLO-SAXON NAMES                     57
+
+      ANGLO-SAXON NICKNAMES                              59
+
+      ANGLO-SAXON SURVIVALS                              61
+
+      MONOSYLLABIC NAMES                                 62
+
+      "HIDEOUS NAMES"                                    63
+
+   CHAPTER VIII. PALADINS AND HEROES                     65
+
+      THE ROUND TABLE                                    66
+
+      THE CHANSONS DE GESTE                              68
+
+      ANTIQUE NAMES                                      69
+
+   CHAPTER IX. THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR                70
+
+      OLD TESTAMENT NAMES                                70
+
+      NEW TESTAMENT NAMES                                72
+
+      FEAST-DAYS                                         73
+
+      MONTH NAMES                                        74
+
+   CHAPTER X. METRONYMICS                                76
+
+      FEMALE FONT-NAMES                                  76
+
+      DOUBTFUL CASES                                     78
+
+   CHAPTER XI. LOCAL SURNAMES                            79
+
+      CLASSES OF LOCAL NAMES                             80
+
+      COUNTIES AND TOWNS                                 81
+
+      NAMES PRECEDED BY DE                               81
+
+   CHAPTER XII. SPOT NAMES                               84
+
+      ELEMENTS OF PLACE-NAMES                            85
+
+      HILL AND DALE                                      87
+
+      HILLS                                              87
+
+      WOODLAND AND PLAIN                                 89
+
+      FOREST CLEARINGS                                   91
+
+      MARSHES                                            92
+
+      WATER AND WATERSIDE                                93
+
+      RIVERS                                             93
+
+      ISLANDS                                            95
+
+      TREE NAMES                                         96
+
+   CHAPTER XIII. THE HAUNTS OF MAN                       98
+
+      SETTLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES                         99
+
+      HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS                               103
+
+      WATER                                             105
+
+      BUILDINGS                                         105
+
+      DWELLINGS                                         107
+
+      SHOP SIGNS                                        109
+
+   CHAPTER XIV. NORMAN BLOOD                            110
+
+      CORRUPT FORMS                                     112
+
+      TREE NAMES                                        113
+
+   CHAPTER XV. OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES                      115
+
+      SOCIAL GRADES                                     116
+
+      ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES                              118
+
+      NAMES IN -STER                                    119
+
+      MISSING TRADESMEN                                 120
+
+      SPELLING OF TRADE-NAMES                           122
+
+      PHONETIC CHANGES                                  123
+
+      NAMES FROM WARES                                  124
+
+   CHAPTER XVI. A SPECIMEN PROBLEM: RUTTER              126
+
+   CHAPTER XVII. THE CANTERBURY PILGRIMS                129
+
+      ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES                              131
+
+      PILGRIMS                                          132
+
+   CHAPTER XVIII. TRADES AND CRAFTS                     133
+
+      ARCHERY                                           133
+
+      CLOTHIERS                                         134
+
+      METAL WORKERS                                     136
+
+      SURNOMINAL SNOBBISHNESS                           138
+
+   CHAPTER XIX. HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS                   140
+
+      BUMBLEDOM                                         141
+
+      ITINERANT MERCHANTS                               143
+
+   CHAPTER XX. OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC                    145
+
+      THE HOUSEHOLD                                     146
+
+   CHAPTER XXI. OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL                 149
+
+      FOREIGN NICKNAMES                                 150
+
+      KINSHIP                                           152
+
+      ABSTRACTS                                         154
+
+      COSTUME                                           155
+
+      PHYSICAL FEATURES                                 157
+
+      IMPRECATIONS                                      159
+
+      PHRASE-NAMES                                      160
+
+      MISCELLANEOUS                                     162
+
+   CHAPTER XXII. ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES                   163
+
+      ARCHAIC MEANINGS                                  163
+
+      DISGUISED SPELLINGS                               165
+
+      FRENCH ADJECTIVES                                 166
+
+      COLOUR NAMES                                      167
+
+   CHAPTER XXIII. BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES             170
+
+      BIRDS                                             171
+
+      HAWK NAMES                                        173
+
+      BEASTS                                            174
+
+      FISHES                                            176
+
+      SPECIAL FEATURES                                  177
+
+   Advertising material from the end of the book        180
+
+
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
+
+In preparing this revised edition I have been able to make use of much
+information conveyed to me by readers interested in the subject.  The
+general arrangement of the book remains unchanged, but a certain
+number of statements have been modified, corrected, or suppressed.
+The study of our surnames has been mostly left to the amateur
+philologist, and many origins given by my predecessors as ascertained
+facts turn out, on investigation, to be unsupported by a shred of
+evidence.  I cannot hope that this little book in its new form is free
+from error, but I feel that it has benefited by the years I have spent
+in research since its original publication.  I would ask reader to
+accept it, not as a comprehensive treatise containing full information
+on any name that happens to occur in it, but as a general survey of
+the subject, and an attempt to indicate and exemplify the various ways
+in which our surnames have come into existence.
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY.
+
+UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM.  April 1922.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
+
+The early demand for a new edition of this little book is a gratifying
+proof of a widespread interest in its subject, rather than a testimony
+to the value of my small contribution to that subject.  Of the
+imperfections of this contribution no one can be more conscious than
+myself, but I trust that the most palpable blemishes have been removed
+in this revised edition.  The student of etymology seldom passes a day
+without coming across some piece of evidence which throws new light on
+a difficult problem (see Chapter XVI), or invalidates what had before
+seemed a reasonable conjecture.  I have to thank many correspondents
+for sending me information of value and for indicating points in which
+conciseness has led to misunderstanding.  Some of my correspondents
+need, however, to be reminded that etymology and genealogy are
+separate sciences; so that, while offering every apology to that Mr.
+Robinson whose name is a corruption of Montmorency, I still adhere to
+my belief that the other Robinsons derive from Robert.
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY.
+
+NOTTINGHAM    March 1914.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
+
+The interpretation of personal names has always had an attraction for
+the learned and others, but the first attempts to classify and explain
+our English surnames date, so far as my knowledge goes, from 1605.  In
+that year Verstegan published his Restitution of Decayed Intelligence,
+which contains chapters on both font-names and surnames, and about the
+same time appeared Camden's Remains Concerning Britain, in which the
+same subjects are treated much more fully.  Both of these learned
+antiquaries make excellent reading, and much curious information may
+be gleaned from their pages, especially those of Camden, whose
+position as Clarencieux King-at-Arms gave him exceptional
+opportunities for genealogical research.  From the philological point
+of view they are of course untrustworthy, though less so than most
+modern writers on the same subject.
+
+About the middle of the nineteenth century, the period of Archbishop
+Trench and Canon Taylor, began a kind of boom in works of this kind,
+and books on surnames are now numerous.  But of all these industrious
+compilers one only, Bardsley, can be taken seriously.  His Dictionary
+of English Surnames, published (Oxford Press, 1901) from his notes
+some years after his death, is invaluable to students.  It represents
+the results of twenty years' conscientious research among early rolls
+and registers, the explanations given being usually supported by
+medieval instances.  But it cannot be used uncritically, for the
+author does not appear to have been either a linguist or a
+philologist, and, although he usually refrains from etymological
+conjecture, he occasionally ventures with disastrous results.  Thus,
+to take a few instances, he identifies Prust with Priest, but the
+medieval le prust is quite obviously the Norman form of Old Fr. le
+Proust, the provost.  He attempts to connect pullen with the archaic
+Eng. pullen, poultry; but his early examples, le pulein, polayn, etc.,
+are of course Fr. Poulain, i.e. Colt.  Under Fallows, explained as
+"fallow lands," he quotes three examples of de la faleyse, i.e. Fr.
+Falaise, corresponding to our Cliff, Cleeve, etc; Pochin, explained as
+the diminutive of some personal name, is the Norman form of the famous
+name Poussin, i.e. Chick.  Or, coming to native instances, le wenchel,
+a medieval prototype of Winkle, is explained as for "periwinkle,"
+whereas it is a common Middle-English word, existing now in the
+shortened form wench, and means Child.  The obsolete Swordslipper, now
+only Slipper, which he interprets as a maker of "sword-slips," or
+sheaths, was really a sword-sharpener, from Mid. Eng. slipen, cognate
+with Old Du. slijpen, to polish, sharpen, and Ger. schleifen.
+Sometimes a very simple problem is left unexplained, e.g. in the case
+of the name Tyas, where the medieval instances of le tyeis are to a
+student of Old French clearly le tieis or tiois, i.e. the German,
+cognate with Ger. deutsch and Ital. tedesco.
+
+These examples are quoted, not in depreciation of conscientious
+student to whose work my own compilation is greatly indebted, but
+merely to show that the etymological study of surnames has scarcely
+been touched at present, except by writers to whom philology is an
+unknown science.  I have inserted, as a specimen problem (ch.  xvi.),
+a little disquisition on the name Rutter, a cursory perusal of which
+will convince most readers that it is not much use making shots in
+this subject.
+
+My aim has been to steer a clear course between a too learned and a
+too superficial treatment, and rather to show how surnames are formed
+than to adduce innumerable examples which the reader should be able to
+solve for himself.  I have made no attempt to collect curious names,
+but have taken those which occur in the London Directory (1908) or
+have caught my eye in the newspaper or the streets.  To go into proofs
+would have swelled the book beyond all reasonable proportions, but the
+reader may assume that, in the case of any derivation not expressly
+stated as a conjecture, the connecting links exist.  In the various
+classes of names, I have intentionally omitted all that is obvious,
+except in the rather frequent case of the obvious being wrong.  The
+index, which I have tried to make complete, is intended to replace to
+some extent those cross-references which are useful to students but
+irritating to the general reader.  Hundreds of names are susceptible
+of two, three, or more explanations, and I do not profess to be
+exhaustive.
+
+The subject-matter is divided into a number of rather short chapters,
+dealing with the various classes and subdivisions into which surnames
+fall; but the natural association which exists between names has often
+prevailed over rigid classification.  The quotations by which obsolete
+words are illustrated are taken as far as possible from Chaucer, whose
+writings date from the very period when our surnames were gradually
+becoming hereditary.  I have also quoted extensively from the
+Promptorium Parvulorum, our earliest English-Latin Dictionary (1440).
+
+In ch. vii, on Anglo-Saxon names, I have obtained some help from a
+paper by the late Professor Skeat (Transactions of the Philological
+Society, 1907-10, pp. 57-85) and from the materials contained in
+Searle's valuable Onomasticon Anglo-Saxonicum (Cambridge, 1897).
+Among several works which I have consulted on French and German family
+names, the most useful have been Heintze's Deutsche Familiennamen, 3rd
+ed.  (Halle a.  S., 1908) and Kremers' Beitraege zur Erforschung der
+franzoesischen Familiennamen (Bonn, 1910).  The comparative method
+which I have adopted, especially in explaining nicknames (ch.  xxi),
+will be found, I think, to clear up a good many dark points.  Of books
+on names published in this country, only Bardsley's Dictionary has
+been of any considerable assistance, though I have gleaned some scraps
+of information here and there from other compilations.  My real
+sources have been the lists of medieval names found in Domesday Book,
+the Pipe Rolls, the Hundred Rolls, and in the numerous historical
+records published by the Government and by various antiquarian
+societies.
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY.
+
+Nottingham, September 1913
+
+
+
+The following dictionaries are quoted without further reference:
+
+Promptorium Parvulorum (1440), ed.  Mayhew (E.E.T.S.; 1908).
+
+PALSGRAVE, L'Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse (1530), ed.  Genin
+(Paris, 1852).
+
+COOPER, Thesaurus Lingua Romanae et Britannicae (London; 1573).
+
+COTGRAVE A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues
+
+(London, 1611).
+
+The Middle English quotations, except where otherwise stated, are from
+Chaucer, the references being to the Globe edition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL
+
+"The French and we termed them Surnames, not because they are the
+names of the Sire, or the father, but because they are super-added to
+Christian names."
+
+(CAMDEN, Remains concerning Britain.)
+
+The study of the origin of family names is at the same time quite
+simple and very difficult.  Its simplicity consists in the fact that
+surnames can only come into existence in certain well-understood ways.
+Its difficulty is due to the extraordinary perversions which names
+undergo in common speech, to the orthographic uncertainty of our
+ancestors, to the frequent coalescence of two or more names of quite
+different Origin, and to the multitudinous forms which one single name
+can assume, such forms being due to local pronunciation, accidents of
+spelling, date of adoption, and many minor causes.  It must always
+remembered that the majority of our surnames from the various dialects
+of Middle English, i.e. of a language very different from our own in
+spelling and sound, full of words that are now obsolete, and of others
+which have completely changed their form and meaning.
+
+If we take any medieval roll of names, we see almost at a glance that
+four such individuals as--
+
+John filius Simon
+
+William de la Moor
+
+Richard le Spicer
+
+Robert le Long
+
+exhaust the possibilities of English name-making--i.e. that every
+surname must be (i) personal, from a sire or ancestor, (ii) local,
+from place of residence, [Footnote: This is by far the largest class,
+counting by names, not individuals, and many names for which I give
+another explanation have also a local origin.  Thus, when I say that
+Ely is Old Fr. Elie, i.e. Elias, I assume that the reader will know
+without being told that it has an alternative explanation from Ely in
+Cambridgeshire.]  (iii) occupative, from trade or office, (iv) a
+nickname, from bodily attributes, character, etc.
+
+This can easily be illustrated from any list of names taken at random.
+The Rugby team chosen to represent the East Midlands against Kent
+(January 22, 1913) consisted of the following fifteen names: Hancock;
+Mobbs, Poulton, Hudson, Cook; Watson, Earl; Bull, Muddiman, Collins,
+Tebbitt, Lacey, Hall, Osborne, Manton.  Some of these are simple, but
+others require a little knowledge for their explanation.
+
+
+
+PERSONAL NAMES
+
+There are seven personal names, and the first of these, Hancock, is
+rather a problem.  This is usually explained as from Flemish Hanke,
+Johnny, while the origin of the suffix -cock has never been very
+clearly accounted for (see The suffix -cock, Chapter VI).  With
+Hancock we may compare Hankin.  But, while the Flemish derivation is
+possible for these two names, it will not explain Hanson, which
+sometimes becomes Hansom (Epithesis And Assimilation, Chapter III).
+According to Camden, there is evidence that Han was also used as a
+rimed form of Ran, short for Ranolf and Randolf (cf. Hob from Robert,
+Hick from Richard), very popular names in the north during the surname
+period.  In Hankin and Hancock this Han would naturally coalesce with
+the Flemish Hanke.  This would also explain the names Hand for Rand,
+and Hands, Hance for Rands, Rance.  Mobbs is the same as Mabbs (cf.
+Moggy for Maggy), and Mabbs is the genitive of Mab, i.e. Mabel, for
+Amabel.  We have the diminutive in Mappin and the patronymic in
+Mapleson.  [Footnote: Maple and Mapple, generally tree names (Chapter
+XII), are in some cases for Mabel.  Maplethorpe is from Mablethorpe
+(Line.), thorp of Madalbert (Maethelbeorht).]  Hudson is the son of
+Hud, a very common medieval name, which seems to represent Anglo-Saxon
+Hudda (Chapter VII), the vigorous survival of which into the surname
+period is a mystery.  Watson is the son of Wat, i.e. Walter, from the
+Old N.E. Fr. Vautier (Gautier), regularly pronounced and written Water
+at one time--
+
+". . . My name is Walter Whitmore.
+How now!  Why start'st thou?  What!  doth death affright?
+
+Suffolk.          Thy name affrights me, in whose sound is death.
+A cunning man did calculate my birth,
+And told me that by water I should die."
+
+(2 Henry VI, iv.1)
+
+Hence the name Waters, which has not usually any connection with
+water; while Waterman, though sometimes occupative, is also formed
+from Walter, like Hickman from Hick (Chapter VI).  Collins is from
+Colin, a French diminutive of Col, i.e. Nicol or Nicolas.
+
+Tebbitt is a diminutive of Theobald, a favourite medieval name which
+had the shortened forms Teb, Tib, Tub, whence a number of derivatives.
+But names in Teb- and Tib- may also come from Isabel  (Chapter X).
+Osborne is the Anglo-Saxon name Osbeorn.
+
+Of course, each of these personal names has a meaning, e.g. Amabel,
+ultimately Latin, means lovable, and Walter, a Germanic name, means
+"rule army" (Modern Ger. walten and Heer), but the discussion of such
+meanings lies outside our subject.  It is, in fact, sometimes
+difficult to distinguish between the personal name and the nickname.
+Thus Pagan, whence Payn, with its diminutives Pannell, Pennell, etc.,
+Gold, Good, German, whence Jermyn, Jarman, and many other apparent
+nicknames, occur as personal names in the earliest records.  Their
+etymological origin is in any case the same as if they were nicknames.
+
+To return to our football team, Poulton, Lacey, Hall, and Manton are
+local.  There are several villages in Cheshire and Lancashire named
+Poulton, i.e. the town or homestead (Chapter XIII) by the pool.  Lacey
+occurs in Domesday Book as de Laci, from some small spot in Normandy,
+probably the hamlet of Lassy (Calvados).  Hall is due to residence
+near the great house of the neighbourhood.  If Hall's ancestor's name
+had chanced to be put down in Anglo-French as de la sale, he might now
+be known as Sale, or even as Saul.  Manton is the name of places in
+Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire, so that this player, at any rate,
+has an ancestral qualification for the East Midlands.
+
+The only true occupative name in the list is Cook, for Earl is a
+nickname.  Cook was perhaps the last occupative title to hold its own
+against the inherited name.  Justice Shallow, welcoming Sir John
+Falstaff, says--
+
+"Some pigeons, Davy; a couple of short-legged hens, a joint of mutton,
+and any pretty little tiny kickshaws.  Tell William Cook" (2 Henry IV, v.
+i.).
+
+And students of the Ingoldsby Legends will remember that
+
+"Ellen Bean ruled his cuisine.--He called her Nelly Cook."
+
+(Nell Cook, 1.  32.)
+
+There are probably a goodly number of housewives of the present day
+who would be at a loss if suddenly asked for "cook's" name in full.
+It may be noted that Lequeux means exactly the same, and is of
+identical origin, archaic Fr. le queux, Lat. coquus, while Kew is
+sometimes for Anglo-Fr. le keu, where keu is the accusative of queux
+(Alternative Origins, Chapter I).
+
+
+
+NICKNAMES
+
+The nicknames are Earl, Bull, and Muddiman.  Nicknames such as Earl
+may have been acquired in various ways (Chapter XV).  Bull and
+Muddiman are singularly appropriate for Rugby scrummagers, though the
+first may be from an inn or shop sign, rather than from physique or
+character.  It is equivalent to Thoreau, Old Fr. toreau (taureau).
+Muddiman is for Moodyman, where moody has its older meaning of
+valiant; cf. its German cognate mutig.  The weather on the day in
+question gave a certain fitness both to the original meaning and the
+later form.
+
+The above names are, with the exception of Hancock, Hudson, and
+Muddiman, easy to solve; but it must not be concluded that every list
+is as simple, or that the obvious is always right.  The first page of
+Bards Dictionary of Surnames might well serve as a danger-signal to
+cocksure writers on this subject.  The names Abbey and Abbott would
+naturally seem to go back to an ancestor who lived in or near an and
+to another who had been nicknamed the abbot.
+
+But Abbey is more often from the Anglo-French entry le abbe, the
+abbot, and Abbott may be a diminutive of Ab, standing for Abel, or
+Abraham, the first of which was a common medieval font-name.  Francis
+Holyoak describes himself on the title-page of his Latin Dictionary
+(1612) as Franciscus de Sacra Quercu, but his name also represents the
+holly oak, or holm oak (Tree Names, Chapter XII).  On the other hand,
+Holliman always occurs in early rolls as hali or holi man, i.e. holy
+man.
+
+
+
+MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES
+
+It may be stated here, once for all, that etymologies of names which
+are based on medieval latinizations, family mottoes, etc., are always
+to be regarded with suspicion, as they involve the reversing of
+chronology, or the explanation of a name by a pun which has been made
+from it.  We find Lilburne latinized as de insula tontis, as though it
+were the impossible hybrid de l'isle burn, and Beautoy sometimes as de
+bella fide, whereas foy is the Old French for beech, from Lat. fagus.
+Napier of Merchiston had the motto n'a pier, "has no equal," and
+described himself on title-pages as the Nonpareil, but his ancestor
+was a servant who looked after the napery.  With Holyoak's rendering
+of his own name we may compare Parkinson's "latinization" of his name
+in his famous book on gardening(1629), which bears the title Paradisi
+in Sole Paradisus Terrestris, i.e. the Earthly Paradise of "Park in
+Sun."
+
+Many noble names have an anecdotic "explanation."  I learnt at school
+that Percy came from "pierce-eye," in allusion to a treacherous
+exploit at Alnwick.  The Lesleys claim descent from a hero who
+overthrew a Hungarian champion
+
+"Between the less lee and the Mair
+ He slew the knight and left him there."
+
+(Quentin Durward, ch. xxxvii.)
+
+Similarly, the great name of Courtenay, Courtney, of French local
+origin, is derived in an Old French epic from court nez, short nose,
+an epithet conferred on the famous Guillaume d'Orange, who, when the
+sword of a Saracen giant removed this important feature, exclaimed
+undauntedly--
+
+"Mais que mon nes ai un poi acorcie,
+Bien sai mes nons en sera alongie."
+
+(Li Coronemenz Loois, 1.  1159.)
+
+[Footnote: "Though I have my nose a little shortened, I know well that
+my name will be thereby lengthened."]
+
+I read lately in some newspaper that the original Lockhart took the
+"heart" of the Bruce to the Holy Land in a "locked" casket.
+Practically every famous Scottish name has a yarn connected with it,
+the gem perhaps being that which accounts for Guthrie.  A Scottish
+king, it is said, landed weary and hungry as the sole survivor of a
+shipwreck.  He approached a woman who was gutting fish, and asked her
+to prepare one for him.  The kindly fishwife at once replied, "I'll
+gut three." Whereupon the king, dropping into rime with a readiness
+worthy of Mr. Wegg, said--
+
+"Then gut three, Your name shall be," [Footnote added by scanner, who
+has not read much of Dickens: Silas Wegg was a ready-witted character
+in "Our Mutual Friend."]
+
+and conferred a suitable estate on his benefactress.
+
+After all, truth is stranger than fiction.  There is quite enough
+legitimate cause for wonderment in the fact that Tyas is letter for
+letter the same name as Douch, or that Strangeways, from a district in
+Manchester which, lying between the Irwell and the Irk, formerly
+subject to floods, is etymologically strong-wash.  The Joannes Acutus
+whose tomb stands in Florence is the great free-lance captain Sir John
+Hawkwood, "omitting the h in Latin as frivolous, and the k and w as
+unusual" (Verstegan, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, ch. ix),
+which makes him almost as unrecognizable as that Peter Gower, the
+supposed founder of freemasonry, who turned out to be Pythagoras.
+
+
+
+ALTERNATIVE ORIGINS
+
+Many names are susceptible of two, three, or more explanations.  This
+is especially true of some of our commonest monosyllabic surnames.
+Bell may be from Anglo-Fr. le bel (beau), or from a shop sign, or from
+residence near the church or town bell.  It may even have been applied
+to the man who pulled the bell.  Finally, the ancestor may have been a
+lady called Isabel, a supposition which does not necessarily imply
+illegitimacy (Chapter X).  Ball is sometimes the shortened form of the
+once favourite Baldwin.  It is also from a shop sign, and perhaps most
+frequently of all is for bald.  The latter word is properly balled,
+i.e., marked with a ball, or white streak, a word of Celtic origin;
+cf. "piebald," i.e., balled like a (mag)pie, and the "bald-faced
+stag." [Footnote: Halliwell notes that the nickname Ball is the name
+of a horse in Chaucer and in Tusser, of a sheep in the Promptorium
+Parvulorum, and of a dog in the Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VIII.
+In each case the name alludes to a white mark, or what horsy people
+call a star.  A cow thus marked is called in Scotland a boasand cow,
+and from the same word comes the obsolete bawson, badger.]  From the
+same word we get the augmentative Ballard, used, according to Wyclif,
+by the little boys who unwisely called to an irritable prophet--
+
+"Stey up ballard" (2 Kings ii.  23).
+
+The name may also be personal, Anglo-Sax. Beal-heard.  Rowe may be
+local, from residence in a row (cf. Fr. Delarue), or it may be an
+accidental spelling of the nickname Roe, which also survives in the
+Mid. English form Ray (Beasts, Chapter XXIII).
+
+But Row was also the shortened form of Rowland, or Roland.  Cobb is an
+Anglo-Saxon name, as in the local Cobham, but it is also from the
+first syllable of Cobbold (for either Cuthbeald or Godbeald) and the
+second of Jacob.  From Jacob come the diminutives Cobbin and Coppin.
+
+Or, to take some less common names, House not only represents the
+medieval de la house, but also stands for Howes, which, in its turn,
+may be the plural of how, a hill (Chapter XII), or the genitive of
+How, one of the numerous medieval forms of Hugh (Chapter VI).  Hind
+may be for Hine, a farm servant (Chapter III), or for Mid. Eng. hende,
+courteous (cf. for the vowel change Ind, Chapter XIII), and is perhaps
+sometimes also an animal nickname (Beasts, Chapter XXIII).  Rouse is
+generally Fr. roux, i.e. the red, but it may also be the nominative
+form of Rou, i.e. of Rolf, or Rollo, the sea-king who conquered
+Normandy.  [Footnote: Old French had a declension in two cases.  The
+nominative, which has now almost disappeared, was usually
+distinguished by -s.  This survives in a few words, e.g. fils, and
+proper names such as Charles, Jules, etc]  Was Holman the holy man,
+the man who lived near a holm, i.e. holly (Chapter XII), on a holm, or
+river island (Chapter XII), or in a hole, or hollow?  All these
+origins have equal claims.
+
+As a rule, when an apparent nickname is also susceptible of another
+solution, baptismal, local, or occupative, the alternative explanation
+is to be preferred, as the popular tendency has always been towards
+twisting names into significant words.  Thus, to take an example of
+each class, Diamond is sometimes for an old name Daymond (Daegmund),
+Portwine is a corruption of Poitevin, the man from Poitou (Chapter
+XI), and Tipler, which now suggests alcoholic excess, was, as late as
+the seventeenth century, the regular name for an alehouse keeper.
+
+In a very large number of cases there is a considerable choice for the
+modern bearer of a name.  Any Boon or Bone who wishes to assert that
+
+                                 Of Hereford's high blood he came,
+                                 A race renown'd for knightly fame
+                                         (Lord of the Isles, vi.  15),
+
+can claim descent from de Bohun.  While, if he holds that kind hearts
+are more than coronets, he has an alternative descent from some
+medieval le bon.  This adjective, used as a personal name, gave also
+Bunn and Bunce; for the spelling of the latter name cf. Dance for
+Dans, and Pearce for Piers, the nominative of Pierre (Alternative
+Origins, Chapter I), which also survives in Pears and Pearson.  Swain
+may go back to the father of Canute, or to some hoary-headed swain
+who, possibly, tended the swine.  Not all the Seymours are St. Maurs.
+Some of them were once Seamers, i.e. tailors.  Gosling is rather
+trivial, but it represents the romantic Jocelyn, in Normandy Gosselin,
+a diminutive of the once very popular personal name Josse.  Goss is
+usually for goose, but any Goss, or Gossett, unwilling to trace his
+family back to John Goose, "my lord of Yorkes fole," [Footnote: Privy
+Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York (1502).] may likewise choose the
+French Josse or Gosse.  Goss may also be a dialect pronunciation of
+gorse, the older form of which has given the name Gorst.  Coward,
+though humble, cow-herd, is no more timid than Craven, the name of a
+district in the West Riding of Yorkshire.
+
+
+
+NAMES DESIRABLE OR UNDESIRABLE
+
+Mr. Chucks, when in good society, "seldom bowed, Sir, to anything
+under three syllables" (Peter Simple, ch. xvii.).  But the length of a
+name is not necessarily an index of a noble meaning.  As will be seen
+(pp.  74, 5), a great number of our monosyllabic names belong to, the
+oldest stratum of all.  The boatswain's own name, from Norman-Fr.
+chouque, a tree-stump, is identical with the rather aristocratic Zouch
+or Such, from the usual French form souche.  Stubbs, which has the
+same meaning, may be compared with Curson, Curzon, Fr. courson, a
+stump, a derivative of court, short.  [Footnote: Curson is also a
+dialect variant of Christian.]  Pomeroy has a lordly ring, but is the
+Old French for Applegarth or Appleyard (Tree Names, Chapter XIV), and
+Camoys means flat-nosed, Fr. Camus--
+
+"This wenche thikke and wel y-growen was,
+ With kamuse nose, and eyen greye as glas."
+
+(A, 3973.)
+
+Kingsley, speaking of the name assumed by John Briggs, says--
+
+"Vavasour was a very pretty name, and one of those which is [sic]
+supposed by novelists and young ladies to be aristocratic; why so is a
+puzzle; as its plain meaning is a tenant farmer and nothing more or
+less" (Two Years Ago, ch. xi.).
+
+The word is said to represent a Vulgar Lat. vassus vassorum, vassal of
+vassals.
+
+On the other hand, many a homely name has a complimentary meaning.
+Mr. Wegg did not like the name Boffin, but its oldest form is bon-fin,
+good and fine.  In 1273 Mr. Bumble's name was spelt bon-bel, good and
+beautiful.  With these we may group Bunker, of which the oldest form
+is bon-quer (bon coeur), and Boffey, which corresponds to the common
+French name Bonnefoy, good faith; while the much more assertive
+Beaufoy means simply fine beech (Chapter I).
+
+With Bunker we may compare Goodhart and Cordeaux, the oldest form of
+the latter being the French name Courdoux.  Momerie and Mummery are
+identical with Mowbray, from Monbrai in Normandy.  Molyneux impresses
+more than Mullins, of which it is merely the dim., Fr. moulins, mills.
+The Yorkshire name Tankard is identical with Tancred.  Stiggins goes
+back to the illustrious Anglo-Saxon name Stigand, as Wiggins does to
+wigand, a champion.  Cadman represents Caedmon, the name of the
+poet-monk of Whitby.  Segar is an imitative form of the Anglo-Sax.
+Saegaer, of which the normal modern representative is Sayers.  Giblett
+is not a name one would covet, but it stands in the same relationship
+to Gilbert as Hamlet does to Hamo.
+
+A small difference in spelling makes a great difference in the look of
+a name.  The aristocratic Coke is an archaic spelling of Cook, the
+still more lordly Herries sometimes disguises Harris, while the modern
+Brassey is the same as de Bracy in Ivanhoe.  The rather grisly
+Nightgall is a variant of Nightingale.  The accidental retention of
+particles and articles is also effective, e.g. Delmar, Delamere,
+Delapole, impress more than Mears and Pool, and Larpent (Fr.
+I'arpent), Lemaitre, and Lestrange more than Acres, Masters, and
+Strange.  There are few names of less heroic sound than Spark and
+Codlin, yet the former is sometimes a contraction of the picturesque
+Sparrow-hawk, used as a personal name by the Anglo-Saxons, while the
+latter can be traced back via the earlier forms Quodling (still
+found), Querdling, Querdelyoun to Coeur de Lion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. A MEDIEVAL ROLL
+
+"Quelque diversite d'herbes qu'il y alt, tout s'enveloppe sous le nom
+de salade; de mesme, sous la consideration des noms, je m'en voys
+faire icy une galimafree de divers articles."  (Montaigne, Essais, i.
+46.)
+
+Just as, in studying a new language, the linguist finds it most
+helpful to take a simple text and hammer out in detail every word and
+grammatical form it contains, so the student of name-lore cannot do
+better than tackle a medieval roll and try to connect every name in it
+with those of the present day.  I give here two lists of names from
+the Hundred Rolls of 1273.  The first contains the names of London and
+Middlesex jurymen, most of them, especially the Londoners, men of
+substance and position.  The second is a list of cottagers resident in
+the village of Steeple Claydon in Bucks.  Even a cursory perusal of
+these lists should Suffice to dispel all recollection of the nightmare
+"philology" which has been so much employed to obscure what is
+perfectly simple and obvious; while a very slight knowledge of Latin
+and French is all that is required to connect these names of men who
+were dead and buried before the Battle of Crecy with those to be found
+in any modern directory.  The brief indications supplied under each
+name will be found in a fuller form in the various chapters of the
+book to which references are given.
+
+For simplicity I have given the modern English form of each Christian
+name and expanded the abbreviations used by the official compilers.
+It will be noticed that English, Latin, and Anglo-French are used
+indifferently, that le is usually, though not always, put before the
+trade-name or nickname, that de is put before place-names and at
+before spots which have no proper name.  The names in the right-hand
+column are only specimens of the, often very numerous, modern
+equivalents.
+
+
+
+LONDON JURYMEN
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+William Dibel.
+
+Dibble (Theobald).
+
+Initial t- and d- alternate (Dialectic Variants, Chapter III)
+according to locality.  In Tennyson, for Denison, son of Denis, we
+have the opposite change.  The forms assumed by Theobald are very
+numerous (Chapter I).  Besides Dibble we have the shorter Dibb.  Other
+variants are Dyball, Dipple, Tipple, Tidball, Tudball, and a number of
+names in Teb-, Tib-, Tub-.  The reason for the great popularity of the
+name is obscure.
+
+
+Baldwin le Bocher.
+
+Butcher.
+
+On the various forms of this name, see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Robert Hauteyn.
+
+Hawtin
+
+The Yorkshire name Auty is probably unconnected.  It seems rather to
+be an altered form of a Scandinavian personal name cognate with Odo.
+
+
+Henry le Wimpler.
+
+The name has apparently disappeared with the garment.  But it is never
+safe to assert that a surname is quite extinct.
+
+
+Stephen le Peron
+
+Fearon
+
+From Old Fr. feron, ferron, smith.  In a few cases French has -on as
+an agential suffix (Chapter XVIII).
+
+
+William de Paris.
+
+Paris, Parris, Parish.
+
+The commoner modern form Parish is seldom to be derived from our word
+parish.  This rarely occurs, while the entry de Paris is, on the other
+hand, very common.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Roger le Wyn.
+
+Wynne.
+
+Anglo-Saxon wine, friend.  Also a Celtic nickname, Identical with
+Gwynne (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+Matthew de Pomfrait
+
+Pomfret
+
+The usual pronunciation of Pontefract, broken bridge, one of the few
+English place-names of purely Latin origin (Chapter XIII).  The Old
+French form would be Pont-frait.
+
+
+Richard le Paumer.
+
+Palmer.
+
+A man who had made pilgrimage to the Holy Land (Chapter XVII).  The
+modern spelling is restored, but the _l_ remains mute.  It is just
+possible that this name sometimes means tennis-player, as tennis, Fr.
+le jeu de paume, once played with the palm of the hand, is of great
+antiquity.
+
+
+Walter Poletar.
+
+Pointer.
+
+A dealer in poults, i.e. fowls.  For the lengthened form poulterer,
+cf. fruiterer for fruiter, and see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Reginald Aurifaber.
+
+Goldsmith.
+
+The French form orfevre may have given the name Offer.
+
+
+Henry Deubeneye.
+
+Daubeney, Dabney.
+
+Fr. d'Aubigny.  One of the many cases in which the French preposition
+has been incorporated in the name.  Cf. Danvers, for d'Anvers,
+Antwerp, and see Chapter XI.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Richard Knotte
+
+Knott
+
+From Scandinavian Cnut, Canute.  This name is also local, from knot, a
+hillock, and has of course become confused (Variant Spellings, Chapter
+III) with the nickname Nott, with cropped hair (Chapter XXII)--
+
+"Thou nott-pated fool."
+
+ (1 Henry IV, ii.  4.)
+
+
+Walter le Wyte.
+
+White
+
+The large number of Whites is partly to be accounted for by their
+having absorbed the name Wight (Chapter XXII) from Mid. Eng. wiht,
+valiant.
+
+
+Adam le Sutel.
+
+Suttle.
+
+Both Eng. subtle and Fr. subtil are restored spellings, which do not
+appear in nomenclature (Chapter III).
+
+
+Fulk de Sancto Edmundo.
+
+Tedman.
+
+The older form would be Tednam.  Bury St. Edmund's is sometimes
+referred to as Tednambury.  For the mutilation of the word saint in
+place-names, see Chapter III.
+
+
+William le Boteler.
+
+Butler.
+
+More probably a bottle-maker than what we understand by a butler, the
+origin being of course the same.
+
+
+Gilbert Lupus
+
+Wolf.
+
+Wolf, and the Scandinavian Ulf, are both common as personal names
+before the Conquest, but a good many Modern bearers of the name are
+German Jews (Chapter IV).  Old Fr. lou (loup) is one source of Low.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Stephen Juvenis.
+
+Young
+
+Senex is rarely found.  The natural tendency was to distinguish the
+younger man from his father.  Senior is generally to be explained
+differently (Chapter XV).
+
+
+William Braciator.
+
+Brewer.
+
+The French form brasseur also survives as Bracher and Brasher, the
+latter being also confused with Brazier, the worker in brass.
+
+
+John de Cruce.
+
+Cross, Crouch.
+
+A man who lived near some outdoor cross.  The form crouch survives in
+"Crutched Friars." Hence also the name Croucher.
+
+
+Matthew le Candeler.
+
+Candler, Chandler.
+
+Initial c- for ch- shows Norman or Picard origin (Chapter III).
+
+
+Henry Bernard.
+
+Barnard, Barnett.
+
+The change from _er_ to _ar_ is regular; cf. Clark, and see Chapter
+III.  The endings -ard, -ald, are generally changed to -ett; cf.
+Everett for Everard, Barrett for Berald, Garrett for Gerard, Garrard,
+whence the imitative Garrison for Garretson.
+
+
+William de Bosco.
+
+Bush, Busk, Buss.
+
+"For there is neither bush nor hay (Chapter XIII)
+In May that it nyl shrouded bene."
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 54.)
+
+The name might also be translated as Wood.  The corresponding name of
+French origin is Boyce or Boyes, Fr. bois (Chapter XIV).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Henry de Sancta Ositha.
+
+Toosey.
+
+Cf. Fulk de Sancto Edmundo (supra), and cf. Tooley St.
+for St. Olave St. (Chapter III).
+
+
+Walter ate Stede.
+
+Stead.
+
+In this case the preposition has not coalesced, as in Adeane, at the
+dean, i.e. hollow, Agate, at gate, etc. (Chapter XII).
+
+
+William le Fevere.
+
+Wright, Smith.
+
+The French name survives as Feaver and Fevyer.  Cf. also the Lat.
+Faber, which is not always a modern German importation
+
+(Chapter XII).
+
+
+Thomas de Cumbe.
+
+Combe, Coombes.
+
+A West-country name for a hollow in a hillside (Chapter XII).
+
+
+John State.
+
+State, Stacey.
+
+Generally for Eustace, but sometimes perhaps for Anastasia, as we find
+Stacey used as a female name (Chapter III).
+
+
+Richard le Teynturier.
+
+Dyer, Dexter.
+
+Dexter represents Mid. Eng. dighester, with the feminine agential
+suffix (Chapter XV).
+
+
+Henry le Waleys.
+
+Wallis, Walsh, Welch.
+
+Literally the foreigner, but especially applied by the English to the
+Western Celts.  Quelch represents the: Welsh pronunciation.  With
+Wallis cf. Cornwallis, Mid. Eng. le cornwaleis (Chapter X).
+
+
+John le Bret.
+
+Brett, Britton.
+
+An inhabitant of Brittany, perhaps resident in that Breton colony in
+London called Little Britain.  Bret The Old French nominative of
+Breton (Chapter VIII).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Thomas le Clerc.
+
+Clark.
+
+One of our commonest names.  We now spell the common noun clerk by
+etymological reaction, but educated people pronounce the word as it
+was generally written up to the eighteenth century (Chapter III).
+
+
+Stephen le Hatter
+
+Hatter
+
+The great rarity of this name is a curious problem (Chapter XV).  The
+name Capper exists, though it is not very common.
+
+
+Thomas le Batur.
+
+Thresher.
+
+But, being a Londoner, he was more probably a gold-beater, or perhaps
+a beater of cloth.  The name Beater also survives.
+
+
+Alexander de Leycestre
+
+Leicester, Lester.
+
+For the simpler spelling, once usual and still adopted by those who
+chalk the names on the mail-vans at St. Pancras, cf. such names as
+Worster, Wooster, Gloster, etc. (Chapter XI).
+
+
+Robert le Noreys.
+
+Norris, Nurse.
+
+Old Fr. noreis, the Northerner (Chapter XI), or norice (nourrice), the
+nurse, foster-mother (Chapter XX).
+
+
+Reginald le Blond
+
+Blount, Blunt.
+
+Fr. blond, fair.  We have also the dim. Blundell.  The corresponding
+English name is Fairfax, from Mid. Eng. fax, hair (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+Randolf ate Mor.
+
+Moor.
+
+With the preposition retained (Chapter XII) it has
+given the Latin-looking Amor.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Matthew le Pevrier.
+
+Pepper.
+
+For the reduction of pepperer to Pepper cf. Armour for armourer, and
+see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Godfrey le Furmager.
+
+Cheeseman, Firminger.
+
+From Old Fr. formage (fromage).  The intrusion of the n in Firminger
+is regular; cf. Massinger, messenger, from Fr. messager, and see
+Chapter III.
+
+
+Robert Campeneys.
+
+Champness, Champneys.
+
+Old Fr. champeneis (champenois), of Champagne (Chapter XI).
+
+
+John del Pek.
+
+Peck, Peaks, Pike, Pick.
+
+A name taken from a hill-top, but sometimes referring to the unrelated
+Derbyshire Peak.
+
+
+Richard Dygun.
+
+Dickens.
+
+A diminutive of Dig, for Dick (Chapter VI).
+
+
+Peter le Hoder.
+
+Hodder.
+
+A maker of hods or a maker of hoods?  The latter is more likely.
+
+
+Alan Allutarius.
+
+Whittier.
+
+Lat. alutarius, a "white-tawer", Similarly, Mid. Eng. stan-heawere,
+stone-hewer, is contracted to Stanier, now almost swallowed up by
+Stainer.  The simple tawer is also one origin of the name Tower.
+
+
+Peter le Rus.
+
+Russ, Rush, Rouse.
+
+Fr. roux, of red complexion.  Cf. the dim. Russell, Fr. Rousseau
+(Chapter XXII).
+
+
+
+MIDDLESEX JURYMEN
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Roger de la Hale.
+
+Hall, Hale, Hales.
+
+One of our commonest local surnames.  But it has two interpretations,
+from hall and from heal (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Walter de la Hedge.
+
+Hedge, Hedges.
+
+Other names of similar meaning are Hay, Hayes, Haig, Haigh, Hawes
+(Chapter XIII)
+
+
+John Rex
+
+King.
+
+One of our commonest nicknames, the survival of which is easily
+understood (Chapter XV).
+
+
+Stephen de la Novels Meyson.
+
+Newhouse.
+
+Cf. also Newbigging, from Mid. Eng. biggen, to 'build (Chapter XIII).
+
+
+Randolf Pokoc.
+
+Pocock, Peacock.
+
+The simple Poe, Lat. pavo, has the same meaning (Chapter XXIII).
+
+
+William de Fonte.
+
+Spring, Wells, Fountain, Attewell.
+
+This is the most usual origin of the name Spring (Chapter IX).
+
+
+Robert del Parer
+
+Perrier
+
+Old Fr. perier (poirier), pear-tree.  Another origin of Perrier is,
+through French, from Lat. petrarius, a stone-hewer.
+
+
+Adam de la Denne.
+
+Denne, Dean, Done.
+
+A Mid. English name for valley (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Robertus filius Gillelmi.
+
+Wilson.
+
+For other possible names to be derived from a father named William,
+see Chapter VI.
+
+
+William filius Radolfi.
+
+Rawson.
+
+A very common medieval name, Anglo-Sax. Raedwulf, the origin of our
+Ralph, Relf, Rolfe, Roff, and of Fr. Raoul.  Some of its derivatives,
+e.g. Rolls, have got mixed with those of Roland.  To be distinguished
+from Randolf or Randall, of which the shorter form is Ran or Rand,
+whence Rankin, Rands, Rance, etc.
+
+
+
+STEEPLE CLAYDON COTTAGERS
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Andrew Colle
+
+Collins, Colley
+
+For Nicolas (Chapter V).
+
+
+William Neuman
+
+Newman, Newcomb.
+
+A man recently settled in the village (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Adam ate Dene
+
+Dean, Denne, Adeane.
+
+The separate at survives in A'Court and A'Beckett, at the beck head;
+cf. Allan a' Dale (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Ralph Mydevynter.
+
+Midwinter.
+
+An old name for Christmas (Chapter IX).
+
+
+William ate Hull.
+
+Athill, Hill, Hull.
+
+The form hul for hil occurs in Mid. English (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Gilbert Sutor.
+
+Sutor, Soutar.
+
+On the poor representation of the shoemaker see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Walter Maraud.
+
+It is easy to understand the disappearance of this name--
+
+"A rogue, beggar, vagabond; a varlet, rascall, scoundrell, base knave"
+(Cotgrave); but it may be represented by Marratt, Marrott, unless
+these are from Mary (Chapter X).
+
+
+Nicholas le P.ker.
+
+This may be expanded into Parker, a park-keeper, Packer, a
+wool-packer, or the medieval Porker, a swine-herd, now lost in Parker.
+
+
+John Stegand
+
+Stigand, Stiggins.
+
+Anglo-Saxon names survived chiefly among the peasantry (Chapter I).
+
+
+Roger Mercator.
+
+Marchant, Chapman.
+
+The restored modern spelling merchant has affected the pronunciation
+of the common noun (Chapter III).  The more usual term Chapman is
+cognate with cheap, chaffer, Chipping, Copenhagen, Ger. kaufen, to
+buy, etc.
+
+
+Adam Hoppe.
+
+Hobbs, Hobson, Hopkins.
+
+An example of the interchange of b and P (Chapter III).  Hob is
+usually regarded as one of the rimed forms from Robert (Chapter VI).
+
+
+Roger Crom.
+
+Crum, Crump.
+
+Lit.  crooked, cognate with Ger. krumm.  The final -p of Crump is
+excrescent (Chapter III).
+
+
+Stephen Cornevaleis
+
+Cornwallis, Cornish.
+
+A name which would begin in Devonshire (Chapter XI).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Walter de Ibernia
+
+Ireland
+
+A much more common name than Scotland, which has been squeezed out by
+Scott (Chapter XI).
+
+
+Matilda filia Matildae
+
+Mawson (for Maud-son), Till, Tilley, Tillett, Tillotson, etc.
+
+One of the favourite girl-names during the surname period (Chapter X).
+
+
+Ralph Vouler.
+
+Fowler
+
+A West-country pronunciation; cf. Vowle for Fowell, Vokes for Foakes
+(Chapter VI), Venn for Fenn, etc.
+
+
+John filius Thomae.
+
+Thompson, Tompkins, Tomlin, etc.
+
+One of the largest surname families.  It includes Toulmin, a
+metathesis of Tomlin.  In Townson and Tonson it coalesces with Tony,
+Anthony.
+
+
+Henry Bolle.
+
+Bull.
+
+In this case evidently a nickname (Chapter I).
+
+
+Roger Gyle.
+
+Gill.
+
+For names in Gil- see Chapter VI.  The form in the roll may, however,
+represent an uncomplimentary nickname, "guile."
+
+
+Walter Molendarius.
+
+Miller, Mellen, Milner.
+
+In Milne, Milner, we have the oldest form, representing Vulgar Lat.
+molina, mill cf. Kilner, from kiln, Lat. culina, kitchen.  Millard
+(Chapter XIX) is perhaps sometimes the same name with excrescent -d.
+
+
+Thomas Berker.
+
+Barker.
+
+A man who stripped bark, also a tanner.  But as a surname reinforced
+by the Norman form of Fr. berger, a shepherd (Chapter XV).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Matthew Hedde.
+
+Head.
+
+Sometimes local, at the head, but here a nickname; cf. Tate, Tail,
+sometimes from Fr. tete (Chapter XIII).
+
+
+Richard Joyet.
+
+Jowett, Jewett.
+
+A diminutive either of Joy or of Julian, Juliana.  But it is possible
+that Joy itself is not the abstract noun, but a shortened form of
+Julian.
+
+
+Adam Kyg.
+
+Ketch, Beach
+
+An obsolete adjective meaning lively (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+Simon filius Johannis Nigelli.
+
+Johnson, Jones, Jennings, etc.
+
+The derivatives of John are numerous and not to be distinguished from
+those of Joan, Jane (Chapter X).
+
+
+The above lists illustrate all the simpler ways in which surnames
+could be formed.  At the time of compilation they were not hereditary.
+Thus the last man on the list is Simon Johnson, but his father was
+John Neilson, or Nelson (Chapter X), and his son would be ---- Simpson,
+Sims, etc.  This would go on until, at a period varying with the
+locality, the wealth and importance of the individual, one name in the
+line would become accidentally petrified and persist to the present
+day.  The chain could, of course, be broken at any time by the
+assumption of a name from one of the other three classes (Chapter I).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. SPELLING AND SOUND
+
+"Do you spell it with a V or a W?" inquired the judge.
+
+"That depends upon the taste and fancy of the speller, my lord,"
+replied Sam.  "I never had occasion to spell it more than once or
+twice in my life, but I spells it with a V."
+
+(Pickwick, ch. xxxiv.)
+
+Many people are particular about the spelling of their names.  I am
+myself, although, as a student of philology, I ought to know better.
+The greatest of Englishmen was so careless in the matter as to sign
+himself Shakspe, a fact usually emphasized by Baconian when speaking
+of the illiterate clown of Stratford-on-Avon.  Equally illiterate must
+have been the learned Dr. Crown, who, in the various books he
+published in the latter half of the seventeenth century, spelt his
+name, indifferently Cron, Croon, Croun, Crone, Croone, Croune.  The
+modern spelling of any particular name Is a pure accident.  Before the
+Elementary Education Act of 1870 a considerable proportion of English
+people did not spell their names at all.  They trusted to the parson
+and the clerk, who did their best with unfamiliar names.  Even now old
+people in rural districts may find half a dozen orthographic variants
+of their own names among the sparse documentary records of their
+lives.  Dugdale the antiquary is said to have found more than 130
+variants of Mainwaring among the parchments of that family.  Bardsley
+quotes, under the name Blenkinsop--
+
+"On April 2 3, 1470, Elizabeth Blynkkynesoppye, of Blynkkynsoppe,
+widow of Thomas Blynkyensope, of Blynkkensope, received a general
+pardon"--
+
+four variants in one sentence.  In the List of Foreign Protestants and
+Aliens in England (1618) we have Andrian Medlor and Ellin Medler his
+wife, Johan Cosen and Abraham Cozen, brethren.  The death of Sarah
+Inward, daughter of Richard Inwood, was registered in 1685.
+
+
+
+VARIANT SPELLINGS
+
+Medieval spelling was roughly phonetic, i.e. it attempted to reproduce
+the sound of the period and region, and even men of learning, as late
+as the eighteenth century, were very uncertain in matters of
+orthography.  The spelling of the language is now practically
+normalized, although in conformity with no sort of principle; but the
+family name, as a private possession, has kept its freedom.  Thus, if
+we wish to speak poetically of a meadow, I suppose we should call it a
+lea, but the same word is represented by the family names Lea, Lee,
+Ley, Leigh, Legh, Legge, Lay, Lye, perhaps the largest group of local
+surnames we possess.
+
+In matters of spelling we observe various tendencies.  One is the
+retention of an archaic form, which does not necessarily affect
+pronunciation.  Late Mid. English was fond of y for i, of double
+consonants, and of final -e.  All these appear in the names Thynne
+(thin) and Wyllie (wily).  Therefore we should not deride the man who
+writes himself Smythe.  But in some cases the pronunciation suffers,
+e.g. the name Fry represents Mid. Eng. fri, one of the forms of the
+adjective that is now written free.  Burt represents Anglo-Sax.
+beorht, the normal result of which is Bright.  We now write subtle and
+perfect, artificial words, in the second of which the pronunciation
+has been changed in accordance with the restored spelling; but the
+older forms survive in the names Suttle and Parfitt--
+
+"He was a verray parfit, gentil knyght."
+
+(A, 72.)
+
+The usual English pronunciation of names like Mackenzie, Menzies,
+Dalziel, is due to the substitution by the printer of a z for an
+obsolete letter that represented a soft palatal sound more like y.
+[Footnote: This substitution has led one writer on surnames, who
+apparently confuses bells with beans, to derive the rare surname
+Billiter, whence Billiter's Lane in the City, from "Belzetter, i.e.,
+the Bell-setter." The Mid. Eng. "bellezeter, campanarius" (Prompt.
+Parv.), was a bell-founder, from a verb related to geysir, ingot, and
+Ger. giessen, to pour.  Robert le bellegeter was a freeman of York in
+1279.]
+
+We have an archaic plural ending in Knollys (Knowles), the plural of
+knoll, and in Sandys, and an archaic spelling in Sclater for Slater or
+Slatter, for both slat and slate come from Old Fr. esclat (eclat), a
+splinter.  With Knollys and Sandys we may put Pepys, for the existence
+of the dims.  Pipkin, Peppitt, and Peppiatt points to the medieval
+name Pipun, corresponding to the royal Pepin.  Streatfeild preserves
+variant spellings of street and field.  In Gardiner we have the Old
+Northern French word which now, as a common noun, gardener, is
+assimilated to garden, the normal French form of which appears in
+Jardine.
+
+Such orthographic variants as i and y, Simons, Symons, Ph and f,
+Jephcott, Jeffcott, s and c, Pearce, Pearce, Rees, Reece, Sellars
+(cellars), ks and x, Dickson, Dixon, are a matter of taste or
+accident.  Initial letters which became mute often disappeared in
+spelling, e.g. Wray, a corner (Chapter XIII), has become hopelessly
+confused with Ray, a roe, Knott, from Cnut, i.e. Canute, or from
+dialect knot, a hillock, with Noll, crop-haired.  Knowlson is the son
+of Nowell (Chapter IX) or of Noll, i.e. Oliver.
+
+Therefore, when Mr. X. asserts that his name has always been
+spelt in such and such a way, he is talking nonsense.  If his
+great-grandfather's will is accessible, he will probably find two or
+three variants in that alone.  The great Duke of Wellington, as a
+younger man, signed himself Arthur Wesley--
+
+"He was colonel of Dad's regiment, the Thirty-third foot, after Dad
+left the army, and then he changed his name from Wesley to Wellesley,
+or else the other way about"
+
+(KIPLING, Marklake Witches);
+
+and I know two families the members of which disagree as to the
+orthography of their names.  We have a curious affectation in such
+spellings as ffrench, ffoulkes, etc., where the ff is merely the
+method of indicating the capital letter in early documents.
+
+The telescoping of long names is a familiar phenomenon.  Well-known
+examples are Cholmondeley, Chumley, Marjoribanks, Marchbanks,
+Mainwaring, Mannering.  Less familiar are Auchinleck, Affleck,
+Boutevilain, Butlin, Postlethwaite, Posnett, Sudeley, Sully,
+Wolstenholme, Woosnam.  Ensor is from the local Edensor, Cavendish was
+regularly Candish for the Elizabethans, while Cavenham in Suffolk has
+given the surname Canham.  Daventry has become Daintree, Dentry, and
+probably the imitative Dainty, while Stepson is for Stevenson.  It is
+this tendency which makes the connection between surnames and village
+names so difficult to establish in many cases, for the artificial name
+as it occurs in the gazetteer often gives little clue to the local
+pronunciation.  It is easy to recognize Bickenhall or Bickenhill in
+Bicknell and Puttenham in Putnam, but the identity of Wyndham with
+Wymondham is only clear when we know the local Pronunciation of the
+latter name.  Milton and Melton are often telescoped forms of
+Middleton.
+
+
+
+DIALECTIC VARIANTS
+
+Dialectic variants must also be taken into account.  Briggs and Rigg
+represent the Northern forms of Bridges and Ridge, and Philbrick is a
+disguised Fellbrigg.  In Egg we have rather the survival of the Mid.
+English spelling of Edge.  Braid, Lang, Strang, are Northern variants
+of Broad, Long, Strong.  Auld is for Old while Tamson is for Thompson
+and Dabbs for Dobbs (Robert).  We have the same change of vowel in
+Raper, for Roper.  Venner generally means hunter, Fr. veneur, but
+sometimes represents the West-country form of Fenner, the fen-dweller;
+cf. Vidler for fiddler, and Vanner for Fanner, the winnower.
+
+We all the difficulty we have in catching a new and unfamiliar name,
+and the subterfuges we employ to find out what it really is.  In such
+cases we do not get the help from association and analogy which serves
+us in dealing with language in general, but find ourselves in the
+position of a foreigner or child hearing unfamiliar word for the first
+time.  We realize how many imperceptible shades there are between a
+short i and a short e, or between a fully voiced g and a voiceless k,
+examples suggested to me by my having lately understood a Mr. Riggs to
+be a Mr. Rex.
+
+We find occurring in surnames examples of those consonantal changes
+which do not violate the great Phonetic law that such changes can only
+occur regularly within the same group, i.e. that a labial cannot
+alternate with a palatal, or a dental with either.  It is thus that we
+find b alternating with p, Hobbs and Hopps (Robert), Bollinger and
+Pullinger, Fr. boulanger; g with k, Cutlack and Goodlake (Anglo-Sax.
+Guthlac), Diggs and Dix (Richard), Gipps and Kipps (Gilbert), Catlin
+and Galling (Catherine); j with ch, Jubb or Jupp and Chubb (Job); d
+with t, Proud and Prout (Chapter XXII), Dyson and Tyson (Dionisia),
+and also with th, Carrodus and Carruthers (a hamlet in Dumfries).  The
+alternation of c and ch or g and j in names of French origin is
+dialectic, the c and g representing the Norman-Picard pronunciation,
+e.g. Campion for Champion, Gosling for Joslin.  In some cases we have
+shown a definite preference for one form, e.g. Chancellor and
+Chappell, but Carpenter and Camp.  In English names c is northern, ch
+southern, e.g. Carlton, Charlton, Kirk, Church.
+
+There are also a few very common vowel changes.  The sound er usually
+became ar, as in Barclay (Berkeley), Clark, Darby, Garrard (Gerard),
+Jarrold (Gerald), Harbord (Herbert), Jarvis (Gervase), Marchant,
+Sargent, etc., while Larned, our great-grandfathers' pronunciation of
+"learned," corresponds to Fr. Littri.  Thus Parkins is the same name
+as Perkins.  (Peter), and these also give Parks and Perks, the former
+of which is usually not connected with Park.  To Peter, or rather to
+Fr. Pierre, belong also Parr, Parry and Perry, though Parry is
+generally Welsh (Chapter VI).  The dims.  Parrott, Perrott, etc., were
+sometimes nicknames, the etymology being the same, for our word parrot
+is from Fr. pierrot.  To the freedom with which this sound is spelt,
+e.g. in Herd, Heard, Hird, Hurd, we also owe Purkiss for Perkins; cf.
+appurtenance for appartenance.
+
+The letter l seems also to exercise a demoralizing influence on the
+adjacent vowel.  Juliana became Gillian, and from this, or from the
+masculine form Julian, we get Jalland, Jolland, and the shortened
+Gell, Gill (Chapter VI), and Jull.  Gallon, which Bardsley groups with
+these, is more often a French name, from the Old German Walo, or a
+corruption of the still commoner French name Galland, likewise of
+Germanic origin.
+
+We find also such irregular vowel changes as Flinders for Flanders,
+and conversely Packard for Picard.  Pottinger (see below) sometimes
+becomes Pettinger as Portugal gives Pettingall.  The general tendency
+is towards that thinning of the vowel that we get in mister for master
+and Miss Miggs's mim for ma'am.  Littimer for Lattimer is an example
+of this.  But in Royle for the local Ryle we find the same broadening
+which has given boil, a swelling, for earlier bile.
+
+
+
+APHESIS
+
+Among phonetic changes which occur with more or less regularity are
+those called aphesis, epenthesis, epithesis, assimilation,
+dissimilation, and metathesis, convenient terms which are less learned
+than they appear.  Aphesis is the loss of the unaccented first
+syllable, as in 'baccy and 'later.  It occurs almost regularly in
+words of French origin, e.g. squire and esquire, Prentice and
+apprentice.  When such double forms exist, the surname invariably
+assumes the popular form, e.g. Prentice, Squire.  Other examples are
+Bonner, i.e. debonair, Jenner, Jenoure, for Mid. Eng. engenour,
+engineer, Cator, Chaytor, Old Fr. acatour (acheteur), a buyer--
+
+"A gentil maunciple was they of a temple,
+ Of which achatours mighte take exemple" (A. 567),
+
+Spencer, dispenser, a spender, Stacey for Eustace, Vick and Veck for
+Levick, i.e. l'eveque, the bishop, Pottinger for the obsolete potigar,
+an apothecary, etc.
+
+The institution now known as the "orspittle" was called by our
+unlettered forefathers the "spital," hence the names Spittle and
+Spittlehouse.  A well-known amateur goal-keeper has the appropriate
+name Fender, for defender.
+
+Many names beginning with n are due to aphesis, e.g. Nash for atten
+ash, Nalder, Nelms, Nock, atten oak, Nokes, Nye, atten ey, at the
+island, Nangle, atten angle, Nind or Nend, atten ind or end.  With
+these we may compare Twells, at wells, and the numerous cases in which
+the first part of a personal name is dropped, e.g. Tolley,
+Bartholomew, Munn, Edmund, Pott, Philpot, dim. of Philip (see p.87),
+and the less common Facey, from Boniface, and Loney, from Apollonia,
+the latter of which has also given Applin.
+
+When a name compounded with Saint begins with a vowel, we get such
+forms as Tedman, St. Edmund, Tobin, St. Aubyn, Toosey, St. Osith,
+Toomey, St. Omer, Tooley, St. Olave; cf. Tooley St. for St. Olave St.
+and tawdry from St. Audrey.  When the saint's name begins with a
+consonant, we get, instead of aphesis, a telescoped pronunciation,
+e.g. Selinger, St. Leger, Seymour, St. Maur, Sinclair, St. Clair,
+Semark, St. Mark, Semple, St. Paul, Simper, St. Pierre, Sidney,
+probably for St. Denis, with which we may compare the educated
+pronunciation of St. John.  These names are all of local origin, from
+chapelries in Normandy or England.
+
+Epenthesis is the insertion of a sound which facilitates
+pronunciation, such as that of b in Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera.
+The intrusive sound may be a vowel or a consonant, as in the names
+Henery, Hendry, perversions of Henry.  [Footnote: On the usual fate of
+this name in English, see below.]
+
+To Hendry we owe the northern Henderson, which has often coalesced
+with Anderson, from Andrew.  These are contracted into Henson and
+Anson, the latter also from Ann and Agnes (Chapter IX).  Intrusion
+of a vowel is seen in Greenaway, Hathaway, heath way, Treadaway,
+trade (i.e. trodden) way, etc., also in Horniman, Alabone, Alban,
+Minister, minster, etc.  But epenthesis of a consonant is more common,
+especially b or p after m, and d after n.  Examples are Gamble for
+the Anglo-Saxon name Gamel, Hamblin for Hamlin, a double diminutive
+of Hamo, Simpson, Thompson, etc., and Grindrod, green royd (see p. III).
+There is also the special case of n before g in such names as Firminger
+(Chapter XV), Massinger (Chapter XX), Pottinger (Chapter XVIII), etc.
+
+
+
+EPITHESIS AND ASSIMILATION
+
+Epithesis, or the addition of a final consonant, is common in
+uneducated speech, e.g. scholard, gownd, garding, etc.  I say
+"uneducated," but many such forms have been adapted by the language,
+e.g. sound, Fr. son, and we have the name Kitching for kitchen.  The
+usual additions are -d, -t, or -g after n, e.g. Simmonds, Simon,
+Hammond, Hammant, Fr. Hamon, Hind, a farm labourer, of which the older
+form is Hine (Chapter XVII), Collings for Collins, Jennings, Fr.
+Jeannin, dim. of Jean, Aveling from the female name Avelina or Evelyn.
+Neill is for Neil, Nigel.  We have epithetic -b in Plumb, the man who
+lived by the plum-tree and epithetic -p in Crump (Chapter II).
+
+Assimilation is the tendency of a sound to imitate its neighbour.
+Thus the d of Hud (Chapter I) sometimes becomes t in contact with the
+sharp s, hence Hutson; Tomkins tends to become Tonkin, whence Tonks,
+if the m and k are not separated by the epenthetic p, Tompkins.  In
+Hopps and Hopkins we have the b of Hob assimilated to the sharp s and
+k, while in Hobbs we pronounce a final -z.  It is perhaps under the
+influence of the initial labial that Milson, son of Miles or Michael,
+sometimes becomes Milsom, and Branson, son of Brand, appears as
+Bransom.
+
+The same group of names is affected by dissimilation, i.e. the
+instinct to avoid the recurrence of the same sound.  Thus Ranson, son
+of Ranolf or Randolf, becomes Ransom [Footnote: So also Fr, rancon
+gives Eng. ransom.  The French surname Rancon is probably aphetic for
+Laurancon.]  by dissimilation of one n, and Hanson, son of Han
+(Chapter I), becomes Hansom.  In Sansom we have Samson assimilated to
+Samson and then dissimilated.  Dissimilation especially affects the
+sounds l, n, r.  Bullivant is found earlier as bon enfaunt
+(Goodchild), just as a braggart Burgundian was called by Tudor
+dramatists a burgullian.  Bellinger is for Barringer, an Old French
+name of Teutonic origin.  [Footnote: "When was Bobadil here, your
+captain?  that rogue, that foist, that fencing burgullian" (Jonson,
+Every Man in his Humour, iv. 2).]  Those people called Salisbury who
+do not hail from Salesbury in Lancashire must have had an ancestor de
+Sares-bury, for such was the earlier name of Salisbury (Sarum).  A
+number of occupative names have lost the last syllable by
+dissimilation, e.g. Pepper for pepperer, Armour for armourer.  For
+further examples see Chapter XV.
+
+It may be noted here that, apart from dissimilation, the sounds l, n,
+r, have a general tendency to become confused, e.g. Phillimore is for
+Finamour (Dearlove), which also appears as Finnemore and Fenimore, the
+latter also to be explained from fen and moor.  Catlin is from
+Catherine.  Balestier, a cross-bow man, gives Bannister, and Hamnet
+and Hamlet both occur as the name of one of Shakespeare's sons.
+Janico or Jenico, Fr. Janicot may be the origin of Jellicoe.
+
+We also get the change of r to l in Hal, for Harry, whence Hallett,
+Hawkins (Halkins), and the Cornish Hockin, Mal or Mol for Mary, whence
+Malleson, Mollison, etc., and Pell for Peregrine.  This confusion is
+common in infantile speech, e.g. I have heard a small child express
+great satisfaction at the presence on the table of "blackbelly dam."
+
+
+
+METATHESIS
+
+Metathesis, or the transposition of sound, chiefly affects l and r,
+especially the latter.  Our word cress is from Mid. Eng. kers, which
+appears in Karslake, Toulmin is for Tomlin, a double dim., -el-in, of
+Tom, Grundy is for Gundry, from Anglo-Sax. Gundred, and Joe Gargery
+descended from a Gregory.  Burnell is for Brunel, dim. of Fr. brun,
+brown, and Thrupp is for Thorp, a village (Chapter XIII).  Strickland
+was formerly Stirkland, Cripps is the same as Crisp, from Mid. Eng.
+crisp, curly.  Prentis Jankin had--
+
+"Crispe here, shynynge as gold so fyn"
+
+(D. 304);
+
+and of Fame we are told that
+
+"Her heer was oundie (wavy) and crips."
+
+(House of Fame, iii.  296.)
+
+Both names may also be short for Crispin, the etymology being the same
+in any case.  Apps is sometimes for asp, the tree now called by the
+adjectival name aspen (cf. linden).  We find Thomas atte apse in the
+reign of Edward III.
+
+The letters l, n, r also tend to disappear from no other cause than
+rapid or careless pronunciation.
+
+Hence we get Home for Holme (Chapter XII), Ferris for Ferrers, a
+French local name, Batt for Bartholomew, Gatty for Gertrude, Dallison
+for d'Alencon.  The loss of _r_ after a vowel is also exemplified by
+Foster for Forster, Pannell and Pennell for Parnell (sometimes), Gath
+for Garth (Chapter XIII), and Mash for Marsh.  To the loss of n before
+s we owe such names as Pattison, Paterson, etc., son of Paton, the
+dim. of Patrick, and Robison for Robinson, and also a whole group of
+names like Jenks and Jinks for Jenkins (John), Wilkes for Wilkins,
+Gilkes, Danks, Perks, Hawkes, Jukes for Judkins (Chapter VI), etc.
+Here I should also include Biggs, which is not always connected with
+Bigg, for we seldom find adjectival nicknames with -s.  It seems to
+represent Biggins, from obsolete biggin, a building (Chapter XIII).
+
+The French nasal n often disappeared before r.  Thus denree, lit.  a
+pennyworth, appears in Anglo-French as darree.  Similarly Henry became
+Harry, except in Scotland, and the English Kings of that name were
+always called Harry by their subjects.  It is to this pronunciation
+that we owe the popularity of Harris and Harrison, and the frequency
+of Welsh Parry, ap, Harry, as compared with Penry.  A compromise
+between Henry and Harry is seen in Hanrott, from the French dim.
+Henriot.
+
+The initial h-, which we regard with such veneration, is treated quite
+arbitrarily in surnames.  We find a well-known medieval poet called
+indifferently Occleve and Hoccleve.  Harnett is the same as Arnett,
+for Arnold, Ewens and Heavens are both from Ewan, and Heaven is an
+imitative form of Evan.  In Hoskins, from the medieval Osekin, a dim.
+of some Anglo-Saxon name such as Oswald (Chapter VII), the aspirate
+has definitely prevailed.  The Devonshire name Hexter is for Exeter,
+Arbuckle is a corruption of Harbottle, in Northumberland.  The Old
+French name Ancel appears as both Ansell and Hansell, and Earnshaw
+exists side by side with Hearnshaw (Chapter XII).
+
+The loss of h is especially common when it is the initial letter of a
+suffix, e.g. Barnum for Barnham, Haslam, (hazel), Blenkinsop for
+Blenkin's hope (see hope, Chapter XII), Newall for Newhall, Windle for
+Wind Hill, Tickell for Tick Hill, in Yorkshire, etc.  But Barnum and
+Haslam may also represent the Anglo-Saxon dative plural of the words
+barn and hazel.  A man who minded sheep was once called a Shepard, or
+Sheppard, as he still is, though we spell it shepherd.  The letter w
+disappears in the same way; thus Greenish is for Greenwich, Horridge
+for Horwich, Aspinall for Aspinwall, Millard for Millward, the
+mill-keeper, Boxall for Boxwell, Caudle for Cauldwell (cold); and the
+Anglo-Saxon names in -win are often confused with those in -ing, e.g.
+Gooding, Goodwin; Golding, Goldwin; Gunning, Gunwin, etc.  In this way
+Harding has prevailed over the once equally common Hardwin.
+
+
+
+BABY PHONETICS
+
+Finally, we have to consider what may be called baby phonetics, the
+sound-changes which seem rather to transgress general phonetic laws.
+Young children habitually confuse dentals and palatals, thus a child
+may be heard to say that he has "dot a told." This tendency is,
+however, not confined to children.  My own name, which is a very
+uncommon one, is a stumbling-block to most people, and when I give it
+in a shop the scribe has generally got as far as Wheat- before he can
+be stopped.
+
+We find both Estill and Askell for the medieval Asketil, and Thurtle
+alternating with Thurkle, originally Thurketil (Chapter VII).
+Bertenshave is found for Birkenshaw, birch wood, Bartley, sometimes
+from Bartholomew, is more often for Berkeley, and both Lord Bacon and
+Horace Walpole wrote Twitnam for Twickenham.  Jeffcock, dim. of
+Geoffrey, becomes Jeffcott, while Glascock is for the local Glascott.
+Here the palatal takes the place of the dental, as in Brangwin for
+Anglo-Sax. Brandwine.  Middleman is a dialect form of Michaelmas
+(Chapter IX).  We have the same change in tiddlebat for stickleback, a
+word which exemplifies another point in baby phonetics, viz. the loss
+of initial s-, as in the classic instance tummy.  To this loss of
+s- we owe Pick for Spick (Chapter XXIII), Pink for Spink, a dialect
+word for the chaffinch, and, I think, Tout for Stout.  The name Stacey
+is found as Tacey in old Notts registers.  On the other hand, an
+inorganic s- is sometimes prefixed, as in Sturgess for the older
+Turgis.  For the loss of s- we may compare Shakespeare's parmaceti (1
+Henry IV. i.  3), and for its addition the adjective spruce, from
+Pruce, i.e. Prussia.
+
+We also find the infantile confusion between th and f e.g. in Selfe,
+which appears to represent a personal name Seleth, probably from
+Anglo-Sax, saelth, bliss.  Perhaps also in Fripp for Thripp, a variant
+of Thrupp, for Thorp.  Bickerstaffe is the name of a place in
+Lancashire, of which the older form appears in Bickersteth, and the
+local name Throgmorton is spelt by Camden Frogmorton, just as Pepys
+invariably writes Queenhive for Queenhythe.
+
+Such are some of the commoner phenomena to be noticed in connection
+with the spelling and sound of our names.  The student must always
+bear in mind that our surnames date from a period when nearly the
+whole population was uneducated.  Their modern forms depend on all
+sorts of circumstances, such as local dialect, time of adoption,
+successive fashions in pronunciation and the taste and fancy of the
+speller.  They form part of our language, that is, of a living and
+ever-changing organism.  Some of us are old enough to remember the
+confusion between initial v and w which prompted the judge's question
+to Mr. Weller.  The vulgar i for a, as in "tike the kike," has been
+evolved within comparatively recent times, as well as the loss of
+final -g, "shootin and huntin," in sporting circles.  In the word
+warmint--
+
+"What were you brought up to be?"
+
+"A warmint, dear boy"
+
+(Great Expectations, ch. xl.),
+
+we have three phonetic phenomena, all of which have influenced the
+form and sound of modern surnames, e.g. in Winter, sometimes for
+Vinter, i.e. vintner, Clark for Clerk, and Bryant for Bryan; and
+similar changes have been in progress all through the history of our
+language.
+
+In conclusion it may be remarked that the personal and accidental
+element, which has so much to do with the development of surnames,
+releases this branch of philology to some extent from the iron rule of
+the phonetician.  Of this the preceding pages give examples.  The
+name, not being subject as other words are to a normalizing influence,
+is easily affected by the traditional or accidental spelling.
+Otherwise Fry would be pronounced Free.  The o is short in Robin and
+long in Probyn, and yet the names are the same (Chapter VI).  Sloper
+and Smoker mean a maker of slops and smocks respectively, and Smale is
+an archaic spelling of Small, the modern vowel being in each case
+lengthened by the retention of an archaic spelling.  The late
+Professor Skeat rejects Bardsley's identification of Waring with Old
+Fr. Garin or Warin, because the original vowel and the suffix are both
+different.  But Mainwaring, which is undoubtedly from mesnil-Warin
+(Chapter XIV), shows Bardsley to be right.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON
+
+"Talbots and Stanleys, St. Maurs and such-like folk, have led armies
+and made laws time out of mind; but those noble families would be
+somewhat astonished-if the accounts ever came to be fairly taken-to
+find how small their work for England has been by the side of that of
+the Browns."  (Tom Brown's Schooldays, ch. i.)
+
+Brown, Jones, and Robinson have usurped in popular speech positions
+properly belonging to Smith, Jones and Williams.  But the high
+position of Jones and Williams is due to the Welsh, who, replacing a
+string of Aps by a simple genitive at a comparatively recent date,
+have given undue prominence to a few very common names; cf. Davies,
+Evans, etc.  If we consider only purely English names, the triumvirate
+would be Smith, Taylor, and Brown.  Thus, of our three commonest
+names, the first two are occupative and the third is a nickname.
+French has no regular equivalent, though Dupont and Durand are
+sometimes used in this way--
+
+"Si Chateaubriand avait eu nom Durand ou Dupont, qui sait si son Genie
+du Christianisme n'eut point passe pour une capucinade?"
+
+(F. Brunetiere.)
+
+The Germans speak of Mueller, Meyer and Schulze, all rural names, and
+it is perhaps characteristic that two of them are official.  Meyer is
+an early loan from Lat. major, and appears to have originally meant
+something like overseer.  Later on it acquired the meaning of farmer,
+in its proper sense of one who farms, i.e. manages on a profit-sharing
+system, the property of another.  It is etymologically the same as our
+Mayor, Mair, etc.  Schulze, a village magistrate, is cognate with Ger.
+Schuld, debt, and our verb shall.
+
+
+
+OCCUPATIVE NAMES
+
+Taking the different classes of surnames separately, the six commonest
+occupative names are Smith, Taylor, Clark, Wright, Walker, Turner.  If
+we exclude Clark, as being more often a nickname for the man who could
+read and write, the sixth will be Cooper, sometimes spelt Cowper.
+
+The commanding position of Smith is due to the fact that it was
+applied to all workers in every kind of metal.  The modern Smiths no
+doubt include descendants of medieval blacksmiths, whitesmiths,
+bladesmiths, locksmiths, and many others, but the compounds are not
+common as surnames.  We find, however, Shoosmith, Shearsmith, and
+Nasmyth, the last being more probably for earlier Knysmith, i.e.
+knife-smith, than for nail-smith, which was supplanted by Naylor.
+Grossmith I guess to be an accommodated form of the Ger. Grobschmied,
+blacksmith, lit.  rough smith, and Goldsmith is very often a Jewish
+name for Ger. Goldschmid.
+
+Wright, obsolete perhaps as a trade name, has given many compounds,
+including Arkwright, a maker of bins, or arks as they were once
+called, Tellwright, a tile maker, and many others which need no
+interpretation.  The high position of Taylor is curious, for there
+were other names for the trade, such as Seamen, Shapster, Parmenter
+(Chapter XVIII), and neither Tailleur nor Letailleur are particularly
+common in French.  The explanation is that this name has absorbed the
+medieval Teler and Teller, weaver, ultimately belonging to Lat. tela,
+a web;--cf. the very common Fr. Tellier and Letellier.  In some cases
+also the Mid. Eng. teygheler, Tyler, has been swallowed up.  Walker,
+i.e. trampler, meant a cloth fuller, but another origin has helped to
+swell the numbers of the clan--
+
+"Walkers are such as are otherwise called foresters.  They are
+foresters assigned by the King, who are walkers within a certain space
+of ground assigned to their care" (Cowel's Interpreter).
+
+Cooper, a derivative of Lat. cupa or cuppa, a vessel, is cognate with
+the famous French name Cuvier, which has given our Cover, though this
+may also be for coverer, i.e. tiler (Chapter XV).
+
+Of occupative names which have also an official meaning, the three
+commonest are Ward, Bailey, and Marshall.  Ward, originally abstract,
+is the same word as Fr. garde.  Bailey, Old Fr. bailif (bailli),
+ranges from a Scottish magistrate to a man in possession.  It is
+related to bail and to bailey, a ward in a fortress, as in Old Bailey.
+Bayliss may come from the Old French nominative bailis (Chapter I), or
+may be formed like Parsons, etc. (Chapter XV).  Marshall (Chapter XX)
+may stand for a great commander or a shoeing-smith, still called
+farrier-marshal in the army.  The first syllable is cognate with mare
+and the second means servant.  Constable, Lat. comes stabuli,
+stableman, has a similar history.
+
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF NAMES
+
+The commonest local names naturally include none taken from particular
+places.  The three commonest are Hall, Wood and Green, from residence
+by the great house, the wood, and the village green.  Cf. the French
+names Lasalle, Dubois, Dupre.  Hall is sometimes for Hale (Chapter
+II), and its Old French translation is one source of Sale.  Next to
+these come Hill, Moore, and Shaw (Chapter XII); but Lee would probably
+come among the first if all its variants were taken into account
+(Chapter III).
+
+Of baptismal names used unaltered as surnames the six commonest are
+Thomas, Lewis, Martin, James, Morris, Morgan.  Here again the Welsh
+element is strong, and four of these names, ending in -s, belong also
+to the next group, i.e. the class of surnames formed from the genitive
+of baptismal names.  The frequent occurrence of Lewis is partly due to
+its being adopted as a kind of translation of the Welsh Llewellyn, but
+the name is often a disguised Jewish Levi, and has nearly absorbed the
+local Lewes.  Next to the above come Allen, Bennett, Mitchell, all of
+French introduction.  Mitchell may have been reinforced by Mickle, the
+northern for Bigg.  It is curious that these particularly common
+names, Martin, Allen, Bennett (Benedict), Mitchell (Michael), have
+formed comparatively few derivatives and are generally found in their
+unaltered form.  Three of them are from famous saints' names, while
+Allen, a Breton name which came in with the Conquest, has probably
+absorbed to some extent the Anglo-Saxon name Alwin (Chapter VII).
+Martin is in some cases an animal nickname, the marten.  Among the
+genitives Jones, Williams, and Davi(e)s lead easily, followed by
+Evans, Roberts, and Hughes, all Welsh in the main.  Among the twelve
+commonest names of this class those that are not preponderantly Welsh
+are Roberts, Edwards, Harris, Phillips, and Rogers.  Another Welsh
+patronymic, Price (Chapter VI), is among the fifty commonest English
+names.
+
+The classification of names in -son raises the difficult question as
+to whether Jack represents Fr. Jacques, or whether it comes from
+Jankin, Jenkin, dim. of John.  [Footnote: See E. B. Nicholson, The
+Pedigree of Jack.]
+
+Taking Johnson and Jackson as separate names, we get the order
+Johnson, Robinson, Wilson, Thompson, Jackson, Harrison.  The variants
+of Thompson might put it a place or two higher.  Names in -kins
+(Distribution of names, Chapter IV), though very numerous in some
+regions, are not so common as those in the above classes.  It would be
+hard to say which English font-name has given the largest number of
+family names.  In Chapter V. will be found some idea of the
+bewildering and multitudinous forms they assume.  It has been
+calculated, I need hardly say by a German professor, that the possible
+number of derivatives from one given name is 6, 000, but fortunately
+most of the seeds are abortive.
+
+Of nicknames Brown, Clark, and White are by far the commonest.  Then
+comes King, followed by the two adjectival nicknames Sharp and Young.
+
+The growth of towns and facility of communication are now bringing
+about such a general movement that most regions would accept Brown,
+Jones and Robinson as fairly typical names.  But this was not always
+so.  Brown is still much commoner in the north than in the south, and
+at one time the northern Johnson and Robinson contrasted with the
+southern Jones and Roberts, the latter being of comparatively modern
+origin in Wales (Chapter IV).  Even now, if we take the farmer class,
+our nomenclature is largely regional, and the directories even of our
+great manufacturing towns represent to a great extent the medieval
+population of the rural district around them.  [Footnote: See Guppy,
+Homes of Family Names.] The names Daft and Turney, well known in
+Nottingham, appear in the county in the Hundred Rolls.  Cheetham, the
+name of a place now absorbed in Manchester, is as a surname ten times
+more numerous there than in London, and the same is true of many
+characteristic north-country names, such as the Barraclough,
+Murgatroyd, and Sugden of Charlotte Bronte's Shirley.  The
+transference of Murgatroyd (Chapter XII) to Cornwall, in Gilbert and
+Sullivan's Ruddigore, must have been part of the intentional
+topsy-turvydom in which those two bright spirits delighted.
+
+Diminutives in -kin, from the Old Dutch suffix -ken, are still found
+in greatest number on the east coast that faces Holland, or in Wales,
+where they were introduced by the Flemish weavers who settled in
+Pembrokeshire in the reign of Henry I.  It is in the border counties,
+Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford, and Monmouth, that we find the old
+Welsh names such as Gough, Lloyd, Onion (Enion), Vaughan (Chapter
+XXII).  The local Gape, an opening in the cliffs, is pretty well
+confined to Norfolk, and Puddifoot belongs to Bucks and the adjacent
+counties as it did in 1273.  The hall changes hands as one conquering
+race succeeds another--
+
+"Where is Bohun?  Where is de Vere?  The lawyer, the farmer, the silk
+mercer, lies perdu under the coronet, and winks to the antiquary to
+say nothing" (Emerson, English Traits),
+
+but the hut keeps its ancient inhabitants.  The descendant of the
+Anglo-Saxon serf who cringed to Front de Boeuf now makes way
+respectfully for Isaac of York's motor, perhaps on the very spot where
+his own fierce ancestor first exchanged the sword for the ploughshare
+long before Alfred's day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN NAMES
+
+"I was born in the year 1632, in the city of York, of a good family,
+though not of that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who
+settled first at Hull.  He got a good estate by merchandize, and
+leaving off his trade, lived afterwards at York, from whence he
+married my mother, whose relations were named Robinson, a very good
+family in that country, and from whom I was called Robinson
+Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in English, we are
+now called--nay, we call ourselves and write our name--Crusoe" (Robinson
+Crusoe, ch. i.).
+
+Any student of our family nomenclature must be struck by the fact that
+the number of foreign names now recognizable in England is out of all
+proportion to the immense number which must have been introduced at
+various periods of our history.  Even the expert, who is often able to
+detect the foreign name in its apparently English garb, cannot rectify
+this disproportion for us.  The number of names of which the present
+form can be traced back to a foreign origin is inconsiderable when
+compared with the much larger number assimilated and absorbed by the
+Anglo-Saxon.
+
+
+
+THE HUGUENOTS
+
+The great mass of those names of French or Flemish origin which do not
+date back to the Conquest or to medieval times are due to the
+immigration of Protestant refugees in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries.  It is true that many names for which Huguenot ancestry is
+claimed were known in England long before the Reformation.  Thus,
+Bulteel is the name of a refugee family which came from Tournay about
+the year 1600, but the same name is found in the Hundred Rolls Of
+1273.  The Grubbe family, according to Burke, came from Germany about
+1450, after the Hussite persecution; but we find the name in England
+two centuries earlier, "without the assistance of a foreign
+persecution to make it respectable" (Bardsley, Dictionary of English
+Surnames).  The Minet family is known to be of Huguenot origin, but
+the same name also figures in the medieval Rolls.  The fact is that
+there was all through the Middle Ages a steady immigration of
+foreigners, whether artisans, tradesmen, or adventurers, some of whose
+names naturally reappear among the Huguenots.  On several occasions
+large bodies of Continental workmen, skilled in special trades, were
+brought into the country by the wise policy of the Government.  Like
+the Huguenots later on, they were protected by the State and
+persecuted by the populace, who resented their habits of industry and
+sobriety.
+
+During the whole period of the religious troubles in France and
+Flanders, starting from the middle of the sixteenth century, refugees
+were reaching this country in a steady stream; but after the
+Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) they arrived in thousands,
+and the task of providing for them and helping on their absorption
+into the population became a serious problem.  Among the better class
+of these immigrants was to be found the flower of French intellect and
+enterprise, and one has only to look through an Army or Navy list, or
+to notice the names which are prominent in the Church, at the Bar, and
+in the higher walks of industry and commerce, to realize the madness
+of Louis XIV. and the wisdom of the English Government.
+
+Here are a few taken at random from Smiles's History of the
+Huguenots--Bosanquet, Casaubon, Chenevix Trench, Champion de Crespigny,
+Dalbiac, Delane, Dollond, Durand, Fonblanque, Gambier, Garrick,
+Layard, Lefanu, Lefroy, Ligonier, Luard, Martineau, Palairet, Perowne,
+Plimsoll, Riou, Romilly--all respectable and many distinguished, even
+cricket being represented.  These more educated foreigners usually
+kept their names, sometimes with slight modifications which do not
+make them unrecognizable.  Thus, Bouverie, literally "ox-farm," is
+generally found in its unaltered form, though the London Directory has
+also examples of the perverted Buffery.  But the majority of the
+immigrants were of the artisan class and illiterate.  This explains
+the extraordinary disappearance, in the course of two centuries, of
+the thousands of French names which were introduced between 1550 and
+1700.
+
+We have many official lists of these foreigners, and in these lists we
+catch the foreign name in the very act of transforming itself into
+English.  This happens sometimes by translation, e.g. Poulain became
+Colt, Poisson was reincarnated as Fish, and a refugee bearing the
+somewhat uncommon name Petitoeil transformed himself into Little-eye,
+which became in a few generations Lidley.  But comparatively few
+surnames were susceptible of such simple treatment, and in the great
+majority of cases the name underwent a more or less arbitrary
+perversion which gave it a more English physiognomy.  Especially
+interesting from this point of view is the list of--"Straungers
+residing and dwellinge within the city of London and the liberties
+thereof," drawn up in 1618.  The names were probably taken down by the
+officials of the different wards, who, differing themselves in
+intelligence and orthography, produced very curious results.
+
+As a rule the Christian name is translated, while the surname is
+either assimilated to some English form or perverted according to the
+taste and fancy of the individual constable.  Thus, John Garret, a
+Dutchman, is probably Jan Gerard, and James Flower, a milliner, born
+in Rouen, is certainly Jaques Fleur, or Lafleur.  John de Cane and
+Peter le Cane are Jean Duquesne and Pierre Lequesne (Norman quene,
+oak), though the former may also have come from Caen.  John Buck, from
+Rouen, is Jean Bouc, and Abraham Bushell, from Rochelle, was probably
+a Roussel or Boissel.  James King and John Hill, both Dutchmen, are
+obvious translations of common Dutch names, while Henry Powell, a
+German, is Heinrich Paul.  Mary Peacock, from Dunkirk, and John
+Bonner, a Frenchman, I take to be Marie Picot and Jean Bonheur, while
+Nicholas Bellow is surely Nicolas Belleau.  Michael Leman, born in
+Brussels, may be French Leman or Lemoine, or perhaps German Lehmann.
+
+To each alien's name is appended that of the monarch whose subject he
+calls himself, but a republic is outside the experience of one
+constable, who leaves an interrogative blank after Cristofer Switcher,
+born at Swerick (Zuerich) in Switcherland.  The surname so ingeniously
+created appears to have left no pedagogic descendants.  In some cases
+the harassed Bumble has lost patience, and substituted a plain English
+name for foreign absurdity.  To the brain which christened Oliver
+Twist we owe Henry Price, a subject of the King of Poland, Lewis
+Jackson, a "Portingall," and Alexander Faith, a steward to the Venice
+Ambassador, born in the dukedom of Florence.
+
+
+
+PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN NAMES
+
+In the returns made outside the bounds of the city proper the aliens
+have added their own signatures, or in some cases made their marks.
+Jacob Alburtt signs himself as Jacob Elbers, and Croft Castell as
+Kraft Kassels.  Harman James is the official translation of Hermann
+Jacobs, Mary Miller of Marija Moliner, and John Young of Jan le Jeune.
+Gyllyam Spease, for Wilbert Spirs, seems to be due to a Welsh
+constable, and Chrystyan Wyhelhames, for Cristian Welselm, looks like
+a conscientious attempt at Williams.  One registrar, with a phonetic
+system of his own, has transformed the Dutch Moll into the more
+familiar Maule, and has enriched his list with Jannacay Yacopes for
+Jantje Jacobs.  Lowe Luddow, who signs himself Louij Ledou, seems to
+be Louis Ledoux.  An alien who writes himself Jann Eisankraott (Ger.
+Eisenkraut?  ) cannot reasonably complain plain at being transformed
+into John Isacrocke, but the substitution of John Johnson for Jansen
+Vandrusen suggests that this individual's case was taken at the end of
+a long day's work.
+
+These examples, taken at random, show how the French and Flemish names
+of the humbler refugees lost their foreign appearance.  In many cases
+the transformation was etymologically justified.  Thus, some of our
+Druitts and Drewetts may be descended from Martin Druett, the first
+name on the list.  But this is probably the common French name Drouet
+or Drouot, assimilated to the English Druitt, which we find in 1273.
+And both are diminutives of Drogo, which occurs in Domesday Book, and
+is, through Old French, the origin of our Drew.  But in many cases the
+name has been so deformed that one can only guess at the continental
+original.  I should conjecture, for instance, that the curious name
+Shoppee is a corruption of Chappuis, the Old French for a carpenter,
+and that
+
+Jacob Shophousey, registered as a German cutler, came from
+Schaffhausen.  In this particular region of English nomenclature a
+little guessing is almost excusable.  The law of probabilities makes
+it mathematically certain that the horde of immigrants included
+representatives of all the very common French family names, and it
+would be strange if Chappuis were absent.
+
+This process of transformation is still going on in a small way,
+especially in our provincial manufacturing towns, in which most large
+commercial undertakings have slipped from the nerveless grasp of the
+Anglo-Saxon into the more capable and prehensile fingers of the
+foreigner--
+
+"Hilda then learnt that Mrs.  Gailey had married a French modeller
+named Canonges. . .  and that in course of time the modeller had
+informally changed the name to Cannon, because no one in the five
+towns could pronounce the true name rightly."
+
+(Arnold Bennett, Hilda Lessways, i.  5.)
+
+This occurs most frequently in the case of Jewish names of German
+origin.  Thus, Loewe becomes Lowe or Lyons, Meyer is transformed into
+Myers, Goldschmid into Goldsmith, Kohn into Cowan, Levy into Lee or
+Lewis, Salamon into Salmon, Hirsch or Hertz into Hart, and so on.
+Sometimes a bolder flight is attempted--
+
+"Leopold Norfolk Gordon had a house in Park Lane, and ever so many
+people's money to keep it up with.  As may be guessed from his name,
+he was a Jew."
+
+(Morley Roberts, Lady Penelope, ch. ii.)
+
+
+
+JEWISH NAMES
+
+The Jewish names of German origin which are now so common in England
+mostly date from the beginning of the nineteenth century, when laws
+were passed in Austria, Prussia and Bavaria to compel all Jewish
+families to adopt a fixed surname.  Many of them chose personal names,
+e.g. Jakobs, Levy, Moses, for this purpose, while others named
+themselves from their place of residence, e.g. Cassel, Speyer
+(Spires), Hamburg, often with the addition of the syllable -er, e.g.
+Darmesteter, Homburger.  Some families preferred descriptive names
+such as Selig (Chapter XXII), Sonnenschein, Goldmann, or invented
+poetic and gorgeous place-names such as Rosenberg, Blumenthal,
+Goldberg, Lilienfeld.  The oriental fancy also showed itself in such
+names as Edelstein, jewel, Glueckstein, luck stone, Rubinstein, ruby,
+Goldenkranz, golden wreath, etc. [Footnote: Our Touchstone would seem
+also to be a nickname.  The obituary of a Mr. Touchstone appeared in
+the Manchester Guardian, December 12, 1912.] It is owing to the
+existence of the last two groups that our fashionable intelligence is
+now often so suggestive of a wine-list.  Among animal names adopted
+the favourites were Adler, eagle, Hirsch, hart, Loewe, lion, and Wolf,
+each of which is used with symbolic significance in the Old Testament.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. TOM, DICK AND HARRY
+
+"Watte vocat, cui Thomme venit, neque Symme retardat,
+  Betteque, Gibbe simul, Hykke venire jubent;
+Colle furit, quem Geffe juvat nocumenta parantes,
+  Cum quibus ad dampnum Wille coire vovet.
+Grigge rapit, dum Dawe strepit, comes est quibus Hobbe,
+  Lorkyn et in medio non minor esse putat:
+Hudde ferit, quem Judde terit, dum Tebbe minatur,
+  Jakke domosque viros vellit et ense necat."
+
+(GOWER, On Wat Tyler's Rebellion.)
+
+Gower's lines on the peasant rebels give us some idea of the names
+which were most popular in the fourteenth century, and which have
+consequently impressed themselves most strongly on our modern
+surnames.  It will be noticed that one member of the modern
+triumvirate, Harry, or Hal, is absent.  [Footnote: The three names
+were not definitely established till the nineteenth century.  Before
+that period they had rivals.  French says Pierre et Paul, and German
+Heinz and Kunz, i.e. Heinrich and Conrad.] The great popularity of
+this name probably dates from a rather later period and is connected
+with the exploits of Henry V. Moreover, all the names, with the
+possible exception of Hud, are of French introduction and occur rarely
+before the Conquest.  The old Anglo-Saxon names did survive,
+especially in the remoter parts of the country, and have given us many
+surnames (see ch. vii.), but even in the Middle Ages people had a
+preference for anything that came over with the Conqueror.  French
+names are nearly all of German origin, the Celtic names and the Latin
+names which encroached on them having been swept away by the Frankish
+invasion, a parallel to the wholesale adoption of Norman names in
+England.  Thus our name Harvey, no longer usual as a font-name, is Fr.
+Herod, which represents the heroic German name Herewig, to the second
+syllable of which belongs such an apparently insignificant name as
+Wigg.
+
+
+
+MEDIEVAL FONT-NAMES
+
+The disappearance of Latin names is not to be regretted, for the Latin
+nomenclature was of the most unimaginative description, while the Old
+German names are more like those of Greece; e.g. Ger. Ludwig, which
+has passed into most of the European languages (Louis, Lewis,
+Ludovico, etc), is from Old High Ger. hlut-wig, renowned in fight,
+equivalent to the Greek Clytomachus, with one-half of which it is
+etymologically cognate.
+
+Some of the names in Gower's list, e.g. Watte (Chapter I), Thomme,
+Symme, Geffe (Chapter VI), Wille, Jakke, are easily recognized.  Bette
+is for Bat, Bartholomew, a name, which has given Batty, Batten, Bates,
+Bartle (cf. Bartlemas), Bartlett, Badcock, Batcock.  But this group of
+names belongs also to the Bert- or -bent, which is so common in
+Teutonic names, such as Bertrand, Bertram, Herbert, Hubert, many of
+which reached us in an Old French form.  For the loss of the _r_, cf.
+Matty from Martha.  Gibe is for Gilbert.  Hick is rimed on Dick:
+(Chapter VI).  Colle is for Nicolas.  Grig is for Gregory, whence
+Gregson and Scottish Grier.  Dawe, for David, alternated with Day and
+Dow, which appear as first element in many surnames, though Day has
+another origin (Chapter XIX) and Dowson sometimes belongs to the
+female name Douce, sweet.  Hobbe is a rimed form from Robert.  Lorkyn,
+or Larkin, is for Lawrence, for which we also find Law, Lay, and Low,
+whence Lawson, Lakin, Lowson, Locock, etc.  For Hudde see Chapters I,
+VII.  Judde, from the very popular Jordan, has given Judson, Judkins,
+and the contracted Jukes.  Jordan (Fr. Jourdain, Ital. Giordano) seems
+to have been adopted as a personal name in honour of John the Baptist.
+Tebbe is for Theobald (Chapter I).
+
+
+
+THE COMMONEST FONT-NAMES
+
+Many people, in addressing a small boy with whom they are
+unacquainted, are in the habit of using Tommy as a name to which any
+small boy should naturally answer.  In some parts of Polynesia the
+natives speak of a white Mary or a black Mary, i.e. woman, just as the
+Walloons round Mons speak of Marie bon bec, a shrew, Marie grognon, a
+Mrs.  Gummidge, Marie quatre langues, a chatterbox, and several other
+Maries still less politely described.  We have the modern silly Johnny
+for the older silly Billy, while Jack Pudding is in German Hans Wurst,
+John Sausage.  Only the very commonest names are used in this way,
+and, if we had no further evidence, the rustic Dicky bird, Robin
+redbreast, Hob goblin, Tom tit, Will o' the Wisp, Jack o' lantern,
+etc., would tell us which have been in the past the most popular
+English font-names.  During the Middle Ages there was a kind of race
+among half a dozen favourite names, the prevailing order being John,
+William, Thomas, Richard, Robert, with perhaps Hugh as sixth.
+
+Now, for each of these there is a reason.  John, a favourite name in
+so many languages (Jean, Johann, Giovanni, Juan, Ian, Ivan, etc.), as
+the name of the Baptist and of the favoured disciple, defied even the
+unpopularity of our one King of that name.  The special circumstances
+attending the birth and naming of the Baptist probably supplied the
+chief factor in its triumph.
+
+For some time after the Conquest William led easily.  We usually
+adopted the W- form from the north-east of France, but Guillaume has
+also supplied a large number of surnames in Gil-, which have got
+inextricably mixed up with those derived from Gilbert, Gillian
+(Juliana), and Giles.  Gilman represents the French dim. Guillemin,
+the local-looking Gilliam is simply Guillaume, and Wilmot corresponds
+to Fr. Guillemot.
+
+The doubting disciple held a very insignificant place until the shrine
+of St. Thomas of Canterbury became one of the holy places of
+Christendom.  To Thomas belong Macey, Massie, and Masson, dims.  of
+French aphetic forms, but the first two are also from Old French forms
+of Matthew, and Masson is sometimes an alternative form of Mason.
+
+Robert and Richard were both popular Norman names.  The first was
+greatly helped by Robin Hood and the second by the Lion-Heart.
+
+The name Hugh was borne by several saints, the most famous of whom in
+England was the child-martyr, St. Hugh of Lincoln, said to have been
+murdered by the Jews C. 1250.  It had a dim. Huggin and also the forms
+Hew and How, whence Hewett, Hewlett, Howitt, Howlett, etc., while from
+the French dim. Huchon we get Hutchin and its derivatives, and also
+Houchin.  Hugh also appears in the rather small class of names
+represented by Littlejohn, Meiklejohn, etc. [Footnote: This formation
+seems to be much commoner in French.  In the "Bottin" I find
+Grandblaise, Grandcollot (Nicolas), Grandgeorge, Grandgerard,
+Grandguillaume, Grandguillot, Grandjacques, Grand-jean, Grandperrin
+(Pierre), Grandpierre, Grandremy, Grandvincent, and Petitcolin,
+Petitdemange (Dominique), Petitdidier (Desiderius), Petit-Durand,
+Petit-Etienne (Stephen), Petit-Gerard, Petit-Huguenin, Petitjean,
+Petitperrin, Petit-Richard.]  We find Goodhew, Goodhue.  Cf.
+Gaukroger, i.e. awkward Roger, and Goodwillie.  But the more usual
+origin of Goodhew, Goodhue is from Middle Eng. heave, servant, hind.
+Cf. Goodhind.
+
+Most of the other names in Gower's list have been prolific.  We might
+add to them Roger, whence Hodge and Dodge, Humfrey, which did not lend
+itself to many variations, and Peter, from the French form of which we
+have many derivatives (Chapter III), including perhaps the Huguenot
+Perowne, Fr. Perron, but this can also be local, du Perron, the
+etymology, Lat. Petra, rock, remaining the same.
+
+The absence of the great names Alfred [Footnote: The name Alured is
+due to misreading of the older Alvred, v being written u in old MSS.
+Allfrey is from the Old French form of the name.]  and Edward is not
+surprising, as they belonged to the conquered race.  Though Edward was
+revived as the name of a long line of Kings, its contribution to
+surnames has been small, most names in Ed-, Ead-, e.g. Ede, Eden,
+Edison, Edkins, Eady, etc., belonging rather to the once popular
+female name Eda or to Edith, though in some cases they are from Edward
+or other Anglo-Saxon names having the same initial syllable.  James is
+a rare name in medieval rolls, being represented by Jacob, and no
+doubt partly by Jack (Chapter IV).  It is--
+
+"Wrested from Jacob, the same as Jago [Footnote: Jago is found, with
+other Spanish names, in Cornwall; cf. Bastian or Baste, for
+Sebastian.]  in Spanish, Jaques in French; which some Frenchified
+English, to their disgrace, have too much affected" (Camden).
+
+It appears in Gimson, Jemmett, and the odd-looking Gem, while its
+French form is somewhat disguised in Jeakes and Jex.
+
+
+
+FASHIONS IN FONT-NAMES
+
+The force of royal example is seen in the popularity under the Angevin
+kings of Henry, or Harry, Geoffrey and Fulk, the three favourite names
+in that family.  For Harry see Chapter III.  Geoffrey, from Ger.
+Gottfried, Godfrey, has given us a large number of names in Geff-,
+Jeff-, and Giff-, Jiff-, and probably also Jebb, Gepp and Jepson,
+while to Fulk we owe Fewkes, Foakes, Fowkes, Vokes, etc., and perhaps
+in some cases Fox.  But it is impossible to catalogue all the popular
+medieval font-names.  Many others will be found scattered through this
+book as occasion or association suggests them.
+
+Three names whose poor representation is surprising are Arthur,
+Charles and George, the two great Kings of medieval romance and the
+patron saint of Merrie England.  All three are fairly common in their
+unaltered form, and we find also Arter for Arthur.  But they have
+given few derivatives, though Atkins, generally from Ad-, i.e. Adam,
+may sometimes be from Arthur (cf. Bat for Bart, Matty for Martha,
+etc.).  Arthur is a rare medieval font-name, a fact no doubt due to
+the sad fate of King John's nephew.  Its modern popularity dates from
+the Duke of Wellington, while Charles and George were raised from
+obscurity by the Stuarts and the Brunswicks.  To these might be added
+the German name Frederick, the spread of which was due to the fame of
+Frederick the Great.  It gave, however, in French the dissimilated
+Ferry, one source of our surnames Ferry, Ferris, though the former is
+generally local.  [Footnote: "For Frideric, the English have commonly
+used Frery and Fery, which hath been now a long time a Christian name
+in the ancient family of Tilney, and lucky to their house, as they
+report." (Camden.)]
+
+If, on the other hand, we take from Gower's list a name which is
+to-day comparatively rare, e.g. Gilbert, we find it represented by a
+whole string of surnames, e.g. Gilbart, Gibbs, Gibson, Gibbon,
+Gibbins, Gipps, Gipson, to mention only the most familiar.  From the
+French dim. Gibelot we get the rather rare Giblett; cf. Hewlett for
+Hew-el-et, Hamlet for Ham-el-et (Hamo), etc.
+
+
+
+DERIVATIVES OF FONT-NAMES
+
+In forming patronymics from personal names, it is not always the first
+syllable that is selected.  In Toll, Tolley, Tollett, from
+Bartholomew, the second has survived, while Philpot, dim. of Philip,
+has given Potts.  From Alexander we get Sanders and Saunders.  But,
+taking, for simplicity, two instances in which the first syllable has
+survived, we shall find plenty of instruction in those two pretty men
+Robert and Richard.  We have seen (Chapter VI) that Roger gave Hodge
+and Dodge, which, in the derivatives Hodson and Dodson, have coalesced
+with names derived from Odo and the Anglo-Sax. Dodda (Chapter VII).
+Similarly Robert gave Rob, Hob and Dob, and Richard gave Rick, Hick
+and Dick.  [Footnote: I believe, however, that Hob is in some cases
+from Hubert, whence Hubbard, Hibbert, Hobart, etc.] Hob, whence Hobbs,
+was sharpened into Hop, whence Hopps.  The diminutive Hopkin, passing
+into Wales, gave Popkin, just as ap-Robin became Probyn, ap-Hugh Pugh,
+ap-Owen Bowen, etc.  In the north Dobbs became Dabbs (p. A. Hob also
+developed another rimed form Nob cf. to "hob-nob" with anyone),
+whence Nobbs and Nabbs, the latter, of course, being sometimes rimed
+on Abbs, from Abel or Abraham.  Bob is the latest variant and has not
+formed many surnames.  Richard has a larger family than Robert, for,
+besides Rick, Hick and Dick, we have Rich and Hitch, Higg and Digg.
+The reader will be able to continue this genealogical tree for
+himself.
+
+The full or the shortened name can become a surname, either without
+change, or with the addition of the genitive -s or the word -son, the
+former more usual in the south, the latter in the north.  To take a
+simple case, we find as surnames William, Will, Williams, Wills,
+Williamson, Wilson.  [Footnote: This suffix has squeezed out all the
+others, though Alice Johnson is theoretically absurd.  In Mid. English
+we find daughter, father, mother, brother and other terms of
+relationship used in this way, e.g. in 1379, Agnes Dyconwyfdowson, the
+wife of Dow's son Dick.  Dawbarn, child of David, is still found.  See
+also Chapter XXI]
+
+From the short form we get diminutives by means of the English
+suffixes -ie or -y (these especially in the north), -kin (Chapter IV),
+and the French suffixes -et, -ot (often becoming -at in English), -in,
+-on (often becoming -en in English).  Thus Willy, Wilkie, Willett.  I
+give a few examples of surnames formed from each class
+
+Ritchie (Richard), Oddy (Odo, whence also Oates), Lambie (Lambert),
+Jelley (Julian); [Footnote: Lamb is also, of course, a nickname cf.
+Agnew, Fr. agneau]
+
+Dawkins, Dawkes (David), Hawkins, Hawkes (Hal), Gilkins (Geoffrey),
+Perkins, Perks (Peter), Rankin (Randolf);
+
+Gillett (Gil, Chapter VI), Collett (Nicholas), Bartlett (Bartholomew),
+Ricketts (Richard), Marriott, Marryat (Mary), Elliott (Elias, see
+Chapter IX), Wyatt (Guy), Perrott (Peter);
+
+Collins (Nicholas), Jennings (John, see Chapter X), Copping (Jacob,
+see Chapter I), Rawlin (Raoul, the French form of Radolf, whence Roll,
+Ralph, Relf), Paton (Patrick), Sisson (Sirs, i.e. Cecilia), Gibbons
+(Gilbert), Beaton (Beatrice).
+
+In addition to the suffixes and diminutives already mentioned, we have
+the two rather puzzling endings -man and -cock.  Man occurs as an
+ending in several Germanic names which are older than the Conquest,
+e.g. Ashman, Harman, Coleman; and the simple Mann is also an
+Anglo-Saxon personal name.  It is sometimes to be taken literally,
+e.g. in Goodman, i.e. master of the house (Matt.  xx. ii), Longman,
+Youngman, etc.  In Hickman, Homan (How, Hugh), etc., it may mean
+servant of, as in Ladyman, Priestman, or may be merely an augmentative
+suffix.  In Coltman, Runciman, it is occupative, the man in charge of
+the colts, rouncies or nags.  Chaucer's Shipman--
+
+"Rood upon a rouncy as he kouthe" (A. 390).
+
+In Bridgeman, Pullman, it means the man who lived near, or had some
+office in connection with, the bridge or pool.  But it is often due to
+the imitative instinct.  Dedman is for the local Debenham, and Lakeman
+for Lakenham, while Wyman represents the old name Wymond, and Bowman
+and Beeman are sometimes for the local Beaumont (cf. the pronunciation
+of Belvoir).  But the existence in German of the name Bienemann shows
+that Beeman may have meant bee-keeper.  Sloman may be a nickname, but
+also means the man in the slough (Chapter XII), and Godliman is an old
+familiar spelling of Godalming.  We of course get doubtful cases, e.g.
+Sandeman may be, as explained by Bardsley, the servant of Alexander
+(Chapter VI), but it may equally well represent Mid. Eng. sandeman, a
+messenger, and Lawman, Layman, are rather to be regarded as
+derivatives of Lawrence (Chapter VI) than what they appear to be.
+
+
+
+THE SUFFIX -COCK
+
+Many explanations have been given of the suffix -cock, but I cannot
+say that any of them have convinced me.  Both Cock and the patronymic
+Cocking are found as early personal names.  The suffix was added to
+the shortened form of font-names, e.g. Alcock (Allen), Hitchcock
+(Richard), was apparently felt as a mere diminutive, and took an -s
+like the diminutives in -kin, e.g. Willcocks, Simcox.  In Hedgecock,
+'Woodcock, etc., it is of course a nickname.  The modern Cox is one of
+our very common names, and the spelling Cock, Cocks, Cox, can be found
+representing three generations in the churchyard of Invergowrie, near
+Dundee.
+
+The two names Bawcock and Meacock had once a special significance.
+Pistol, urged to the breach by Fluellen, replies
+
+"Good bawcock, bate thy rage!  use lenity, sweet chuck"
+
+(Henry V., iii, 2);
+
+and Petruchio, pretending that his first interview with Katherine has
+been most satisfactory, says--
+
+"'Tis a world to see
+How tame, when men and women are alone,
+A meacock wretch can make the curstest shrew."
+
+(Taming of the Shrew, ii.1.)
+
+These have been explained as Fr. beau coq, which is possible, and meek
+cock, which is absurd.  As both words are found as surnames before
+Shakespeare's time, it is probable that they are diminutives which
+were felt as suited to receive a special connotation, just as a man
+who treats his thirst generously is vulgarly called a Lushington.
+Bawcock can easily be connected with Baldwin, while Meacock, Maycock,
+belong to the personal name May or Mee, shortened from the Old Fr.
+Mahieu (Chapter IX).
+
+Although we are not dealing with Celtic names, a few words as to the
+Scottish, Irish, and Welsh surnames which we find in our directories
+may be useful.  Those of Celtic origin are almost invariably
+patronymics.  The Scottish and Irish Mac, son, used like the Anglo-Fr.
+Fitz-, ultimately means kin, and is related to the -mough of Watmough
+(Chapter XXI) and to the word maid.  In MacNab, son of the abbot, and
+MacPherson, son of the parson, we have curious hybrids.  In Manx
+names, such as Quilliam (Mac William), Killip (Mac Philip), Clucas
+(Mac Lucas), we have aphetic forms of Mac.  The Irish 0', grandson,
+descendant, has etymologically the same meaning as Mac, and is related
+to the first part of Ger. Oheim, uncle, of Anglo-Sax. eam (see Eames,
+Chapter XXI), and of Lat. avus, grandfather.  Oe or oye is still used
+for grandchild in Scottish--
+
+"There was my daughter's wean, little Eppie Daidle, my oe, ye ken"
+(Heart of Midlothian, ch. iv.).
+
+The names of the Lowlands of Scotland are pretty much the same as
+those of northern England, with the addition of a very large French
+element, due to the close historical connection between the two
+countries.  Examples of French names, often much corrupted, are
+Bethune (Pas de Calais), often corrupted into Beaton, the name of one
+of the Queen's Maries, Boswell (Bosville, Seine Inf.), Bruce (Brieux,
+Orne), Comyn, Cumming (Comines, Nord), Grant (le grand), Rennie
+(Rene), etc.
+
+
+
+CELTIC NAMES
+
+Welsh Ap or Ab, reduced from an older Map, ultimately cognate with
+Mac, gives us such names as Probyn, Powell (Howell, Hoel), Price
+(Rhys), Pritchard, Prosser (Rosser), Prothero (Roderick), Bedward,
+Beddoes (Eddowe), Blood (Lud, Lloyd), Bethell (Ithel), Benyon (Enion),
+whence also Binyon and the local-looking Baynham.  Onion and Onions
+are imitative forms of Enion.  Applejohn and Upjohn are corruptions of
+Ap-john.  The name Floyd, sometimes Flood, is due to the English
+inability to grapple with the Welsh Ll--
+
+"I am a gentylman and come of Brutes [Brutus'] blood,
+ My name is ap Ryce, ap Davy, ap Flood."
+
+(Andrew Boorde, Book of the Introduction of Knowledge, ii 7.)
+
+While Welsh names are almost entirely patronymic, Cornish names are
+very largely local.  They are distinguished by the following prefixes
+and others of less common occurrence: Caer-, fort, Lan-, church, Pen-,
+hill, Pol-, pool, Ros-, heath, Tre-, settlement, e.g. Carthew, Lanyon,
+Penruddock, Polwarth, Rosevear, Trethewy.  Sometimes these elements
+are found combined, e.g. in Penrose.
+
+A certain number of Celtic nicknames and occupative names which are
+frequently found in England will be mentioned elsewhere (pp.  173,
+216).  In Gilchrist, Christ's servant, Gildea, servant of God,
+Gillies, servant of Jesus, Gillespie, bishop's servant, Gilmour,
+Mary's servant, Gilroy, red servant, we have the Highland "gillie."
+Such names were originally preceded by Mac-, e.g. Gilroy is the same
+as MacIlroy; cf. MacLean, for Mac-gil-Ian, son of the servant of John.
+To the same class of formation belong Scottish names in Mal-, e.g.
+Malcolm, and Irish names in Mul-, e.g. Mulholland, in which the first
+element means tonsured servant, shaveling, and the second is the name
+of a saint.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. GODERIC AND GODIVA
+
+"England had now once more (A.D. 1100) a King born on her own soil, a
+Queen of the blood of the hero Eadmund, a King and Queen whose
+children would trace to AElfred by two descents.  Norman insolence
+mocked at the English King and his English Lady under the English
+names of Godric and Godgifu." [Footnote: "Godricum eum, et comparem
+Godgivam appellantes" (William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum).]
+
+(FREEMAN, Norman Conquest, v. 170.)
+
+In dealing with surnames we begin after the Conquest, for the simple
+reason that there were no surnames before.  Occasionally an important
+person has come down in history with a nickname, e.g. Edmund
+Iron-side, Harold Harefoot, Edward the Confessor; but this is
+exceptional, and the Anglo-Saxon, as a rule, was satisfied with one
+name.  It is probable that very many of the names in use before the
+Conquest, whether of English or Scandinavian origin, were chosen
+because of their etymological meaning, e.g. that the name Beornheard
+(Bernard, Barnard, Barnett) was given to a boy in the hope that he
+would grow up a warrior strong, just as his sister might be called
+AEthelgifu, noble gift.  The formation of these old names is both
+interesting and, like all Germanic nomenclature, poetic.
+
+
+
+FORMATION OF ANGLO-SAXON NAMES
+
+As a rule the name consists of two elements, and the number of those
+elements which appear with great frequency is rather limited.  Some
+themes occur only in the first half of the name, e.g. Aethel-, whence
+Aethelstan, later Alston; AElf-, whence AElfgar, now Elgar and Agar
+(AEthel- and AElf- soon got confused, so that Allvey, Elvey may
+represent both AEthelwig and AElfwig, or perhaps in some cases
+Ealdwig); Cuth-, whence Cuthbeald, now Cobbold [Footnote: This is also
+the origin of Cupples, and probably of Keble and Nibbles.  It shares
+Cobbett and Cubitt with Cuthbeorht.]; Cyne-, whence Cynebeald now
+Kimball and Kemble, both of which are also local, Folc-, whence
+Folcheard and Folchere, now Folkard and Fulcher; Gund-, whence
+Gundred, now Gundry and Grundy (Metathesis, Chapter III); Os-, whence
+Osbert, Osborn,
+
+Other themes only occur as the second half of the name.  Such are
+-gifu, in Godgifu, i.e. Godiva, whence Goodeve; -lac in Guthlac, now
+Goodlake and Goodluck (Chapter XXI); -laf in Deorlaf, now Dearlove;
+-wacer in Eoforwacer, now Earwaker.
+
+Other themes, and perhaps the greater number, may occur indifferently
+first and second, e.g. beald, god, here, sige, weald, win, wulf or
+ulf.  Thus we have complete reversals in Beald-wine, whence Baldwin,
+and Wine-beald, whence Winbolt, Here-weald, whence Herald, Harold,
+Harrod, and Weald-here, whence Walter (Chapter I).  With these we may
+compare Gold-man and Man-gold, the latter of which has given Mangles.
+So also we have Sige-heard, whence Siggers, and Wulf-sige, now Wolsey,
+Wulf-noth, now the imitative Wallnutt, and Beorht-wulf, later Bardolph
+and Bardell.  The famous name Havelock was borne by the hero of a
+medieval epic, "Havelock the Dane," but Dunstan is usually for the
+local Dunston.  On the other hand, Winston is a personal name,
+Wine-stan, whence Winstanley.
+
+These examples show that the pre-Norman names are by no means
+unrepresented in the twentieth century, but, in this matter, one must
+proceed with caution.  To take as examples the two names that head
+this chapter, there is no doubt that Goderic and Godiva are now
+represented by Goodrich and Goodeve, but these may also belong to the
+small group mentioned in Chapter VI, and stand for good Richard and
+good Eve.  Also Goodrich comes in some cases from Goodrich, formerly
+Gotheridge, in Hereford, which has also given Gutteridge.
+
+Moreover, it must not be forgotten that our medieval nomenclature is
+preponderantly French, as the early rolls show beyond dispute, so
+that, even where a modern name appears susceptible of an Anglo-Saxon
+explanation, it is often safer to refer it to the Old French cognate;
+for the Germanic names introduced into France by the Frankish
+conquerors, and the Scandinavian names which passed into Normandy,
+contained very much the same elements as our own native names, but
+underwent a different phonetic development.  Thus I would rather
+explain Bawden, Bowden, Boulders, Boden, and the dims.  Body and
+Bodkin, as Old French variants from the Old Ger. Baldawin than as
+coming directly from Anglo-Saxon.  Boyden undoubtedly goes back to Old
+Fr. Baudouin.
+
+Practically all the names given in Gower's lines (Chapter V), and many
+others to which I have ascribed a continental origin, are found
+occasionally in England before the Conquest, but the weight of
+evidence shows that they were either adopted in England as French
+names or were corrupted in form by the Norman scribes and officials.
+To take other examples, our Tibbald, Tibbles, Tibbs suggest the Fr.
+Thibaut rather than the natural development of Anglo-Sax. Thiudbeald,
+i.e. Theobald; and Ralph, Relf, Roff, etc., show the regular Old
+French development of Raedwulf, Radolf.  Tibaut Wauter, i.e. Theobald
+Walter, who lived in Lancashire in 1242, had both his names in an old
+French form.
+
+
+
+ANGLO-SAXON NICKNAMES
+
+As a matter of fact, the various ways of forming nicknames or
+descriptive names, are all used in the pre-Conquest personal names.
+We find Orme, i.e. serpent or dragon (cf. Great Orme's Head), Wulf,
+i.e. Wolf, Hwita, i.e. White, and its derivative Hwiting, now Whiting,
+Saemann, i.e. Seaman, Bonda, i.e. Bond, Leofcild, dear child, now Leif
+child, etc.  But, except the case of Orme, so common as the first
+element of place-names, I doubt the survival of these as purely
+personal names into the surname period and regard White, Seaman, Bond,
+Leif child rather as new epithets of Mid. English formation.  Whiting
+is of course Anglo-Saxon, -ing being the regular patronymic suffix.
+Cf. Browning, Benning, Dering, Dunning, Gunning, Hemming, Kipping,
+Manning, and many others which occur in place-names.  But not all
+names in -ing are Anglo-Saxon, e.g. Baring is German; cf. Behring, of
+the Straits; and Jobling is Fr. Jobelin, a double dim. of Job.
+
+I will now give a few examples of undoubted survival of these
+Anglo-Saxon compounds, showing how the suffixes have been corrupted
+and simplified.  Among the commonest of these suffixes are -beald,
+-beorht, -cytel (Chapter VII.), -god, -heard, -here, -man, -mund,
+-raed, -ric, -weald, -weard, -wine, [Footnote: Bold, bright, kettle,
+god, strong, army, man, protection, counsel, powerful, ruling, guard,
+friend.] which survive in Rumball and Rumbold (Rumbeald), Allbright
+[Footnote: AIbert is of modern German introduction.] and Allbutt
+(Ealdbeorht, i.e. Albert), Arkle (Earncytel), Allgood and Elgood
+(AElfgod), Everett (Eoforheard, i.e. Everard), Gunter (Gundhere),
+Harman (Hereman), Redmond (Raedmund), [Footnote: Pure Anglo-Saxon,
+like the names of so many opponents of English tyranny.  Parnell is of
+course not Irish (Chapter X).] Aldred, Eldred (AEthelraed or
+Ealdraed), Aldridge, Alderick, Eldridge (AEthelric or Ealdric),
+Thorold (Thurweald), and, through Fr. Turold, Turrell, Terrell, and
+Tyrrell, Harward and Harvard (Hereweard), Lewin (Leofwine).
+
+In popular use some of these endings got confused, e.g. Rumbold
+probably sometimes represents Rumweald, while Kennard no doubt stands
+for Coenweard as well as for Coenheard.  Man and round were often
+interchanged (Chapter VI), so that from Eastmund come both Esmond and
+Eastman.  Gorman represents Gormund, and Almond (Chapter XI) is so
+common in the Middle Ages that it must sometimes be from AEthelmund.
+
+Sometimes the modern forms are imitative.  Thus Allchin is for
+Ealhwine (Alcuin), and Goodyear, Goodier and Goodair may represent
+Godhere.  [Footnote: This may, however, be taken literally.  There is
+a German name Gutjahr and a Norfolk name Feaveryear.] Good-beer,
+Godbehere, Gotobed are classed by Bardsley under Godbeorht, whence
+Godber.  But in these three names the face value of the words may well
+be accepted (pp.  156, 203, 206).  Wisgar or Wisgeard has given the
+imitative Whisker and Vizard, and, through French, the Scottish
+Wishart, which is thus the same as the famous Norman Guiscard.
+Garment and Rayment are for Garmund and Regenmund, i.e. Raymond.
+
+
+
+ANGLO-SAXON SURVIVALS
+
+Other names which can be traced directly to the group of Anglo-Saxon
+names dealt with above are Elphick (AElfheah), which in Norman French
+gave Alphege, Elmer (AElfmaer), Allnutt (AElfnoth), Alwin, Elwin,
+Elvin (AElfwine), Aylmer (AEthelmaer), Aylward (AEthelweard), Kenrick
+(Coenric), Collard (Ceolheard), Colvin (Ceolwine), Darwin (Deorwine),
+Edridge (Eadric), Aldwin, Auden (Ealdwine), Baldry (Bealdred or
+Bealdric), Falstaff (Fastwulf), Filmer (Filumaer), Frewin eowine),
+Garrard, Garrett, Jarrold (Gaerheard, Gaerweald), but probably these
+are through French, Garbett (Garbeald, with which cf. the Italian
+Garibaldi), Gatliffe (Geatleof), Goddard (Godheard), Goodliffe
+(Godleof), Gunnell (Gunhild), Gunner (Gunhere), [Footnote: It is
+unlikely that this name is connected with gun, a word of too late
+appearance.  It may be seen over a shop in Brentford, perhaps kept by
+a descendant of the thane of the adjacent Gunnersbury.] Haines
+(Hagene), Haldane (Haelfdene), Hastings (Haesten, the Danish chief who
+gave his name to Hastings, formerly Haestinga-ceaster), Herbert
+(Herebeorht), Herrick Hereric), Hildyard (Hildegeard), Hubert,
+Hubbard, Hobart, Hibbert (Hygebeorht), Ingram (Ingelram), Lambert
+(Landbeorht), Livesey (Leofsige), Lemon (Leofman), Leveridge
+(Leofric), Loveridge (Luferic), Maynard (Maegenheard), Manfrey
+(Maegenfrith),  Rayner (Regenhere), Raymond (Regenmund), Reynolds
+(Regenweald), Seabright (Sigebeorht or Saebeorht), Sayers (Saegaer),
+[Footnote: The simple Sayer is also for "assayer," either of metals or
+of meat and drink--"essayeur, an essayer; one that tasts, or takes an
+essay; and particularly, an officer in the mint, who touches every
+kind of new Coyne before it be delivered out" (Cotgrave).  Robert le
+sayer, goldsmith, was a London citizen c. 1300.]  Sewell (Saeweald or
+Sigeweald), Seward (Sigeweard), Turbot (Thurbeorht), Thoroughgood
+(Thurgod), Walthew (Waltheof), Warman (Waermund), Wyberd (Wigbeorht),
+Wyman (Wigmund), Willard (Wilheard), Winfrey (Winefrith), Ulyett and
+Woollett (Wulfgeat), Wolmer (Wulfmaer), Woodridge (Wulfric).
+
+In several of these, e.g. Fulcher, Hibbert, Lambert, Reynolds, the
+probability is that the name came through French.  Where an
+alternative explanation is possible, the direct Anglo-Saxon origin is
+generally the less probable.  Thus, although Coning occurs as an
+Anglo-Saxon name, Collings is generally a variant of Collins (cf.
+Jennings for Jennins), and though Hammond is etymologically Haganmund,
+it is better to connect it with the very popular French name Hamon.
+Simmonds might come from Sigemund, but is more likely from Simon with
+excrescent -d (Epithesis, Chapter III).
+
+In many cases the Anglo-Saxon name was a simplex instead of a
+compound.  The simple Cytel survives as Chettle, Kettle.  [Footnote:
+Connected with the kettle or cauldron of Norse mythology.  The
+renowned Captain Kettle, described by his creator as a Welshman, must
+have descended from some hardy Norse pirate.  Many names in this
+chapter are Scandinavian.]  Beorn is one of the origins of Barnes.
+Brand also appears as Braund, Grim is common in place-names, and from
+Grima we have Grimes.  Cola gives Cole, the name of a monarch of
+ancient legend, but this name is more usually from Nicolas (Chapter
+VI).  Gonna is now Gunn, Serl has given the very common Searle, and
+Wicga is Wigg.  From Hacun we have Hack and the dim. Hackett.
+
+To these might be added many examples of pure adjectives, such as
+Freo, Free, Froda, (prudent), Froude, Gods, Good, Leof (dear), Leif,
+Leaf, Read (red), Read, Reid, Reed, Rica, Rich, Rudda (ruddy), Rudd
+and Rodd, Snel (swift, valiant), Snell, Swet, Sweet, etc., or epithets
+such as Boda (messenger), Bode, Cempa (warrior), Kemp, Cyta, Kite,
+Dreng (warrior), Dring, Eorl, Earl, Godcild, Goodchild, Nunna, Nunn,
+Oter, Otter, Puttoc (kite), Puttock, Saemann, Seaman, Spearhafoc,
+Sparhawk, Spark (Chapter I), Tryggr (true), Triggs, Unwine (unfriend),
+Unwin, etc.  But many of these had died out as personal names and, in
+medieval use, were nicknames pure and simple.
+
+
+
+MONOSYLLABIC NAMES
+
+Finally, there is a very large group of Anglo-Saxon dissyllabic names,
+usually ending in -a, which appear to be pet forms of the longer
+names, though it is not always possible to establish the connection.
+Many of them have double forms with a long and short vowel
+respectively.  It is to this class that we must refer the large number
+of our monosyllabic surnames, which would otherwise defy
+interpretation.  Anglo-Sax. Dodds gave Dodd, while Dodson's partner
+Fogg had an ancestor Focga.  Other examples are Bacga, Bagg, Benna,
+Benn, Bota, Boot and dim. Booty, Botts, Bolt, whence Bolting, Bubba,
+Bubb, Budda, Budd, Bynna, Binns, Cada, Cade, Cobbs, Cobb, Coda, Coad,
+Codda, Codd, Cuffs, Cuff, Deda, Deedes, Duda, Dowd, Duna, Down, Donna,
+Dunn, Dutta, Dull, Eada, Eade, Edes, etc., Ebba, Ebbs; Eppa, Epps,
+Hudda, Hud, whence Hudson, Inga, Inge, Sibba, Sibbs, Sicga, Siggs,
+Tata, Tate and Tait, Tidda, Tidd, Tigga, Tigg, Toca, Tooke, Tucca,
+Tuck, Wada, Wade, Wadda, Waddy, etc.  Similarly French took from
+German a number of surnames formed from shortened names in -o, with an
+accusative in -on, e.g. Old Ger. Bodo has given Fr. Bout and Bouton,
+whence perhaps our Butt and Button.
+
+But the names exemplified above are very thinly represented in early
+records, and, though their existence in surnames derived from
+place-names (Dodsley, Bagshaw, Bensted, Bedworth, Cobham, Ebbsworth,
+etc.) would vouch for them even if they were not recorded, their
+comparative insignificance is attested by the fact that they form very
+few derivatives.
+
+Compare, for instance, the multitudinous surnames which go back to
+monosyllables of the later type of name, such as John and Hugh, with
+the complete sterility of the names above.  Therefore, when an
+alternative derivation for a surname is possible, it is usually ten to
+one that this alternative is right.  Dodson is a simplified Dodgson,
+from Roger (Chapter VI); Benson belongs to Benedict, sometimes to
+Benjamin; Cobbett is a disguised Cuthbert or Cobbold (cf. Garrett,
+Chapter II); Down is usually local, at the down or dune; Dunn is
+medieval le dun, a colour nickname; names in Ead-, Ed-, are usually
+from the medieval female name Eda (Chapter VI); Sibbs generally
+belongs to Sibilla or Sebastian; Tait must sometimes be for Fr. Tete,
+with which cf. Eng. Head; Tidd is an old pet form of Theodore; and
+Wade is more frequently atte wade, i.e. ford.  Even Ebbs and Epps are
+more likely to be shortened forms of Isabella, usually reduced to Ib,
+or Ibbot (Chapter X), or of the once popular Euphemia.
+
+To sum up, we may say that the Anglo-Saxon element in our surnames is
+much larger than one would imagine from Bardsley's Dictionary, and
+that it accounts, not only for names which have a distinctly
+Anglo-Saxon suffix or a disguised form of one, but also for a very
+large number of monosyllabic names which survive in isolation and
+without kindred.  In this chapter I have only given sets of
+characteristic examples, to which many more might be added.  It would
+be comparatively easy, with some imagination and a conscientious
+neglect of evidence, to connect the greater number of our surnames
+with the Anglo-Saxons.
+
+Thus Honeyball might very well represent the Anglo-Sax. Hunbeald, but,
+in the absence of links, it is better to regard it as a popular
+perversion of Hannibal (Chapter VIII).  In dealing with this subject,
+the via media is the safe one, and one cannot pass in one stride from
+Hengist and Horsa to the Reformation period.
+
+
+
+"HIDEOUS NAMES"
+
+Matthew Arnold, in his essay on the Function of Criticism at the
+Present Time, is moved by the case of Poor Wragg, who was "in
+custody," to the following wail--
+
+"What a touch of grossness in our race, what an original shortcoming
+in the more delicate spiritual perceptions, is shown by the natural
+growth amongst us of such hideous names-Higginbottom, Stiggins, Bugg!"
+
+But this is the poet's point of view.  Though there may have been "no
+Wragg by the Ilissus," it is not a bad name, for, in its original form
+Ragg, it is the first element of the heroic Ragnar, and probably
+unrelated to Raggett, which is the medieval le ragged.  Bugg, which
+one family exchanged for Norfolk Howard, is the Anglo-Saxon Bucgo, a
+name no doubt borne by many a valiant warrior.  Stiggins, as we have
+seen (Chapter XIII), goes back to a name great in history, and
+Higginbottom (Chapter XII) is purely geographical.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. PALADINS AND HEROES
+
+"Morz est Rollanz, Deus en ad l'anme es ciels.
+ Li Emperere en Rencesvals parvient...
+ Carles escriet: 'U estes vus, bels nies?
+ U l'Arcevesques e li quens Oliviers?
+ U est Gerins e sis cumpainz Geriers?
+ Otes u est e Ii quens Berengiers?
+ Ives e Ivories que j'aveie tant chiers?
+ Qu'est devenuz li Guascuinz Engeliers,
+ Sansun li dux e Anseis li fiers?
+ U est Gerarz de Russillun li vielz,
+ Li duze per que j'aveie laissiet?'"
+
+(Chanson de Roland, 1.  2397.)
+
+[Footnote: "Dead is Roland, God has his soul in heaven.  The Emperor
+arrives at Roncevaux... Charles cries: 'Where are you, fair nephew?
+Where the archbishop (Turpin) and Count Oliver?  Where is Gerin and
+his comrade Gerier?  Where is Odo and count Berenger?  Ivo and Ivory
+whom I held so dear?  What has become of the Gascon Engelier?  Samson
+the duke and Anseis the proud?  Where is Gerard of Roussillon the old,
+the twelve peers whom I had left?' "]
+
+It is natural that many favourite names should be taken from those of
+heroes of romance whose exploits were sung all over Europe by
+wandering minstrels.  Such names, including those taken from the Round
+Table legends, usually came to us through French, though a few names
+of the British heroes are Welsh, e.g. Cradock from Caradoc
+(Caractacus) and Maddox from Madoc.
+
+
+
+THE ROUND TABLE
+
+But the Round Table stories were versified much later than the true
+Old French Chansons de Geste, which had a basis in the national
+history, and not many of Arthur's knights are immortalized as
+surnames.  We have Tristram, Lancelot, whence Lance, Percival, Gawain
+in Gavin, and Kay.  But the last named is, like Key, more usually from
+the word we now spell "quay," though Key and Keys can also be
+shop-signs, as of course Crosskeys is.  Linnell is sometimes for
+Lionel, as Neil, [Footnote: But the Scottish Neil is a Gaelic name
+often exchanged for the unrelated Nigel.]  Neal for Nigel.  The ladies
+have fared better.  Vivian, which is sometimes from the masculine
+Vivien, is found in Dorset as Vye, and Isolt and Guinevere, which long
+survived as font-names in Cornwall, have given several names.  From
+Isolt come Isard, Isitt, Izzard, Izod, and many other forms, while
+Guinever appears as Genever, Jennifer, Gaynor, Gilliver, Gulliver,
+[Footnote: There is also an Old Fr. Gulafre which will account for
+some of the Gullivers.]  and perhaps also as Juniper.  It is probably
+also the source of Genn and Ginn, though these may come also from
+Eugenia or from Jane.  The later prose versions of the Arthurian
+stories, such as those of Malory, are full of musical and picturesque
+names like those used by Mr. Maurice Hewlett, but this artificial
+nomenclature has left no traces in our surnames.
+
+Of the paladins the most popular was Roland or Rowland, who survives
+as Rowe, Rowlinson, Rolls, Rollit, etc., sometimes coalescing with the
+derivations of Raoul, another epic hero.  Gerin or Geri gave Jeary,
+and Oates is the nominative (Chapter VIII) of Odo, an important Norman
+name.  Berenger appears as Barringer and Bellinger (Chapter III).  The
+simple Oliver is fairly common, but it also became the Cornish Olver.
+But perhaps the largest surname family connected with the paladins is
+derived from the Breton Ives or Ivon [Footnote: A number of Old French
+names had an accusative in -on or -ain.  Thus we find Otes, Oton,
+Ives, Ivain, and feminines such as Ide, Idain, all of which survive as
+English surnames.] whose name appears in that of two English towns.
+It is the same as Welsh Evan, and the Yvain of the Arthurian legends,
+and has given us Ives, Ivison, Ivatts, etc.  The modern surname Ivory
+is usually an imitative form of Every or Avery (p, 82).  Gerard has a
+variety of forms in Ger- and Gar-, Jerand Jar- (see p.32).  The others
+do not seem to have survived, except the redoubtable Archbishop
+Turpin, whose fame is probably less than that of his namesake Dick.
+
+Besides the paladins, there are many heroes of Old French epic whose
+names were popular during the two centuries that followed the
+Conquest.  Ogier le Danois, who also fought at Roncevaux, has given us
+Odgers; Fierabras occasionally crops up as Fairbrass, Firebrace;
+Aimeri de Narbonne, from Almaric, [Footnote: A metathesis of Amalric,
+which is found in Anglo-Saxon.]  whence Ital. Amerigo, is in English
+Amery, Emery, Imray, etc.; Renaud de Montauban is represented by
+Reynolds (Chapter VII) and Reynell.
+
+The famous Doon de Mayence may have been an ancestor of Lorna, and the
+equally famous Garin, or Warin, de Monglane has given us Gearing,
+Gearing, Waring, sometimes Warren, and the diminutives Garnett and
+Warnett.  Milo, of Greek origin, became Miles, with dim. Millett, but
+the chief origin of the surname Miles is a contracted form of the
+common font-name Michael.  Amis and Amiles were the David and Jonathan
+of Old French epic and the former survives as Ames, Amies, and Amos,
+the last an imitative form.
+
+We have also Berner from Bernier, Bartram from Bertran, Farrant from
+Fernand, Terry and Terriss from Thierry, the French form of Ger.
+Dietrich (Theodoric), which, through Dutch, has given also Derrick.
+Garner, from Ger. Werner, is our Garner and Warner, though these have
+other origins (pp.  154, 185).  Dru, from Drogo, has given Drew, with
+dim. Druitt (Chapter V), and Druce, though the latter may also come
+from the town of Dreux.  Walrond and Waldron are for Waleran, usually
+Galeran, and King Pippin had a retainer named Morant.  Saint Leger, or
+Leodigarius, appears as Ledger, Ledgard, etc., and sometimes in the
+shortened Legg.  Among the heroines we have Orbell from Orable, while
+Blancheflour may have suggested Lillywhite; but the part played by
+women in the Chansons de Geste was insignificant.
+
+
+
+THE CHANSONS DE GESTE
+
+As this element in our nomenclature has hitherto received no
+attention, it may be well to add a few more examples of names which
+occur very frequently in the Chansons de Geste and which have
+undoubted representatives in modern English.  Allard was one of the
+Four Sons of Aymon.  The name is etymologically identical with Aylward
+(Chapter VII), but in the above form has reached us through French.
+Acard or Achard is represented by Haggard, Haggett, and Hatchard,
+Hatchett, though Haggard probably has another origin (Chapter XXIII).
+Harness is imitative for Harnais, Herneis.  Clarabutt is for
+Clarembaut; cf. Archbutt for Archembaut, the Old French form of
+Archibald, Archbold.  Durrant is Durand, still a very common French
+surname.  Ely is Old Fr. Elie, i.e. Elias (Chapter IX), which had the
+dim. Elyot.  [Footnote: For other names belonging to this group see
+Chapter IX.]  We also find Old Fr. Helye, whence our Healey.
+Enguerrand is telescoped to Ingram, though this may also come from the
+English form Ingelram.  Fawkes is the Old Fr. Fauques, nominative
+(Chapter VIII) of Faucon, i.e. falcon.  Galpin is contracted from
+Galopin, a famous epic thief, but it may also come from the common
+noun galopin--
+
+"Galloppins, under cookes, or scullions in monasteries."
+
+(Cotgrave.)
+
+In either case it means a "runner." Henfrey is from Heinfrei or
+Hainfroi, identical with Anglo-Sax. Haganfrith, and Manser from
+Manesier.  Neame (Chapter XXI) may sometimes represent Naime, the
+Nestor of Old French epic and the sage counsellor of Charlemagne.
+Richer, from Old Fr. Richier, has generally been absorbed by the
+cognate Richard.  Aubrey and Avery are from Alberic, cognate with
+Anglo-Sax. AElfric.  An unheroic name like Siggins may be connected
+with several heroes called Seguin.
+
+
+
+ANTIQUE NAMES
+
+Nor are the heroes of antiquity altogether absent.  Along with Old
+French national and Arthurian epics there were a number of romances
+based on the legends of Alexander, Caesar, and the tale of Troy.
+Alexander, or Saunder, was the favourite among this class of names,
+especially in Scotland.  Cayzer was generally a nickname (Chapter
+XIII), its later form Cesar being due to Italian influence, [Footnote:
+Julius Cesar, physician to Queen Elizabeth, was a Venetian
+(Bardsley).] and the same applies to Hannibal, [Footnote: But the
+frequent occurrence of this name and its corruptions in Cornwall
+suggests that it may really have been introduced by Carthaginian
+sailors.] when it is not an imitative form of the female name Annabel,
+also corrupted into Honeyball.  Both Dionisius and Dionisia were once
+common, and have survived as Dennis, Dennett, Denny, and from the
+shortened Dye we get Dyson.  But this Dionisius was the patron saint
+of France.  Apparent names of heathen gods and goddesses are almost
+always due to folk-etymology, e.g. Bacchus is for back-house or
+bake-house, and the ancestors of Mr. Wegg's friend Venus came from
+Venice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR
+
+" 'O Now you see, brother Toby,' he would say, looking up, 'that
+Christian names are not such indifferent things;--had Luther here been
+called by any other name but Martin, he would have been damn'd to all
+eternity' "
+
+ (Tristram Shandy, ch. xxxv).
+
+
+
+OLD TESTAMENT NAMES
+
+The use of biblical names as font-names does not date from the
+Puritans, nor are surnames derived from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
+necessarily Jewish.  The Old Testament names which were most popular
+among the medieval peasants from whom we nearly all spring were
+naturally those connected with the most picturesque episodes of sacred
+history.  Taking as an example the father of all men, we find derived
+from the name Adam the following: Adams, Adamson, Adcock, Addis,
+Addison, Adds, Addy, Ade, Ades, Adey, Adis, Ady, Addey, Aday, Adee,
+Addyman, Adkin, Adkins, Adkinson, Adnett, [Footnote: Adenet (little
+Adam) le Roi was an Old French epic hero.] Adnitt, Adnet, Adnot,
+Atkin, Atkins, Atkinson, and the northern Aitken, etc.  This list,
+compiled from Bardsley's Dictionary of Surnames, is certainly not
+exhaustive.  Probably Taddy is rimed on Addy as Taggy is on Aggy
+(Agnes).  To put together all the derivatives of John or Thomas would
+be a task almost beyond the wit of man.  Names in Abb-, App-, may come
+from either Abraham or Abel, and from Abbs we also have Nabbs.  Cain
+was of course unpopular.  Cain, Cane, Kain, when not Manx, is from the
+town of Caen or from Norman quene, an oak.
+
+Moses appears in the French form Moyes (Moise) as early as 1273, and
+still earlier as Moss.  Of the patriarchs the favourites were perhaps
+Jacob and Joseph, the name Jessop from the latter having been
+influenced by Ital. Giuseppe.  Benjamin has sometimes given Benson and
+Bennett, but these are generally for Benedict (Chapter IV).  The
+Judges are poorly represented, except Samson, a name which has
+obviously coalesced with the derivatives of Samuel.  David had, of
+course, an immense vogue, especially in Wales (for some of its
+derivatives see Chapter VI), and Solomon was also popular, the modern
+Salmon not always being a Jewish name.
+
+But almost the favourite Old Testament name was Elijah, Elias, which,
+usually through its Old French form Elie, whence Ely, is the parent of
+Ellis, Elliot, and many other names in El-, some of which, however,
+have to be shared with Ellen and Alice (Chapter X).  Job was also
+popular, and is easily recognized in Jobson, Jobling, etc., but less
+easily in Chubb (Chapter III) and Jupp.  The intermediate form was the
+obsolete Joppe.  Among the prophetic writers Daniel was an easy
+winner, Dann, Dance (Chapter I), Dannatt, Dancock, etc.  Balaam is an
+imitative spelling of the local Baylham.
+
+In considering these Old Testament names it must be remembered that
+the people did not possess the Bible in the vernacular.  The teaching
+of the parish priests made them familiar with selected episodes, from
+which they naturally took the names which appeared to contain the
+greatest element of holiness or of warlike renown.  It is probable
+that the mystery plays were not without influence; for the personal
+name was not always a fixed quantity, and many of the names mentioned
+in the preceding paragraph may have been acquired rather on the
+medieval stage than at the font.
+
+This would apply with still more force to names taken from the legends
+of saints and martyrs on which the miracle plays were based.  We even
+find the names Saint, Martyr and Postill, the regular aphetic form of
+apostle (Chapter III), just as we find King and Pope.  Camden,
+speaking of the freedom with which English names are formed, quotes a
+Dutchman, who--
+
+"When he heard of English men called God and Devil, said, that the
+English borrowed names from all things whatsoever, good or bad."
+
+The medieval name Godde may of course be for Good, Anglo-Sax. Goda,
+but Ledieu is common enough in France.  The name seems to be obsolete,
+unless it is disguised as Goad.  The occurrence in medieval rolls of
+Diabolus and le Diable shows that Deville need not always be for de
+Eyville.  There was probably much competition for this important part,
+and the name would not be always felt as uncomplimentary.  Among
+German surnames we find not only Teufel, but also the compounds
+Manteufel and Teufelskind.
+
+
+
+NEW TESTAMENT NAMES
+
+Coming to the New Testament, we find the four Evangelists strongly
+represented, especially the first and last.  Matthew appears not only
+in an easily recognizable form, e.g. in Matheson, but also as Mayhew
+and Mayo, Old Fr. Mahieu.  From the latter form we have the shortened
+May and Mee, whence Mayes, Makins, Meakin, Meeson, [Footnote: One
+family of Meeson claims descent from Malvoisin.]  and sometimes Mason.
+Mark is one of the sources of March (p, 90), as Luke is of Luck,
+whence Lucock, Luckett, etc, though we more often find the learned
+form Lucas.
+
+Of John there is no need to speak.  Of the apostles the great
+favourites, Simon, or Peter, John, and Bartholomew have already been
+mentioned.  Almost equally popular was Philip, whence Philp, Phipps,
+Phelps, and the dim. Philpot, whence the aphetic Pott, Potts.  Andrew
+flourished naturally in Scotland, its commonest derivative being
+Anderson, while Dendy is for the rimed form Dandy.  Paul has of course
+had a great influence and is responsible for Pawson or Porson,
+Pawling, Polson, Pollett, and most names in Pol-. [Footnote: This does
+not of course apply to Cornish names in Pol- (Chapter VI)]  It is
+also, in the form Powell, assimilated to the Welsh Ap Howel.  Paul is
+regularly spelt Poule by Chaucer, and St. Paul's Cathedral is often
+called Powles in Tudor documents.  Paul's companions are poorly
+represented, for Barnby is local, while names in Sil- and Sel- come
+from shortened form of Cecil, Cecilia, and Silvester.  Another great
+name from the Acts of the Apostles is that of the protomartyr Stephen,
+among the numerous derivatives of which we must include Stennett and
+Stimpson.
+
+Many non-biblical saints whose names occur very frequently have
+already been mentioned, e.g. Antony, Bernard, Gregory, Martin,
+Lawrence, Nicholas, etc To these may be added Augustine, or Austin,
+Christopher, or Kit, with the dim. Christie and the patronymic Kitson,
+Clement, whence a large family of names in Clem-, Gervase or Jarvis,
+Jerome, sometimes represented by Jerram, and Theodore or Tidd (cf.
+Tibb fron Theobald), who becomes in Welsh Tudor.  Vincent has  given
+Vince, Vincey and Vincett, and Baseley, Blazey are from Basil and
+Blaine.  The Anglo-Saxon saints are poorly represented, though
+probably most of them survive in a disguised form, e.g. Price is
+sometimes for Brice, Cuthbert has sometimes given Cubitt and Cobbett,
+and also Cutts.  Bottle sometimes represents Botolf, Neate may be for
+Neot, and Chad (Ceadda) survives as Chatt and in many local names.
+The Cornish Tangye is from the Breton St. Tanneguy.  The Archangel
+Michael has given one of our commonest names, Mitchell (Chapter IV).
+This is through French, but we have also the contracted Miall--
+
+"At Michael's term had many a trial,
+Worse than the dragon and St. Michael."
+
+(Hudibras, III. ii. 51.)
+
+[Footnote: Cf. Vialls from Vitalis, also a saint's name.]
+
+This name exists in several other forms, e.g. Mihell, Myhill, Mighill,
+and most frequently of all as Miles (Chapter VIII).  The reader will
+remember the famous salient of Saint-Mihiel, on the Meuse, held by the
+Germans for so long a period of the war.  From Gabriel we have Gabb,
+Gabbett, etc.  The common rustic pronunciation Gable has given Cable
+(Chapter III).
+
+Among female saints we find Agnes, pronounced Annis, the derivatives
+of which have become confused with those of Anne, or Nan, Catherine,
+whence Call, Catlin, etc., Cecilia, Cicely, whence Sisley, and of
+course Mary and Margaret.  For these see Chapter X.  St. Bride, or
+Bridget, survives in Kirkbride.
+
+
+
+FEAST-DAYS
+
+A very interesting group of surnames are derived from font-names taken
+from the great feasts of the Church, date of birth or baptism, etc.
+[Footnote: Names of this class were no doubt also sometimes given to
+foundlings.]  These are more often French or Greco-Latin than English,
+a fact to be explained by priestly influence.  Thus Christmas is much
+less common than Noel or Nowell, but we also find Midwinter (Chapter
+II) and Yule.  Easter has a local origin (from a place in Essex) and
+also represents Mid. Eng. estre, a word of very vague meaning for part
+of a building, originally the exterior, from Lat. extra.  It survives
+in Fr. les etres d'une maison.  Hester, to which Bardsley gives the
+same origin, I should rather connect with Old Fr. hestre (hetre), a
+beech.  However that may be, the Easter festival is represented in our
+surnames by Pascall, Cornish Pascoe, and Pask, Pash, Pace, Pack.
+
+Patch, formerly a nickname for a jester (Chapter XX), from his motley
+clothes, is also sometimes a variant of Pash.  And the dim. Patchett
+has become confused with Padgett, from Padge, a rimed form of Madge.
+Pentecost is recorded as a personal name in Anglo-Saxon times.
+Michaelmas is now Middleman (Chapter III), and Tiffany is an old name
+for Epiphany.  It comes from Greco-Latin theophania (while Epiphany
+represents epiphania), which gave the French female name Tiphaine,
+whence our Tiffin.  Lammas (loaf mass) is also found as a personal
+name, but there is a place called Lammas in Norfolk.  We have
+compounds of day in Halliday or Holiday, Hay-day, for high day,
+Loveday, a day appointed for reconciliations, and Hockaday, for a
+child born during Hocktide, which begins on the 15th day after Easter.
+It was also called Hobday, though it is hard to say why; hence the
+name Hobday, unless this is to be taken as the day, or servant
+(Chapter XIX), in the service of Hob; cf. Hobman.
+
+The days of the week are puzzling, the only one at all common being
+Munday, though most of the others are found in earlier nomenclature.
+We should rather expect special attention to be given to Sunday and
+Friday, and, in fact, Sonntag and Freytag are by far the most usual in
+German, while Dimanche and its perversions are common in France, and
+Vendredi also occurs.  This makes me suspect some other origin,
+probably local, for Munday, the more so as Fr. Dimanche, Demange,
+etc., is often for the personal name Dominicus, the etymology
+remaining the same as that of the day-name, the Lord's day.  Parts of
+the day seem to survive in Noon, Eve, and Morrow, but Noon is local,
+Fr. Noyon (cf. Moon, earlier Mohun, from Moyon), Eve is the mother of
+mankind, and Morrow is for moor-wro, the second element being Mid.
+Eng. wra, comer, whence Wray.
+
+
+
+MONTH NAMES
+
+We find the same difficulty with the names of the months.  Several of
+these are represented in French, but our March has four other origins,
+from March in Cambridgeshire, from march, a boundary, from marsh, or
+from Mark; while May means in Mid. English a maiden (Chapter XXI), and
+is also a dim. of Matthew (Chapter IX).  The names of the seasons also
+present difficulty.  Spring usually corresponds to Fr. La Fontaine
+(Chapter II), but we find also Lent, the old name for the season, and
+French has Printemps. [Footnote: The cognate Ger. Lenz is fairly
+common, hence the frequency of Lent in America.]  Summer and Winter
+[Footnote: Winter was one of Hereward's most faithful comrades.]  are
+found very early as nicknames, as are also Frost and Snow; but why
+always Summers or Somers with s and Winter without? [Footnote: Two
+other common nicknames were Flint and Steel.]  The latter has no doubt
+in many cases absorbed Vinter, vintner (Chapter III) but this will not
+account for the complete absence of genitive forms.  And what has
+become of the other season?  We should not expect to find the learned
+word "autumn," but neither Fall nor Harvest, the true English
+equivalents, are at all common as surnames.
+
+I regard this group, viz. days, months, seasons, as one of the least
+clearly accounted for in our nomenclature, and cannot help thinking
+that the more copious examples which we find in French and German are
+largely distorted forms due to the imitative instinct, or are
+susceptible of other explanations.  This is certainly true in some
+cases, e.g. Fr. Mars is the regular French development of Medardus, a
+saint to whom a well-known Parisian church is dedicated; and the
+relationship of Janvier to Janus may be via the Late Lat. januarius,
+for janitor, a doorkeeper.
+
+[Footnote: Medardus was the saint who, according to Ingoldsby, lived
+largely on oysters obtained by the Red Sea shore.  At his church in
+Paris were performed the 'miracles' of the Quietists in the
+seventeenth century.  When the scenes that took place became a
+scandal, the government intervened, with the result that a wag adorned
+the church door with the following:
+
+"De par le Roi, defense a Dieu
+De faire miracle en ce lieu."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. METRONYMICS
+
+"During the whole evening Mr. Jellyby sat in a corner with his head
+against the wall, as if he were subject to low spirits."
+
+(Bleak House, ch. iv.)
+
+Bardsley first drew attention to the very large number of surnames
+derived from an ancestress.  His views have been subjected to much
+ignorant criticism by writers who, taking upon themselves the task of
+defending medieval virtue, have been unwilling to accept this terrible
+picture of the moral condition of England, etc.  This anxiety is
+misplaced.  There are many reasons, besides illegitimacy, for the
+adoption of the mother's name.  In medieval times the children of a
+widow, especially posthumous children, would often assume the mother's
+name.  Widdowson itself is sufficiently common.  In the case of second
+marriages the two families might sometimes be distinguished by their
+mothers' names.  Orphans would be adopted by female relatives, and a
+medieval Mrs.  Joe Gargery would probably have impressed her own name
+rather than that of her husband on a medieval Pip.  In a village which
+counted two Johns or Williams, and few villages did not, the children
+of one might assume, or rather would be given by the public voice, the
+mother's name.  Finally, metronymics can be collected in hundreds by
+anyone who cares to work through a few early registers.
+
+
+
+FEMALE FONT-NAMES
+
+Thus, in the Lancashire Inquests 205-1307 occur plenty of people
+described as the sons of Alice, Beatrice, Christiana, Eda, Eva,
+Mariot, Matilda, Quenilda, [Footnote: An Anglo-Saxon name, Cynehild,
+whence Quennell.]  Sibilla, Ysolt.  Even if illegitimacy were the only
+reason, that would not concern the philologist.
+
+Female names undergo the same course of treatment as male names.  Mary
+gave the diminutives Marion and Mariot, whence Marriott.  It was
+popularly shortened into Mal (cf. Hal for Harry), which had the
+diminutive Mally.  From these we have Mawson and Malleson, the former
+also belonging to Maud.  Mal and Mally became Mol and Molly, hence
+Mollison.  The rimed forms Pol, Polly are later, and names in
+Pol- usually belong to Paul (Chapter IX).  The name Morris has three
+other origins (the font-name Maurice, the nickname Moorish, and the local
+marsh), but both Morris and Morrison are sometimes to be referred to
+Mary.  Similarly Margaret, popularly Mar-get, became Mag, Meg, Mog,
+whence Meggitt, Moxon, etc.  The rarity of Maggot is easily
+understood, but Poll Maggot was one of Jack Sheppard's accomplices and
+Shakespeare uses maggot-pie for magpie (Macbeth, iii, 4).  Meg was
+rimed into Peg, whence Peggs, Mog into Pog, whence Pogson, and Madge
+into Padge, whence Padgett, when this is not for Patchett (Chapter
+IX), or for the Fr. Paget, usually explained as Smallpage.  The royal
+name Matilda appears in the contracted Maud, Mould, Moule, Mott,
+Mahood (Old Fr. Maheut).  Its middle syllable Till gave Tilly, Tillson
+and the dim. Tillet, Tillot, whence Tillotson.  From Beatrice we have
+Bee, Beaton and Betts, and the northern Beattie, which are not
+connected with the great name Elizabeth.  This is in medieval rolls
+represented by its cognate Isabel, of which the shortened form was
+Bell (Chapter I), or Ib, the latter giving Ibbot, Ibbotson, and the
+rimed forms Tib-, Nib-, Bib-, Lib-.  Here also belong Ebbs and Epps
+rather than to the Anglo-Sax. Ebba (Chapter VII).
+
+Many names which would now sound somewhat ambitious were common among
+the medieval peasantry and are still found in the outlying parts of
+England, especially Devon and Cornwall.  Among the characters in Mr.
+Eden Phillpotts's Widecombe Fair are two sisters named Sibley and
+Petronell.  From Sibilla, now Sibyl, come most names in Sib-, though
+this was used also as a dim. of Sebastian (see also Chapter VII),
+while Petronilla, has given Parnell, Purnell.  As a female name it
+suffered the eclipse to which certain names are accidentally subject,
+and became equivalent to wench.  References to a "prattling Parnel"
+are common in old writers, and the same fate overtook it in French--
+
+"Taisez-vous, peronnelle" (Tartufe, i.  1).
+
+Mention has already been made of the survival of Guinevere (Chapter
+VIII).  From Cassandra we have Cash, Cass, Case, and Casson, from
+Idonia, Ide, Iddins, Iddison; these were no doubt confused with the
+derivatives of Ida.  William filius Idae is in the Fine Rolls of
+John's reign, and John Idonyesone occurs there, temp. Edward I.  Pim,
+as a female font-name, may be from Euphemia, and Siddons appears to
+belong to Sidonia, while the pretty name Avice appears as Avis and
+Haweis.  From Lettice, Lat. laetitia, joy, we have Letts, Lettson,
+while the corresponding Joyce, Lat. jocosa, merry, has become confused
+with Fr. Josse (Chapter I).  Anstey, Antis, is from Anastasia,
+Precious from Preciosa, and Royce from Rohesia.
+
+
+
+DOUBTFUL CASES
+
+It is often difficult to separate patronymics from metronymics.  We
+have already seen (Chapter VI) that names in Ed- may be from Eda or
+from Edward, while names in Gil- must be shared between Julian,
+Juliana, Guillaume, Gilbert, and Giles.  There are many other cases
+like Julian and Juliana, e.g. Custance is for Constance, but Cust may
+also represent the masculine Constant, while among the derivatives of
+Philip we must not forget the warlike Philippa.  Or, to take pairs
+which are unrelated, Kitson may be from Christopher or from Catherine,
+and Mattison from Matthew or from Martha, which became Matty and
+Patty, the derivatives of the latter coalescing with those of Patrick
+(Chapter VI).  It is obvious that the derivatives of Alice would be
+confused with those of Allen, while names in El- may represent Elias
+or Eleanor.  Also names in Al- and El- are sometimes themselves
+confused, e.g. the Anglo-Saxon AElfgod appears both as Allgood and
+Elgood.  More Nelsons are derived from Neil, i.e. Nigel, than from
+Nell, the rimed dim. of Ellen.  Emmett is a dim. of Emma, but Empson
+may be a shortened Emerson from Emery (Chapter VIII).  The rather
+commonplace Tibbles stands for both Theobald and Isabella, and the
+same is true of all names in Tib- and some in Teb-.  Lastly, the
+coalescence of John, the commonest English font-name, with Joan, the
+earlier form of Jane, was inevitable, while the French forms Jean and
+Jeanne would be undistinguishable in their derivatives.  These names
+between them have given an immense number of surnames, the masculine
+or feminine interpretation of which must be left to the reader's
+imagination.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. LOCAL SURNAMES
+
+"Now as men have always first given names unto places, so hath it
+afterwards grown usuall that men have taken their names from places"
+
+(VERSTEGAN, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence).
+
+There is an idea cherished by some people that the possession of a
+surname which is that of a village or other locality points to
+ancestral ownership of that region.  This is a delusion.  In the case
+of quite small features of the landscape, e.g. Bridge, Hill, the name
+was given from place of residence.  But in the case of counties, towns
+and villages, the name was usually acquired when the locality was
+left.  Thus John Tiler leaving Acton, perhaps for Acton's good, would
+be known in his new surroundings as John Acton.  A moment's reflection
+will show that this must be so.  Scott is an English name, the
+aristocratic Scotts beyond the border representing a Norman family
+Escot, originally of Scottish origin.  English, early spelt Inglis, is
+a Scottish name.  The names Cornish and Cornwallis first became common
+in Devonshire, as Devenish did outside that county.  French and
+Francis, Old Fr. le franceis, are English names, just as  Langlois
+(l'Anglais) is common in France.  For the same reason Cutler is a rare
+name in Sheffield, where all are cutlers.  By exception the name
+Curnow, which is Cornish for a Cornishman, is fairly common in its
+native county, but it was perhaps applied especially to those
+inhabitants who could only speak the old Cornish language.
+
+
+
+CLASSES OF LOCAL NAMES
+
+The local name may range in origin from a country to a plant (France,
+Darbishire, Lankester, Ashby, Street, House, Pound, Plumptre, Daisy),
+and, mathematically stated, the size of the locality will vary in
+direct proportion to the distance from which the immigrant has come.
+Terentius Afer was named from a continent.  I cannot find a parallel
+in England, but names such as the nouns France, Ireland, Pettingell
+(Portugal), or the adjectives Dench, Mid. Eng. dense, Danish, Norman,
+Welsh, (Walsh, Wallis, etc.), Allman (Allemand), often perverted to
+Almond, were considered a sufficient mark of identification for men
+who came from foreign parts.  But the untravelled inhabitant, if
+distinguished by a local name, would often receive it from some very
+minute feature of the landscape, e.g. Solomon Daisy may have been
+descended from a Robert Dayeseye, who lived in Hunts in 1273.  It is
+not very easy to see how such very trifling surnames as this last came
+into existence, but its exiguity is surpassed in the case of a
+prominent French airman who bears the appropriately buoyant name of
+Brindejonc, perhaps from some ancestor who habitually chewed a straw.
+
+An immense number of our countrymen are simply named from the points
+of the compass, slightly disguised in Norris, Anglo-Fr. le noreis,
+[Footnote: The corresponding le surreis is now represented by
+Surridge.] Sotheran, the southron, and Sterling, for Easterling, a
+name given to the Hanse merchants.  Westray was formerly le westreis.
+A German was to our ancestors, as he still is to sailors, a Dutchman,
+whence our name Douch, Ger. deutsch, Old High Ger. tiutisc, which,
+through Old French tieis, has given Tyas.  [Footnote: Tyars, or Tyers,
+which Bardsley puts with this, seems to be rather Fr. Thiers, Lat.
+tertius.]
+
+But not every local name is to be taken at its face value.  Holland is
+usually from one of the Lancashire Hollands, and England may be for
+Mid. Eng. ing-land, the land of Ing (cf. Ingulf, Ingold, etc.), a
+personal name which is the first element in many place-names, or from
+ing, a meadow by a stream.  Holyland is not Palestine, but the
+holly-land.  Hampshire is often for Hallamshire, a district in
+Yorkshire.  Dane is a variant of Mid. Eng. dene, a valley, the
+inhabitant of Denmark having given us Dench (Chapter XI) and Dennis
+(le daneis).  Visitors to Margate will remember the valley called the
+Dane, which stretches from the harbour to St. Peters.  Saxon is not
+racial, but a perversion of sexton (Chapter XVII).  Mr. Birdofredum
+Sawin, commenting on the methods employed in carrying out the great
+mission of the Anglo-Saxon race, remarks that--
+
+"Saxons would be handy
+To du the buryin' down here upon the Rio Grandy"
+
+(Lowell, Biglow Papers).
+
+The name Cockayne was perhaps first given derisively to a sybarite--
+
+"Paris est pour le riche un pays de Cocagne" (Boileau),
+
+but it may be an imitative form of Coken in Durham.
+
+Names such as Morris, i.e. Moorish, or Sarson, i.e. Saracen (but also
+for Sara-son), are rather nicknames, due to complexion or to an
+ancestor who was mine host of the Saracen's Head.  Moor is sometimes
+of similar origin.  Russ, like Rush, is one of the many forms of Fr.
+roux, red-complexioned (Chapter II).  Pole is for Pool, the native of
+Poland being called Polack--
+
+"He smote the sledded Polack on the ice" (Hamlet, I. i).
+
+But the name Pollock is local (Renfrewshire).
+
+
+
+COUNTIES AND TOWNS
+
+As a rule it will be found that, while most of our counties have given
+family names, sometimes corrupted, e.g. Lankshear, Willsher, Cant,
+Chant, for Kent, with which we may compare Anguish for Angus, the
+larger towns are rather poorly represented, the movement having always
+been from country to town, and the smaller spot serving for more exact
+description.  An exception is Bristow (Bristol), Mid. Eng. brig-stow,
+the place on the bridge, the great commercial city of the west from
+which so many medieval seamen hailed; but the name is sometimes from
+Burstow (Surrey), and there were possibly smaller places called by so
+natural a name, just as the name Bradford, i.e. broad ford, may come
+from a great many other places than the Yorkshire wool town.  Rossiter
+is generally for Rochester, but also for Wroxeter (Salop); Coggeshall
+is well disguised as Coxall, Barnstaple as Bastable, Maidstone as
+Mayston, Stockport as Stopford.  On the other hand, there is not a
+village of any antiquity but has, or once had, a representative among
+surnames.
+
+
+
+NAMES PRECEDED BY DE
+
+The provinces and towns of France and Flanders have given us many
+common surnames.  From names of provinces we have Burgoyne and Burgin,
+Champain and Champneys (Chapter II), Gascoyne and Gaskin, Mayne,
+Mansell, Old Fr. Mancel (manceau), an inhabitant of Maine or of its
+capital Le Mans, Brett and Britton, Fr. le Bret and le Breton,
+Pickard, Power, sometimes from Old Fr. Pohier, a Picard, Peto,
+formerly Peitow, from Poitou, Poidevin and Puddifin, for
+
+Poitevin, Loring, Old Fr. le Lohereng, the man from Lorraine,
+assimilated to Fleming, Hammy, an old name for Hainault, Brabazon, le
+Brabancon, and Brebner, formerly le Brabaner, Angwin, for Angevin,
+Flinders, a perversion of Flanders, Barry, which is sometimes for
+Berri, and others which can be identified by everybody.
+
+Among towns we have Allenson, Alencon, Amyas, Amiens, Ainger, Angers,
+Aris, Arras, Bevis, Beauvais, Bullen, Boulogne, Bloss, Blois, Bursell,
+Brussels, Callis and Challis, Calais, Challen, from one of the French
+towns called Chalon or Chalons, Chaworth, Cahors, Druce, Dreux, Gaunt,
+Gand (Ghent), Luck, Luick (Liege), Loving, Louvain, Malins, Malines
+(Mechlin), Raynes, Rennes and Rheims, Roan, Rouen, Sessions, Soissons,
+Stamp, Old Fr. Estampes (ttampes), Turney, Tournay, etc.  The name de
+Verdun is common enough in old records for us to connect with it both
+the fascinating Dolly and the illustrious Harry. [Footnote added by
+scanner: Some modern readers might not realise that Weekley was
+referring to Harry Vardon, a famous golfer of the late nineteenth and
+early twentieth century.  Dolly Varden was a character in Dickens'
+"Barnaby Rudge", a pretty girl in flowered hats and skirts.  Her name
+was borrowed for various clothing styles, breeds of flowers, shows,
+theatres and even angling fishes among other things.  There seem to
+have been several references to "the fascinating Dolly Varden", though
+the expression does not occur in the book.]  To the above may be
+added, among German towns, Cullen, Cologne, and Lubbock, Luebeck, and,
+from Italy, Janes, Genes (Genoa), Janaway or Janways, i.e. Genoese,
+and Lombard or Lombard.  Familiar names of foreign towns were often
+anglicized.  Thus we find Hamburg called Hamborough, Bruges Bridges,
+and Tours Towers.
+
+To the town of Angers we sometimes owe, besides Ainger, the forbidding
+names Anger and Danger.  In many local names of foreign origin the
+preposition de has been incorporated, e.g. Dalmain, d'Allemagne,
+sometimes corrupted into Dallman and Dollman, though these are also
+for Doleman, from the East Anglian dole, a boundary, Dallison, d'Alenc
+on, Danvers, d'Anvers, Antwerp, Devereux, d'Evreux, Daubeney,  Dabney,
+d'Aubigny, Disney, d'Isigny, etc.  Doyle is a later form of Doyley, or
+Dolley, for d'Ouilli, and Darcy and Durfey were once d'Arcy and
+d'Urfe.  Dew is sometimes for de Eu.  Sir John de Grey, justice of
+Chester, had in 1246 two Alice in Wonderland clerks named Henry de Eu
+and William de Ho.  A familiar example, which has been much disputed,
+is the Cambridgeshire name Death, which some of its possessors prefer
+to write D'Aeth or De Ath.  Bardsley rejects this, without, I think,
+sufficient reason.  It is true that it occurs as de Dethe in the
+Hundred Rolls, but this is not a serious argument, for we find also de
+Daubeney (Chapter XI), the original de having already been absorbed at
+the time the Rolls were compiled.  This retention of the de is also
+common in names derived from spots which have not become recognized
+place-names; see Chapter XIV.
+
+But to derive a name of obviously native origin from a place in France
+is a snobbish, if harmless, delusion.  There are quite enough moor
+leys in England without explaining Morley by Morlaix.  To connect the
+Mid. English nickname Longfellow with Longueville, or the patronymic
+Hansom (Chapter III) with Anceaumville, betrays the same belief in
+phonetic epilepsy that inspires the derivation of Barber from the
+chapelry of Sainte-Barbe.  The fact that there are at least three
+places, in England called Carrington has not prevented one writer from
+seeking the origin of that name in the appropriate locality of
+Charenton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. SPOT NAMES
+
+"In ford, in ham, in ley and tun
+The most of English surnames run"
+
+(VERSTEGAN).
+
+Verstegan's couplet, even if it be not strictly true, makes a very
+good text for a discourse on our local names.  The ham, or home, and
+the ton, or town, originally an enclosure (cf. Ger. Zaun, hedge),
+were, at any rate in a great part of England, the regular nucleus of
+the village, which in some cases has become the great town and in
+others has decayed away and disappeared from the map.  In an age when
+wool was our great export, flock keeping was naturally a most
+important calling, and the ley, or meadow land, would be quickly taken
+up and associated with human activity.  When bridges were scarce,
+fords were important, and it is easy to see how the inn, the smithy,
+the cartwright's booth, etc., would naturally plant themselves at such
+a spot and form the commencement of a hamlet.
+
+
+
+ELEMENTS OF PLACE-NAMES
+
+Each of these four words exists by itself as a specific place-name and
+also as a surname.  In fact Lee and Ford are among our commonest local
+surnames.  In the same way the local origin of such names as Clay and
+Chalk may be specific as well as general.  But I do not propose to
+deal here with the vast subject of our English village names, but only
+with the essential elements of which they are composed, elements which
+were often used for surnominal purposes long before the spot itself
+had developed into a village.  [Footnote: A good general account of
+our village names will be found in the Appendix to Isaac Taylor's
+Names and their Histories.  It is reprinted as chapter xi of the same
+author's Words and Places (Everyman Library).  See also Johnston's
+Place-names of England and Wales, a glossary of selected names with a
+comprehensive introduction.  There are many modern books on the
+village names of various counties, e.g. Bedfordshire, Berkshire,
+Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Suffolk (Skeat),
+Oxfordshire (Alexander), Lancashire (Wyld and Hirst), West Riding of
+Yorkshire (Moorman), Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire
+(Duignan), Nottinghamshire (Mutschmann), Gloucestershire (Baddeley),
+Herefordshire (Bannister), Wiltshire (Elsblom), S.W. Yorkshire
+(Goodall), Sussex (Roberts), Lancashire (Sephton), Derbyshire
+(Walker), Northumberland and Durham (Mawer).]  Thus the name Oakley
+must generally have been borne by a man who lived on meadow land which
+was surrounded or dotted with oak-trees.  But I should be shy of
+explaining a given village called Oakley in the same way, because the
+student of place-names might be able to show from early records that
+the place was originally an ey, or island, and that the first syllable
+is the disguised name of a medieval churl.  These four simple etymons
+themselves may also become perverted.  Thus -ham is sometimes confused
+with -holm (Chapter XII), -ley, as I have just suggested, may in some
+cases contain -ey, -ton occasionally interchanges with -don and
+-stone, and -lord with the French -fort (Chapter XIV).
+
+In this chapter will be found a summary of the various words applied
+by our ancestors to the natural features of the land they lived on.
+To avoid too lengthy a catalogue, I have classified them under the
+three headings--
+
+(1) Hill and Dale,
+
+(2) Plain and Woodland,
+
+(3) Water and Waterside,
+
+reserving for the next chapter the names due to man's interference
+with the scenery, e.g. roads, buildings, enclosures, etc.
+
+They are mostly Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian, the Celtic name remaining
+as the appellation of the individual hill, stream, etc. (Helvellyn,
+Avon, etc.).  The simple word has in almost all cases given a fairly
+common surname, but compounds are of course numerous, the first
+element being descriptive of the second, e.g. Bradley, broad lea,
+Radley and Ridley, red lea, Brockley, brook lea or badger lea (Chapter
+XXIII), Beverley, beaver lea, Cleverley, clover lea, Hawley, hedge
+lea, Rawnsley, raven's lea, and so ad infinitum.  In the oldest
+records spot names are generally preceded by the preposition at,
+whence such names as Attewell, Atwood, but other prepositions occur,
+as in Bythesea, Underwood and the hybrid Suttees, on Tees.  Cf. such
+French names as Doutrepont, from beyond the bridge.
+
+One curious phenomenon, of which I can offer no explanation, is that
+while many spot names occur indifferently with or without -s, e.g.
+Bridge, Bridges; Brook, Brooks; Platt, Plaits, in others we find a
+regular preference either for the singular or plural form.  [Footnote:
+In some cases no doubt a plural, in others a kind of genitive due to
+the influence of personal names, such as Wills, Perkins, etc.]
+Compare the following couples:
+
+Field    Meadows
+
+Lake     Rivers
+
+Pool     Mears (metes)
+
+Spying   Wells
+
+House    Coates (P, 133)
+
+Marsh    Myers   (mires)
+
+[Footnote: Myers is very often a Jewish name, from the very common
+Ger. Meyer, for which see Chapter IV.]
+
+to which many more might be added.  So we find regularly Nokes but
+Nash (Chapter III), Beech but Willows.  The general tendency is
+certainly towards the -s forms in the case of monosyllables, e.g.
+Banks, Foulds, Hayes, Stubbs, Thwaites, etc., but we naturally find
+the singular in compounds, e.g. Windebank (winding), Nettlefold,
+Roundhay, etc.
+
+There is also a further problem offered by names in -er.  We know that
+a Waller was a mason or wall-builder, but was a Bridger really a
+Pontifex, [Footnote: An example of a Latinized name.  Cf. Sutor,
+Faber, and the barbarous Sartorius, for sartor, a tailor.  Pontifex
+may also be the latinized form of Pope or Bishop.  It is not known why
+this title, bridge-builder, was given to high-priests.]  did he merely
+live near the bridge, or was he the same as a Bridgman, and what was
+the latter?  Did Sam Weller's ancestor sink wells, possess a well, or
+live near someone else's well?  Probably all explanations may be
+correct, for the suffix may have differed in meaning according to
+locality, but I fancy that in most cases proximity alone is implied.
+The same applies to many cases of names in -man, such as Hillman,
+Dickman (dyke), Parkman.
+
+Many of the words in the following paragraphs are obsolete or survive
+only in local usage.  Some of them also vary considerably in meaning,
+according to the region in which they are found.  I have included many
+which, in their simple form, seem too obvious to need explanation,
+because the compounds are not always equally clear.
+
+
+
+HILL AND DALE
+
+We have a fair number of Celtic words connected with natural scenery,
+but they do not as a rule form compounds, and as surnames are usually
+found in their simple form.  Such are Cairn, a stony hill, Crag,
+Craig, and the related Carrick and Creagh, Glen or Glynn, and Lynn, a
+cascade.  Two words, however, of Celtic origin, don, or down, a hill,
+and combe, a hollow in the hills, were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons and
+enter into many compounds.  Thus we find Kingdon, whence the imitative
+Kingdom, Brandon, from the name Brand (Chapter VII), Ashdown, etc.
+The simple Donne or Dunne is sometimes the Anglo-Saxon name Dunna,
+whence Dunning, or a colour nickname, while Down and Downing may
+represent the Anglo-Sax. Duna and Duning (Chapter VII).  From Combe,
+used especially in the west of England, we have Compton, and such
+compounds as Acomb, at combe, Addiscombe, Battiscombe, etc.  But
+Newcomb is for Newcome (Chapter II).  See also Slocomb (Chapter XXI).
+
+
+
+HILLS
+
+The simple Hill and Dale are among our common surnames.  Hill also
+appears as Hull and is easily disguised in compounds, e.g. Brummel for
+broom-hill, Tootell and Tuttle for Toothill, a name found in many
+localities and meaning a hill on which a watch was kept.  It is
+connected with the verb to tout, originally to look out
+
+"David dwellide in the tote hil" (Wyc, 2 Sam. v. 9).
+
+We have Dale and its cognate Dell in Swindell (swine), Tindall (Tyne),
+Twaddell, Tweddell (Tweed), etc.--
+
+"Mr. H. T. Twaddle announced the change of his name to Tweeddale in
+the Times, January 4, 1890" (Bardsley).
+
+Other names for a hill are Fell (Scand.), found in the lake country,
+whence Grenfell; and Hough or How (Scand.), as in the north country
+names Greenhow, Birchenough.
+
+This is often reduced to -o, as in Clitheroe, Shafto, and is easily
+confused with scough, a wood (Scand.), as in Briscoe (birch), Ayscough
+(ash).
+
+In the north hills were also called Law and Low, with such compounds
+as Bradlaugh, Whitelaw, and Harlow.  To these must be added Barrow,
+often confused with the related borough (Chapter XIII).  Both belong
+to the Anglo-Sax. beorgan, to protect, cover.  The name Leatherbarrow
+means the hill, perhaps the burial mound, of Leather, Anglo-Sax.
+Hlothere, cognate with Lothair and Luther.
+
+A hill-top was Cope or Copp.  Chaucer uses it of the tip of the
+Miller's nose
+
+"Upon the cope right of his nose he hade
+A werte, and thereon stood a toft of herys."
+
+(A. 554.)
+
+Another name for a hill-top appears in Peak, Pike, Peck, or Pick, but
+the many compounds in Pick-, e.g. Pickbourne, Pickford, Pickwick,
+etc., suggest a personal name Pick of which we have the dim. in
+Pickett (cf. Fr. Picot) and the softened Piggot.  Peak may be in some
+cases from the Derbyshire Peak, which has, however, no connection with
+the common noun peak.  A mere hillock or knoll has given the names
+Knapp, Knollys or Knowles, Knock, and Knott.  But Knapp may also be
+for Mid. Eng. nape, cognate with knave and with Low Ger. Knappe,
+squire--
+
+"Wer wagt es, Rittersmann oder Knapp'.
+Zu tauchen in diesen Schlund?"
+
+(Schiller, Der Taucher, 1.  I.)
+
+Redknap, the name of a Richmond boat-builder, is probably a nickname,
+like Redhead.  A Knapper may have lived on a "knap," or may have been
+one of the Suffolk flint-knappers, who still prepare gun-flints for
+weapons to be retailed to the heathen.
+
+Knock and Knocker are both Kentish names, and there is a reef off
+Margate known as the Kentish Knock.  We have the plural Knox (cf. Bax,
+Settlements and Enclosures, Chapter XIII).  Knott is sometimes for
+Cnut, or Canute, which generally becomes Nutt.  Both have got mixed
+with the nickname Nott.
+
+A green knoll was also called Toft (Scand.), whence Langtoft, and the
+name was used later for a homestead.  From Cliff we have Clift,
+[Footnote: This may also be from Mid. Eng, clift, a cleft.] with
+excrescent -t, and the cognates Cleeve and Clive.  Compounds of
+Cliff are Radcliffe (red), Sutcliffe (south), Wyclif (white).  The
+c- sometimes disappears in compounds, e.g. Cunliffe, earlier Cunde-clive,
+and Topliff; but Ayliffe is for AElfgifu or AEthelgifu and Goodliffe
+from Godleof (cf. Ger. Gottlieb).  The older form of Stone appears in
+Staines, Stanhope, Stanton, etc.  Wheatstone is either for "white
+stone" or for the local Whetstone (Middlesex).  In Balderstone,
+Johnston, Edmondstone, Livingstone, the suffix is -ton, though the
+frequence of Johnston points to corruption from Johnson, just as in
+Nottingham we have the converse case of Beeson from the local Beeston.
+In Hailstone the first element may be Mid. Eng, half, holy.  Another
+Mid. English name for a stone appears in Hone, now used only of a
+whetstone.
+
+A hollow or valley in the hillside was called in the north Clough,
+also spelt Clow, Cleugh (Clim o' the Cleugh), and Clew.  The compound
+Fairclough is found corrupted into Faircloth.  Another obscure
+northern name for a glen was Hope, whence Allsop, Blenkinsop, the
+first element in each being perhaps the name of the first settler, and
+Burnup, Hartopp, (hart), Harrap (hare), Heslop (hazel).
+
+Gill (Scand.), a ravine, has given Fothergill, Pickersgill, and
+Gaskell, from Gaisgill (Westmorland).  These, like most of our names
+connected with mountain scenery, are naturally found almost
+exclusively in the north.  Other surnames which belong more or less to
+the hill country are Hole, found also as Holl, Hoole, and Hoyle, but
+perhaps meaning merely a depression in the land, Ridge, and its
+northern form Rigg, with their compounds Doddridge, Langridge,
+Brownrigg, Hazelrigg, etc.  Ridge, Rigg, also appear as Rudge, Rugg.
+From Mid. Eng. raike, a path, a sheep-track (Scand.), we get Raikes
+and perhaps Greatorex, found earlier as Greatrakes, the name of a
+famous faith-healer of the seventeenth century.
+
+
+
+WOODLAND AND PLAIN
+
+The compounds of Wood itself are very numerous, e.g. Braidwood,
+Harwood, Norwood, Sherrard and Sherratt (Sherwood).  But, in
+considering the frequency of the simple Wood, it must be remembered
+that we find people described as le wode, i.e. mad (cf. Ger. Wut,
+frenzy), and that mad and madman are found as medieval names
+
+"Thou told'st me they were stolen unto this wood;
+ And here am I, and wode within this wood,
+ Because I cannot meet my Hermia."
+
+(Midsummer Night's Dream, ii. 1.)
+
+As a suffix -wood is sometimes a corruption of -ward, e.g. Haywood is
+occasionally for Hayward, and Allwood, Elwood are for Aylward,
+Anglo-Sax. AEthelweard.  Another name for a wood was Holt, cognate
+with Ger. Holz--
+
+"But right so as thise holtes and thise hayis,
+ That han in winter dede ben and dreye,
+ Revesten hem in grene whan that May is."
+
+(Troilus and Criseyde, iii.  351.)
+
+Hurst or Hirst means a wooded hill (cf. Ger. Horst), and Shaw was once
+almost as common a word as wood itself--
+
+"Wher rydestow under this grene-wode shawe?"
+
+(D, 1386.)
+
+Hurst belongs especially to the south and west, though Hirst is very
+common in Yorkshire; Shaw is found in the north and Holt in the east
+and south.  We have compounds of Shaw in Bradshaw, Crashaw (crow),
+Hearnshaw (heron), Earnshaw (Mid.  Eng, earn, eagle), Renshaw (raven)
+[Footnote: It is obvious that this may also be for raven's haw
+(Chapter XIII).  Raven was a common personal name and is the first
+element in Ramsbottom (Chapter XII), Ramsden.], etc., of Hurst in
+Buckhurst (beech), Brockhurst (badger), and of Holt in Oakshott.
+
+We have earlier forms of Grove in Greaves--
+
+"And with his stremes dryeth in the greves
+ The silver dropes, hangynge on the leves"
+
+(A. 1495)--
+
+and Graves, the latter being thus no more funereal than Tombs, from
+Thomas (cf. Timbs from Timothy).  But Greaves and Graves may also be
+variants of the official Grieves (Chapter XIX), or may come from Mid.
+Eng. graefe, a trench, quarry.  Compounds are Hargreave (hare),
+Redgrave, Stangrave, the two latter probably referring to an
+excavation.  From Mid. Eng, strope, a small wood, appear to come
+Strode and Stroud, compound Bulstrode, while Struthers is the cognate
+strother, marsh, still in dialect use.  Weald and wold, the cognates
+of Ger. Wald, were applied rather to wild country in general than to
+land covered with trees.  They are probably connected with wild.
+
+Similarly the Late Lat. foresta, whence our forest, means only what is
+outside, Lat, foris, the town jurisdiction.  From the Mid. Eng. waeld
+we have the names Weld and Weale, the latter with the not uncommon
+loss of final -d.  Scroggs (Scand.) and Scrubbs suggest their meaning
+of brushwood.  Scroggins, from its form, is a patronymic, and probably
+represents Scoggins with intrusive _r_.  This is perhaps from Scogin,
+a name borne by a poet who was contemporary with Chaucer and by a
+court-fool of the fifteenth century--
+
+"The same Sir John, the very same.  I saw him break Skogan's head at
+the court gate, when he was a crack, not thus high." (2 Henry IV.,
+iii.  2.)
+
+With Scrubb of cloudy ammonia fame we may compare Wormwood Scrubbs.
+Shrubb is the same word, and Shropshire is for Anglo-Sax. scrob-scire.
+
+
+
+FOREST CLEARINGS
+
+The two northern names for a clearing in the wood were Royd and
+Thwaite (Scand.).  The former is cognate with the second part of
+Baireut and Wernigerode, and with the Ruetli, the small plateau on
+which the Swiss patriots took their famous oath.  It was so called--
+
+"Weil dort die Waldung ausgerodet ward."
+
+(SCHILLER, Wilhelm Tell.)
+
+Among its compounds are Ackroyd (oak), Grindrod (green), Murgatroyd
+(Margaret), Learoyd (lea), Ormerod, etc.  We also find the name Rodd,
+which may belong here or to Rudd (Chapter VII), and both these names
+may also be for Rood, equivalent to Cross or Crouch (Chapter II), as
+in Holyrood.  Ridding is also related to Royd.  Hacking may be a dim.
+of Hack (Chapter VII), but we find also de le hacking, which suggests
+a forest clearing.
+
+Thwaite,  from Anglo-Sax. [thorn]witan, to cut, is found chiefly in
+Cumberland and the adjacent region in such compounds as Braithwaite
+(broad), Hebbelthwaite, Postlethwaite, Satterthwaite.  The second of
+these is sometimes corrupted into Ablewhite as Cowperthwaite is into
+Copperwheat, for "this suffix has ever been too big a mouthful in the
+south" (Bardsley).  A glade or valley in the wood was called a Dean,
+Dene, Denne, cognate with den.  The compounds are numerous, e.g.
+Borden (boar), Dibden (deep), Sugden (Mid.  Eng. suge, sow), Hazeldean
+or Heseltine.  From the fact that swine were pastured in these glades
+the names Denman and Denyer have been explained as equivalent to
+swineherd.  As a suffix -den is often confused with -don (Chapter
+XII).  At the foot of Horsenden Hill, near Harrow, two boards announce
+Horsendon Farm and Horsenden Golf-links.  An opening in the wood was
+also called Slade--
+
+"And when he came to Barnesdale,
+ Great heavinesse there hee hadd;
+ He found two of his fellowes
+ Were slain both in a Slade."
+
+(Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne.)
+
+The maps still show Pond Slade in Richmond Park, The compound Hertslet
+may be for hart-Slade.
+
+Acre, a field, cognate with, but not derived from, Lat. ager, occurs
+in Goodacre, Hardacre, Linacre, Whittaker, etc., and Field itself
+gives numerous compounds, including Butterfield (bittern, Chapter
+XXIII), Schofield (school), Streatfeild (street), Whitfield.
+
+Pasture-land is represented above all by Lea, for which see Chapter
+III.  It is cognate with Hohenlohe and Waterloo, while Mead and Medd
+are cognate with Zermatt (at the mead).  Brinsmead thus means the same
+as Brinsley.
+
+
+
+MARSHES
+
+Marshy land has given the names Carr or Kerr (Scand.) and Marsh,
+originally an adjective, merisc, from mer, mere.  The doublet Marris
+has usually become Morris.  The compounds Tidmarsh and Titchmarsh
+contain the Anglo-Saxon names Tidda and Ticca.  Moor also originally
+had the meaning morass (e.g. in Sedgemoor), as Ger. Moor still has, so
+that Fenimore is pleonastic.  The northern form is Muir, as in
+Muirhead.  Moss was similarly used in the north; cf. moss-trooper and
+Solway Moss, but the surname Moss is generally for Moses (Chapter IX).
+From slough we get the names Slow, Slowley, and Sloman (also perhaps a
+nickname), with which we may compare Moorman and Mossman.  This seems
+to be also the most usual meaning of Slack or Slagg, also used of a
+gap in the hills
+
+"The first horse that he rode upon,
+For he was raven black,
+He bore him far, and very far,
+But failed in a slack."
+
+(Ballad of Lady Maisry.)
+
+Tye means common land.  Platt is a piece, or plot, of level country--
+
+"Oft on a plat of rising ground
+ I hear the far-off curfew sound"
+
+(Penseroso, 1.  73);
+
+and shape is expressed by Gore, a triangular piece of land (cf.
+Kensington Gore), of which the older form Gare, Geare, also survives.
+In Lowndes we have laund or lound--
+
+"And to the laund he rideth hym ful right,
+ For thider was the hart wont have his flight
+
+(A. 1691)--
+
+a piece of heath land, the origin of the modern word lawn.  In Lund
+and Lunn it has become confused with the Old Norse lundr, a sacred
+grove.
+
+Laund itself is of French origin--
+
+"Lande, a land, or laund; a wild, untilled, shrubbie, or bushie
+plaine"
+
+(Cotgrave).
+
+Its relation to land is uncertain, and it is not possible to
+distinguish them in such compounds as Acland (Chapter XII), Buckland,
+Cleveland, etc.  The name Lander or Launder is unconnected with these
+(see p.186).  Flack is Mid. Eng. flagge, turf.  Snape is a dialect
+word for boggy ground, and Wong means a meadow.
+
+A rather uncouth-looking set of names, which occur chiefly on the
+border of Cheshire and Lancashire, are compounded from bottom or
+botham, a wide shallow valley suited for agriculture.  Hotspur,
+dissatisfied with his fellow-conspirators' map-drawing, expresses his
+intention of damming the Trent so that
+
+"It shall not wind with such a deep indent
+ To rob me of so rich a bottom here."
+
+(1 Henry IV, iii.  1.)
+
+Familiar compounds are Higginbottom, Rowbotham, Sidebottom.  The first
+element of Shufflebotham is, in the Lancashire Assize Rolls
+(1176-1285), spelt Schyppewalle- and Schyppewelle-, where schyppe is
+for sheep, still so pronounced in dialect.  Tarbottom, earlier
+Tarbutton, is corrupted from Tarbolton (Ayrshire).
+
+
+
+WATER AND WATERSIDE
+
+RIVERS
+
+Very few surnames are taken, in any language, from the names of
+rivers.  This is quite natural, for just as the man who lived on a
+hill became known as Hill, Peake, etc., and not as Skiddaw or Wrekin,
+so the man who lived by the waterside would be known as Bywater,
+Rivers, etc.  No Londoner talks of going on the Thames, and the
+country-dweller also usually refers to his local stream as the river
+or the water, and not by its geographical name.  Another reason for
+the absence of such surnames is probably to be found in the fact that
+our river (and mountain) names are almost exclusively Celtic, and had
+no connotation for the English population.  We have many apparent
+river names, but most of them are susceptible of another explanation.
+Dee may be for Day as Deakin is for Dakin, i.e. David, Derwent looks
+like Darwin (Chapter VII) or the local Darwen with excrescent -t
+(Chapter III), Humber is Humbert, a French name corresponding to the
+Anglo-Sax, Hunbeorht, Medway may be merely "mid-way," and Trent is a
+place in Somerset.  This view as to river surnames is supported by the
+fact that we do not appear to have a single mountain surname, the
+apparent exception, Snowdon, being for Snowden (see den, Dean, Dene,
+Denne).  [Footnote: But see my Surnames, Chapter XVI.]
+
+Among names for streams we have Beck, [Footnote: The simple Beck is
+generally a German name of modern introduction (see pecch).]  cognate
+with Ger. Bach; Bourne, [Footnote: Distinct from bourne, a boundary,
+Fr. borne.] or Burn, cognate with Ger. Brunnen; Brook, related to
+break; Crick, a creek; Fleet, a creek, cognate with Flood; and Syke, a
+trench or rill.  In Beckett and Brockett the suffix is head (Chapter
+XIII).  Troutbeck, Birkbeck explain themselves.  In Colbeck we have
+cold, and Holbrook contains hollow, but in some names -brook has been
+substituted for -borough, -burgh.  We find Brook latinized as Torrens.
+Aborn is for atte bourne, and there are probably many places called
+Blackburn and Otterburn.
+
+Firth, an estuary, cognate with fjord, often becomes Frith, but this
+surname usually comes from frith, a park or game preserve (Chapter
+XIII).
+
+Another word for a creek, wick or wick (Scand.), cannot be
+distinguished from wick, a settlement.  Pond, a doublet of Pound
+(Chapter XIII), means a piece of water enclosed by a dam, while
+natural sheets of water are Lake, or Lack, not limited originally to a
+large expanse, Mere, whence Mears and such compounds as Cranmer
+(crane), Bulmer (bull), etc., and Pool, also spelt Pull and Pole.  We
+have compounds of the latter in Poulton (Chapter I), Claypole, and
+Glasspool.
+
+In Kent a small pond is called Sole, whence Nethersole.  The bank of a
+river or lake was called Over, cognate with Ger. Ufer, whence Overend,
+Overall (see below), Overbury, Overland.  The surname Shore, for atte
+shore, may refer to the sea-shore, but the word sewer was once
+regularly so pronounced and the name was applied to large drains in
+the fen country (cf. Gott, Water, Chapter XIII).  Beach is a word of
+late appearance and doubtful origin, and as a surname is usually
+identical with Beech.
+
+Spits of land by the waterside were called Hook  (cf. Hook of Holland
+and Sandy Hook) and Hoe or Hoo, as in Plymouth Hoe, or the Hundred of
+Hoo, between the Thames and the Medway.  From Hook comes Hooker, where
+it does not mean a maker of hooks, while Homan and Hooman sometimes
+belong to the second.  Alluvial land by a stream was called halgh,
+haugh, whence sometimes Hawes.  Its dative case gives Hale and Heal.
+These often become -hall, -all, in place-names.  Compounds are
+Greenhalgh, Greenall and Featherstonehaugh, perhaps our longest
+surname.
+
+Ing, a low-lying meadow, Mid. Eng. eng, survives in Greening, Fenning,
+Wilding, and probably sometimes in England (Chapter XI).  But Inge and
+Ings, the latter the name of one of the Cato Street conspirators, also
+represent an Anglo-Saxon personal name.  Cf. Ingall and Ingle, from
+Ingwulf, or Ingold, whence Ingoldsby.
+
+
+
+ISLANDS
+
+Ey, an island, [Footnote: Isle of Sheppey, Mersea Island, etc, are
+pleonasms.]survives as the last element of many names, and is not
+always to be distinguished from hey (hay, Settlements, Chapter III)
+and ley.  Bill Nye's ancestor lived atten ey (Chapter III).  Dowdney
+or Dudeney has been explained from the Anglo-Saxon name Duda, but it
+more probably represents the very common French name Dieudonne,
+corresponding to Lat. Deodatus.  In the north a river island was
+commonly called Holm (Scand.), also pronounced Home, Hulme, and Hume,
+in compounds easily confused with -ham, e.g. Durham was once
+Dun-holmr, hill island.  The very common Holmes is probably in most
+cases a tree-name (Chapter XII).  In Chisholm the first element may
+mean pebble; cf. Chesil Beach.  The names Bent, whence Broadbent, and
+Crook probably also belong sometimes to the river, but may have arisen
+from a turn in a road or valley.  But Bent was also applied to a tract
+covered with bents, or rushes, and Crook is generally a nickname
+(Chapter XXII).  Lastly, the crossing of the unbridged stream has
+given us Ford or Forth whence Stratford, Strafford (street), Stanford,
+Stamford, Staniforth (stone), etc.  The alternative name was Wade,
+whence the compound Grimwade.  The cognate wath (Scand.) has been
+confused with with (Scand.), a wood, whence the name Wythe and the
+compound Askwith or Asquith.  Both -wath and -with have been often
+replaced by -worth and -wood.
+
+
+
+TREE NAMES
+
+In conclusion a few words must be said about tree names, so common in
+their simple form and in topographical compounds.  Here, as in the
+case of most of the etymons already mentioned in this chapter, the
+origin of the surname may be specific as well as general, i.e. the
+name Ash may come from Ash in Kent rather than from any particular
+tree, the etymology remaining the same.  Many of our surnames have
+preserved the older forms of tree names, e.g. the lime was once the
+line, hence Lines, Lynes, and earlier still the Lind, as in the
+compounds Lyndhurst, Lindley, etc.  The older form of Oak appears in
+Acland, Acton, and variants in Ogden and Braddock, broad oak.  We have
+ash in Aston, Ascham.  The holly was once the hollin, whence Hollins,
+Hollis, Hollings; cf. Hollings-head, Holinshed.  But hollin became
+colloquially holm, whence generally Holmes.  Homewood is for
+holm-wood.  The holm oak, ilex, is so called from its holly-like
+leaves.  For Birch we also find Birk, a northern form.  Beech often
+appears in compounds as Buck-; cf. buckwheat, so called because the
+grains are of the shape of beech-mast.  In Poppleton, Popplewell we
+have the dialect popple, a poplar.  Yeo sometimes represents yew,
+spelt yowe by Palsgrave.  [Footnote: The yeo of yeoman, which is
+conjectured to have meant district, cognate with Ger. Gau in Breisgau,
+Rheingau, etc., is not found by itself.]
+
+In Sallows we have a provincial name for the willow, cognate with Fr,
+saule and Lat. salix.  Rowntree is the rowan, or mountain ash, and
+Bawtry or Bawtree is a northern name for the elder.  The older forms
+of Alder and Elder, in both of which the _d_ is intrusive (Chapter
+III), appear in Allerton and Ellershaw.  Maple is sometimes Mapple and
+sycamore is corrupted into Sicklemore.
+
+Tree-names are common in all languages.  Beerbohm Tree is pleonastic,
+from Ger. Bierbaum, for Birnbaum, pear-tree.  A few years ago a
+prominent Belgian statesman bore the name Vandenpereboom, rather
+terrifying till decomposed into "van den pereboom." Its Mid. English
+equivalent appears in Pirie, originally a collection of pear-trees,
+but used by Chaucer for the single tree
+
+"And thus I lete hym sitte upon the pyrie."
+
+(E. 2217.)
+
+From trees we may descend gradually, via Thorne, Bush, Furze, Gorst
+(Chapter I), Ling, etc., until we come finally to Grace, which in some
+cases represents grass, for we find William atte grase in 1327, while
+the name Poorgrass, in Mr. Hardy's Far from the Madding Crowd, seems
+to be certified by the famous French names Malherbe and Malesherbes.
+But Savory is the French personal name Savary.
+
+The following list of trees is given by Chaucer in the Knight's tale--
+
+"The names that the trees highte,--
+ As ook, firre, birch, aspe, alder, holm, popeler,
+ Wylugh, elm, plane, assh, box, chasteyn, lynde, laurer,
+ Mapul, thorn, beck, hasel, ew, whippeltre."  (A. 2920.)
+
+They are all represented in modern directories.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. THE HAUNTS OF MAN
+
+"One fels downs firs, another of the same
+ With crossed poles a little lodge doth frame:
+ Another mounds it with dry wall about,
+ And leaves a breach for passage in and out:
+ With turfs and furze some others yet more gross
+ Their homely sties in stead of walls inclose:
+ Some, like the swallow, mud and hay doe mixe
+ And that about their silly [p.  209] cotes they fixe
+ Some heals [thatch] their roofer with fearn, or reeds, or rushes,
+ And some with hides, with oase, with boughs, and bushes,"
+
+(SYLVESTER, The Devine Weekes, )
+
+In almost every case where man has interfered with nature the
+resulting local name is naturally of Anglo-Saxon or, in some parts of
+England, of Scandinavian origin.  The Roman and French elements in our
+topographical names are scanty in number, though the former are of
+frequent occurrence.  The chief Latin contributions are -Chester,
+-cester, -caster, Lat. castrum, a fort, or plural castra, a camp;
+-street, Lat. via strata, a levelled way; -minster, Lat. monasterium;
+and -church or -kirk, Greco-Lat. kuriakon, belonging to the Lord.
+Eccles, Greco-Lat. ecclesia, probably goes back to Celtic
+Christianity.  Street was the high-road, hence Greenstreet.  Minster
+is curiously corrupted in Buckmaster for Buckminster and Kittermaster
+for Kidderminster, while in its simple form it appears as Minister
+(Chapter III).
+
+We have a few French place-names, e.g. Beamish (Chapter XIV),
+Beaumont, Richmond, Richemont, and Malpas (Cheshire), the evil pass,
+with which we may compare Maltravers.  We have the apparent opposite
+in Bompas, Bumpus, Fr. bon pas, but this was a nickname.  Of late
+there has been a tendency to introduce the French ville, e.g.
+Bournville, near Birmingham.  That part of Margate which ought to be
+called Northdown is known as Cliftonville, and the inhabitants of the
+opposite end of the town, dissatisfied with such good names as
+Westbrook and Rancorn, hanker after Westonville.  But these
+philological atrocities are fortunately too late to be perpetuated as
+surnames.
+
+I have divided the names in this chapter into those that are connected
+with
+
+(1)  Settlements and Enclosures,
+
+(2)  Highways and Byways,
+
+(3)  Watercourses,
+
+(4)  Buildings,
+
+(5)  Shop Signs.
+
+And here, as before, names which neither in their simple nor compound
+form present any difficulty are omitted.
+
+
+
+SETTLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES
+
+The words which occur most commonly in the names of the modern towns
+which have sprung from early homesteads are borough or bury,
+[Footnote: Originally the dative of borough.]  by, ham, stoke, stow,
+thorp, tun or ton, wick, and worth.  These names are all of native
+origin, except by, which indicates a Danish settlement, and wick,
+which is supposed to be a very early loan from Lat. vicus, cognate
+with Greek oikos, house.  Nearly all of them are common, in their
+simple form, both as specific place-names and as surnames.  Borough,
+cognate with Ger. Burg, castle, and related to Barrow (Chapter XII),
+has many variants, Bury, Brough, Borrow, Berry, whence Berryman, and
+Burgh, the last of which has become Burke in Ireland.
+
+In Atterbury the preposition and article have both remained, while in
+Thornber the suffix is almost unrecognizable.  By, related to byre and
+to the preposition by, is especially common in Yorkshire and
+Lincolnshire.  It is sometimes spelt bee, e.g. Ashbee for Ashby.  The
+simple Bye is not uncommon.  Ham is cognate with home.  In compounds
+it is sometimes reduced to -um, e.g. Barnum, Holtum, Warnum.  But in
+some such names the -um is the original form, representing an old
+dative plural (Chapter III).  Allum represents the usual Midland
+pronunciation of Hallam.  Cullum, generally for Culham, may also
+represent the missionary Saint Colomb.  In Newnham the adjective is
+dative, as in Ger. Neuenheim, at the new home.  In Bonham, Frankham,
+and Pridham the suffix -ham has been substituted for the French homme
+of bonhomme, franc homme, prudhomme, while Jerningham is a perversion
+of the personal name Jernegan or Gernegan, as Garnham is of Gernon,
+Old French for Beard (Chapter XXI).  Stead is cognate with Ger. Stadt,
+place, town, and with staith, as in Bickersteth(Chapter III).
+Armstead means the dwelling of the hermit, Bensted the stead of Benna
+(Chapter VII) or Bennet.
+
+Stoke is originally distinct from Stock, a stump, with which it has
+become fused in the compounds Bostock, Brigstocke.  Stow appears in
+the compound Bristol (Chapter XI) and in Plaistow, play-ground (cf.
+Playsted).  Thorp, cognate with Ger. Dorf, village, is especially
+common in the eastern counties
+
+"By twenty thorps, a little town,
+ And half a hundred bridges."
+
+(Tennyson, The Brook, 1.  5.)
+
+It has also given Thrupp and probably Thripp, whence Calthrop,
+Winthrop, Westrupp, etc.
+
+Ton, later Town, gave also the northern Toon, still used in Scotland
+with something of its original sense (Chapter XII).  Boston is
+Botolf's town, Gunston Gunolf's town.  So also Tarleton (Thurweald),
+Monkton (monk), Preston (priest).  Barton meant originally a
+barley-field, and is still used in the west of England for a paddock.
+Wick appears also as Wych, Weech.  Its compounds cannot be separated
+from those of wick, a creek (Chapter XII).  Bromage is for Bromwich,
+Greenidge for Greenwich, Prestage for Prestwich; cf. the place-name
+Swanage (Dorset), earlier Swanewic.
+
+Worth was perhaps originally applied to land by a river or to a holm
+(Chapter XII); cf. Ger. Donauwert, Nonnenwert, etc.  Harmsworth is for
+Harmondsworth; cf. Ebbsworth (Ebba), Shuttleworth (Sceotweald),
+Wadsworth (Wada).  Sometimes we find a lengthened form, e.g.
+Allworthy, from ald, old (cf. Aldworth), Langworthy.  Rickworth,
+further corrupted to Record, is the Anglo-Saxon name Ricweard.
+Littleworth may belong to this class, but may also be a nickname.
+This would make it equivalent to the imitative Little-proud, formerly
+Littleprow, from Old French and Mid. Eng. prou, worth, value.
+
+To this group may be added two more, which signify a mart, viz. Cheap
+or Chipp (cf. Chepstow, Chipping Barnet) and Staple, whence Huxtable,
+Stapleton, etc.  Liberty, that part of a city which, though outside
+the walls, shares in the city privileges, and Parish also occur as
+surnames, but the latter is usually for Paris.
+
+Many other words connected with the delimitation of property occur
+commonly in surnames.  Croft or Craft, a small field, is common in
+compounds such as Beecroft or Bearcroft (barley), Haycraft (see hay,
+below),  Oscroft(ox), Rycroft, Meadowcroft. [Footnote: I remember
+reading in some story of a socially ambitious lady who adopted this
+commonplace name instead of Gubbins.  The latter name came over, as
+Gobin, with the Conqueror, and goes back to Old Ger. Godberaht, whence
+Old Fr. Godibert.] Fold occurs usually as Foulds, but we have
+compounds such as Nettlefold, Penfold or Pinfold (Chapter XIII).  Sty,
+not originally limited to pigs, has given Hardisty, the sty of
+Heardwulf.  Frith, a park or game preserve, is probably more often the
+origin of a surname than the other frith (Chapter XII).  It is cognate
+with Ger. Friedhof, cemetery.  Chase is still used of a park and Game
+once meant rabbit-warren.  Warren is Fr. garenne.  Garth, the
+Scandinavian doublet of Yard, and cognate with Garden, has given the
+compounds Garside, Garfield, Hogarth (from a place in Westmorland),
+and Applegarth, of which Applegate is a corruption.  We have a
+compound of yard in Wynyard, Anglo-Sax. win, vine.  We have also the
+name Close and its derivative Clowser.  Gate, a barrier or opening,
+Anglo-Sax. geat, is distinct from the Scandinavian gate, a street
+(Chapter XIII), though of course confused with it in surnames.  From
+the northern form we have Yates, Yeats, and Yeatman, and the compounds
+Byatt, by gate, Hyatt, high gate.  Agate is for atte gate, and
+Lidgate, whence Lidgett, means a swing gate, shutting like a lid.
+Fladgate is for flood-gate.  Here also belongs Barr.  Hatch, the gate
+at the entrance to a chase, survives in Colney Hatch.  The apparent
+dim. Hatchett is for Hatchard (Chapter VIII); cf. Everett for Everard
+(Chapter II).  Hay, also Haig, Haigh, Haw, Hey, is cognate with Hedge.
+Like most monosyllabic local surnames, it is commonly found in the
+plural, Hayes, Hawes.  The bird nickname Hedgecock exists also as
+Haycock.  The curious-looking patronymics Townson and Orchardson are
+of course corrupt.  The former is for Tomlinson and the latter perhaps
+from Achard (Chapter VIII).
+
+Several places and families in England are named Hide or Hyde, which
+meant a certain measure of land.  The popular connection between this
+word and hide, a skin, as in the story of the first Jutish settlement,
+is a fable.  It is connected with an Anglo-Saxon word meaning
+household, which appears also in Huish, Anglo-Sax. hi-wisc.  Dike, or
+Dyke, and Moat, also Mott, both have, or had, a double meaning.  We
+still use dike, which belongs to dig and ditch, both of a trench and a
+mound, and the latter was the earlier meaning of Fr. motte, now a
+clod, In Anglo-French we find moat used of a mound fortress in a
+marsh.  Now it is applied to the surrounding water.  From dike come
+the names Dicker, Dickman, Grimsdick, etc.  Sometimes the name Dykes
+may imply residence near some historic earthwork, such as Offa's Dyke,
+just as Wall, for which Waugh was used in the north, may show
+connection with the Roman wall.  With these may be mentioned the
+French name Fosse, whence the apparently pleonastic Fosdyke and the
+name of Verdant Green's friend, Mr. Four-in-hand Fosbrooke.  Delves is
+from Mid. Eng. dell, ditch.  Jury is for Jewry, the quarter allotted
+to the Jews, but Jewsbury is no doubt for Dewsbury; cf. Jewhurst for
+Dewhurst.
+
+Here may be mentioned a few local surnames which are hard to classify.
+We have the apparently anatomical Back, Foot, Head, and, in compounds,
+-side.  Back seems to have been used of the region behind a building
+or dwelling, as it still is at Cambridge.  Its plural has given Bax.
+But it was also a personal name connected with Bacon (Chapter XXIII).
+
+We should expect Foot to mean the base of a hill, but it always occurs
+in early rolls without a preposition.  It may represent in some cases
+an old personal name of obscure origin, but it is also a nickname with
+compounds such as Barfoot, Lightfoot.  The simple Head, found as Mid.
+Eng. del heved, is perhaps generally from a shop sign.  Fr. Tete, one
+origin of Tait, Tate, and Ger. Haupt, Kopf, also occur as surnames.
+As a local suffix -head appears to mean top-end and is generally
+shortened to -ett, e.g. Birkett (cf. Birkenhead), [Footnote: No doubt
+sometimes, like Burchett, Burkett, for the personal name Burchard,
+Anglo-Sax. Burgheard]  Brockett (brook), Bromet, Bromhead (broom),
+Hazlitt (hazel).  The same suffix appears to be present in Fossett,
+from fosse, and Forcett from force, a waterfall (Scand.).  Broadhead
+is a nickname, like Fr. Grossetete and Ger. Breitkopf.  The face-value
+of Evershed is boar's head.  Morshead may be the nickname of mine host
+of the Saracen's Head or may mean the end of the moor.  So the names
+Aked (oak), Blackett, Woodhead may be explained anatomically or
+geographically according to the choice of the bearer.  Perrett,
+usually a dim. of Peter, may sometimes represent the rather effective
+old nickname "pear-head."
+
+Side is local in the uncomfortable sounding Akenside (oak), Fearenside
+(fern), but Heaviside appears to be a nickname.  Handyside may mean
+"gracious manner," from Mid. Eng. side, cognate with Ger. Sitte,
+custom.  See Hendy (Chapter XXII).  The simple end survives as Ind or
+Nind (Chapter III) and in Overend (Chapter XII), Townsend.  Edge
+appears also in the older form Egg, but the frequency of place-names
+beginning with Edge, e.g. Edgeley, Edgington, Edgworth, etc., suggests
+that it was also a personal name.
+
+Lynch, a boundary, is cognate with golf-links.  The following sounds
+modern, but refers to people sitting in a hollow among the
+sand-ridges--
+
+"And are ye in the wont of drawing up wi' a' the gangrel bodies that
+ye find cowering in a sand-bunker upon the links?"
+
+(Redgauntlet, ch. xi.)
+
+Pitt is found in the compound Bulpitt, no doubt the place where the
+town bull was kept.  It is also the origin of the Kentish names Pett
+and Pettman (Chapter XVII).  Arch refers generally to a bridge.
+Lastly, there are three words for a corner, viz. Hearne, Herne, Hurne,
+Horn; Wyke, the same word as Wick, a creek (Chapter XII); and Wray
+(Scand.).  The franklin tell us that "yonge clerkes" desirous of
+knowledge--
+
+"Seken in every halke and every herne
+ Particular sciences for to lerne"
+
+(F, 1119).
+
+Wray has become confused with Ray (Chapter III).  Its compound
+thack-wray, the corner where the thatch was stored, has given
+Thackeray.
+
+
+
+HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS
+
+The word road was not used in its current sense during the surname
+period, but meant the art of riding, and specifically a raid or
+inroad.  Therefore the name Roades is unconnected with it and
+represents merely a variant of Royds (Chapter XII).  This name and its
+compounds belong essentially to the north, the prevailing spelling,
+Rhodes, being artificial.  It has no connection with the island of
+Rhodes.
+
+The meaning of Street has changed considerably since the days when
+Icknield Street and Watling Street were great national roads.  It is
+now used exclusively of town thoroughfares, and has become such a mere
+suffix that, while we speak of the Oxford Road, we try to suppress the
+second word in Ox'ford Street.  To street belong our place-names and
+surnames in Strat-, Stret-, etc., e.g. Stratton, Stretton, Stredwick.
+Way has a number of compounds with intrusive _a_, e.g. Challaway,
+Dallaway (dale), Greenaway, Hathaway (heath), Westaway.  But Hanway is
+the name of a country (Chapter XI), and Otway, Ottoway, is Old Fr.
+Otouet, a dim. of Odo.  Shipway is for sheep-way.  In the north of
+England the streets in a town are often called gates (Scand.).  It is
+impossible to distinguish the compounds of this gate from those of the
+native gate, a barrier (Chapter XIII), e.g. Norgate may mean North
+Street or North Gate.
+
+Alley and Court both exist as surnames, but the former is for a'lee,
+i.e. Atlee (Chapter XII), and the latter is from court in the sense of
+mansion, country house.  The curious spelling Caught may be seen over
+a shop in Chiswick.  Rowe (Chapter I) sometimes means row of houses,
+but in Townroe the second element is identical with Wray (Chapter
+XIII).  Cosway, Cossey, is from causeway, Fr. chaussee; and Twitchers,
+Twitchell represent dialect words used of a narrow passage and
+connected with the Mid. English verb twiselen, to fork, or divide;
+Twiss must be of similar origin, for we find Robert del twysse in
+1367.  Cf. Birtwistle and Entwistle.  With the above may be classed
+the west-country Shute, a narrow street; Vennell, a north-country word
+for alley, Fr. venelle, dim. of Lat. versa, vein; Wynd, a court, also
+a north-country word, probably from the verb wind, to twist; and the
+cognate Went, a passage--
+
+"Thorugh a goter, by a prive wente."
+
+(Troilus and Criseyde, iii.  788.)
+
+
+
+WATER
+
+Names derived from artificial watercourses are Channell, now replaced
+as a common noun by the learned form canal; Condy or Cundy, for the
+earlier Cunditt, conduit; Gott, cognate with gut, used in Yorkshire
+for the channel from a mill-dam, and in Lincolnshire for a water-drain
+on the coast; Lade, Leete, connected with the verb to lead; and
+sometimes Shore (Chapter XII), which was my grandfather's
+pronunciation of sewer.  From weir, lit.  a protection, precaution,
+cognate with beware and Ger. wehren, to protect, we have not only
+Weir, but also Ware, Warr, Wear, and the more pretentious Delawarr.
+The latter name passed from an Earl Delawarr to a region in North
+America, and thus to Fenimore Cooper's noble red men.  But this group
+of names must sometimes be referred to the Domesday wars, an outlying
+potion of a manor.  Lock is more often a land name, to be classed with
+Hatch (Chapter XIII), but was also used of a water-gate.  Key was once
+the usual spelling of quay.  The curious name Keylock is a perversion
+of Kellogg, Mid. Eng. Kill-hog.  Port seldom belongs here, as the Mid.
+English is almost always de la Porte, i.e. Gates.  From well we have a
+very large number of compounds, e.g. Cauldwell (cold), Halliwell, the
+variants of which, Holliwell, Hollowell, probably all represent Mid.
+Eng. hali, holy.  Here belongs also Winch, from the device used for
+drawing water from deep wells.
+
+
+
+BUILDINGS
+
+The greater number of the words to be dealt with under this heading
+enter into the composition of specific place-names.  A considerable
+number of surnames are derived from the names of religious buildings,
+usually from proximity rather than actual habitation.  Such names are
+naturally of Greco-Latin origin, and were either introduced directly
+into Anglo-Saxon by the missionaries, or were adopted later in a
+French form after the Conquest.  It has already been noted (Chapter I)
+that Abbey is not always what it seems; but in some cases it is local,
+from Fr, abbaye, of which the Provencal form Abadie was introduced by
+the Huguenots.  We find much earlier Abdy, taken straight from the
+Greco-Lat. abbatia.  The famous name Chantrey is for chantry, Armitage
+was once the regular pronunciation of Hermitage, and Chappell a common
+spelling of Chapel--
+
+"Also if you finde not the word you seeke for presently after one sort
+of spelling, condemne me not forthwith, but consider how it is used to
+be spelled, whether with double or single letters, as Chappell, or
+Chapell" (Holyoak, Latin Dict., 1612).
+
+We have also the Norman form Capel, but this may be a nickname from
+Mid. Eng. capel, nag--
+
+"Why nadstow (hast thou not) pit the capul in the lathe (barn)?" (A,
+4088.)
+
+A Galilee was a chapel or porch devoted to special purposes--
+
+"Those they pursued had taken refuge in the galilee of the church"
+
+(Fair Maid of Perth, ch. ix.).
+
+The tomb of the Venerable Bede is in the Galilee of Durham Cathedral.
+I had a schoolfellow with this uncommon name, now generally perverted
+to Galley.  In a play now running (Feb.  1913) in London, there is a
+character named Sanctuary, a name found also in Crockford and the
+London Directory.
+
+I have only once come across the contracted form Sentry [Footnote: On
+the development in meaning of this word, first occurring in the phrase
+"to take sentrie," i.e. refuge, see my Romance of Words, ch. vii.]
+(Daily Telegraph, Dec.  26, 1912), and then under circumstances which
+might make quotation actionable.  Purvis is Mid. Eng. parvis, a porch,
+Greco-Lat. paradises.  It may be the same as Provis, the name selected
+by Mr. Magwitch on his return from the Antipodes (Great Expectations,
+ch. xl.), unless this is for Provost.  Porch and Portch both occur as
+surnames, but Porcher is Fr. porcher, a swineherd, and Portal is a
+Huguenot name.  Churcher and Kirker, Churchman and Kirkman, are
+usually local; cf. Bridges and Bridgman.
+
+The names Temple and Templeman were acquired from residence near one
+of the preceptories of the Knights Templars, and Spittlehouse (Chapter
+III) is sometimes to be accounted for in a similar way (Knights of the
+Hospital).  We even find the surname Tabernacle.  Musters is Old Fr.
+moustiers (moutiers), common in French place-names, from Lat.
+monasterium.  The word bow, still used for an arch in some old towns,
+has given the names Bow and Bowes.  A medieval statute, recently
+revived to baffle the suffragettes, was originally directed against
+robbers and "pillers," i.e. plunderers, but the name Piller is also
+for pillar; cf. the French name Colonise.  With these may be mentioned
+Buttress and Carvell, the latter from Old Fr. carnet (creneau), a
+battlement.
+
+As general terms for larger dwellings we find Hall, House, also
+written Hose, and Seal, the last-named from the Teutonic original
+which has given Fr. Lasalle, whence our surname Sale.  To the same
+class belong Place, Plaice, as in Cumnor Place.
+
+The possession of such surnames does not imply ancestral possession of
+Haddon Hall, Stafford House, etc., but merely that the founder of the
+family lived under the shadow of greatness.  In compounds -house is
+generally treated as in "workus," e.g. Bacchus (Chapter VIII),
+Bellows, Brewis, Duffus (dove), Kirkus, Loftus, Malthus, Windus (wynd,
+Chapter XIII).  In connection with Woodhouse it must be remembered
+that this name was given to the man who played the part of a "wild man
+of the woods" in processions and festivities.  William Power, skinner,
+called "Wodehous," died in London in 1391.  Of similar origin is
+Greenman.  The tavern sign of the Green Man is sometimes explained as
+representing a forester in green, but it was probably at first
+equivalent to the German sign "Zum wilden Mann." Cassell is sometimes
+for Castle, but is more often a local German name of recent
+introduction.  The northern Peel, a castle, as in the Isle of Man, was
+originally applied to a stockade, Old Fr. pel (pieu), a stake, Lat.
+Palos.  Hence also Peall, Peile.  Keep comes from the central tower of
+the castle, where the baron and his family kept, i.e. lived.  A moated
+Grange is a poetic figment, for the word comes from Fr, grange, a barn
+(to Lat. granum); hence Granger.
+
+With Mill and the older Milne (Chapter II) we may compare Mullins, Fr.
+Desmoulins.  Barnes is sometimes, but not always, what it seems
+(Chapter XXI).  With it we may put Leathes, from an obsolete
+Scandinavian word for barn (see quot. Chapter XIII), to which we owe
+also the names Leatham and Latham.  Mr. Oldbuck's "ecstatic
+description" of the Roman camp with its praetorium was spoilt by Edie
+Ochiltree's disastrous interruption
+
+"Praetorian here, praetorian there, I mind the bigging o't."
+(Antiquary, ch. iv.).
+
+
+
+DWELLINGS
+
+The obsolete verb to big, i.e. build, whence Biggar, a builder, has
+given us Biggins, Biggs (Chapter III), and Newbigging, while from to
+build we have Newbould and Newbolt.  Cazenove, Ital. casa nuova, means
+exactly the same.  Probably related to build is the obsolete Bottle, a
+building, whence Harbottle.  A humble dwelling was called a Board--
+
+Borde, a little house, lodging, or cottage of timber (Cotgrave)--
+
+whence Boardman, Border.  Other names were Booth, Lodge, and Folley,
+Fr. feuillee, a hut made of branches--
+
+"Feuillee, an arbor, or bower, framed of leav'd plants, or branches"
+(Cotgrave).
+
+Scale, possibly connected with shealing, is a Scandinavian word used
+in the north for a shepherd's hut, hence the surname Scales.  Bower,
+which now suggests a leafy arbour, had no such sense in Mid. English.
+Chaucer says of the poor widow--
+
+"Ful sooty was hir bour and eek hire halle."
+
+(B, 4022.)
+
+Hence the names Bowerman, Boorman, Burman.
+
+But the commonest of names for a humble dwelling was cot or cote
+
+Born and fed in rudenesse
+
+As in a cote or in an oxe stalle
+
+(E, 397)
+
+the inhabitant of which was a Colman, Cotter, or, diminutively,
+Cottrell, Cotterill.  Hence the frequent occurrence of the name
+Coates.
+
+There are also numerous compounds, e.g. Alcott (old), Norcott,
+Kingscote, and the many variants of Caldecott, Calcott, the cold
+dwelling, especially common as a village name in the vicinity of the
+Roman roads.  It is supposed to have been applied, like Coldharbour,
+to deserted posts.  The name Cotton is sometimes from the dative
+plural of the same word, though, when of French origin, it represents
+Colon, dim. of Cot, aphetic for Jacot.
+
+Names such as Kitchin, Spence, a north-country word for pantry
+(Chapter XX), and Mews, originally applied to the hawk-coops (see
+Mewer, Chapter XV), point to domestic employment.  The simple Mew,
+common in Hampshire, is a bird nickname.  Scammell preserves an older
+form of shamble(s), originally the benches on which meat was exposed
+for sale.  The name Currie, or Curry, is too common to be referred
+entirely to the Scot.  Corrie, a mountain glen, or to Curry in
+Somerset, and I conjecture that it sometimes represents Old French and
+Mid. Eng. curie, a kitchen, which is the origin of Petty Cury in
+Cambridge and of the famous French name Curie.  Nor can Furness be
+derived exclusively from the Furness district of Lancashire.  It must
+sometimes correspond to the common French name Dufour, from four,
+oven.  We also have the name Ovens.  Stables, when not identical with
+Staples (Chapter XIII), belongs to the same class as Mews.  Chambers,
+found in Scotland as Chalmers, is official, the medieval de la Chambre
+often referring to the Exchequer Chamber of the City of London.
+Bellchambers has probably no connection with this word.  It appears to
+be an imitative spelling of Belencombre, a place near Dieppe, for the
+entry de Belencumbre is of frequent occurrence.
+
+Places of confinement are represented by Gale, gaol (Chapter III),
+Penn, whence Inkpen (Berkshire), Pond, Pound, and Penfold or Pinfold.
+But Gales is also for Anglo-Fr. Galles, Wales.  Butts may come from
+the archery ground, while Butt is generally to be referred to the
+French name Bout (Chapter VII) or to Budd (Chapter VII).  Cordery, for
+de la corderie, of the rope-walk, has been confused with the much more
+picturesque Corderoy, i.e. coeur de roi.
+
+
+
+SHOP SIGNS
+
+As is well known, medieval shops had signs instead of numbers, and
+traces of this custom are still to be seen in country towns.  It is
+quite obvious that town surnames would readily spring into existence
+from such signs.  The famous name Rothschild, always mispronounced in
+English, goes back to the "red shield" over Nathan Rothschild's shop
+in the Jewry of Frankfurt; and within the writer's memory two brothers
+named Grainge in the little town of Uxbridge were familiarly known as
+Bible Grainge and Gridiron Grainge.  Many animal surnames are to be
+referred partly to this source, e.g. Bull, Hart, Lamb, Lyon, Ram,
+Roebuck, Stagg; Cock, Falcon, Peacock, Raven, Swann, etc., all still
+common as tavern signs.  The popinjay, or parrot, is still
+occasionally found as Pobgee, Popjoy.  These surnames all have, of
+course, an alternative explanation (ch.  xxiii.).  Here also usually
+belong Angel and Virgin.
+
+A considerable number of such names probably consist of those taken
+from figures used in heraldry or from objects which indicated the
+craft practised, or the special commodity in which the tradesman
+dealt.  Such are Arrow, Bell, Buckle, Crosskeys, Crowne, Gauntlett,
+Hatt, Horne, Image, Key, Lilley, Meatyard, measuring wand--
+
+"Ye shall do no unrighteousness in judgment, in meteyard, in weight,
+or in measure" (Lev. xix. 35)--
+
+Mullett, [Footnote: A five-pointed star, Old Fr. molette, rowel of a
+spur.]  Rose, Shears, and perhaps Blades, Shipp, Spurr, Starr, Sword.
+Thomas Palle, called "Sheres," died in London, 1376.
+
+But here again we must walk delicately.  The Germanic name Hatto,
+borne by the wicked bishop who perished in the Maeuseturm, gave the
+French name Hatt with the accusative form Hatton, [Footnote: In Old
+French a certain number of names, mostly of Germanic origin, had an
+accusative in -on, e.g. Guy, Guyon, Hugues, Hugon.  From Lat. Pontius
+came Poinz, Poinson, whence our Poyntz, less pleasingly Punch, and
+Punshon.  In the Pipe Rolls these are also spelt Pin-, whence Pinch,
+Pinchin, and Pinches.] Horn is an old personal name, as in the
+medieval romance of King Horn, Shipp is a common provincialism for
+sheep, [Footnote: Hence the connection between the ship and the
+"ha'porth of tar."]  Starr has another explanation (see Starling) and
+Bell has several (chapter 1).  I should guess that Porteous was the
+sign used by some medieval writer of mass-books and breviaries.  Its
+oldest form is the Anglo-Fr. Porte-hors, corresponding to medieval
+Lat. portiforium, a breviary, lit.  what one carries outside, a
+portable prayer-book--
+
+"For on my porthors here I make an oath." (B, 1321.)
+
+But as the name is found without prefix in the Hundred Rolls, it may
+have been a nickname conferred on some clericus who was proud of so
+rare a possession.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. NORMAN BLOOD
+
+"Such, however, is the illusion of antiquity and wealth that decent
+and dignified men now existing boast their descent from these filthy
+thieves"
+
+(EMERSON, English Traits, ch. iv.).
+
+Not every Norman or Old French name need be included in the group
+described by Emerson when talking down to an uneducated audience.  In
+fact, it is probable that the majority of genuine French names belong
+to a later period; for, although the baron who accompanied the
+Conqueror would in many cases keep his old territorial designation,
+the minor ruffian would, as a rule, drop the name of the obscure
+hamlet from which he came and assume some surname more convenient in
+his new surroundings.  Local names of Old French origin are usually
+taken from the provinces and larger towns which had a meaning for
+English ears.  I have given examples of such in chapter xi.  Of course
+it is easy to take a detailed map of Northern France and say, without
+offering any proof, that "Avery (Chapter VIII) is from Evreux, Belcher
+(Chapter XXI) from Bellecourt, Custance (Chapter X) from Coutances,"
+and so on.  But any serious student knows this to be idiotic nonsense.
+The fact that, except in the small minority composed of the senior
+branches of the noblest houses, the surname was not hereditary till
+centuries after the Conquest, justifies any bearer of a Norman name
+taken from a village or smaller locality in repudiating all connection
+with the "filthy thieves" and conjecturing descent from some decent
+artisan belonging to one of the later immigrations.
+
+That a considerable number of aristocratic families, and others, bear
+an easily recognizable French town or village name is of course well
+known, but it will usually be found that such names are derived from
+places which are as plentiful in France as our own Ashleys, Barton,
+Burton, Langleys, Newtons, Suttons, etc., are in England.  In some
+cases a local French name has spread in an exceptional manner.
+Examples are Baines (Gains, 2 [Footnote: The figures in brackets
+indicate the number of times that the French local name occurs in the
+Postal Directory.  The above is the usual explanation of Baines.
+found with de in the Hundred Rolls.  But I think it was sometimes a
+nickname, bones, applied to a thin man.  I find William Banes in
+Lancashire in 1252; cf. Langbain.] ), Gurney (Gournai, 6), Vernon (3).
+But usually in such cases we find a large number of spots which may
+have given rise to the surname, e.g. Beaumont (46, without counting
+Belmont), Dampier (Dampierre, i.e. St. Peter's, 28), Daubeney, Dabney
+(Aubigne, 4, Aubigny, 17), Ferrers (Ferrieres, 22), Nevill (Neuville,
+58), Nugent (Nogent, 17), Villiers (58).  This last name, representing
+Vulgar Lat. villarium, is the origin of Ger. -weiler, so common in
+German village names along the old Roman roads, e.g. Badenweiler,
+Froschweiler, etc.
+
+When we come to those surnames of this class which have remained
+somewhat more exclusive, we generally find that the place-name is also
+comparatively rare.  Thus Hawtrey is from Hauterive (7), Pinpoint from
+Pierrepont (5), Furneaux from Fourneaux (5), Vipont and Vipan from
+Vieux-Pont (3), and there are three places called Percy.
+
+The following have two possible birthplaces each-Bellew or Pellew
+(Belleau), Cantelo (Canteloup [Footnote: But the doublet Chanteloup is
+common.]), Mauleverer (Maulevrier), Mompesson (Mont Pincon or
+Pinchon), Montmorency, Mortimer (Morte-mer).  The following are
+unique--Carteret, Doll [Footnote: This may also be a metronymic, from
+Dorothy.]  (Dol), Fiennes, Furnival (Fournival), Greville, Harcourt,
+Melville (Meleville), Montresor, Mowbray (Monbrai), Sackville
+(Sacquenville), Venables.  These names are taken at random, but the
+same line of investigation can be followed up by any reader who thinks
+it worth while.
+
+
+
+CORRUPT FORMS
+
+Apart from aristocratic questions, it is interesting to notice the
+contamination which has occurred between English and French surnames
+of local origin.  The very common French suffix -ville is regularly
+confounded with our -field.  Thus Summerfield is the same name as
+Somerville, Dangerfield is for d'Angerville, Belfield for Belleville,
+Blomfield for Blonville, and Stutfield for Estouteville, while
+Grenville, Granvillehave certainly become confused with our Grenfell,
+green fell, and Greenfield.  Camden notes that Turberville became
+Troublefield, and I have found the intermediate Trubleville in the
+twelfth century.  The case of Tess Durbeyfield will occur to every
+reader.  The suffix -fort has been confused with our -ford and -forth,
+so that Rochford is in some cases for Rochefort and Beeforth for
+Beaufort or Belfort.  With the first syllable of Beeforth we may
+compare Beevor for Beauvoir, Belvoir, Beecham  for Beauchamp, and
+Beamish for Beaumais.
+
+The name Beamish actually occurs as that of village in Durham, the
+earlier form of which points Old French origin, from beau mes, Lat.
+bellum mansum, a fair manse, i.e. dwelling.  Otherwise it would be
+tempting to derive the surname Beamish from Ger, boehmisch, earlier
+behmisch, Bohemian.
+
+A brief survey of French spot-names which have passed into English
+will show that they were acquired in exactly the same way as the
+corresponding English names.  Norman ancestry, is, however, not always
+to be assumed in this case.  Until the end of the fourteenth century a
+large proportion of our population was bi-lingual, and names
+accidentally recorded in Anglo-French may occasionally have stuck.
+Thus the name Boyes or Boyce may spring from a man of pure English
+descent who happened to be described as del boil instead of atte wood,
+just as Capron (Chapter XXI) means Hood.  While English spot-names
+have as a rule shed both the preposition and the article (Chapter
+XII), French usually keeps one or both, though these were more often
+lost when the name passed into England.  Thus our Roach is not a
+fish-name, but corresponds to Fr. Laroche or Delaroche; and the blind
+pirate Pew, if not a Welshman, ap Hugh, was of the race of Dupuy, from
+Old Fr. Puy, a hill, Lat. podium, a height, gallery, etc., whence also
+our Pew, once a raised platform.
+
+In some cases the prefix has passed into English; e.g. Diprose is from
+des preaux, of the meadows, a name assumed by Boileau among others.
+There are, of course, plenty of places in France called Les Preaux,
+but in the case of such a name we need not go further than possession
+of, or residence by, a piece of grass-land--
+
+"Je sais un paysan qu'on appelait Gros-Pierre,
+ Qui, n'ayant pour tout bien qu'un seul quartier de terre,
+ Y fit tout alentour faire un fosse bourbeux,
+ Et de monsieur de l'Isle en prit le nom pompeux."
+
+(Moliere L'Ecole des Femmes, i. 1.)
+
+The Old French singular preal is perhaps the origin of Prall, Prawle.
+Similarly Preece, Prees, usually for Price, may sometimes be for des
+Pres.  With Boyes (Chapter XIV) we may compare Tallis from Fr.
+taillis, a copse (tailler, to cut).  Garrick, a Huguenot name, is Fr,
+gangue, an old word for heath.
+
+
+
+TREE NAMES
+
+Trees have in all countries a strong influence on topographical names,
+and hence on surnames.  Frean, though usually from the Scandinavian
+name Fraena, is sometimes for Fr. frene, ash, Lat. fraxinus, while
+Cain and Kaines [Footnote: There is one family of Keynes derived
+specifically from Chahaignes (Sarthe).]  are Norm.  quene (chene),
+oak.  The modern French for beech is hetre, Du. heester, but Lat.
+fagus has given a great many dialect forms which have supplied us with
+the surnames Fay, Foy, and the plural dim. Failes.  Here also I should
+put the name Defoe, assumed by the writer whose father was satisfied
+with Foe.  With Quatrefages, four beeches, we may compare such English
+names as Fiveash, Twelvetrees, and Snooks, for "seven oaks."
+
+In Latin the suffix -etum was used to designate a grove or plantation.
+This suffix, or its plural -eta, is very common in France, becoming
+successively -ei(e), -oi(e), -ai(e).  The name Dobree is a Guernsey
+spelling of d'Aubray, Lat. arboretum, which was dissimilated (Chapter
+III) into arboretum.  Darblay, the name of Fanny Burney's husband, is
+a variant.  From au(l)ne, alder, we have aunai, whence our Dawnay.  So
+also frenai has given Freeney, chenai, Chaney, and the Norm.  quenai
+is one origin of Kenney, while the older chesnai appears in Chesney.
+Houssaie, from hoax, holly, gives Hussey; chastenai, chestnut grove,
+exists in Nottingham as Chastener; coudrai, hazel copse, gives Cowdrey
+and Cowdery; Verney and Varney are from vernai, grove of alders, of
+Celtic origin, and Viney corresponds to the French name Vinoy, Lat.
+vinetum.
+
+We have also Chinnery, Chenerey from the extended chenerai, and
+Pomeroy from pommerai.  Here again the name offers no clue as to the
+exact place of origin.  There are in the French Postal Directory eight
+places called Epinay, from epine, thorn, but these do not exhaust the
+number of "spinnies" in France.  Also connected with tree-names are
+Conyers, Old Fr, coigniers, quince-trees, and Pirie, Perry, Anglo-Fr.
+perie, a collective from peire (poire).
+
+Among Norman names for a homestead the favourite is mesnil, from
+Vulgar Lat. mansionile, which enters into a great number of local
+names.  It has given our Meynell, and is also the first element of
+Mainwaring, Mannering, from mesnil-Warin.  The simple mes, a southern
+form of which appears in Dumas, has given us Mees and Meese, which are
+thus etymological doublets of the word manse.  With Beamish (Chapter
+XIV) we may compare Bellasis, from bel-assis, fairly situated.  Poyntz
+is sometimes for des ponts; cf. Pierpoint for Pierrepont.
+
+Even Norman names which were undoubtedly borne by leaders among the
+Conqueror's companions are now rarely found among the noble, and many
+a descendant of these once mighty families cobbles the shoes of more
+recent invaders.  Even so the descendants of the Spanish nobles who
+conquered California are glad to peddle vegetables at the doors of San
+Francisco magnates whose fathers dealt in old clothes in some German
+Judengasse.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV. OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES
+
+"When Adam delved and Eve span,
+ Who was then the gentleman?"
+
+Chant of Wat Tyler's followers.
+
+The occupative name would, especially in villages, tend to become a
+very natural surname.  It is not therefore surprising to find so large
+a number of this class among our commonest surnames, e.g. Smith,
+Taylor, Wright, Walker, Turner, Clark, Cooper, etc.  And, as the same
+craft often persisted in a family for generations, it was probably
+this type of surname which first became hereditary.  On the other
+hand, such names as Cook, Gardiner, Carter, etc., have no doubt in
+some cases prevailed over another surname lawfully acquired (Chapter
+I).  It is impossible to fix an approximate date for the definite
+adoption of surnames of this class.  It occurred earlier in towns than
+in the country, and by the middle of the fourteenth century we often
+find in the names of London citizens a contradiction between the
+surname and the trade-name; e.g. Walter Ussher, tanner, John Botoner,
+girdler, Roger Carpenter, pepperer, Richard le Hunte, chaundeler,
+occur 1336-52.
+
+The number of surnames belonging to this group is immense, for every
+medieval trade and craft was highly specialized and its privileges
+were jealously guarded.  The general public, which now, like Issachar,
+crouches between the trusts and the trades unions, was in the middle
+ages similarly victimized by the guilds of merchants and craftsmen.
+
+Then, as now, it grumblingly recognized that, "Plus ca change, plus ca
+reste la meme chose," and went on enduring.  [Footnote: If a student
+of philology were allowed to touch on such high matters as
+legislation, I would moralize on the word kiddle, meaning an illegal
+kind of weir used for fish-poaching, whence perhaps the surname
+Kiddell.  From investigations made with a view to discovering the
+origin of the word, I came to the conclusion that all the legislative
+powers in England spent three centuries in passing enactments against
+these devices, with the inevitable consequence that they became ever
+more numerous.]
+
+
+
+SOCIAL GRADES
+
+By dealing with a few essential points at the outset we shall clear
+the ground for considering the various groups of surnames connected
+with trade, craft, profession or office.  To begin with, it is certain
+that such names as Pope, Cayzer, King, Earl, Bishop are nicknames,
+very often conferred on performers in religious plays or acquired in
+connection with popular festivals and processions--
+
+"Names also have been taken of civil honours, dignities and estate, as
+King, Duke, Prince, Lord, Baron, Knight, Valvasor or Vavasor, Squire,
+Castellon, partly for that their ancestours were such, served such,
+acted such parts; or were Kings of the Bean, Christmas-Lords, etc."
+(Camden).
+
+We find corresponding names in other languages, and some of the French
+names, usually preceded by the definite article, have passed into
+English, e.g. Lempriere, a Huguenot name, and Leveque, whence our
+Levick, Vick, Veck (Chapter III).  Baron generally appears as Barron,
+and Duke, used in Mid. English of any leader, is often degraded to
+Duck, whence the dim. Duckett.  But all three of these names can also
+be referred to Marmaduke.
+
+It would be tempting to put Palsgrave in this class.  Prince Rupert,
+the Pfalzgraf, i.e. Count Palatine, was known as the Palsgrave in his
+day, but I have not found the title recorded early enough.
+
+With Lord we must put the northern Laird, and, in my opinion, Senior;
+for, if we notice how much commoner Young is than Old, and Fr. Lejeune
+than Levieux, we must conclude that junior, a very rare surname, ought
+to be of much more frequent occurrence than Senior, Synyer, a fairly
+common name.  There can be little doubt that Senior is usually a
+latinization of the medieval le seigneur, whence also Saynor.  Knight
+is not always knightly, for Anglo-Sax. cniht means servant; cf. Ger.
+Knecht.  The word got on in the world, with the consequence that the
+name is very popular, while its medieval compeers, knave, varlet,
+villain, have, even when adorned with the adj.  good, dropped out of
+the surname list, Bonvalet, Bonvarlet, Bonvillain are still common
+surnames in France.  From Knight we have the compound Road-night, a
+mounted servitor.  Thus Knight is more often a true occupative name,
+and the same applies to Dring or Dreng, a Scandinavian name of similar
+meaning.
+
+Other names from the middle rungs of the social ladder are also to be
+taken literally, e.g. Franklin, a freeholder, Anglo-Fr. frankelein--
+
+"How called you your franklin, Prior Aylmer?"
+
+"Cedric," answered the Prior, "Cedric the Saxon"
+
+(Ivanhoe, ch. i.)--
+
+Burgess, Freeman, Freeborn.  The latter is sometimes for Freebairn and
+exists already as the Anglo-Saxon personal name Freobeorn.  Denison
+(Chapter II) is occasionally an accommodated form of denizen,
+Anglo-Fr. deinzein, a burgess enjoying the privileges belonging to
+those who lived "deinz (in) la cite." In 1483 a certain Edward
+Jhonson--
+
+"Sued to be mayde Denison for fer of ye payment of ye subsedy."
+
+(Letter to Sir William Stonor, June 9, 1483.)
+
+Bond is from Anglo-Sax, bonda, which means simply agriculturist.  The
+word is of Icelandic origin and related to Boor, another word which
+has deteriorated and is rare as a surname, though the cognate Bauer is
+common enough in Germany.  Holder is translated by Tennant.  For some
+other names applied to the humbler peasantry see Chapter XIII.
+
+To return to the social summit, we have Kingson, often confused with
+the local Kingston, and its Anglo-French equivalent Fauntleroy.
+Faunt, aphetic for Anglo-Fr. enfaunt, is common in Mid. English.  When
+the mother of Moses had made the ark of bulrushes, or, as Wyclif calls
+it, the "junket of resshen," she--
+
+"Putte the litil faunt with ynne"
+
+(Exodus ii. 3)
+
+The Old French accusative (Chapter I) was also used as a genitive, as
+in Bourg-le-roi, Bourg-la-rein, corresponding to our Kingsbury and
+Queensborough.  We have a genitive also in Flowerdew, found in French
+as Flourdieu.  Lower, in his Patronymics Britannica (1860), the first
+attempt at a dictionary of English surnames, conjectures Fauntleroy to
+be from an ancient French war-cry Defendez le roi!  for "in course of
+time, the meaning of the name being forgotten, the de would be
+dropped, and the remaining syllables would easily glide into
+Fauntleroy." [Footnote: I have quoted this "etymology" because it is
+too funny to be lost; but a good deal of useful information can be
+found in Lower, especially with regard to the habitat of well-known
+names.]
+
+
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES
+
+Names of ecclesiastics must usually be nicknames, because medieval
+churchmen were not entitled to have descendants.  This appears clearly
+in such an entry as "Bishop the crossbowman," or "Johannes Monacus et
+uxor ejus Emma," living in Kent in the twelfth century.  But these
+names are so numerous that I have put them with the Canterbury
+Pilgrims (ch.  xvii.).  Three of them may be mentioned here in
+connection with a small group of occupative surnames of puzzling form.
+We have noticed (Chapter XII) that monosyllabic, and some other,
+surnames of local origin frequently take an -s, partly by analogy with
+names like Wills, Watts, etc.  We rarely find this -s in the case of
+occupative names, but Parsons, Vicars or Vickers, and Monks are
+common, and in fact the first two are scarcely found without the -s.
+To these we may add Reeves (Chapter XVII), Grieves (Chapter XIX), and
+the well-known Nottingham name Mellers (Chapter XVII).  The
+explanation seems to be that these names are true genitives, and that
+John Parsons was John the Parson's man, while John Monks was employed
+by the monastery.  This is confirmed by such entries as "Walter atte
+Parsons," "John del Parsons," "Allen atte Prestes," "William del
+Freres," "Thomas de la Vicars," all from the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries.
+
+Another exceptional group is that of names formed by adding -son to
+the occupative names, the commonest being perhaps Clarkson, Cookson,
+Smithson, and Wrightson.  To this class belongs Grayson, which
+Bardsley shows to be equivalent to the grieve's son.
+
+Our occupative names are both English and French, [Footnote: We have
+also a few Latinizations, e.g. Faber (wright), Messer (mower).  This
+type of name is much commoner in Germany, e.g. Avenarius, oat man,
+Fabricius, smith, Textor, weaver, etc.  Mercator, of map projection
+fame, was a Fleming named Kremer, i.e. dealer.]  the two languages
+being represented by those important tradesmen Baker and Butcher.  The
+former is reinforced by Bollinger, Fr. boulanger, Pester, Old Fr.
+pestour (Lat. piston), and Furner--
+
+"Fournier, a baker, or one that keeps, or governs a common oven"
+(Cotgrave).
+
+The English and French names for the same trade also survive in
+Cheeseman and Firminger, Old Fr. formagier (fromage).
+
+We have as endings -er, -ier, the latter often made into -yer, -ger,
+as in Lockyer, Sawyer, Kidger (Chapter XIX), Woodger, [Footnote:
+Woodyer, Woodger, may also be for wood-hewer.  See Stanier] and -or,
+-our, as in Taylor, Jenoure (Chapter III).  The latter ending,
+corresponding to Modern Fr. -eur, represents Lat. -or, -orem, but we
+tack it onto English words as in "sailor," or substitute it for -er,
+-ier, as in Fermor, for Farmer, Fr. fermier.  In the Privy Purse
+Expenses of that careful monarch Henry VII. occurs the item--
+
+"To bere drunken at a fermors house . . .  1s."
+
+In the same way we replace the Fr. -our, -eur by -er, as in Turner,
+Fr. tourneur, Ginner, Jenner for Jenoure.
+
+The ending -er, -ier represents the Lat. -arius.  It passed not only
+into French, but also into the Germanic languages, replacing the
+Teutonic agential suffix which consisted of a single vowel.  We have a
+few traces of this oldest group of occupative names, e.g. Webb, Mid.
+Eng. webbe, Anglo-Sax. webb-a, and Hunt, Mid. Eng. hunte, Anglo-Sax.
+hunt-a--
+
+"With hunte and horne and houndes hym bisyde"
+
+(A, 1678)--
+
+which still hold the field easily against Webber and Hunter.
+
+So also, the German name Beck represents Old High Ger. pecch-o, baker.
+To these must be added Kemp, a champion, a very early loan-word
+connected with Lat. campus, field, and Wright, originally the worker,
+Anglo-Sax. wyrht-a.  Camp is sometimes for Kemp, but is also from the
+Picard form of Fr, champ, i.e. Field.  Of similar formation to Webb,
+etc., is Clapp, from an Anglo-Sax. nickname, the clapper--
+
+"Osgod Clapa, King Edward Confessor's staller, was cast upon the
+pavement of the Church by a demon's hand for his insolent pride in
+presence of the relics (of St. Edmund, King and Martyr)."
+
+(W. H. Hutton, Bampton Lectures, 1903.)
+
+
+
+NAMES IN -STER
+
+The ending -ster was originally feminine, and applied to trades
+chiefly carried on by women, e.g. Baxter, Bagster, baker, Brewster,
+Simister, sempster, Webster, etc., but in process of time the
+distinction was lost, so that we find Blaxter and Whitster for
+Blacker, Blakey, and Whiter, both of which, curiously enough, have the
+same meaning--
+
+"Bleykester or whytster, candidarius" (Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+for this black represents Mid. Eng. bla-c, related to bleak and
+bleach, and meaning pale--
+
+"Blake, wan of colour, blesme (bleme)" (Palsgrave).
+
+Occupative names of French origin are apt to vary according to the
+period and dialect of their adoption.  For Butcher we find also
+Booker, Bowker, and sometimes the later Bosher, Busher, with the same
+sound for the ch as in Labouchere, the lady butcher.  But Booker may
+also mean what it appears to mean, as Mid. Eng. bokere is used by
+Wyclif for the Latin scriba.
+
+Butcher, originally a dealer in goat's flesh, Fr. bouc, has ousted
+flesher.  German still has half a dozen surnames derived from names
+for this trade, e.g. Fleischer, Fleischmann, [Footnote: Hellenized as
+Sarkander.  This was a favourite trick of German scholars at the
+Renaissance period.  Well-known examples are Melancthon (Schwarzerd),
+Neander (Neumann).]  Metzger, Schlechter; but our flesher has been
+absorbed by Fletcher, a maker of arrows, Fr. fleche.  Fletcher Gate at
+Nottingham was formerly Flesher Gate.  The undue extension of Taylor
+has already been mentioned (Chapter IV).  Another example is Barker,
+which has swallowed up the Anglo-Fr. berquier, a shepherd, Fr. berger,
+with the result that the Barkers outnumber the Tanners by three to one
+
+"'What craftsman are you?' said our King,
+'I pray you, tell me now.'
+'I am a barker,' quoth the tanner;
+'What craftsman art thou?'"
+
+(Edward IV. and the Tanner of Tamworth.)
+
+The name seems to have been applied also to the man who barked trees
+for the tanner.
+
+
+
+MISSING TRADESMEN
+
+With Barker it seems natural to mention Mewer, of which I find one
+representative in the London Directory.  The medieval le muur had
+charge of the mews in which the hawks were kept while moulting (Fr.
+muer, Lat. mutare).  Hence the phrase "mewed up." The word seems to
+have been used for any kind of coop.  Chaucer tells us of the
+Franklin--
+
+"Ful many a fat partrich hadde he in muw" (A, 349).
+
+I suspect that some of the Muirs (Chapter XII) spring from this
+important office.  Similarly Clayer has been absorbed by the local
+Clare, Kayer, the man who made keys, by Care, and Blower, whether of
+horn or bellows, has paid tribute to the local Bloor, Blore.
+
+Sewer, an attendant at table, aphetic for Old Fr. asseour, a setter,
+is now a very rare name.  As we know that sewer, a drain, became
+shore, it is probable that the surname Shore sometimes represents this
+official or servile title.  And this same name Shore, though not
+particularly common, and susceptible of a simple local origin, labours
+under grave suspicion of having also enriched itself at the expense of
+the medieval le suur, the shoemaker, Lat. sutor-em, whence Fr.
+Lesueur.  This would inevitably become Sewer and then Shore, as above.
+Perhaps, in the final reckoning, Shaw is not altogether guiltless, for
+I know of one family in which this has replaced earlier Shore.
+
+The medieval le suur brings us to another problem, viz. the poor show
+made by the craftsmen who clothed the upper and lower extremities of
+our ancestors.  The name Hatter, once frequent enough, is almost
+extinct, and Capper is not very common.  The name Shoemaker has met
+with the same fate, though the trade is represented by the Lat. Sutor,
+whence Scot.  Souter.  Here belong also Cordner, Codner, [Footnote:
+Confused, of course, with the local Codnor (Derbyshire)]  Old Fr.
+cordouanier (cordonnier), a cordwainer, a worker in Cordovan leather,
+and Corser, Cosser, earlier corviser, corresponding to the French name
+Courvoisier, also derived from Cordova.  Chaucer, in describing the
+equipment of Sir Thopas, mentions
+
+"His shoon of cordewane" (B, 1922).
+
+The scarcity of Groser, grocer, is not surprising, for the word,
+aphetic for engrosser, originally meaning a wholesale dealer, one who
+sold en gros, is of comparatively late occurrence.  His medieval
+representative was Spicer.
+
+On the other hand, many occupative titles which are now obsolete, or
+practically so, still survive strongly as surnames.  Examples of these
+will be found in chapters xvii.-xx.
+
+Some occupative names are rather deceptive.  Kisser, which is said
+still to exist, means a maker of cuishes, thigh-armour, Fr, cuisses--
+
+"Helm, cuish, and breastplate streamed with gore."
+
+(Lord of the Isles, iv. 33.)
+
+Corker is for caulker, i.e. one who stopped the chinks of ships and
+casks, originally with lime (Lat. calx)--
+
+"Sir, we have a chest beneath the hatches, caulk'd and bitumed ready"
+(Pericles iii.  1).
+
+Cleaver represents Old Fr, clavier, a mace-bearer, Lat. clava, a club,
+or a door-keeper, Lat. clavis, a key.  Perhaps even clavus, a nail,
+must also be considered, for a Latin vocabulary of the fifteenth
+century tells us--
+
+"Claves, -vos vet -vas qui fert sit claviger."
+
+Neither Bowler nor Scorer are connected with cricket.  The former made
+wooden bowls, and the latter was sometimes a scourer, or scout, Mid.
+Eng. scurrour, a word of rather complicated origin, but perhaps more
+frequently a peaceful scullion, from Fr. ecurer, to scour, Lat.
+ex-curare--
+
+"Escureur, a scourer, cleanser, feyer" (Cotgrave).
+
+[Footnote: Feyer: A sweeper, now perhaps represented by Fayer.]
+
+A Leaper did not always leap (Chapter XVII).  The verb had also in
+Mid. English the sense of running away, so that the name may mean
+fugitive.  In some cases it may represent a maker of leaps, i.e. fish
+baskets, or perhaps a man who hawked fish in such a basket.
+
+A Slayer made slays, part of a weaver's loom, and a Bloomer worked in
+a bloom-smithy, from Anglo-Sax. blo-ma, a mass of hammered iron.
+Weightman and Warman represent Mid. Eng, wa[thorn]eman, hunter; cf. the
+common German surname Weidemann, of cognate origin.  Reader and Booker
+are not always literary.  The former is for Reeder, a thatcher--
+
+"Redare of howsys, calamator, arundinarius" (Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+and the latter is a Norman variant of Butcher, as already mentioned.
+
+
+
+SPELLING OF TRADE-NAMES
+
+The spelling of occupative surnames often differs from that now
+associated with the trade itself.  In Naylor, Taylor, and Tyler we
+have the archaic preference for y.  [Footnote: It may be noted here
+that John Tiler of Dartford, who killed a tax-gatherer for insulting
+his daughter, was not Wat Tiler, who was killed at Smithfield for
+insulting the King.  The confusion between the two has led to much
+sympathy being wasted on a ruffian.]  Our ancestors thought sope as
+good a spelling as soap, hence the name Soper.  A Plummer, i.e. a man
+who worked in lead, Lat. plumbum, is now written, by etymological
+reaction, plumber, though the restored letter is not sounded.  A man
+who dealt in 'arbs originated the name Arber, which we should now
+replace by herbalist.  We have a restored spelling in clerk, though
+educated people pronounce the word as it was once written
+
+"Clarke, or he that readeth distinctly, clericus." (Holyoak's Lat.
+Dict., 1612.)
+
+In many cases we are unable to say exactly what is the ocpupation
+indicated.  We may assume that a Setter and a Tipper did setting and
+tipping, and both are said to have been concerned in the arrow
+industry.  If this is true, I should say that Setter might represent
+the Old Fr, saieteur, arrow-maker, from saiete, an arrow, Lat.
+sagitta.  But in a medieval vocabulary we find "setter of mes,
+dapifer," which would make it the same as Sewer (Chapter XV).
+Similarly, when we consider the number of objects that can be tipped,
+we shall be shy of defining the activity of the Tipper too closely.
+Trinder, earlier trenden, is from Mid. Eng. trender, to roll (cf.
+Roller).  In the west country trinder now means specifically a
+wool-winder--
+
+"Lat hym rollen and trenden withynne hymself the lyght of his ynwarde
+sighte" (Boece, 1043).
+
+There are also some names of this class to which we can with certainty
+attribute two or more origins.  Boulter means a maker of bolts for
+crossbows, [Footnote: How many people who use the expression "bolt
+upright," associate it with "straight as a dart"?]  but also a sifter,
+from the obsolete verb to bolt--
+
+"The fanned snow, that's bolted
+ By the northern blasts twice o'er."
+
+(Winter's Tale, iv. 3.)
+
+Corner means horn-blower, Fr, cor, horn, and is also a contraction of
+coroner, but its commonest origin is local, in angulo, in the corner.
+Curren and Curryer are generally connected with leather, but Henry
+VII. bestowed L3 on the Curren that brought tidings of Perkin
+War-beck.  Garner has five possible origins: (i) a contraction of
+gardener, (ii) from the French personal name Garner, Ger. Werner,
+(iii) Old Fr. grenier, grain-keeper, (iv) Old Fr, garennier, warren
+keeper, (v) local, from garner, Fr. grenier, Lat. granarium.  In the
+next chapter will be found, as a specimen problem, an investigation of
+the name Rutter.
+
+
+
+PHONETIC CHANGES
+
+Two phonetic phenomena should also be noticed.  One is the regular
+insertion of n before the ending -ger, as in Firminger (Chapter XV),
+Massinger (Chapter XX), Pottinger (Chapter XVIII), and in Arminger,
+Clavinger, from the latinized armiger, esquire, and claviger,
+mace-bearer, etc.  (Chapter XV).  The other is the fact that many
+occupative names ending in -rer lose the -er by dissimilation (Chapter
+III).  Examples are Armour for armourer, Barter for barterer, Buckler
+for bucklerer, but also for buckle-maker, Callender for calenderer,
+one who calendered, i.e. pressed, cloth
+
+"And my good friend the Callender
+ Will lend his horse to go."
+
+(John Gilpin, 1.  22)--
+
+Coffer, for cofferer, a treasurer, Cover, for coverer, i.e. tiler, Fr.
+couvreur, when it does not correspond to Fr. cuvier, i.e. a maker of
+coves, vats, Ginger, Grammer, for grammarer, Paternoster, maker of
+paternosters or rosaries, Pepper, Sellar, for cellarer (Chapter III),
+Tabor, for Taberer, player on the taber.  Here also belongs Treasure,
+for treasurer.  Salter is sometimes for sautrier, a player on the
+psaltery.  We have the opposite process in poulterer for Pointer
+(Chapter II), and caterer for Cator (Chapter III).
+
+
+
+NAMES FROM WARES
+
+Such names as Ginger, Pepper, may however belong to the class of
+nicknames conferred on dealers in certain commodities; cf. Pescod,
+Peskett, from pease-cod.  Of this we have several examples which can
+be confirmed by foreign parallels, e.g. Garlick, found in German as
+Knoblauch, [Footnote: The cognate Eng. Clove-leek occurs as a surname
+in the Ramsey Chartulary.]  Straw, represented in German by the
+cognate name Stroh, and Pease, which is certified by Fr. Despois.  We
+find Witepease in the twelfth century.
+
+Especially common are those names which deal with the two staple foods
+of the country, bread and beer.  In German we find several compounds
+of Brot, bread, and one of the greatest of chess-players bore the
+amazing name Zuckertort, sugar-tart.  In French we have such names as
+Painchaud, Painleve, Pain-tendre--
+
+"Eugene Aram was usher, in 1744, to the Rev. Mr. Painblanc, in
+Piccadilly"
+
+ (Bardsley).
+
+Hence our Cakebread and Whitbread were probably names given to bakers.
+Simnel is explained in the same way, and Lambert Simnel is understood
+to have been a baker's lad, but the name could equally well be from
+Fr. Simonel, dim. of Simon.  Wastall is found in the Hundred Rolls as
+Wasted, Old Fr. gastel (gateau).  Here also belongs Cracknell--
+
+"Craquelin, a cracknell; made of the yolks of egges, water, and
+flower; and fashioned like a hollow trendle" (Cotgrave).
+
+Goodbeer is explained by Bardsley as a perversion of Godber (Chapter
+VII), which may be true, but the name is also to be taken literally.
+We have Ger. Gutbier, and the existence of Sourale in the Hundred
+Rolls and Sowerbutts at the present day justifies us in accepting both
+Goodbeer and Goodale at their face-value.  But Rice is an imitative
+form of Welsh Rhys, Reece, and Salt, when not derived from Salt in
+Stafford, is from Old Fr. sault, a wood, Lat. saltus.  [Footnote: This
+is common in place-names, and I should suggest, as a guess, that
+Sacheverell is from the village of Sault-Chevreuil-du-Tronchet
+(Manche).]  It is doubtful whether the name Cheese is to be included
+here.  Jan Kees, for John Cornelius, said to have been a nickname for
+a Hollander, may easily have reached the Eastern counties.  Bardsley's
+earliest instance for the name is John Chese, who was living in
+Norfolk in 1273.  But still I find Furmage as a medieval surname.
+
+We also have the dealer in meat represented by the classical example
+of Hogsflesh, with which we may compare Mutton and Veal, two names
+which may be seen fairly near each other in Hammersmith Road (but for
+these see also Chapter XXIII), and I have known a German named
+Kalbfleisch.  Names of this kind would sometimes come into existence
+through the practice of crying wares; though if Mr. Rottenherring, who
+was a freeman of York in 1332, obtained his in this way, he must have
+deliberately ignored an ancient piece of wisdom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI. A SPECIMEN PROBLEM: RUTTER
+
+"Howe sayst thou, man?  am not I a joly rutter?"
+
+(Skelton, Magnyfycence, 1.  762.)
+
+The fairly common name Rutter is a good example of the difficulty of
+explaining a surname derived from a trade or calling no longer
+practised.  Even so careful an authority as Bardsley has gone
+hopelessly astray over this name.  He says, "German ritter, a rider,
+i.e. a trooper," and quotes from Halliwell, "rutter, a rider, a
+trooper, from the German; a name given to mercenary soldiers engaged
+from Brabant, etc."  Now this statement is altogether opposed to
+chronology.  The name occurs as le roter, rotour, ruter in the Hundred
+Rolls of 1273, i.e. more than two centuries before any German name for
+trooper could possibly have become familiar in England.  Any stray
+Mid. High Ger. Riter would have been assimilated to the cognate Eng.
+Rider.  It is possible that some German Reuters have become English
+Rutters in comparatively modern times, but the German surname Reuter
+has nothing to do with a trooper.  It represents Mid. High Ger.
+riutaere, a clearer of land, from the verb riuten (reuten),
+corresponding to Low Ger. roden, and related to our royd, a clearing
+(Chapter XII).  This word is apparently not connected with our root,
+though it means to root out, but ultimately belongs to a root ru which
+appears in Lat. rutrum, a spade, rutabulum, a rake, etc.
+
+There is another Ger. Reuter, a trooper, which has given the
+sixteenth-century Eng. rutter, but not as a surname.  The word appears
+in German about 1500, i.e. rather late for the surname period, and
+comes from Du. ruiter, a mercenary trooper.  The German for trooper is
+Reiter, really the same word as Ritter, a knight, the two forms having
+been differentiated in meaning; cf. Fr. cavalier, a trooper, and
+chevalier, a knight.  In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Ger.
+Reiter was confused with, and supplanted by, this borrowed word
+Reuter, which was taken to mean rider, and we find the cavalry called
+Reuterei well into the eighteenth century.  As a matter of fact the
+two words are quite unrelated, though the origin of Du. ruiter is
+disputed.
+
+The New English Dictionary gives, from the year 1506, rutter (var.
+ruter, ruiter), a cavalry soldier, especially German, from Du. ruiter,
+whence Ger. Reuter, as above.  It connects the Dutch word with
+medieval Lat. rutarius, i.e. ruptarius, which is also Kluge's view.
+[Footnote: Deutsches Etymologisches Wrterbuch.]  But Franck [Footnote:
+Etymologisch Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal.]  sees phonetic
+difficulties and prefers to regard ruiter as belonging rather to
+ruiten, to uproot.  The application of the name up-rooter to a lawless
+mercenary is not unnatural.
+
+But whatever be the ultimate origin of this Dutch and German military
+word, it is sufficiently obvious that it cannot have given an English
+surname which is already common in the thirteenth century.  There is a
+much earlier claimant in the field.
+
+The New English Dictionary has roter (1297), var. rotour, rotor, and
+router (1379), a lawless person, robber, ruffian, from Old Fr. rotier
+(routier), and also the form rutar, used by Philemon Holland, who, in
+his translation of Camden's Britannia (1610), says "That age called
+foraine and willing souldiours rutars."  The reference is to King
+John's mercenaries, c. 1215.  Fr, routier, a mercenary, is usually
+derived from route, a band, Lat. rupta, a piece broken off, a
+detachment.  References to the grander routes, the great mercenary
+bands which overran France in the fourteenth century, are common in
+French history.  But the word was popularly, and naturally, connected
+with route, Lat. (via) rupta, a highway, so that Godefroy [Footnote:
+Dictionnaire de rancien Francais.]  separates routier, a vagabond,
+from routier, a bandit soldier.  Cotgrave has--
+
+"Routier, an old traveller, one that by much trotting up and down is
+grown acquainted with most waies; and hence, an old beaten souldier;
+one whom a long practise hath made experienced in, or absolute master
+of, his profession; and (in evill part) an old crafty fox, notable
+beguiler, ordinary deceiver, subtill knave; also, a purse-taker, or a
+robber by the high way side."
+
+It is impossible to determine the relative shares of route, a band,
+and route, a highway, in this definition, but there has probably been
+natural confusion between two words, separate in meaning, though
+etymologically identical.
+
+Now our thirteenth-century rotors and rulers may represent Old Fr.
+routier, and have been names applied to a mercenary soldier or a
+vagabond.  But this cannot be considered certain.  If we consult du
+Cange, [Footnote: Glossarium ad Scriptures medics et inflows
+Latinitatis.]  we find, s.v. rumpere, "ruptarii, pro ruptuarii, quidam
+praedones sub xi saeculum, ex rusticis. . .  collecti ac conflati,"
+which suggests connection with "ruptuarius, colonus qui agrum seu
+terram rumpit, proscindit, colic," i.e. that the ruptarii, also called
+rutarii, rutharii, rotharii, rotarii, etc., were so named because they
+were revolting peasants, i.e. men connected with the roture, or
+breaking of the soil, from which we get roturier, a plebeian.  That
+would still connect our Rutters with Lat. rumpere, but by a third
+road.
+
+Finally, Old French has one more word which seems to me quite as good
+a candidate as any of the others, viz. roteur, a player on the rote,
+i.e. the fiddle used by the medieval minstrels, Chaucer says of his
+Frere--
+
+"Wel koude he synge and playen on a rote."
+
+(A, 236.)
+
+The word is possibly of Celtic origin (Welsh crwth) and a doublet of
+the archaic crowd, or crowth, a fiddle.  Both rote and crowth are used
+by Spenser.  Crowd is perhaps not yet obsolete in dialect, and the
+fiddler in Hudibras is called Crowdero.  Thus Rutter may be a doublet
+of Crowther.  There may be other possible etymologies for Rutter, but
+those discussed will suffice to show that the origin of occupative
+names is not always easily guessed.
+
+Since the above was written I have found strong evidence for the
+"fiddler" derivation of the name.  In 1266 it was decided by a
+Lancashire jury that Richard le Harper killed William le Roter, or
+Ruter, in self-defence.  I think there can be little doubt that some,
+if not all, of our Rutters owe their names to the profession
+represented by this enraged musician.  William le Citolur and William
+le Piper also appear from the same record (Patent Rolls) to have
+indulged in homicide in the course of the year.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII. THE CANTERBURY PILGRIMS
+
+"In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay,
+ Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage,
+ To Caunterbury with ful devout corage,
+ At nyght were come into that hostelrye
+ Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye
+ Of sondry folk, by aventure y-falle
+ In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle,
+ That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde."
+
+(Prologue, 1.  20.)
+
+This famous band of wayfarers includes representatives of all classes,
+save the highest and the lowest, just at the period when our surnames
+were becoming fixed.  It seems natural to distinguish the following
+groups.  The leisured class is represented by the Knight (Chapter XV)
+and his son the Squire, also found as Swire or Swyer, Old Fr. escuyer
+(ecuyer), a shield-bearer (Lat. Scutum), with their attendant Yeoman,
+a name that originally meant a small landowner and later a trusted
+attendant of the warlike kind--
+
+"And in his hand he baar a myghty bow"
+
+(A, 108.)
+
+With these goes the Franklin (Chapter XV), who had been Sherriff, i.e.
+shire-reeve.  He is also described as a Vavasour (p. ii)--
+
+"Was nowher such a worthy vavasour" (A, 360.)
+
+From the Church and the professions we have the Nunn, her attendant
+priests, whence the names Press, Prest, the Monk, the Frere, or Fryer,
+"a wantowne and a merye," the Clark of Oxenforde, the Sargent of the
+lawe, the Sumner, i.e. summoner or apparitor, the doctor of physic,
+i.e. the Leech or Leach--
+
+"Make war breed peace; make peace stint war; make each
+ Prescribe to other, as each other's leech"
+
+(Timon of Athens, v. 4)--
+
+[Footnote: The same word as the worm leech, from an Anglo-Saxon word
+for healer.]
+
+and the poor parson.  Le surgien and le fisicien were once common
+surnames, but the former is almost swallowed up by Sargent, and the
+latter seems to have died out.  The name Leach has been reinforced by
+the dialect lache, a bog, whence also the compounds Blackleach,
+Depledge.  Loosely attached to the church is the Pardoner, with his
+wallet--
+
+"Bret-ful of pardon, comen from Rome al hoot."
+
+(A, 687.)
+
+His name still survives as Pardner, and perhaps as Partner, though
+both are very rare.
+
+Commerce is represented by the Marchant, depicted as a character of
+weight and dignity, and the humbler trades and crafts by--
+
+"An haberdasher, and a Carpenter,
+ A Webbe, a deyer (Dyer), and a tapiser."
+
+(A, 361.)
+
+To these may be added the Wife of Bath, whose comfortable means were
+drawn from the cloth trade, then our staple industry.
+
+From rural surroundings come the Miller and the Plowman, as kindly a
+man as the poor parson his brother, for--
+
+"He wolde threshe, and therto dyke and delve,
+ For Cristes sake, for every poure wight,
+ Withouten hire, if it lay in his myght."
+
+(A, 536.)
+
+The Miller is the same as the Meller or Mellor--
+
+"Upon the whiche brook ther stant a melle;
+ And this is verray sooth, that I yow tell."
+
+(A, 3923.)
+
+[Footnote: Melle is a Kentish form, used by Chaucer for the rime; cf.
+pet for pit (Chapter XIII).]
+
+The oldest form of the name is Milner, from Anglo-Sax. myln, Lat.
+molina; cf. Kilner from kiln, Lat. culina, kitchen.
+
+The official or servile class includes the manciple, or buyer for a
+fraternity of templars, otherwise called an achatour, whence Cator,
+Chaytor, Chater (Chapter III), [Footnote: Chater, Chaytor may be also
+from escheatour, an official who has given us the word cheat.]  the
+Reeve, an estate steward, so crafty that--
+
+"Ther nas baillif (Chapter IV), ne herde (Chapter III), nor oother
+ hyne (Chapter III),
+ That he ne knew his sleights and his covyne"
+
+(A, 603);
+
+and finally the Cook, or Coke (Chapter I)--
+
+"To boylle the chicknes and the marybones."
+
+(A, 380.)
+
+In a class by himself stands the grimmest figure of all, the Shipman,
+of whom we are told
+
+"If that he faught, and hadde the hyer hond,
+ By water he sente hem hoom to every lond."
+
+(A, 399.)
+
+The same occupation has given the name Marner, for mariner, and
+Seaman, but the medieval forms of the rare name Saylor show that it is
+from Fr. sailleur, a dancer, an artist who also survives as Hopper and
+Leaper--
+
+"To one that leped at Chestre, 6s.  8d."
+
+(Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VII,  1495.)
+
+[Footnote: He was usually more generous to the high arts, e.g. "To a
+Spaynarde that pleyed the fole, L2," "To the young damoysell that
+daunceth, L30." With which cf. "To Carter for writing of a boke, 7s.
+4d."]
+
+The pilgrims were accompanied by the host of the Tabard Inn, whose
+occupation has given us the names Inman and Hostler, Oastler, Old Fr.
+hostelier (hotelier), now applied to the inn servant who looks after
+the 'osses.  Another form is the modern-looking Hustler.  Distinct
+from these is Oster, Fr. oiseleur, a bird-catcher; cf. Fowler.
+
+
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES
+
+If we deal here with ecclesiastical names, as being really nicknames
+(Chapter XV), that will leave the trader and craftsman, the peasant,
+and the official or servile class to be treated in separate chapters.
+Social, as distinguished from occupative, surnames have already been
+touched on, and the names, not very numerous, connected with warfare
+have also been mentioned in various connections.
+
+Among ecclesiastical names Monk has the largest number of variants.
+Its Anglo-French form is sometimes represented by Munn and Moon, while
+Money is the oldest Fr. monie; cf. Vicary from Old Fr. vicarie.  But
+the French names La Monnaie, de la Monnaie, are local, from residence
+near the mint.  The canon appears as Cannon, Channen, and Shannon, Fr.
+chanoine--
+
+"With this chanoun I dwelt have seven yere"
+
+(G, 720);
+
+but Dean is also local sometimes (Chapter XII) and Deacon is an
+imitative form of Dakin or Deakin, from David (Chapter VI).  Charter
+was used of a monk of the Charter-house, a popular corruption of
+Chartreuse
+
+"With a company dyde I mete,
+ As ermytes, monkes, and freres,
+ Chanons, chartores . . ."
+
+(Cock Lorelles Bote.)
+
+Charter also comes from archaic Fr. chartier (charretier), a carter,
+and perhaps sometimes from Old Fr. chartrier, "a jaylor; also, a
+prisoner" (Cotg.), which belongs to Lat. carcer, prison.  [Footnote:
+The sense development of these two words is curious.]
+
+Charters may be from the French town Chartres, but is more likely a
+perversion of Charterhouse, as Childers is of the obsolete
+"childer-house," orphanage.
+
+Among lower orders of the church we have Lister, a reader, [Footnote:
+Found in Late Latin as legista, from Lat. Legere, to read.]  Bennet,
+an exorcist, and Collet, aphetic for acolyte.  But each of these is
+susceptible of another origin which is generally to be preferred.
+Chaplin is of course for chaplain, Fr. chapelain.  The legate appears
+as Leggatt.  Crosier or Crozier means cross-bearer.  At the funeral of
+Anne of Cleves (1557) the mass was executed--
+
+"By thabbott in pontificalibus wthis croysyer, deacon and subdeacon."
+
+Canter, Caunter is for chanter, and has an apparent dim. Cantrell,
+corresponding to the French name Chantereau.  The practice, unknown in
+English, of forming dims.  from occupative names is very common in
+French, e.g. from Mercier we have Mercerot, from Berger, i.e.
+Shepherd, a number of derivatives such as Bergerat, Bergeret,
+Bergerot, etc.  Sanger and Sangster were not necessarily
+ecclesiastical Singers.  Converse meant a lay-brother employed as a
+drudge in a monastery.  Sacristan, the man in charge of the sacristy,
+from which we have Secretan, is contracted into Saxton and Sexton, a
+name now usually associated with grave-digging and bell-ringing,
+though the latter task once belonged to the Knowler--
+
+"Carilloneur, a chymer, or knowler of bells" (Cotgrave).
+
+This is of course connected with "knell," though the only Kneller who
+has become famous was a German named Kniller.
+
+Marillier, probably a Huguenot name, is an Old French form of
+marguillier, a churchwarden, Lat. matricularius.  The hermit survives
+as Armatt, Armitt, with which cf. the Huguenot Lermitte (l'ermite),
+and the name of his dwelling is common (Chapter XIII); Anker, now
+anchorite, is also extant.  Fals-Semblant says--
+
+"Somtyme I am religious,
+ Now lyk an anker in an hous."
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 6348.)
+
+
+
+PILGRIMS
+
+While a Pilgrim acquired his name by a journey to any shrine, a Palmer
+must originally have been to the Holy Land, and a Romer to Rome.  But
+the frequent occurrence of Palmer suggests that it was often a
+nickname for a pious fraud.  We have a doublet of Pilgrim in Pegram,
+though this may come from the name Peregrine, the etymology being the
+same, viz. Lat. peregrines, a foreigner.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. TRADES AND CRAFTS
+
+"What d'ye lack, noble sir?--What d'ye lack, beauteous madam?"
+
+(Fortunes of Nigel, ch. i.)
+
+In the Middle Ages there was no great class of retail dealers distinct
+from the craftsmen who fashioned objects.  The same man made and sold
+in almost every case.  There were of course general dealers, such as
+the French Marchant or his English equivalent the Chapman (Chapter
+II), the Dutch form of which has given us the Norfolk name Copeman.
+The Broker is now generally absorbed by the local Brooker.  There were
+also the itinerant merchants, of whom more anon; but in the great
+majority of cases the craftsman made and sold one article, and was, in
+fact, strictly forbidden to wander outside his special line.
+
+
+
+ARCHERY
+
+Fuller tells us that--
+
+"England were but a fling,
+ Save for the crooked stick and the gray-goose-wing,"
+
+and the importance of the bow and arrow is shown by the number of
+surnames connected with their manufacture.  We find the Bowyer, Bower
+or Bowmaker, who trimmed and shaped the wand of yew, [Footnote: This
+is also one source of Boyer, but the very common French surname Boyer
+means ox-herd.]  the Fletcher (Chapter XV), Arrowsmith, or Flower, who
+prepared the arrow--
+
+"His bowe he bente and sette therinne a flo" (H, 264)--
+
+[Footnote: The true English word for arrow, Anglo-Sax. fla.]
+
+and the Tipper, Stringer, and Horner, who attended to smaller details,
+though the Tipper and Stringer probably tipped and strung other
+things, and the Horner, though he made the horn nocks of the long-bow,
+also made horn cups and other objects.
+
+The extent to which specialization was carried is shown by the trade
+description of John Darks, longbowstringemaker, who died in 1600.  The
+Arblaster may have either made or used the arblast or cross-bow,
+medieval Lat. arcubalista, bow-sling.  His name has given the
+imitative Alabaster.  We also find the shortened Ballister and
+Balestier, from which we have Bannister (Chapter III).  Or, to take an
+example from comestibles, a Flanner limited his activity to the making
+of flat cakes called flans or flawns, from Old Fr. flaon (flan), a
+word of Germanic origin, ultimately related to flat
+
+"He that is hanged in May will eat no flannes in Midsummer."
+
+(The Abbot, ch. xxxiii.)
+
+Some names have become strangely restricted in meaning, e.g. Mercer,
+now almost limited to silk, was a name for a dealer in any kind of
+merchandise (Lat. merx); in Old French it meant pedlar--
+
+"Mercier, a good pedler, or meane haberdasher of small wares"
+(Cotgrave).
+
+On the other hand Chandler, properly a candle-maker, is now used in
+the compounds corn-chandler and ship's chandler.  Of all the -mongers
+the only common survival is Ironmonger or Iremonger, with the variant
+Isemonger, from Mid. Eng. isen, iron.  Ironmonger is also dealer in
+eggs, Mid. Eng. eiren.
+
+
+
+CLOTHIERS
+
+The wool trade occupied a very large number of workers and has given a
+good many surnames.  The Shearer was distinct from the Shearman or
+Sherman, the former operating on the sheep and the latter on the nap
+of the cloth.  For Comber we also have the older Kempster, and
+probably Kimber, from the Mid. Eng. kemben, to comb, which survives in
+"unkempt".  The Walker, Fuller, and Tucker, all did very much the same
+work of "waulking," or trampling, the cloth.  All three words are used
+in Wyclif's Bible in variant renderings of Mark ix. 3.  Fuller is from
+Fr. fouler, to trample, and Tucker is of uncertain origin.  Fuller is
+found in the south and south-east, Tucker in the west, and Walker in
+the north.  A Dyer was also called Dyster, and the same trade is the
+origin of the Latin-looking Dexter (Chapter II).  From Mid. Eng.
+litster, a dyer, a word of Scandinavian origin, comes Lister, as in
+Lister Gate, Nottingham.  With these goes the Wadman, who dealt in, or
+grew, the dye-plant called woad; cf. Flaxman.  A beater of flax was
+called Swingler--
+
+"Fleyl, swyngyl, verga, tribulum"  (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+A Tozer teased the cloth with a teasel.  In Mid. English the verb is
+taesen or tosen, so that the names Teaser and Towser, sometimes given
+to bull-terriers, are doublets.  Secker means sack-maker.
+
+We have already noticed the predominance of Taylor.  This is the more
+remarkable when we consider that the name has as rivals the native
+Seamer and Shapster and the imported Parmenter, Old Fr. parmentier, a
+maker of parements, now used chiefly of facings on clothes.  But
+another, and more usual, origin of Parmenter, Parminter, Parmiter, is
+parchmenter, a very important medieval trade.  The word would
+correspond to a Lat. pergamentarius, which has given also the German
+surname Berminter.  Several old German cities had a Permentergasse,
+i.e. parchment-makers' street.  A Pilcher made pilches, i.e. fur
+cloaks, an early loan-word from Vulgar Lat. pellicia (pellis, skin).
+Chaucer's version of
+
+"Till May is out, ne'er cast a clout"
+
+is
+
+"After greet heet cometh colde;
+ No man caste his pilche away."
+
+Another name connected with clothes is Chaucer, Old Fr. chaussier, a
+hosier (Lat. calceus, boot), while Admiral Hozier's Ghost reminds us
+of the native word.  The oldest meaning of hose seems to have been
+gaiters.  It ascended in Tudor times to the dignity of breeches (cf.
+trunk-hose), the meaning it has in modern German.  Now it has become a
+tradesman's euphemism for the improper word stocking, a fact which led
+a friend of the writer's, imperfectly acquainted with German, to ask a
+gifted lady of that nationality if she were a Blauhose.  A Chaloner or
+Chawner dealt in shalloon, Mid. Eng. chalons, a material supposed to
+have been made at Chalons-sur-Marne--
+
+"And in his owene chambre hem made a bed,
+ With sheetes and with chalons faire y-spred."
+
+(A. 4139.)
+
+Ganter or Gaunter is Fr. gantier, glove-maker.
+
+
+
+METAL WORKERS
+
+Some metal-workers have already been mentioned in connection with
+Smith (Chapter IV), and elsewhere.  The French Fevre, from Lat. faber,
+is found as Feaver.  Fearon comes from Old Fr, feron, ferron, smith.
+Face le ferrun, i.e. Boniface (Chapter III) the smith, lived in
+Northampton in the twelfth century.  This is an example of the French
+use of -on as an agential suffix.  Another example is Old Fr. charton,
+or charreton, a waggoner, from the Norman form of which we have
+Carton.  In Scriven, from Old Fr. escrivain (ecrivain), we have an
+isolated agential suffix.  The English form is usually lengthened to
+Scrivener.  In Ferrier, for farrier, the traditional spelling has
+prevailed over the pronunciation, but we have the latter in Farrar.
+Ferrier sometimes means ferryman, and Farrar has absorbed the common
+Mid. English nickname Fayrhayr.  Aguilar means needle-maker, Fr.
+aiguille, but Pinner is more often official (Chapter XIX).  Culler,
+Fr. coutelier, Old Fr. coutel, knife, and Spooner go together, but the
+fork is a modern fad.  Poynter is another good example of the
+specialization of medieval crafts: the points were the metal tags by
+which the doublet and hose were connected.  Hence, the play on words
+when Falstaff is recounting his adventure with the men in buckram--
+
+Fal.  "Their points being broken--"
+
+Poins.  "Down fell their hose."
+
+(I Henry IV., ii, 4.)
+
+Latimer, Latner sometimes means a worker in latten, a mixed metal of
+which the etymological origin is unknown.  The Pardoner--
+
+"Hadde a croys of latoun ful of stones" (A, 699).
+
+For the change from -n to -m we may compare Lorimer for Loriner, a
+bridle-maker, belonging ultimately to Lat. lorum, "the reyne of a
+brydle" (Cooper).  But Latimer comes also from Latiner, a man skilled
+in Latin, hence an interpreter, Sir John Mandeville tells us that, on
+the way to Sinai--
+
+"Men alleweys fynden Latyneres to go with hem in the contrees."
+
+The immortal Bowdler is usually said to take his name from the art of
+puddling, or buddling, iron ore.  But, as this process is
+comparatively modern, it is more likely that the name comes from the
+same verb in its older meaning of making impervious to water by means
+of clay.  Monier and Minter are both connected with coining, the
+former through French and the latter from Anglo-Saxon, both going back
+to Lat. moneta, [Footnote: On the curiously accidental history of this
+word see the Romance of Words, ch. x.]  mint.  Conner, i.e. coiner, is
+now generally swallowed up by the Irish Connor.
+
+Leadbitter is for Leadbeater.  The name Hamper is a contraction of
+hanapier, a maker of hanaps, i.e. goblets.  Fr. hanap is from Old High
+Ger. hnapf (Napf), and shows the inability of French to pronounce
+initial hn- without inserting a vowel: cf. harangue from Old High Ger.
+hring.  There is also a Mid. Eng. nap, cup, representing the cognate
+Anglo-Sax. hnaep, so that the name Napper may sometimes be a doublet
+of Hamper, though it is more probably for Napier (Chapter I) or
+Knapper (Chapter XII).  The common noun hamper is from hanapier in a
+sense something like plate-basket.  With metal-workers we may also put
+Furber or Frobisher, i.e. furbisher, of armour, etc.  Poyser, from
+poise, scales, is official.  Two occupative names of Celtic origin are
+Gow, a smith, as in The Fair Maid of Perth, and Caird, a tinker--
+
+"The fellow had been originally a tinker or caird."
+
+(Heart of Midlothian, ch. xlix.)
+
+A few more names, which fall into no particular category, may conclude
+the chapter.  Hillyer or Hellier is an old name for a Thacker, or
+thatcher, of which we have the Dutch form in Dekker.  It comes from
+Mid. Eng. helen, to cover up.  In Hillard, Hillyard we sometimes have
+the same name (cf. the vulgar scholard), but these are more often
+local (Chapter XIII).  Hellier also meant tiler, for the famous Wat is
+described as tiler, tegheler, and hellier.
+
+An Ashburner prepared wood-ash for the Bloomer (Chapter XV), and
+perhaps also for the Glaisher, or glass-maker, and Asher is best
+explained in the same way, for we do not, I think, add -er to
+tree-names.  Apparent exceptions can be easily accounted for, e.g.
+Elmer is Anglo-Sax. AElfmaer, and Beecher is Anglo-Fr. bechur, digger
+(Fr. beche, spade).  Neither Pitman nor Collier had their modern
+meaning of coal-miner.  Pitman is local, of the same class as
+Bridgeman, Pullman, etc., and Collier meant a charcoal-burner, as in
+the famous ballad of Rauf Colyear.  Not much coal was dug in the
+Middle Ages.  Even in 1610 Camden speaks with disapproval, in his
+Britannia, of the inhabitants of Sherwood Forest who, with plenty of
+wood around them, persist in digging up "stinking pit-cole."
+
+Croker is for Crocker, a maker of crocks or pitchers.  The Miller's
+guests only retired to bed--
+
+"Whan that dronken al was in the crowke" (A, 4158)
+
+The spelling has affected the pronunciation, as in Sloper and Smoker
+(Chapter III).  Tinker is sometimes found as the frequentative
+Tinkler, a name traditionally due to his approach being heralded by
+the clatter of metal utensils--
+
+"My bonny lass, I work on brass,
+ A tinkler is my station."
+
+(BURNS, Jolly Beggars, Air 6.)
+
+The maker of saddle-trees was called Fewster, from Old Fr. fust (fut),
+Lat. fustis.  This has sometimes given Foster, but the latter is more
+often for Forster, i.e. Forester--
+
+"An horn he bar, the bawdryk was of grene,
+ A forster was he soothly as I gesse,"
+
+(A, 116.)
+
+The saddler himself was often called by his French name sellier,
+whence Sella', but both this and Sellars are also local, at the
+cellars (Chapter III).  Pargeter means dauber, plasterer, from Old Fr.
+parjeter, to throw over.  A Straker made the strakes, or tires, of
+wheels.  A Stanger made stangs, i.e. poles, shafts, etc.
+
+The fine arts are represented by Limmer, for limner, a painter, an
+aphetic form of illumines, and Tickner is perhaps from Dutch tekener,
+draughtsman, cognate with Eng, token, while the art of self-defence
+has given us the name Scrimgeoure, with a number of corruptions,
+including the local-looking Skrimshire.  It is related to scrimmage
+and skirmish, and ultimately to Ger. schirmen, to fence, lit.  to
+protect.  The name was applied to a professional swordplayer--
+
+"Qe nul teigne escole de eskermerye ne de bokeler deins la citee."
+
+(Liber Albus.)
+
+
+
+SURNOMINAL SNOBBISHNESS
+
+A particularly idiotic form of snobbishness has sometimes led people
+to advance strange theories as to the origin of their names.  Thus
+Turner has been explained as from la tour noire.  Dr. Brewer, in his
+Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, [Footnote: Thirteenth edition, revised
+and corrected.]  apparently desirous of dissociating himself from malt
+liquor, observes that--
+
+"Very few ancient names are the names of trades. . .  A few examples
+of a more scientific derivation will suffice for a hint:--
+
+Brewer.  This name, which exists in France as Bruhiere and Brugere, is
+not derived from the Saxon briwan (to brew), but the French bruyere
+(heath), and is about tantamount to the German Plantagenet (broom
+plant).  Miller is the old Norse melia, our mill and maul, and means a
+mauler or fighter.
+
+Ringer is the Anglo-Saxon hring-gar (the mailed warrior).  Tanner,
+German Thanger, Old German Dane-gaud, is the Dane-Goth...
+
+This list might easily be extended."
+
+There is of course no reason why such a list should not be
+indefinitely extended, but the above excerpt is probably quite long
+enough to make the reader feel dizzy.  The fact is that there is no
+getting away from a surname of this class, and the bearer must try to
+look on the brighter side of the tragedy.  Brewer is occasionally an
+accommodated form of the French name Bruyere or Labruyere, but is
+usually derived from an occupation which is the high-road to the House
+of Lords.  The ancestor of any modern Barber may, like Salvation Yeo's
+father, have "exercised the mystery of a barber-surgeon," which is
+getting near the learned professions.  A Pottinger (Chapter XV) looked
+after the soups, Fr. potage, but the name also represents Pothecary
+(apothecary), which had in early Scottish the aphetic forms Poticar,
+potigar--
+
+"'Pardon me,' said he, 'I am but a poor pottingar.  Nevertheless, I
+have been bred in Paris and learnt my humanities and my cursus
+medendi'"
+
+(Fair Maid of Perth, ch. vii.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX. HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS
+
+"Jacque, il me faut troubler ton Somme;
+ Dans le village, un gros huissier
+ Rode et court, suivi du messier.
+ C'est pour l'impot, las!  mon pauvre homme.
+ Leve-toi, Jacque, leve-toi:
+ Voici venir I'huissier du roi."
+
+BERANGER.
+
+General terms for what we now usually call a farmer are preserved in
+the surnames Bond (Chapter XV), whence the compound Husband, used both
+for the goodman of the house and in the modern sense, and Tillman.
+The labouring man was Day, from the same root as Ger. Dienen, to
+serve.  It persists in "dairy" and perhaps in the puzzling name
+Doubleday (?  doing two men's work).  A similar meaning is contained
+in the names Swain, Hind, for earlier Hine (Chapter III), Tasker,
+Mann.  But a Wager was a mercenary soldier.  The mower has given us
+the names Mather (cf. aftermath), and Mawer, while Fenner is sometimes
+for Old Fr. feneur, haymaker (Lat. foenum, hay).  For mower we also
+find the latinized messor, whence Messer.  Whether the Ridler and the
+Sivier made, or used, riddles and sieves can hardly be decided.
+[Footnote: Riddle is the usual word for sieve in the Midlands.  Hence
+the phrase "riddled with holes, or wounds."]
+
+With the Wenman, who drove the wain, we may mention the Leader or
+Loader.  The verbs "lead" and "load" are etymologically the same, and
+in the Midlands people talk of "leading," i.e. carting, coal.  But
+these names could also come from residence near an artificial
+watercourse (Chapter XIII).  Beecher has already been explained, and
+Shoveler is formed in the same way from dialect showl, a shovel--
+
+" 'I,' said the owl,
+
+  'With my spade and showl.' "
+
+To the variants of the Miller (Chapter XXIII) may be added Mulliner,
+from Old French.  Tedder means a man who teds, i.e. spreads, hay, the
+origin of the word being Scandinavian
+
+"I teede hey, I tourne it afore it is made in cockes, je fene."
+(Palsgrave.)
+
+But the greater number of surnames drawn from rural occupations are
+connected with the care of animals.  We find names of this class in
+three forms, exemplified by Coltman, Goater, Shepherd, and it seems
+likely that the endings -er and -erd have sometimes been interchanged,
+e.g. that Goater may stand for goat-herd, Calver for calf-herd, and
+Nutter sometimes for northern nowt-herd, representing the dialect
+neat-herd.  The compounds of herd include Bullard, Calvert, Coltard,
+Coward, for cow-herd, not of course to be confused with the common
+noun coward (Fr. couard, a derivative of Lat. cauda, tail), Evart,
+ewe-herd, but also a Norman spelling of Edward, Geldard, Goddard,
+sometimes for goat-herd, Hoggart, often confused with the local
+Hogarth (Chapter XIII), Seward, for sow-herd, or for the historic
+Siward, Stobart, dialect stob, a bull, Stodart, Mid. Eng. stot,
+meaning both a bullock and a nag.  Chaucer tells us that--
+
+"This reve sat upon a ful good stot" (A, 615 ).
+
+Stoddart is naturally confused with Studdart, stud-herd, stud being
+cognate with Ger. Stute, mare.  We also have Swinnert, and lastly
+Weatherhead, sometimes a perversion of wether-herd, though usually a
+nickname, sheep's head.  The man in charge of the tups, or rams, was
+called Tupman or Tupper, the latter standing sometimes for tup-herd,
+just as we have the imitative Stutter for Stodart or Studdart.  We
+have also Tripper from trip, a dialect word for flock, probably
+related to troop.  Another general term for a herdsman was Looker,
+whence Luker.
+
+
+
+BUMBLEDOM
+
+I have headed this chapter "Hodge and his Friends," but as, a matter
+of strict truth he had none, except the "poure Persons," the most
+radiant figure in Chaucer's pageant.  But his enemies were
+innumerable.  Beranger's lines impress one less than the uncouth "Song
+of the Husbandman" (temp.  Edward I.), in which we find the woes of
+poor Hodge incorporated in the persons of the hayward, the bailif, the
+wodeward, the budel and his cachereles (catchpoles)--
+
+"For ever the furthe peni mot (must) to the kynge."
+
+The bailiff has already been mentioned (Chapter IV).  The budel, or
+beadle, has given us several surnames.  We have the word in two forms,
+from Anglo-Sax. bytel, belonging to the verb to bid, whence the names
+Biddle and Buddle, and from Old Fr. bedel (bedeau), whence Beadle and
+its variants.  The animal is probably extinct under his original name,
+but modern democracy is doing its best to provide him with an army of
+successors.  The "beadle" group of names has been confused with
+Bithell, Welsh Ap Ithel.
+
+Names in -ward are rather numerous, and, as they mostly come from the
+titles of rural officials and are often confused with compounds of
+-herd, they are all put together here.  The simple Ward, cognate with
+Fr. garde, is one of our commonest surnames.  Like its derivative
+Warden it had a very wide range of meanings.  The antiquity of the
+office of church-warden is shown by the existence of the surname
+Churchward.  Sometimes the surname comes from the abstract or local
+sense, de la warde.  As the suffix -weard occurs very frequently in
+Anglo-Saxon personal names, it is not always possible to say whether a
+surname is essentially occupative or not, e.g. whether Durward is
+rather "door-ward" or for Anglo-Sax. Deorweard.  Howard, which is
+phonetically Old Fr. Huard, is sometimes also for Hayward or Haward
+(Hereward), or for Hayward.  It has no doubt interchanged with the
+local Howarth, Haworth.
+
+Owing to the loss of w- in the second part of a word (Chapter III),
+-ward and -herd often fall together, e.g. Millard for Milward, and
+Woodard found in Mid. English as both wode-ward and wode-hird.
+Hayward belongs to hay, hedge, enclosure (Chapter XIII), from which we
+also get Hayman.  The same functionary has given the name Haybittle, a
+compound of beadle.  Burward and Burrard may represent the once
+familiar office of bear-ward; cf. Berman.  I had a schoolfellow called
+Lateward, apparently the man in charge of the lade or leet (Chapter
+XIII).  Medward is for mead-ward.
+
+The name Stewart or Stuart became royal with Walter the Steward of
+Scotland, who married Marjorie Bruce in 1315.  It stands for sty-ward,
+where sty means pen, not necessarily limited to pigs.  Like most
+official titles, it has had its ups and downs, with the result that
+its present meaning ranges from a high officer of the crown to the
+sympathetic concomitant of a rough crossing.
+
+The Reeve, Anglo-Sax. ge-refa, was in Chaucer a kind of land agent,
+but the name was also applied to local officials, as in port-reeve,
+shire-reeve.  It is the same as Grieve, also originally official, but
+used in Scotland of a land steward--
+
+"He has got a ploughman from Scotland who acts as grieve."
+
+(Scott, Diary, 1814.)
+
+This may be one source of the names Graves and Greaves.  The name
+Woodruff, Woodroffe is too common to be referred to the plant
+woodruff, and the fact that the male and female of a species of
+sand-piper are called the ruff and reeve suggests that Woodruff may
+have some relation to wood-reeve.  It is at any rate a curious
+coincidence that the German name for the plant is Waldmeister,
+wood-master.  Another official surname especially connected with
+country life is Pinder, also found as Pinner, Pender, Penner, Ponder
+and Poynder, the man in charge of the pound or pinfold; cf. Parker,
+the custodian of a park, of which the Palliser or Pallister made the
+palings.
+
+
+
+ITINERANT MERCHANTS
+
+The itinerant dealer was usually called by a name suggesting the pack
+which he carried.  Thus Badger, Kidder, Kiddier, Pedder, now pedlar,
+are from bag, kid, related to kit, and the obsolete ped, basket; cf.
+Leaper, Chapter XV.  The badger, who dealt especially in corn, was
+unpopular with the rural population, and it is possible that his name
+was given to the stealthy animal formerly called the bawson (Chapter
+I.), brock or gray (Chapter XXIII).  That Badger is a nickname taken
+from the animal is chronologically improbable, as the word is first
+recorded in 1523 (New English Dictionary).
+
+To the above names may be added Cremer, Cramer, a huckster with a
+stall in the market, but this surname is sometimes of modern
+introduction, from its German cognate Kraemer, now generally used for a
+grocer.  Packman, Pakeman, and Paxman belong more probably to the
+font-name Pack (Chapter IX), which also appears in Paxon, either
+Pack's son, or for the local Paxton.
+
+The name Hawker does not belong to this group.  Nowadays a hawker is a
+pedlar, and it has been assumed, without sufficient evidence, that the
+word is of the same origin as huckster.  The Mid. Eng. le haueker or
+haukere (1273) is quite plainly connected with hawk, and the name may
+have been applied either to a Falconer, Faulkner, or to a dealer in
+hawks.  As we know that itinerant vendors of hawks travelled from
+castle to castle, it is quite possible that our modern hawker is an
+extended use of the same name.
+
+Nor is the name Coster to be referred to costermonger, originally a
+dealer in costards, i.e. apples.  It is sometimes for Mid. Eng.
+costard (cf. such names as Cherry and Plumb), but may also represent
+Port.  da Costa and Ger. Koester, both of which are found in early
+lists of Protestant refugees.
+
+Jagger was a north-country name for a man who worked draught-horses
+for hire.  Mr. Hardy's novel Under the Greenwood Tree opens with "the
+Tranter's party." A carrier is still a "tranter" in Wessex.  In
+Medieval Latin he was called travetarius, a word apparently connected
+with Lat. transvehere, to transport.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX. OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC
+
+"Big fleas have little fleas
+ Upon their backs to bite 'em
+ Little fleas have smaller fleas,
+ And so ad infinitum."
+
+Anon.
+
+It is a well-known fact that official nomenclature largely reflects
+the simple housekeeping of early times, and that many titles, now of
+great dignity, were originally associated with rather lowly duties.
+We have seen an example in Stewart.  Another is Chamberlain.  Hence
+surnames drawn from this class are susceptible of very varied
+interpretation.  A Chancellor was originally a man in charge of a
+chancel, or grating, Lat. cancelli.  In Mid. English it is usually
+glossed scriba, while it is now limited to very high judicial or
+political office.  Bailey, as we have seen (Chapter IV), has also a
+wide range of meanings, the ground idea being that of care-taker.
+Cotgrave explains Old Fr. mareschal marechal as--
+
+"A marshall of a kingdoms, or of a camp (an honourable place); also, a
+blacksmith; also, a farrier, horse-leech, or horse-smith; also, a
+harbinger,"
+
+[Footnote: i.e. a quartermaster.  See Romance of Words, ch. vii.]
+
+which gives a considerable choice of origins to any modern Marshall or
+Maskell.
+
+Another very vague term is sergeant, whence our Sargent.  Its oldest
+meaning is servant, Lat. serviens, servient--.  Cotgrave defines
+sergent as--
+
+"A sergeant, officer, catchpole, pursuyvant, apparitor; also (in Old
+Fr.) a footman, or souldier that serves on foot." I
+
+Probably catchpole was the commonest meaning--
+
+"Sargeauntes, katche pollys, and somners" (Cocke Lorelles Bote).
+
+The administration of justice occupied a horde of officials, from the
+Justice down to the Catchpole.  The official title Judge is rarely
+found, and this surname is usually from the female name Judge, which,
+like Jug, was used for Judith, and later for Jane--
+
+"Jannette, Judge, Jennie; a woman's name" (Cotgrave).
+
+The names Judson and Juxon sometimes belong to these.  Catchpole has
+nothing to do with poles or polls.  It is a Picard cache-poule
+(chasse-poule), collector of poultry in default of money.  Another
+name for judge was Dempster, the pronouncer of doom, a title which
+still exists in the Isle of Man.  We also find Deemer--
+
+"Demar, judicator" (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+Mayor is a learned spelling of Mair, Fr. maire, Lat. major, but Major,
+which looks like its latinized form, is perhaps imitative for the Old
+French personal name Mauger.  Bishop Mauger of Worcester pronounced
+the interdict in 1208, and the surname still exists.
+
+Gaylor, Galer, is the Norman pronunciation of gaoler--
+
+"And Palamon, this woful prisoner,
+ As was his wone, bi leve of his gayler,
+ Was risen"  (A, 1064).
+
+
+
+THE HOUSEHOLD
+
+Usher is Fr. huissier, door-keeper, Fr. huis, door, Lat. ostium.  I
+conjecture that Lusher is the French name Lhuissier, and that Lush is
+local, for Old Fr. le huis; cf. Laporte.  Wait, corruptly Weight, now
+used only of a Christmas minstrel, was once a watchman.  It is a
+dialect form of Old Fr. gaite, cognate with watch.  The older sense
+survives in the expression "to lie in wait."  Gate is the same name,
+when not local (Chapter XIII).
+
+The Todhunter, or fox-hunter (Chapter XXIII), was an official whose
+duty was to exterminate the animal now so carefully preserved.  Warner
+is often for Warrener.  The Grosvenor (gros veneur), great hunter, was
+a royal servant.  Bannerman is found latinized as Penninger (Chapter
+XV).  Herald may be official or from Harold (Chapter VII), the
+derivation being in any case the same.  Toller means a collector of
+tolls.  Cocke Lorelle speaks of these officials as "false Towlers."
+Connected with administration is the name Mainprice, lit.  taken by
+hand, used both for a surety and a man out on bail--
+
+"Maynprysyd, or memprysyd, manucaptus, fideijussus" (Prompt.  Parv.);
+
+and Shurety also exists.
+
+The individual bigwig had a very large retinue, the members of which
+appear to have held very strongly to the theory of one man, one job.
+The Nurse, or Norris, Fr. nourrice, was apparently debarred from
+rocking the cradle.  This was the duty of the rocker--
+
+"To the norice and rokker of the same lord, 25s.  8d."
+
+(Household Accounts of Elizabeth of York, March, 1503),
+
+from whom Mr. Roker, chief turnkey at the Fleet in Mr. Pickwick's
+time, may have sprung The Cook was assisted by the Baster and Hasler,
+or turnspit, the latter from Old Fr. hastille, spit, dim. of Lat.
+hasta, spear.  The Chandler was a servant as well as a manufacturer.
+
+A Trotter and a Massinger, i.e. messenger, were perhaps much the same
+thing.  Wardroper is of course wardrobe keeper, but Chaucer uses
+wardrope (B. 1762) in the sense which Fr. garde-robe now usually has.
+The Lavender, Launder or Lander saw to the washing.  Napier, from Fr.
+nappe, cloth, meant the servant who looked after the napery.  The
+martial sound with which this distinguished name strikes a modern ear
+is due to historical association, assisted, as I have somewhere read,
+by its riming with rapier!  The water-supply was in charge of the
+Ewer.
+
+The provisioning of the great house was the work of the Lardner, Fr.
+lard, bacon, the Panter, or Pantler, who was, at least etymologically,
+responsible for bread, and the Cator (Chapter III) and Spencer
+(Chapter III), whose names, though of opposite meaning, buyer and
+spender, come to very much the same thing.  Spence is still the
+north-country word for pantry, and is used by Tennyson in the sense of
+refectory--
+
+"Bluff Harry broke into the Spence
+ And turn'd the cowls adrift."
+
+(The Talking Oak, 1.  47.)
+
+Purser, now used in connection with ships only, was also a medieval
+form of bursar, and every castle and monastery had its almoner, now
+Amner.  Here also belongs Carver.  In Ivey Church (Bucks) is a tablet
+to Lady Mary Salter with a poetic tribute to her husband--
+
+"Full forty years a carver to two kings."
+
+As the importance of the horse led to the social elevation of the
+marshal and constable (Chapter IV), so the hengstman, now henchman,
+became his master's right-hand man.  The first element is Anglo-Sax.
+hengest, stallion, and its most usual surnominal forms are Hensman and
+Hinxman.  Historians now regard Hengist and Horsa, stallion and mare,
+as nicknames assumed by Jutish braves on the war-path.  Sumpter, Old
+Fr. sommetier, from Somme, burden, was used both of a packhorse and
+its driver, its interpretation in King Lear being a matter of dispute--
+
+"Return with her?
+ Persuade me rather to be slave and Sumpter
+ To this detested groom" (Lear, ii, 4).
+
+As a surname it probably means the driver, Medieval Lat. sumetarius.
+
+Among those who ministered to the great man's pleasures we must
+probably reckon Spelman, Speller, Spillman, Spiller, from Mid. Eng.
+spel, a speech, narrative, but proof of this is lacking
+
+"Now holde your mouth, par charitee,
+ Bothe knyght and lady free,
+ And herkneth to my spelle" (B, 2081).
+
+The cognate Spielmann, lit.  Player, was used in Medieval German of a
+wandering minstrel.
+
+The poet is now Rymer or Rimmer, while Trover, Fr. trouvere, a poet,
+minstrel, lit.  finder, has been confused with Trower, for Thrower, a
+name connected with weaving.  Even the jester has come down to us as
+Patch, a name given regularly to this member of the household in
+allusion to his motley attire.  Shylock applies it, to Launcelot--
+
+"The patch is kind enough; but a huge feeder."
+
+(Merchant of Venice, ii.  5.)
+
+But the name has another origin (Chapter IX).  Buller and Cocker are
+names taken from the fine old English sports of bull-baiting and
+cock-fighting.
+
+Two very humble members of the parasitic class have given the names
+Bidder and Maunder, both meaning beggar.  The first comes from Mid.
+Eng. bidden, to ask.  Piers Plowman speaks of "bidderes and beggers."
+Maunder is perhaps connected with Old Fr. quemander--
+
+"Quemander, or caimander, to beg; or goe a begging; to beg from doore
+to doore" (Cotgrave),
+
+but it may mean a maker of "maunds," i.e. baskets.
+
+A Beadman spent his time in praying for his benefactor.  A medieval
+underling writing to his superior often signs himself "your servant
+and bedesman."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI. OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL
+
+"Here is Wyll Wyly the myl pecker,
+ And Patrick Pevysshe heerbeter,
+ With lusty Hary Hangeman,
+ Nexte house to Robyn Renawaye;
+ Also Hycke Crokenec the rope maker,
+ And Steven Mesyllmouthe muskyll taker."
+
+(Cocke Lorelles Bote.)
+
+[Footnote: This humorous poem, inspired by Sebastian Brandt's
+Narrenschiff, known in England in Barclay's translation, was printed
+early in the reign of Henry VIII.  It contains the fullest list we
+have of old trade-names.]
+
+Every family name is etymologically a nickname, i.e. an eke-name,
+intended to give that auxiliary information which helps in
+identification.  But writers on surnames have generally made a special
+class of those epithets which were originally conferred on the bearer
+in connection with some characteristic feature, physical or moral, or
+some adjunct, often of the most trifling description, with which his
+personality was associated.  Of nicknames, as of other things, it may
+be said that there is nothing new under the sun.  Ovidius Naso might
+have received his as a schoolboy, and Moss cum nano, whom we find in
+Suffolk in 1184, lives on as "Nosey Moss" in Whitechapel.  Some of our
+nicknames occur as personal names in Anglo-Saxon times (Chapter VII),
+but as surnames they are seldom to be traced back to that period, for
+the simple reason that such names were not hereditary.  An Anglo-Saxon
+might be named Wulf, but his son would bear another name, while our
+modern Wolfe does not usually go farther back than some Ranulf le wolf
+of the thirteenth or fourteenth century.  This is of course stating
+the case broadly, because the personal name Wolf also persisted and
+became in some cases a surname.  In this and the following chapters I
+do not generally attempt to distinguish between such double origins.
+
+Nicknames are formed in very many ways, but the two largest classes
+are sobriquets taken from the names of animals, e.g. Hogg, or from
+adjectives, either alone or accompanied by a noun, e.g. Dear,
+Goodfellow.  Each of these classes requires a chapter to itself, while
+here we may deal with the smaller groups.
+
+Some writers have attempted to explain all apparent nicknames as
+popular perversions of surnames belonging to the other three classes.
+As the reader will already have noticed, such perversions are
+extremely common, but it is a mistake to try to account for obvious
+nicknames in this way.  Any of us who retain a vivid recollection of
+early days can call to mind nicknames of the most fantastic kind, and
+in some cases of the most apparently impossible formation, which stuck
+to their possessors all through school-life.  A very simple test for
+the genuineness of a nickname is a comparison with other languages.
+Camden says that Drinkwater is a corruption of Derwentwater.  The
+incorrectness of this guess is shown by the existence as surnames of
+Fr. Boileau, It.  Bevilacqua, and Ger. Trinkwasser.  It is in fact a
+perfectly natural nickname for a medieval eccentric, the more normal
+attitude being represented by Roger Beyvin (boi-vin), who died in
+London in 1277.
+
+
+
+FOREIGN NICKNAMES
+
+Corresponding to our Goodday, we find Ger. Gutentag and Fr. Bonjour.
+The latter has been explained as from a popular form of George, but
+the English and German names show that the explanation is.
+unnecessary.  With Dry we may compare Fr. Lesec and Ger. Duerr, with
+Garlick Ger. Knoblauch (Chapter XV), and with Shakespeare Ger.
+Schuettespeer.  Luck is both for Luke and Luick (Liege, Chapter XI),
+but Rosa Bonheur and the composer Gluck certify it also as a nickname.
+Merryweather is like Fr. Bontemps, and Littleboy appears in the Paris
+Directory as Petitgas, gas being the same as gars, the old nominative
+(Chapter I) of garcon--
+
+"Gars, a lad, boy, stripling, youth, yonker" (Cotgrave).
+
+Bardsley explains Twentyman as an imitative corruption of twinter-man,
+the man in charge of the twinters, two-year-old colts.  This may be
+so, but there is a German confectioner in Hampstead called Zwanziger,
+and there are Parisians named Vingtain.  Lover is confirmed by the
+French surnames Amant and Lamoureux, and Wellbeloved by Bienaime.
+Allways may be the literal equivalent of the French name Partout.  On
+the other hand, the name Praisegod Barebones has been wrongly fixed on
+an individual whose real name was Barbon or Barborne.
+
+It may seem strange that the nickname, conferred essentially on the
+individual, and often of a very offensive character, should have
+persisted and become hereditary.  But schoolboys know that, in the
+case of an unpleasant nickname, the more you try to pull it off, the
+more it sticks the faster.  Malapert and Lehideux are still well
+represented in the Paris Directory.  Many objectionable nicknames
+have, however, disappeared, or have been so modified as to become
+inoffensive.
+
+Sometimes such disappearance has resulted from the depreciation in the
+meaning of a word, e.g. le lewd, the layman, the unlettered, was once
+as common as its opposite le learned, whence the name Larned.  But
+many uncomplimentary names are no longer objected to because their
+owners do not know their earlier meanings.  A famous hymn-writer of
+the eighteenth century bore all unconsciously a surname that would
+almost have made Rabelais blush.  Drinkdregs, Drunkard, Sourale,
+Sparewater, Sweatinbed, etc. have gone, but we still have Lusk--
+
+"Falourdin, a luske, loot, lurden, a lubberlie sloven, heavie sot,
+lumpish hoydon" (Cotgrave)--
+
+and many other names which can hardly have gratified their original
+possessors.
+
+A very interesting group of surnames consists of those which indicate
+degrees of kinship or have to do with the relations existing between
+individuals.  We find both Master and Mann, united in Masterman,
+meaning the man in the service of one locally known as the master.
+With this we may compare Ladyman, Priestman, etc. But Mann is often of
+local origin, from the Isle of Man.  In some cases such names are
+usually found with the patronymic -s, e.g. Masters, Fellows, while in
+others this is regularly absent, e.g. Guest, Friend.  The latter name
+is sometimes a corruption of Mid. Eng. fremed, stranger, cognate with
+Ger. fremd, so that opposite terms, which we find regularly contrasted
+in Mid. Eng. "frend and fremed," have become absorbed in one surname.
+
+The frequent occurrence of Fellows is due to its being sometimes for
+the local Fallows.  From Mid. Eng. fere, a companion, connected with
+faren, to travel, we get Littlefair and Playfair.  In Wyclif's Bible
+we read that Jephthah's daughter--
+
+"Whanne sche hadde go with hir felowis and pleiferis, sche biwept hir
+maydynhed in the hillis" (Judges xi.  38).
+
+Springett is for springald, and Arlett is Mid. Eng. harlot, fellow,
+rascal, a word which has changed its gender and meaning--
+
+"He was a gentil harlot and a kynde,
+ A betre felawe sholde men noght fynde."
+
+(A, 647.)
+
+
+
+KINSHIP
+
+In surnames taken from words indicating family relationship we come
+across some survivals of terms no longer used, or occurring only in
+rustic dialect.  The Mid. Eng. eme, uncle, cognate with Ger. Oheim,
+has given Eames.  In Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, the heroine
+addresses Pandarus as "uncle dere" and "uncle mine," but also uses the
+older word--
+
+"'In good feith, em,' quod she, 'that liketh me'" (ii.  162);
+
+and the word is used more than once by Scott--
+
+"Didna his eme die. . .  wi' the name of the Bluidy Mackenzie?"
+
+(Heart of Midlothian, ch. xii.)
+
+It is also one of the sources of Empson, which thus corresponds to
+Cousins or Cozens.  In Neame we have a prosthetic n- due to the
+frequent occurrence of min eme (cf. the Shakespearean nuncle, Lear, i.
+4).  The names derived from cousin have been reinforced by those from
+Cuss, i.e. Constant or Constance (Chapter X).  Thus Cussens is from
+the Mid. English dim. Cussin.  Anglo-Sax. nefa, whence Mid. Eng. neve,
+neave, is cognate with, but not derived from, Lat. nepos.  [Footnote:
+In all books on surnames that I have come across this is referred to
+Old Fr. le neve.  There is no such word in old French, which has nom.
+nies, acc.  neveu.]
+
+This is now replaced as a common noun by the French word nephew, but
+it survives in the surname Neave.  It also meant in Mid. English a
+prodigal or parasite, as did also Lat. nepos--
+
+"Neve, neverthryfte, or wastowre"  (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+It is likely that Nevison and Nevinson are sometimes derivatives of
+this word.
+
+Child was sometimes used in the special sense of youth of gentle
+blood, or young knight; cf. Childe Harold and Childe Rowland (Lear,
+iii.  4).  But the more general meaning may be assumed in its
+compounds, of which the most interesting is Leifchild, dear-child, a
+fairly common name in Anglo-Saxon.  The corresponding Faunt, whence
+Fauntleroy (Chapter XV), is now rare.  Another word, now only used in
+dialect or by affectation, is "bairn," a frequent source of the very
+common surname Barnes; cf. Fairbairn and Goodbairn, often perverted to
+Fairburn, Goodburn, Goodban.  Barnfather is about equivalent to Lat.
+paterfamilias, but Pennefather is an old nickname for a miser--
+
+"Caqueduc, a niggard, micher, miser, scrape-good, pinch-penny,
+penny-father; a covetous and greedy wretch" (Cotgrave).
+
+The name Bastard was once considered no disgrace if the dishonour came
+from a noble source, and several great medieval warriors bore this
+sobriquet.  With this we may compare Leman or Lemon, Mid. Eng.
+leof-man, dear man, beloved, and Paramor, Fr. par amour, an example of
+an adverbial phrase that has become a noun.  This expression, used of
+lawful love in Old French, in the stock phrase "aimer une belle dame
+par amour," had already an evil meaning by Chaucer's time--
+
+"My fourthe housbonde was a revelour,
+ This is to seyn, he hadde a paramour" (D, 453).
+
+With these names we may put Drewry or Drury, sweetheart, from the Old
+French abstract druerie, of Germanic origin and cognate with true--
+
+"For certeynly no such beeste
+ To be loved is not worthy,
+ Or bere the name of druerie."
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 5062.)
+
+Suckling is a nickname applied to a helpless person; cf. Littlechild
+and "milksop," which still exists, though rare, in the forms Milsopp
+and Mellsop.  The heir survives as Ayre and Eyre.  Batchelor, the
+origin of which is one of the etymological problems yet unsolved, had
+in Old French and Mid. English also the meaning of young warrior or
+squire.  Chaucer's Squier is described as--
+
+"A lovyere and a lusty bacheler" (A, 80).
+
+May, maiden, whence Mildmay, is used by Chaucer for the Holy Virgin
+
+"Now, lady bright, to whom alle woful cryen,
+ Thow glorie of wommanhede, thow faire may,
+ Thow haven of refut, brighte sterre of day" (B, 850).
+
+This is the same word as Mid. Eng. mai, relative, cognate with maid
+and Gaelic Mac- (Chapter VI).  A form of it survives in the Nottingham
+name Watmough and perhaps in Hickmott--
+
+"Mow, housbandys sister or syster in law" (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+I imagine that William Echemannesmai, who owed the Treasury a mark in
+1182, was one of the sponging fraternity.
+
+Virgoe, a latinization of Virgin, is perhaps due to a shop-sign.
+Rigmaiden, explained by Lower as "a romping girl," is local, from a
+place in Westmorland.  Richard de Riggemayden was living in Lancashire
+in 1307.  With this group of names we may put Gossip, originally a
+god-parent, lit.  related in God, from Mid. Eng. sib, kin.
+
+With names like Farebrother, Goodfellow, we may compare some of French
+origin such as Bonser (bon sire), Bonamy, and Bellamy
+
+"Thou beel amy, thou pardoner, he sayde,
+ Telle us som myrth, or japes, right anon."
+
+(B, 318.)
+
+Beldam (belle dame), originally a complimentary name for grandmother
+or grandam, has become uncomplimentary in meaning--
+
+First Witch.  "Why, how now, Hecate!  you look angerly."
+
+Hecate.  "Have I not reason, beldams as you are,
+Saucy and overbold?" (Macbeth, iii.  5).
+
+From the corresponding Old Fr. bel-sire, beau-sire, we have Bewsher,
+Bowser, and the Picard form Belcher
+
+"The great belsire, the grandsire, sire, and sonne,
+ Lie here interred under this grave stone."
+
+(Weever, Ancient Funeral Monuments.)
+
+Relationship was often expressed by the use of French words, so that
+for son-in-law we find Gender, Ginder, corresponding to Fr. Legendre.
+Fitch, usually an animal nickname (Chapter XXIII), is occasionally for
+le fiz, the son, which also survives as Fitz.  Goodson, from the
+personal name Good (Chapter I), is sometimes registered as Fiz Deu.
+Cf. Fr. Lefilleul, i.e. the godson.
+
+
+
+ABSTRACTS
+
+A possible derivative of the name May (Chapter XXI) is Ivimey.  Holly
+and Ivy were the names of characters in Christmas games, and an old
+rime says
+
+"Holy and his mery men, they dawnsyn and they syng,
+ Ivy and hur maydins, they wepen and they wryng."
+
+If Ivimey is from this source, the same origin must sometimes be
+allowed to Holliman (Chapter I).  This conjecture [Footnote: Probably
+a myth.  See my Surnames, p. 197.]  has in its favour the fact that
+many of our surnames are undoubtedly derived from characters assumed
+in dramatic performances and popular festivities.  To this class
+belong many surnames which have the form of abstract nouns, e.g.
+Charity, Verity, Virtue, Vice.  Of similar origin are perhaps Bliss,
+Chance, Luck, and Goodluck; cf. Bonaventure.  Love, Luff, occurs
+generally as a personal name, hence the dim. Lufkins, but it is
+sometimes a nickname.  Lovell, Lovett, more often mean little wolf.
+Both Louvet and Louveau are common French surnames.  The name Lovell,
+in the wolf sense, was often applied to a dog, as in the famous
+couplet
+
+"The ratte, the catte, and Lovell, our dogge
+ Rule all England under the hogge,"
+
+for which William Collingborne was executed in 1484.  Lowell is a
+variant of Lovell.
+
+But many apparent abstract names are due to folk-etymology, e.g.
+Marriage is local, Old Fr. marage, marsh, and Wedlock is imitative for
+Wedlake; cf. Mortlock for Mortlake and perhaps Diplock for deep-lake.
+Creed is the Anglo-Saxon personal name Creda.  Revel, a common French
+surname, is a personal name of obscure origin.  Want is the Mid. Eng.
+wont, mole, whence Wontner, mole-catcher.  It is difficult to see how
+such names as Warr, Battle, and Conquest came into existence.  The
+former, found as de la warre, is no doubt sometimes local (Chapter
+XIII), and Battle is a dim. of Bat (Chapter VI).  But de la batayle is
+also a common entry, and Laguerre and Labataille are common French
+surnames.
+
+
+
+COSTUME
+
+A nickname was often conferred in connection with some external object
+regularly associated with the individual.  Names taken from shop-signs
+really belong to this class.  Corresponding to our Hood  [Footnote:
+Hood may also be for Hud (Chapter I), but the garment is made into a
+personal name in Little Red Ridinghood, who is called in French le
+petit Chaperon Rouge.]  we have Fr. Capron (chaperon).  Burdon, Fr.
+bourdon, meant a staff, especially a pilgrim's staff.  Daunger is
+described as having--
+
+"In his honde a gret burdoun"
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 3401).
+
+But the name Burdon is also local.  Bracegirdle, i.e. breeks-girdle,
+must have been the nickname of one who wore a gorgeous belt.  It is a
+curious fact that this name is chiefly found in the same region
+(Cheshire) as the somewhat similar Broadbelt.  The Sussex name Quaile
+represents the Norman pronunciation of coif.  More usually an
+adjective enters into such combinations.  With the historic Curthose,
+Longsword, Strongbow we may compare Shorthouse, a perversion of
+shorthose, Longstaff, Horlock (hoar), Silverlock, Whitlock, etc.
+Whitehouse is usually of local origin, but has also absorbed the
+medieval names Whitehose and White-hawse, the latter from Mid. Eng.
+hawse, neck.  Woollard may be the Anglo-Saxon personal name Wulfweard,
+but is more probably from woolward, i.e. without linen, a costume
+assumed as a sign of penitence
+
+"Wolwarde, without any lynnen nexte ones body, sans chemyse."
+(Palsgrave.)
+
+The three names Medley, Medlicott, and Motley go together, though all
+three of them may be local (the mid-lea, the middle-cot, and the
+moat-lea).  Medley mixed, is the Anglo-French past participle of Old
+Fr. mesler (meler).  Motley is of unknown origin, but it was not
+necessarily a fool's dress--
+
+"A marchant was ther with a forked berd,
+ In mottelye, and hye on horse he sat,
+ Upon his heed a Flaundryssh bevere hat" (A, 270).
+
+So also the Serjeant of the Law was distinguished his, for the period,
+plain dress--
+
+"He rood but hoomly in a medlee cote" (A, 328).
+
+Gildersleeve is now rare in England, though it still flourishes in the
+United States.  [Footnote: We have several instances of this
+phenomenon.  A familiar example is Lippincott, a surname of local
+origin (Devonshire).  But Bardsley's inclusion of American statistics
+is often misleading.  It is a well-known fact that the foreign names
+of immigrants are regularly assimilated to English forms in the United
+States.  In some cases, such as Cook for Koch, Cope (Chapter XII) for
+Kopf, Stout (Chapter XXII) for Stolz or Stultz, the change is
+etymologically justified.  But in other cases, such as Tallman for
+Thalmann, dale-man, Trout for Traut, faithful, the resemblance is
+accidental.  Beam and Chestnut, common in the States but very rare in
+England, represent an imitative form of Boehm or Behm, Bohemian, and a
+translation of Kestenbaum, chestnut tree, both Jewish names.  The
+Becks and Bowmans of New York outnumber those of London by about five
+to one, the first being for Beck, baker (Chapter XV), and the second
+for Baumann, equivalent to Bauer, farmer.  Bardsley explains the
+common American name Arrison by the fact that there are Cockneys in
+America.  It comes of course from Arend, a Dutch name related to
+Arnold.
+
+"A remarkable record in changes of surname was cited some years ago by
+an American correspondent of Notes and Queries.  'The changes which
+befell a resident of New Orleans were that when he moved from an
+American quarter to a German neighbourhood his name of Flint became
+Feuerstein, which for convenience was shortened to Stein.  Upon his
+removal to a French district he was re-christened Pierre.  Hence upon
+his return to an English neighbourhood he was translated into Peters,
+and his first neighbours were surprised and puzzled to find Flint
+turned Peters.'"
+
+(Daily Chronicle, April 4, 1913.)]
+
+
+
+PHYSICAL FEATURES
+
+Names like Beard, Chinn, Tooth were conferred because of some
+prominent feature.  In Anglo-French we find Gernon, moustache, now
+corrupted to Garnham, and also al gernon, with the moustache, which
+has become Algernon.  But we have already seen (Chapter XIII) that
+some names which appear to belong to this class are of local origin.
+So also Tongue is derived from one of several places named Tong or
+Tonge, though the ultimate origin is perhaps in some cases the same, a
+"tongue" of land.  Quartermain is for Quatre-mains, perhaps bestowed
+on a very acquisitive person; Joscius Quatre-buches, four mouths, and
+Roger Tunekes, two necks, were alive in the twelfth century; and there
+is record of a Saracen champion named Quinze-paumes, though this is
+perhaps rather a measure of height.  Cheek I conjecture to be for
+Chick.  The odd-looking Kidney is apparently Irish.  There is a rare
+name Poindexter, appearing in French as Poingdestre, "right fist."
+[Footnote: President Poincare's name appears to mean "square fist."]
+I have seen it explained as from the heraldic term point dexter, but
+it is rather to be taken literally.  I find Johannes cum pugno in
+1184, and we can imagine that such a name may have been conferred on a
+medieval bruiser.  There is also the possibility, considering the
+brutality of many old nicknames, that the bearer of the name had been
+judicially deprived of his right hand, a very common punishment,
+especially for striking a feudal superior.  Thus Renaut de Montauban,
+finding that his unknown opponent is Charlemagne, exclaims--
+
+"J'ai forfait le poing destre dont je l'ai adese (struck)."
+
+We have some nicknames describing gait, e.g. Ambler and Shaylor--
+
+"I shayle, as a man or horse dothe that gothe croked with his leggs,
+je vas eschays" (Palsgrave)--
+
+and perhaps sometimes Trotter.  If George Eliot had been a student of
+surnames she would hardly have named a heroine Nancy Lammiter, i.e.
+cripple--
+
+"Though ye may think him a lamiter, yet, grippie for grippie, he'll
+make the bluid spin frae under your nails" (Black Dwarf, ch. xvii.).
+
+Pettigrew and Pettifer are of French origin, pied de grue (crane) and
+pied de fer.  The former is the origin of the word pedigree, from a
+sign used in drawing genealogical trees.  The Buckinghamshire name
+Puddifoot or Puddephatt (Podefat, 1273) and the aristocratic
+Pauncefote are unsolved.  The former may be a corruption of Pettifer,
+which occurs commonly, along with the intermediate Puddifer, in the
+same county.  But the English Dialect Dictionary gives as an obsolete
+Northants word the adjective puddy, stumpy, pudgy, applied especially
+to hands, fingers, etc., and Pudito (puddy toe) occurs as a surname in
+the Hundred Rolls.  As for Pauncefote, I believe it simply means what
+it appears to, viz. "belly-foot," a curious formation, though not
+without parallels, among obsolete rustic nicknames.  If these two
+conjectures are correct, both Puddifoot and Pauncefote may be almost
+literal equivalents of the Greek OEdipus, i.e. "swell-foot."
+
+In other languages as well as English we find money nicknames.  It is
+easy to understand how some of these come into existence, e.g. that
+Pierce.  Pennilesse was the opposite of Thomas Thousandpound, whose
+name occurs c. 1300.  With the latter we may compare Fr. Centlivre,
+the name of an English lady dramatist of the eighteenth century.
+Moneypenny is found in 1273 as Manipeni, and a Londoner named Manypeny
+died in 1348.  The Money- is partly north country, partly imitative.
+
+Money itself is usually occupative or local (Chapter XVII), and
+Shilling is the Anglo-Saxon name Scilling.  The oldest and commonest
+of such nicknames is the simple Penny, with which we may compare the
+German surname Pfennig and its compounds Barpfennig, Weisspfennig,
+etc.  The early adoption of this coin-name as a personal name is due
+to the fact that the word was taken in the sense of money in general.
+We still speak of a rich man as "worth a pretty penny." Hallmark is
+folk-etymology for the medieval Half-mark.  Such medieval names as
+Four-pence, Twenty-mark, etc., probably now obsolete, are paralleled
+by Fr. Quatresous and Sixdenier, still to be found in the Paris
+Directory.  It would be easy to form conjectures as to the various
+ways in which such names may have come into existence.  To the same
+class must belong Besant, the name of a coin from Byzantium, its
+foreign origin giving it a dignity which is absent from the native
+Farthing and Halfpenny, though the latter, in one instance, was
+improved beyond recognition into MacAlpine.
+
+
+
+IMPRECATIONS
+
+There is also a small group of surnames derived from oaths or
+exclamations which by habitual use became associated with certain
+individuals.  We know that monarchs had a special tendency to indulge
+in a favourite expletive.  To Roger de Collerye we owe some
+information as to the imprecations preferred by four French kings--
+
+"Quand la Pasque-Dieu (Louis XI.) deceda,
+ Le Bon Jour Dieu (Charles VIII.) luy succeda,
+ Au Bon Jour Dieu deffunct et mort
+ Succeda le Dyable m'emport (Louis XII).
+ Luy decede, nous voyons comme
+ Nous duist (governs) la Foy de Gentilhomme (Francis I.)."
+
+So important was this branch of linguistics once considered that
+Palsgrave, the French tutor of Princess Mary Tudor, includes in his
+Esclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse a section on "The Maners of
+Cursyng." Among the examples are "Le grant diable luy rompe le col et
+les deux jambes," "Le diable l'emporte, corps et ame, tripes et
+boyaux," which were unfortunately too long for surname purposes, but
+an abridged form of "Le feu Saint Anthoyne l'arde" [Footnote: Saint
+Anthony's fire, i.e. erysipelas, burn him!] has given the French name
+Feulard.  Such names, usually containing the name of God, e.g.
+Godmefetch, Helpusgod, have mostly disappeared in this country; but
+Dieuleveut and Dieumegard are still found in Paris, and Gottbehuet, God
+forbid, and Gotthelf, God help, occur in German.  Godbehere still
+exists, and there is not the slightest reason why it should not be of
+the origin which its form indicates.  In Gracedieu, thanks to God, the
+second element is an Old French dative.  Pardoe, Purdue, whence
+Purdey, is for par Dieu--
+
+"I have a wyf pardee, as wel as thow" (A, 3158).
+
+There is a well-known professional footballer named Mordue ('sdeath),
+and a French composer named Boieldieu (God's bowels).  The French
+nickname for an Englishman, goddam--
+
+"Those syllables intense,
+ Nucleus of England's native eloquence"
+
+(Byron, The Island, iii. 5)--
+
+goes back to the fifteenth century, in which invective references to
+the godons are numerous.  [Footnote: "Les Anglais en verite ajoutent
+par-ci, par-la quelques autres mots en conversant; mais il est bien
+aise de voir que goddam est le fond de la langue" (Beaumarchais,
+Mariage de Figaro, iii.  5).]
+
+Such nicknames are still in common use in some parts of France--
+
+"Les Berrichons se designent souvent par le juron qui leur est
+familier.  Ainsi ils diront: 'Diable me brule est bien malade.  Nom
+d'un rat est a la foire.  La femme a Diable m'estrangouille est morte.
+Le garcon a Bon You (Dieu) se marie avec la fille a Dieu me confonde.'"
+
+(Nyrop, Grammaire historique de la langue francaise, iv. 209).
+
+
+
+PHRASE-NAMES
+
+Perhaps the most interesting group of nicknames is that of which we
+may take Shakespeare as the type.  Incidentally we should be thankful
+that our greatest poet bore a name so much more picturesque than
+Corneille, crow, or Racine, root.  It is agreed among all competent
+scholars that in compounds of this formation the verb was originally
+an imperative.  This is shown by the form; cf. ne'er-do-well, Fr.
+vaurien, Ger. Taugenichts, good-for-naught.  Thus Hasluck cannot
+belong to this class, but must be an imitative form of the personal
+name Aslac, which we find in Aslockton.
+
+As Bardsley well says, it is impossible to retail all the nonsense
+that has been written about the name Shakespeare--"never a name in
+English nomenclature so simple or so certain in its origin; it is
+exactly what it looks--shake-spear."  The equivalent Schuettespeer is
+found in German, and we have also in English Shakeshaft, Waghorn,
+Wagstaff, Breakspear, Winspear.  "Winship the mariner" was a freeman
+of York in the fourteenth century.  Cf. Benbow (bend-bow), Hurlbatt,
+and the less athletic Lovejoy, Makepeace.  Gathergood and its opposite
+Scattergood are of similar origin, good having here the sense of
+goods.  Dogood is sometimes for Toogood, and the latter may be, like
+Thoroughgood, an imitative form of Thurgod (Chapter VII); but both
+names may also be taken literally, for we find Ger. Thunichtgut, do no
+good, and Fr. Trodoux (trop doux).
+
+As a pendant to Dolittle we find a medieval Hack-little, no doubt a
+lazy wood-cutter, while virtue is represented by a twelfth-century
+Tire-little.  Sherwin represents the medieval Schere-wynd, applied to
+a swift runner; cf. Ger. Schneidewind, cut wind, and Fr. Tranchevent.
+A nurseryman at Highgate has the appropriate name Cutbush, the French
+equivalent of which, Taillebois, has given us Tallboys; and a famous
+herbalist was named Culpepper.  In Gathercole the second element may
+mean cabbage or charcoal.  In one case, Horniblow for horn-blow, the
+verb comes after its object.
+
+Names of this formation are very common in Mid. English as in Old
+French, and often bear witness to a violent or brutal nature.  Thus
+Scorch-beef, which is found in the Hundred Rolls, has no connection
+with careless cookery; it is Old Fr. escorche (ecorche) -buef, flay
+ox, a name given to some medieval "Skin-the-goat."  Catchpole (Chapter
+XX) is formed in the same way, and in French we find, applied to law
+officials, the surnames Baillehart, give halter, [Footnote: Bailler,
+the usual Old French for to give, is still used colloquially and in
+dialect.]  and Baillehache, give axe, the latter still appropriately
+borne, as Bailhache, by an English judge.
+
+It has sometimes been assumed that most names of this class are due to
+folk-etymology.  The frequency of their occurrence in Mid. English and
+in continental languages makes it certain that the contrary is the
+case and that many surnames of obscure origin are perversions of this
+very large and popular class.  I have seen it stated somewhere that
+Shakespeare is a corruption of an Old French name Sacquespee,
+[Footnote: Of common occurrence in Mid. English records.]  the
+theorist being apparently unable to see that this latter, meaning
+draw-sword, is merely an additional argument, if such were needed, for
+the literal interpretation of the English name.  [Footnote: In one
+day's reading I came across the following Mid. English names:
+Baillebien (give good), Baysedame (kiss lady), Esveillechien (wake
+dog), Lievelance (raise lance), Metlefrein (put the bridle),
+Tracepurcel (track hog), Turnecotel (turn coat), together with the
+native Cachehare and Hoppeschort.]
+
+Tredgold seems to have been conferred on some medieval stoic, for we
+find also Spurnegold.  Without pinning our faith to any particular
+anecdote, we need have no hesitation in accepting Turnbull as a
+sobriquet conferred for some feat of strength and daring on a stalwart
+Borderer.  We find the corresponding Tornebeuf in Old French, and
+Turnbuck also occurs.  Trumbull and Trumble are variants due to
+metathesis followed by assimilation (Chapter III), while Tremble is a
+very degenerate form.  In Knatchbull we have the obsolete verb knatch,
+which in Mid. English meant to strike on the head, fell.  Crawcour is
+Fr. Crevecoeur, breakheart, which has also become a local name in
+France.  With Shacklock, shake-lock, and Sherlock, Shurlock,
+shear-lock, we may compare Robin Hood's comrade Scathelock, though the
+precise interpretation of all three names is difficult.  Rackstraw,
+rake-straw, corresponds to Fr. Grattepaille.  Golightly means much the
+same as Lightfoot (Chapter XIII), nor need we hesitate to regard the
+John Gotobed  who lived in Cambridgeshire in 1273 as a notorious
+sluggard compared with whom his neighbour Serl Gotokirke was a shining
+example.  [Footnote: The name is still found in the same county.
+Undergraduates contemporary with the author occasionally slaked their
+thirst at a riverside inn kept by Bathsheba Gotobed.]
+
+Telfer is Fr. Taillefer, the iron cleaver, and Henry II.'s yacht
+captain was Alan Trenchemer, the sea cleaver.  He had a contemporary
+named Ventados, wind abaft.
+
+Slocomb has assumed a local aspect, but may very well correspond to
+Fr. Tardif or Ger. Muehsam, applied to some Weary Willie of the Middle
+Ages.  Doubtfire is a misspelling of Dout-fire, from the dialect dout,
+to extinguish (do out), formed like don and doff.  Fullalove, which
+does not belong to the same formation, is also found as Plein d'amour--
+
+"Of Sir Lybeux and Pleyndamour" (B, 2090)--
+
+and corresponds to Ger. Liebevoll.  Waddilove actually occurs in the
+Hundred Rolls as Wade-in-love, presumably a nickname conferred on some
+medieval Don Juan.
+
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS
+
+There is one curious little group of nicknames which seem to
+correspond to such Latin names as Piso, from pisum, a pea, and Cicero,
+from cicer--
+
+"Cicer, a small pulse, lesse than pease" (Cooper).
+
+Such are Barleycorn and Peppercorn, the former found in French as
+Graindorge.  The rather romantic names Avenel and Peverel seem to be
+of similar formation, from Lat. avena, oats, and piper, pepper.  In
+fact Peverel is found in Domesday as Piperellus, and Pepperell still
+exists.  With these may be mentioned Carbonel, corresponding to the
+French surname Charbonneau, a little coal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII. ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES
+
+"The man replied that he did not know the object of the building; and
+to make it quite manifest that he really did not know, he put an
+adjective before the word 'object,' and another--that is, the
+same--before the word 'building.' With that he passed on his way, and
+Lord Jocelyn was left marvelling at the slender resources of our
+language, which makes one adjective do duty for so many
+qualifications."
+
+(BESANT, All Sorts and Conditions of Men, ch. xxxviii.)
+
+The rejection by the British workman of all adjectives but one is due
+to the same imaginative poverty which makes the adjective "nice"
+supreme in refined circles, and which limits the schoolgirl to
+"ripping" and her more self-conscious brother to the tempered
+"decent." But dozens of useful adjectives, now either obsolete or
+banished to rustic dialect, are found among our surnames.  The
+tendency to accompany every noun by an adjective seems to belong to
+some deep-rooted human instinct.  To this is partly due the Protean
+character of this part of speech, for the word, like the coin, becomes
+dulled and worn in circulation and needs periodically to be withdrawn
+and replaced.  An epithet which is complimentary in one generation is
+ironical in the next and eventually offensive.  Moody, with its
+northern form Mudie, which now means morose, was once valiant (Chapter
+I); and pert, surviving in the name Peart, meant active, brisk, etc.--
+
+"Awake the pert and nimble spirit of mirth."
+
+(Midsummer Night's Dream, i. 1.)
+
+
+
+ARCHAIC MEANINGS
+
+To interpret an adjectival nickname we must go to its meaning in
+Chaucer and his contemporaries.  Silly, Seeley, Seely
+
+"This sely, innocent Custance" (B, 682)--
+
+still means innocent when we speak of the "silly sheep," and happy in
+the phrase "silly Suffolk." It is cognate with Ger. selig, blessed,
+often used in speaking of the dead.  We have compounds in Sillilant,
+simple child (Chapter X), and Selibarn.  Seely was also used for Cecil
+or Cecilia.  Sadd was once sedate and steadfast
+
+"But thogh this mayde tendre were of age,
+ Yet in the brest of hire virginitee
+ Ther was enclosed rype and sad corage"
+
+(E, 218);
+
+and as late as 1660 we find a book in defence of Charles I. described
+as--
+
+"A sad and impartial inquiry whether the King or Parliament began the
+war."
+
+Stout, valiant, now used euphemistically for fat, is cognate with Ger.
+stolz, proud, and possibly with Lat. stultus, foolish.  The three
+ideas are not incompatible, for fools are notoriously proud of their
+folly and are said to be less subject to fear than the angels.
+Sturdy, Sturdee, once meant rebellious, pig-headed--
+
+"Sturdy, unbuxum, rebellis, contumax, inobediens."  (Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+Cotgrave offers a much wider choice for the French original--
+
+"Estourdi (etourdi), dulled, amazed, astonished, dizzie-headed, or
+whose head seemes very much troubled; (hence) also, heedlesse,
+inconsiderate, unadvised, witlesse, uncircumspect, rash, retchlesse,
+or carelesse; and sottish, blockish, lumpish, lusk-like, without life,
+metall, spirit"
+
+Sly and its variant Sleigh have degenerated in the same way as crafty
+and cunning, both of which once meant skilled.  Chaucer calls the
+wings of Daedalus "his playes slye," i.e. his ingenious contrivances.
+Quick meant alert, lively, as in "the quick and the dead." Slight,
+cognate with Ger. schlecht, bad, once meant plain or simple.
+
+Many adjectives which are quite obsolete in literary English survive
+as surnames.  Mid. Eng. Lyle has been supplanted by its derivative
+Little, the opposite pair surviving as Mutch and Mickle.  The poor
+parson did not fail--
+
+"In siknesse nor in meschief to visite
+ The ferreste in his parisshe, muche and lyte."
+
+(A, 493.)
+
+We have for Lyte also the imitative Light; cf. Lightwood.  With Little
+may be mentioned Murch, an obsolete word for dwarf--
+
+"Murch, lytyl man, nanus."
+
+(Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+Lenain is a fairly common name in France.  Snell, swift or valiant,
+had become a personal name in Anglo-Saxon, but we find le snel in the
+Middle Ages.  Freake, Frick, also meant valiant or warrior--
+
+"Ther was no freke that ther wolde flye"
+
+(Chevy Chase);
+
+but the Promptorium Parvulorum makes it equivalent to Craske (Chapter
+XXII)--
+
+"Fryke, or craske, in grete helth, crassus."
+
+It is cognate with Ger. frech, which now means impudent.  Nott has
+already been mentioned (Chapter II).  Of the Yeoman we are told--
+
+"A not hed hadde he, with a broun visage."
+
+(A, 109.)
+
+Stark, cognate with starch, now usually means stiff, rather than
+strong--
+
+"I feele my lymes stark and suffisaunt
+ To do al that a man bilongeth to."
+
+(E, 1458.)
+
+
+
+DISGUISED SPELLINGS
+
+But Stark is also for an earlier Sterk (cf. Clark and Clerk), which
+represents Mid. Eng. stirk, a heifer.  In the cow with the crumpled
+horn we have a derivative of Mid. Eng. crum, crooked, whence the names
+Crum and Crump.  Ludwig's German Dict. (1715) explains krumm as
+"crump, crooked, wry." The name Crook generally has the same meaning,
+the Ger. Krummbein corresponding to our Cruikshank or Crookshanks.  It
+is possible that Glegg and Gleig are Mid. Eng. gleg, skilful, of
+Scand. origin.
+
+There are some adjectival surnames which are not immediately
+recognizable.  Bolt, when not local (Chapter XIII) is for bold, Leaf
+is imitative for lief, i.e. dear.  Dear itself is of course hopelessly
+mixed up with Deer...  The timorous-looking Fear is Fr. le fier, the
+proud or fierce.  Skey is an old form of shy; Bligh is for Blyth;
+Hendy and Henty are related to handy, and had in Mid. English the
+sense of helpful, courteous--
+
+"Oure hoost tho spak, 'A, sire, ye sholde be hende
+ And curteys, as a man of youre estat.'"
+
+(D, 1286.)
+
+For Savage we find also the archaic spelling Salvage (Lat.
+silvaticus).  Curtis is Norman Fr. curteis (courtois).  The adjective
+garish, now only poetical, but once commonly applied to gaudiness in
+dress, has given Gerrish.  Quaint, which has so many meanings
+intermediate between its etymological sense of known or familiar (Lat.
+cognitus) and its present sense of unusual or unfamiliar, survives as
+Quint.  But Coy is usually local, from Quy (Cambridgeshire).
+
+Orpwood is a corruption of Mid. Eng. orped, bold, warlike.  Craske is
+an East Anglian word for fat, and Crouse is used in the north for
+sprightly, confident.  To these we may add Ketch, Kedge, Gedge, from
+an East Anglian adjective meaning lively--
+
+"Kygge, or joly, jocundus" (Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+and Spragg, etymologically akin to Spry.  Bragg was once used for bold
+or brave, without any uncomplimentary suggestion.  The New English
+Dictionary quotes (c. 1310) from a lyric poem--
+
+"That maketh us so brag and bolde
+ And biddeth us ben blythe."
+
+Crease is a West-country word for squeamish, but the East Anglian name
+Creasey, Cressy, is usually for the local Kersey (Suffolk).  The only
+solution of Pratt is that it is Anglo-Sax. praett, cunning, adopted
+early as a personal name, while Storr, of Scandinavian origin, means
+big, strong.  It is cognate with Steer, a bull.  Devey and Dombey seem
+to be diminutive forms of deaf and dumb, still used in dialect in
+reference to persons thus afflicted.  We find in French and German
+surnames corresponding to these very natural nicknames.  Cf. Crombie
+from Crum (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+
+FRENCH ADJECTIVES
+
+A large proportion of our adjectival nicknames are of French origin.
+Le bel appears not only as Bell but also, through Picard, as Beal.
+Other examples are Boon, Bone, Bunn (bon), Grant (grand), Bass (bas)
+and its derivative Bassett, Dasent (decent), Follett and Folliott,
+dim. of fol (fou), mad, which also appears in the compound Foljambe,
+Fulljames.
+
+Mordaunt means biting.  Power is generally Anglo-Fr. le poure (le
+pauvre) and Grace is for le gras, the fat.  Jolige represents the Old
+French form of joli--
+
+"This Absolon, that jolif was and gay,
+ Gooth with a sencer (censer) on the haliday."
+
+(A, 3339.)
+
+Prynne, now Pring, is Anglo-Fr. le prin, the first, from the Old
+French adjective which survives in printemps.  Cf. our name Prime and
+the French name Premier.  The Old French adjective Gent, now replaced
+by gentil, generally means slender in Mid. English--
+
+"Fair was this yonge wyf, and therwithal
+ As any wezele hir body gent and smal."
+
+(A, 3233)
+
+Petty and Pettit are variant forms of Fr. petit, small.  In Prowse and
+Prout we have the nominative and objective (Chapter I) of an Old
+French adjective now represented by preux and prude, generally thought
+to be related in some way to Lat. pro in prosum, and perhaps also the
+source of our Proud.
+
+Gross is of course Fr. le gros, but Grote represents Du. groot, great,
+probably unconnected with the French word.  The Devonshire name
+Coffin, which is found in that county in the twelfth century, is the
+same as Caffyn, perhaps representing Fr. Chauvin, bald, the name of
+the theologian whom we know better in the latinized form Calvin.  Here
+belongs probably Shovel, Fr. Chauvel.  We also have the simple Chaffe,
+Old Fr. chauf (chauve), bald.  Gaylard, sometimes made into the
+imitative Gaylord, is Fr. gaillard, brisk, lively
+
+"Gaillard he was as goldfynch in the shawe."
+
+(A, 4367.)
+
+
+
+COLOUR NAMES
+
+Especially common are colour nicknames, generally due to the
+complexion, but sometimes to the garb.  As we have already seen
+(Chapter XV), Black and its variant Blake sometimes mean pale.  Blagg
+is the same word; cf. Jagg for Jack.  White has no doubt been
+reinforced by wight, valiant
+
+"Oh for one hour of Wallace wight
+ Or well-skilled Bruce to rule the fight."
+
+(Marmion, vi.  20.)
+
+As an epithet applied to the hair we often find Hoar; cf. Horlock.
+Redd is rare, the usual forms being the northern Reid, Reed, Read; but
+we also have Rudd from Anglo-Sax. rud, whence ruddy and the name
+Ruddock, really a bird nickname, the redbreast.  To these must be
+added Rudge, Fr. rouge, Rouse, Rush and Russ, Fr, roux, and Russell or
+Rowsell, Old Fr. roussel (Rousseau).  The commonest nickname for a
+fair-haired person was Blunt, Blount, Fr. blond, with its dim.
+Blundell, but the true English name is Fairfax, from Anglo-Sax. feax,
+hair.  The New English Dictionary quotes from the fifteenth century
+
+"Then they lowsyd hur feyre faxe,
+ That was yelowe as the waxe."
+
+The adjective dun was once a regular name, like Dobbin or Dapple, for
+a cart-horse; hence the name of the old rural sport "Dun in the mire"--
+
+"If thou art dun we'll draw thee from the mire." (Romeo and Juliet, i.
+4.)
+
+It is possible that the name Dunn is sometimes due to this specific
+application of the word.  The colour blue appears as Blew--
+
+"At last he rose, and twitch'd his mantle blew:
+ To-morrow to fresh woods and pastures new"
+
+(Lycidas, 1.  192)--
+
+and earlier still as Blow--
+
+"Blak, blo, grenysh, swartysh, reed."
+
+(House of Fame, iii.  557.)
+
+Other colour names of French origin are Morel, swarthy, like a Moor,
+also found as Murrell [Footnote: This, like Merrill, is sometimes from
+Muriel.]; and Burnell, Burnett, dims.  of brun, brown.  Chaucer speaks
+of--
+
+"Daun Burnet the asse" (B, 4502);
+
+[Footnote: Lat. dominus; the masculine form of dame in Old French.]
+
+"Daun Russel the fox" (B, 4524.)
+
+But both Burnell and Burnett may also be local from places ending in
+-hill and -head (), and Burnett is sometimes for Burnard.  The same
+applies to Burrell, usually taken to be from Mid. Eng. borel, a rough
+material, Old Fr. burel (bureau), also used metaphorically in the
+sense of plain, uneducated
+
+"And moore we seen of Cristes secree thynges
+ Than burel folk, al though they weren kynges."
+
+(D, 1871.)
+
+The name can equally well be the local Burhill or Burwell.
+
+Murray is too common to be referred entirely to the Scottish name and
+is sometimes for murrey, dark red (Fr. mure, mulberry).  It may also
+represent merry, in its variant form murie, which is Mid. English, and
+not, as might appear, Amurrican--
+
+"His murie men comanded he
+ To make hym bothe game and glee."
+
+(B, 2029.)
+
+Pook, of uncertain origin, is supposed to have been a dark russet
+colour.  Bayard, a derivative of bay, was the name of several famous
+war-horses.  Cf. Blank and Blanchard.  The name Soar is from the Old
+French adjective sor, bright yellow.  It is of Germanic origin and
+cognate with sere.
+
+The dim. Sorrel may be a colour name, but it was applied in venery to
+a buck in the third year, of course in reference to colour; and some
+of our names, e.g. Brocket and Prickett, [Footnote: Both words are
+connected with the spiky young horns, Fr. broche, spit, being applied
+in venery to the pointed horns of the second year.]  both applied to a
+two-year-old stag, must sometimes be referred to this important
+department of medieval language.  Holofernes uses some of these terms
+in his idiotic verses
+
+"The preyful princess pierc'd and prick'd a pretty pleasing priket;
+ Some say a sore; but not a sore, till now made sore with shooting.
+ The dogs did yell; put l to sore, then sorel jumps from thicket."
+
+(Love's Labour's Lost, iv. 2.)
+
+A few adjective nicknames of Celtic origin are so common in England
+that they may be included here.  Such are the Welsh Gough, Goff,
+Gooch, Gutch, red, Gwynn and Wynne, white, Lloyd, grey, Sayce, Saxon,
+foreigner, Vaughan, small, and the Gaelic Bain, Bean, white, Boyd,
+Bowie, yellow-haired, Dow, Duff, black, Finn, fair, Glass, grey, Roy,
+Roe, red.  From Cornish come Coad, old, and Couch, [Footnote: Cognate
+with Welsh Gough.]  red, while Bean is the Cornish for small, and
+Tyacke means a farmer.  It is likely that both Begg and Moore owe
+something to the Gaelic adjectives for little and big, as in the
+well-known names of Callum Beg, Edward Waverley's gillie, and McCallum
+More.  The Gaelic Begg is cognate with the Welsh Vaughan.  Two other
+famous Highland nicknames which are very familiar in England are
+Cameron, crooked nose, and Campbell, wry mouth.  With these may be
+mentioned the Irish Kennedy, ugly head, the name of the father of
+Brian Boru.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES
+
+"As I think I have already said, one of Umslopogaas'
+ Zulu names was The Woodpecker."
+
+(HAGGARD, Allan Quatermain, ch. vii.)
+
+The great majority of nicknames coming under the headings typified by
+Bird and Fowell, Best, and Fish or Fisk (Scand.) are easily
+identified.  But here, as everywhere in the subject, pitfalls abound.
+The name Best itself is an example of a now misleading spelling
+retained for obvious reasons--
+
+"First, on the wal was peynted a forest,
+ In which ther dwelleth neither man nor best."
+
+(A, 1976.)
+
+We do not find exotic animals, nor even the beasts of heraldry, at all
+frequently.  Leppard, leopard, is in some cases for the Ger. Liebhart;
+and Griffin, when not Welsh, should no doubt be included among
+inn-signs.  Oliphant, i.e. elephant--
+
+"For maystow surmounten thise olifauntes in gretnesse or weighte of
+body" (Boece, 782)--
+
+may be a genuine nickname, but Roland's ivory horn was also called by
+this name, and the surname may go back to some legendary connection of
+the same kind.  Bear is not uncommon, captive bears being familiar to
+a period in which the title bear-ward is frequently met with.
+
+It is possible that Drake may sometimes represent Anglo-Sax. draca,
+dragon, rather than the bird, but the latter is unmistakable in
+Sheldrick, for sheldrake.  As a rule, animal nicknames were taken
+rather from the domestic species with which the peasantry were
+familiar and whose habits would readily suggest comparisons, generally
+disparaging, with those of their neighbours.
+
+
+
+BIRDS
+
+Bird names are especially common, and it does not need much
+imagination to see how readily and naturally a man might be nicknamed
+Hawke for his fierceness, Crowe from a gloomy aspect, or Nightingale
+for the gift of sweet song.  Many of these surnames go back to words
+which are now either obsolete or found only in dialect.  The peacock
+was once the Poe, an early loan from Lat. pavo, or, more fully, Pocock
+
+"A sheaf of pocok arwes, bright and kene,
+ Under his belt he bar ful thriftily."
+
+(A, 104.)
+
+The name Pay is another form of the same word.  Coe, whence Hedgecoe,
+is an old name for the jackdaw--
+
+"Cadow, or coo, or chogh (chough), monedula" (Prompt. Parv.)--
+
+but may also stand for cow, as we find, in defiance of gender and sex,
+such entries as Robert le cow, William le vache.  Those birds which
+have now assumed a font-name, such as Jack daw, Mag pie, of course
+occur without it as surnames, e.g. Daw and Pye--
+
+"The thief the chough, and eek the jangelyng pye" (Parliament of
+Fowls, 305).
+
+The latter has a dim. Pyatt.
+
+Rainbird is a local name for the green woodpecker, but as an
+East-Anglian name it is most likely an imitative form of Fr. Rimbaud
+or Raimbaud, identical with Anglo-Sax. Regenbeald.  Knott is the name
+of a bird which frequents the sea-shore and, mindful of Cnut's wisdom,
+retreats nimbly before the advancing surf--
+
+"The knot that called was Canutus' bird of old."
+
+(Drayton, Polyolbion, xxv. 368.)
+
+This historical connection is most probably due to folk-etymology.
+Titmus is of course for tit-mouse.  Dialect names for the woodpecker
+survive in Speight, Speke, and Spick, Pick (Chapter III).  The same
+bird was also called woodwall--
+
+"In many places were nyghtyngales,
+ Alpes, fynches, and wodewales"
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 567)--
+
+hence, in some cases, the name Woodall.  The Alpe, or bullfinch,
+mentioned in the above lines, also survives as a surname.  Dunnock and
+Pinnock are dialect names for the sparrow.  It was called in
+Anglo-Norman muisson, whence Musson.  Starling is a dim. of Mid. Eng.
+stare, which has itself given the surname Starr
+
+"The stare, that the counseyl can be-wrye." (Parliament of Fowls,
+348.)
+
+Heron is the French form of the bird-name which was in English Herne--
+
+"I come from haunts of coot and hern." (Tennyson, The Brook, 1.  1.)
+
+The Old French dim. heronceau also passed into English--
+
+"I wol nat tellen of hir strange sewes (courses),
+ Ne of hir swannes, ne of hire heronsewes."
+
+(F, 67.)
+
+As a surname it has been assimilated to the local, and partly
+identical, Hearnshaw (Chapter XII).  Some commentators go to this word
+to explain Hamlet's use of handsaw--
+
+"I am but mad north-north-west: when the wind is southerly,
+ I know a hawk from a handsaw" (Hamlet, ii.  2).
+
+When the author's father was a boy in Suffolk eighty years ago, the
+local name for the bird was pronounced exactly like answer.  Grew is
+Fr. grue, crane, Lat. grus, gru-.  Butter, Fr. butor, "a bittor"
+(Cotgrave), is a dialect name for the bittern, called a "butter-bump"
+by Tennyson's Northern Farmer (1.  31).  Culver is Anglo-Sax. culfre,
+a pigeon--
+
+"Columba, a culver, a dove"
+
+(Cooper)--
+
+hence the local Culverhouse.  Dove often becomes Duff.  Gaunt is
+sometimes a dialect form of gannet, used in Lincolnshire of the
+crested grebe.  Popjoy may have been applied to the successful archer
+who became king of the popinjay for the year.  The derivation of the
+word, Old Fr. papegai, whence Mid. Eng. papejay--
+
+"The briddes synge, it is no nay,
+ The sparhawk and the papejay,
+That joye it was to heere"
+
+(B, 1956)--
+
+is obscure, though various forms of it are found in most of the
+European languages.  In English it was applied not only to the parrot,
+but also to the green woodpecker.  The London Directory form is
+Pobgee.
+
+With bird nicknames may be mentioned Callow, unfledged, cognate with
+Lat. calvus, bald.  Its opposite also survives as Fleck and Flick--
+
+"Flygge, as byrdis, maturus, volabilis."
+
+(Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+Margaret Paston, writing (1460) of the revived hopes of Henry VI.,
+says--
+
+"Now he and alle his olde felawship put owt their fynnes, and arn
+ryght flygge and mery."
+
+
+
+HAWK NAMES
+
+We have naturally a set of names taken from the various species of
+falcons.  To this class belongs Haggard, probably related to
+Anglo-Sax. haga, hedge, and used of a hawk which had acquired
+incurable habits of wildness by preying for itself.  But Haggard is
+also a personal name (Chapter VIII).  Spark, earlier Sparhawk, is the
+sparrow-hawk.  It is found already in Anglo-Saxon as a personal name,
+and the full Sparrowhawk also exists.  Tassell is a corruption of
+tiercel, a name given to the male peregrine, so termed, according to
+the legendary lore of venery--
+
+"Because he is, commonly, a third part lesse than the female."
+(Cotgrave, )
+
+Juliet calls Romeo her "tassell gentle" (ii.  2).  Muskett was a name
+given to the male sparrow-hawk.
+
+"Musket, a lytell hauke, mouchet."  (Palsgrave.)
+
+Mushet is the same name.  It comes from Ital. moschetto, a little fly.
+For its later application to a firearm cf. falconet.  Other names of
+the hawk class are Buzzard and Puttock, i.e. kite--
+
+"Milan, a kite, puttock, glead"
+
+(Cotgrave);
+
+and to the same bird we owe the name Gleed, from a Scandinavian name
+for the bird
+
+"And the glede, and the kite, and the vulture after his kind." (Deut.
+xiv. 13.)
+
+To this class also belongs Ramage--
+
+"Ramage, of, or belonging to, branches; also, ramage, hagard, wild,
+homely, rude"
+
+(Cotgrave)--
+
+and sometimes Lennard, an imitative form of "lanner," the name of an
+inferior hawk--
+
+"Falcunculus, a leonard."
+
+(Holyoak, Lat. Dict., 1612.)
+
+Povey is a dialect name for the owl, a bird otherwise absent from the
+surname list.
+
+
+
+BEASTS
+
+Among beast nicknames we find special attention given, as in modern
+vituperation, to the swine, although we do not find this true English
+word, unless it be occasionally disguised as Swain.  Hogg does not
+belong exclusively to this class, as it is used in dialect both of a
+young sheep and a yearling colt.  Anglo-Sax. sugu, sow, survives in
+Sugg.  Purcell is Old Fr. pourcel (pourceau), dim. of Lat. porcus, and
+I take Pockett to be a disguised form of the obsolete porket--
+
+"Porculus, a pygg: a shoote: a porkes."
+
+(Cooper.)
+
+The word shoote in the above gloss is now the dialect shot, a young
+pig, which may have given the surname Shott.  But Scutt is from a Mid.
+English adjective meaning short--
+
+"Scute, or shorte, curtus, brevis"
+
+(Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+and is also an old name for the hare.  Two other names for the pig are
+the northern Galt and the Lincolnshire Grice--
+
+"Marcassin, a young wild boare; a shoot or grice." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Grice also represents le gris, the grey; cf. Grace for le gras
+(Chapter XXII).  Bacon looks like a nickname, but is invariably found
+without the article.  As it is common in French, it would appear to be
+an Old French accusative to Back, going back to Germanic Bacco
+(Chapter XIII).  Hinks is Mid. Eng. hengst, a stallion, and is thus
+identical with Hengist (Chapter XX).  Stott means both a bullock and a
+nag (Chapter XIX).
+
+Everyone remembers Wamba's sage disquisition on the names of animals
+in the first chapter of Ivanhoe.  Like much of Scott's archaeology it
+is somewhat anachronistic, for the live animals were also called veals
+and muttons for centuries after Wamba's death
+
+"Mouton, a mutton, a weather"; "veau, a calfe, or veale." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Calf has become very rare as a surname, though Kalb is still common in
+Germany.  Bardsley regards Duncalf and Metcalf as perverted from
+dun-croft and meadow-croft.  It seems possible that they may be for
+down-calf and mead-calf, from the locality of the pasture, but this is
+a pure guess on my part.  It is curious that beef does not appear to
+have survived, though Leboeuf is common in French, and bullocks are
+still called "beeves" in Scotland.  Tegg is still used by butchers for
+a two-year-old sheep.  Palsgrave gives it another meaning--
+
+"Tegg, or pricket (Chapter XXII), saillant."
+
+Roe is also found in the older forms Rae and Ray, of course confused
+with Wray (Chapter XIII), as Roe itself is with Rowe (Chapter I).  Doe
+often becomes Dowe.  Hind is usually occupative (Chapter III), but Fr.
+Labiche suggests that it must sometimes be a nickname--
+
+"Biche, a hind; the female of a stagge." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Pollard was applied to a beast or stag that had lost its horns--
+
+"He has no horns, sir, has he?
+
+"No, sir, he's a pollard."
+
+(Beaumont and Fletcher, Philaster, v. 4.)
+
+Leverett is certified by the French surname Levrault.  Derivation from
+Lever, Anglo-Sax. Leofhere, whence Levers, Leverson, or Leveson, is
+much less probable, as these Anglo-Saxon names rarely form dims.
+(Chapter VII).  Luttrel is in French Loutrel, perhaps a dim. of
+loutre, otter, Lat. lutra.  From the medieval lutrer or lutrarius,
+otter hunter, we get Lutterer, no doubt confused with the musical
+Luter.
+
+While Catt is fairly common in the eastern counties, Robertus le chien
+and Willelmus le curre, who were living about the end of the twelfth
+century, are now completely disguised as Ken and Kerr.  Modern French
+has both Lechien and the Norman Lequien.  [Footnote: Lekain, the name
+of a famous French actor, has the same origin.]  We owe a few other
+surnames to the friend of man.  Kennett, from a Norman dim. of chien,
+meant greyhound--
+
+"Kenette, hounde, leporarius." (Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+The origin of the name Talbot is unknown, and it is uncertain whether
+the hound or the family should have precedence; but Chaucer seems to
+use it as the proper name of a hound
+
+"Ran Colle our dogge, and Talbot, and Gerland,
+ And Malkyn, with a dystaf in hir hand."
+
+(B, 4573.)
+
+The great Earl of Shrewsbury is affectionately called "Talbot, our
+good dogge" in political rimes of the fifteenth century.
+
+In early dictionaries may be found long lists of the fanciful names,
+such as Bright, Lightfoot, Ranger, Ringwood, Swift, Tempest, given to
+hounds.  This practice seems to throw some light on such surnames as
+Tempest, with which we may compare the German names Storm and Sturm.
+In the Pipe Rolls the name le esturmi, the stormy, occurs several
+times.  To the same class belongs Thunder, found in the Pipe Rolls as
+Tonitruus, and not therefore necessarily a perversion of Tunder, i.e.
+Sherman (Chapter XVIII)--
+
+"Tondeur de draps, a shearman, or clothworker." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Garland, used by Chaucer as a dog's name, was earlier graland, and, as
+le garlaund is also found, it may be referred to Old Fr. grailler, to
+trumpet.  It no doubt has other origins.
+
+We should expect Fox to be strongly represented, and we find the
+compounds Colfox and Stelfox.  The first means black fox--
+
+"A colfox ful of sly iniquitee"
+
+(B, 4405)--
+
+and I conjecture that the first part of Stelfox is connected with
+stealing, as in the medieval name Stele-cat--
+
+"The two constables made a thorough search and found John Stelfox
+hiding behind some bushes.  Some of the jewellery was found upon him"
+
+(Daily Chronicle, June 3, 1913).
+
+In the north a fox is called Tod, whence Todhunter.  This Tod is
+probably a personal name, like the French Renard and the Scottish
+Lawrie or Lowrie, applied to the same animal.  Allan Ramsay calls him
+"slee Tod Lowrie." From the badger we have Brock and sometimes Gray--
+
+Blaireau, a badger, gray, boason, brock (Cotgrave)--
+
+but Badger itself is occupative (Chapter XIX).  The polecat survives
+as Fitch, Fitchett, and Fitchew--
+
+"Fissau, a filch, or fulmart."
+
+(Cotgrave.)
+
+
+
+FISHES
+
+On fish-names Bardsley remarks, "We may quote the famous chapter on
+'Snakes in Iceland': 'There are no snakes in Iceland,' and say there
+are no fish-names in England." This is almost true.  The absence of
+marked traits of character in the, usually invisible, fish would
+militate against the adoption of such names.  We should not expect to
+find the shark to be represented, for the word is of too late
+occurrence.  But Whale is fairly common.  Whale the mariner received
+two pounds from Henry VII's privy purse in 1498.  The story of Jonah,
+or very generous proportions, may have originated the name Whalebelly,
+"borne by a respectable family in south-east England"  (Bardsley).
+
+But there would obviously be no great temptation to go fishing for
+nicknames when the beasts of the farmyard and the forest, the birds of
+the marshes and the air, offered on every side easily understood
+comparisons.  At the same time Bardsley's statement goes a little too
+far.  He explains Gudgeon as a corruption of Goodison.  But this, true
+though it may be in some cases, will not explain the very common
+French surname Goujon.  The phrase "greedy gudgeon" suggests that in
+this case a certain amount of character had been noticed in the fish.
+Sturgeon also seems to be a genuine fish-name.  We find Fr. Lesturgeon
+and Ger. Stoer, both meaning the same.  We have also Smelt and the
+synonymous Spurling.  In French and German we find other surnames
+which undoubtedly belong to this class, but they are not numerous and
+probably at first occurred only in regions where fishing or
+fish-curing were important industries.
+
+A few examples will show that apparent fish-names are usually not
+genuine.  Chubb is for Job (Chapter III), Eeles is one of the numerous
+derivatives of Elias (Chapter IX), Hake is, like Hack, from the
+Scandinavian Hacun, Haddock is sometimes a perversion of the local
+Haydock, Lamprey comes via Old French from Old High Ger. Landprecht,
+which has usually given Lambert.
+
+Pike is local (Chapter XII), Pilchard is for Pilcher (Chapter XVIII),
+Roach is Fr. Laroche, Salmon is for Salomon, and Turbot is the
+Anglo-Sax. Thurbeorht, which has also given Tarbut, as Thurgod has
+given Targett.  But in few of the above examples is the possibility of
+fish origin absolutely excluded.
+
+
+
+SPECIAL FEATURES
+
+We have also many surnames due to physical resemblances not extending
+beyond one feature.  Birdseye may be sometimes of local origin, from
+ey, island (Chapter XII), but as a genuine nickname it is as natural
+as the sobriquet of Hawkeye which Natty Bumppo received from the
+Hurons.  German has the much less pleasing Gansauge, goose-eye; and
+Alan Oil de larrun, thief's eye, was fined for very reprehensible
+conduct in 1183.  To explain Crowfoot as an imitative variant of
+Crawford is absurd when we find a dozen German surnames of the same
+class and formation and as many in Old or Modern French beginning with
+pied de.  Cf. Pettigrew (Chapter XXI) and Sheepshanks.  We find in the
+Paris Directory not only Piedeleu (Old Fr. leu, wolf) and Piedoie
+(oie, goose), but even the full Pied-de-Lievre, Professeur a la
+Faculte de droit.  The name Bulleid was spelt in the sixteenth century
+bul-hed, i.e. bull-head, a literal rendering of Front de Boeuf.
+Weatherhead (Chapter XIX) is perhaps usually a nickname
+
+"For that old weather-headed fool, I know how to laugh at him."
+
+(Congreve, Love for Love, ii.  7.)
+
+Coxhead is another obvious nickname.  A careful analysis of some of
+the most important medieval name-lists would furnish hundreds of
+further examples, some too outspoken to have survived into our
+degenerate age, and others which are now so corrupted that their
+original vigour is quite lost.
+
+Puns and jokes upon proper names are, pace Gregory the Great and
+Shakespeare, usually very inept and stupid; but the following lines by
+James Smith, which may be new to some of my readers, are really
+clever--
+
+Men once were surnamed from their shape or estate
+   (You all may from History worm it);
+There was Lewis the Bulky, and Henry the Great,
+   John Lackland, and Peter the Hermit.
+But now, when the door-plates of Misters and Dames
+   Are read, each so constantly varies
+From the owner's trade, figure, and calling, Surnames
+   Seem given by the rule of contraries.
+
+Mr. Box, though provoked, never doubles his fist,
+   Mr. Burns, in his grate, has no fuel;
+Mr. Playfair won't catch me at hazard or whist,
+   Mr. Coward was wing'd in a duel.
+Mr. Wise is a dunce, Mr. King is a whig,
+   Mr. Coffin's uncommonly sprightly,
+And huge Mr. Little broke down in a gig,
+   While driving fat Mrs. Golightly.
+
+Mrs.  Drinkwater's apt to indulge in a dram,
+   Mrs.  Angel's an absolute fury,
+And meek Mr. Lyon let fierce Mr. Lamb
+   Tweak his nose in the lobby of Drury.
+At Bath, where the feeble go more than the stout,
+   (A conduct well worthy of Nero),
+Over poor Mr. Lightfoot, confined with the gout,
+   Mr. Heaviside danced a Bolero.
+
+Miss Joy, wretched maid, when she chose Mr. Love,
+   Found nothing but sorrow await her;
+She now holds in wedlock, as true as a dove,
+   That fondest of mates, Mr. Hayter.
+Mr. Oldcastle dwells in a modern-built hut,
+   Miss Sage is of madcaps the archest;
+Of all the queer bachelors Cupid e'er cut,
+   Old Mr. Younghusband's the starchest.
+
+Mr. Child, in a passion, knock'd down Mr. Rock,
+   Mr. Stone like an aspen-leaf shivers;
+Miss Poole used to dance, but she stands like a stock
+   Ever since she became Mrs.  Rivers;
+Mr. Swift hobbles onward, no mortal knows how,
+   He moves as though cords had entwin'd him;
+Mr. Metcalfe ran off, upon meeting a cow,
+   With pale Mr. Turnbull behind him.
+
+Mr. Barker's as mute as a fish in the sea,
+   Mr. Miles never moves on a journey;
+Mr. Gotobed sits up till half-after three,
+   Mr. Makepeace was bred an attorney.
+Mr. Gardiner can't tell a flower from a root,
+   Mr. Wilde with timidity draws back,
+Mr. Ryder performs all his journeys on foot,
+   Mr. Foote all his journeys on horseback.
+
+Mr. Penny, whose father was rolling in wealth,
+   Kick'd down all his fortune his dad won;
+Large Mr. Le Fever's the picture of health,
+   Mr. Goodenough is but a bad one.
+Mr. Cruickshank stept into three thousand a year,
+   By showing his leg to an heiress:--
+Now I hope you'll acknowledge I've made it quite clear
+   That surnames ever go by contraries.
+
+
+
+
+Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England.
+
+
+
+
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+
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+
+AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN ENGLISH
+
+Crown 4to.  Pounds 2 2s.  net.
+
+This is somewhat of a new departure in etymological dictionaries.  It
+embraces a much larger vocabulary than has been handled by previous
+etymologists and pays special attention to the colloquialisms and
+neologisms which, to the curious mind, are often of more interest than
+the established literary language.  The origin and cognates of each
+word are given as concisely as possible, but "etymology" has been
+taken in its widest sense as a science dealing not only with the
+phonetic elements of which words are composed, but also with the
+adventures which they have met with during their life in the language
+and the strange paths that many of them have followed in reaching a
+current sense or use often widely remote from the original.  So far as
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+noted, and the book will be found to contain much curious information
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+Transcriber's notes:
+
+* Although I worked from material in good condition, scanning and
+preparing subject matter of this type is much harder work than
+preparing a novel or the like, so obviously I should never have
+bothered with preparing this book if I had not though it to be
+worthwhile.  In fact I consider it to be very rewarding, informative,
+and entertaining.  I hope you also find it rewarding, and I present it
+in much the same mood that I assume it was written in: not that it is
+fully correct or definitive, but that both the material and the lines
+of thought that the book comprises, are useful, thoughtful, and
+enjoyable, taken for what they are worth.  The book certainly is based
+on a formidable level of erudition, however cheerful the author's
+style may be.
+
+* For the most part I have tried to remain true to the source, but
+this is not an attempt to reproduce the volume I scanned; my objective
+was to render its content available.  Accordingly, I did not hesitate
+to correct minor, obvious errors, or to adopt my preferences for
+spacing and the like.  Also, the means that I employed in preparing
+this material did not lend themselves satisfactorily to preservation
+of the original pagination or of numbering and cross reference of pages.
+However, as the product is machine readable, search is easier than
+working from an index, and I tried to support the use of such
+facilities.  Anyone who feels strongly that an index remains necessary,
+is welcome to add an index to the version that I have presented here,
+without crediting me for the body of the work.
+
+* I have however, substituted cross-reference between sections or
+chapters for  the (now meaningless) cross-references between pages.
+Also, like many books of that day, the original had many page headings
+such as "MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES" or "HILL AND DALE", without
+incorporating them in the table of contents or the text, or even
+making it clear just where those page headings fitted into the text.
+I have changed such page headings to sub-headings within the text,
+where they are more useful, given that they no longer are necessary
+for the original purpose of aiding the process of flipping through the
+pages of a paper book.
+
+* I have relocated footnotes from the feet of the pages to just after
+the text that they qualified.  Apart from thereby rendering the text
+less dependent of changes of format, this arguably renders the
+footnotes more useful and less disruptive to the reader.  Footnotes
+are marked as such, so as to avoid confusion.
+
+* I have of course tried to produce as clean a product as possible,
+but I apologetically assure you that some errors remain in the text.
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+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ROMANCE OF NAMES***
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